\ , •■-'/••/\^ v-\\ ■oK >^^^^ qO ,0^ <'v V .l^fltf??^* •^ -mW' %">^ •' **.<•* ^\^ ^--0^ OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY .By, ALFRED WvGARNER, Ph. M. Professor of History and Economics in the Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College • CLARENCE C. HENSON, A.M. Superintendent, Isidore Newman Manual Training School New Orleans, Louisiana INDIANAPOLIS THE KOBBS-MERRILL COMPANY PUBLISHERS t.178 .1 Copyright 1921 /"> ^ rx The Bobbs-Merrii.l Company^ DEC -2 1921 0)C!.A627962 o/Inierican Creed I belici'c in the United States of America as a goveniiiient of the people, by the people, for the people ; whose just pozvers arc derived from the consent of the governed; a democracy in a re- public, a sovereign nation of many sovereign states; a perfect union, one and inseparable; established upon those principles of freedom, equality, justice, and humanity for which Amer- ican patriots sacrificed their liirs and fortunes. I therefore believe it is my duty to my coun- try to love it, to support its constitution, to obey its laws, to respect its flag, and to defend it against all enemies. — William Tyi.kr I'ac.k. - PREFACE In bringing out this volume we have tried to keep in mind the fact that in the grammar grades many other studies are pursued, and the time devoted to the study of history is necessarily limited. Accordingly, one of our guiding prin- ciples has been the kind and arrangement of facts rather, than their great number. Without omitting anything thai might impair the value of the book, we have confined our- selves to the minimum essentials that an up-to-date text- book should contain. From the planting of the first i:)ermanent English colony in the New World at Jamestown in 1607 down to the present year, there has been an interval of three hundred and thir- teen years. If we divide this nvunber by two, we find that the middle point or the half-way station in the history of the people of the United States of America is the year 1763 which marked the close of the French and Indian War and consequent downfall of France in North America. In other words, there were as many years of the history of our country before 1763 as there have been since that date. Perhaps the average citizen of our country does not re- alize clearly and fully that the year 1763 is only half of the way back to the beginning of our history. John Fiske has pointed out the fact that an era removed from us shrinks in magnitude, just as a mountain does when we travel away from it. Moreover, the quantity of our history since 1763 is greater than it was before that year ; that is to say, there are infinitely more significant things to write about in the second half of the history of our country than in the first half. Accordingly, the authors of this text have endeavored to secure and preserve the proper perspective in the division PREFACE of space. For example, of the forty-six chapters in the text, only ten chapters, or less than one- fourth, are devoted to the first half of our history, more than three-fourths of the text being given to the second half. Realizing that a mere relation of dates, names and facts plays only a small part in promoting citizenship, which should be the primary object of history, we have endeavored at least in this book to connect the boys and girls with the great currents that explain and indicate the trend of our country's development. To enable the children to under- stand our great achievements, institutions and problems of the present in the light of the past is to enlist their interest in history, to foster jxitriotism, to make more acute their sense of judgment and to inspire them with a higher degree of civic duty. Hence, in the selection, arrangement and discussion of facts we have kept constantly in mind their bearing on our life and institutions. Since the development of our political life is so closely interwoven with our economic, industrial and political insti- tutions, we have attempted to give sufficient study to all of these. Along Avith the recent progressive steps in legisla- tion and government we have emphasized our material development, the western movement, the labor problems, etc. It would be well-nigh impossible to make adequate acknowledgments of our indebtedness to the many persons who have done so much to make this book possible. We wish, however, to take this opportunity to thank Doctor James W. Garner, of the University of Illinois, and Pro- fessor E. S. Towles, of the Mississippi A. and M. College, for reading the proof and preparing some questions for parts of the book. t, . ^ The Authors. CONTENTS PART ONE Europeans Discover, Explore, and Colonize the New World CHAPTKR PAGE 1 EuROPEAX Beginnings 1 II DlSCOV-ERY AND EaRLY EXPLORATIONS .... 13 III The Struggle between England and Spain . . 23 IV England Pl.vnts Her First Permanent Colony IN the New World il y Religious Persecution and Coloniz.\tion . . 46 VI Rivals to the English in America .... 58 PART TWO England Wins in the Struggle for Supremacy in North America VII Political Upheav.\ls in Engl.vnd and Their Effect 68 VIII French Domination of the Mississippi Basin . 83 IX Engl.\nd's European Wars and Her Americ.\n Colonies 92 X The Downfall of France in America . . . 100 PART THREE The English Colonies Revolt from Their Mother Country and Establish a New Nation XI Social Life in the Colonies XII Economic Phases of Colonial Life XIII What Caused the Colonies to Revolt . . XIV The Colonists Decl.\re Their Independence XV The Revolution.-vry War XVI The Confederation and Its Breakdown . XVII How the Constitution Was Framed . . 112 128 146 164 183 204 213 CONTENTS— Continued PART FOUR The Federal Union Grows and Develops but Is Hampered by European Interference CHAPTER XVIII The Federalists in Control .... XIX The Democratic-Republicans in Power . XX War with Great Britain XXI Good Feelings and Hard Times .... XXTI Social and Industrial Progress up to 1820 PART FIVE The Nation Expands Westward and Slavery Splits It in Twain XXIII Jacksonian Democr.vcv .... XXIV The Whigs and Texas Annexation XXV Westward Expansion XXVI The End of the Whig Party XXVII A Quarter of a Century of Progress XXVIII The Democrats Once More in Power page 222 2V1 256 272 286 303 320 329 338 348 367 PART SIX The War between the States Results in the Supremacy of the Union and the Problems of Recon- struction Are Solved XXIX The Parting of the Ways 381 XXX The First Two Years of the W.\r 395 XXXI How THE War Was Finally Won 412 XXXII What the War Cost 440 XXXIII Reconstruction Days 448 XXXTV The Rise of the New South 462 PART SEVEN The Fight against Corruption Results in the Develop- ment of a New American Spirit XXXV The Conquest of the Far West 475 XXXVI The Beginning of Reform Legislation . . . . 494 XXXVII A Republican Victory and a High Tariff . . 503 XXXVIII The Democrats Regain Public Office . 511 XXXIX The United States Becomes a World Power . 522 XT. A New American Spirit 541 CONTENTS— Continued 5.-; PART EIGHT The United States Enters the World War and Helps to Make the World Safe for Democracy CHAPTER XLl XLII XLIII XLIV XLV XLVI A Half-Century of Progress . The Struggle for European Supremacy' A School-Teacher in the White House Europe in Conflagration .... The War for Democracy From War to Peace page 558 575 599 616 630 654 APPENDIX The Constitution of the United States iii Amendments to the Constitution xvi The Presidents and Vice-Presidents xxiii The States of the Union xxiv Index . xxvii COLORED MAPS PAGE European Possessions in Eastern North America at the Out- break of the French and Indian War 98 British Possessions in North America on the Eve of the Revo- lutionary War 162 The United States after the Signing of the Treaty of Paris, September 3, 1783 202 The United States after the Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 . . 246 The United States in 1821 284 Land Acquisitions of the United States, 1783-1853 .... 336 Slave and Free States after the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 . 368 The United States and the Confederate States in 1861 . . . 392 BLACK AND WHITE MAPS Medieval Trade Routes to the Far East 7 Trans-Atlantic Routes of Columbus, Cabot and Magellan . . 17 New England Towns in 1650 51 Route Used by French to Reach the Mississippi Basin ... 60 Charleston about 1700 72 Mason and Dixon's Line 80 Acadia and Cape Breton Island 94 French Posts between Lake Ontario and the "Forks of the Ohio" 102 Revolutionary War Boston and Vicinity 172 New York and Vicinity 183 Eastern Pennsylvania and Northern New Jersey .... 184 Lake Champlain and the Upper Hudson Valley .... 188 The Southern War Area 194 Federal Lands North of the Ohio 206 Original Federal District 225 War with Great Britain New Orleans and Vicinity 265 Map Showing Vote on the Tariff Act of 1816 269 Acquisition of West Florida 275 Russian Posts in What Is Now Alaska 278 The Cumberland Road and Its Extensions 289 Map Showing When Manhood Suffrage Was Granted . . 298 Map Showing Vote on the Tariff Act of 1832 309 Trails to the Far West 328 BLACK AND WHITE MAPS— Continued War with Mexico p^qe The Mexican War Area 334 Texas Boundary Dispute 343 War between the States War Area in Northern Virginia 396 Southern Missouri and Northern Arkansas 400 Where the Western Campaigns Were Fought 401 Tlie Penns3'lvania and Maryland Theater of War .... 407 Battlefield of Gettysburg 416 Vicinity of Chattanooga 423 Richmond and Vicinity 427 Sherman's Route through Georgia and the CaroHnas . . 430 Military Districts Created by Congress for the Government of the South 452 The "Fall Line" 468 Samoan Islands 509 Venezuelan Boundary Dispute 520 Cuba and Its Relation to Florida 525 Philippine Islands 530 Hawaiian Islands 537 Panama Canal 545 Movement of Center of Population by Decades from 1790 to 1920 " 560 Distribution of Races in the Dual Monarchy and the Danubian States 580 How the Unification of Italy Was Effected 582 How Prussia Gradually Became Supreme in Germany . . . 585 The Pan-German Scheme for Controlling from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf 593 The Barrier in the Balkans to the Pan-German Scheme . . 596 Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands 606 World War The Cradle of the World War 607 Where the Armies Fought in the West 617 The Eastern Theater of War 621 Scene of the Asiatic Campaign 625 WHiere the Americans Fought 642 Our Country's History CHAPTER I EUROPEAN BEGINNINGS Introduction. — The history of a country is a written record of the Hfe of its people. A people which has no such record is classed as uncivilized, although it fre- quently happens that important events in its life are handed down from father to son by word of mouth, or are preserved for future generations through rude pictorial drawings or carvings. What is now the United States of America was the home of many thousands of red men or of earlier peo- ples who may have completely perished even before the red men came. Since, however, none of these previous inhabitants have left any permanent record, the history of our country may be begun with the story o.f the white explorers, and inasmuch as they came from Europe, it is there we must go to learn its beginning. Geographical knowledge five hundred years ago.— Al- though the peoples living in Europe, Asia, the Valley of the Nile and the northern coast of Africa five hundred years ago were highly civilized in some ways, they had little knowl- edge of one another. Such adventurers as Sir John Mande- ville and Marco Polo had published exaggerated accounts of their travels in the Far East (India and China) : but the main sources of information were the sailors who visited the ports of the eastern Mediterranean and Black Seas and there met Arab traders from distant lands. 1 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY From an old print One of the Fabulous Fifteenth-Century Sea Monsters Attacking a X'^cssel The niap makers of the time did not know the true form or size of the earth. They represented it as flat and some- what oval in shape and used pictures largely instead of names to designate places. East was placed at the top and was represented by the Garden of Eden, while Jeru- salem at the center was shown by Solo- mon's Temple. The Sea of Darkness. as the Atlantic Ocean was called, was believed to round out the rim of the world, and mariners kept close to shore for fear of being carried over the edge by mountain- high waves. This unknown sea was a terror-haunted place for the navigator. Mysterious winds and currents were there to seize his vessel and great whirlpools waited to draw him down. Huge sea serpents lifted their heads from the waves and dreadful monsters lurked in the depths. The spirit of the Middle Ages. — The thousand years of warring, suffering and ignorance which ended with the fif- teenth century are commonly known as the "Middle Ages." This terrible period from which emerged the various mod- ern nations of Europe, to which our country owes so much, was ushered in by streams of barbarians sweeping over cen- tral and western Europe from the interior of Asia and de- stroying everything in their paths. The Roman Empire had been gathering the remains of the civilization of the Medi- terranean countries and here the last stand was made against barbarism. Enfeebled by long wars and luxurious liv- ing, the Roman power could not long withstand such in- EUROPEAN BFX; INNINGS A Monastery Built in the Middle Ages vaders, and in 476 A. D. the Roman Empire came to an end. Thousands were murdered, cities were destroyed, schools ceased to exist, Hbraries disappeared and much of Europe was reduced to a half-civihzed condition. The Church alone seemed to escape de- struction. During the Mid- dle Ages throughout western and south- ern Europe there was only one church — the Roman Cath- olic. It was ruled over by the Pope, who came to have absolute authority and could pronounce sentence of death against any one guilty of disbelief or disobedience. All over Europe the Church had institutions called monasteries, huge stone buildings, usually in secluded and inaccessible spots, where many religious men lived together. The mon- asteries served throughout the Middle Ages to keep alive civilization by preserving the education, the literature and the arts and sciences inherited from the Greeks and Ro- mans, and the religion of Jesus Christ. As the centuries rolled by the invaders, little by little, acquired more civilized ways of living, partly through mar- riage with their European neighbors and the influence of their surroundings, but more especially through the efforts of the monks, who went forth from the monasteries and, by their own labor and self-denial, taught them industry as well as religion. The common people of the Middle Ages. — The state of society in the Middle Ages has been described thus : "All OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Moodtana \ r* V V !9o men were divided into three groups : the nobles who did the fighting, the clergy who did the praying and the common people who did the work." The common people were mostl} farmers or herdsmen, and their life was hard, since they were serfs and could not move away from the par- ticular land which they worked. They lived in miserable huts, and were scantily fed and coarsely clad. The land be- longed to the Church, or to the nobles, the latter usually holding it as a reward for military service. These nobles, the barons and knights of the king, dwelt in castles and manor houses surrounded by the lands which they parceled out to their vassals for tillage. Each serf was allotted one field for cultivation for his own living. On this he was allowed to labor a certain number of days of the week. The rest of the time he must work on his lord's land. This was usually divided into three parts : one-third to be sown with wheat or rye ; one-third with oats, barley or peas, and the re- maining third to lie fallow. Thus by rotation each field rested every third year. A rural village in the Middle Ages included a church, a blacksmith shop, and sometimes a gristmill and a tannery, surrounded by the houses of the serfs. There were no shops or stores. Each family lived on the produce of its allotted Diagram of an English Manor during the Middle Ages EUROPKAN B1-:G1NN1NGS S field and made its own clothing and boots from home-grown flax, wool and hides. The Crusaders. — During the Middle Ages a pilgrimage to Palestine or the Holy Land was deemed an eminently pious act. Bands of pilgrims were constantly treading the highways of Europe, many traveling mostly on foot to Con- stantinople and thence across Asia Minor to Palestine: others to the seaport towns, there to take ship for the voy- age to the Syrian coast. In the eleventh century these pil- grim bands met with the hostility of the Turks, barbarian invaders from central Asia who had overrun all of Asia Minor and were even threatening Constantinople. When news of the outrages committed upon Christians by these Turks reached the Pope he summoned the sovereigns and nobility of Christendom to enlist under the "banner of Christ himself" for the recovery of the Holy Sepulcher from the hands of the infidel. The response was immediate and one armed expedition after another set out for Pales- tine. Led by kings and princes, these pageants w^ent forth to perish miserably in great numbers amid mountain snows and burning desert sands. Jerusalem was captured by the Crusaders and held for a brief period, only to be retaken by the Turks. Jealousy among their leaders rendered further attempts futile for the Christians and they finally abandoned the undertaking. Influence of the Crusaders. — The Crusaders had failed in their purpose, yet the quickening of the mind by travel and adventure hastened the coming of the revival of learn- ing in Europe. The Crusaders viewed with amazement the grace and beauty of architecture in Constantinople and lis- tened with delight to the wisdom of Greek and Arab schol- ars. Those who survived brought back the seeds of strange ]>lants, such as rice, hemp, sugar cane, oranges, apricots and lemons, all of which they found would flourish in the soil of southern Europe. Demand for Eastern products became OUR COUNTRY'S UiSTORV A Caraxaii Laileii wilIi iiuutls frc the East Crossing- the Desert wide-spread, and a prof- itable trade sprang up between Europe and western Asia. The Medi- terranean was thronged with merchantmen bound for the ports of the Black Sea, Syria and Egypt, to meet caravans laden with gold, silver, precious stones, silks, cashmeres, muslins, spices and other prod- ucts of the East. Trade routes of the fifteenth century. — X'enice was the leading maritime city, with Genoa a close rival. Her wealth equipped a thousand vessels for three great trading expedi- tions each year. One went to the Black Sea, another to Egypt and the third coasted along the western Mediterra- nean shores, touching at i)orts in Sicily, Africa and Spain, and then passing out into the Atlantic, sailed north as far as the Low Countries (Holland and Belgium) and eventu- ally reached England. Three great trade routes wound their way from the Ear East to the eastern Mediterranean and Black Sea ports. One led from Calicut (now Calcutta) in India across the -Vrabian Sea to the Egyptian shore of the Red Sea. Here the goods were loaded on camels for transportation to the Nile, whose sluggish waters were to bear them to Cairo and Alexandria. A second ran from Calicut to the Persian Ciulf and thence traversing the Tigris and Euphrates Val- leys as far as the mountains, it turned westward and finally reached the Mediterranean ports on the Syrian coast. The third, emerging from southern China, crossed the Asian deserts to the Caspian Sea, where it branched into two EUROPEAN Hl-GINNINGS 7 routes, one leading to ports on the north shore of the Black Sea and the other to Trebizond on the Asia Minor side. These routes were thronged with caravans led by mer- chants clad in rich attire and attended by guards and serv- Medieval Trade Routes to tlir Far East ants. From many sources the traders Ijrought information to the great cosmopolitan marts where the East and West mingled; and thus were tlie means of a wide dissemination of knowledge and ideas. Growth of manufactures. — The sight of the wondrous fabrics wrought by Oriental skill aroused whatever genius there was in Europe to imitation. In England, the Low Countries, Germany and Italy, rude looms were set up b\ hundreds for the weaving of linens and woolens, silks and velvets. Artisans learned to temper steel for edged tools, and to mix clay and fashion it into pottery. There were no fac- tories or steam power. Each master workman supervised his own little shop of a half-dozen journeymen and appren- tices. In the absence of vocational schools, boys were ap- prenticed to masters for training until qualified to become journeymen. Many of the towns which sprang up in such nuiubers at this time are now the great manufacturing cities 8 OL'R COUNTRY'S HISTORY of Europe. In England alone there were two hundred walled towns, London the lars^est. having twenty-five thou- sand inhabitants. The Black Death in northern Europe. — The closely crowded shops and dwellings of these walled towns were breeding-places for malignant diseases. The lower classes lived in dirt and filth and there was no concern for the public health. In the fourteenth century a pestilence called the "Black Death" swept over northern Europe de- stroying such nimibers of people that in some districts there were not enough left alive to bury the dead. When it was over the landowners found themselves surrounded by only a small remnant of their former vassals and these de- manding a betterment of conditions. Alarmed at the sight of the fallow fields, they grudgingly freed many of the serfs and granted them wages and better living conditions. The rise of the Turkish Empire. — The Crusaders had held back the Turkish conquest for two hundred years and it was the dawn of the fourteenth century before the tide of battle finally turned against the Christian forces. Gradually Asia Minor was brought under IMohammedan rule. The barbaric Turk then crossed over into Europe and overran the Balkan Peninsula and actually penetrated as far north as the plains of Hungary. The crowning calamity to Chris- tendom was the fall of Constantinople, which became the capital of the Turkish Empire in 1453. Just a short time before, the merchants of England, France and Spain, en- vious of the profits which the Italians were realizing, had begun to consider how they might establish direct overland connections with the East. Now not only w^ere their ambi- tions halted, but even the Italians found trading through the Black Sea and Asia Minor ports attended by constantly increasing difificulties, due to the inability of the Turks to keep order and to the extortion which they practised. Finally, prompted by their fanatical hatred of Christians, EUROPEAN BEGINNINGS the j\iohaniniedans closed their ports altogether and thus forced the trade between Europe and the East to employ the routes centering along the Syrian and Egyptian coasts. But even this privilege was to be short-lived, for early in the sixteenth century the Turks concjuered those regions, too. The Renaissance. — The fourteenth and fifteenth cen- Uu"ies saw the dawn of the Renaissance. This term, mean- ing "rebirth," was applied to this period because of the com- ing to life again of the arts and learning that had seemed to perish under barbarian conquest. A new spirit of prog- ress set western and central Europe throbbing with awaken- ing life, and men's minds were aroused to invention and dis- covery. To this period we owe the use of gunpowder in warfare, the mariner's compass, the grinding of glass into lenses, and the art of printing. Gunpowder, the astrolabe, the mariner's compass and the printing press. — Gunpowaler had been used for ages by the Chinese in their fireworks; but it remained for Euro- l^eans to adapt it to warfare. No one knows when the first guns were used, but soon after the fifteenth century they had rendered castle walls, armor, spears, and bows and ar- rows useless. Glass lenses made possible the astrolabe, an in- strument with which mariners could as- certain a ship's posi- tion north or south of the equator. The discovery that a steel needle balanced on a straw or cork could be used to tell direc- tion was of momen- tous consequence, for by placing it on 1 ^ ^ Gutenberg Taking His First Proof a pivot and protect- from Movable Type 10 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ing it with a glass-covered box one had a compass by the aid of which sailors could sail boldly out of sight of land. The art of printing had long been known to the Chinese, but the fifteenth century saw the first printing press in Europe. This was in Holland, where impressions were taken from engraved wooden blocks covered with ink. Later this method gave way to the use of movable metallic types, made first by Gutenberg, a German. Prior to this time there were few books outside of tlu- monasteries, where the monks laboriously copied manu- scripts by hand. Even the Bible Avas kept chained in the churches, so precious was it. \'ery few of the nobility and none of the laboring class could read. The invention of printing, with the consequent dissemination of knowledge, was the most powerful force in forwarding the Renais- sance. Early voyaging on the Atlantic. — Until the tenth cen tury no navigator had ventured far from shore on the Atlantic ; but scarcity of animal food impelled Norwegian fishermen to seek deep-sea fishing grounds. A few of the more daring ventured as far as Iceland and Green- land and planted col- onies there, probably for the curing and drying of fish so that it would stand the long voyage home. About 1000 A. D. an Icelander, Leif Ericson, sailed farther westward and is believed to have discovered the coast of Labrador. In the old Norse sagas (poems) Icelandic school children still read of this adventure of Leif the Luckv. Ruins of Norse Church in Iceland Built in Eleventh Century klkcjim;a.\" beginnings ii Mention is made of "self-sown wheat" and "vines laden with grapes." The natives are described as "ugly-looking skraglings" navigating "skin canoes." Voyages and discoveries of the Portuguese. — Ever since the harsh rule of the Turks had made difficult the securing of the products of the Far East, traders and merchants and men unhampered by tradition had cherished the idea of a sea route to the Indies and the rich lands beyond. As early as 1415 Prince Henry, the king's son. had crossed over to Africa with a Portuguese fleet to plunder a IMohammedan settlement and while there had secured accurate informa- tion concerning the rich caravans which came across the desert from lands adjacent to the Gulf of Guinea. Hereto- fore it had been believed that the equator could not be crossed because of danger of burning from the intense heat. The Portuguese were among the best sailors of the time and Prince Plenry devoted the remainder of his life and Iiis fortune to exploration of the African coast, in the hope of sectiring gold for his country and of discovering a new route to the East. Daring indeed must be the captain who would imdertake such a voyage. He had the prospect of managing in strange waters a clumsy vessel manned by an ignorant and super- stitious crew. Sailors were apt to become mutinous over the monotonous fare of hard bread and salt beef, from which many died of scurvy. Methods of canning and pre- serving a healthful variety of food were unknown. Diaz and Gama win honors for Portugal. — In 1445 one of Prince Henry's captains reached Cape \^erde, the "green cape" marking the beginning of the fertile coast lands south of the arid Sahara. Rich cargoes of gold dust and slaves found their way to Portugal, and. thus encouraged, the explorations continued. In 1487 Bartholomew Diaz reached the southernmost point of Africa and named it the "Cape of Storms." Later the king renamed it the Cape 12 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY of Good Hope, "because," he said, "there is now much reason to believe that we have found the long-sought ocean route to the Indies." Ten years later Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, explored the eastern coast of Africa, and crossed the Indian Ocean to India. This new sea route to the East was free from Turkish interference, but it was more than ten thousand miles long. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. How may we learn of people who lived before written records were kept? 2. Describe Sir John Mandeville's travels in the East. 3. Explain the meaning of "Dark Ages." How did the Church escape destruction during that period? 4. What was a medieval manor ? How was it divided ? What were the classes of people on it? 5. In what respects do the towns and cities in the United States to-day differ from the towns of the Middle Ages? 6. What were the causes of the Crusades? Which was the -most important one? Do you believe the Crusades lienefited the world? If so, how? The Crusades brought western Europe and India into closer relations. How did this hasten the dis- covery of America? 7. Why did a new way to India become so important to the people of western Europe after 145v3? Trace on the map the main routes to India about 1453. 8. The first steps in civilization are the important ones. What early inventions and discoveries helped men to take the first steps in civilization ? 9. Why were the Northmen such bold seamen ? Why was the voy- age of Leif Ericson to North America of such little impor- tance? 10. Trace on the map the route of Vasco da Gama in his memorable voj^age of 1497-98. This was one of the four greatest world voyages. Why? Tell liow the Cape of Good Hope got its name. KKFERENCES 1. Nida's Dawn of .hncrican History i)t Europe, Chapter XXI. 2. Fiske's History of the United States. Chapter II. CHAPTER II DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATIONS Importance of the discovery of America. — On the morning of October 12, 1492, San Salvador, one of the Bahama Islands, was sighted for the first time by European sailors. Since the birth of Jesus no other event has so in- fluenced history. The Middle Ages sank out of sight as a new world came into view and "modern times" be- gan. To the faith, perseverance a n d boldness of one man — the Italian Christopher Co- lumbus — Europe owed her first knowledge of the New World far to the west and be- yond the stormy Atlantic. Columbus and his ideas. — Chris- topher Columbus was born in Genoa of humble parentage, and began at the age of fourteen to follow the sea. After many adventurous voyages on the Mediterranean, along the African coast, and as far north as Iceland, he settled in Lis- bon and devoted himself to map making. 13 Christopher Columbus 14 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Fifteen centuries before Greek philosophers had taught that the earth is round, but this was not generally believed during the ignorant Middle Ages. Columbus became pos- sessed with the idea, however, and thought that by sailing west far enough he could reach Zipango (Japan), Cathay (China) and the Indies. He was encouraged by the Italian astronomer, Toscanelli, who wrote him that Zipango was no more than four thousand miles west of Portugal. Had it not been for this error he likely would have never made his journey. Struggles of Columbus. — Columbus now decided to try out his idea of finding a western route to Asia. Lacking the ColumiuTs l)elore Isabella necessary money lie asked ihe king of Portugal to aid him in fitting out ships. This was refused because the Portu- guese were alread}- committed to the plan of finding a way around Africa. Then he laid his plan before Ferdinand and Isabella, king and ((ucen of Spain. Seven years were spent in waiting while the wise men of the court, by royal com- mand, debated its teasibilitw In these councils Columbus' DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATIONS \S idea was ridiculed. "For," said these wise men, "since the earth is flat, if a ship were to sail beyond the edge, how could it fail to tumble off? And again granting that it is round, would not the vessel slip down-hill upon reaching the curve and then how could it get back to Spain ?" Finally they argued that it was unrc;isonable to "suppose that men could live on the other side of the earth ; for they would have to walk with their heads downward and rain and snow must fall upward." Queen Isabella aids Columbus. — The royal treasury of Spain was impoverished from the long wars needed to drive the Moors out of the country and the case looked hopeless for Columbus. England had refused him aid and he had already started for France when the good Queen Isabella offered to finance the expedition from her own purse. Isa- l)ella had a deeply religious and also practical mind. She had visions of heathen in unknown lands being converted to the "holy church" and of Spain's controlling the rich trade between Europe and the East. The voyage. — By royal command the city of Palos fur- nished for the expedition three small vessels, the Santa Maria, the Nina and the Pinta. It was difficult, how- ever, to find crews for them. Few sail- ors were reckless enough to under- take such a voyage an.d it finally be- came necessary to complete the crews by emptying the ^^ -p., . 1- roni an old priiu ' ^' Columbus' Fleet with the Santa Maria, (lay, August 3, His Flagship, in the Foreground 16 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 1492, the little fleet sailed out of the harbor of Palos. Be- fore reaching the Canary Islands one of the ships sprang a leak and some time had to be spent in making repairs. It was September sixth before Columbus turned his back upon land and steered boldly toward the unknown West. No sooner were the island peaks out of sight than great fear seized the crews and they began to clamor for return to Palos. By reasoning with them and then by promises, by deceiving them as to the distance already gone, and at last by threatening, Columbus induced them to sail on and on. Fortunately for history the winds were favorable and the weather fair. Columbus sights land. — Five weeks after leaving the Canaries land was sighted which proved to be a small island. Landing there Columbus gave it the name of San Salvador, which means Holy Savior, and took possession of it in the nariie of their most Catholic Majesties, the king and queen of Spain. "In order to win the friend- ship and afifection of the people," as he reported, "and be- cause I was con- vinced that their conversion to our Holy Faith would be better ])rocured through love than through force, I pre- sented some of them with red ca])es and strings of glass beads. They received everything and gave of whatever they had with good will, but I thought them a poor people." First European colony in the New World. — For several The Landint' of Columbus DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATIONS 17 weeks Columbus cruised about among the islands of the Bahama group and finally reached the coast of Cuba, which he explored for more than a thousand miles, think- ing it to be Asia. Christmas Day the Santa Maria was Trans-Atlantic Routes of Columbus, Cabot and Magellan Notice the "Line of Demarcation" (44°) drawn by Pope Alexander to keep peace between Spain and Portugal. All lands discovered west of it were to be Spanish; east of it, Portuguese wrecked on the shore of what he had called La Espaiiola (Hispaniola), the "little Spain." Leaving there forty men, the first European colony in America, Columbus set sail for Spain. On his return Ferdinand and Isabella received him with princely honors at Barcelona, where they were holding 18 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY court. There was much excitement over the six red men and a few gold trinkets which he brought back and exhib- ited. It was beheved that Columbus had found the western sea route to Asia and that he had reached some outlying islands of the Indies. Later life of Columbus. — ''The Brave Admiral," as he was called, made three later voyages across the Atlantic. Be- tween 1492 and 1502 he explored the coasts of Cuba and Haiti, discovered Jamaica, and sighted the shore of South America near the mouth of the Orinoco River. On his last voyage he sought to find the mainland of Asia by sailing due west from Cuba. He finally reached the Isthmus of Panama and cruised along the shore of Central America searching in vain for a "Southwest Passage." Columbus a discoverer, not a colonizer. — As a colonizer Columbus was a failure. His first colony in Haiti was de- stroyed by the natives before his return the following year. Efforts to reestablish it failed because of the disposition of these roving adventurers. They preferred to plunder the natives and search for gold rather than to settle any- where. Fourteen years after his great discovery of the "lands beyond the sea" Columbus died a broken man, ignorant of his real achievement. The New World not a part of Asia. — Da Gama's discovery of the sea route around Africa had re- sulted in a rich trade for the Portuguese. Stimu- lated by this, Spanish sea captains began to explore the coast of both Ameri- Fcrnando Ma.ucllan cas. Finding that the land DISCOVFiRY AND EARLY EXPLORATIONS 19 reached farther south than Asia was known to extend, they concluded that this was a "New World" and that the conti- nents must be separated by a body of water. This they called the "Southwest Passage." Balboa and Magellan. — In 1513 Vasco Nunez de Bal- boa explored the Isthmus of Panama. As he neared the western shore a magnificent expanse of water came into view. This he took possession of for the king of Spain, and named it the "South Sea" because it lay south of the Isthmus. Six years later Fernando Magellan, a Portu- guese sea captain, persuaded the Spanish Government to furnish him a fleet with which to seek the "Southwest Passage." With five small vessels he crossed the Atlantic to South America, and after visiting Rio de Janeiro and the mouth of the Plata wintered on the coast of Pata- gonia. Early in the following spring Magellan discov- ered the strait which to-day bears his name, and after four weeks of tor- tuous sailing en- tered the South Sea. The surface looked so calm in comparison with the Atlantic that he called it the Pacific. Although his sup- plies were low and his crews mu- tinous, he steered boldly from land in a northwesterly direction. After a terrible month of voyaging, during ,, ,, .. , ^ /. , ^, Monument Marknig the Spot Where which the crews Magellan Was Killed 20 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY were compelled finally to eat rats and biscuit vvorm^ and soaked leather from the rigging, the Ladrone Islands were reached. Twelve days later the fleet anchored among the group of islands afterward named the Philip- pines in honor of King Philip of Spain. Here the brave captain met his death in a fight with the natives. The loss of their leader did not utterly dishearten the crew of the good ship Victoria. They steered to the Spice Islands, took on board a rich cargo, crossed the Indian Ocean and returned to Europe by way of the Cape of Good Hope. Magellan's expedition is memorable in history because it was the first to circumnavigate the globe, thus proving that Columbus had the right idea about the shape of the earth and that he had discovered a new continent. Indifference of other European countries. — The dis- coveries of the Spanish and Portuguese navigators excited little interest among the other maritime powers of Europe at the time. Italy was composed of small independent states and free cities without a strong central government. These petty rulers were fully occupied in defending their mer- chantmen from the pirates that infested the Mediterranean. England and France had never engaged in direct trade with the East, but had depended upon Italian "middlemen." Both nations, however, had developed a hardy race of deep-sea fishermen and it is probable that they first turned their eyes toward the New World looking for new fishing grounds. In 1497 John Cabot, an Italian in the employ of the Eng- lish, sailed across the Atlantic and discovered a new land, probably Cape Breton Island. Of all the strange sights he beheld that which interested him most was the "multitudes of certayne bigge fyssyes like unto tunies that sometymes stayed the shyppes." Although Henry VII felt that ten pounds was sufficient reward for such a discovery, before DISCOVKKV AND EARLY EXPLORATIONS 21 many years lishernicn in large numbers from European coasts found their way to the "banks" ofif Newfoundland. France took no part in New World explorations until 1524. Aroused by the tales of wealth the Spanish were ob- taining from America the French king that year sent out (iiovanni da Verrazano. another Italirm sea captain. He cruised along the «.,- » 0,1. r • • ,n ,«, .• ^^ . Nuc]^o &hf panes runtiatiuslultratx/oC alia coast from Georgia quartaparsp«-AmericuVefputiu(vtmfequend 1\T Q/-^fi'n itnrl bus audictur )muentaeft/quanon vidco cuf quis to i\0Va ;5COna ana lureveterabAmmcoinuentorcfagadsmgemivl discovered New AmenV ro Ammgen quafi Amend terra /hue Americam , , , 7 38 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY by either company, but in order that there should be no col- Hsion a distance of at least one hundred miles was required between the rival settlements. In granting these licenses James denied the Spanish claims to the entire Atlantic coast, which were backed by a threat to destroy any settlement Englishmen might make in Virginia. The founding of Jamestown. — In 1607 three small ships sent out by the London Company anchored in the James River about fifty miles from its mouth. Here, on May 13, ffiS^--:; Jamestown as It Looked in 1622 From an old luint 1607, one hundred and five persons landed and built a few- huts with a small fort for protection. This was the founda- tion of Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in .Vmerica. Unwittingly the settlers had chosen a poor site. The low river bank was subject to overflow, the climate was oppressive, and no good drinking water was to be had. Character of the Jamestown colonists. — Among the colonists were jewelers, gold refiners, wine makers, silk workers and even a perfumer ; but only twelve farmers. Worse still, a large number of them were "gentlemen- speculators," who had never worked with their hands. These had been attracted to the enterprise by the prospect of sudden riches. At that time the wealth of Virginia was the subject of so much idle and foolish talk that in a popular FIRST PERMANENT COLONY 39 comedy one character says : "I tell thee that gold is more plentiful with them than copper is with us ; and for as much red copper as I can bring I'll have thrice its weight in gold. Why, man, all the dripping pans are pure gold ; and all the chains with which they chain up their streets are massy gold. And as for rubies and diamonds, they go forth on holidays and gather 'em by the seashore to hang on their children's coats and stick in the children's caps." Early history of the colony. — The regulations stated that for the first five years all were to be fed alike from a common store of everything produced. This gave the idlers an advantage and their time was spent in hunting for gold. At first it was easy to procure food from the Indians, as they were willing to barter corn for hatchets, beads and other articles from England. Ill treatment from the whites soon made them angry, however, and the)'- refused to trade. A wasting fever fell on the colonists the next sum- mer and by fall more than half of them were dead. The general mis- ery was increased by quarrels, as no one seemed to have author- ity to enforce order and compel obedience. Cap- tain John Smith was the only able man in the col- ony. He was a man of much adventure and given to boasting of hi? exploits. At first his domineering ways had caused him to be re- moved from the govern- Captain John Smith 40 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ing council. Now in time of distress Smith was made its president. He managed its affairs on the principle that each man, willing or unwilling, must do his share of the work, and enforced the edict that "he who would not work might not eat." Captain Smith explored the neighboring country and made some excellent maps of the region, which he sent to the London Company along with his reports of conditions in Virginia. Captain John Smith and Pocahontas. — On one of his ex- ploring trips he was captured by the Indians. According to the story of this told later in Eng- land, his captors led him before Chief Powhatan and sentence of death was pronounced. He was bound and laid between two large stones, and a painted war- rior stood ready to crush his head with a club. At this mo- ment an Indian girl, Pocahontas, daughter of the chief, ran forward and clasping Smith's head in her arms pleaded with her father until he agreed to spare the man's life. Poca- hontas afterward became the bride of one of the settlers, John Rolfe, who took her to England where, as "Lady Re- becca," she received the honors of a princess. In 1609 Smith was injured by an explosion of powder and compelled to return to London for treatment. The follow- ing winter is known as the "Starving Time." Famine and disease reduced the population of Jamestown from five hun- dred to sixty. The London Company calls for farmers and mechanics. — The London Company had expended large sums of money on this colony and was much disappointed in getting no re- Pocahontas as Lady Rebecca FIRST PERMANENT COLONY 41 turns. Gold had been expected and materials for shipbuild- ing, timber, tar, pitch and turpentine. When Smith took control he convinced the company by his reports that this was not due to mismanagement. There was no gold to send and no laborers to fell the forests for ship timbers and naval stores. He urged that no more "gentlemen" be s'ent to the colony, but "farmers and mechanics instead." His advice was heeded. Broadsides were issued soliciting immigrants for the colony, "blacksmiths, coopers, carpen- ters, shipwrights, tanners, all who work any kind of metal, men who make bricks, architects, bakers, weavers, shoe- makers, sawyers and those who spin wool." Brighter days in Virginia. — In their despondency the starving settlers were about to abandon Jamestown when a new governor, Lord Delaware, arrived ( 1610) . He brought several shiploads of new colonists and plentiful supplies of food. With prosperity came contentment, especially when private ownership of land was inaugurated. The company, which had now secured a charter under the title of "The Treasurer and Company of Adventurers and Planters of the City of London for the First Colony of Virginia," in 1611 began to discard the community plan and to allot each settler three acres to cultivate for himself. However, the "freemen," as the shareholders were called, far away in England knew little of the hardships of life in Virginia. With the idea that colonies exist solely for the benefit of the parent country, the company continued to command that the colonists produce ship timber, naval stores, wines, silk, salt and iron — articles which England had to import from foreign countries. Among the products of the New W^orld sent back to Europe by early explorers was tobacco. The habit of smok- ing soon became popular, even in England, where King James hated the "filthy smokie weed." W'hen the settlers found the soil in Virginia adapted to the raising of tobacco 42 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY which was worth three shiUings (about seventy-hve cents) a pound they practically devoted themselves to its cultivation. As this crop exhausted the soil rapidly the planters were constantly in need of fresh fields. To satisfy this the prac- tise grew of allowing them to acquire new lands from the wilderness for from one to five shillings for fifty acres. This led to the development of large estates like that of William Byrd, which eventually had one hundred and eighty thousand acres, and to a scattering of the population so that for years there were no large towns in Virginia. The poor laws of England. — Though somewhat im- proved since the Middle Ages, the condition of England's poor was pitiable. Wages were so low that common laborers could lay up little for old age. Each parish or church dis- trict had to care for its own poor and naturally objected to "transient paupers" from other parishes. Therefore, the law forbade a skilled workman to take employment outside his trade, no matter how needy he might be. Stealing prop- erty of six shillings (a dollar and a half) value was one of the three hundred crimes punishable with death. Debtors were imprisoned until their debts were i)aid — sometimes for life. Public opinion was awakening to the economic loss in- volved in such practises, and rich parishioners were chafing under their burden of charity. Need for laborers in .Virginia. — Increase of tobacco raising was creating a constant demand for more field la- borers. This was met by sentencing culprits arrested for theft to transportation to Virginia. Debtors and "sturdy beggars" were also sent in large numbers to the "planta- tions," as Virginia and later colonies were called. ]\lany poor but ambitious persons came of their own accord. Lack- ing the money for passage, they would sell their service to some sea captain or moneyed person for the necessary three or four hundred dollars. Thus was formed a class of "in- FIRST PERMAX1-:XT COLONY 43 dentured servants," so-called because bound by contract to work without wages for a specified number of years to repay the cost of transportation. The supply of laborers never equaled the demand and the business of kidnaping servants became common. In the dark crooked streets of seaport towns villains lurked to seize upon strong young men and place them, bound and gagged, on board vessels starting for Virginia, where they would be sold as servants. It is estimated that ten thousand "disappeared" thus in one year. Beginning of negro slavery in Virginia. — In August. 1619, a Dutch slaver sailed up James River and sold the planters twenty "negars." At first African slavery was not favored, for the negroes were hard to train. But as they were more easily obtained than indentured servants and in bondage for life, they eventually superseded white labor in the tobacco fields. Government of the colony. — For several centuries Eng- lish sovereigns had been in the habit of asking Parliament to vote them a tax on wool as an aid to meeting the expenses of the government. Parliament finally came to insist that it had the sole right to levy taxes. This was denied by James I. He believed that kings ruled by "divine right" and received their power direct from God. "How then could Parliament possess rights w^hich their king had not granted them?" England was being agitated by this dispute at the time Jamestown was founded. At first the colony was governed by the officers and a general court of the company's shareholders. These remained in England and were represented in Virginia by a governor and a resident council. After a few years the council was abandoned and the governor became supreme. Dissatisfied with the conduct of one of their governors, the colonists appealed to the company, and a new one Was sent over who allowed them a hand in the government. In 1619 the colony 44 OUR COUNTRY'S IliSTORV was divided into eleven districts called boroughs. Two members from each, elected by the settlers, composed an assembly to which was given the name, House of Burgesses. On July 30, 1619, the Burgesses met in the choir of the little church at Jamestown — the first lawmaking bod}' convened in America. Its earliest enactments were laws against idleness, drunkenness, gam- bling. Sabbath break- ing and wearing fine clothes, and steps were taken looking to the establishment of a university. At a later meeting the levying of taxes without the consent of the Bur- gesses was forbidden. Virginia becomes a royal province. — Disagreements be- tween king and Parliament increased. Among those taking sides with Parliament were many shareholders and officials of the Virginia Company, which had already incurred the disfavor of the king by its growing power and apparent prosperity. The fact that two years before the colony had suffered from Indian disturbances offered a pretext for in- terference in the company's affairs. In 1624 its charter was revoked and Virginia became a royal province. Henceforth it was governed by a governor and council, appointed by the king, with the assistance of the House of Burgesses. At this time the population of Virginia numbered only twelve Ruins of the Jamestown Church Where the House of Bursesses Met FIRST PERMANENT COLONY 45 hundred, although it was estimated that fourteen thousand emigrants had gone to the colony since its founding. The plantations extended up the James River as far as the present Richmond. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. What was Queen Elizabeth's greatest ambition? 2. When and where was the first permanent Enghsh settlement made in the New World? What was the character of the first colonists who came to Virginia? Describe the early his- tory of the colony. ,1. What was the purpose of the first colonists who came to Vir- ginia? What was the object of the organization of the Lon- don and Plymouth Companies? 4. What was the purpose of a colony according to the idea in Eng- land in colonial times? •>. What industry developed early in the history of Virginia? Do you understand why this industry made it impossible for towns to grow up in the earlj' days of the colony? 6. What was the difference between an "indentured" servant and a negro servant? Explain how it was that negro labor sup- planted white labor in the tobacco fields. 7. When and where did the first lawmaking body assemble in the New World? What was this body called, and what did it do? SUBJECTS FOR FIRTHKR STUDY L The life of John Smith. 2. The importance of tobacco in earlj' Virginia historj'. .\ Important Acts passed by the First Legislative AssembK' of V^irginia in 1619. REFERENCES 1. Fiske's Old J'irginia and Her Scighbors, Vol. I. pp. 71-76. 80-91. 185-188. 2. Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book 1. pp. 73-78. 3. Tappan's American Hero Stories, pp. 38-49. 4. Eggleston's Our First Century, Chapters II, III, IV, V. CHAPTER V RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION AND COLONIZATION Religious situation in England. — Until the middle of the sixteenth century England had been a Roman Catholic country, but its sovereigns were not always submissive to the authority of the Pope. Henry VIII was an obstinate self-willed monarch. After a long quarrel with the Pope he broke away from the Church of Rome and established the Church of England (1532). This retained much of the service and organization of the Catholic Church, but sub- stituted the authority of the king for that of the Pope. The Puritans and Separatists. — By the time James I ascended the throne (1603) the influence of the reforma- tion had become very strong in England. Many English- men found their church service too much like the Cath- olic and sought to "purify" it by getting rid of some of the objectionable rites. These Dissenters, as they were called, were divided into Puritans and Separatists. The Puritans attended service regularly and conformed to the rules of the Church. The Separatists withdrew and formed separate congregations. They chose their own pastors and worshiped secretly in private houses and barns. James was more bitter toward the Puritans and Separatists than toward the Catholics. To a delegation asking reforms in the church ceremonies he replied : "I shall make them conform them- selves, or I will harry them out of the land or else do worse." And the king kept his word. The story of the Pilgrim Fathers. — In 1608 a band of 46 RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION AND COLONIZATION 47 Separatists from Scrooby, a village in northern England, fled to Holland, the only land in Europe where one could worship God as he saw fit. Though driven into exile by the persecution of their own king, the Pilgrims, as they called themselves, were still loyal Englishmen. To see their chil- dren growing up Dutch in speech and manners caused them much grief. So they decided to emigrate to America. Erom #*: * The Pilgrims Departiiii^ ircnn Hoilaiiselves. The necessary money was borrowed from some London merchants. The emigrants agreed to devote their full time for seven years to farming, fishing and fvir-trading, and to share the prod- ucts equally with them. On September 6, 1620, the ship Mayflower set sail from Plymouth, England, bearing one hundred and two Pilgrims — men, women and children — together with all their be- 48 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY longings. After a stormy voyage of more than two months the low sandy hills of Cape Cod were sighted. The map made by Captain John Smith of Virginia showed this to be north instead of south of the Hudson River. Several at- tempts were made to turn the vessel to a southward course ; but the winds were contrary and the danger from shoals and breakers was great. Finally, on De- cember 22, 1620, the Pil- grims landed at a spot designated on their map as Plymouth. Tradition has it that they stepped ashore on a large rock which ever since has been known as "Ph- mouth Rock." The Mayflower com- pact. — Had the Pilgrims settled on the lands granted them by the London Compan}^ they would have been under the government of the Virginia Colony. Settling as they did outside the jurisdiction of that company, it was necessary to provide for some kind of government. Before landing, therefore, the men met in the cabin of the Mayfloii'cr and drew up the first constitutional document in the history of America. This has ever since been known as the "May- flower Compact." The Canopy over Plymouth Rock Notice tliat it is some distance from the water "In the name of God, amen. We whose names are under- written, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign Lord King James, by the grace of (jod of Great Britain, France, and Ireland King, Defender of the Faith, etc., having under- taken, for the glory of God and advancement of the Chris- RELIGIOUS PEKSIXUTION AND COLON IZATIOX 4'* tian faith and honor of our King and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually, in the presence of God and one of another, covenant and combine ourselves together into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation and furtherance of the ends aforesaid ; and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame such just and ' Photo from Underwood & Underwood Signing the Alayflower Compact equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general good of the colony, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape Cod, the 11th of November, in the year of the reign of our sovereign Lord James, of England, France, and Ireland the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. Anno Dom. 1620." This compact was binding because it conflicted with no charter issued by the king and was signed by all the men of 50 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the party. The Pilgrim Fathers, quite likely, regarded the government they were organizing as temporary, and ex- pected to seek a charter from James I at some favorable moment. The Plymouth colony. — The Pilgrims spent the winter building cabins. Owing to the scarcity of food and severity of the weather half of them died before spring. Fortunately the Indian tribes in the vicinity, weakened from a scourge Plymouth in 162J Copyrig-ht by A. S. Burbank of smallpox, did not interfere with the settlers. In the spring a treaty was made with a local chieftain which was kept for half a century. The colony grew so slowly that by 1630 there were only three hundred settlers. It was admin- istered for over seventy years by a governor and council chosen by vote of the grown men. Until 1639 the laws were made in meetings attended by the entire body of voters ; afterward by a general court composed of two delegates from each town. Although it was the autumn of 1623 before the Pilgrims had their first bountiful harvest, they were so thrifty and industrious that in less than fifteen years their indebtedness to the London merchants had been paid in shipments of beaver skins and lumber. The Puritans settle Massachusetts. — When King James died in 1625 he was succeeded by his son Charles I. After RELIGIOUS PERSPXUTION AND COLONIZATION SI tliroe years of quarreling Parliament refused to grant tiic king taxes in the usual way. Charles retaliated by dissolv- ing it and sending the members to their homes. For the fol- lowing eleven years he ruled without a Parliament, levying and collecting taxes as he pleased. Like his father, Charles hated the Puritans. He set Arch- bishop Laud to persecuting them. For their religious be- liefs many honest persons were flogged, imprisoned, had their noses slit, their ears cut off, or were driven into exile. In despair, and influenced by letters from Plymouth, many decided to emigrate to America. It was to the Puritans a land of promise, a land where they might worship God as they thought right. In 1628 John Endicott and five other Puritans bought from the New Eng- land Council, as the successors to the Ply- mouth Company were called, a grant of land on the Massachusetts coast, extending from three miles north of the Merrimac River to three miles south of the Charles and west- ward to the South Sea. which was thought to be not far from the lludson River. That fall a settlement was made at Salem. The next year Endicott's associates secured from King Charles a charter confirming their grant and creating the "Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England" and authorizing it to govern what- ever colony might be planted. In 1630 John W'inthrop. Distribution of New England Towns about 1650 52 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY a wealthy and highly educated Puritan, led a company of more than a thousand persons to Massachusetts Bay and succeeded Endicott as governor. Thus began the "great migration" set in motion by a king's narrowness and obsti- nacy, which, in ten years' time, deprived his realm of twenty thousand well-to-do middle-class citizens. Government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. — Aware of the fickleness of kings, the company determined to pre- vent such a royal confiscation of their charter as had hap- pened to that of the Virginia Company. All the officers and "general court" of the Massachusetts Bay Company moved to America and brought the precious document with them. When the shareholders of the company became too many for easy transaction of business, an assembly composed of representatives from the dift'erent towns was substituted. This was known as the "General Court of Massachusetts." Industrial growth of Massachusetts. — Like all other pioneers these Puritans of Massachusetts Bay suffered hard- ships and privatioii. It is recorded that in the winter of 1630-1631 they had to "live on clams and mussels, ground nuts and acorns." Soon, however, they were raising food in abundance, as the soil was well adapted to the growth not merely of Indian corn, but of fruits, grains and vegetables of England as well. There was good fishing along the shore, and that industry was combined with farming. The better grades of fish were shipped to England; the inferior to the West Indies. One indication of the importance of the West India trade was the prevalence of "Spanish pieces of eight" in the colony. Other profitable industries were the hewing out of masts and timbers for shipment to England and the actual build- ing of ships. Endeavoring to control the high cost of living, the Gen- eral Court repeatedly enacted laws to regulate the wages of laborers. Prices were fixed for cattle, corn aud other food- RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION AND COLONIZATION 53 stuffs, and profits on goods imported from England were limited to one-third of the investment. Religious intolerance. — Although the Puritans endured much hardship and dared dangers of the wilderness for the sake of freedom to worship according to conscience, they did not extend a like freedom to others. Soon after reaching Massachusetts Bay they completely broke away from the Church of England and organized one of their own, which came to be called the Congregational because each congrega- tion was independent. In order to be allowed to vote and hold office one had to belong to this church. Admission to membership was determined by the ministers and deacons. All settlers were taxed to help support it and no other form of worship was lawful. The result was that as the colony grew a large number of the settlers had no part in its gov- ernment and there was, of course, much dissatisfaction. Among the later immigrants there were so many representa- tives of the new and strange sects which had recently sprung up in England that the colony finally decided to expel all "contentious and heretical folk." The persecution of Roger Will- iams. — • Roger Williams, a Salem minister, was the worst offender. He preached tolerance for all religions, and freedom in at- tendance upon the services of the church and in pay- ing taxes for its W ■ ) jYtQ Church at Salem from which declaimed against Roger Williams Was Banished 54 OUR COUxXTRY'S HISTORY the king's granting of lands in America. They did not be- long to him, said Williams, but to the Indians from whom alone could a valid title be obtained. This "contentious and heretical person" only escaped deportation by flight. It was in the winter of 1638 that he wandered through the deep forest snows as far as the head of Narragansett Bay. Here, on a tract of land given him by the Indians, he founded a settlement which, in gratitude for "God's merciful provi- dence to him" he named Providence. This became a haven for "a great number of weak and distressed souls" from Massachusetts and elsewhere. Absolute freedom of wor- ship was permitted regardless of whether Christian or not. All newcomers signed an agreement to obey such laws as were enacted and every one was allowed to vote and hold ofBce. Nowhere else was there such freedom. Another disturber of the Puritans' peace was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson of Boston. She held religious meetings for women and by her persuasive speech won many to her views. So obnoxious became her criticisms of magistrates and clergy that she and her converts were banished. Some of them went to what is now New Hampshire and settled there. Mrs. Hutchinson herself bought an island in Narra- gansett Bay from the Indians and founded the colony of Rhode Island. In 1663 this settlement was united with the one at Providence, forming the "Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." Other New England colonies. — In 1622 the New Eng- land Council had granted to Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason a tract of land between the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers, and within a few years Portsmouth and Dover were established. Later these settlements, together with those made by the followers of Mrs. Plutchinson, were placed un- der the protection and government of Massachusetts. It was not until 1741 that New Flampshire was made an ab- solutely separate colony with a governor of its own. RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION AND COLONIZATION 5S In 1636 dissatisfaction with the Puritan rule caused Rev- erend Thomas Hooker to lead a company of fifty families from Cambridge to the valley of the Connecticut, where they founded Hartford and other villages. Since they had no charter, they united wath two towns settled by other Puri- tans and drew up a constitution (1639) entitled "The Fundamental Orders." It provided for a government based on political equality, and made no mention of the king. At about the same time (1638) Puritans from England made settlements along the shore of Long Island Sound. These were united later to form the colony of New Haven. Their laws followed closely those given to the Children of Israel by Moses. Fourteen crimes were punishable by death and the English right of trial by jury omitted, since the Mosaic law did not provide for it. In 1662 all the settle- ments in Connecticut were merged into one royal province. The planting of Maryland. — George Calvert was a shareholder in the London Company and secretary to James I. By reason of his becoming a Roman Catholic he lost his position, but not the favor of his sovereign, from whom he received the title of Lord Baltimore. Catholics were even more severely treated in England at that time than the Puritans. They were not allowed to wor- ship publicly and were liable to heavy fines for failure to attend the services of the Church of England. Their priests had been banished from the country and some of them ac- tually hanged. Calvert desired to secure some kind of relief for them and conceived the idea of a colony in America. He asked Charles I for some land where Catholics might find refuge, as the Puritans had in Massachusetts. Influ- enced by his Catholic queen, Henrietta Maria, Charles yielded to the request. The first grant was of land in New- foundland. An attempt to plant there the colony of Avalon failed on account of the cold climate. Jtist as Charles was about If) grant him a tract farther south Lord Baltimore 56 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY died. His eldest son, as heir to the title and estate, received the land promised his father. It lay between the Plymouth Company's tract and the Potomac kiver, and was named Maryland in honor of the queen. In 1634 Leonard Calvert, a son of the new Lord Baltimore, left England with a mixed party of Catholics and Protestants and planted a colony at St. Mary's on Chesapeake Bay. There, in an Indian wig- wam, was established the first Roman Catholic Church in English America. Unlike Virginia and the Massachusetts Colonies, the first settlers in Maryland experienced no suffering. At the start they made friends of the Indians and on cleared lands bought from them established their first farms. As in Vir- ginia, tobacco was the principal crop and the farms for the most part were large. Government of Maryland. — Under his charter. Lord Baltimore was made "Lord Proprietor" of Maryland. This meant that the land was his. He had power to declare war, make peace, appoint a governor to represent him in the province, levy taxes, pardon criminals, and enact laws. The proprietor, however, soon gave his colonists the right to elect an assembly for the making of laws with the under- standing that these would not be valid until assented to by himself. Rents were low, no more than twenty or thirty pounds of wheat a year for the use of a hundred acres of land. Lord Baltimore's liberality attracted settlers and his col- ony grew rapidly. He drew up the "Toleration Act" passed by the assembly in 1649. This was one of the first laws in the history of the world to guarantee freedom of worship. It provided that "no person professing to believe in Jesus Christ shall from henceforth be anyways troubled, molested or discountenanced for or in respect to his or her religion, nor in the exercise thereof, within this province ; nor any RELIGIOUS PERSECUTION AND COLONIZATION 57 way compelled to the belief or exercise of any other religion against his or her consent." Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Write in your note-book the story of the Pilgrim Fathers. 2. Were all Puritans Separatists? Were all Separatists Puritans? Why was King James I so bitterly opposed to the Puritans and the Separatists? 3. In the beginning of the seventeenth century which nation, Eng- land or Holland, was more tolerant on religious questions? Find statements in your text or elsewhere which prove your answer. 4. There was an extensive Puritan migration from the Old World to the New World in the decade of 1630-1640. State exactly why the Puritans left the Old World and why they came to the New World. 5. The Puritans always settled in towns. Why? How did the Virginians settle? Why the difference? 6. According to your text the Puritans came to Massachusetts in order to escape religious persecution in England, and then they proceeded to persecute all people who did not believe as they did. Find evidence and incidents which support this statement, and write the same in your note-book. 7. Write in your note-book all the reasons you can find why Eng- lishmen came to Virginia and to New England. 8. Write an account of the manner in which England persecuted the Roman Catholics. Where did they plant a colony in the New World? The colony of Maryland grew very rapidly. Why? What is the importance of the Toleration Act of 1649? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The theory of the "Divine Right of Kings." 2. The work of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. 3. George Calvert and his work. REFERENCES 1. Fiske's Beginnings of New England, pp. 65-87, 114-119, 122-128, 134-137. 2. Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book I, pp. 89-100. ?. Hart's Colonial Children, pp. 133-136. 4. Hawthorne's Grandfather's Chair, pp. 10-26,. 28-42. CHAPTJ'IR \'l RIVALS TO THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA Early French settlements. — Not long after John Cab- ot's discovery of Newfoundland (1497), French fishermen were disputing with those from England the rich fishing grounds lying to the southeast. Probably by the time Ver- razano made his voyage along the Atlantic coast (1524) there were settlements on the island itself for the curing of fish. In 1534 another French explorer. Jac([ues Cartier, discov- e r e d the St. ^ik — ft « Lawrence River, and the follow- ing year . sailed up that stream as far as the rapids near the present Mon- treal. Aside from two vain attempts to plant colonies on the South Carolina coast and along the St. John's River in Florida, the French made no effort to establish themselves in America until early in the seventeenth cen- tury. Henry of Navarre, the French king, did not grant 58 Fort Caroline Built by the French in 1562 near the Mouth of the St. John's River RI\ALS TO THK KXGLISH IX AMERICA 59 charters to trading companies or tracts of land to colonizers, lie was too busy fighting for his throne and making it pos- sible for the Catholics and Huguenots to live at peace with each other. New France established. — The first permanent French settlement in .America was made in 1604 by Pierre du Guast, Sieur de ^vlonts, to whom King Henry had granted a mo- nopoly of the fur trade. His little colony on the east shore of the Bay of Fundy was named Port Royal. Four years later Samuel de Champlain, who had been a captain in De Alonts' service and was now governor of New France, as the country was called, removed the Port Royal settlers to Quebec. The English were hostile to what they considered French invasion of their claims, and Quebec afforded a natural stronghold in case any effort to eject them should be made. After that villages sprang up rapidly along the St. Lawrence and its tributaries. At first the French combined fur -trad- ing with seeking a I'roui an nlil print Cliamplain's Fort at Quebec built of wood and was soon destroyed It w; new route to the Far East, in the belief that China was not far to the west, the rapids above Montreal were named La Chine, and early explorers even carried with them such articles as would appeal to the Chinese. Champlain and the Indians. — Champlain cultivated the friendship of the neighboring .Vlgonquin tribes, and with Indian guides made many explorations. In 1615 he went as far westward as Lake Huron, In his desire to en- 60 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY From an old print Champlain's Fight with the Iroquois Indians near Ticonderoga trench himself m the favor of the savages, he was so in- discreet as to aid them in an attack on some of their enemies. The fight took place on the shore of Lake Champlain, and the guns of the white man and his party soon put the foe to flight. It was an easy victory, but a costly one for the French. The Indians they had routed in such terror belonged to the "Five Nations," and the Iroquois were ever afterward the unrelenting foes of the French. They were continually waylaying the trad- The Roundabout Route the French Had to Use to Reach the Mississippi Basin ers and raiding the settlements, and their hatred was so bit- ter that Champlain and those who followed him v\-ere forced RIVALS TO THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 61 to avoid the region about Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. In order to reach the West, French traders had to use the route which led up the Ottawa River and then, by Indian portages, across the height of land to Lake Huron. New France spreads west. — The French theory of col- onization was that colonies afforded an opportunity to their ]:)romoters to make money. The welfare of the colonists was not considered. As soon as the settlements of New France were actually started, the king planned to secure huge profits from the fur trade. All who engaged in it had to pay large sums of money for the privilege, either annually or in ad- vance for a certain term of years. Little inducement was offered to farmers, and to the end fur-trading continued the sole important in- dustry. So profitable was the traffic that fur-bearing animals were being rapidly exterminated from the St. Lawrence re- gion ; and traders were forced to go farther and farther into the wilderness in quest of pelts. Had it not been for the enmity of the Iroquois, the French trading-posts would undoubtedly have been extended to- ward the south, into central New York and the valley of the Hudson. Instead, as early as 1634, we find the traders far to the west on the shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior. The Frenchmen were able to endure the hardships of their A Canadian Fur-Trader 02 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY long trips by employing the methods of the Indians. Recog- nizing the advantage of profiting by the natives' experience with life in the wilds, Champlain had required French youths to live among them until they had learned the red man's woodcraft and his ways of overcoming fatigue. To the good sense and foresight of this brave Frenchman may be traced the power of endurance that gave France title to the vast wilderness later known as Louisiana. The success of the fur trade depended on the cooperation of the Indians. Aware of this, the French avoided giving offense in any way. They refrained from cutting down the forests and despoiling the hunting-grounds with farms. They even became brothers to the red men by marrying Indian women. Dutch interest in America. — In 1567, as we have learned, the people of the Low Countries rose against their ruler, Philip II of Spain, and undertook to establish for them- selves an independent republic. For years Dutch traders had been making fortunes out of their monopoly of carrying the products of the Far East from Lisbon to the ports of north- ern Europe. When Portugal was annexed to Spain (1581) this privilege was cut off, and freedom to trade with the Indies became one of the objects of their long struggle for independence. Some of the Dutch ship owners sought a new route to the Far East by the north; others fought their way via the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian Ocean. In 1602 the f various competing interests were merged into the Dutch East India Company. Through its incessant war upon the commerce of Portugal, Spain and England in turn, this company helped to make Holland "mistress of the seas" for fifty years. Spanish vessels, laden with precious cargoes from South America and Mexico, were regarded as fair prey by the Dutch, and in order to get at them easier a shorter route RIX'ALS TO TH1-: ICXGLiSIi IX AMl-RlL A 63 to the Pacific was sought more eagerly than ever. For this l)urpose the Dutch East India Company sent out Henry Hudson, an Enghsh sea captain in its employ. Captain Henry Hudson and his discovery. — Hudson steered the clumsy little Half Moon into New York har- bor (1609) and started, as he thought, for the Pacific Ocean. But the inlet became smaller and smaller and he found that he had discovered a river instead of a north- west passage. The stream has ever since borne his name. By a strange coincidence, Hudson's discovery and Cham- New Amsterdam about 1650 From an old print plain's unfortunate encounter with the Iroquois Indians took place at the same time, not over a hundred and fifty miles apart. Five years later, ignoring England's claim to this region, a trading-post was established on Manhattan Island at the mouth of the Hudson. Others were soon scattered along the river as far north as the present site of Albany. To these settlements the Dutch gave the name "New Netherlands." Growth of Nev7 Netherlands. — In 1621 Holland granted a charter to the Dutch West India Company, giving it a monopoly of the trade in New Netherlands ; also the right to establish and govern a colony. Holland only claimed the region lying between the valleys of the North River (Hud- son) and the South River (Delaware) as far north as the Mohawk. The West India Company, however, went far 64 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY beyond these limits, and trading-posts bearing the Dutch flag soon appeared in the Connecticut Valley and on Long Island. Owing to conditions in Holland, and lack of interest on the part of the company, the colony did not grow much at first. In 1626 Governor Peter Minuit bought the whole of Manhattan Island from the Indians for twenty-four dollars' worth of beads and other trinkets. The little settlement already made there was then called New Amsterdam. The Dutch patroon system. — Three years later (1629), in an effort to encourage immigration, the patroon system was adopted. A large tract of land subject to purchase from the Indians was granted to any shareholder who would bring over at his own expense fifty or more grown persons. These proprietors, called patroons, had the right to govern the settlements they planted. For the expenses in- curred they were reimbursed by rents from their tenants and by a share in the crops and calves. For many miles the Hudson was bordered with these great estates. The tenants on them were not allowed to quit for ten years without the consent of the patroons and they were re- quired to give their aristocratic landlords an op- portunity to buy their produce before offering The Home of a Patroon it to others. This man's estate covered three of the present rr^t . • New York counties i hese restric- RIVALS TO THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 65 lions caused so much dissatisfaction on the tenants' part that finally the company adopted the policy of selling land directly to the settlers. After that New Netherlands grew much more rapidly. Frontier troubles. — The Dutch were soon in trouble from their encroachments upon the English. In 1633 a few adventurous Pilgrims from Plymouth started a rival trading- station on the Connecticut River, and the Puritans of the Massachusetts Bay Colony resented the intrusion of the Dutch into what they regarded as strictly English territory. To prevent the New Netherlanders from acquiring the val- ley of the Connecticut was one reason assigned by the Rev- erend Thomas Hooker, when he sought permission to lead his band of immigrants thither. After considerable unpleas- antness the Dutch yielded and returned to New Nether- lands. In 1638 Swedish traders located a small settlement on the Delaware, near the present site of Wilmington. The Dutch had abandoned their former trading-posts in this region on account of Indian troubles, but still claimed the territory. They now protested angrily against the way the Swedes "squatted" on their land and began to erect forts. One of these the Swedes seized. Governor Stuyvesant sent several armed boats to demand the surrender of "New Sweden." W^eak and defenseless, the colony could do noth- ing but submit, and it was then annexed to New Nether- lands. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. When and where was the first permanent French settlement made in the New World? What fatal blunder did Champlain make in 1609? 2. The text says that the French king did not grant charters to trading companies as the English did. Why not? 3. At first what were the two principal reasons that prompted Frenchmen to come to America? Observe clearlv the differ- 66 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ences between the motives of the French and the motives of the Enghsh. 4. What was the French theory of colonization? How did it differ. if at all, from the English theory of colonization? 5. What was the first reason that prompted the Dutch to come tn America? When and where was the first Dutch settlement made in the New World? 6. Write in your note-book a description of the Dutch patroon sys- tem. Do you find any points of resemblance between a patroon plantation in New York and a Virginia plantation ? 7. Why did Sweden plant a colony in the New World? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The French fur-trader. 2. Peter Stuyvesant, tlie man and his work. 3. The Patroon System. REFERENCES 1. Parkman's J'ionccrs of Fraucc, pp. 175-180, 210-227, 228-25o. 254-258. 2. Fiske's Dutch ami Quaker Colonics, Vol. I, pp. 82-94, 1.^3-137, 198-201. Europeans Discover, Explore, and Colonize the New World I. I^uROPEA.N Beginnings in America. A. Our early relations with the Old World. B. The conditions in Europe in the fifteenth century. 1. The knowledge of geography. 2. Life among tiie peasants. 3. Town life. 4. The barons and the churchmen. 5. Trade and manufactories. 6. The influence of the Crusades. 7. The Renaissance increased knowledge. 8. The rise and growth of the Turkish Empire necessi- tates a new route to India for European traders. 9. The voyages of the Portuguese along tlie African coast. C. Columbus discovers America. 1. His early life. 2. He gets a new idea as to the shape of the cartli. RIVALS TO THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 67 3. His struggles for recognition and assistance. 4. His voyages and discoveries. 5. The importance of Columbus' discoveries. II. The Struggle between England and Spain. A. The rights of natives disregarded in discovered lands. 1. The American Indians, their characteristics, tribal divisions, etc. B. The material importance to Spain of her discoveries in the Nevi^ World. 1. The conquest of Mexico and Peru and the entrance into the United States from the Southwest. C. The explorations of De Leon, De Soto and Narvaez on the northern mainland. D. The struggle between Protestant England and Catholic Spain. 1. Hawkins and Drake prej-ed upon Spanish commerce. 2. England defeated the Spanish Armada. E. The discoveries of the Cabots. III. The Planting of Colonies in the Ne\V World by England. A. The formation of trading and colonization companies. 1. The East India Company. 2. The London and Plymouth Companies. B. The settlement of Jamestown. 1. The early struggles of the colonists, and the work of John Smith. 2. The supply of labor for the colony. 3. The government of the colony. C. The founding of the Plymouth Colony. 1. Religious intolerance in England. 2. The Pilgrims seek religious freedom first in Holland and then in America. 3. The Mayflower Compact. 4. The early struggles of the colonists. D. The founding of other settlements. 1\'. England's Rivals in the Settlement of the New World. A. The French settlements in America. L The French theory of colonization. 2. New France established. 3. The part of the United States claimed by the French. B. The DutcU settle New Netherlands. CHAPTER VII POLITICAL UPHEAVALS IN ENGLAND AND THEIR EFFECT The revolution in England. — The eleven years (1629- 1640) during which Charles I ruled England without a Par- liament, were a stormy time. To meet his expenses the king levied many kinds of taxes which his subjects refused to pay. He had no means of subjugating the Scotch, who had risen in rebellion. Finally in despair, on the advice of the peers of the kingdom, Charles summoned Parliament. This assembly, known as the "Long Parliament," set to work to reform the entire government. Charles assented to some of its acts, but, becoming angry at others, with an armed force invaded the hall in which it was sitting and de- manded the surren- der of certain of its members. The result was civil war. The adherents of the king were members of the Church of England and Roman The Trial of Charles I 68 POLITICAL UPHEAVALS IN ENGLAND 69 Catholics. They were nicknamed "Cavaliers'" because many of them belonged to the upper classes and rode fine horses. The Parliamentary army was composed of Puritans, called in derision "Roundheads" from their fashion of wearing the hair close-cropped. Led by their grim Puritan general, Oliver Cromwell, the Roundheads eventually won the war. The king was captured, tried by Parliament for treason and put to death ( 1649) . England was declared a republic. For nine years the Commonwealth, as the government was called, was ruled by Cromwell with an iron hand. Effect of the revolution on America. — During the war emigration to New England almost ceased. Puritans were needed at home to fight in the Parliamentary armies, and after the Commonwealth came into power they could enjoy there the freedom which formerly had to be sought in the wilderness overseas. England, distracted by civil war, had little time to bother about her colonies, and the New Eng- landers did as they pleased without taking sides with either king or Parliament. Virginia, composed largely of rich landowners, sym- pathized with Charles. In 1642 Governor Berkeley banished all Roundheads from the colony without any resistance to his orders. So loyal was Virginia to the royal cause that the governor, when news reached him of the execution of the king, proclaimed his son. Prince Charles, as sovereign and invited him to come to America. Naturally a welcome was ofifered the Cavaliers, stripped of their lands by the Com- monwealth and forced to seek safety in flight. In twenty 3'ears (1650-1670) the population of Virginia increased from fifteen to forty thousand, and many of the newcomers were men of fine character and much culture — the best type of Cavaliers. In Maryland the Baltimores were dispossessed of their rights for a short time through the efforts of the many Puritans who had been permitted to settle there, and the assembly passed a law forbidding Roman Catholic wor- 70 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ship. Bloodshed followed, but, although the Puritans de- feated the supporters of the Proprietors, Cromwell refused to recognize the government they tried to set up. The restoration. — England fell into confusion after Cromwell's death (1658). Parliament was opposed by the army and hindered by Puritan intolerance. Prince Charles, who was living in France at this time, was willing to return with the promise that "no man shall be disquieted or called in question for difiference of opinion in matters of religion which do not disturb the peace of the kingdom." Parliament then voted that "the government is and ought to be, by kings, lords and commons," and on the prince's arrival in London he was crowned as Charles II (1660). Effect of the restoration on colonization. — The restora- tion had a singular effect on colonization. Charles II had promised not to interfere with the lands confiscated from royalists during the revolution. It was hard, therefore, for him to find means to reward those who had stood by the royal cause. America seemed to offer a solution. There was no lack of land in his vast domains there ; so he adopted the plan of giving immense tracts of it to his favorites. The new proprietors were also granted the right to govern ^ jj the colonies which they CMlfMA^/t/\^ fb l^^y might plant, much as the Baltimores did in , - -J? ^ p^ Carolinas. — As earlv S^m€ ^r^(n^^ ^^ 1635 go„,, discon- tented persons from "WJ: Act/ed^ J^S^'^- Virginia moved to the Facsimile of the Signatures of the banks of the Chowan Carolina Proprietors j^j^gj. ^^^^ Albemarle Sound. They were occupied with farming and getting out naval stores, and were not disturbed. Later when Virginia I'OLITICAL UPHEAVALS IX KXGLAXD 71 l)Cgan to persecute Quakers, many of them, too, fled to this region. In 1663 a tract extending from Virginia to the Spanish colony of Florida and westward to the South Sea was be- stowed by Charles on eight of his friends. The new pro- prietors complimented their benefactor by naming the prov- ince Carolina (from Carolus, the Latin form of Charles). The following year they sent out a governor and later tried to install a system of government, framed by Lord Shafts- bury, one of their number, and John Locke, the great Eng- lish philosopher. This "Grand Model" with its nobility called "landgraves" and "caciques" and its serfs or "leet- men" did not appeal at all to the pioneers, who had hewn out homes for themselves in the wilderness. Through protests and wrangling they finally forced its entire abandonment and continued holding their assembly. The founding of Charleston. — In 1670 a company of colonists located on the Ashley River in southern Carolina. Ten years later they moved to a more healthy site, the tip of the peninsula formed by the Ashley and Cooper Rivers, and founded Charleston. Hither came in considerable numbers English planters from the Barbados Islands, Dutch emi- grants from New York, and the better class of English- men. Charleston soon became a thriving seaport and the home of many wealthy planters who had large rice and indigo plantations along the coast, worked by negro slaves. Religious toleration in Carolina. — The Carolinians had enjoyed religious toleration from the first and this attracted many oppressed persons from Europe as well as from the other colonies. To the northern settlements came Swiss and Germans from the Rhine Valley, Highlanders from Scotland, and Scotch-Irish from the north of Ireland. The southern settlement became a refuge for the Huguenots then so bitterly persecuted in France. Originally the proprietors expected to treat both settle- 12 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ments as one colony, but they soon found this would not do. The two sections differed too much and were too widely separated. The northern was divided into small farms on which the settlers by their own labor raised grain, cattle, hogs and sheep. In the South, estates were large and tilled Scile'of two Furl h-'-^K'r^^., Plan of Charleston about 1700 by slaves, and little inducement was offered to small farmers. The division of Carolina. — In 1719 the people of the Charleston region became so dissatisfied with the rule of the proprietors that they deposed their governor and petitioned the king to make the colony a royal province. George I did this and ten years later, after he had bought out the owners, his successor, George II, divided Carolina into two provinces, corresponding to North and South Carolina of to-day. Conquest of New Netherlands. — By the middle of the POLITICAL UPHEAVALS IN ENGLAND IZ seventeenth century the spirit of rivalry between English and Dutch trading companies had grown into such hatred that between 1652 and 1674 these nations fought each other in three wars. The British colonial theory expected the colonists to pro- duce articles needed by the mother country. It required the entire output to be sent to England that the merchants there might make a profit on such of the goods as should find sale elsewhere. The Navigation Act of 1651 restricted trade with Asia, Africa and America to vessels built in England, and owned and manned by Englishmen. A cargo from an- other European country must be brought in a vessel owned in that country or in an English vessel. It also interfered with any direct trade between the separate colonies, or be- tween the colonies and the West Indies. An unpopular law can never be fully enforced, and this one was constantly evaded. Holland was aggrieved because she knew the Navigation Act was designed to ruin her profitable carrying trade be- tween the colonies and Europe. She was also insulted by England's demand of naval salutes from all craft in the English Channel. The first time an English admiral ordered the Dutch flag to be lowered in salute (1652) he was an- swered by a volley of shot. For two years occasional sea fights disturbed the waters about the coasts of Britain. After one victory the Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, nailed a broom to his masthead, announcing his intention to sweep the English from the seas, but defeat soon subdued his be- havior if not his spirit. Rivalry went on after the fighting ceased and in 1664 Britain decided to enforce her claim to New Netherlands and get rid of Dutch competition in that quarter. An Eng- lish fleet anchored ofif New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. Peter Stuyvesant, the "leather-sided, lion- hearted" old governor, fumed and raged. "I would rather 74 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY be carried to my grave than yield," he swore. But there was no disposition on the part of the New Netherlanders to fight Governor Stuyvesant Tearing Up the English Demand for the Surrender of New Netherlands for such a tyrant as he had been, and the Dutch flag came down. New York and New Jersey. — Before sending the fleet King Charles had given the territory between the Connecti- cut and Delaware Rivers to his brother James, Duke of York. As soon as the Dutch were ousted from control the duke sold the portion lying southwest of the Hudson to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, ex-governor of the Isle of Jersey, in whose honor it was called New Jersey. Long Island and the valley of the Hudson were given the name New York from that of the new proprietor. The strip between the Hudson and Connecticut was left under the rule of the Connecticut Colony. Character of New Jersey colonists. — Berkeley soon sold his share of New Jersey to scimc Quakers and the POLITICAL UPHKAVALS IN ENGLAND 75 province was divided into East and West Jersey. Re- ligious tolerance and popular assemblies attracted many kinds of immigrants. The Jerseys were peopled with the discontented and persecuted from other colonies and lands overseas. This mixture of Puritans, Dutch, Quakers and Scotch Presbyterians constituted a prosperous agricultural colony. It was kept free from Indian molestation by the policy of paying the natives for the land and by general fair dealings. After buying their farms from the Indians the settlers considered themselves the owners and objected to paying rents to the proprietors. In order to settle the dis- pute, the whole territory was purchased by the Crown in 1702 and reunited into a single royal province. New York is hard to govern. — New York had a stormy lime from the start. The duke found his Dutch colonists sul- len and defiant. Differing in speech, manners and cus- toms they resented English rule as much as they dared. The gov- ernor and council found them so dif- ficult to manage that the proprietor had to consent to a popular assembly. In 1685 the Duke of York became king of England and thus New York came under the direct rule of the Crown. Then the assembly was abolished and the Church of England took charge of the excellent schools which the Dutch had established. Troubles with New England. — The New Haven Colony was harboring some of the regicides — members of Parlia- 1' rom an old print New York in 1687, Showing the City Hall and Great Dock 76 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ment who had voted for the execution of Charles I. As punishment Charles II annexed it to Connecticut, which had already won the royal favor by applying for a charter. For Rhode Island, too, Charles had a kindly feeling, as he re- sented the harsh attitude assumed toward the colony by its Puritan neighbors. To both Connecticut and Rhode Island the king granted very liberal charters, which allowed them to elect their own governors and did not require that the acts of their assemblies be submitted for royal approval. Since Charles did not consider the Massachusetts people submissive enough to the royal authority, he sent over com- missioners to make them "more conformable" by taking the oath of allegiance. He also demanded the repeal of their law requiring one to belong to the Congregational church in order to vote, and the enactment of another permitting the Church of England to hold services in the colony. Instead of receiving the commissioners courteously, the Massachusetts people put their forts in trim and defiantly informed the gentlemen that the colony was empowered, by its charter, to safeguard its own rights, and was not obliged to listen to any royal commission. Such defiance on the part of his subjects only stiffened the king's determination. He resolved to sub- due them, but went about it cautiously. Under the pretense of conciliation an agent was sent to find out whether Massa- chusetts was strong enough to declare independence of the Crown. Receiving a satisfactory report from him, Charles, now that his war with Holland was over, revoked the Massachusetts charter and made the colony a royal province shortly before his death in 1684. The next year, as the first step in his plan for centralizing the government of the colonies, James 11 revoked the char- ters of Rhode Island and Connecticut and appointed Sir Edmund Andros viceroy of New England, New York and New Jersey. Andros believed it to be the duty of subjects to serve their sovereign and obey his laws. When he under- POLITICAL UPHEAVALS IN ENGLAND 11 took to carry out the king's commands and prevent the as- sembhes from meeting and levying taxes, the colonists cried "Tyrant !" They were on the point of rebellion when news came that James had been deposed and William and Mary had ascended the throne. In their wrath the Massachusetts people arrested Andros and sent him to England, there to be tried on charges preferred by the General Court. To conciliate them a new charter was granted uniting Massachusetts, Plymouth and Maine. New Hampshire was made a separate colony. There was more royal restraint, however, than formerly. Judges were appointed by the Crown now, in addition to the governor, lieutenant-governor and secretary. The governor was authorized to set aside the acts of the General Court. It is probable, nevertheless, that more than once the governors sacrificed their sovereign's interests to satisfy the representatives of his unruly sub- jects, who controlled the purse strings and thus their own salaries. William Penn and the Quakers. — The sect known as "The Society of Friends," or Quakers, came into promi- nence during the Commonwealth. Its members believed that God speaks directly to the human conscience and that this inner voice must be obeyed. Their meetings were informal gatherings, where men and women alike were free to speak as the spirit might move them. Quakers were very out- spoken in their criticism of both Puritans and the Church of England. Ministers and ceremonies were denounced as a hindrance to true religion. Their disregard of worldly fash- ion was shown in plainness of dress, manners and speech. Believing all men to be equal, the Quaker refused to bow or dofif his hat, and addressed every one as "Friend" with- out distinction of title. He endured imprisonment and torture, and in England and Massachusetts some even died for their faith. William Penn, the son of an English admiral, became a 78 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Quaker while a student at Ox- ford. From his father Penn inherited the king's note for sixteen thousand pounds. Knowing that Charles would never pay the money, Penn asked him for the land in America which lay between New York and Maryland. His request was granted and the tract was named Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods) by Charles himself, in memory of his dear friend, the admiral. In the charter Penn was made sole owner on condition that he should give the king one-fifth of all gold and silver found and send His Majesty two beaver skins every New Year's Day as an evidence of fealty. Desiring to control the Delaware to its mouth, Penn in- William Penn Tlie Pliihuleli>lii,i Juuu House aboui 1698 POLITICAL UPHEAVALS IN ENGLAND 79 duced the Duke of York to give him what had been New- Sweden and was claimed by him as part of New York. These "three lower counties on the Delaware" became a part of Pennsylvania, but with a separate assembly and deputy governor. In 1704, however, they were made a dis- tinct colony and given the name Delaware. Founding of Philadelphia. — William Penn immedi- ately set about his project of founding a refuge for Quakers and all mankind. Pie first landed in Pennsylvania in 1683 with a company of one hundred. He was met by a delega- tion of Swedes, Dutch and English already inhabiting his province. "They did deliver unto him, one turf with a twig uj)on it, a jiorringer with river water, and soil," in token that he owned the land. That same year he laid out Philadelphia, the "City of Brotherly Love," at the junction of the Dela- ware and Schuylkill Rivers. True to his Quaker principles, Penn recognized the rights of the Indians. In 1683 he met with them in council for the purchase of land for his settlements. The ceremony was in Indian style, with feasting, speech-making, the smoking of , '■^^W'""" Wftr iiJU^iiit t ^^ " ' ''■--- ^'MX0^M L m ■lei kl ^ ^^ ^^MS Wy K- ^S P ^J ^iQkJ^TTB^^^MW •! ■- w -■^ / • 1 1^ '11 M^^ml^VSi ^v^r^[^^H -^'d ^ ';plji| fi'-^^t '^S'V i .#. mLwi 0^^ f?>t* • ■■ • i Im^' -1 E^ ^ •-'4: William Perm Holding a Cuimcil with tlic Indians 80 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY a peace pipe and the gift to Penn of a belt of wampum. The treaty of peace and friendship made here was never sworn to, but it was so faithfully kept that the Quakers and these Indians were lasting friends. The Great Law. — The first assembly of Pennsylvania enacted the "Great Law." This provided that any taxpayer might vote and any Christian might hold ofifice. Treason and MASON^nd DIXON S LINE LINE CLAIMED BY MARYLAND The Boundary Dispute between the Penn and Baltimore Heirs Mason and Dixon's northern line (36° 30') later came to be regarded the northern limit of slavery murder were the only crimes punishable with death. Pro- fanity, drunkenness, gambling, lying, clamorous scolding and railing with the tongue, attending "stage plays" and cruel sports carried heavy penalties. No one was to be dis- turbed in his worship and church attendance was not re- quired. A far-sighted philanthropy was shown in the re- quirement that each child above twelve years should learn some trade or useful occujxition, and also in the provision for the refornintion of criminals. Growth of Pennsylvania. — Three thousand people came POLITICAL UPHEAVALS IN ENGLAND 81 to Pennsylvania in 1684. Never before had a colony been so widely advertised both in England and on the Continent. Oppressed peoples came from remote parts of Europe — Germans fled thither from religious persecution, Scotch- Irish to escape the extortionate taxes of Ireland, and Jews to find at last a home. At the close of the first year Phila- delphia had one hundred fifty-seven dwellings, and within three years at least two thousand inhabitants. After two years the proprietor returned to England. Then disagreements arose among the various nationalities in Pennsylvania. There was resistance to taxation and to the rulings of the governor, who frequently vetoed acts of the assembly. Trouble arose, too, with Maryland over the boundary, for the Baltimores claimed much of southern Pennsylvania and all of Delaware. This matter was not finally settled until 1767, when two English surveyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, established the line which has since been known as "Mason and Dixon's Line." Questions and Directions for Reading and Study L In the days of the EngHsh Colonies what happened in the mother or parent nation had its efiFect in the colony in the New World. For example, during the years from 1629-1640 Charles I, who hated the Puritans, ruled England most auto- cratically. Consequently, large numbers of Puritans left Eng- land and souglit homes in America. Similarly, during the pe- riod extending from 1650 to 1660, when the Puritans or "Round- heads" ruled England through the iron hand of their leader, Oliver Cromwell, large numbers of the late king's followers or "Cavaliers" left England and found homes in America. Study the effect of the Puritan migration in the development of the New England Colonies, and the Cavalier migration in the development of Virginia. 2. People of many European nationalities settled in the Carolinas. Why did these people leave Europe, and why did they migrate to the Carolinas instead of New England and Virginia? Why was the Carolina settlement divided into two provinces? R2 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY .1. "Why did England make war on Holland about the middle of the seventeenth centurj'? What was the effect of the war in America ? 4 Ilo\v do you explain the fact that the colonies of East and West Jersey (now New Jersej-) attracted immigrants from so many different European nations? How did the settlers in the Jer- seys avoid Indian troubles? 5. Write in j'our note-book some of the religious beliefs and social and religious practises of the Quakers. In which colonies did they settle? 6 Describe the founding of the city of Philadelphia. State clearly why William Penn got along so well with the Indians. 7. What were some of the important laws made in Pennsjdvania by the first assembly of the colony? Which colony gave more religious freedom, Pennsylvania or Massachusetts? Pennsyl- vania or New York? Pennsylvania or Maryland? Pennsyl- vania or Virginia? 8. Name three religious sects which did not indulge in religious persecution in colonial times. What is meant by the Mason and Dixon Line? SUBJECTS FOR KURTHKR STUDY 1. Oliver Cromwell and his army. 2. The regicide judges in New England. 3. William Penn, his life and work. REFERENCES 1. Eggleston's Our First Century, Chapters XIII and XIV. 2. Southworth's Builders of Our Country, pp. 187-196. 3. Fiske's Dutch and Quaker Colonies, Vol. II, pp. 114-117, 147-152. iiiiijiijifiiiiiiiiii I TTTTTmTTnWWJTTTTTOTTTn MlJIIIIIIllJlllti. lltllllie (lUIUHCUIKH I I EI II imiiiuKiiti r (t Ill i( iiiiicimcciii tit III II itci II itimmtiti r iiii iiiiitUDci c v icii mil (I iiKiKiiiit r icui itcnimic c iiiimmi ti miaiuic i imii HiniiiitcK I ciiiiiicdi I ctiKiiuiiii I i.u(iiiiHictiincicct( d ■uiuiiiiii tllllUI'ClCI t ItlKIKltl t ItlliUUm 1 I IIUIIKUICUKUDllO D nillllKUH iniiitcnici ( iiiiiincii i iiitiKuci i i iiuHtuiumiiiini i [niiiittiKti !imi I llimilll I IHHHiUlUUHHUl C uiV, lIKHttU Wampum Belt given Penn by the Indians to Confirm the Treaty Made with Him CHAPTER VIII FRENCH DOMINATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI BASIN Indifference of the Spanish and English. — Spain made no attempt to follow up the discoveries of De Soto in the Mississippi Valley. The expedition had failed to reveal any gold or silver and consequently the Spaniards had no fur- ther interest in the country. It is not unlikely that the ex- istence of the great river was forgotten. For half a century Mission of San Jose near San Antonio, Texas Spain was content with a single settlement in what is now our country, St. Augustine. This garrison defended her claims to the mainland and protected her island empire to the south. Later when the Roman Catholic church had become established in Mexico, its missionaries started to spread its influence northward. Over mountains and across deserts 83 84 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY they made their way planting mission stations that the sav- ages of the wilderness might be won to the "Holy Faith." By the middle of the seventeenth century Spanish priests were settled in a hundred places in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California and had made a hundred thousand Indian converts. When the English began to colonize America they be- lieved the continent to be no more than a few hundred miles wide. Sir Francis Drake's voyaging along the Pacific coast should have corrected this mistake, but knowledge spread slowly in those days. The early settlements were made along the Atlantic coast or close to tide-water. As late as 1689 but few colonists lived more than twenty miles distant from navigable streams. Everywhere except in central New York mountains closed the western wilderness against exploration. Guarded by the forbidding Appalachians and the hostile Iroquois, the Great Mississippi basin seemed secure from intrusion. After attempts to discover the Northwest Passage had proved fu- tile few were bold enough to try to find out what might be beyond the densely forested momitain barriers. What spirit of adventure there was came from the south. In 1650 a man named Bland crossed the moimtains near Appomattox and journeyed on to the Shenandoah River. A little later two other Virginians crossed the divide to the head waters of the New River, and in 1675 fur-traders reached the Chero- kee regions of Carolina. The Jesuit missionaries. — France was Roman Catholic, and her kings were ambitious to help spread the Christian faith among the savages of America. Throughout New France the fur-traders were followed closely by the "black gowns," as the Indians called the Jesuit missionaries. All through the forests these brave priests sought out Indian villages wdiere they might build chapels for worship. By precept and example they won thousands to the Church. FRENCH DOMIXATIOX OF MISSISSIPPI BASIN 85 Their work as pioneers was one of great service, for not only did they explore vast areas of what is now the Middle West, but around many of their chapels in time grew little settlements destined to become some of the great cities of our country. Marquette explores the Mississippi. — Father Marquette had built his chapel on the Strait of Mackinac, which con- nects Lake Huron with Lake Michigan. Having been told by the Indians of a great river to the southwest, he resolved to visit it and preach to the natives along the way. In 1673 he set out, accompanied by Louis Joliet, a trained explorer from Quebec, and a few other Frenchmen. Paddling their canoes along the northern shore of Lake Michi- gan and through Green Bay, they passed into the Fox River, and ascended it to its source. They then crossed over to the Wisconsin River by an Indian portage and floated down that stream to where it enters the Mississippi. Near where Prai- rie du Chien, Wisconsin, now stands they first looked upon the "Father of Waters" as it wound its way between forested banks towering far above them. Dangers lurked in treach- erous currents that threatened to upset their canoes, and skulking savages were ever ready to pounce upon them. When he reached the mouth of the Arkansas, Marquette learned that the river flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and that a Spanish expedition was exploring the shores near its mouth. Fearful lest he might encounter it should he go farther, Marquette turned about. The little fleet of canoes finally reached Lake Michigan by way of the Illinois River and the portage now followed by the Chicago Drainage Canal. Father Marquette on His Trip clown the Mississippi 86 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY La Salle's explorations. — Of all gallant explorers, Rob- ert Cavelier Sieur de la Salle's name stands highest in the history of New France. In early manhood he crossed the Atlantic and was soon engaged in the fur trade and in ex- tending the dominions in America of Louis XIV, his king. He was the first Frenchman to sail the waters of Lake Erie and penetrate the wilds to the south, where dwelt the hostile Five Nations. Learning of a great river to the westward which he thought might be the Colorado, he resolved to go in search of it. The king gave La Salle permission to explore the interior of America and to take possession in His Maj- esty's name of any regions dis- covered. He did not finance the ex- pedition, however ; La Salle had to defray his own expenses by trapping and trading. La Salle's associates, Hennepin and Tonti. — Among his associates in the venture were Father Hennepin, a Franciscan missionary, and Flenry de Tonti. The company started from the St. Lawrence and followed, to the Missis- sippi, the same route by which Marquette had returned. Progress was necessarily slow, as trading-posts had to be built along the way and furs collected to exchange for supplies. In 1680 La Salle sent Father Hennepin with two companions to explore the head waters of the Mississippi. They got as far as the Falls of St. Anthony near the present site of Minneapolis. Here they were captured by Indians, but later rescued by Duluth, a fur-trader who had a post near where the city of Duluth now stands. Two years later (1682) La Salle reached the delta of the Mississippi. With ceremonies that awed the Indian onlookers he proceeded to Robert Cavelier Sieur de la Salle FRENCH DOMINATION OF MISSISSIPPI BASIN 87 take possession of the entire basin and the adjacent shores of the Gulf of Mexico, in behalf of the "Grand Monarch," Louis XIV of France, and to give the whole territory the name Louisiana. La Salle writes the king. — The king- was greatly- pleased with La Salle's reports, one of which read as fol- low? : "In the rich bottom lands were cornfields and smiling meadows, mulberry trees and grapevines. And a great va- riety of wild fruits grew in the woodlands ; magnificent pine forests offered an inexhaustible supply of naval stores, while lead deposits that would yield two parts ore to one of refuse only- waited the miner's pick. Beaver were rare, but buf- faloes, bears and deer abounded. The trade in peltry alone could be made to yield 20,000 ecus (about $200,000) a year. When the Indians are trained to tend silk worms that in- dustry alone would furnish a valuable article of trade." A few years later Louis, ignoring the fact that the gulf coast was claimed by Spain, aided La Salle to fit out an expedition which was to proceed by sea to the mouth of the Mississippi and there establish a colony. Mistaken in his reckonings, the captain steered past the place as- signed and landed at Matagorda Bay on the Texas coast. From an old print La Salle's Expedition Landing at Matagorda Bay 88 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Dissatisfied with the location, the settlers finally started overland for some French trading-post. On the way their leader was murdered by one of his own men — a pitiable end for such a heroic life. French settlements along the gulf. — Accounts of La Salle's fate were brought back to France and the king was persuaded to make colonization in Louisiana a royal enter- prise. In 1698 two frigates sailed from Brest bearing two hundred soldiers and colonists under the leadership of Iber- ville Le Moyne, the son of a colonial officer at Quebec. Touch- ing at Pensacola they asked permission to land there, alleg- ing that they were looking for vagrant fur-traders harbored along the coast. This request being refused by the Spanish governor, the vessels went on to Ship Island, about eighteen miles southeast of the present Mississippi City, where a few settlers were landed. The main colony was planted on the Back Bay of Biloxi (1698). The site chosen for the settle- ment, called Fort Maurepas, was unfortunate. Disheartened by the unhealthy location and by the difficulty of reaching the back country, many settlers deserted. Three years later a removal was made to Twenty-seven Mile Bluflf on Mobile River, where Fort Louis was built, and again in 1710 to the present site of Mobile. Leaving tHe newcomers building homes at Fort Maurepas, Iberville and his brother, Bien- ville, set out on an exploring trip. They skirted the coast as far as the Mississippi and then ascended that stream to where it receives the waters of the Red River. On this trip they encountered an English frigate from Carolina, sent by the proprietors to establish a post which might serve as a safeguard to the interior of their grant. Deceived by the statement that the French were already established in force a few miles above, the commander turned around and sailed away. The place where this happened, eighteen miles below New Orleans, is yet known as English Turn. The Spanish resented the thrusting of a wedge of French FRENCH DOMINATION OF MISSISSIPPI BASIN 89 settlements between Florida and their outpost in what is now Texas, and constantly preyed upon ships from Louisi- ana. In retaliation the French attacked and captured Pen- sacola twice. Settlement of the Mississippi Valley. — The French be- gan the settlement of the Mississippi Valley at two widely separated points at about the same time, with a prospect of Sugar Making in Louisiana about 1720 commerce with the Spanish in the Southwest and to guard the approach to the vast regions claimed by France. The fertile prairies of southern Illinois were fast being settled with farmers from the St. Lawrence region. Kaskaskia and Cahokia were becoming the centers of a wheat-growing region so productive that it was called the "Garden of New France." Farther south Bienville, in 1717, founded New Orleans, which soon became the seat of government for all settlements below the Ohio River, and the metropolis of the Mississippi Valley. By 1721 the population numbered five thousand whites and two thousand negroes. France first in the heart of the New World. — France 90 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY had forestalled England in the heart of the New World. Like links in a chain French forts stretched from the St. Lawrence, along the Great Lakes and down the Mississippi New Orleans in 1719 From an old print to the Gulf. The English were hemmed in between the At- lantic and the Appalachians before the colonists knew what rich lands lay just over the mountains beyond their frontier settlements. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Why did not Spain follow up the discoveries of De Soto in the Mississippi Valley? Where and when was the first permanent Spanish settlement made in what is now the United States? What was the chief interest of the Spanish in the New World ? 2. Why did not the English explore the Mississippi Valley and plant settlements there before the French came? Do you know why the Iroquois Indians were friendly to the French and hostile to the English? 3. Write in your note-book a description of the; explorations of Marquette in the Mississippi Valley. Write also an account of the intrepid T.a Salle. 4. Draw a map in your note-book, sketching the early French route from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi. In general the French explorers got along with the Indians better than the English did. Why? FRENCH DOMINATION OF MISSISSIPPI BASIN 91 5. State clearly the chief differences between the motives and pur- poses of the Frenchmen and the Englishmen in planting set- tlements in the New World. 6. What was the basis of the French claim to Louisiana? What parts of the present United States did Louisiana embrace in its greatest extent? 7. When was the city of New Orleans founded, and by whom ? Your text states that the French began the settlement of the Mississippi Valley at two widely separated points. What were these points, and why was this plan followed? 8. How do you account for the fact that France forestalled Eng- land in the heart of the New World? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The lives of the following men: Clianiplain, Joliet, Marquette. La Salle, Bienville. 2. The founding of New Orleans. REFERENCES 1. McMurry's P{o)u'crs of the jfisstssippi Valley , Chapters I and II. 2. Baldwin's The Discovery of the Old Northwest, pp. 131-180. 3. Hart's Source Book, pp. 96-98. 4. Parkman's La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West, pp. 40-46. 51, 64, 73-74, 201-221, 275-288, 396-408. Note. The teacher will find Parkman a veritable treasure house of in- formation on the events of this chapter. Coins Made in 1721 for the French Colonies CHAPTER IX ENGLAND'S EUROPEAN WARS AND HER AMERICAN COLONIES Traditional enmity of England for France. — England to-day has a single possession in Europe — Gibraltar, the rocky promontory near the tip end of the Spanish peninsula. For centuries before the time of Elizabeth, English kings had possessed provinces in France, and the French sov- ereigns were continually striving to wrest these lands from them. During the reign of Queen Mary (Elizabeth's prede- cessor) the French had seized England's last foothold — Calais on the Strait of Dover. Wrath and shame over these losses grew into such bitter hatred that for two centuries England regarded France as her natural enemy. Since the dwindling of Spanish power following the de- feat of the "Invincible Armada," France had become the richest and most powerful nation of Europe. By the close of the seventeenth century not only had she hewn out an empire for herself in America, as we have seen, but also was developing valuable colonies in other parts of the world. The balance of power. — From the time the Dutch se- cured their independence (1648) to the downfall of Napoleon (1815), Europe was involved in a series of wars most of which were occasioned by an effort to preserve the "balance of power." Whenever a nation becomes so powerful as to threaten the independence of its neighbors, the latter natur- ally form an alliance for self-protection. The checking of the power of the mightier nation by this alliance so that it is no longer a menace to their independence is called restoring the l)alance of power. 92 ENGLAND'S EUROPEAN WARS 93 During the reign of Charles II, Holland was invaded by Louis XIV, King of France. The brave young prince, Will- iam of Orange, persuaded the Dutch to cut the dikes and flood the country. After he had saved his country. Prince William, in order to preserve the balance of power, formed the Grand Alliance of Holland, Spain, Sweden, Denmark and other powers against Louis. England was expected to join, but was prevented by Charles, who was secretly paid by the French king to make war on Holland. The "glorious revolution." — James II was a foolish tyrant and a Roman Catholic. His subjects were greatly aroused by his efforts to rule independent of Parliament, and to restore Catholic worship. In an effort to gain their support he proclaimed an edict setting aside all laws against Dissenters and Roman Catholics, thus putting an end to re- ligious persecution in England. But the nation would not bear the rule of such a tyrant. Before he had been on the throne three years leading men besought Prince William to come over from Llolland with his army and save England. Deserted by his forces, soon after William arrived in England James fled to France. Parliament then declared the throne vacant, and insisted that as representatives of the people it should decide who the sovereign should be. The crown was oft'ered to Prince William and to Mary, his wife, and in 1689 they became joint sovereigns of England. King William's War. — Louis XIV not only harbored James in France, but later assisted him in an attempt to re- gain his throne. This furnished England, in 1689, an ex- cuse for joining the Grand Alliance and declaring war on France. As loyal subjects and having a personal grievance against New France growing out of boundary disputes, the English in America took up the fight. A New England fleet raided the coast of Acadia and cap- tured Port Royal (now Annapolis Royal). New England merchants fitted out armed vessels called privateers, to 94 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY which the colonial governors issued "letters of marque" permitting them to prey on the enemy's commerce. The French, with the aid of their Indian allies, attacked and burned frontier settle- ments in New York, New Hampshire and Massachusetts. After both France and England had sustained several severe defeats in Europe, the war was concluded by the Treaty of Ryswick (1697), in which Louis recognized William's and Mary's right to the English throne, and the English returned Port Royal to France. Queen Anne's War. Cape Breton Is Louisburg Halifax Scale of miles — William and Louis Acadia and Cape Breton Island both regarded the Peace of Ryswick as merely a truce. On the death of the child- less king of Spain, a grandson of Louis fell heir to the throne. Louis now proceeded to proclaim that France would be treated as the most favored nation in its relations with the Spanish-American colonies, which meant that French merchants and sea captains would enjoy privileges not shared by their English and Dutch competitors. A final occasion for war was added when Louis took up the cause of the Pretender. The son of James II was so called be- cause many believed that he was only an adopted or pre- tended son. The story ran that James, hated by his people, had adopted an infant smuggled into the palace, in the hope of winning favor for the sake of the little prince. Louis ENGLAND'S EUROPEAN WARS 95 recognized this prince, on the death of James II, as the lawful heir to the EngHsh throne. WilHam was preparing for war when death overtook him and Queen Anne began her rule. The conflict was not long delayed. Known as the "War of the Spanish Succession," it raged from 1702 to 1713. In America the colonists raided and plundered one another's settlements as before. Port Royal and the adjacent Acadian coast were seized by the English ; the South Carolinians tried From an old print Port Royal The old fortress is now preserved as a Canadian national park to take St. Augustine and the Spaniards attacked Charles- ton ; bands of French and Indians again burned and mas- sacred along the frontier. After France and Spain had been beaten on many battle-fields, the war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Utrecht. The Spanish king re- tained his throne, but France ceded to England Acadia (which now became Nova Scotia), Newfoundland and any claim she had to the Hudson Bay region. The accession of George I. — The death of Queen Anne (1714) was an event of much importance to the English. Seven years before England and Scotland had joined to form the "United Kingdom of Great Britain," and it had 96 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY been settled that the crown was to descend to the German princess, Sophia of Hanover, granddaughter of James I, and to her heirs, if Protestant. There were now two parties in England, the Tories or Conservatives and the Whigs or Liberals. The Tories fa- vored the claims of the Pretender, while the Whigs sup- ported the "Act of Succession." The Whigs won, for since the Pretender was a Roman Catholic, he was ineligible. The crown was accordingly bestowed on Sophia's son, George I. The new king had never learned to speak the English language, nor did he take the trouble to learn it during the thirteen years he ruled England. The result was that he was compelled to govern through ministers and to content himself with signing such papers as were placed before him by them. Since Parliament levied the taxes, it controlled the nation's purse strings, and could indirectly block any legislation proposed by the king. It was during George's reign that the policy was adopted of selecting the ministers from the party which happened to be in the majority in Parliament. This in reality made the government respon- sible to Parliament instead of the king. The settlement of Georgia. — Between the Savannah River and Florida was a stretch of unsettled land. Spain still claimed the region and was using it to rob the Caro- linians of much of their trade with the Indians in the back- country. King George, however, regarded it as the prop- erty of the English Crown, and bestowed on it the name Georgia, in honor of himself. England still imprisoned persons for debt and often kept them in jail for years while their families suffered. James Oglethorpe, a kind-hearted member of Parliament, induced that body to investigate the condition of the poor of the kingdom. He conceived the idea of founding a colony in America where these unfortunates might begin life anew, and persuaded many noblemen and clergymen to subscribe i:x(;l„\xi)'s 1':l"Ropkax wars 97 Oglethorpe to tlie project. A charier was secured from the king, grant- ing to him and his associates as "trustees for estabhshing the colony of Georgia in xA.merica" all the territory lying be- tween the Altamaha and Savannah Rivers and extending westward from their head waters to the South Sea. Object of the colony of Georgia. — The prime object was to give re- lief to the king's poor subjects ; Oglethorpe showed, how^ever, there would be an advantage to the king- dom in the location of this colon}-. As a frontier settlement it could ])rotect the Carolinas from hostile Indians and from runaway slaves who frequently were armed by the Spaniards and sent to attack outly- ing plantations. The charter prohibited negro slavery and the sale of rum. Small farms were encouraged and landholding limited to five hundred acres. The colonists were to have no part in the government for twenty-one years. .\11 religions except the Roman Catholic were to be tolerated. Character of the Georgia colonists. — In 1733 Ogle- thorpe brought over thirty-five families and founded a set- tlement near the mouth of the Savannah River to which was given the name Savannah. Friendly relations were established with the Indians from whom Oglethorpe pur- chased a large tract of land. Unthrifty by nature.' the debtors made poor colonists. The next year, however, the trustees sent over some persecuted Austrian Protestants, who located at Ebenezer, and this became a prosperous set- tlement. The fertile soil attracted other Austrians, as well as a considerable number of Scotch Highlanders, who set- tled near the Spanish border, and a few Jews and Swiss. 98 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY The proprietors had intended the colonists to devote themselves to vine growing and silk-worm culture, so that a part of the wine and silk England consumed might be ob- tained from within the Empire. As these industries did not prove as profitable as had been hoped, the colonists soon drifted into rice growing. Belief that white labor could not endure the rice swamps caused a demand for the removal of 1 rum an old pi mt Savannah about 1740 the restrictions against slavery. So great was the dissatis- faction of his colonists that Oglethorpe in disgust returned to England. Later this restriction, as well as others which were objectionable, was repealed, and Georgia became a region of large estates worked by slaves. In 1752 the trustees surrendered their charter and the colony was made a royal province. King George's War. — In 1740 there were two claim- ants to the Austrian throne, and to preserve the balance of power the nations of Europe settled the succession by war. As on previous occasions, England was opposed by France and Spain. After five years the "War of the Austrian Sue- EUROPEAN POSSESSIONS \ , .;V EASTERN' NORTH AMERICA. > / 'y- \ at tkd Outbreak of the Frenck Wr \ ,-'' "^ nncJ Indian V 111- -l/SS jC ' /• ^ ^ - '^. V— r^ J^ ENGLAND'S EUROPEAN WARS 99 cession" spread to America. Daring New England militia- men landed on the rocky shore of Cape Breton Island and aided by a British fleet captured Louisburg. This fortress, which was considered impregnable, guarded the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the great river beyond. To the chagrin of the colonists, their hard-won prize was re- stored to France by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle three years later (1748). Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. What was meant in Europe by the phrase "balance of power"? Has the Great War of 1914-1918 upset the balance of power theory? Explain your answer. 2. What was the twofold purpose of Oglethorpe in planting the English colony of Georgia? Oglethorpe's charter prohibited negro slavery and the importation of rum. Why was Ogle- thorpe's opposition to rum and slavery unpopular? 3. Was religious tolerance practised in the Georgia colony? Prove your answer. State the ways in which the settlement of Georgia differed from that of the other Southern Colonies. 4- Prepare in your note-book a table of the thirteen English col- onies in America, using the following outline: (a) name of colony; (b) date of settlement; (c) place of settlement; (d) by whom settled; (e) original form of government. How many years elapsed between the settlement at Jamestown and the settlement at Savannah ? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Revolution that placed William and Mary on the English throne is called the Glorious Revolution. Find as many rea- sons as you can why it is so called. 2. James Oglethorpe, the man and his work. REFERENCES 1. Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, Vol. II, pp. 308-316, 322-324, 333-336. 2. Fiske's History of the United States, Chapter IX. (To the teacher : This chapter in Fiske's is valuable because it focal- izes the attention of the pupil on the salient points of the struggle between England and France which lasted for three- quarters of a century.) CHAPTER X THE DOWNFALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA Causes of the Seven Years' War. — Although the real cause of England's part in the War of the Austrian Suc- cession had been jealousy of the growing importance of the French colonies and commercial rivalry, the peace of Aix- la-Chapelle left these questions unsettled. Spain in the decline of her power could barely hold what colonies she had. and England and France were free to struggle for what Avas left in America. Greater yet were the opportunities in India. This country had recently broken u]) into small states and the French,' in hope of securing ad- vantage for themselves, were in- citing quarrels and petty wars among the native rulers. In one of these the Bengalese went so far as to raid the British trad- ing-])0st at Calcutta. They cap- tured one hundred and forty-six prisoners, who were cast into a prison called the "Black Hole." Crowded into a space not more than twenty feet square, the next morning twenty-three were 100 Obelisk Marking tlic Site of the Black Hole of Calcutta THE DOWNFALL OF FRANClr: IN AMERICA 101 barely able to crawl fordi. fhc otbers had died from suffo- cation. Great was the wrath of the British for the French ! In America the English had kept to the seaboard, while the French had roamed the interior. England claimed the country clear to the Pacific, and several colonial charters read, "Westward to the South Sea." France, on the other hand, not only claimed the Mississippi Basin, but also the northern part of New England and much of western New York, Penn- d sylvania and Mary- f 11 ^'^' land. r Rivalry in the 4 Ohio Valley. — By | ^ the middle of the \ eighteenth century \ ■ the more adventur- \^: ous of the English colonists were mak- ing their way through the passes -^, in the Appalachians ^"-^ . *' - \^.' to the region be- f"' ''■-■-. vond. The colonial I authorities encour- \ aged them to make : settlements in the | • ''wildernesses of the i Dark Country," as a protection against the Indians. France was alarmed by this "invasion," as she ^ r .1 t j -ni t^ • 1 , One of the Leaden Plates Buried by termed it, of the Celoron de Bienville in 1749 102 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Ohio Valley. And well might she be, for were the advances to continue. New PVance would be split in two by an English wedge, and the direct route from the St. Lawrence to Lou- isiana would be cut off. In 1749 the governor of New France sent out an expedi- tion headed by Celoron de Bienville to take formal posses- sion of the whole valley. He was to bury small leaden plates inscribed with the French coat-of-arms all along his route and to warn off all trespassers. Not an English settler withdrew, but some London merchants and Vir- ginian gentlemen immediate- ly formed the "Ohio Com- pany." Their purpose was to found a colony in the northern part of the valley, and to protect it they pro- posed to build a fort at the so-called "forks of the Ohio," where Pittsburgh now stands. To enforce their claims the French began the con- a chain of small Lake Erie to of the Ohio" Scale of miles struction of forts from the "forks (1753). War begins in America. — Aroused by this bold in- trusion of the French on lands included in the grant to Vir- ginia, Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, was instructed to make a formal protest. In November, 1753, he despatched a letter to the commandant at Fort Le Boeuf demanding that French Posts between Lake Ontario and the "Forks of the Ohio" THE DOWNFALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA 103 the French forces be withdrawn at once from the Ohio coun- try. As messenger, a young Virginia surveyor named George Washington was employed. Though but twenty-one years old, Washington was selected because he was known to be clear-headed, fearless and experienced in the ways of the wilderness. With a half-dozen leather-clad companions he started. By the time he reached the mountains winter had set in, and several weeks' hard tramping through snow were required before they reached their destination, one hun- dred twenty miles north of the "Forks." Although he was treated with courtesy by the commandant, Washington bore back to Governor Dinwiddie a curt denial of Virginia's claims to the Ohio country, and a refusal to vacate the region. Early the next spring men were sent from Virginia to build the proposed fort at the "Forks" ; but the French drove them away and completed the work for themselves, naming it Fort Duquesne. Washington was on the way with a hundred and fifty militiamen to garrison it when news of the disaster reached him. He halted in a little valley in the mountains called Great Meadows and threw up entrenchments. Here he was soon attacked and forced to surrender. This little skirmish, wholly a local affair and taking place while the two nations were at peace, was the first encounter between the French and English in the Seven Years' \\'ar, one of the most momentous struggles of modern times. The Albany congress. — Although throughout the whole of colonial history the colonists were very jealous of their own rights and constantly quarreling with their neighbors over alleged infringements, there were times when common danger forced them to consider some kind of union. As far back as 1643 the four colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Ply- mouth, New Haven and Connecticut, had formed a confed- eration called the "United Colonies of New England," for mutual protection against the Dutch on the south, the In- dians on the west, the French on the north and their own 104 OUR COUNTRVS HISTORY king. This confederation lasted for over forty years and did much to carry New England successfully through the great Indian uprisings of 1675-1677, which ended with the death of King Philip and the establishment of English supremacy throughout that region. When the colonists saw, in 1754, that war was imminent and understood its significance — whether the eighty-five thousand settlers of New France or the million and a half English colonists were to determine the future of America — they felt the need of concerted action. A con- gress was called to meet at Al- l)any for the purpose of devising means to secure the cooperation of the Indians. Benjamin Frank- lin, editor of the Pennsylvania Gazette, was one of its members. For some time Franklin had been trying to arouse the people to the need of union, and only recently had illustrated an article in his paper by a drawing of a snake cut into pieces, each representing a colony. Underneath was the motto, UNITE OR DIE. Franklin drafted a plan of union and the congress adopted it. When submitted to the colonies for ratification it was rejected on the ground that it was not sufficiently demo- cratic; George II refused his approval, because, as he said, "It is but a stepping stone to the independence of the col- onies." Beginning of the French and Indian War. — Two years later (1756) the Seven Years' War was declared. Austria, Russia, France and Saxony were pitted against Prussia and Benjamin Franklin THE DOWNFALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA 105 England. In America the conflict was called the French and Indian War, and was fought out in colonial fashion. The pioneers were defending their homes regardless of what might be lost or won in Europe, on the seas and in far-away India. In 1755 General Braddock, a brave but conceited officer, was sent over with a force of British troops to take com- mand and drive the French out of the Ohio Valley. He set out from Alexandria with several hundred British regulars, two hundred Virginia militiamen commanded by George Washington and a few loyal Indians. The narrow road they cut through the forest may yet be traced in some places. When almost in sight of Fort Duquesne the company was attacked from ambush in a ravine by the French and their Algonquin allies. Washington had counseled Brad- dock to have his men dodge behind trees and rocks when attacked in the wilderness. The British general scorned any such tactics and ordered his soldiers to fight in the open and in close formation. The savages fell upon them with such fury that many were killed and Braddock himself was borne away mortally wounded. The steady nerve and coolness of W^ashington and his "raw militiamen" saved the remnant in retreat. In waiting his mother of this fight, he said : "Luckily I escaped without a wound, though I had four bullet holes in my coat and two horses shot under me." The exile of the Acadians. — Although France had ceded Acadia to Great Britain at the close of Queen Anne's War, the French inhabitants had not become reconciled to their new government and refused to take the oath of al- legiance. Fearing a general uprising, or at least that th£ Acadians would give aid to France in the war, the British commander at Halifax decided upon their removal as the safest policy. Over seven thousand of them were ordered 106 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY from their homes, driven aboard ships and scattered among the colonies. Some of the Acadians eventually reached Louisiana, where their descendants yet live. The policy of William Pitt. — The first tw^o years of the Seven Years' War were gloomy ones for England, for, ex- cept upon the sea, her ene- mies were uniformly success- ful. Indignation ran so high that the king was forced to form a new ministry. Will- iam Pitt, an able, self-confi- dent statesman, was ambitious to make England mistress of a world-wide empire of which America would form the most valuable part. He believed that this could be done by men, money and ships, and that "America must be con- quered in Germany." A well- trained and equipped army was sent to America with orders to take every French stronghold. Relying on privateers to sweep the seas clear of French ships, Pitt sent the English men-of-war to block- ade the ports of New France and keep out the supplies that disloyal New England traders otherwise would have sold the enemy. Fall of New France. — W^illiam Pitt roused the fighting spirit of Englishmen everywhere. In America the colonists captured Fort Duquesne and renamed it Fort Pitt, and the same year (1758) saw the destruction of Louisburg by a combined naval and land attack. In 1759 Fort Niagara, the key to the Great Lakes, fell into the hands of the English ; and they seized Crown Point and Fort Ticonderoga, thus William Pitt THE DOWNFALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA 107 gaining control of the route to the St. Lawrence by way of the Hudson and Lake Champlain. Only two more strongholds now remained to the French — Quebec and Montreal. Quebec was considered impreg- nable. It consisted of two parts — one near the river and the other on the summit of an almost perpendicular clifif. The bulk of the fortifications were around the lower town, for the French relied largely on its situation for the defense of The British Soldiers Ascending to the Plains of Abraham the upper. For the reduction of Quebec the British brought up nine thousand troops led by General Wolfe, a skilful and highly trained officer. The French general Montcalm, de- scribed by Wolfe as a "wary old fellow," refused to come out from behind his fortification and fight it out on the plains just below the city. The heights looked inaccessible, but an Indian informed the general of a path up the side of the clifif. One dark night in September the daring commander led four thou- sand picked troops up this steep path to the plateau above 108 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the upper town, which is still called the "Plains of Abra- ham." At daybreak the French were amazed to see far above them the enemy drawn up in battle array. Mont- calm immediately led forth his forces and a fierce battle was begun. Both commanders were mortally wounded. As Gen- eral Wolfe was being borne to the rear one of his officers said, "See them run !" "Who run ?" inquired the general. On being told that the enemy were in flight, he exclaimed. "Now God be praised, I die happy," and fell back dead. Within a few days the great fortress was handed over, and the next year Montreal fell. With the surrender of the small inland posts the whole of New France was under Fnglish control. The effect of the war. — ^Meanwhile a new sovereign had ascended the Spanish throne, and for family reasons had formed an alliance with France against England. The F.nglish retaliated by sending military forces to capture Ha- vana and Manila, the capital of the Philippines. On February 10, 1763, the various warring powers con- cluded a treaty of peace at Paris which, among other things, provided : (1) France should cede to Great Britain Cape Breton Island and all of Canada and that part of Louisiana lying between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Moun- tains. (2) France was to retain that portion of Louisiana west of the Mississippi and New Orleans on its eastern bank. She also retained St. Pierre and JMiquelon, two small islands south of Newfoundland, that her fishermen might have a place to cure their fi.sh. (3) Spain should cede Florida to Great Britain in ex- change for the recently captured cities of Manila and Havana. Before long, however, the Spanish flag flew over New Orleans, for late in 1762 Louisiana had been ceded to Spain by a secret treaty. THE DOWNFALL OF FRANCE IN AMI'.RICA 109 The Treaty of Paris had far-reaching effects. New France had been CathoHc ; now, of course, HIce the other British colonies, it would enjoy religious toleration and be open to settlement by Protestants. The Algonquin Indians would no longer be incited by French officials to raid English frontier settlements, and migration to the Ohio Valley would increase rapidly. The British Government was jubilant. One of the min- isters declared that "the country had never seen so glorious a war or so honorable a peace." One person only — a far- sighted Frenchman, Vergennes — seems to have foreseen the eventual outcome. He wrote : "England will, ere long, re- pent of having removed the only check that could keep her colonies in awe. They no longer stand in need of her pro- tection. She will call upon them to contribute toward sup- porting the burdens they have helped to bring on her ; and they will answer by striking ofif all dependence." Questions and Directions for Reading and Study L The traditional enmity of England for France led her to engage France in four wars, the first three being merely a prelude to the final conflict known as the French and Indian War. Write in you note-book the names of these four intercolonial wars and the dates of each. Write in one column the European name of the war, and in another column the name by which the conflict was known in America. How many years was it from the beginning of the first conflict to the end of the last one? 2. By what right did the English colonies claim possession of the Mississippi Basin? By what right did the French lay claim to possession of the valley? Which claim do you believe was the more reasonable? 3. What was the "Ohio Company" ? What was the purpose of this company? 4. In its greatest extent what part of the present United States did New France embrace? If you desire to know the relative strength of England and France in the final struggle for su- premacy, you will find a good answer in the first volume of Francis Parkman's Montcalm and IVolfc, pp. 5-16. 110 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 5. Relate the story of George Washington's errand for Governor Dinwiddie, of Virginia. Your text states that the Seven Years' War was one of the most momentous struggles of modern times. Find evidence which proves that statement. 6. What was the Albany Congress? Why was not Franklin's plan of union at this congress accepted by King George II? Why was it rejected by the colonies? 7. Why was General Braddock's expedition a failure? Do you be- lieve England did right in scattering the French settlers of Acadia throughout the English colonies? Give reason for your answer. Read Longfellow's poem called "Evangeline." Does this poem present fact or fiction regarding the exile of the Acadians ? 8. Write in your note-book a description of the battle on the "Plains of Abraham" and the fall of Quebec. 9. Learn definitely the terms of the treaty of peace made at Paris which marked the downfall of France in America. What were some of the most important effects of this treaty? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. General Braddock and the lesson to be learned from his life. 2. Indian methods of warfare. REFERENCES 1. Hart's Source Book, pp. 103-107. 2. Hart's Camps and Firesides of the Revolution, pp. 138-141. 3. Parkman's Montcalm and Wolfe, Vol. I, pp. 204-226, 234-284: Vol. 11, pp. 259-297, 408-412. 4. Fiske's New France and New England, pp. 258-278, 279-293, 294- 325, 326-359. England Wins in the Struggle for Supremacy in North America I. The Revolution in England. A. The struggle between the king and Parliament. 1. The Cavaliers and Roundheads have war. 2. The king executed in 1649, and the Common weal'' established. 3. In 1660 Charles II becomes king. B. The effects of the revolution in the colonies. 1. The conquest of New Netherlands. 2. Troubles in New England that resulted from i:yin pathy with the regicides. THE DOWNFALL OF FRANCE IN AMERICA 111 C. The settlement of Pennsylvania. 1. The Quakers came into prominence during tlie Com- monwealth. 2. Their faith. 3. William Penn and his grant. 4. The founding of Philadelphia. 5. The Great Law. II. France Seeks to Dominate the Mississippi Basin. A. The activities of the French Catholics in the New World. B. The French settlements in America. 1. Those on the Great Lakes. 2. Settlements in the Mississippi Valley. 3. Settlements along the Gulf. C. French international law held that she owned all terri- tory drained by the rivers discovered by Frenchmen. II. The European Wars and the Inter-Colonial Wars. A. The struggle between France and England in the Old World. B. The struggle taken up in America. C. King William's War. 1. Frontier settlements attacked. 2. Port Royal captured. 3. The Treaty of Ryswick. D. Queen Anne's War. 1. The Treaty of Utrecht. E. King George's War. 1. Louisburg captured. 2. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. • [V. France Driven Out of America. A. The Seven Years' War. 1. The causes. 2. Braddock's defeat. Washington's advice. 3. The Acadians exiled. 4. The great work of William Pitt. 5. The fall of Quebec. B. The results of the war. 1. The terms of the Treaty of Paris in 1763. CHAPTER XI SOCIAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES Divisions of society. — The early settlers brought their ideas of social distinctions with them from the Old World. Servants were looked down upon because they were ser- vants and, together with the extremely poor and improvi- dent called "poor whites" in the South, were at the bottom of the social scale. Ignorant and often lacking in ambition, they frequently became public charges when not able to work because of sickness, old age, or lack of employment. Above them came the middle class — mechanics, shopkeepers and small farmers. Industrious, thrifty and independent, these were the true pioneers of our country. They toiled long hours that their children might have better opportu- nities than their own had been. At the toj) there was a small class — the "blue-blooded" aristocracy of the colonies. To be- long to it one must have family, education or wealth. Here were found the officials, lawyers, ministers, physicians, the large planters of the South, the patroons of New York, and the great merchants and ship owners of the seacoast towns. No social mingling of classes. — These three classes met one another respectfully in business relations, but there was no social mingling. Intermarriage with a lower class was looked upon as a disgrace. In churches and schools the seat- ing was strictly according to rank. One was expected to act with deference in the presence of his superiors. In rural communities the "common people" frequently remained out- side the church until the "quality folks" were seated. In some of the colonies the titles of "Mr." and "Mrs." were 112 SOCIAL LIFE IX THE COLONIES U3 reserved for the upper classes, and ordinary persons were addressed as "Goodman" and "Goodwife." Home life. — Outside of the towns the buildings were almost entirely of logs. These were hewn from the trunks of trees and notchstl .- "^:^:sr_\ -^............,,. at the ends so as to fit "'::'._"^^^ZTl"^':""~-.i'^ •... together, the chinks between them being filled with a plaster made of mud and straw. With the in- troduction of saw- mills, weather-board- ing was sometimes added to the outside. A Typical Log Cabin The roof was usually of hand-split shingles. Window glass was rarely seen, oiled paper being used instead. Cooking and heating were accomplished by means of a huge fireplace, often occupying the whole side of the kitchen. Washington's Residence at Mount Vernon, Showing Kitchen to the Left and Covered Way Leading to It 114 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY which also served as a general living-room. A roaring fire of six-foot logs made the settler's cabin a place of cheer on a cold winter night. In the Northern and Middle Colonies brick ovens, big enough to hold a dozen pies at one baking, were frequently built over these fireplaces. The residences of the well-to-do in the cities and of the rich planters in the South were of brick, stone, or sawed and planed lumber. They were usually large rectangular houses, two or three stories high, often with hip roof and many small window gables. A wide hall extended from front to back, with doors on each side opening into spacious rooms, filled with massive mahogany furniture, rich carpets, fine cut-glass and wafer-like china, all from over the seas. In the South, where the summers are long, porches and balconies afforded opportunity to enjoy the cool breezes. Home-made furniture. — The ordinary settler made his own "puncheon" furniture. Logs were split into slabs and by the insertion of legs it was easy to make tables, benches and stools. From the smoke-blackened rafters above hung strips of bacon, strings of dried fruit and bunches of savory herbs. Racks and shelves against the wall held the few wooden and pewter dishes. The floors of dirt or rough boards were kept clean by the pioneer housewife, and made more comfortable with braided rag mats. No modern lighting facilities. — The blazing logs in the fireplace gave out enough light for ordinary needs. Fur- ther illumination was secured by means of tallow candles and crude whale-oil lamps. Matches were unknown and the embers were carefully covered with ashes overnight. Should these by chance become extinguished the household was in consternation. If neighbors were near a shovelful of coals could be easily obtained ; but the isolated pioneer family had to fall back on sparks obtained from strik- ing flint with steel and caught by a bit of tinder on the hearth. SOCIAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 115 Dress and social customs, — There was a marked differ- ence in the clothing of the different classes. The poorer persons, especially in the country, had no clothing material except the skins of wild animals and home-made cloth. The men wore leather moccasins and breeches, and flannel shirts fitted closely at the waist and loose enough above to form a ])ocket in which bulky articles could be carried. The middle- class women spun the flaxen thread and woolen yarn and wove them into linen and flannel for the family supply of clothing. Itinerant cobblers came once a year bringing their tools and stayed with the family until shoes enough were made to last another twelve months. The well-to-do vied with one another in the display of the latest London fashions — in their imported linens, laces, silks and velvets. Gaily flowered fabrics were in vogue. The colonial dames wore full skirts distended by wire hoops and flounced and draped with panniers, and narrow high-heeled shoes. Their hair was powdered and sometimes built over wire into a sort of tower on top of the head with clusters of curls over the ears. The correct attire for the gentlemen was a ruftled shirt, long-tailed velvet or satin coat, tight- fitting knee breeches, striped silk stockings, and low shoes with silver buckles. The hair had to be powdered and tied back in a queue under the three-cornered cocked hat of beaver felt. Amusement and entertainment.— Amusements differed greatly in dift'erent colonies. With the exception of the aristocracy of the large cities. New Englanders frowned upon merrymaking. Churchgoing was their principal diver- sion. Instead of card parties and dances the young people had to content themselves with house-raisings, quilting bees, singing schools, sleigh rides and corn-husking parties. The older women had no social life other than an occasional afternoon visit with a neighbor, spent in knitting and gossiping. 116 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY In the Southern Colonies homes were farther apart and entertainment was formal. House-parties where the guests amused themselves by dancing and card playing were com- mon. Fox hunts, horse races, and cock fights also varied the monotony of the planter's idle moments. Hospitality was unstinted. No respectable traveler was refused shelter and food, and more likely than not he was made welcome to the best the house afforded. A Quilting Ree in Colonial Days ■■rom an old print Weddings and funerals were important events. People would come many miles on horseback or afoot to see the bride "ofif" or to follow the dead to the burying-ground. The guests at a New England funeral always sat down to a feast afterward and were presented with such things as gloves, scarfs and rings. The Dutch of New York treated the company to bottles of wine. Shooting matches were popular everywhere. The pio- neers were good marksmen and many prided themselves on their ability to snuff a candle with their flintlock rifles with- out putting out the flame. There were several training days during the year when the men came together and were SOCIAL LIFE IX THE COLONIES 117 trained in the art of war by old soldiers. After the drill, jumping, running, boxing and other athletic contests were held for the amusement of the crowd. Except in Puritan New England, Christmas was a day of merriment, especially among the Dutch, who introduced Santa Claus to delight the children. Thanksgiving Day, al- though celebrated with a long church service, was also a lime of good cheer. The stern Puritan gathered his family about the table loaded with good things to eat and drink — turkey, cranberry sauce, plum pudding, mince and pumpkin pies, nuts and cider — and became festive for once. The assemblies held their sessions during the winter months. This was the social session at the various capitals, and in the Southern Colonies it was customary for the planters to take their families there for the many functions. The ladies planned their costumes for the governor's recep- tion months ahead, as this was the greatest social event of the year and attended with all the pomp and ceremony of old England herself. Colonial religion. — Religious observance was strict in the colonies. In Puritan New England the people had made the venture across the Atlantic to find freedom of worship in the wilderness, and the other provinces had been settled more or less by the persecuted for conscience' sake. The colonial assemblies naturally reflected in their laws the deep religious convictions of the majority of settlers. Church attendance was compulsory in nearly all the colonies at some time in their history. In some there was an "established church" supported by taxes ; in others the ministers were paid by their congregations. Everywhere, but especially in New England, the ministers were highly influential. Be- cause of their education and character, their counsel was sought by even the governors. Five leading Protestant organizations. — In Maryland, Virginia and the Carolinas the established church 118 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY was the Church of England (now Episcopal). In New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Connecticut it was the In- dependent or Congregational. The Congregational ful- filled the Puritan idea of self-government, as each congre- gation controlled its own affairs. In the Middle Colonies the Presbyterian church had most members. Its doc- trine and policy were determined by assemblies composed Interior of the Bruton Parish Church at WilHamsburg, Virginia The large square pew at the left was occupied by the royal governor of ministers and laymen. Two churches — Baptist and Methodist — were important in the settling of the frontier. In America the Baptist first appeared in Rhode Island and spread slowly to other colonies. The Methodist originated in England (1740). Two brothers, John and Charles Wes- ley, having tried vainly for a long time to reform the Church of England, established a new worship called "Methodism" as a means of satisfying the spiritual needs of the great mass of common people. Roman Catholics and Quakers, — Scattered through the SOCIAL LIFK IN THE COLONIES 119 colonies were many other small sects. The Catholics were weak even in Maryland. The Quakers in Rhode Island, Pennsylvania and New Jersey made no effort to increase their numbers. Neither did the Dutch Reformed church in New York. German immigration brought the Mennon- ites, a sect resembling the Quakers in plainness of attire and abhorrence of worldliness. From Austria had come the Moravians, who built their community houses in Pennsyl- vania and sent their brethren into the valleys of the South- west to found settlements and schools. Church service. — The Sabbath Day began at sunset Saturday and lasted twenty-four hours. Shops and inns were kept closed and there was no loitering in the streets. The hours of Sunday were mostly occupied with worship, for there was a morning and afternoon service. The ser- mons often lasted two hours, as ministers took pride in their length. The colonial divines were men of dignity, and the lofty pulpits (seven or eight feet high) from which they spoke H» A Warming-Pan Live coals were put in the jian and llien tin.' cover was shut added to the authority of their words. The straight high- backed pews were without cushions. Churches were not heated and in winter dogs were sometimes brought along to lie at their master's feet and keep them warm. Women and children were kept from freezing by the use of heated bricks and warming-pans containing glowing charcoal. Where slaves were owned, special galleries or seats were set aside for them. 120 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ^'r'rw >ie&£roJ IftiTUVv/MVi The Puritans employed an official to see that the congre- gation kept awake. Armed with a long pole tipped with a rabbit's foot he kept watch and lightly tickled the ear or cheek of any woman or girl who might be falling asleep. Drowsy men and boys were aroused by a tap with the hard end of the pole. Colonial education. — None of the colonies had any free public schools, as we have to-day. Parents who could afford it paid fees for their children. The first school in America was established in 1619 at Henrico City, Virginia, to instruct the Indians. Two years later, a so-called public school was started at Charles City. In Massachusetts, the General Court or- dered (1647) that any town of fifty families should maintain a school, but this law was not strictly enforced. These schools were for boys only ; girls had to depend on the "dame schools," until later when seminaries were founded. In. the South the rich planters em- ployed tutors for their children and when the boys were ready for college they were often sent to the great Eng- lish universities. For this reason and because the settlers lived far apart there were few public schools. Although Governor Berkeley said, "I thank God there are no free schools in Virginia," the clergy were always ready to helji the cause of education. Wherever they could, they gathered together the children of the pio- neers for instruction sufficient to read the Bible and learn the catechism. Colonial schoolhouses. — Colonial schoolhouses were mere log cabins with fireplaces and oiled paper windows. jVtkH>i/bai> mU Mini |*e fc 1(1^ »c 1 1" « tl to I tank Vtmttia^ ndu, «« a nwi OiUitP«.b«.iiihiAtnh |WiUbe i.^n«onE-rfth,«»lun':j |Omi< (rtfp»i» »£/'u;' 01 : *ini j V»» W't [ r It 1 ,'i<^; ■ 1 roiii au old print William and Mary College at Williamsburg, Virginia 122 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY about fourteen years of age to master workmen. These ap- prentices, as they were then called, worked for their board and clothes during the seven years required to learn the trade. Colonial reading matter. — The Bible and a few other religious books constituted the library in the majority of colonial homes. Books were costly, for the type was set by hand and the printing was done on cumbersome presses with which only a few hundred impressions a day could be made. Charleston and a few other cities had libraries, but most of the books were owned by men of wealth and education. William Byrd, of Virginia, had a library of three thousand volumes imported from England, as were most books in colonial days. The New England Primer. — The first printing press in what is now the United States was set up at Harvard College in 1639. On this John Eliot printed his Indian Bible. Eliot was a Puritan minister who devoted his life to Christianizing the savages and reduced their language Timt cuts down all Both great ind fmil)^ Cr»dVxbe9ut(ouiW tfe Made David itc'i tiis Life. Wbalit in the Sra God't Voice obty. X$rx»t the great did die, And to mult you & I. Tautb forwird flips Dcttb foonell -oipk Zacbtut • ht Di4 climb t^e Tret tin Lord to fe«» MR. Jah/i Roiefs^ U'lmRer of tb© Gofpel in London,vfis UMartyr inQ;;W'»'-/sReign, and was burnt nSmhhftli.febru^ tfnvthe foarleentb,tj54HisWJfe. withjiine ftnaUChildien,ana one it Facsimile of Pages from the New England Primer SOCIAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 123 to written form that he might convey to them the gospel. Later, printing presses were set up in all the colonies for the publication of broadsides, pamphlets, al- manacs, newspapers, and occasionally a religious or po- litical book. The most widely circulated book printed in the colonies was the Nciv England Primer (1690). This combined spelling with reading lessons consisting of the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, an account of the burning at the stake in England of the Protestants, and the catechism. Colonial newspapers. — In 1704 the first colonial news- paper. The Boston Nexvs Letter, made its appearance. Charleston, New York, Baltimore and Philadelphia soon had newspapers of similar character — each a small sheet with a few hundred local readers. Almanacs had a wide circula- tion, especially among the rural population. Benjamin Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac, first issued in 1732, was the most popular. It was noteworthy for its proverbs and wise sayings, such as, "God helps them that help them- selves," "Honesty is the best policy," "Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-day," "A penny saved is a l)enny earned," etc. Crime and pun- ishment. — The first colonial laws were ncraincf rlriitiL-fnnpct: Seel round the prison how the throng clgctiilbLUlUllKCUUt^^, Pj.^^ gygj.y quarter pour; i fll <=> n <=> c c onri ctk^It Some niourn with sympathising tongue! lUienebb anu SUCa The ruder babble roar. petty misconduct. -^ ... , „ ,-, k, racsimile or a Broadside Advertising Punishments were the Execution of Levi Ames in 1773 Solemn Farewell to LEFI AMES, Being a PO EM written a few Days before his E X E C U T I O N, for Bttrghr^ Off. ai, 1773. 124 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY A Pillory Stocks severe and as a warning to others were inflicted in public. When some person was to be punished the town crier with his bell would frequently invite all the good people to come and see the sight. In the public square the whipping post, pillory and stocks stood ready for culprits, and in the pond near by there might be a ducking-stool. The gallows was kept ready on some convenient hilltop, still there was little occasion for its use except to hang a pi- rate now and then. In those days pirates infest- ed the coast from Massa- chusetts Bay to Albemarle Sound. Vagrants and petty thieves were usually sen- tenced to sit for hours with their feet fastened in the stocks ; scolds and mischief-makir.g women were often half-drowned on the ducking-stools ; men guilty of disorder and wife- beating were flogged and pilloried. Sometimes the culprit was branded on the forehead with the initial letter of the ofl^ense, as "D" for drunkenness and for certain crimes the nose was slit, or the ears cut off. Modes of transportation. — The earliest colonists settled along navigable streams and boats furnished them with their flrst means of transportation. Later, trails were cut through the forests from one settlement to another, and these in time were widened to rough roads over which yokes of oxen drew heavy carts. It was near the time of the Revolution before turnpikes were built connecting some of the larger cities. At regular distances gates were placed across them and tolls collected. Toll bridges gradually replaced fords and ferries for cross- ing streams. SOCIAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 12S In 1752 the first stage-coach line running between Boston and New York was estabHshed, and in 1756 one from New York to Philadelphia. A journey from Boston to Ports- mouth, New Hampshire (sixty miles) required two days and cost ten dollars. In the South the planters usually sent their produce to market by boat and there were few interior A Colonial Stage-Coach and Tavern towns. Except for the highways in the vicinity of cities roads were mere paths. Colonial postal system. — The attempt of Governor An- dros to centralize the government of the Northern Colonies showed the need of an intercolonial postal system. In 1695 "post riders" were inaugurated between New Hampshire and Virginia. Benjamin Franklin was made postmaster- general in 1755, and by the time of the Revolution the colonies had two hundred post-offices. A regular line of packets was started between Boston and New York in 1755, and these carried "sinde letters" — a sheet written on one 126 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY side — for a shilling. With such slow and inconvenient trans- portation there could be little social or commercial inter- course among the colonies. Town meetings in New England. — New England was divided into small irregularly shaped districts, called towns, each of which included a village with the adjacent coun- try. The voters assembled in town meeting and chose selectmen, constables, fence viewers, poundkeepers and other officials. They settled affairs of importance, vary- ing from tax levies to regulations for the "size of a house." In the South the voters were so widely scattered as to render town meetings impossible. These colonies, there- fore, were divided into counties in which the sheriffs, jus- tices of the peace and other officials were appointed by the royal governors in the name of the king. Qualifications of a voter. — In order to vote a man must own property and be a taxpayer, and in some colonies a member of a particular church. At the time of the Revo- lution less than one-fourth of the grown men were qualified to vote. Many who possessed the right did not exercise it, and as a result the government was left to a small class. This governing class consisted of the large planters of the tide-water section in the South, the rich Quaker merchants and landowners of the Delaware region, the great merchants and patroons of New York, and the aristocracy of New England ; and although a small minority, it controlled co- lonial politics. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. It was easier to have schools in the New England Colonies than in the Southern Colonies. Why? Were there free public schools in the Middle Colonies? 2. Describe a colonial schoolhouse. What studies composed the curriculum? Name six or eight colleges in existence at the time of the Revolution. How do these colleges rank to-day? SOCIAL LIFP: in the colonies 127 3. Why was it considered so important in colonial days to learn to read the Bible and to know the catechism? Describe a Puri- tan Sabbath Day. 4. Compare the amusements and diversions of young people in colonial days with those of young people in your neighbor- hood to-day. 5. Try to find out who invented the printing press. Where was the first printing press set up in this country? Benjamin Franklin was a printer before he became a diplomat and a statesman. Write in your note-book an account of Franklin's apprentice- ship as a printer. 6. What were some of the ways of punishing lawbreakers in colo- nial days? Should the punishment of criminals and law- breakers be made to fit the crime or to fit the criminal? How is it to-day in your state? 7. Make a list of the different ways in which colonial people trav- eled from place to place. It is said that the southern people were the best colonial horsemen. How do you account for this ? 8. What were the qualifications to vote in colonial days? Town meetings were held in the New England Colonies, but not in the Southern Colonies. Why? What are the qualifications to vote in your state to-day? 9. There were many religious sects and denominations in the colo- nies. Was this an advantage or a disadvantage in the develop- • ment of religious tolerance? What is meant by religious tolerance ? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY L A corn-husking party, a shooting match or a quilting bee. 2. John Wesley's visit to the United States. 3. Colonial schools and school-books. REFERENCES 1. Hart's Colonial Children, Part VII. 2. Eggleston's Our First Century, pp. 192-200. I A Matchlock Gun of Colonial Days It was (liscbarged hy lighting the fuse with a live coal CHAPTER XII ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE The population in 1770. — On the eve of the Revolution the population of the thirteen colonies numbered about 2.300,000, distributed as follows: SOUTH In hundreds of thousands Distribution of Population in 1770 with Reference to Mason and Dixon's Line Colonies — Virginia, 450,000 South Carolina, 65,000 ; Geo 000. New England Colonies — Massachusetts, 335.000 ; New Hampshire, 81,000; Rhode Island, 60,000; Con- necticut, 196.000. Middle Colonies — Pennsylvania and Delaware, 300.000; New York, 191,000; New Jersey. 120,000. Southern North Carolina, 260,000; rgia, 18,000; Maryland, 250,- Small as this number may seem to us now, it was nearly one-fourth as great as the population of Great Britain at that time. Location of English settlements in America. — English settlements in America, following the curves of the At- lantic shore, bordered the coast for thirteen hundred miles, but extended inland for the most part not more than fifty or sixty miles. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Delaware. Connecticut, New Jersey and Maryland had been opened up with boundaries much the same as to-day, and settlers were to be found in all sections. The hostility of the Iro- quois had confined the settlements in New York largely to the Hudson Valley. Except for the village of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania had few settlements west of a line drawn 128 ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 129 through Harrisbiirg. Virginia had expanded farther west- ward. The independent spirit of the Scotch-Irish had led them to seek homes in the Shenandoah Valley, while whole communities of industrious Germans from Pennsylvania had migrated there also. Farther south the settlers clung to the rich lowlands of the tide-water section except in the Carolinas. There enough Scotch-Irish and Germans had settled in the uplands to warrant the organization of western counties. The leading cities. — Philadelphia, the largest city, had now twenty-five thousand inhabitants. The only other places with sufficient population to be called cities were New York, Boston, Baltimore, Charleston, Hartford, Providence, Nor- folk and Savannah, and most of them were only overgrown towns. Not long before an English traveler had said of New York: "It contains between two and three thousand houses, and sixteen or seventeen thousand inhabitants, and is toler- --^5'^^^ The Water-Front in New York Showing the Slave Mark; 130 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ably well built. The streets are paved and very clean, but in general narrow. The whole length of the town is something more than a mile ; the breadth of it about half an one. The situation is, I believe, esteemed healthy ; but it is subject to one great inconvenience, which is the lack of fresh water ; so that the inhabitants are obliged to have it brought from springs at some distance out of town." But the streets were so poorly lighted at this time that Benjamin Franklin in- sisted, "In Philadelphia one could tell a New Yorker by the careful way he stepped over the smooth pavements." Nationality of the people in the English colonies. — Probably three-fifths of the white population were of Eng- lish descent, and one-half of the remainder could trace their ancestry back to Scotland or Ireland. According to na- tionality the colonies fell into three groups — New England, the Middle and the Southern. The New England pioneers were Puritans and proud of it. The five Southern Colonies were English also, with a mixture of Scotch-Irish and Ger- man, and a few French and Swiss. In the Middle Colonies, like metals, in the melting pot, were blended nearly a dozen nationalities — English, Dutch. French, Scotch-Irish, Ger- man, Swedish, Finnish and Jewish. On the streets of New York, it was boasted, could be heard every language used by civilized nations. Occupations of the colonists. — Less than five per cent. of the people lived in cities and the main industry was farm- ing. Their summer season being so short, the New England- ers usually combined farming with fishing, lumbering, or home manufacturing. In the Middle Colonies there was lum- bering and a little mining. In the South agriculture was pur- sued on a large scale, and much attention was given to fur- trading and getting out naval stores, as tar, pitch, rosin and turpentine are called. In all the colonies the people of the coast towns engaged in commerce, but the farther north one went the more important this industry became. ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 131 Lumber and naval stores. — The vast areas of forest in America especially attracted the early explorers. There was lack of timber, even firewood, in England and western Europe. During the reign of Queen Elizabeth there had been a great increase in shipbuilding and England had been largely denuded of her forests to supply the material. Now, when eager to lead Europe in commercial enterprise, she must depend on Russia and Scandinavia for her ship tim- bers. The recently established iron furnaces and the glass factories were so fast consuming, for fuel, the few wood- lands left that laws already had been passed restricting their operation. Far-sighted Englishmen saw in the lack of wood a serious menace to the nation's commercial and manufac- turing aspirations. Locating along the coast, as they did, none of the settlers were far from timber of merchantable size. Trading com- panies and proprietors urged them to export to England lumber of all kinds. In the New England Colonies, and along the Hudson especially, shipbuilding became so extensive an industry that the owners of English shipyards protested. The colonial yards not only put better material into their ships, but were able to produce them at a much lower price, with the result that by 1770 they were turning out for the mother country as many as five hundred a year. Not only did England -need lumber and ship timbers, but naval stores, too. The thrifty New Englanders early found these could be distilled from pine knots, and thus what they would otherwise have destroyed could be made a source of wealth. In 1770, it is recorded, "a single fleet carried away from Boston over six thousand barrels of naval stores." It was in the piny woods of eastern Caro- lina, however, that the industry was most important. Many of the poor and discontented Virginians slipped beyond the bounds of that colony and began to make tar. When the trees of one district became exhausted, they would move on 132 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Colonial Shipbuilding From an old print to another, not bothered by such "little" formalities as "grants" and "quit rents." Such a free life in the wilds bred independence, and to it may be traced much of the wrangling with the governors w^iich marked the early his- tory of northern Carolina. The fishing industry. — We have already seen that Cabot's discovery of the Newfoundland fishing banks led many English and French fishermen in that direction. By 1660 two-thirds of the vessels employed in the fisheries were English, the remainder mostly French. While the dangers were many, the profits were large ; single captains are said to have cleared as much as twenty-five thousand dollars a season. The nearness of the fishing grounds was one of the inducements offered by John Winthrop to attract colonists to Massachusetts Bay. Having a rocky soil and a cold climate with which to contend, the Massachusetts colonists soon realized that their prosperity depended largely on this deep-sea fishing. Even to-day a large codfish, carved from wood, has a promi- ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 133 nent position in the hall where the General Court of Massa- chusetts holds its sessions, as a constant reminder of the importance of the industry to the state. Since the English fisherman found it hard to compete with the nearer New Englanders, and the settlers of New France were required by their king to keep to fur-trad- ing, the colonists had few rivals on the banks except those from the north of Prance. In colonial days the fish were split open, salted and dried and mar- keted whole. Only the medium sizes reached England and the continental trade. The largest, which could not be cured sufficiently to insure long keeping, were sold in the colonies near at hand. The most profit, however, was in the small inferior kinds and the broken and tainted fish that went in huge quantities to the West Indies to furnish food for negro slaves. The fur trade. — The colonists found the forests and swamps of America abounding in wild animals, the skins of which were highly prized by the wealthy people of Eu- rope. Exporting furs insured large returns, so the Indians were encouraged to hunt and trap. The traders were al- ways ready to exchange hatchets, knives, beads, bright col- ored cloth and other articles which appealed to the red man's fancy for his pelts. Bargaining was easy at first, for the Indians were satisfied with whatever was offered them. Captain John Smith, on one occasion, received Method of Conducting the Codfish Industry in Colonial Days 134 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY beaver skins worth two hundred and fifty dollars for a copper kettle. Later the Indians began to learn the value of their skins and they resented the methods employed by the traders. Except where there was competition as in locali- ties reached by l)Oth English and French traders or by those of rival colonies, the Indian had to accept what was ofi^ered 1 loin du old print Fur-Traders Bartering with an Indian him or keep his furs. To get the red man drunk and then drive the bargain, as done once by a Massachusetts official when buying land from a neighboring chieftain, was a com- mon practise. Although the sale of liquor and firearms to Indians was prohibited by law, large quantities of both were smuggled to them in exchange for skins. With the aid of the fur trade, as we have seen, the Ply- mouth colonists were enabled to pay their indebtedness to the English merchants. Later, in five years, that colony cleared two hundred thousand dollars on its exports of furs to England. But such a slaughter of wild animals could not last indefinitely. With their gradual extermination the hunt- ing and trapping had to cease, and within a century the fur industry had almost disappeared from New England. ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 135 New York and Albany traders did not confine their opera- tions to the tribes alHed to the EngHsh, but carried on an ilHcit traffic with French dealers at Montreal, Mackinac and Sault Ste. Marie. In 1724 it was claimed that Albany ob- tained four-fifths of its pelts in exchange for cheap colonial goods smuggled into New France. Up to 1719 the fur trade in South Carolina was restricted to the agents of the pro- prietors. Their unfair dealings were largely responsible for the brutal Indian raids on the outlying settlements which retarded the growth of that colony. Although in 1720 — the year in which the colonists took matters into their own hands — a quarter of a million skins were produced, twenty- five years later fur-trading had lost its importance. Colonial agriculture. — Throughout Europe at this time social and political standing was largely determined by land- ownership. The large estates were tilled by tenants or hired laborers. For a peasant to own land was a "consummation most devoutly to be wished" but difficult to achieve. In America the landless classes of all nations ^^^^ ^J^'^^^ saw an opportunity "^^^V^ to acquire home- » /- i • , t^, , , , A Colonial Plow steads and become persons of some consequence. This was a strong incentive to immigration. Massachusetts gave every "adventurer" fifty acres of land; New Jersey, at least one hundred and fifty to every man possessed of a musket and supplies suf- ficient to last six months ; New York, when the Mohawk Valley was opened for settlement, a free grant to every actual settler. • Excepting the estates of the Dutch patroons along the Hudson and the large plantations of the tide-water section of the South, the farms were usually small and worked by the owners with the aid of their children and sometimes a "hired man" or two. 136 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY In New England the produce of the farms was largely consumed at home. The large plantations in the South, on the other hand, were devoted to commercial crops — tobacco, rice and indigo — most of which were shipped to England. The farmers of the Middle Colonies, 'especially in the region tributary to New York and Philadelphia, produced large quantities of grain and many cattle and hogs. These found their way into intercolonial and West India commerce, as flour, crackers, beer and salted meats. Manufacturing in the colonies. — England was fast be- coming a great manufacturing nation when her colonists be- gan to settle America. Less than a century before she had begun weaving her own woolens, and the industries of silk, paper, thread and window-glass making were fairly well started. Manchester already had a reputation for its cotton goods and Birmingham for wares of brass and other metals. Although the provinces in America were called "planta- tions" the British Government did not encourage the raising of food products for export. The demand for raw ma- terials for manufacturing was increasing and the colonies must supply the need. So much were naval stores, potash and glass wanted, that workmen skilled in their production were procured in Germany, Poland and Italy and sent to America. England's policy regarding manufacturing. — Back in Queen Elizabeth's time, the English Government had be- gun to foster manufacturing by granting patents, monop- olies and special privileges. Certain towns were given the right to make articles forbidden to other places. With the idea that colonies existed solely for the benefit of the mother country, naturally colonial manufacturers were pro- hibited from making articles which would compete with the products of English factories. This was no discrimination against America, for Ireland and Scotland were both sim- ilarly restricted. In the colonies, however, this policy ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 137 aroused bitter resentment, and eventually became one of the i^rievances which caused them to revolt. Manufacturing in New England and Middle Colonies. — At first the colonists had to devote their time to felling the forests and clearing land to build homes and raise food. Later, there arose in the New England and Middle Colonies a great variety of small manu- factures which often took the form of "pick-up work" on the farms. The men and boys made barrel parts — heads, staves and hoops — for which there was ready sale to the sugar planters of the West Indies ; the women and girls spun thread and yarn and wove coarse cloths on the rude looms in their homes. So long as English mer- chants took American raw materials at a fair price, so that the colonists would have money owing them with which to jiurchase the better-made British goods, the demand for the crude American manufactures was largely local. But when the English markets were interfered with by wars, restrictions, or stagnant trade, and the colonists were de- j)rived of their "overseas credits" they were forced to make at home what they had formerly bought abroad. This was easy, for the emigrants of the eighteenth century included a great variety of skilled artisans. In the ]\Iiddle Colonies and also Maryland and Virginia, many flour mills were built along the fall line where water power was easily obtained. By 1700 it was said that Penn- sylvania had made "bread, flour and beer a drug in all the markets of the West Indies." In the early part of the eighteenth century, iron was mined and smelted all the way A Wheel for Spinning Flax 138 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY A Colonial Iron Forge in Pennsylvania from Massachusetts to Virginia and sim- ple utensils were be- ing wrought from it. England at first dis- couraged this indus- try, but later per- mitted the export of pig and bar iron. In 1775, not less than seventy-five hundred tons were sent to England to be made into articles which, had not the Revolu- tionary War imme- diately followed, would soon have found their way to the colonies. The distilling of rum be- came a profitable industry in Rhode Island and Massachu- setts. In 1768 the shipments of rum to Africa and the West Indies amounted to two hundred eighty-one thousand gallons. Colonial commerce. — Colonial commerce had an early start. By 1640 there was exchange of products within the New England Colonies themselves, between New England and New Amsterdam, and also back and forth from New England to Virginia. Twenty years later colonial furs, fish, lumber and tobacco were being offered in the markets of Europe. At first this commerce was largely carried in Dutch "bottoms." Even after the Navigation Acts were passed, Cromwell had to excej^t the cargo vessels of Hol- land, that colonial shii)ments might escape the attacks of the Spanish privateers during the war with Spain. Shipbuilding and the carrying trade. — The success of the colonists in shipbuilding soon led them to engage in ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 139 the carrying trade for themselves. Often both ships and cargo were the product of a single neighborhood. From the beginning the mother country held that these colonial merchantmen were entitled to the same consideration and bound by the same restrictions as those owned in Eng- land. Certain ports in Great Britain, at this time, enjoyed , a monopoly of certain foreign trade and colonial ships were expected to recognize their "rights." EfTect of Navigation Acts on colonial commerce. — The various Navigation Acts required all European wares des- tined for the colonies to be carried to England and trans- shipped in British or colonial vessels, and likewise all "enu- merated" goods to be transported to England. They were designed to produce revenue, and in order to simplify the collection of the taxes all import and export duties were payable in England. The result was that articles of Euro- pean manufacture were made costly, and colonial com- modities netted the producers much less than if direct mar- kets could have been sought. In the South the plantations were largely along naviga- ble streams, and those of one section exported the same commodity. British merchants sent their ships direct to the plantations of Virginia and Maryland for tobacco, and purchased for the planters in London whatever supplies they needed. The larger planters acted as agents for the smaller ones. As a resvilt of this, very few towns grew up in these colonies. In South Carolina many of the rice and indigo ]:)lanters lived in Charleston, and their crops were sold in that city and from there shipped abroad. Consequently early in its history Charleston had become a busy seaport. Smuggling a common practise. — When the northern ship owners found that Great Britain had no intention of enforcing in the colonies the Navigation Acts, many, attracted by the large profits to be realized, engaged in "smuggling," as the violation of these laws was termed. 140 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY The colonial officials winked at the practise and for liberal "eye salve" and "palm oil," as bribery was called, allowed American ships to set sail for the West Indies, South America and the Continent. This lawbreaking was not con- sidered disgraceful and involved little risk. Shortly before the Revolution, Boston alone had six hun- dred vessels, some of them of seven and eight hundred tons burden, engaged in foreign commerce. To the Guinea coast they took rum and brought back slaves. They carried flour, fish and other foodstuffs to western Europe and the ports of the Mediterranean, and exchanged them for wines, teas, cloths and other fine merchandise. In the West In- dies they found eager purchasers for their salt meats, refuse fish, flour, beer and New England and European goods, and came home with cargoes of sugar, molasses and tropical fruits, and with Spanish gold and silver. Parliament attempts to stop smuggling. — In 1733 Par- liament tried to stop the illicit commerce with the Spanish, French and Dutch West Indies by enacting the "Sugar Act." This provided that sugar and molasses could only be imported into the colonies from the British Islands. Although this act was little better enforced than the pre- vious trade laws had been, the trouble and expense involved in its invasion were a constant source of irritation to the New Englanders. It was not, however, until the French and Indian War that the Ministry seemed to realize the seriousness of colonial smuggling. So disloyal, at that time, were many of the New Englanders, that although the mother country and the colonists themselves were engaged in a life and death struggle with the French in America, they per- sisted in smuggling supplies to New France. The labor supply. — The crying need of the colonies was an adequate supply of labor, and the larger the farms the more pressing it became. The two great systems of colonial labor — indentured white servants and negro ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 141 slaves — were introduced at about the same time. In 1619, as we have seen, negroes were brought to Virginia and sold to the planters ; and the next year the Pilgrim Fathers brought with them to Plymouth a few indentured servants. During the first century of colonial life, white laborers far outnumbered negroes, who were not popular except in South Carolina, where they were better able to endure work in the rice swamps. Indentured servants could be retained only a few years and were usually anxious to acquire farms of their own as soon as their time was up. Besides, the colonists objected to the large number of certain classes of criminal's which England was insisting on sentencing to service in her plantations in America. Maryland received the largest number, but most of the colonies had more than they wanted — fully fifty thousand in all. These objections eventually led large planters to adopt slave labor altogether. The negro slave trade. — Until 1698 the Royal African Company had a monopoly of supplying the colonies with slaves. With the increasing demand for negroes other merchants were allowed to engage in the trade. IMany a Massachusetts and Rhode Island family became promi- Deck Plan of a New England "Slaver" The negroes were bound in pairs by manacles fastened to their ankles, and required to lie on tlieir hacks in a space less than five feet high. It was unavoidable that many died before the long voyage from Africa was ended nent through wealth amassed in trading rum for negroes to be sold as slaves. By 1707 twenty-five thousand were imported annually and by 1750 there were three hundred 142 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY thousand in the thirteen colonies. Except on the western shore of Narragansett Bay there were few in New England. In New York they made up one-sixth of the population ; in Maryland, one-fourth ; in Virginia, two-fifths ; and in South Carolina, a majority. Negro slavery adapted to the plantations in Southern Colonies. — Ignorant and uncivilized, the slaves were adapted only to the rough work of the one-crop system. On the farms of the North slave labor was more costly than white ; but the tobacco planters of Delaware, Maryland and Virginia, and the rice growers of South Carolina found it well suited to their needs. The slaves were in some cases better treated than were the "poor whites" of the Northern Colonies, and they were being gradually Christianized. The menace of insurrection was ever present and the safety of the whites depended on stern discipline. In South Carolina and later in Georgia the danger was greatest, owing to the disposition of the Spaniards in Florida to stir up trouble. For the colony's protection laws to limit the slave population were enacted by the South Carolina Assembly, but vetoed by the king. William Byrd, of Virginia, and many other prom- inent southerners sympathized with the Georgia trustees in their desire to keep slavery out of their colony. The money question. — The British Government per- sistently refused to supply its colonies with coin sufficient for the convenient transaction of business. In early times no coins at all were in circulation outside of the towns, and the only method of trading was by bartering so much of one commodity for so much of another. The taxes were paid in produce called "country paye." Virginia built warehouses where the settlers could store their tobacco and get receipts for it. These tobacco receipts were then used as money in that colony, and debts and loans were contracted and paid in pounds of tobacco. Tobacco receipts substitutes for hard money. — The ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 143 substitutes for coins needed to have a fixed value, and often this was estabhshed by the town meetings and as- sembHes. But in times of either great abundance or scar- city the real value would be far below or far above the legal price, and one of the parties to any transaction would sufifer loss. In Virginia the salary of a clergyman was six- teen thousand pounds of tobacco a year, Qnce when the crop was short the assembly authorized the substitution of money for tobacco at the rate of twopence a pound. George II vetoed this law and a parson brought suit to recover the difference between the value of the tobacco due him and the money he had been paid. Patrick Henry first came into {irominence in this lawsuit, in which he took the part of the colony. He cried out boldly against the king for the mis- erable government he was giving his colonies and declared that by vetoing the "Two-Penny Act" he "degenerates into a tyrant and forfeits all right to obedience." Little hard money in circulation. — For thirty years, beginning in 1652, Massachusetts coined her celebrated "pine tree shillings." In order to prevent them leaving the col- ony they were made to contain only sev- ty-five per cent, sil- ver. This mint fur- nished Charles II an excuse for confiscat- ing the charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The charge was that "pyrats" took their booty there and had it coined so that it could not be identified. The hard money in circulation was of many kinds. The illicit West India trade had brought gold doubloons, silver "pieces of eight," and other smaller Spanish coins. There were English guineas, Portuguese moidores and various odd A Pine Tree Shilllnsr 144 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Three Sliillim, ^iUdi.u:^ronx y^Qo^ony r/'RIlode jlsland ixlo lhc(/^oJ.icf.ioi- ,f/iail dco \eaua/tOiA(v/\.cyJ\'j-A(r//^e. acsc/)ti ^t-cJ 6r/^ //e ^rca/it/-cr in alt . | I 0^u6Yi'c yj ay/!ic/i/j' a/t(//crr any \ , t^iac^A of any^^'^tnic in f^Ac^ €Jj'ca/itru CA c/vyjo/-^- Chiy:t/ic /N^v\ (Pcncra! c/l/rrc/nnM ///'%- m^(^S^ ^ ^—^ i^c ^j¥ J7: coins from western Europe. The printing of paper money. — When the mint was shut down in Massa- chusetts, the printing of paper money was begun immediately, and other colonies soon followed the example. The money they printed had nothing behind it ex- cept the confidence of the people. The different colonies distrusted one an- other so much that this money was not received outside of the colony which issued it. Even in that colony its pur- chasing power was not equal to that of hard money, and sometimes fell to a fourth or fifth of it. In 1760 colonial imports from England exceeded the ex- ports by four million dollars and this balance had to be settled in hard coin. As the coins sent over were accepted for only the actual value of the gold and silver in them, the merchants were draining the country of much of its best money. Whatever was left was hoarded by the miserly and the rich. With the paper currency, which constantly depreci- ated in value, the colonists had to pay wages and transact tbe business of every-day life. Aroused at last, the British Government forbade the issuing of any more paper money and took steps which somewhat relieved the stringency. Early Colonial Currency Before being issued it was signed in the blank space ECONOMIC PHASES OF COLONIAL LIFE 145 Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. What was the estimated population of the English colonies in America on the eve of the Revolutionary War? How did this compare with the population of the mother country? 2. What other nations in Europe had sent emigrants to the Eng- lish colonies? In which colonies did they live principally? 3. Just before the Revolution most of the people in the English settlements lived within sixty miles of the Atlantic coast. Try to find two or more reasons for this. 4. What industry was common to all the colonies? Make a list of the occupations that prevailed in the New England Colonies ; in the Middle Colonies ; in the Southern Colonies. 5. In colonial days did the farmers who worked on the land own their farms? How is it in your neighborhood to-day? How is it in Russia to-day? Do you believe landownership de- velops independence and self-reliance? In your county to-day are most of the farmers landowners or tenants? 6. Wh}' did England actively discourage manufacturing in the col- onies? Make a list of articles manufactured in spite of Eng- land's opposition and write them in your note-book. 7. At first colonial commerce was carried in Dutch "bottoms" mainly. Why? Which colonies soon developed shipbuilding? 8. What were some of the Navigation Acts ? Why did the colonies engage in smuggling? 9. Describe the foreign commerce of Boston in 1770. 10. What were the two systems of labor in colonial times? Compare the labor systems of Virginia and Massachusetts. 11. Name the different kinds of money used in the English colonies before the Revolution. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. Reasons why the early colonists settled within fifty or sixty miles of the Atlantic. 2. Reasons whjf in 1770 ninety- five per cent, of tlie people lived in rural districts. REFERENCES 1. Brigham's Geographic Influences in American History, Chap- ter III. 2. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, Chapter I. 3. Thompson's History of the United States, P olitical-I ndustrial- Social, pp. 33-102. Note. The teacher will find in this book a wealth of material on the economic phases of colonial life. CHAPTER XIII WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT The western frontier. — The charters of Massachusetts and Connecticut in the North and of Virginia and the other colonies in the South had provided that their respective grants should extend to the Pacific Ocean. It was the efifort of Virginia to defend her back-country that brought on the French and Indian War. No sooner were the French ex- pelled from the Alleghany Valley than Scotch-Irish settlers from Virginia and Germans from Pennsylvania built a vil- lage around Fort Pitt (1758). In disregard of these charters George III, the new king, issued a proclamation that "the land and territories lying to the westward of the sources of the rivers which fall into the sea (Atlantic Ocean)" should be set apart for the In- dians. The Virginians, especially, were indignant and pro- ceeded to pay no attention to the so-called "Proclamation Line." Lands were granted as far west as the Ohio and at- tempts were actually made to establish the colonies of Transylvania and Westsylvania south of it. Daniel Boone, famous hunter and pioneer. — Daniel Boone, a fearless North Carolina hunter, who had been with Washington and Braddock on their disastrous expe- dition, accompanied by a few hardy backwoodsmen, crossed the Alleghanies and explored the country as far west as the blue-grass section of Kentucky (1769). At that time this region was known as "the Dark and Bloody Ground," because, situated midway between the lands of the Five Nations and the Cherokees, it was the scene of many Indian battles. A little later Boone began cutting a trail, called 146 WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 147 "Boone's Trace," through Cumberland Gap, and by this many of the early settlers of the western slope of the Appalachians crossed the Divide. While Daniel Boone was exploring Kentucky, William Bean, a North Caro- linian, crossed the mountains a little farther south and built himself a cabin near the head waters of the Watauga, in what is now eastern Tennessee. Bean was soon followed by small parties of settlers from both of the Carolinas as well as Virginia, led by John Sevier and James Robertson. After the battle of Alamance so many of the oppressed farmers from western North Carolina fled thither that several little settlements were made in both the Watauga and Holston Valleys. Feeling the need of some Daniel Boone Where the Holston and Watauga Settlements Were Made 148 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY kind of government, the settlers organized in 1772 the "Watauga Association." They drew up a constitution which provided for a legislature of thirteen members and an ex- ecutive council consisting of five commissioners. After the flight of Governor Martin from North Carolina in 1775, the Watauga settlements sought the protection of that colony. A year later they were recognized as the "Washington Dis- trict" and allowed to send representatives to the assembly. The government of the British Em- pire. — Now that the British Government was at peace with France and had no disturbance at home, there was time to give serious consid- eration to the neg- lected colonies. George III should have been popular, for, born and reared in Great Britain, he could rightly call himself a thorough Englishman. Al- though inclined to be stupid, he was an obstinate monarch and a firm believer in the right of a king to employ every means possible to accomplish his will. The "Rotten Borough" system, — Parliament, then as now, consisted of a House of Lords and the House of Commons. It represented directly only a small part of the British nation. At the death of a lord his title descended to his eldest son. and his seat in the upper house went George III. the Last King Who Ruled over the Colonies WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 149 with it. The members of the House of Commons were elected by only a small portion of the adult male popula- tion, for to be able to vote one had to own land. The districts from which the members were chosen remained the same as two hundred years before, although during that time the" population had shifted from one center to another. What had been a rural hamlet then, often now was a large manufacturing town without representation. Other districts had dwindled to only a few hundred inhabitants and still were entitled to their seats in the House of Commons. One of the "rotten boroughs," as these districts were called, ac- tually was uninhabited, biit still entitled to two representa- tives who were chosen by the persons who owned the land. Members did not have to live in the districts they repre- sented, so the seats belonging to the "rotten boroughs" were bought and sold, and politics was shamefully corrupt. During the reigns of George I and George H the Whig party had a majority in Parliament. Since the policy of choosing the ministry from the party in power had been adopted, the government was wholly Whig. Of late there had been a split in the ranks, and a faction calling them- selves New Whigs were demanding a redistricting of Eng- land. This would eliminate the evil of "seat-buying" and give all sections an equal representation in Parliament. Pitt, their leader, boldly denounced the state of affairs. He stated that the principle of "No taxation without representation," the bulwark of English liberty, was being violated when cities like Birmingham and Leeds, paying large taxes, had no members in the House of Commons to speak for them. King George III opposed to William Pitt. — George HI had resolved to make the government responsible to the king and in this had the support of the Tories. The only way they could hope to control Parliament was by the purchase of seats. As the New Whigs were bent on break- ing up that practise the feeling of the king for Pitt and his followers was intenselv bitter. 150 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Financial difficulties of England. — The Seven Years' War had left the treasury almost empty and confronted by so large a national debt that the thought of paying it was staggering. The territory gained by the Treaty of Paris had j^wy I^^C'fve- iK //iS3. Frpvy F^ra^ -t^i ^7(>3. How the King's Privy Purse had Shrunken A contemporaneous cartoon as yet yielded no revenue, and was actually an additional expense. Some of the Algonquin Indians, still loyal to the French, were already organizing a conspiracy against the frontier forts, while Florida was in constant danger from the Spanish. For the protection of its provinces the British Government decided to keep in America a standing army of ten thousand soldiers, and to require the colonists to pay a share of the expense. The king decides on internal taxation. — Heretofore the colonial assemblies had voted the colonial taxes and the salaries of the Crown officers. Many unsuccessful at- tempts ■ had been made by royal governors to levy taxes, but the only result had been to irritate the king's sub- jects. Never yet had the British Parliament imposed an internal tax on a colony. William Pitt and other Whig lead- ers warned the king against such a policy, but, influenced by dislike for the independent spirit shown by the Americans, he announced that the taxes should be laid and the full weight of the government should be felt by any one who dared resist them. The Obnoxious Acts.^Owing to lack of means and dis- WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 151 honesty of officials, several laws, which had been enacted long before, had never been rigidly enforced in the colonies. George III declared that hereafter these should be strictly obeyed. They were as follows : ( 1 ) The Navigation Acts. (2) The Trade Laws. (3) The Manufacturing Act. The Trade Laws required the colonists to sell their furs, tobacco, copper, indigo and other "enumerated articles" to English merchants. By resale to other countries the gold of Europe would be drawn to the mother country. According to the prevailing theory, that nation which possessed the most money was the most prosperous. These laws also for- bade the merchants to buy those articles outside the colonies. The Manufacturing Act prohibited the colonists from making certain articles such as steel goods, woolen cloth, fur hats, etc., either for trade among themselves or for ex- port, lest they should interfere with the business of English manufacturers. I New laws provided that custom duties should be laid on sugar bought outside the British West Indies and on articles brought from Europe directly or by way of the West Indies. And lastly, a "Stamp Act" was passed taxing every newspaper, pamphlet, advertisement, almanac and legal or commercial document. The stamps varied in price from a penny to ten- pounds and the revenue de- rived from their sales was to be used to support the army stationed in America. The king sends officers to enforce these acts. — To en- force these acts officers were sent over from England Facsimile of a British Tax Stamp 152 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY who, armed with "general warrants," were authorized to break into and search warehouses, stores and even pri- vate homes. As these warrants named no particular per- son, anybody suspected of evading the law might be arrested and jailed. Trials were held before royal judges without the right of jury and, regardless of how flimsy the evidence, conviction usually followed. Armed vessels patrolled the coast on the lookout for smugglers, who, when caught, were brought before admiralty courts, where justice was swift and sure. Colonial resistance. — When the colonies grasped the full meaning of this policy they were furious. They pro- tested violently against the Stamp Act, but probably they really cared more about the breaking up of their smuggling by the rigid enforcement of the Navigation Laws. Patrick Henry, a gifted but unpolished Virginian lawyer, made a memorable speech before the House of Burgesses. "Tarquin and Csesar," he shouted, "had each his Brutus, Patrick Henry Making His Memorable Speech in the House of Burgesses WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 153 Charles I his Cromwell, and George III" — Interrupt§.fl here by the presiding officer's cries of "Treason ! Treason !" Henry paused a moment, and then politely resumed -his warning, "may profit by their example. If this be treason, make the most of it." Aroused by these fiery words, the Burgesses passed resolutions denouncing the Stamp Act and stating that, as Englishmen, Virginians had rights that could not be taken away ; and one of these was the right to be taxed only by their own assembly. In North Carolina after John Ashe, speaker of the as- sembly, had informed the governor that "We will resist its execution to the death," His Excellency declared its session at an end. The Stamp Act Congress. — Led by Samuel Adams and James Otis, the General Court of Massachusetts invited the colonies to send delegates to a congress in New York in October. South Carolina was the first to accept and eight others followed her example. This famous "Stamp Act Congress" spent several weeks in fiery talk. In their reso- lutions, after declaring loyalty to the king, the delegates condemned the Stamp Act and all laws interfering with colonial trade. They boldly informed the British Govern- ment that the colonies would submit to no taxes not levied by the colonial assemblies. William Pitt pleads the American cause. — Parliament was divided on the question. The Whigs, old and new, sided with the colonists, while the Tories supported the king. In an impassioned address before the House of Comrtions, Pitt said: "On a question that may mortally wound the freedom of three millions of virtuous and brave subjects beyond the Atlantic Ocean I can not keep silent. America being neither really nor virtually represented in Westminster (Parliament) can not be held legally, or con- stitutionally, or reasonably subject to any money bill of this kingdom. Americans are the sons of England. As subjects. 154 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY From an old print William Pitt Speaking in the House of Commons they are entitled to the common rights of representation and can not be bound to pay taxes without their consent. The commons of America, represented in their several assem- blies, have ever been in possession of this their constitutional right, of giving and granting their own money. They would have been slaves if they had not enjoyed it. The gentleman tells us America is obstinate ; America is almost in open re- bellion. I rejoice that America has resisted." America protests against the Stamp Act. — While the legislatures protested, mobs in some of the large cities looted the houses of the Crow^n officials and threatened to cram the odious stamps down the throats of the agents who had them for sale. In one town an agent was seized and compelled to go about the streets shouting, "Liberty, prop- erty and no stamps." To keep alive the spirit of resistance organizations were formed — "The Sons of Liberty" by the men and "The Daughters of Libertv" bv the women — and the members WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 155 pledged themselves to buy no British-made articles. The colonial merchants owing many million pounds in England countermanded their orders for more goods and refused to pay their debts. Newspapers and handbills continually ThurOiy, Oa,io.3,, 1765 THE WUAIB ujj. PENNSYLVANIA JOURNAL; AND WEEKLY ADVERTISER EXPIRING; In Hop« of a Kefurrection lo Life .igain. AMfony(ol)o obliged I «r3,thata3 The Stamp- AcT.ielaa'itobeob- u ^^^H^^B Cuing, (.the/''>OUb pur- m->) the PufiiiOxrof this F»pa-imaiJo*o ligotory upo^ri t I tHerl l^iearthp Burthen, hiiihow^ht iteipeJi^l op awhile, morckr (odeliberatstwhe- I thtranyMcihodBcan be fyund to elude the I CKuJisforgod for 1^, and efcApe the mTup I portable Slavery , which it 13 hopej, fr»Mn I the Ian Repieienlalions now made agajnR |t)AlA.2, jD«y l>e eHeQti. Meanwhile, |1 ihuA came/Uy Retjuea evei:y Tixliyidual )r my SubCmbera Tnany of whom have been long beh^ Hand, (hat they wouU imediately Dlfchar^e their rerpeOive A r ars that 1 may be atjle, not only to foppott myleir during the Interval, but be better prepared to proceed agaiix with Ibis Tapeiv whenever an opening lor that PurpaA apjjean, which I hope will be Toon. -WILLUM ERADFOBD Facsimile of the Front Page of the Pennsylvania Journal the Day Before the Stamp Act Went into Effect urged the people not to trade with shopkeepers who per- sisted in selling articles made in Great Britain. Parliament repeals the Stamp Act. — Meanwhile the king had been compelled to a})point a new ministry. British merchants were flooding Parliament with memorials com- plaining that their commerce had been ruined because of the obnoxious laws. Factories generally had closed and the unemployed were clamoring for relief. To silence these angry voices, Parliament repealed the Stamp Act and de- clared "general warrants" illegal. The Townshend Acts. — News of the repeal of the hate- ful act was received in America with public rejoicing. But hardly was this over before word came that the colonists' sympathetic friend, Pitt, had been forced by illness to retire 156 OUR .COUNTRY'S HISTORY Londoners Celebrating the Repeal of the Stamp Act with a Mock Burial Procession from political life. A series of laws was now enacted which takes its name from Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer. One of them commanded the New York As- sembly to provide for the maintenance of the British sol- diers stationed there, and to pass no further legislation until this had been done. Another act provided for the creation at Boston of a commission to supervise the enforcement of the Trade Laws. A third imposed a small tax on such ar- ticles in common use as glass, paper, red and white lead and tea. The object was to obtain funds not only for the main- tenance of troops in the colonies, but also to pay the salaries of the Crown officers so that they w^ould be independent of the colonial assemblies. But George III and his Tory ministry had another object besides raising revenue. The passage of the Townshend Acts would show that the Whigs had not forced any abandonment of the king's intention to bring the colonies into subjection through submission to taxation by Parliament. More colonial resistance. — Resentment in the colonics WHAT CAUSEf) THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 157 rose to fury now. Again the assemblies passed resolutions of protest. The Massachusetts General Court took the lead and sent to the other assemblies a circular letter urging the co- operation of all the colonies in an effort to force a repeal of these new acts. Angered by this, George III threatened to compel the General Court to adjourn until it would re- scind its action. The speaker, James Otis, replied defiantly : "We are asked to rescind, are we? Let Great Britain re- scind her measures or the colonies are lost to her forever." Not only was the General Court dissolved, but because they had endorsed the action of Massachusetts, the assemblies in Georgia, South Carolina and Maryland also were forced to adjourn. As before, the colonists boycotted British-made goods. Solemn pledges were taken to "eat nothing, drink nothing, wear nothing" from England. They felt confident that by such means they could arouse the merchants and working classes, and through them force Parliament to give up any further attempt to enforce the Trade and Navigation Acts. Their hopes, however, were only partly realized. Parlia- ment repealed all the import duties except one of threepence (six cents) a pound on tea. Unless the Navigation Acts were vigorously enforced this would not amount to more than a few hundred pounds a year. More "redcoats," as the British soldiers were called, were sent to America to uphold the king's officers. Acts of violence. — Nearly tw^o years before. Governor Hutchinson, of Massachusetts, had reported that "many of the common people have been in a frenzy and have talked of dying for their liberties, and have spoken and printed what is highly criminal." The presence of the redcoats was a constant irritation, and exhibitions of ill feeling were fre- quent. On March 5, 1770, a riot occurred in Boston. For some time boys and young men had been in the habit of taunting 158 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the soldiers on duty there by calling them "lobster backs" and had even snowballed them. On this night a quarrel started which ended with the soldiers firing into a crowd and killing several persons. The "Boston Massacre," as the afifair was called, aroused the people from New Hampshire to Georgia as had nothing before. Samuel Adams began Tiie "Boston Massacre" organizing a committee of correspondence to "state the rights of the colonists and of this province in particular, as men and Christians and as subjects ; and to communicate and publish the same to the several towns, and to the world as the sense of this town ; with the infringements and violations thereof, that have been, or from time to time may be made." In North Carolina a pitched battle occurred near the Alamance River (1771) between small farmers of the up- land district, who had assembled to protest against exorbi- tant taxes and the extortionate action of the courts, and a thousand militiamen commanded by Governor Tryon. The farmers, who were called "Regulators," were defeated, of WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 159 course, but not until twenty of their number had been killed. Later seven of the leaders of the Regulators were hanged as outlaws. The Rhode Islanders burned a naval vessel used by the king's officers in search of smugglers. The tea difficulties. — King George and his ministers knew the American thrift and eye for a bargain, so the next move was calculated to give the appearance of advantage to the colonists. They arranged with the East India Company to put tea on sale in America at a lower price, even after the tax was paid, than what that smuggled from Holland could be bought for. By this trick they hoped to be able to estab- lish the right of taxation. Many of the merchants to whom the tea was consigned refused, through sympathy or fear, to receive it, and the captains of the tea vessels had the choice of either landing their cargoes and placing them in storage or of taking them back to England. In December, 1773, several vessels laden with tea arrived in Boston harbor. Here the merchants were ready to re- ceive the tea. A town meeting was called to find means of preventing it from being landed. Just at dusk when the meeting was break- ing up with Samuel Adams' last sentence ringing in every one's ears — "This meeting can do no more to save the country" — a band of about fifty persons dressed like Indians was seen running to- ward the wharf. ^'M I^^^^S ■ jjss^^^^s^Si^K From an old print The Boston Tea Party 160 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY While a large and approving crowd looked on, the pretend- ing red men boarded the vessels, ripped open the tea chests and dumped nearly a hundred thousand dollars' worth of tea into the harbor. Encouraged by Boston's boldness and suc- cess, the citizens of New York and Charleston also threw consignments of tea into their harbors, and those of Ann- apolis actually fired on a tea ship. The "Intolerable Acts." — When the news of these "Tea Parties" reached King George he resolved to put his taxation policy in operation by military force. As Boston had been the storm center of resistance, it was to be smothered into silence, and become an object lesson for rebels elsewhere. In 1774, at the king's behest, Parliament passed a series of laws, known in America as the "Intolerable Acts." They were as follows : (1) The "Boston Port Bill," ordering the port of Boston closed to all commerce until the destroyed tea should be paid for. (2) The "Regulating Act," which provided that judges and sheriffs in Massachusetts should be appointed and paid by the governor; and forbade the holding of town meetings — "those hotbeds of disloyalty" — without permission of the governor. (3) The "Quartering Act," compelling the citizens to fur- nish the soldiers with food and lodging in their homes. Under this law soldiers and other royal officials accused of killing citizens in the performance of duty were to be sent to Nova Scotia or England for trial. (4) The "Quebec Act," passed to conciliate the Cana- dians, transferred to the Province of Quebec all the region west of the Alleghany Mountains and north of the Ohio River. Within the whole territory the established church was to be the Roman Catholic. To enforce these laws General Thomas Gage was sent to Boston as military governor with orders to send any rebel- lious persons to England for trial, especially Samuel Adams. WHAT CAUSED THF. COLONIES TO REVOLT 161 The crisis in the colonies. — ^^'hen news of these acts reached the colonists the spirit of defiance rose higher and higher. Although they were aimed directly at Boston, all the colonies realized that if the Massachusetts city was forced to yield, the cause of liberty was lost. The day on which the Boston Port Bill went into efifect was observed in Virginia as a day of prayer and in Philadelphia as a day of movirning. At the suggestion of Virginia intercolonial com- mittees of correspondence were organized to direct the struggle, and they did much to keep alive the spirit of re- sistance. The Virginia Assembly also proposed that Massa- chusetts send out invitations to a continental congress. The First Continental Congress. — In September, 1774, delegates from twelve colonies met in the Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, and organized the First Continental Congress. Georgia sent word that while she would send no delegates she would concur in any action the Congress might take. After much discussion the dele- gates drew up and sent to the king a "Dec la ration of Rights and Griev- ances." This was a ^ _ ^ The Carpenters' Hall at Philadelphia Obnoxious Acts of the government and a denial of the right of Parliament to 162 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY levy taxes on the colonies or legislate for their internal affairs. It demanded that the colonists be allowed to hold peaceable meetings, to petition the British Government for redress of grievances, to be secure in the right of trial by jury, and to be freed from the insult of a standing army in time of peace. The Congress also passed a "Non-Importation Agree- ment" declaring a complete boycott of British-made goods. This was enforced by local committees, who sometimes brought recalcitrant shopkeepers into line by the application of a coat of tar and feathers. Conciliation proposed for America, — When the doings of the First Continental Congress became known in Lon- don the ministry saw the necessity of conciliation. The prime minister, Lord North, put through Parliament a bill which freed from taxation all colonies making grants toward the expenses of the British Empire. But it was too late. Had king and Parliament listened to the great commoner, Edmund Burke, years before, when he said : "The question with me is not whether you have the right to render your people miserable, but whether it is not to your interests to keep them happy. It is not what a law- yer tells me I may do, but what humanity, justice and reason tell me I OUGHT to do," — the xA.merican colonies might still be the most brilliant jewel in the British crown. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. By what right did such colonies as Massachusetts and Virginia claim the land west of the Alleghany Mountains? Trace on a map in a general way the "Proclamation Line" of George HI. What was the western frontier in 1770? Is there a west- ern frontier to-day? 2. In the middle of the eighteenth century, which was the more powerful in the British Government, the king or the Parlia- ment? King George III was very unpopular in England as well as in America. Why? State clearly why William Pitt, n Province of P Florida □ Pro>,nce of I I Hudson Bay No^a Scot« Compan_y-5 Ternton □ TV I. ii-t^jr^ -- .11. I I Territory claimed by [he soulhcri T>„r.«, United Colony, v^th Cdonie/onder ihe^ongmal grant the l,m^5 «tabli.hed ^ the ^ S ^J RoyaJ Proclamation of 1763 | | ^^^ ^^^ Indians Ulcrnlory claimea Dv I under their original grants, but placed under jurisdiction of Quebec by the Quebec Act WHAT CAUSED THE COLONIES TO REVOLT 163 the prime minister of the party in power, so boldly denounced King George IH. 3. At the close of the Seven Years' War King George decided to keep a standing army in America. Why? How did the king propose to pay for the expense of this army? 4. What were the Obnoxious Acts? What was the Stamp Act? How did the king attempt to enforce these acts? 5. State some of the ways in which the colonists expressed their indignation against the king. 6. It is well to remember that the English colonists in America expressed their fury and indignation against the king of Eng- land, not against the English people, as the people in England were not responsible for oppressive taxation measures. In- deed, King George was oppressing Englishmen in England as well as Englishmen in America. Note that President Wood- row Wilson made a similar distinction between the people of Germany and the autocratic government of Germany when our country entered the Great War. What was the purpose of the Townshend Acts? 7. King George was determined to establish the right of England to tax the colonies without their representation in the British Parliament. How did he proceed to do this? Note that colo- nial resistance against the king began primarily with the mer- chants, not the farmers. 8. Why was the First Continental Congress called, and what did it do ? What was the effect in London ? 9. Name some of the influential friends of the colonists in the Brit- ish Parliament. Make a list of the most prominent men in the colonies who resisted the king. 10. Did any other European country allow its colonial possessions as much freedom as England did her American colonics in the eighteenth century? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The "Rotten Boroughs" in England about 1775. 2. George III, the last king to rule the Thirteen Colonies. REFERENCES 1. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, Chapters I and II. 2. John Fiske's The American Revolution, Vol. I, pp. 23-24, 39-40, 65-72, 82-92, 95-97. CHAPTER XIV THE COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE Beginning of hostilities. — While the colonies awaited a reply to their "Declaration of Rights and Grievances" prep- arations for defense went steadily forward. The militia was strengthened, and small companies of men, who were called "minnte men" because they were to be ready to re- spond at a moment's notice, began drilling on the village greens. Powder and other munitions were being stored at convenient places. The British, too, were getting ready for trouble, for the Ministry had declared Massachusetts in a state of rebel- lion. Large reinforce- ments had been sent to General Gage and a strong fleet had been stationed at Bos- ton. With a view to defense, if worse came to worse, re- doubts had been thrown up at all the approaches to the city. General Gage de- cided the time had come to put a stop to tlic warlike activities of the Massachusetts ])co])le by confiscating Old Colonial Powder House at ,, . .,. Williamsburg, Virginia ^heir military stores. 164 COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 165 Knowing that they had a large supply at Concord, twenty miles from the city, on the night of April 18, 1775, he sent a detachment of eight hundred regulars to seize it. The patriots had been expecting this move and had ar- ranged to have the departure of the soldiers signaled across the river to Charlestown by lanterns hung in a church tower. Two of their number who were waiting for the signal then mounted their horses and galloped away to warn the people along the road that "the regulars are coming." First bloodshed at Lexington and Concord. — When the British soldiers reached Lexington shortly after sun- rise, they found a company of minute men, armed with Photo trom Underwood & Underwood A Recent Celebration of Paul Revere's Ride "So through the night rode Paul Revere; And so through the night went his cry of alarm To every Middlesex village and farm, A cry of defiance and not oi fear, A voice in the darkness, a knock at thi' dour, And a word that shall echo forcverniore!" 166 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY muskets and powder horns, drawn up on the village common to dispute their march to Concord. "Ye rebels, disperse!" shouted Major Pitcairn, who was in command of the British troops. The patriots stood fast, and a moment later a vol- ley felled eight of them to the ground. Giving a cheer the regu- lars marched on, and several hours later reached Concord where, after stifif resistance, they destroyed what stores had not been removed. By this time neighboring towns had been aroused, and minute men were hastening toward the road the British must take back to Bos- ton. All along the way the "redcoats" had to encounter a merciless fire from behind boul- ders, trees and stone walls. The retreat became a rout and when at last they were halted under the protecting guns of the war- ships lying at anchor off Charles- town, over one-third of their number had been killed or wounded. And thus ended the first battle in the war which was to bring independence to the American colonies. The Second Continental Congress.— On May 10, 1775. while the country was in a state of excitement over the start- ling news that General Gage was besieged in Boston by the militiamen, the Second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia. Delegates were present from all thirteen col- onies this time, but the six provinces organized by Great Britain from her recently acquired French and Spanish ter- ritory remained loyal to the king. The Congress commis- The Concord Minute Man COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 167 sioned Colonel George Washington to be "General and Com- mander-in-Chief of the Armies of the United Colonies" and ordered him to proceed to Boston and take charge of the military operations there. It called on the colonies to fur- nish twenty thousand militiamen and arranged to issue three million dollars' worth of "continental currency." Dur- ing the entire Revolutionary War this Congress was the only central government the colonies had, and yet, although its power was limited, it was able to force Great Britain to recognize the independence of her former provinces. Public sentiment. — A large part of the people were still, at heart, loyal subjects of King George. They felt that they needed the protection of the British Government and, like Washington, "abhorred the idea of independence." The general belief was that the king .was influenced by his min- isters, who were the real oppressors of America, and that if he really understood the situation the colonies would se- cure self-government. There were radicals, not a few, who, like Samuel Adams, rejoiced that the British had com- menced hostilities, and hoped that the outcome w^ould be complete independence. Most of the colonists, however, regarded the struggle as rebellion against tyranny, similar to what had occurred more than once in the history of the mother country. They saw nothing traitorous in Patrick Henry's stirring appeal : "Is life so dear, or peace so sweet as to be purchased at the price of chains and slavery ? For- bid it. Almighty God ! I know not what course others may take, but as for me, give me liberty or give me death." Many friends of the king in the colonies. — Probably one-third of the colonial population was loyal to the British Government. These Loyalists, or Tories, as they were called, included those whose positions and fortunes would be endangered by a revolution — royal officials, clergy of the Church of England and persons of wealth and leisure who had everything to lose and nothing to gain by a war. They 168 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY blamed all the trouble with England on "low demagogues," and sympathized with the governers who, in all the colonies except Connecticut and Rhode Island, had tried to suppress those "worthless fellows" stirring up rebellion. Unfortu- nately for the Tories, the governors fled from their posts soon after the battle of Lexington, and "Committees of Safety" were set up in their place. The patriots persecute the Tories. — The patriot masses were intolerant and a Tory's person and property were in constant jeopardy, especially if he were sus- pected of giving aid and information to the Brit- ish. Tory homes had rifle balls fired through their windows. Tory clergymen found their pulpit doors nailed fast. Tory farmers had their cattle painted fantastic colors. Sometimes the mobs did not stop even with these outrages, but would seize the men themselves, treat them to a coat of tar and feath- ers, and then hoist them on liberty poles where they could be publicly mocked. So outrageously were the Loyalists treated that fully thirty thousand of them left of their own accord to seek new homes in Canada, Nova .Scotia, the British West Indies and England. The soldiers of the Revolution. — Seldom has a war of such importance as the Revolution been so poorly managed bv both sides. The British Government found the cause so From an old print A Tory Come to Justice COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 169 unpopular that it was difficult to enlist enough of the right kind of soldiers at home. It consequently resorted to hiring thousands of Hessian soldiers from the Prince of Hesse, and other rulers of small German states who sold the services of their subjects for military un- dertakings. These mercenaries, however, were of small value, for they showed no spirit, fight- ing as they were in behalf of a foreign king for whom they cared nothing. Many of the British officers sent over were incompetent, and it is possible that some who were Whigs were not eager to win victories which would entrench a Tory Govern- ment in power at home. All in all, the morale of the British army sent to America was ex- tremely low. When Washington took com- mand, he was furnished about sixteen thousand .troops who were in the service of their re- spective colonies for only a few months by voluntary enlistment. They were raw undisciplined soldiers whose only experience had been frontier Indian fighting. While many had enlisted out of patriotism, not a few had been attracted by the bounties offered. When pay was tardy or their terms had expired, large numbers would sometimes leave for their homes in the midst of a campaign. Washington desired to enroll an army of per- haps thirty thousand men for several years' service and to make it strictly responsible to the Continental Congress. A Hessian Soldier 170 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Because of local jealousies, however, the colonial assem- blies were unwilling to grant Congress this power. In all, about one-fourth of the man power of the colonies served in the colonial armies — two hundred thousand for a few months, and two hundred and fifty thousand for about a year. A small number of Indians and negroes werq also enlisted but they proved unsatisfactory. The first year of war. — B}^ June 1, 1775, General Gage had ten thousand men in Boston. In the camp outside was Battle of Bunker HUl In reality this battle was fought on Breed's Hill through accident a besieging force of sixteen thousand militiamen, untrained and poorly armed. In those days Boston was surrounded by water except for a narrow isthmus which the British had fortified. Over on the Charlestown shore two hills over- looked the city, and on the south rose Dorchester Heights. The colonials decided to fortify one of the Charlestowai hills, so that from it later they could bombard the British, if necessary. On the night of June sixteenth a small force under Colonel Prescott took possession of Breed's Hill, and COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 171 threw up low breastworks. The next day General Gage sent three thousand regulars to take the place. The British charged the hill twice in the face of a murderous musketry fire, and were repulsed with a heavy loss. Their third at- tempt met with success, for the colonials had used up all their ammimition, and a British flag floated over Breed's Hill. At a cost of a thousand in killed and wounded Eng- land had learned that the raw colonials would stand their ground against a great force of trained English regulars. Washington assumes command of the Continental Army. — Early in July on Cambridge Common, under an old elm tree which until recently was still standing, Wash- ington took command of the "Continental Army," as the colonial forces were thenceforth called. The two pressing needs of this army were supplies and training. The battle of Bunker Hill had been lost for lack of ammunition. The capture a few weeks before of Crown Point and Ticonder- oga, the two fortresses guarding the portage between Lake Champlain and the Hudson Valley would soon yield a large store of supplies. The French in Canada remain loyal to the king. — During the winter of 1776 two expeditions were sent to capture Quebec. One of them toiled through the wilds of northern Maine ; the other took the Lake Champlain route. There had been hopes that the French would join the Americans in order to rid themselves of British rule, but these were doomed to disappointment. The attack was made in a blinding snow-storm and the Continentals were defeated with the loss of one of their generals and several thousand men. All further efforts to reduce Canada were then al)an- doned. The British leave Boston. — Meanwhile, Washington had been drilling his soldiers and hauling across the coun- try the cannon and other munitions captured at Ticonder- oga. By March. 1776, he was ready to strike a blow at 172 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the British in Boston, now commanded by General Howe. While he led them to think by a feint that he was about to make an at- tack on the Cam- bridge side. Washington sent a strong force to occupy Dor- chester Heights. This left the British no ave- nue of escape except by water. Threatened with bombardment, Howe decided to evacuate the place. With all his soldiers, and nearly a thou- sand Loyalists, he sailed away to Halifax (March 17, 1776), and the British flag never again floated over Boston. Clashes between patriots and Tories in the South. — The first skirmishes in the South were clashes between opposing bands of patriots and Tories, but on June 1, 1776, word reached Charleston that a large British fleet was ap- proaching the city from the north. With feverish haste the patriots began strengthening their defenses. Colonel William Moultrie, of the local militia, decided to erect on Sullivan's Island in the lower harbor a fortress of palmetto logs and sand. By means of this he hoped to keep the Britisli from actually attacking the city. It was four weeks Boston and Vicinitj^ COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 173 (June twenty-eighth) before the fleet moved forward to reduce Fort SuUivan, as the new works were called. Here Moultrie had posted his small command with a few cannon and a limited supply of ammunition. Not once during the engagement, which lasted all day, did the British succeed in making a landing on the island. While the battle raged the flagstaff on the parapet was shattered by cannon shot, and Sergeant Jasper Plants the Colors on the Parapet of Fort Sullivan the colors fell to the beach. Immediately one of the pa- triots. Sergeant William Jasper, leaped down and in the face of a murderous fire from the enemy's guns, rescued the flag and planted it once more over the little fort. At the end of the battle Fort Moultrie, as the place was thereafter called, was still held by the patriots. So costly had been the attempt to take Charleston that the British gave up the effort and sailed away. For two years after this the South- ern States escaped any further hostilities, other than local clashes between irregular bands of Tories and patriots. 174 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Political changes. — Rhode Island and Connecticut alone had governors elected by the people, and who were sympathetic in the struggle against Great Britain. After the governors of the other colonies had fled or been deposed, committees of safety provided for the election of colonial congresses by which the colonies might be governed until such a time as their grievances should be redressed and peace restored. In the interim these congresses had to levy the taxes, make laws, raise military forces and choose dele- gates to the Continental Congress. George III had shown an obstinate temper in refusing to look at the petition from which the colonists had expected so much. F'urthermore^ he had issued a proclamation on Au- gust 25, 1775, calling them traitors. When this news reached America the idea of complete independence took hold rapidly and the need of some kind of permanent gov- ernment was felt. The patriots of New Hampshire took the initiative by drawing ug^ a constitution for th^msel\j,e|: and, one by one, the other colonies did the same., Vernipi]^ seceded from New York and organized a ''state" g<5V€irnj ment of its own (1777), All 'these constittitions, e^^l those of Pennsylvania and Georgia, provided for legi^l.'iwrei consisting of two houses — a senate corresportding to 'the former colonial council, and an assembly. Experience with royal governors had inspired the people with such fear of them that, except in New York and Pennsylvania, the gov- ernors of the new states were to be elected by the legisla- tures and vested with little real authority. The right to vote and hold office was restricted to propertjj^ owners. In South Carolina the constitution provided that to be eligible for the governorship one must possess property worth ten thousand pounds ; in New Jersey, for a few years, women were allowed to vote. The Declaration of Independence. — In those exciting times pubhc meetings were held freciuently at which fiery COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 175 speeches were made by local orators, and resolutions calcu- lated to keep up enthusiasm were passed. In May, 1775, on receiving tidings of the battle of Lexington, a committee of patriots in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, since known as the "Mecklenburg Convention," assembled at Charlotte and passed ^/>r.^"- • t ^ j: i JUft^ -^^KJW^. resolutions declaring a complete with- drawal from the British Empire. This was the first public avowal of in- dependence, and its resolute tone stif- fened the resistance in many widely sep- arated communities. When the news reached the colonies that King George had hired thousands of Hessian soldiers and prepared a fleet with which to put down the "rebellion" in America, Virginia instructed her delegates in Congress to move a formal declaration of independence. North Caro- lina had already authorized her delegates to vote for such a resolution. On May fifteenth, Congress adopted a resolu- tion advising the colonies to set up independent govern- ments. On June seventh, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, introduced the following resolutions, which were adopted on July second : That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be. free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all C^z »'V*e-*«.rt«'^ &. Facsimile of the Signatures to the Mecklenburg Resolutions 176 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political con- nection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; That it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances ; That a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for their consideration and appro- bation. Thomas Jefferson writes the Declaration of Independ- ence. — A committee of five, headed by Thomas. Jefferson, of Virginia, was appointed to draft the resolutions. On' June 28, 1776, this committee of- fered its report to Congress, then in session in the old Province House in Philadelphia, since called Independence Hall. With few changes the document, as drafted by Jefferson, was adopted on July 4, 1776. As soon as the vote was - taken couriers were sent in all directions to spread the news, which was hailed everywhere with enthusiasm. Bells rang and bon- fires burned. The patriots gath- ered in the town halls to listen to orators declaim on the meaning of the great event, and in the churches to render thanks to the Almighty for this dispensation. The leaden statues of the king which had stood in some of the cities were pulled down and melted into bullets. This Declaration of Independence makes, not one na- tion, but thirteen nations. — The Declaration of Inde- pendence did not make a nation of the thirteen colonies, but instead thirteen separate nations, each jealous of its own rights. The need of union until their independence should be acknowledged by Great Britain was recognized by all. The "Liberty Bell" in the Old Pennsylvania Province House COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 177 Benjamin Franklin expressed it tersely thus, while the docu- ment was being signed, "We must all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang separately." The draft of the Declaration as finally adopted : DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE* • lu Congress, July 4, i/'/6 The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America : When, in the course of human events, it becomes neces- sary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the Powers of the Earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among them are Life, Lib- erty and the pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends it is the Riglit of the People to alter or to abol- ish it, and to institute new Government, laying its founda- tion on such principles and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to efifect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Govern- ments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Ob- ject, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Des- potism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future •The Declaration of Independence should be read and discussed in class. 178 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these Col- onies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid World. He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his Independence Hall From an old print Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing impor- tance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has ut- terly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of peo- ple, unless those people would relinquish the right of Rep- resentation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and dis- tant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance of his meas- ures. He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights' of the people. He has refused for a long time, after such CCJLOXISTS DECLARE TJIIIIR INUEPENDEXCE 179 dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the Legislative Powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise ; the State remaining in the meantime exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States, for that purpose ob- structmg the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners ; re- fusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. He has obstructed the Administrations of Justice, by refus- ing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary Powers. He has made judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their ofBces, and the amount and payments of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our People, and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace. Standing Armies without the consent of our Legis- lature. He has affected to render the Military independent cf and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdic- tion foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legisla- tion : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. For protecting them, by mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the Inhab- itants of these States. For cutting oft' our trade with all ])arts of the world. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury. For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended oft'ences. For abolishing the free Sys- tem of English Laws in a neighboring province, establish- ing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies. For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our Governments. For suspending our own Legislature, and declaring themselves invested with Power to Legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Govern- ment here, by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coast, burned our towns and destroyed the lives of our peo- 180 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY pie. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty and perfidy scarcely parallelled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our Fellow Citizens taken Captive on the High Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall them- Room in Which the Declaration of Independence Was Signed selves by their Hands. He has excited domestic insurrec- tions among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhab- itants of our frontiers the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these Op- pressions we have petitioned for Redress in the most hum- ble terms. Our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the Ruler of a Free People. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British Brethren. We have warned them from time to time of the attempts l)y their legislature to extend an unwarrantable COLONISTS DECLARE THEIR INDEPENDENCE 181 jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the cir- cumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably in- terrupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and /y^ y Jt'/ consanguinity. We ^<^;^.^^^^^^^ must, therefore, ac- y""^/ \.r-=^^ j (luiesce in the neces- A^„,^^^^^ 1_ sity which denounces ^-^ f\ our Separation, and Facsimile of the First Signatures to the liold them, as we hold Declaration of Independence tlio t-act r>f mniit-Jtirl I"''" Haticock Said that he would write his me resi OI mankina. ;,^„,^, .^ ^,,3^ ^^^^ George could read it Enemies in War. in without any spectacles Peace Friends. We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress. Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the rectitude of our in- tentions, do, in the Name, and by atithority of the good people of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, Free and Independent States ; that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political con- nection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that as Free and Inde- pendent States, they have Full power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce and to do all other acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration with a firm reliance on the Protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our Sacred Honor. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Read Longfellow's poem entitled. "Paul Revere's Ride." Is it true to the facts of history? Is it true to the spirit of history? I. What did the First Continental Congress do? What did the Second Continental Congress accomplish ? Z. Public opinion in the colonies regarding separation from the mother country was divided, some of the leading men like 182 OUR COUXTR^'S HISTORY Washington being violently opposed lo the idea of independ- ence. How do you explain this? Perhaps as many as one- third of the population in the colonies, known as Tories, remained loj'al to King George. What classes of people composed the Tories? 4. Even in England the Revolutionary War was unpopular. Why? Keep clearlj' in mind that the best people in the British Par- liament were friends of the colonists, and many of the best people in the colonies had no thought of separating from the mother country, until King George drove them to separation. .'. Make a list of the patriots, otherwise known as Radicals, who entertained the idea of independence, and who were glad when England began hostilities. 6. Write in your note-book the things King George did which im- pelled the colonists to turn their thoughts toward separation and independence. 7. Was the Battle of Bunker Hill a victory or a defeat for the Americans? In what sense was it a victory for both sides? 8. What was the purpose of the Americans in sending two expedi- tions to try to capture Quebec? 9. Why do you suppose General Howe left the city of Boston in- stead of trying to defend and hold it? 10. Learn the names of the men who were appointed as a committee to prepare a declaration of independence. Who did most of the actual work in preparing and writing it? 11. As you read the Declaration of Independence, you will observe that there are three main parts or divisions. What are they? Note that the personal pronoun "he." referring to King George, occurs eighteen times, thus indicating the grievances of the Americans were primarily against the king, and only secondarily against the English people. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUtlV 1. The battles of Lexington and Concord. 1. Paul Revere's ride. 3. Patrick Henry and Samuel Adams. REFERF.NCES 1. Hart's Camps and Firesides of the Revolution, pp. 257-260. 2. Fiske's The American Revolution, Vol. I. pp. 120-126, 133-156. 3. Hart's Source Book, pp. 147-149. 4. KIson's Side Lights on .hnericnn History, Vol. I, Chapter 1. CHAPTER X\' THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR The Battle of Long Island. — New York City was a most desirably strateg^ic point. If the British could get posses- sion of it, they could send an army up the Hudson to co- operate with one coming from Canada by way of the St. Lawrence and easily retake Ticonderoga. This would cut off New Eng- land from the rest of the col- onies and bring the war to a quick end. The Revolutionary leaders then would suffer the usual treatment accorded "reb- els." Anticipating L h a t ( i e n e r a 1 Howe would at- tempt to carr\' out such a plan, Washington moved his army to New York City. He encamped a part of it on the west- ern end of Long Island, where Brooklyn Heights were fortified, as a defense to the city. Not long after the col- onies declared their inde]:)endence. General Howe landed 183 184 OUR COUXTRVS HISTORY twenty Staten harbor moved 2Pf Q: Scale of miles '^ Eastern Pennsylvania and Nortliern New Jersey thousand troops on Island in the lower In August this army over to Long Island and attacked and badly de- feated the eight thousand Americans posted there. Had he moved quickly Howe might have captured the whole force, but because of his delay Washington was able to with- draw safely to New York what remained of his army. He stated the truth when he wrote : "Our situation is truly distressing. The check our detachment has sustained has dispirited too great a propor- tion of our troops, and filled their minds with apprehen- sion and despair." Many of the soldiers whose terms had expired were, leaving for home and the untrained ones taking their ]:»laces were caus- ing great confusion. It was hopeless, under such condi- tions, to think of holding New ^'ork after Howe had landed a ])art of his forces above the cilv. Washington, therefore, retreated toward the north and after suffering another defeat, crossed the Hudson into New Jersey. THl:: RKVOLLTIUXAin' WAR The retreat through New Jersey. -The situation looked dark, indeed, for the patriots. A strong detachment of regulars under Cornwallis, one of Howe's generals, was in close pursuit of Washington. Expecting the British to attack Philadelphia at any moment Congress had fled, leav- ing the direction of the war to the commander-in-chief. With a view of blocking the enemy's approach to Philadel- |)hia, Washington continued his flight across New Jersey, and by destroying all the bridges along the way succeeded in keeping well ahead. He had ordered General Charles Lee, who had been posted up the Hudson with a part of the Americans, to join him. \Mien Lee failed to appear, Washington retired into Pennsylvania rather than risk an- other engagement. To prevent Howe's army from cross- ing the Delaware he seized all the boats within a hundred miles. During this retreat a snow-storm swept over the re- gion and the Americans, many of whom lacked clothing and were barefooted, suffered intensely. ^Meanwhile, Howe, leaving small forces at Trenton and other convenient places to keep the "rebels" out of New Jersey, went back to New York. Washington surprises the Hessians at Trenton, — Un- less something was done to restore the spirits of the Ameri- cans, the States would be unable to supply their quotas of soldiers, so Wash- ington decided to at- tack some of these British detachments which Howe had left in New Jersey. On Christmas Eve, while the Hessians sta- tioned at Trenton were making merry, he recrossed the Washington Crossing the Delaware 1S6 OUR COUXTin'S IllS'lOKV Delaware. A snow-storm was raging and the river was full of floating ice, yet in the darkness patriot pilots ferried the soldiers safely across in small boats. Early the next morning the merrymakers were surprised by a sudden attack and more than a thousand of them were taken prisoners. Corn- wallis hastened to Trenton, but while he delayed attacking the Americans they slipped away during the night for Princeton, forty miles to the east. Here another British force was met and defeated. Washington then withdrew into the hills of northern New Jersey and spent the rest of the winter drilling the large number of recruits which the news of his recent victories brought to the army. Timely aid of friends. — The patriot army was in a piti- able condition at this time. The soldiers, hungry, half-clad and often barefooted, were forced to endure long hours of drill in the freezing winter weather. Even the small pay promised them was delayed so that the suffering of their families added to the general misery. Naturally many pre- ferred to go home to work rather than to re-enlist when their terms expired. General Washington drew heavily on his private resources to rdleviate the suffering of his men. and j^ersuaded Robert ^lorris, a wealthy merchant of Phila- del]:»hia, to canvass the Quaker City for monc}-. In a short time A f orris was able to send him fifty thousand dollars, which went far toward relieving the immediate distress. Knowing the enmity between France and Great Britain. Congress had sent agents, one of whom was Benjamin Franklin, to the French Court to seek aid. Naturally a struggle for liberty would not appeal to such an autocratic monarch as Louis XVI; yet if he were sure the colonists would win, he might be induced to seize the opportunity of settling some old scores with England. Already Frank- lin had persuaded wealthy Frenchmen to furnish the colonies money and supplies on the sly. and the king was allowing the American navv to make use of French harbors. THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 187 When the brave young Marquis de Lafayette made ready to join the patriot army across the Atlantic the king made no attempt to deter him. Baron Steuben, a distinguished mihtary engineer, also came over from France and at once l)egan training the Ameri- can army in the art of warfare. Other European countries likewise sent volunteers : Bavaria, Bar- on DeKalb, a close friend of Lafayette ; and far- away Poland, two l)ra\e officers in Pulaski and Kosciusko. To these cham])ions of their cause the people of the United .States owe a debt of much gratitude. The campaign of 1777. — As Washington had succeeded in heading olT Howe from Philadelphia by land, the British were forced to rind some other way to reach the city. Howe finally decided to sail around to Chesapeake Bay, land his troops and march overland and enter Philadelphia from the south. Congress was in session there again so Washington hastened to its defense. On Sep- tember 10. 1777. he engaged the British at Brandy wine Creek, just south of the city, and sustained a severe defeat. In a few weeks Howe's forces were in control not only of Philadelphia but also of the Delaware to the Bay, and his supply ships could approach in safety. The surrender of Burgoyne. — ^leanwhile the British were meeting with reverses in the North. The Ministry had decided at last that a wedge must be driven between l.afa\clU' 188 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY New England and the Middle Colonies. Expeditions from Canada were to move down Lake Champlain and the Mo- hawk Valley and effect a junction with one sent by Howe from New York City. General Burgoyne, with ten thou- sand British regulars, Indians, Canadians and Loyalists, came south by way of Lake Champlain and took Ticonderoga. Soon after he entered the Hudson Valley, and then his troubles began. A foraging expedition sent into Vermont met Avith disaster. The "Green Mountain Boys," as the local militia was called, pounced upon it and killed or captured nine hundred of the thousand in the detach- ment. General St. Le- ger's army crossed over from Canada to Oswego and started down the Mohawk. Near Fort Stanwix, the present site of Rome, it was defeat- Howe failed to receive his orders to cooperate, so sent no reinforcements. Burgoyne's sup- plies were running low and with the Americans pressing him in front and on the flanks, he dared not advance nor retreat. Finally, on October 7, 1777, he attacked the enemy, now connnanded by General Gates, at Saratoga, and was defeated. Ten days later he was compelled to surrender to CANADA A . ^ Crown PBinjj J ^ ^Jiconderojd] J \ ^-^\ di 7) \ ^Xi'Z'J K^ Y rKceof aVJ-* r \ ^'"■■'~*->/^*^' fdwmall force of Tories, under command of Colonel Ferguson, to reduce the u]:>-country settlements. Immediateh- bold frontiersmen from the "Watauga Settlements" and \*estern X'irginia crossed the mountains to ojjpose the invaders. They met them at King's Mountain, in a position so strong that Ferguson boasted that "the Almighty could not drive him out." Although many of these backwoodsmen had onh I)een off their horses once in thirtv-six hours, and all had 194 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ridden through a drizzhng rain the whole preceding night, it took but one hour in the afternoon of October 7, 1780, for them to kill or capture Ferguson's entire force. When a re- port of the battle of King's Mountain reached Cornwallis he immediately changed liis plans. Although he had already taken Charlotte and was advancing on Salis- ])ury, he abandoned the idea of invading Virginia and retreat- ed southward. The Tories of North Carolina dared not rise as had been ex- ])ected by the Brit- ish, and the patriots of Virginia, free from danger of in- vasion, could devote their full strength to assisting their hard pressed neighbors. Early in the next year occurred the battle of Cowpens. South Carolina. There a detachment under Colonel Tarle- ton, one of Cornwallis's favorite cavalry officers, received a severe whipping from General Daniel Morgan. Two months later (March, 1781) General Greene, who had superseded Gates in the South, after leading Cornwallis himself a long chase, caused him to lose a fourth of his army at Guilford Court House, near the present city of Greensboro (March 15, 1781). Although Cornwallis claimed this battle was a ir- R.chm Ycktoo 1^ ^ ^'"'V. y^-\ "■• \ /^y\^ ^ ,.0-^^ ^arfc/K^ Cbar/ot\te \ V iy' SOuThX Aarov.* V X- / *l^U9U5fd ^^ y \ Ch Savannah t O 10 40 60 60 Scal< of mi ei Tile SoutlKTii War Area THE Rt:VOLUTIONARV WAR 195 British victory, he had had all the upland hghting he wished and hastened to withdraw to Wilmington on the coast. When news of this reached London it was moved in the House of Commons that the Ministry undertake to make peace, since, as Charles Fox said, "America is lost, irrev- ocably lost, to this country.'* The London Riots of 1780 They were caused hy popular discontent with the war in America and the hardships it entailed in England Indian hghting had taught the southerners methods and practises that the British knew nothing about. In the Caro- linas and Georgia bands of patriots, men who were "neither regulars nor militia, but who worked one day and fought the next," continually harried Cornwallis's men. Led by Francis Marion, "The Swamp Fox" ; Thomas Sumter, "The Game Cock" ; Andrew Pickens and Elijah Clark, these rangers would pounce upon them from forest, swamp and mountain glen, and then suddenly disappear. The siege of Yorktown. — Having failed to subdue the Carolinas and to catch Greene, the man who would "fight. 196 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY. get beaten and fight again,'" Cornwallis decided to move north into Virginia, where he hoped "to bag that boy," as he called Lafayette. Continuing the ravaging of the lower counties, which already the traitor Arnold had overrun, Cornwallis took up a position on the peninsula formed by the James and York Rivers. When Washington, who was still at his headquarters on the Hudson, heard this, he formed a plan by which he thought the war could be brought to a sud- den close. While Cornwallis rested and wrote letters, Lafayette was cutting off his retreat by land. Washington, aided by the large French army under Count Rochambeau which had recently arrived, kept Clinton's attention by threatening to attack New York. Count de Grasse took the French fleet Tlic Surrender at Vorktowii THE REVOLUTIOXARV WAR 197 into Chesapeake Bay to prevent the reinforcements or escape of Cornwallis. When all was ready, Washington's and Rochambeau's armies were marched to the head of Chesapeake Bay and ferried over to Yorktown. Cornwallis now was besieged by a force of nine thousand Americans and seven thousand French. For many days he was ex- posed to bombardment, and little by little the enemy's lines were closing in on him. At last, on October 19, 1781, seeing that further resistance was useless, he led his soldiers forth for surrender, while the band played TJic World Turned Upside Dozen. Gallant gentleman that he was, Washington would not humiliate Cornwallis by accepting his sword, and issued orders, "When they lay down their arms, don't hurrah." How the surrender was received. — It is not hard to pic- ture the joy of the patriots on receiving the tidings from Yorktown. W'ashington immediately despatched a courier to Philadelphia bearing the news to Congress. In the night of October twenty-fourth the messenger reached the city, and the inhabitants were aroused by the shouts of the night v/atchman, "Past three o'clock and Cornwallis is taken." Bells began to ring ; the streets resounded with cheers ; orators proclaimed the virtues of Washington and his sol- diers. Effect of the surrender in England. — The woeful tid- ings did not reach England until November twenty- seventh. Then Lord North, the prime minister, cried out in despair, "It is all over ! It is all over !" King George threatened to abdicate. The Tory majority in Parliament began to dwindle, for its policy had lost the American col- onies to England, and involved her in war with France, Spain and Holland. Russia, Denmark and Sweden, too, had formed a league against England ; the Irish were threaten- ing revolt, and the natives of India were turbulent. A few months later Lord North and his Tory Ministry resigned 198 OUR COUXTRY'S HISTORY and the king had to entrust the extrication of the countr} from its difficukies to Whig ministers responsible to Parha- ment instead of to himself. \\'ell might he say, "At last the fatal day has come which the misfortunes of the times and the changes of sentiment in the House of Commons have driven me to." The war on the sea. — When the war began Great Britain had two hundred and seventy armed ships and America had none. Gradually a "Continental Navy," which included at different times fifty-seven little vessels, was built. This navy did not risk any regular naval engagement, but did what damage it could to the British by raiding in the Bahama Islands and preying on their commerce. John Barry, an Irish-born patriot, commanded the first American squadron. The English tried to bribe him to enter their service by an ofifer of a hundred thousand dollars and the command of a frigate, but he scorned it in these words, "What the War Did to John Bull's Commerce" Tn this old cartoon the cow represents England's Commerce. The ^'ank^■us are sawing off Iier lioins. tlic Dutch are milking her, and the I'renchmen and Spaniards are helpini; tliemsclves to tlic milk. The English mercliant wrings his hands in despair, wliile the British lion sleeps -AUil its frigates arc high and dry THK RKV()LUTIOXAK\ \\A1-; 199 "Not the value .'iiul command of the whole British fleet can seduce me from the cause of my country." Early in the war dififerent states granted "letters of marque" to ship owners. These permitted their vessels to cirry armed men and guns, and to attack the enemy's commerce without exposing the crew to the charge of piracy if captured. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania each The Battle between the Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis, September 23. 1779 sent out about five hundred of these privateers. The crews were drawn mostly from the fisheries by the promise of adventure and "prize money." The cargoes of the plun- dered ships were always divided among the crew, and often the haul was a rich one. It is recorded that at the end of one voyage each sailor on a certain privateer received as his share of the proceeds, "seventeen hundred silver dollars, iwenty pounds of ginger and logwood, twenty pounds of cotton, thirty or forty gallons of rum and a ton o'f sugar." 200 OUR COUXTRY'S HISTORY Exploits of John Paul Jones. — The most famous naval officer of the Revolution was John Paul Jones. With his good ship Ranger he ventured to the very shores of Great Britain and attacked her commerce, and twice landed his men on British soil. After the French alliance this daring captain was placed in command of some French vessels. On the night of September 23, 1779, his flagship, Bonhommc Richard, attacked the British forty-five-gun frigate, Scrapis, off the northeastern coast of England. There was a terrific fight at close range, ending in the greatest humiliation the British navy had suffered in years — the surrender of the Sera pis. Indian depredations. — Soon after establishing the "Proclamation Line" the British Government bought from the Indians the territory between the Ohio and Tennessee Rivers (1768). Soon surveyors from Virginia were lay- ing oft* homesteads which were allotted the veterans of the French and Indian War. In 1776 the County of Kentucky was organized and settlers began to ar- r i v e by way of "Boone's Trace" or flatboats on the Ohio. When the Revolu- tionary War broke out the situation of the frontier settle- ments was distress- ing. The Iroquois took the side of the British and threat- ened to lay waste western New York and Pennsylvania. Uii I lie March to Vincenncs Farther west the Al- THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 201 gonquins, already aroused by the invasion of their hunting- grounds in the Ohio Valley, were only too willing to co- operate with General Hamilton, the British commandant at Detroit. The frontier settlements all the way from Wa- tauga to Pittsburgh were kept in a state of constant terror. To put a stop to these savage depredations George Rogers Clark, a young Virginia surveyor, obtained a military com- mission from Patrick Henry, the governor of his state. This authorized him to enlist a company of one hundred fifty men for the purpose of breaking up the British control of the whole region. \\'ith his force of daring backwoodsmen, Clark proceeded down the Ohio and with little difficulty took Kaskaskia and Cahokia. From there in the middle of winter he started to march to Vincennes. Through bogs and flooded lowlands, where the water was often up to the shoulders of his men, the two hundred miles were finally accomplished. Fort Vincennes was taken and Gen- eral Hamilton captured. This daring expedition not only saved the frontier settlements of Kentucky and Tennessee from further Indian outrages, liut more important still, made it easier to secure in the treaty of peace at the close of the war, an extension of the boundary to the ^Mississippi. The treaty of peace. — ^^'hen Parliament convened in Facsimile of the Signatures to tlic Treaty- of Paris 202 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 1782, George III announced, with tears in his eyes, that he was ready to acknowledge the independence of the thirteen "United Colonies of America." After months of negotia- tion, the American envoys, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams. John Jay and Henry Laurens agreed to a treaty which was finally signed at Paris, September 3, 1783. By its terms Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the several -Vmerican States, lying south of Canada, east of the Mis- >ai)ers, since published as a book called TJir Federalist, did mucli to win the confidence of the people. Fhgtu iiuin I iiair«ouJ .i,: L'ndenvuoU Federal Hall. New York. Showing tlie Iiiauuuration of Washington 2\S OUR COUNTRY'S TIISTORV Rhode Island and North CaroHna held aloof until after the Federal Government was organized, but at last, when they realized their inability to exist as independent nations, came into the union. Washington the first president. — Although the first Congress of the United States was summoned to convene at New York City on ]\Iarch 4, 1789, it was the sixth of -Vpril before a quorum of both houses was present. Its first work was to count the electoral votes and to proclaim George Washington the unanimous choice of the people for President and John Adams for vice-president. Washington's journey from his home at IMount Vernon on the Potomac River v.-as a triumphal march. On April 30, 1789, the man who had scorned a kingship a few years before Avhen the projiosal was placed before him by some of the officers in his army, now. wearing a brown suit with a dress sword, white stockings and silver-buckled shoes, took the oath of office on the balcony of Federal Hall, New York, while the onlookers below shouted, "Long live George Washington. Presirlent of the United v^tates." Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. When and where did the Constitutional Convention meet? How long was it in session ? Who was its presiding officer ? How many delegates attended this convention ? Which state failed to send delegates to the convention? Why? 2. In your note-book list the names of ten or more of the promi- nent men who attended the convention. Some of the ablest men in America took part in the delil)erations while other- equally able did not attend. For example, Thomas JeflFerson. John Adams, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henr\ and Richard Henry Lee were not present. Why? .1 Who was the oldest member of the convention? The youngest member? Who was called the "Father of the Constitution?" How many of the members were college graduates? 4. Observe that Hamilton's resolution offered at Philadelphia the year before related to a revision of the Articles of Confedera- tion, not the making of an entirely new constitution. The HOW THE CONSTITUTION WAS FRAMED 219 plan presented by James Madison provided for a new consti- tution. In otlier words, the convention was called to do one tiling, and proceeded to do an entirely different thing. \Miat was the reason for this revolutionary action ? .r What kind of a government did Madison's plan provide for? Was it finall}^ adopted ? (). Before the constitution could be made, it was necessary for the members to agree to three compromises : the Connecticut com- promise, the three-fifths compromise, and the slave trade com- promise. Try to understand each of these clearly. What does the word "compromise" mean? 7. How many delegates signed their names to tlie new Constitu- tion? Of these who had also signed the Declaration of Inde- pendence eleven years before? 8. Describe the struggle over the ratification of the Constitution. 9. It has been said that The Federalist is the greatest treatise on government that has ever been written. Who wrote it? What was its influence in the struggle for ratification? Which was the first state to ratify the new Constitution? Which was the ninth ? Prepare a table in your note-book showing the date and the order in wliich the thirteen states adopted the Constitu- tioti. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. Interesting things connected with the Constitutional Convention of 1787. 1. Why James Madison is justly entitled to be called the father of the Constitution. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side Lights on American History, Vol. I. pp. 37-64. 2. Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 121-133. 3. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 151-180. 4. Fiske's The Critical Period of American History. The English Colonies Revolt from Their Mother Country and Establish a New Nation I. Economic Conditions in the Colonies. A. The chief industries. 1. Farming. 2. Production of lumber and naval stores. 3. Fishing. 4. Fur trade 220 OUR COUXTR^■'S HISTORY 5. Manufacturinsj:. 6. Commerce. a. Hampered by Navigation Acts. B. Scarcity of coin among the colonies. 1. Things used as money. 2. Pine tree shillings of Massachusetts. 3. Paper money. C. The supply of labor. 1. Indentured servants. 2. Slaves. II. Soc lAL LlFi; IX THE CoLOXlES. A. Social distinctions. 1. Poor whites. 2. Middle class- — mechanics, shopkeepers and small farmers. .). Aristocratic class. V>. Religion. 1. The Established Churches. 2. The Presbyterian Churcli. 3. The Baptist Churcli. 4. The Methodist Cluirch. C. Education in the colonies. 1. First college foimded. 2. Tutors employed in tlic Soutli. III. C.VLSES OK THE ReVOLT OV THE CoEOXIES. .\. George III, stupid, obstinate, despotic, and the govern- ment corrupt. B. The old obnoxious acts enforced. 1. The Navigation Acts. 2. The Trade Laws. 3. The Manufacturing Act, C. The object of the Townshend Acts. 1. Resistance, violence, Boston Tea Party. I). The Intolerable Acts of 1774. 1. Boston Port Bill. 2. Regulation Act. 3. Quartering Act. 4. Quebec Act. E. Continental Congress drew up Declaration of Rights and Grievances, and passed Non-Importation Agreement HOW THE COXSTITUTIOX WAS I-RAMTD 2Z\ \y. The War Breaks Out. A. Fighting in the vicinity of Boston. B. The Declaration of Independence. C. The New York campaign. 1. The object wa,s to separate the New England Colo- nies from Middle Colonies. 2. Battle of Long Island. 3. Washington's retreat through New Jersey. 4. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. D. Campaign of 1777. 1. Battle of Brandywine Creek. 2. Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga. 3. The winter at Valley Forge. E. The war in the South. 1. Charleston and Savannah captured liy Britisli. 2. Battle of King's Mountain. 3. Battle of Cowpens. 4. Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown. 5. War on the sea; exploits of John Paul Jnnes, etc. F. Treaty of Peace. \'. Thk Goverxmext under the Articles oi- Coxfederatiox. .\. Obstacles in the way of their adoption. B. Weakness of the Articles. C. Ordinance of 1787. n. Critical period in the history of tiic country. 1. Shaj's' Rebellion. 2. Failure of the Articles. \'I. Making of the Coxstitution. A. Constitutional Convention. 1. The personnel. 2. The three important compromises. B. Ratification of the Constitution. 1. The Federalists. 2. The Anti-Federalists. CHAPTER XVIII THE FEDERALISTS IN CONTROL George Washington, President, I'/S^-iy^y John Adams, President, I'/^y-iSoi Organization of the new government. — The first presi- ilent and Congress of the United States had a difiicult task lo perform. Upon them devolved the duty of setting up the new governmental machinery which was to replace that cre- ated by the outworn Articles of Confederation. The Con- stitution vested the executive ]:>ower in the president ; but the duties of the office were too heavy for one person. Therefore, to assist him, three departments, presided over by secretaries, were created — the State Department, to look after relations with other countries ; the Treasury Depart- ment, to administer the finances of the nation ; and the War Department, to have charge of matters pertaining to the army and navy. An attorney-general was also provided to act as legal adviser to the president and the Departments. The first presidential Cabinet. — President Washington appointed Thomas Jetierson. of Virginia, secretary of state; Alexander Hamilton, of New York, secretary of the treas- ury ; General Henry Knox, of Massachusetts, secretary of war ; and lulmund Randolph, of Virginia, attorney-general. .Vlthough a ["'ederalist himself. W^ashington respected the opinions of the opposing party. As the government was for all the people he desired all political views represented, and appointed Anti-Federalists to the offices of secretary of state and attorney-general. He also inaugurated the custom of 222 THE FEDERALISTS TX CONTROL 223 summoning the three secretaries and the attorney-general to meet him as a "Cabinet" for the purpose of giving advice on questions of public poHcy. Every president up to the present time has followed this precedent, although the Departments have increased from three to ten. Under the Constitution, Congress established a Suj)reme George Wasliington Court consisting of a chief justice and five associate jus- tices. John Jay, of New York, was appointed the first chief justice of the United States. Establishing the government's credit. — The most seri- ous problem facing the new nation was the financial one. The credit lost under the Confederation must be recovered. 224 OUR COL'XTRV'S HISTOKV The war debts now amounted to tifty-four million dollars, for which the government had given bonds, certificates and other "promises to pay" ; and twelve million dollars' worth of this paper was i/wTa! ijiths. -^ \vith Intci-fft, at tT5^ R,i!t jpr Six j^^- Cneupit fKT^Atjism^ Irom tH>!^--rui/ other current Monty, Otjvf ,■'>/-. owned in Europe. The failure of the Confederation to pay even the interest on its bonds had almost destroyed the credit of the country. Hamilton's finan- cial measures. — Secretary Hamilton knew that among na- tions, as well as in- dividuals, credit de- pends on ability and disposition to pay debts promptly. He proposed to "fund"' all the indebtedness, by calling in the old securities and giv- ing in exchange bonds bearing inlorest and due at a certain future time. He also desired the government to assume the war obligations of the several states, amounting in all to twenty-one million dollars. Most of this money w^as due the wealthier class of citizens who paid a large proportion of the taxes. If assured that the government would redeem these old obligations, Hamilton thought they would not op- pose his taxation plans. These funding measures, however, met with violent op- ])Osition. It was argued that by redeeming the debts at face value a small part of the population would profit at the ex- pense of the many. To a large extent the original owners of the securities had sold them to speculators for as little n^f «■» .S^j-^itf »1» .^^fA ^ 'T^jf ,''^ Uif. n<)4 fU^. qf9- "^■. ^'^^ ^f-^- 97*t^i- ffp' If*- /99^. ■k^'y «»?»«'«*<' -_~- , „ ^ii.ti^ " Facsimile of a Portion of the "X Y Z Papers" The document was sent to the secretary of state in code (numbers') nnd the translation wns made nt Washington was called the "X Y Z Papers," because the French agents were referred to as Mr. X, Mr. Y and Mr. Z. Americans rightfully became angry and their sentiments were expressed by the slogan, "Millions for defense ; not one cent for tribute." Congress at once prepared for war. Washington was sum- moned from Alount Yernon and placed in command of the army. France retaliated by preying on .\merican commerce and capturing as many as a thousand vessels, lo arouse the fighting spirit of his countrymen Jose])h Ilopkinson. a Phila- delphia lawyer-poet, wrote the rousing song, Hail Coluuibia. Commodore Truxton put to sea with a squadron and cap- tured two French frigates. By this time Napoleon Bonaparte had made himself master of the French Government and, THK FRDKRALISTS IX CONTROL 233 From. 1 pointing 1 1\ I .1' Kcssiter ami L. K. Mijri" Washin.uton at Mount Vernon engrossed in a mighty contlict with England. Austria and Russia, he had no disposition to be bothered by a petty difficulty with the United States. Peace, therefore, was easily concluded in 1800. Alien and Sedition Laws. — While the patriots of the country were stirred by the X Y Z difficulty. President Adams took the opportunity to try to put a stop to the bit- ter things which the Anti-Federalists w^ere saying and pub- lishing in opposition to his policy. He persuaded Congress to enact the Alien and Sedition Laws. The Alien Law- authorized the president to expel from the country any for- eigner whose presence seemed to him dangerous. Though never really enforced, this act highly incensed the foreign residents, particularly recent Irish and French immigrants. The Sedition Law provided a penalty for those who uttered or published false or malicious statements about the presi- dent or government. Under this law the editors of several newspapers were brought to trial. 234 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY The Kentucky and Virginia resolutions. — The oppo- nents of a strong central government became alarmed over what they considered an invasion of the right of free speech and the liberty of the press, guaranteed by the Constitution. The legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky passed resolu- tions declaring the Alien and Sedition Laws unconstitu- tional. In these the contention was set up that a state could decide upon the constitutionality of Acts of Congress, and that it had a right to prevent the enforcement within its bor- ders of any act which it thought violated the Constitution. This was the doctrine of nullification. Virginia went so far as to prepare to exercise the right of secession which she had reserved at the time she ratified the Constitution. The two political parties. — The citizens of the United States of America were intensely loyal to the Constitution. Those who had opposed its adoption soon became its stanch supporters, and there was a general desire to make the new government enduring. In his selection of men for office Washington knew no such recommendation as "party loy- alty." He relied on three qualifications — integrity, capacity and conspicuousness. Differences of opinion about the meaning and application of the Constitution soon began to divide the people, and gave rise to two political parties. Hamilton and his followers be- lieved that the central government should have large au- thority. They constituted the Federalist party. Jefferson and his adherents insisted on limiting the powers of the central government to what the Constitution said it should do. They were at first called Republicans but later, when they favored the cause of the French Democrats, as the revolutionists were termed, they became known as Demo- crats or Democratic-Republicans. Federalists versus Democrats. — The Federalists included the large capitalists of the cities, the wealthy merchants, the manufacturers of New England and Pennsylvania, and THE FEDERALISTS TX CONTROL 235 those engaged in commerce. The Democratic-Repubhcans represented the "landed interests," or the small farmers of the North and South. They looked upon the Constitution as merely an agreement between "sovereign states" from which any could withdraw at will. To them there was noth- ing disloyal in the idea of nullification. The Federalists held that the states surrendered their sovereignty when they ratified the Constitution and entered the Union, and that afterward they could not secede or exercise any "rights" that would endanger the integrity of the nation. The state versus the Union. — The question as to whether the states or the Union should be supreme i)roved to l)e a momentous one. For sixty )'ears it kept politics in a turmoil. Neither side would yield, and finally the Ijattle of the weak against the strong, of the authority of the part against that of the whole, had to be fought out with guns in a bloody war between the states. To-day the nation stands supreme. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. The Constitution provided for a new government. Ask your teacher to assist you in studying it. Memorize its preamble. Learn the duties of the executive, legislative and judicial de- partments. Our rights are set forth in the first eight amend- ments to the Constitution. Study them. How many amend- ments were added to the Constitution when Washington was president? How many have been added since? 2. Whj' should the president have a Cabinet? Is it wise for a president to select his Cabinet officers from another party than his own? Name the men whom Washington appointed to his Cabinet. .\ ^^l^at was the most serious problem facing the new nation ? How did Hamilton propose to establish the credit of the United States? Why was his plan opposed? What did the location of the federal capital have to do with Hamilton's financial measures. Compare the District of Columbia on tlic map in your geography with that on page 225. What has happened? 236 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 4. What is a tax on foreign goods called? What is the purpose of such a tax? What is meant by a "protective tariflf"? What was Hamilton's purpose in recommending a tax on whisky and rum? What was his purpose in recommending a national bank? Did he succeed in both cases? How? WHiat question was raised by the whisky insurrection ? 5. Xame the new states created while the FtHleralists liad control of the government. 6. The French Revolution was one of the most momentous events in the history of the world. When did this revolution begin and how long did it last? What was its cause? The people in America took sides. If you had been living when Washington was president, do 3'ou think you would have been for or against the French people? Give reason for j'our answer. 7. Do you think Washington was wise in refusing to assist the French ? Laf aA-ette had assisted us. We fought with France against Germany in the World War of 1914-18. Why not then ? Debate : Resolved, that Washington acted wisely in refusing to give aid to France. 8. What caused the ill-feeling toward England? What was Jay's Treaty? WHiat is the difiference between making a treaty and making a law? Why did so many people hate England and love France ? What were the "X Y Z Papers" ? How was war with France prevented? '>. What were the alien and sedition laws ? Do you believe they should have been passed? Why? Have we an alien law to- daj'? Wh}'? ^^'hat were the Virginia and Kentucky resolu- tions ? 10. George Washington was one of the greatest statesmen of his- tory. Write in jour note-book an account of the character and achievements of Washington. Of George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall, John Fiske writes : "In the making of the government under which we live these five names stand be- fore all others." Learn definitely what each of the last four (lid. .Sl'UIKCTS ]IIK ITRTllKU STUDY 1. Causes and effects of the Frencli Revolution. 2. Rise of political parties. RIOKERENCliS 1. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, Chapters V and VI. 2. l^lson's Side Lights on Ameriean History. Cha])tcrs III and IV. .5. Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 103-171. CHAPTER XIX THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS IN POWER Thomas Jefferson, Prcsidoit, iSoi-i8op The election of Jefferson. — Until the Twelfth Amend- ment was added to the Constitution, political parties did not necessarily control presidential elections. Each elector voted for two candidates and the one receiving the larger number of votes was declared president, and the other vice-president. With the rise of political parties, the suc- cessful candidates could easily be op- posed to each other politically, and so the election would result in a president from one party and a vice- president from the other. This happened in John .\dams' ad- ministration, when Thomas Jefferson, a D e m o c r ;i t i c - Repub- lican, held second place. Well might the citizens, and espe- cially the politicians, view with alarm the result which probably □ Jefferson □ Adams Bilerritories —No Vote Distribution of Electoral Votes in the I'.k'Ction of 180() 237 238 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY would follow should death or disability remove the presi- dent from office while such a situation existed. The presidential election of 1800 a political revolution. — The campaign of 1800 was intensely bitter. Pointing to the Alien and Sedition Laws the Republicans accused the Federalists of being "Tories" and declared that, unless checked, they would change the republic into a monarchy. They insisted that those "aristocrats" had no sympathy at all for the "toiling masses." The Federalists denied this and called the Republicans "lying Jacobins" — the name given to the most bloodthirsty French revolutionists. They in- sisted that such incendiaries and anarchists would ruin the country. Beneath all the incrimination of the campaign there was much popular discontent with the rapidly increas- ing cost of the Federal Government, which had become two hundred per cent, greater than in 1792. IT92 1797 1801 Washingfon Adams , 1605 Jefferoon 809 1813 1817 Madison How tin- F.xpeiiflitiires of the Federal GnverntTient Increased THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS IN POWER 239 in the election Ihomas Jefferson, of \ irginia, and Aaron Burr, of New York, the Republican contestants, tied for lirst place, and John Adams came third. It devolved u])on the House of Representatives to settle the matter, and after a bitter contest, this Federalist body gave the presidency to Jeft'erson, as had been the intention of the voters. Four vears later the Constitution was so amended that, in the fu- Plloto fioui Vnderwuud & Undcru ood Thomas Jefferson \ 240 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ture, the electors would vote by separate ballot for presi- dent and vice-president. Jeffersonian simplicity. — lioth Washington and Adams were aristocrats in their manners. They were dignified in bearing and fastidious in dress ; they surrounded themselves with many servants and traveled in elaborate coaches. In- terviews with them were strictly by appointment. The weekly receptions were formal affairs where guests were greeted with ceremonious bo\vs. Jefferson and his follow- ers disapproved of this aloofness and proposed to replace the "stiff bow" with the more democratic handshake." On March 4, 1801, Jefferson was inaugurated president with the utmost simplicity. Instead of riding in state to the Capitol he walked there from his boarding-house and. dressed as a plain citizen, took the solemn oath of office. In his inaugural address Jefferson said that the government should consider the wishes of the whole people and he made an appeal for their cooperation in these words : "Let us then, fellow-citizens, unite wnth one heart and one mind. .... We all have been called by different names, breth- ren of the same principle. . . . \\'e are all Republicans; we are all Federalists." He also urged "equal and exact justice to all men, of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political ; peace, commerce and honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliance with none." Jefferson begins the practise of sending written mes- sages to Congress. — Jeff'erson abhorred formality. In- stead of reading his messages to Congress in joint session, as his predecessors had done, he communicated his views to it in writing. There were no more formal receptions but a cordial welcome awaited any visitor at the new and still un- fmished "White House." Neither president before him had appeared on the streets except in a "coach and four,"' but this ])lriin man of the people rode to the Caj)itol on bdrsc- THE DIQIOCRATIC-RKPUBLICAXS IX POWER 241 back and tied his horse to the hitching post with his own hands. He did not think it always necessary to "dress up for company," and on one occasion received the British ambassador in the dressing-gown and sHppers he happened to be wearing at the time. Making the country more democratic. — Jefferson needed all his courage and tact to meet the opposition to his ideas. The government offices were filled with Federalists. The Supreme Court was unfriendly to the Republican doc- trine of state rights and "strict construction," especially since just before going out of office President Adams had appointed John Marshall, an ardent Virginia Federalist, as chief justice. Nevertheless, the promised reforms were carried out. Believing that the ship owners should get along in time of peace without the protection of war-ships, Jeffer- son cut down the navy. Abandoning the threatening policy of the Federalists in dealing with foreign nations, he was able to reduce the army. The good will of the small farmers in remote settlements was restored when Congress, on the president's recommendation, repealed the obnoxious inter- nal taxes. By strict economy in the conduct of the govern- ment, Albert Gallatin, his efficient secretary of treasury, was able to begin the reduction of the national debt. All of these reforms had been effected without disturbing the pros- perity of the nation, and as a result Jeft'erson carried nearly every state in the election of 1804. Napoleon's American scheme. — Soon after Napoleon i')Onaparte made peace with the United States in 1800. he persuaded Spain to make a secret treaty with him ceding Louisiana to France in exchange for a small province in Italy. During the next two years he had won a series of battles that made him master of Europe, but still his ambi- tion was not realized. Aiming to build up for France a world empire he turned his attention to America. Formerly the 242 OUR COUNTRY'S lliSTORV French had a colony on the western end of Haiti, but in 1791 its inhabitants had declared their independence. Na- poleon now despatched an expedition thither to compel them to return to their former allegiance for it w^as his intention to use this colon}- as a base for the French coloniza- tion of Louisiana. The Dominicans, as the inhabitants were called, led b}- a negro general. Touissaint L'Ou- verture, resisted valiantly and were assisted by an epi- demic of yellow fever that almost wiped out the Frenchmen. Na- poleon's schemes had gone amiss and by this time he had need of all his forces at home. He was about to become involved in a struggle with England which was destined not to close until liis meteoric career had been ended. The westerners covet New Orleans. — New Orleans was the gateway to the vast area sloping westward from the .Appalachians to the Mississippi River. Its half million peo- ple produced large quantities of grain, pork, cheese, butter and whisky, which they had much difficulty in transporting to market. To freight it by the newly-made highway lead- ing west from Philadelphia cost one hundred and twenty- Napoleon Bonaparte THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS IN POWER 243 five dollars a ton, a prohibitive price. From the settlements in the Ohio Valley to New Orleans was a long journey. The sluggish river offered so much danger from sandbars and snags, and such insecure anchorage, that sailing vessels did not attempt to ascend even to the mouth of the Ohio. Excepting droves of hogs which were frequently driven across the mountains to market, the produce of this section had to be floated on flatboats to New Orleans. Here it was sold to merchants who had it shipped by sea to Atlantic ports. Most of the flatboats were home-made affairs which 1 etching Western "Arks." as tlie Flatboats Were Popularly Called, at New Orleans were broken up and disposed of as lumber when they reached their destination. Friction with the Spanish in New Orleans. — The rapid settling. of the western lands, which had begun before the close of the Revolutionary War, was attended by con- stant friction with the Spanish authorities at New Or- leans. Although by treaty Spain had agreed that the navi- gation of the Mississippi should be free, her officials there exacted such large fees for permission to sell goods that it often cost the westerners one-fifth of the value of their mer- chandise to be allowed to dispose of it. In 1795 the United States finally persuaded Spain to agree that goods from its western settlements might be taken into New Orleans and stored there for reshipment free of any taxation. Regard- 244 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY less of this when the governor was officially informed that Louisiana had been ceded to France he suddenly closed the port to all river commerce (October 16, 1802). The west- erners were furious and threatened to make war independ- ently. This time, in their demands, they had the sympathy of the seaboard states. Previously the latter had opposed trouble with Spain over the river commerce, but now they were alarmed at the prospect of a French province on the west. The purchase of Louisiana. — When rumors of the se- cret treaty between France and Spain reached Jefferson he Was much disturbed and wrote : "There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and ha- bitual enemy. It is New Orleans." He authorized Robert Livingston, Minister to France, to make secret advances to the French Government in reference to securing West Florida and New Orleans. Facsimile of the Signatures to the Treaty Ceding Louisiana to the United States THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS IN POWER 245 Before Napoleon could take possession of his American province Great Britain had declared war on him. In need of money for the new war and alarmed lest Great Britain might seize the territory, the emperor decided to sell it. Jefiferson had sent James Monroe to assist Livingston in negotiating a purchase of New Orleans and a strip extend- ing to the gulf. After some haggling Livingston and Mon- roe agreed to pay fifteen million dollars for the entire "col- ony or province of Louisiana, with the same extent that it now has in the hands of Spain." This purchase added over eight hundred thousand square miles to the United States and more than doubled its area. Napoleon seems to have been the only one who fully appreciated the importance of the transaction, for, while sign- ing the transfer, he remarked : "This accession of territory es- tablishes forever the power of the United States. I have given to England a mari- time rival that will sooner or later humble her pride." Jefferson criticized by Federalists. — Many American politicians, how- ever did not be- Raising the American Flag at New Or- ' 'leans during the Ceremonies Attending lieve that future the Transfer of Louisiana I 246 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY advantage justified such a disregard of "constitutional rights." Never had the FederaHsts assumed such flexibility for the Constitution as did the agents of the Republican administration, and now it was these loose constructionists who raised the cry of unconstitutionality. After a long de- bate, the Senate finally approved the treaty, and on Decem- ber 29, 1803, the lowering of the French tri-colors in New Orleans and the raising of the stars and stripes proclaimed that Louisiana had become part of the United States. Organization of the public domain. — The people of the newly-acquired domain were French and Spanish. Not only did they speak foreign tongues but they were, of course, wholly unfamiliar with the new government to which they now owed allegiance. For these reasons Congress did not deem the province capable of any degree of self-govern- ment, and divided it into two territories, called Orleans and Louisiana. Both were to be governed direct from Washing- ton, but such strong protests were at once made by the in- habitants of the southern territory (Orleans) that in 1805 they were allowed to organize a territorial government. Admission of Ohio and organization of new territories. — In 1803 the Territory of Ohio was admitted as the seven- teenth state, and the remainder of the Northwest Territory was then divided into two new territories — Indiana, with its capital at Vincennes, and Michigan, administered from Detroit. The year before, Georgia had ceded the lands lying west of her present limits to the Federal Govern- ments, and these were organized into the Mississippi Terri- tory, with Tennessee as its northern boundary and the Mississippi River as its western. Indian policy in new territories. — A definite policy for dealing with the Indians in these new territories was adopted. Their lands were to be purchased from them in large tracts and thrown open for settlement. Efiforts were to be made to teach the red men civilized ways of living and to induce THE DEAIOCRATIC-REPUBLICAXS IX POWER 247 them to take up farming. Jefferson foresaw that unless they would "intermix and become one people" with the white settlers, they must eventually be pushed beyond the Mississippi. The Hudson Bay Company. — About 1670 two French- men, Radisson and Groseilliers, went to England to seek aid in establishing a fur-trading company to operate north and west of the Great Lakes. In this proposition Charles II saw a chance to enrich his impoverished cousin, Prince Ru- pert. He therefore granted a charter to the "Honourable Company of Merchant Adventurers Trading into Hudson's Bay," and Prince Rupert became its nominal head. By the terms of this charter the company was permitted to operate throughout the region drained by the streams flowing into the bay, but "not to trespass within the territory occupied by any other Christian prince." The agents in America were far from headquarters and did about as they pleased. The result was that they pushed far beyond the established bounds and built up a profitable trade with the Indians in the Northwest. The Pacific coast fur trade. — In 1728, Vitus Bering, a Dane in the Russian service, discovered the straits separat- ing Asia from North America. By the beginning of the Revolutionary War the Russian Government had built a fort at Sitka, Alaska, and its fur-traders were creeping slowdy down the coast toward the Spanish settlements in California. At about this time Captain James Cook, an English trader, arrived in the North Pacific and took on some sealskins. When Cook reached China he easily sold there for fifteen thousand dollars furs which the Indians had been glad to exchange for a common steel chisel. As soon as news of this got abroad many traders set sail for the North Pacific. Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island be- came their rendezvous and both England and Spain laid claim to it. In 1790 the two nations came to an a ihe Embargo Rebus from a Newspaper on cargoes in of the Day the United States. in how many ways does it spell _,, _, "Embargo will ruin us"? 1 he Embargo Act availed the country nothing for, although the British mer- chants clamored loudly, their government did not modify its "Orders in Council." In the United States the situa- tion was distressing. The seizure of shipping had been bad enough, but that loss had fallen on the wealthy own- ers. Now the whole country was affected. Hundreds of vessels were tied up to the wharves ; between thirty and forty thousand sailors were out of work ; the southern planters and western farmers could not dispose of their produce ; money was scarce and every one wanted to sell out. There was an enormous increase in smuggling goods to Florida and the West Indies, from which the dishonest 254 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY made large profits. When the government passed laws to prevent this the New Englanders became enraged. State officials encouraged the ship owners to disregard them and it looked at one time as though secession might result. The legislatures of Massachusetts and Connecticut, fol- lowing the example set by Virginia and Kentucky a few years before, resolved that a state had the right to nullify the obnoxious "O Grab Me" Act, as it was sarcastically called (spelling "embargo" backward). Public sentiment was so aroused that Jefferson was compelled within a year to consent to the lifting of the embargo. Congress then substituted a "Non-Intercourse Act." This permitted trade with all nations except France and England, but, as there was little commerce to be had with other nations than these, it is doubtful whether much relief was aft'orded. Jefferson refuses a third term. — President Jeft'erson re- fused to listen to the entreaties of his friends to become a candidate for a third term. He declared, "General Washington set the example of a voluntary retirement after eight years. I shall follow it, and a few more precedents will oppose the ob- stacle of habit, after a while, to any who shall endeavor to ex- tend his term.'' And from that day to this no president, no matter how much he wishes to see his i)olicies continued, has accepted a nomination for a third term. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. No president did more to shape the poHcy of our government than did Thomas Jefferson. Tabulate in your note-book all "Monticello," Jefferson's Home Near Charlottesville, Virginia THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICANS IN POWER 255 the facts you can find about him. He was a versatile man in his accomplishments. What does this mean ? What did Jeffer- son do to make our country more democratic ? Debate : Re- solved, that Jefferson was a greater statesman than Wash- ington. 2. Write in your note-book a clear statement regarding the Louisi- ana Purchase, the greatest event in Jefferson's administra- tions, using the following outline : (a) Why Napoleon was willing to sell Louisiana, (b) Why Jefferson was willing to purchase Louisiana, (c) Method of purchase, (d) Result of purchase, (e) What was done with the new domain. Draw a map of this territory and locate the states and parts of states carved out of it. 3. What position did Jefferson take in regard to the country west of the Mississippi River? Write in your note-book a descrip- tion of the explorations of Lewis and Clark. What was the Oregon Country? What was the purpose of the Pike expedi- tion? What good results came from these expeditions? 4. Name the countries that interfered with the rights of American citizens and explain how Jefferson managed the situation. Did his plan have public approval? Do you think his foreign policy showed strength or weakness? Give reason for your answer. What was the effect of the Embargo Act on Amer- ican shipping? Why was it repealed? 5. Why did Jefferson refuse to become a candidate for a third term? Is it wise to limit the presidency of a great statesman to two terms only? SUBJECTS I'OR FURTHER STUDY L The Political Revolution of 1800. 2. Jeffersonian democracy. 3. Napoleon's American scheme. 4. Exploration of the country west of the Mississippi River. REFERENCES 1. Hart's Foriiiation of the Union, pp. 176-209. 2. Elson's Side Lights on /hncrican History, Chapter VI. 3. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, Chapter VII. 4. McMurry's Pioneers of the Roeky Mountains and the IVest, Chapter I. 5. Tappan's Anicricaii Hero Stories, pp. 207-217. CHAPTER XX WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN James Madison, President, j8op-i8iy Repeal of the Non-Intercourse Act. — James Madison, who succeeded Thomas Jefferson as president, had been secretary of state in his Cabinet and was equally favorable to a policy of peace. By strict economy the Democratic- Republicans had paid off forty million dollars of the na- tional debt and they did not wish to start now increasing it. The Eml^argo Act had greatly irritated both England and France and they retaliated by seizing every American vessel possible. In 1809, shortly before Madison became presi- dent, the British minister at Washington agreed that the "Orders in Council" should be lifted if the United States would repeal its Non-Intercourse Act. Congress, in special session, hastened to repeal the obnoxious act, with a proviso that should either of the warring powers withdraw its meas- ures against neutral commerce then it would at once be revived with respect to the other. Madison then issued a proclamation that commerce might be renewed with Great Britain and a whole fleet of American ships set sail for England. \Mien they arrived the captains found that the British Government had not authorized the agreement, and that the "Orders in Council" were still in force. Napoleon's trick. — Napoleon pretended friendship for the United States and apparently suspended his decrees for- bidding trade with England, so that the Non-Intercourse Act would be lifted against France. As soon as enough Ameri- 256 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 25; can ships had come into French ports to make it worth while, he suddenly ordered them confiscated and thus captured "prizes" worth over ten million dollars. At last Madison decided to take steps to protect Ameri- can shipping. He ordered a squadron to patrol the coast and to stop the British men-of-war, which still hovered just outside the principal ports, from holding up and searching American vessels. One of this squadron, the frigate Presi- dent, fought a duel with the British war-ship Little Belt, not far from the Virginia Capes. In the engagement the Little Belt was so badly damaged that the United States felt the "Chesapeake outrage" had at last been avenged. Indian difBculties. — For some time the settlers in the Northwest Territory had looked with longing eyes on the fertile lands belonging to the red men in dififerent parts of that country, but the Indians had shown little disposition to part with them. The European wars had put a stop to all demand for furs and many of the Indians were actually suf- fering for necessities. This gave General William H. Har- rison, the governor of Indiana Territory, an opportunity to purchase several large tracts in the Kaskaskia region and along the Wabash River. Some of the tribes which had not The Battle of Tippecanoe near Lafayette. Indiana 258 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY been party to the sale resented the invasion of settlers in what had been their ancestral hunting-grounds. Tecumseh and his brother, The Prophet, two Shawnee chieftains, de- clared that the lands were the common property of the In- dians and that they could not be sold without joint action by all the related tribes. Urged on without doubt by British of- ficials in Canada, they planned a conspiracy of the tribes be- tween the Alleghany IMountains and the Mississippi River. While Tecumseh was visiting some of the southern Indians on this mission. General Harrison set out from Vincennes and attacked The Prophet's village on Tippecanoe River, a branch of the Wabash. In this fight the Indians were so com- pletely routed that there was no more serious difficulty with them in that particular section. As a result of Tecumseh's appeals, the Creeks, who lived in what is now Alabama, became incensed against the whites and attacked Fort Mimms, near Mobile, murdering over four hundred of the inhabitants (1813). By the end of the year seven thousand men from Georgia, Tennessee and Mississippi Territory had set out for the Creek country to put a stop to such outrages forever. After some skirmishes, General Andrew Jackson, with a force of Tennessee sharp- shooters, surrounded the main body of Indians at Horse- shoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Most of the Creeks who escaped from this battle fled to Florida. The Creek power was broken and soon after they were compelled to part with most of their lands. . War is declared. — When Congress assembled in De- cember, 1811, the new leaders of the House of Representa- tives were eager for war with Great Britain. They were young men who knew nothing directly of the suffering occa- sioned by the Revolutionary War. Henry Clay, of Ken- tucky, was made speaker. From South Carolina came John C. Calhoun, destined for forty years to be the leading ex- ponent of southern views on the floors of Congress. A new WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 259 face on the Federalist side was Daniel Webster, a brilliant young Massachusetts lawyer. Feeling against Great Britain ran high among the south- ern and western delegations. The "War Hawks," as the followers of Clay and Calhoun were called, cherished the Republican sympathy for France, and with eloquent pleas for "sailors' rights," they demanded war on England. Clay even insisted that the "militia of Kentucky alone" could cap- ture Upper Canada and then peace could be dictated from Halifax or Quebec. Calhoun, in disgust with the president, declared, "W^e have had a peace like a zvar." The Fed- eralist members from New England violently opposed the "War Hawks." They were subservient to interests which, because of long-standing commercial relations, naturally sympathized with England in her Napoleonic wars. They insisted that the "administration could not be kicked into a war," and charged that the whole business was a scheme to aid Napoleon. Opposition to the wishes of his own party would mean de- feat for Madison in the election a few months ofif, so he sent a message to Congress recommending that it declare war on Great Britain for the following reasons : (1) Disrespect shown the American flag by the hailing of vessels and impressment of seamen. (2) The virtual blockading of American ports with war- ships. (3) Interference with American commerce by its "Or- ders in Council." (4) Inciting the Indians of the Northwest Territory to conspire against American citizens. On June 18, 1812, by order of Congress, President Mad- ison proclaimed a state of war existent between Great Britain and the United States. American unpreparedness and its results. — There was truth in the Federalist contention that "our enemy is the 260 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY greatest maritime power that has ever been on the earth." The British navy was a formidable array of a thousand war- ships bristHng with from seventy to one hundred and twenty guns each. The British soldiers had learned the art of war through maneuvering against the world's greatest military genius. To meet these the United States had to depend on "an army of raw recruits yet to be raised, and a navy of gunboats stranded on the beaches and frigates that have long been rotting in the slime of the Potomac." Under the Democratic-Republican administration military expenditures had been small. The United States had but twelve regular' men-of-war, the largest carrying forty-four guns, and two hundred small gunboats useful for coast defense only. The little army of seven thousand was untrained and its officers incompetent. The war must be financed by the sale of bonds, for Congress would not vote any internal taxes. Canada was the natural place to start hostilities, and three armies were ordered to move forward for its invasion — one by way of Detroit, another by crossing over at Niagara, and the third by the old Hudson-Champlain route. It was in- tended for these expeditions to unite for the final reduction of the country, but the whole campaign ended in failure. From an old print Fort Dearborn and the Old Indian Agency on the Site of Chicago in 1812 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 261 General William Hull surrendered Detroit to a force of Ca- nadians and Indians without any show of resistance. At Queenstown Heights, near Niagara, the Americans were driven back across the river. General Dearborn, command- ing the forces in the East, did not even reach Canadian soil. The United States was a long way from dictating terms at Quebec or Halifax, for the Canadians had overrun about half of Maine, much of the Lake Champlain region and all of Michigan ; and their Indian allies had taken Fort Dear- born, where Chicago now stands. War on the seas. — Three months after the declaration of war the American frigate Constitution met the British frigate Gnerricre off Nova Scotia and demon- strated the abil- ity of the "fir built things" to cope with the much boasted English navy. In half an hour the Guerriere was forced to sur- render, a shattered hulk without a spar left standing. The United States defeated the Macedonia off the African coast ; the Essex rounded Cape Horn and played havoc with the British whalers in the Pacific ; and the Hornet sank the Peacock in South American waters. So true was the fire of the American gunners that in a few months the British lost almost as many vessels as they had in twenty years' fighting with the French. Both English and American privateers preyed on each other's commerce, but here again the United States had the advantage. During the war the British losses numbered twenty-five hundred merchantmen and the Ameri- From an old iirint A "Hornet" Met a "Peacock" — Poor Peacock ! 262 OUR COUXTRV'S HISTORY can only one-fifth as many. So bold became the "Yankees" in their incursions about the British Isles that English ship owners were actually afraid to risk the short voyage to Ireland. Perry's brilliant victory on Lake Erie. — With possession of Michigan, the British only lacked control of Lake Erie to make them masters of the Northwest. Oliver H. Perry, a Perry Transferring His Flag during the Battle of Lake Erie young naval officer, was despatched to the Lake to prevent this. He built a fleet of small vessels from the timber which stood near the shore, and on September 10, 1813, gave battle to Commodore Barclay's squadron off Put-in-Bay. In the beginning of the engagement Perry's flagship Lazt.'- rence was shattered and all but eight of the crew either killed or wounded. Jumping into a rowboat the brave cap- tain transferred his flag to the Niagara amid a hot fire from the British war-ships. Fifteen minutes later Barclay was compelled to "strike his colors" and surrender what was left of his six ships. Tearing a page from a letter in his pocket. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 263 Perry wrote to General Harrison, who was not far away in northeastern Ohio, "We have met the enemy and they are ours." Harrison at once set out for the invasion of Canada. At the Thames River he inflicted such a decisive defeat on the British and their Indian allies that Detroit and Michi- ,2;an Territory were restored to American control. The last year of the vvrar. — Napoleon was defeated in 1814 and England, rid of this enemy, could now turn her whole fighting strength against the United States. With her navy she began to "bottle up" the American war-ships as fast as they returned to United States ports. After that, it was only under cover of fog or darkness that Yankee captains were able to slip through the blockade and put to sea. Captain James Lawrence, venturing forth from Boston with the CJicsapcake, was overhauled by the Shannon. In the brief engagement which followed, every officer on board the Chesapeake was either killed or wounded. As Lawrence was being borne from the deck dying, he gasped, "Don't give up the ship !" which became at once the slogan of the American navy. With her fleets supported by a large army, Great Britain expected almost at the same time to reduce the Atlantic sea- board, invade the Northern States by way of Lake Cham- plain, and ascend the Mississippi River and take New Or- leans. On September 11, 1814, a small American squadron engaged the invaders on Lake Champlain not far from Plattsburg and although greatly outnumbered, captured most of their vessels. Alarmed by this disaster the British army, which was already across the border, retreated hastily to Canada, and the projected invasion was abandoned. Meanwhile, the war-ships were ravaging the coast. Ad- miral Cochrane entered Chesapeake Bay with twenty-one vessels and landed several thousand troops (August, 1814), which started overland for the purpose of laying waste Washington. So sudden was this invasion that President 264 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Ruins of the Capitol This picture is taken from an old book published soon after the burn- ing, which claimed the destruction was the revenge of justice for the sale of slaves in the District of Columbia Madison and his Cabinet barely escaped capture. The Cap- itol, the White House and other public buildings were set on fire to avenge the burning of the government building at York, now Toronto, Canada, a year before. Alexandria, on the Virginia side of the Potomac, was despoiled of large quantities of flour, cotton and tobacco. From Washington the British started for Baltimore, but their advance was so vigorously opposed that it was decided to halt and await the reduction of the city's principal de- fense, Fort McHenry, by the fleet. For a day and night this fort was subjected to a heavy bombardment, but its ramparts stood unshaken. Francis Scott Key, a young Baltimore law- yer, had gone within the British lines to seek the release of a friend detained there as a prisoner of war, and as the fight was about to begin he was held until it was over. From a vessel Key watched through the night the fiery rain of shot and shell which fell on Fort McHenry. In his joy at finding the flag still flying when the clouds lifted the next morning, he composed the stirring lines of The S tar-Spangled Banner: WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 265 "Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's early hght. What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming. Oh, say, does that star-spangled banner yet wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?" NEW ORLEANS AND VICINITY Disheartened by their failure to reduce the fort, the British gave up the attempt to take Baltimore and sailed away southward. Along the South Carolina coast they re- newed their depredations — plantations were pillaged, bridges destroyed and villages laid waste. The battle of New Orleans. — Their raiding of the coast completed, the British proceeded to New Orleans. They hoped to surprise the place and repeat the panic of Wash- ington. But to be ready for an attack General Jackson had been sent there with a strong force of Kentucky and Ten- nessee militiamen. Jackson anticipated that the British would not ascend the Mississippi from the Gulf, but instead try to slip in by the more circuitous route through the bayous and lakes to the east of New Orleans. From a smuggler he soon learned that a strong force under Sir Edward Paken- ham was approaching by way of Lake Borgne, and imme- diately began obstructing the bayous leading to the city. However, Jackson failed to close Bayou Bienvenu, and by this route Pakenham advanced to Chalmette Plantation, a few miles below New Orleans. During the next two Scale of Miles 266 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY weeks the soldiers, aided by citizens and their slaves, built strong redoubts out of logs, earth and even cotton bales. By arming every available man, including convicts and free negroes, Jackson succeeded in mustering about seven thou- sand troops, while Pakenham had fully ten thousand. Early in the morning of January 8, 1815, the British moved for- ward to charge the American works. From within their entrenchments the keen-eyed Yankee gunners with deadly The Battle of New Orleans Notice in the background the British soldiers advancing in solid ranks aim mowed down column after column advancing in close formation. In twenty-five minutes it was over. General Pakenham along with two thousand of his men had met death, while on the American side only twenty-one had fallen. Soon after, the British withdrew to Pensacola where the news that a treaty of peace had been signed two weeks before the battle of New Orleans reached them. Opposition to the war. — The Federalists of New Eng- land had always opposed the war, but as it progressed they became intensely bitter. Injurious as the Embargo and Non- Intercourse Acts had been to them, the war was much WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIX 267 worse. Their coast towns had been raided ; their commerce destroyed ; their seaports blockaded. The government gave them no protection even after half of Maine had been in- vaded by Canadians. So disloyal were some of the gov- ernors that they refused to furnish militia for service out- side of their own states, or to allow them to serve under any but their owni officers. In 1813 the Massachusetts Sen- ate had resolved that "the war was waged without justifiable cause." Many wealthy New Englanders refused to buy gov- ernment bonds, but purchased those issued by Great Britain. The national debt had been tripled in two years, now being one hundred twenty-one million dollars, and many were sure the nation would never be able to pay its obligations. The Hartford Convention. — In December, 1814, dele- The Disloyalty of New England In this old cartoon Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut are about to jump into John Bull's arms, while Maine prays for guid- ance. (Mass.) — What a dangerous leap! but we must jump. Brother Conn. (Conn.) — I can not, Brother Mass. Let me pray and fast some lit- tle longer. Little Rhode Island will jump it first. (Rhode Is.) — Poor little I. What will liecnme of me' This leap is of frightful si7f. I sink into despondency. 268 OUR COUXTRY'S HISTORY gates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut met informally at Hartford to devise means of defense, and to arrange for calling a convention to revise the Con- stitution so as to reduce the influence of the Southern and Western States. As its meetings were secret many suspicions were aroused, and the Democratic-Republicans insisted the convention was laying plans for secession. Like the Virginia Resolutions of 1798, its report declared that the violation of the Constitution was so "deliberate, dangerous and palpable" as to endanger the liberties of the people and make it the duty of a state "to interpose its authority for their protection." Massachusetts sent to Washington a dele- gation to demand that the state be allowed to keep for her own defense a part of the national taxes collected within her borders. When the gentlemen reached the capital they were chagrined to learn that hostilities were ended and the Treaty of Ghent had been signed. The Treaty of Ghent. — By the autumn of 1814 Great Britain realized that to win the war was going to be very costly. Her people were worn out by their struggle with Napoleon and, now that Europe was at peace, did not view with favor another long-drawn-out war. Already British commerce had been driven from the seas and the merchants and ship owners were demanding peace. It was easy, there- fore, for the envoys of the two countries to agree on terms ; and on Christmas Eve, 1814, a treaty was signed at Ghent, Belgium, reestablishing friendly relations. Free trade and sailors' rights were not mentioned, but all territory which had been seized was restored. The United States had shown the world that it could and would defend its rights, and that no country might invade them with impunity. Economic consequences of the war. — The Embargo Act and Non-Intercourse Act had resulted in the develop- ment of much manufacturing. The capital which had once been invested in fisheries and trade was now employed in WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 269 building and equipping factories and mills. The prospect for large returns was especially good since imports had been cut off. Between 1803 and 1814 fifty new manufacturing companies were started in Massachusetts alone. In 1803 the United States had five small cotton mills; by 1815 over fifty million dollars had been invested in new ones, and most of them were in New England. The smelting of iron ore and the making of iron goods had also increased by leaps and bounds. As soon as peace was declared, English merchants began sending their surplus stocks to America to be sold at auction for whatever they would bring, and by 1815 goods worth two hundred and fifty million dollars had been received. In order to keep every dollar possible at home, several Eu- ropean governments passed laws against the importation of grain and other produce such as the United States had for sale. The effect of all this was that the New England manu- facturers could not find a market for their output, and so had to shut down their mills, and many became bankrupt. The New Jersey iron works put out their fires and went out of busi- ness. The farm- ers, too, were hard hit. The price of . , How tlie House of Representatives Voted wool became so on the Tariff Act of 1816 □ No. □ Yes Not Voting Territories -No Vote. 270 OUR COUXTRV'S HISTORY low that fine imported sheep were sent to the butcher. Lou- isiana sugar cane could not compete with that from Cuba and Jamaica ; cotton bagging from England undersold that made from Kentucky hemp; western grain became a drug in the market. ^\'hat in 1789 had been demanded only by the northern manufacturing interests was now the common desire of small Democratic-Republican farmers as well as rich Fed- eralist mill owners. So in order to appease all classes a Democratic-Republican president and Congress enacted in 1816 the country's first "tariff for protection" law. This imposed duties on foreign-made goods at a rate sufficient to raise the selling price to a level at which domestic manufac- turers could compete. Paper money and unstable prices during the war. — In 1811 the charter of the United States Bank had expired, and as the Democratic-Republicans had always opposed a national bank Congress refused to renew it. As a consequence, during the war, the banks stopped "specie payment," that is, redeeming their notes in gold and sil- ver coin. "Hard money" at once disappeared from cir- culation and every one had to get along with currency of doubtful value, since in those days any one could issue paper money. The result was that prices became unstable and varied according to the kind of notes tendered in pay- ment. The demand for "hard money" and stable prices was now so insistent that the Democratic-Republicans were also compelled to grant a new charter to the United States bank (1817). Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. How were England and France affected by the Embargo and the Non-Intercourse Acts? How did these acts affect us? How did Napoleon deceive Madison ? 2. Who were the "War Hawks"? "How did they differ from Jef- ferson and Madison? What portion of the country wanted WAR WITPI GREAT BRITAIN 271 war? Why? What portion of the country opposed war? Why? 3. Which nation gave the United States more cause for resent- ment, France or England ? Why did we not go to war with France? Why did Congress declare war against England? 4. What were the arguments of the opponents of the war? What were some of the acts of the Democratic-Republican admin- istrations which made it difficult for the United States to wage a war successfully? 5. Write in your note-book a brief sketch of the war on land. Why were the Americans unsuccessful in most of the engagements on land? Why were we more successful on the sea? Describe Perry's victory on Lake Erie. Why did the British destroy the White House and the Capitol building in Washington ? 6. The Star-Spanglcd Banner is our national hymn. Commit the words to memory, and learn to sing it. 7. The battle of New Orleans was fought after peace had been declared. Why? Such a thing is not possible to-daj-. Why? How do you explain the remarkable success of General Jack- son in the battle of New Orleans? 8. Write in your note-book the provisions of the Treaty of Ghent? Note that one of the specific reasons assigned for going to war was not mentioned in the treaty. 9. Learn clearly some of the results of the second war with Great Britain upon our industrial life. Compare the War of 1812 with the War of the Revolution in the following respects : (a) causes, (b) duration, (c) generalship on land, (d) en- gagements on the sea, (e) results. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Hartford Convention and the question of secession. 2. Effects of the War of 1812 on industry. REFERENCES 1. Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 209-222. 2. Hart's How Our Grandfathers Lived, pp. 243-249, 274-282. 3. Thompson's History of the United States, P olitical-I ndustrial- Social, pp. 137-148 (for the teacher). 4. Hale's Man without a Country (fiction). CHAPTER XXI GOOD FEELINGS AND HARD TIMES James Monroe, President, iSij-iSs^ John Quincy Adams, President, 182 5-18 2Q James Monroe becomes president. — Since the passage of the AHen and Sedition Laws the Federahst party had been steadily losing ground. Opposition to the war had cost it many friends ; and the encouragement given the Hart- ford Convention by Federalist leaders had completed its ruin. In the election of 1816 the Federalists nominated no candidates, so James Monroe, the Democratic-Republican nominee, was elected almost without opposition. The new president had been Madison's secretary of state and was the last veteran of the Revolutionary War to preside over the government. The sight of his old uniform, which he still wore, touched the hearts of even the staunchest Federalists, and his cordial disposition made friends for him everywhere. Era of good feeling. — During the summer of 1817 Madison made a tour of the Northern States, appealing to the people to lay aside their jealousies and "pull together" for the national welfare. In an article headed the Era of Good Feeling a Boston newspaper said : "Party feelings and animosities have been laid aside and one great national feeling has animated every class of citizens." The three sections. — The three sections of the country differed widely from those of fifty years before. The North included the New England States, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The South comprised the whole area from the Potomac to the Gulf of Mexico with the addition 272 GOOD FEELINGS AND HARD TIMES 273 of Delaware, Maryland and Louisiana. The West ex- tended from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River and beyond. With their varying climatic and indus- trial conditions, the three sections had radically dififerent ideas in regard to national legislation. Each was disposed to take a strictly local view of every question that arose. Slavery was the one which caused the greatest difference of opinion. In the North it had never been profitable, and by 1807 had been practically swept away. Although Wash- ington had provided in his will that his slaves should be set free after the death of his wife, and Jefferson had de- nounced slavery as "contrary to every principle of human justice" and had tried to have the Virginia Legislature enact a law for its gradual abolition, the whole industrial svstem of the South now rested upon it. Surplus population moves west. — The peopling of the West was taking place from three directions. Into the Northwest came many settlers from New York and Penn- sylvania, joined later by constantly increasing streams of dissatisfied persons from the small towns and back-country of New England — Democrats from "dyed-in-the-wool" Fed- eralist communities ; Baptists and Methodists from nar- row-minded Puritan localities ; the poor and debtor classes to be rid of aristocratic landlords and exacting money- lenders. To all, the promise of cheap lands and equal opportunities made a strong appeal. Kentucky, western V^irginia and the Carolinas, where good land was now becoming scarce, sent their surplus population by way of the Ohio and its tributaries. After the conquest of the Creeks, the planters of Georgia and other seaboard states began to move to the fertile lands in Mississippi Territory, bringing along their slaves. Here they were joined by sturdy pioneers from Kentucky and Tennessee, anxious to try their luck farther south. Although the southern parts of Indiana and Illinois had many settlers from the South, 274 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY most of them had never owned slaves, and so found Httle fault with the Ordinance of 1787, forbidding- slavery in the Northwest Territory. Adjustment of the northern boundary. — The boundary l)etween Louisiana and Canada was still in dispute when Monroe became president. In 1818 a treaty was made with Fort George near the Mouth of the Columbia River Great Britain, agreeing that it should be a line extending from the northwestern point of the Lake of the Woods south to the forty-ninth parallel of latitude and thence west to the "Stony Mountains," as the Rockies were then called. West of the Rockies was the Oregon Country, claimed by Spain, Great Britain and the United States. During the war of 1812 the British had captured the only American settle- ment in the whole region. Fort Astor, which had been built the year before as a fur trading-post by John Jacob Astor, of New York. They had renamed it Fort George. In the new treaty the Oregon Country was left open to occupancy by citizens of both nations for ten years. Later, when Florida was purchased and the western boundary for Louisiana fixed, Spain was induced to yield all claims to Oregon and to accept the forty-second parallel of latitude as the northern boundarv of California. GOOD FEELINGS AND HARD TIMES 275 Florida purchased from Spain. — The eastern and west- ern boundaries of Louisiana also were in dispute. Some in- sisted that Spain had ceded to Napoleon both Texas and the Floridas along with Louisiana. If she had, then by his treaty Napoleon had transferred them to the United States. Relations with Spain had been so unpleasant that the matter Annexed in 1810 and joined to the Territory of Orleans as the "Florida Parishes." Forcibly annexed in 1812 and joined to Missis- sippi Territory I - s^ Purchased from Sjiain in 1821 The Acquisition of West Florida had never been settled. Meanwhile, however, President Madison had issued a proclamation placing all West Florida to the Perdido River under the jurisdiction of the United States (1810). Two years later that part west of the Pearl River was joined to Louisiana and the remainder became part of Mississippi Territory. Texas was a peaceable neighbor, but East Florida a con- stant source of annoyance. In its harbors nested pirates who thrived by pouncing upon United States merchantmen. 276 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY In its forests dwelt the Seminole Indians and the Creeks who had survived the battle of Horseshoe Bend. In its swamps runaway slaves and outlaws of all kinds from the United States plotted with the Indians frequent raids into Georgia and the Mississippi Territory. During the war the Spanish had interposed no objections when the British agents were inciting the Florida Indians to attack the United States. In the far South indignation against Spain for the lawless conditions in Florida was so intense that in 1817 General Jackson was sent to the border to put a stop to the outrages. It seemed to him a good time to settle the matter once for all by seizing the whole territory. Writing the -president that he would have possession within sixty days, Jackson hastened across the border. By May, 1818, St. Marks and Pensacola had been taken, and two Englishmen, found guilty by court-martial of hav- ing incited Indian outrages, had been put to death. True to his word, Jackson had brought Florida under the control of the United States, but in such a manner that both Spain and Great Britain were on the verge of making war upon the country. Since just at this time Spain was busy trying to check a revolt of her many colonies in Central and South America, she decided it was best to overlook Jackson's high- handed methods. In 1819 a treaty was negotiated by which the United States received both East and West Florida and agreed to pay claims owed by Spain to American citizens amounting to five million dollars. Texas remained a Span- ish possession, with the Sabine River and a line drawn north to the Red River as its eastern boundary. By the Florida purchase the national domain was increased by an area twelve times the size of Connecticut at a cost of eleven cents an acre. A period of hard times. — Early in 1819 it was evident that a ])eriod of "hard times" was at hand. The high prices which had prevailed since the war suddenly began to fall. GOOD FEELINGS AND HARD TIMES 277 Flour, which had sold at fifteen dollars a barrel in 1817. now brought only five dollars. Farm produce became so low that it did not pay the cost of raising. As the farmers had no money with which to buy manufactured goods the de- mand for them largely ceased. Factories had to shut down and work became so scarce that men accepted any wages .they could obtain. Hundreds of persons unable to pay debts of even less than twenty-five dollars were imprisoned. In New York and Philadelphia kitchens were established where soup was distributed free to the hungry and penniless. Reasons for the hard times. — Few people understood the real cause of these hard times. The country had been expanding westward too rapidly in recent years. Specu- lators had bought large tracts of land from the govern- ment and then divided them into farms. These were sold to the newcomers on credit at a much higher rate than the cash prices charged by the government. Unfortunately, many farmers bought too much of this land and when the price of farm products took such a tremendous drop they could not pay even their interest. This speculation and buying of farms on credit had been made possible by the hundreds of small banks which the states had chartered to compete with the United States Bank. All of them issued paper money and many had lent large sums to specu- lators. Besides, much eastern money had been sent West by the national bank to help supply the demand of the state banks. With the approach of hard times, the banks not only refused to make further loans but began to demand the ])ayment of those already made. The people in turn became frightened and insisted on hard money in exchange for their bank-notes. This soon forced the banks to discontinue specie payments and a general panic followed. The fact that the United States Bank had been poorly managed and that some of its officials had been guilty of fraud caused the South and West to attribute the hard times 278 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY to it. They were sure that if the "Monster" had not called its loans to the state banks at a time when money was so scarce there would have been no panic. The revolt of Spanish America. — The success which had attended the efforts of the British colonists in North America to secure their independence prompted the down- trodden peoples of the Spanish colonies south of them to try the same thing. When Napoleon overran Spain and placed his brother on its throne, he proposed to extort heavy taxes from these provinces. One by one they revolted. Later, after Napoleon had been overthrown (1815) and the Spanish king had regained his throne, another period of oppression began. Driven to desperation, Mexico, New Grenada (now Colombia), Venezuela, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and other provinces declared their independence and set up republican governments. The monarchs of Europe had attributed the Napoleonic Wars to the attempt to establish a republic in France, and desired to squelch forever the ideas of the French revolu- tionists. After the overthrow of Napoleon, the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia, en- tered into an agreement known as the • Britiih Po»ts K Russian Posts *Ft. Ceomoc (Astoria ) Russian Posts in What Is Now Alaska "Holy Alliance." Its purpose was to prevent the subjects of any European monarch from attempting to overturn his government. In 1822 the Holy Alliance and the new P'rench king were considering intervention in Spain and GOOD FEELINGS AND HARD TIMES 279 Italy where revolutions had recently broken out. Presi- dent Monroe realized the danger to the United States in this, for should Spain be assisted in organizing a strong government her power might soon be reestablished in Mex- ico, and Louisiana would have a dangerous neighbor. Furthermore, it was known that the czar of Russia was anxious to extend his Pacific coast settlements. It was not improbable that in exchange for help in reestablishing his authority at home, the Spanish king would cede the czar a portion of California. Any extension of Russian territory in America would imperil the interests of the United States in the Oregon Country. The Monroe Doctrine. — President Monroe became aware that Great Britain did not look with favor on Spain's recovery of her former colonies in America. Now that they had become independent a thriving trade with them had been built up by English merchants, and this would be shut off immediately were they to return to Spanish rule. The British Government had even tried to induce the United States to join it in declaring that no attempt to interfere with their independence would be permitted. In his mes- sage to Congress December 2, 1823, President Monroe, on the advice of his secretary of state, John Quincy Adams, pointed out what a menace it would be to the United States should the monarchs of Europe try to restore to Spain her American colonies. Speaking in reference to the Old World monarchies, Monroe said : "Any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemi- sphere is dangerous to our peace and safety." Further on, the message stated that the United States would not inter- fere with any existing colonies but that it "could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing" those peo- ples which had lately declared their independence and set up their own governments "in any other light than a manifesta- tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." 280 OLR COUXTRV'S HISTORY As the czar, in 1821, had set up a claim to a large part of the Pacific coast south of Bering Strait, for his benefit Mon- roe said : "The American continents, by the free and inde- pendent conditions which they have assumed and main- tained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." This pronouncement of "America for Americans," to- gether with the pledge set forth by Washington in his Proc- lamation of Neutrality, that the United States would not meddle in European quarrels, has been the basis of our foreign policy ever since. Once only has the Monroe Doc- trine actually been disregarded — in 1862 when a French army invaded Mexico. Thus is shown the respect enter- tained abroad for the United States in its role of protector of the small republics to its south. New states and slavery. — So rapid had been the west- ward migration that in 1819 the country had twenty-two states — eleven in which slaveholding was lawful and eleven in which it was forbidden. At first, when all the states per- mitted it, slavery was an economic question determined solely by whether or not it paid. With the rise of manufac- turing, for which slaves were not fitted, the Northern States gradually passed laws forbidding it ; and now the Mason and Dixon Line was the boundary between slave- holding and free territory. When these laws were enacted in the North against slavery, many of the slaves owned there were sent South and sold to the planters, and then their former owners aligned themselves with those who had con- sistently preached the "wickedness of slavery." This "holier than thou" spirit was resented bitterly by the southerners and the two sections became more and more hostile to each other's opinions. Larger population in free states. — The free states had the larger number of members in the House of Represen- tatives for, as will l)c recalled, in enumerating the pop- GOOD FEELINGS AXD HARD TIMES 281 In hundreds, of thousands □ FREE ■ SLAVE S-S Increase in Population between 1790 and 1820 ulation for representation, only three-fifths of the slaves were counted. So long as the number of free and slave states remained the same, the two sections would have equal strength in the Senate, and measures opposed to southern interests passed by the House could be defeated there. Already the slavery question had become one for national legislation — in 1793 a law had been enacted re- quiring the return of runaway slaves, and in 1801 one permitting slav- ery in the District of Columbia. In 1807 the importation of slaves, which had en- riched so many New England ship owners, was prohibited. Missouri opened for settlement. — At the time Missouri was opened for settlement many southerners, attracted by the fertile lands along the river, moved there and took their slaves with them. When the settlers sought admission as a state there were ten thousand slaves in the territory, and naturally Missouri expected no opposition to being admitted as a slave state. Southern congressmen favored this, but since it would give the South a majority in the Senate northern members protested vigorously against allowing this "immoral institution" in any state carved out of the Louisiana Territory. They argued with telling effect that the public domain was supposed to be open to settlement by all the people, and as white labor could not exist side by side with slave, to permit slavery in these new states would exclude a large part of the population from sharing in the benefits of the Louisiana Purchase. The Missouri Compromise. — While Congress wrangled over the question of its right, under the Constitution, to pro- 282 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY hibit slavery in a state, legislatures and mass meetings of citizens adopted memorials expressing their views. Feeling ran so high that to some it seemed inevitable the nation must go to pieces, for unless one side or the other would yield, the creation of new states was impossible. At this time ]\Iaine, which had been a part of Massachusetts, asked admission. The southern senators refused to consent to this unless the representatives from the free states would allow Missouri to come in with slavery, so as to preserve the balance. After long delay both states were admitted under the "Missouri Compromise" proposed by Senator Thomas, of Illinois. By the provisions of this act Missouri was allowed to keep her slaves, but the remainder of the Louisiana Territory north of her southern boundary (36° 30' parallel of latitude) was declared "henceforth and for- ever free." When Missouri framed her constitution she inserted a clause excluding free negroes from the state. This aroused more oppo- sition and the question of her ad- mission was again disputed. Fi- nally, Henry Clay brought about a compromise by which Missouri entered the United States on Au- gust 10, 1821, as the twenty- fourth state. The word "for- ever" in the Missouri Compro- mise meant only about twenty-five years, however. During that time the question caused many bitter disputes. The rise of a new party. — The Democratic-Republi- cans had become divided into factions, diflfering one with another almost as much as the party originally differed with the Federalists. One faction, composed of southerners and Henry Clay GOOD FEELINGS AND HARD TIMES 283 westerners living south of the Ohio River, adhered to the old idea of strict construction. They advocated that the roads and canals, which the people were demanding, should be built at the expense of the several states and not by the Federal Government. They opposed a tariff for protection and a national bank. Another faction were loose constructionists who believed Congress should exercise powers implied, even though not stated in the Constitu- tion. In 1824 the party placed in the field four can- didates for the presidency. For the first time the West made its voice heard in politics. Two can- didates were from that region — An- drew Jackson, of Tennessee, the military idol of of the people and a strict constructionist, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky, the great pacificator of Congress and a liberal constructionist. No one of the candidates received a majority of the elec- toral votes. Jackson led with ninety-nine and John Quincy Adams came next with eighty-five. In deciding the matter, Clay's supporters in the House of Representatives threw their votes to Adams and he was elected. When it became known that Clay was to be secretary of state under Adams. I Jackson CZI Adams EiSj Crawford Pay Territories - No Vote Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1824 284 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY IIIZXA Cieii.Jacliiioiit B€0WJr ^M'vn THE YAMKEESi! A Poster Used in the Election of 1828 Jackson and his followers were furious and accused the two of having made a "deal." By the time the election of 1828 came around the feeling between the two factions was so bitter that the strict construc- tionists dropped the name "Re- publican" and called them- selves the Dem- ocratic party. General Jack- son was their leader. The Democratic - R e- publicans, who believed that "state rights" should give way to whatever was necessary for a strong national government, changed the name of their party to the National Republican. They soon, however, became popularly known as "Whigs." Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Describe the three sections of the United States when James Monroe became president in 1817. In which section do you think you would prefer to have lived? Why? What was the "West" at this time? What people were settling there and why? Compare a western politician with an eastern one in the decade following the War of 1812. 2. What was the cause of the "hard times" or panic which oc- curred in Monroe's first administration? 3. Trace on a map the boundary line between Canada and Lou- isiana and explain how it was fixed. State clearly how we acquired Florida. 4. When did the Spanish colonies in North and South America revolt from Spain? Did they succeed in gaining independ- .(.fO^, GOOD FEELIXCS AXJ) \l.\\<\) TIMKS 285 ence ? What was the "Holy Alliance" ? What was its pur- pose? What was the "Monroe Doctrine"? Why was the doc- trine issued? What did the Monroe Doctrine mean in 1823? What does it mean to-day? To what section of the country had slaver}^ large!}' drifted? Why? What was the feeling of the people in the other sec- tions of the country toward slavery? Why? In 1819 there were eleven free states and eleven slave states, but there were more representatives in the House from the free states than from the slave states. Why? The representation in the Senate was the same. Why? Missouri asked to come into the Union as a slave state just as other slave states had done. Why, then, was there such a struggle over her admis- sion ? What was the "Missouri Compromise" ? Learn the origin of the Whig party. What was the difference between a "strict" constructionist and a "loose" construction- ist? To which party did each of the following statesmen be- long : Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams ? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY The Holy Alliance and democratic freedom. The Missouri Compromise and the beginning of sectionalism. The unexpected growth of negro slaver}-. How John Quincy Adams happened to become president. Adams' election compared to Jefferson's election. REFERENCES 1. Hart's Formation of the Union, pp. 233-262. 2. Elson's Side Lights on American History, Chapters VIII and IX. A Common Scene in Flatboating Days CHAPTER XXII SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS UP TO 1820 Pioneer life. — Closely upon the heels of the surveyors followed the pioneers. Usually persons with little money and no social position, they braved the hardships of the western wilderness for a homestead where they might be independent of landlords and on a level with their neighbors. Lured on by the prospect of "getting to be somebody" these hardy pioneers stowed themselves atop of their house- hold goods, inside the bulging canvas of a big "Conestoga" A Conestoga Wagon wagon, and lumbered across the mountains. When they reached their destination "Out West" they had to hew out a clearing and build for themselves a log cabin, much as their forefathers had done long before. Here they reared large families of boys and girls who grew into strong healthy men and women. Coarse fare, homespun clothing and hard work were small obstacles to these proud, inde- pendent, self-reliant westerners. Always conscious of their rights, they were quick to resent any imagined infringe- 286 SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 287 ment of them. Fortunately, "book learning" was of little consequence, for schools were far apart and terms short. Teachers prided themselves on being able to "keep ahead" of the class and, even so, taught little besides the rudiments of knowledge. Building the pioneer home. — Pioneer couples married young — usually under twenty — and went to housekeeping on a neighboring "clearing." There, after the wedding, gathered friends with axes and saws for the "log rolling," and soon a space was cleared for the new home. A few days more and the cabin was raised and roofed. After the "old folks" had given them the usual "setting out" of house- hold furnishings, and a horse, a cow, a couple of pigs and some hens, they were ready to "go it alone." Little by little the new land was cleared by girdling the trees, and the crops planted among the stumps were worked by the entire family. Isolation of pioneer life. — The life of the pioneers was often a lonely one, for sometimes the nearest neighbors were miles away. In case of illness home remedies and the nostrums kept at the general store were applied. If these did not effect a cure a country doctor might be summoned by a day's ride on horseback. These pioneer physicians were as crude in their methods as the wilderness itself, but no class of men in the story of our country's development was more self-sacrificing. As the country settled up, the "circuit rider," or itinerant preacher, put in his appearance, and held an occasional service at the schoolhouse. Often illiterate and uncouth but with deeply religious natures, these frontier clergymen devoted their lives to ministering to the spiritual needs of those who were planting the torch of civilization in the wilderness. Funerals were necessarily rude — often the services of a clergyman could not be had and the home- made coffin was lowered into the grave without even a prayer. Far from court-houses and magistrates, the westerners 288 OUR COUXTRVS HISTORY came to regard government as mmecessary. They looked upon taxation as a system devised for extorting money from struggling citizens to pay the useless "job holders" kept in office by the rich to look after their interests. The invasion of the fertile lands lying south of the Ohio by the planters of the seaboard states, with their slaves, gave to pioneer life there a very different character. The small farmers were pushed into the hilly sections and looked upon as socially inferior by their slaveholding neighbors. The more energetic ones sold out and once more moved "Out West," thus helping to keep up the tide of emigra- tion. The demand for internal improvements. — As soon as the states had secured their independence the people be- gan to demand roads connecting the back-country with the older communities. Washington believed that without high- ways it would be impossible to keep the western settlements from joining Canada on the north or Spain on the south; Jefferson thought them necessary in order to control the trade. Both, however, predicted that the jealousies of the individual states would prevent them from uniting to build roads at public expense, and they were right. The first highways were turnpikes built with private capital and sup- ported by heavy tolls. By 1808, New York had nearly a thousand miles, Connecticut about eight hundred and ]\Ias- sachusetts and Pennsylvania w-ere not far behind. But the cost of hauling goods over these roads was so great as to retard the development of the West. It took three weeks to ship a barrel of flour from Albany to Buffalo and cost ten dollars. In the twenty years from 1790 to 1810 the population west of the mountains had increased from one hundred ten thousand to one million two hundred twenty thousand. As these people moved farther inland, their need of bet- ter means of transportation to and from the seaboard be- SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 289 came more urgent. Although much of their produce went to market by way of the Ohio, its tribu- taries and the Mis- sissippi, their man- ufactured goods had to be brought from New York, Philadel- phia and Baltimore. The Cumberland Road. — The Demo- cratic-Re pviblican s did not believe Con- gress was empower- ed by the Constitu- tion to appropriate money for any inter- nal improvements. But the demand be- came so insistent that President Jefiferson. in 1806, yielded a lit- tle and approved an act to set aside part of the money re- ceived from land sales in Ohio for the construction of a road connecting that section with tide- water. Starting at Cumberland City on the Potomac the new 290 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Cumberland Road, or National Highway, as it was called later, wound its way over four mountain ridges to Wheeling on the Ohio River, one hundred and fifty miles distant. It was completed in 1819 at a cost of one million seven hun- dred thousand dollars. The need for it was shown the next year, when three thousand wagons were required to carry to Pittsburgh, the western trade center, the eighteen million dollars' worth of goods purchased in the East. By 1838 the highway had been extended to Vandalia, Illinois, not far from St. Louis, As the railroad had now arrived, there was no occasion for any farther extension. The invention of the steamboat. — In 1760 James Watt, an Englishman, invented the steam engine. Soon men's minds were at work trying to devise a way to hitch an engine to paddles so as to propel a ves- sel through water. The first person to do it in a commer- cially successful manner was Robert Fulton. In August, 1807, he advertised that on the morning of September sec- ond he and a party of friends would start from New York for Albany on his steamboat, the Clermont. When the eventful morning arrived crowds assembled to see "Fulton's Folly" make a fool of its inventor. Great was the surprise and greater still the admiration when the clumsy craft steamed away up-stream at the rate of five miles an hour. The Clermont made the trip to Albany (145 miles) in thirty-two hours, and the return trip in thirty. The First Steamboat Built to Carry Passengers It was finished in 1798 and the following year was run for a short time between Philadelphia and Burlington, New Jersey SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 291 Steamboats on the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. — Four years later the first steamboat on the Ohio, the Nezv Orleans, had just been built at Pittsburgh when the war with England stopped the construction of any additional boats. In 1817, the Mississippi River saw its first steamboat, and it was said that the negroes along the banks were so fright- ened at the monster moving through the water, belching A Mississippi River Steamboat forth fire and smoke, that they fell on their knees in prayer, thinking that the judgment day had come. It took this ves- sel twenty-four days to make the trip from Louisville to New Orleans, and return. Within three years there were seventy-two steamers plying up and down the Mississippi and the Ohio and their tributaries. For many years after that, however, a large amount of freight was flatboated to and from the river ports. Canal building. — When eastern merchants realized that much of the produce of the West was going from New Or- leans to Europe direct, instead of by way of the seaboard 292 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ports as formerly, they began to urge the building of canals connecting tide-water with the western waterways. As early as 1807, Albert Gallatin, Secretary of War, pre- sented a plan to Congress calling for an appropriation of twenty million dollars for roads and canals, but the Demo- cratic-Republicans would not consider it. After the war with England, Madison favored internal improvements for a time, and Calhoun introduced a bill for canals and roads, which he urged as a safeguard against "the greatest of all calamities — next to the loss of liberty — disunion." How- ever, on the very day before his term expired, Madison went back to his strict construction views and vetoed this bill. The Erie Canal. — The completion of the Cumberland Road threatened to deprive New York merchants of the bulk of their western trade, for they would be unable to compete with Baltimore and Philadelphia. Awake to this danger, in 1817 Governor Dewitt Clinton induced the legis- lature to begin the construction of the long-talked-of Erie Canal. Many doubted the practicability of -such an enter- prise, for "Clinton's Big Ditch," as the canal was called in derision, had to be made strong enough to carry a stream of water forty feet wide and four feet deep, three hundred and sixty-three miles through swamps, across rivers and up- hill nearly six hundred feet. The work was completed in the autumn of 1825, and when the waters of Lake Erie were let into the canal, cannon reports from signal sta- tions five miles apart announced the event in New York City. Governor Clinton made a triumphal voyage from Buffalo to New York and poured several kegs of lake water into the harbor, to commemorate "thfe navigable commu- nication which has been accomplished between our ]\Iedi- terranean Seas (Great Lakes) and the Atlantic Ocean." Effect of the Erie Canal on the growth of New York City. — The effect of the new waterway was immediate. Now a barrel of flour could be brought from Albany to Buf- SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 293 falo in a week's time at a cost of only thirty cents. The bulk of the freight from East to West went by the canal and the boats returned with the produce of the Northwest. Farmers in the West could buy manufactured articles almost as cheaply as they were sold in the East. In the manufacturing centers the cost of living fell, thanks to the influx of food products from the West. The Erie Canal made New York the leading commercial city of the United States, and since Scene near the Western End of the Erie Canal about 1830 then it has never lost that distinction. In ten years the tolls more than repaid the state the seven million dollars it had cost to build. Canals in other states. — In order to regain their west- ern trade the merchants of Philadelphia induced the Penn- sylvania Legislature to undertake a canal system which should connect the Delaware River with the Ohio at Pitts- burgh, and also with Lake Erie. Many miles of canals were built, but the mountains prevented the project from being fully realized. West of the AUeghanies there was a chain of canals connecting Cleveland, on Lake Erie, with Colum- bus and Cincinnati; Canals were not essential in the South 294 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY because of its many navigable rivers, but two short ones were constructed — the Dismal Swamp Canal in Virginia and the Santee Canal in South Carolina. The invention of the cotton-gin. — Early in the history of the colonies, the soil of the rich lowlands, all the way from Virginia south, was found well adapted to cotton rais- ing. Up to the Revo- lution, the crops were insignificant, merely the small amount that could be spun and woven into cloth in the homes. America had no cotton mills and they were just being introduced into Eng- land. Sea Island, or long staple cotton, would not grow at any considerable distance from the coast. The short staple variety was more hardy and adapted to wider cultivation, but the separation of the fiber from the seed was so tedious that it made the crop unprofitable. However, during the Revolutionary War, the importation of cotton goods was cut off and more cotton had to be raised to supply the needs of the states. About 1793, Eli Whitney, a Connecticut school-teacher, was staying in Georgia in the home of the widow of General ( Ireene. Observing how slowly the slaves separated the fiber from the seed, Whitney undertook to devise a machine to do the work. The crude contrivance he invented, to which was given the name "cotton-gin," separated more short staple cotton in a day than fifty slaves could do. Effect of cotton-gin on the growth of negro slavery. — Eli Whitney's Cotton-Gin, from the Model in the Patent Office SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 295 Up to this time cotton raising had been confined to Georgia and South Carohna, and in 1790 the total crop did not ex- ceed four thousand bales. Such an impetus was given the in- dustry by Whitney's invention that cotton growing spread rapidly as far north as Virginia and west to central Ten- nessee. In ten years the crop had increased nearly twenty- fold, and over half of it went to Europe, where it sold for about twenty cents a pound. The influence of the cotton-gin on slavery was tremendous. The planters had found negro labor unprofitable except for field crops which were ex- hausting to the soil. Even in colonial times there was so much dissatisfaction with the system in Virginia that the House of Burgesses had petitioned the king to stop the importation of slaves. Not only was its prayer denied, but the Burgesses were reminded that colonies existed for the good of the mother country, not "for their own happiness." By 1803, all the states except South Carolina had passed non-importation acts, and there was good prospect of the slaves eventually being emancipated. By the invention of the cotton-gin the cultivation of short staple cotton was made profitable in the vast uplands extending from the tide-water section almost to the foothills of the Appalach- In five thousan ds I I I I I I I ' — ' 1790 1800 1810 1820 In hundreds of thousands 1 I I r- I II -1 — I Northern States Southern States How the Number of Slaves Changed Between 1790 and 1820 ians. The new industry created such a demand for labor that from 1803 to 1807 over thirty-nine thousand African negroes were brought into Charleston. By 1820 the price of a "full hand" — a strong healthy slave between twenty and 296 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY thirty years of age — had increased from three hundred to fifteen hundred dollars. With such prosperity, no longer did any Southern State hope that slavery would die out. Development of textile manufacturing. — About the time of the Revolution, old methods of manufacturing in England were giving way to the modern factory system. The invention of Hargreaves' spinning jenny and Cromp- ton's mule did away with spinning-wheels in the homes. Cartwright's power loom (1784) revolutionized weaving, and a year later Watts' steam engine was adapted so as to furnish power for cotton mills. By the aid of these inven- tions English manufacturers enjoyed a distinct advantage over those of other countries, and efforts were made by law and otherwise to keep the details a trade secret. Cotton manufacturing. — The impetus given textile manufacturing by the war caused Americans also to seek im- proved methods. Mechanics were induced to come over from Eng- land and assist in devising new machinery. In 1789, Samuel Slater, one of these skilled workmen from an English fac- tory, joined Moses Brown at Paw tucket, Rhode Island, and together they established the first cotton mill in America. In the beginning the machinery was driven by ])ower secured by damming up streams and installing water wheels. y\fter 1810 steam power was used in winter The Old Slater Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island This was the first cotton mill in the United States SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 297 when the streams were frozen. The first power loom in America was set up at Wahham, Massachusetts, in 1814. The industry progressed rapidly, and by the close of the War of 1812 mills employing a hundred thousand operatives consumed fifty thousand bales of cotton a year. Woolen manufacturing, — A\^ooIen manufacturing did not develop so rapidly as cotton, for nearly every farm had its sheep and the women of the household continued to card, spin and weave for the family needs. Gradually little card- ing mills were established along the streams powerful enough to drive a water wheel, and in time spinning jennies were set up in them. In these the carding and spinning for all the surrounding country would be done, and the labor of the household was reduced to weaving the cloth. Fac- tories followed soon after, and increased so fast that by 1816 the fifty thousand operatives in American woolen mills were converting seven million dollars' worth of raw wool into finished cloth each year. The growth of textile manufacturing developed a bond of sympathy between New England mill owners, the south- ern cotton growers and the western sheep raisers, and all demanded a tariff for protection against foreign compe- tition. Condition of society. — The government had been in- augurated with two distinct classes of society — the "ricb and well-born" and the ''masses." The most democratic men of the age believed that the masses could not be trusted to have a direct part in the government. In selecting men for office Washington insisted on the quality of "conspicuous- ness." More political equality in the West. — Out in the West the common danger and equal struggle for a livelihood quenched any such spirit of exclusiveness. When Kentucky and Tennessee drew up their state constitutions, all men were granted suffrage. In Ohio, Indiana and Illinois men 298 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY who paid any tax whatever could vote. Knowledge of the greater liberality of the West, in matters of suf- frage and eligibility to office, aroused the common peo- ple of the older states to protest against the exist- ing political inequalities. In vain did the ruling class argue : "There is no real demand for man- hood suffrage, only a few noisy agitators are stir- ring up the mat- ter while most of the people are sat- isfied with things as they are. We are prosperous now ; why make changes? . The poor have no interests or con- cern in the gov- ernment because they have no property at stake." The masses were insistent and also intelligent to a surprising degree. New Hampshire, Georgia and Maryland yielded gracefully, while other states resisted what any dullard could see was the inevitable outcome. The Constitution provided that the several state legisla- tures should determine how the presidential electors should be chosen, and they preferred to select them themselves. Now in response to popular demand they began to pass laws allowing the voters to choose these electors. When Manhood Suffrage Was Granted The absence of a date shows that provision for it was included in the original state constitution SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 299 Women denied equal rights. — The women had not be- come disheartened when New Jersey took away their right of suffrage, but were becoming bolder in their demands for "equal rights." They protested against taxation without representation, exclusion from the colleges, denial of the right to practise law or medicine and prejudice in business. Punishment more humane. — Toward the unfortunate a more humane spirit was being displayed. The abolition of imprisonment for debt was agitated. Stocks, pillories and whipping posts had about disappeared. In place of ex- posing prisoners to public gaze, several states had begun to erect modern prisons in which they were confined and taught useful trades. In Pennsylvania, asylums for the blind, deaf, dumb and insane, and hospitals for the sick were being supported by public and private charity. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study L Describe the life of the western pioneer. Why did he move from the East to the West? What was his attitude of mind toward education, rehgion and government? 2. What was meant by "internal improvements"? Up to this time which political party had favored, and which had opposed, in- ternal improvements? Learn the attitude of mind of each of the three sections of the country toward internal improve- ments. Does the Constitution permit Congress to appropriate money for internal improvements? Why did the War of 1812 cause a demand for internal improvements? 3. Write in your note-book an account of "Fulton's Folly." How did the steamboat influence the growth of Pittsburgh? New Orleans? New York? Can you find a reason to account for the fact that the steamboat and river transportation were de- veloped before the locomotive and railroad transportation? 4. Write in your note-book a description of "Clinton's Big Ditch." What effect did the Erie Canal have on the growth of New York City? Point out two advantages that a canal has over a railroad. Name two advantages that a railroad has over a canal. 5. What was the Cumberland Road ? Trace it on the map. Why was it built? What was the cost? What argument did John 300 OUR COL'XTRVS HISTORY C. Calhoun use in favor of the national government building roads and canals? 6. Who invented the cotton-gin? When? Learn clearly the effect of this invention on the growth of slavery. 7. Name four inventions which promoted the modern factory sys- tem of manufacturing in England. What caused the people in the United States to seek improved methods in manufac- turing at this time? "The growth of textile manufacturing developed a bond of sympathy between New England mill owners, southern cotton growers, and western sheep raisers, and all demanded a tariff for protection against foreign com- petition." Explain the meaning of this statement. 8. Contrast the East and the West as to conditions of society and the qualifications for holding public office. What is meant by manhood suffrage? What made the West more democratic than the East? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. Effects of the steamboat on American life and industry. 2. Invention of the cotton-gin and the growth of slavery. 3. Opening of the Erie Canal and the growth of the Northwest. 4. Commercial value of the Erie Canal to New York City. 5. The American industrial revolution. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side Lights on American History, pp. 80-95. 2. Spark's The Expansion of the American People (excellent ref- erence for roads, canals, steamboat and railroad). 3. Hart's How Our Grandfathers Lived, pp. 102-104. 4. Mowry's American Inventions and Inventors, Chapter VH. 5. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, Chapter VIII. 6. Roosevelt's Winning of the West (splendid material for the teacher on pioneer life). 7. Thompson's History of the United States, Political-Industrial- Social, pp. 148-159,243-260 (valuable material for the teacher). The Federal Union Grows and Develops but Is Hampered by European Interference T. The New Government Put in Operation by the Federalists. A. The organization of the government. 1. The duties of president and Congress. SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS 301 2. The first Cabinet and secretaries. 3. Hamilton's plan for establishing the credit of the nation. B. Amendments to the Constitution. 1. The amendments that guaranteed natural or funda- mental rights. 2. The ninth and tenth amendments reserved to tlie states all powers not delegated to Congress. C. The new government tested by the Whisky Insurrection and law upheld. D. Vermont and Kentucky admitted to the Union. E. The French Revolution and trouble with France and England. 1. France seeks aid from the United States and the Genet affair. 2. Washington's proclamation of neutrality. 3. England refused to surrender the posts in the West. 4. The commerce of the United States crushed between the British orders in council and French decrees. 5. Jay's Treaty. 6. Trouble with France and the X Y Z Papers. 7. The Anti-Federalists bitter against Adams, and the Alien and Sedition Laws. II. Thomas Jefferson a Democratic-Republican President, 1801-1809. A. Jefferson's simplicity and the country made more demo- cratic. B. The great importance of New Orleans to the West. C. The purchase of Louisiana. 1. Conditions that made Napoleon desire to sell it. 2. The organization of the territory. 3. The explorations of Lewis and Clark. 4. The significance of the Louisiana Purchase. D. Jefferson's efforts to maintain peace with Great Britain. 1. The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts. III'. War with Great Britain for Commercial Independence, A. The reasons for declaring war given by President Madi- son. 1. Disrespect to the American flag. 2. Virtual lilockading of American ports. 302 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 3. Interference with American commerce by orders in council. 4. Inciting Indians against American citizens. B. Plan of campaign. 1. Three armies to invade Canada. 2. Unpreparedness and failure. 3. Naval engagements of the war. 4. The coast ravaged by the British, and Washington burned. 5. The battle of New Orleans. 6. The Treaty of Ghent. IV. Good Feelings and Hard Times. A. Madison's tour of the Northern States. B. Boundary disputes. 1. The boundary between Canada and Louisiana estab- lished at the forty-second parallel of latitude. 2. The eastern boundary of Louisiana settled by pur- chase of Florida. C. The Monroe Doctrine formulated. 1. Conditions in Europe that led to it. 2. The meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. D. Missouri seeks admission to the Union, and the Missouri Compromise. V. Social and Industrial Progress up to 1820. A. Life among pioneers. B. Internal improvements. 1. The building of roads. 2. The construction of canals. C. Inventions. 1. The steamboat. 2. The cotton-gin and its influence on the South. 3. The inventions of Hargreaves, Crompton and Cart- wright that brought about the Industrial Revolution in England. D. Social conditions. 1. Suffrage limited. 2. Punishment inflicted for debt. 3. The treatment of paupers, criminals, the blind, dea ' and dumb, etc. CHAPTER XXIII JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY Andrezv Jackson, President, 1829-18^7 Martin Van Biiren, President, 18^7-1841 The election of Old Hickory. — General Jackson had a large following of high-spirited men like himself who re- sented bitterly the action of the House of Representatives in 1824. As he had received the largest number of electoral votes they felt Jackson had been "robbed" of the presidency, and at once organized to "right the wrong" in the next elec- tion. In each state a "Jackson Committee" kept up the en- thusiasm through "Jackson meetings" and the newspapers. Their candidate was kept in the public eye by invitations to popu- lar gatherings— dedica- tions of buildings, flag pole raisings and bar- becues. In 1828 Louis- iana celebrated the an- niversary of the battle of New Orleans with Jackson as a guest of honor. The general came down the Missis- sippi by boat, and at -y , Photo from Undenvuud ix Uiiucrwood Natchez was accorded t-, t:- ^ • c^ ^ e r- 1 The Equestrian btatue of General an official welcome to Jackson in New Orleans 303 304 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the state of Mississippi. From there to New Orleans his trip was a triumphal march. For four days the Crescent City was wild with enthusiasm. With booming cannon, gay parades and much feasting and dancing, its citizens pro- claimed their loyalty to the grim warrior who had saved the city from the British fifteen years before. Such methods of campaigning were scorned by President Adams, the Whig candidate, and he remained quietly at Washington. Many of Jackson's supporters held govern- ment positions, but Adams refused to dismiss them, de- clining, as he said, to make the government "one perpetual and unintermitting scramble for office." As a result Jackson was elected by a vote of more than two to one. The man of the people. — When Andrew Jackson was inaugurated president on March 4, 1829, the common peo- ple felt that, for the first time, they had placed one of their own number in the White House. Born of Scotch-Irish parentage in the uplands of the Carolinas, he studied law and when licensed to practise moved to Tennessee. Jackson was a natural leader. As a soldier he insisted on sharing with his men all their hardships and privations ; and be- cause of his ability to endure fatigue they dubbed him "Old Hickory." In his political views he was obstinate and so intolerant of differences of view that he regarded his oppo- nents as enemies to the country. With him, loyalty to friends and hatred to enemies were prime virtues. Jackson was as gallant toward ladies as he was high-tempered in his relations with men. He scorned the affectations of polite society, and thus won for himself the devotion of the com- mon people. Many of his supporters made the first long journey of their lives to see the general inaugurated, and their rude manners excited much criticism in Washington. Daniel Webster was so disgusted by their behavior at the White House that he wrote : "They upset the bowls of punch, broke the glasses and stood with their muddy boots JACKSOXIAX DEMOCRACY 305 in the satin-covered chairs to see the people's president." The spoils system. — Jackson adopted the principle of rotation in office. He believed in frequent changes so that as many as possible might share in the "easy government jobs." This was a new policy. All presidents heretofore had refused to dismiss capable officials simply to make places for personal friends, and there had been only sev- enty-four removals in forty years. Many of Jackson's friends remained in Washington after the inauguration to seek offices, claiming with Senator Marcy, of New York, that "To the victors belong the spoils of the enemy." In one year over seven hundred officials were removed by Jack- son to make places for others whose principal qualification was that they had worked for his election. In those days the heads of departments appointed all the minor employees and they had always dismissed them at will. With the in- coming of new secretaries numerous changes were made, but never before had there been such wholesale ones. The "political axe" fell without warning on one-third of the leading officials and one-half of the clerks, custom-house employees and petty postmasters. The rotation system became so strongly intrenched that until 1883 no law could be enacted protecting honest of- ficials from danger of removal with each new administra- tion. Statesmen like Webster, Clay and Calhoun opposed the president's policy, but their protests availed nothing, for Jackson knew his course was approved by the masses. Moreover, the president believed that those he dismissed were either incapable or dishonest, and that a permanent office-holding class was a menace to the nation. The fight on the National Bank. — In the West there was distrust of any large combination of capital, and corpo- rations were looked upon as oppressors of the people. There the United States Bank had to bear the blame for the panic of 1819. As the bank's charter expired in 1836 the 306 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY question of renewing it came up early in Jackson's admin- istration. In 1832 Congress enacted a bill extending it twenty years, but the president vetoed the measure. The presidential campaign, which began soon after, was waged over this bank ques- tion. The National Republican candidate, Henry Clay, favored the renewal of the charter. Jackson was nominated by the Democrats for reelec- tion and insisted the National Bank was unconstitutional. In addition he accused its managers of enrich- ing themselves at the expense of the people who had to borrow money from it. Fur- thermore, he charged that the bank was using its vast resources to control elections. When the people reelected Jackson he took it as an en- dorsement of his bank policy. The law required that all federal funds should be kept in the National Bank and all warrants for government expenditures should be paid by it. In 1833 the president ordered all future government deposits to be distributed among many small banks which were owned and operated by Democrats, and before long all government funds in the United States Bank had been withdrawn. The railroad. — With the perfection of the steamboat came the idea of a locomotive for drawing wagons. In □Jackson □Clay ^ Other Candidates ■ Territories- No Votes' Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1832 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 307 1814 George Stephenson, an English inventor, built one which he called "Puffing Billy," and demonstrated the pos- sibility of the steam train for hauling freight and passen- gers. John Stevens, of Hoboken, New Jersey, is the father of the American railroad. In 1815 he obtained the first charter for a railroad ever granted in this country. It was Stevens, too, who proposed "to get over mountains by dig- ging passages like a well" horizontally through them. The first American railroad, built in 1826, was a five-mile strip connecting the granite quarries near Quincy, Massachusetts, with tide-water. The cars were drawn by horses on wooden rails covered with strips of iron. Two years later a railroad was constructed from Honesdale, Pennsylvania, to some coal mines six- teen miles away, and the first locomotive in America was op- e r a t e d over this road. In 1828 Charles Carroll, the last sur- vivor of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, now ninety-three years of age, threw up the first shovelful of dirt in the construction of the Balti- more and Ohio Railway, by which the Maryland city hoped to compete with the Erie Canal. Carroll said at the time : "I regard this among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Indepen- dence." Within two years the first section of sixty miles was completed. A Car Tried on the Charleston and Ham- burg Railroad in 1829 It was operated by a horse as in a treadmill 308 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ,:l)^i/ 5..i; --ifii C>. From Philadelphia to Pittsbursh, THROUeU Itt 91 BAVS: from PIXTi^BiRGII (o LOl I^VILUE. Meanwhile the whole country was awakening to the ad- vantages afforded by railroads. Massachusetts projected one connecting Boston with the Erie Canal at Albany. In 1833 South Carolina completed what was then the longest railroad in the world, extending from Charleston to Ham- burg — one hundred and thirty-six miles. New York built one from Albany to Sche- nectady to shorten the distance by the Erie Canal, and Michigan one connecting De- troit with Ann Arbor. All roads were ex- perimenting with en- gines. Peter Cooper's new locomotive, the "Tom Thumb," ran thirteen miles in sev- enty-two minutes, and the West Point Com- pany's "Best Friend" attained a speed of twenty miles an hour on the South Caro- lina Railroad, and this was considered remarkably fast time. The first cars were clumsy stage-coaches, which soon gave place to box-like vehicles with seats running lengthwise. By 1837 there were fifteen hundred miles of railroad lines in operation, and their economic value was recognized. Al- though the shortness of the different lines made frequent changes of cars necessary, a journey could be made in less than half the time required by the fastest stage. The East and West were brought nearer together and emigration Starts every inoriuiie> from the corner of Broad a^ Race SC PaSMBgcn «lr Cincinnati, Lauhvillc, Nalcbei. NashvUIr, Si. Loab, t-t. OPnCE. N. E. CORNER dF FOJJRTH AND CBESNDT ST. jt. B. cvnjmjrea. . Facsimile of Advertisement Published in 1837 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 309 increased. By facilitating the movement of freight the cost of doing business was lessened. Land increased in value and prosperity closely followed the railroad. Tariff legislation. — In 1828 the New England manu- facturers and western farmers who still believed in the home market theory, prevailed upon Congress to pass a law raising the duties on manufactured articles from abroad. Prices immediately rose and because of this there was much indignation. The South had its capital invested in land and slaves and there was no prospect of manufacturing. Compelled, as it was, to ship in practically all of its manu- factured goods, with low duties it could buy cheaper in Eu- rope than in the North. The southern statesmen denounced the law and declared that "we buy dear and sell cheap." Vice-President Calhoun led the fight against this "Tarifif of Abomi- nations." He sent to the legislature of his own state — South Carolina — a carefully written exposi- tion of his views. In it he declared that this tariff was sectional legisla- tion and therefore unconstitutional. He insisted that the constitution was a mere com- pact between the states, and that Territories-No vote How the House of Representatives Voted on the Tariff Act of 1832 Compare this with that on page 269 31'0 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY any one of them had the right to nulhfy any act of Congress which, in the judgment of its legislature, was unconsti- tutional. To quiet the dissatisfaction Congress, in 1832, adopted a new law lowering the duties considerably, but the South was not appeased. It feared that if the compromise was ac- cepted the idea of a tariff for protection would become established, and eventually a serious menace to southern in- terests. So as a matter of principle South Carolina, in a convention chosen by her voters, resolved that protective tariffs "are null, void and no law, nor binding upon the state, its officers or citizens." They also forbade the col- lection of duties within the state and declared that, if the United States attempted to enforce the law, South Carolina would consider herself out of the Union and proceed to or- ganize an independent government. That she meant this was shown by the immediate strengthening of her militia. The Webster-Hayne debate. — While the country was excited over the tariff' question, a debate took place in Congress in which the question of state rights was learnedly expounded. It arose in the discussion of a bill dealing with the public lands. Senator Robert Hayne, of South Carolina, upheld Calhoun's contention that ^^■^^;^^^^ k the Constitution was a mere com- ^^m •'■'^^fc^^ P^^^ between sovereign states, ^^n "i^^^^l fi'om which they could withdraw ^^B ^B^^^L ^^ ^^^^' ^^"^^^ Webster answered ^^^B JhHHH Hayne and insisted that it was a solemn agreement of the people of the United States, and that the Federal Government was not answerable to any individual state. In his speech he asked "if each state has the right to Daniel Webster JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 311 final judgment on any question in which she is interested, is not the whole Union a rope of sand?" Jackson and nullification. — Jackson w^as in sympathy with the South on the tariff question, but not in regard to nullification. The message sent to his friends in South Carolina was a plain warning: "Please give my compli- ments to my friends in your state, and say to them that if a single drop of blood shall be shed in opposition to the laws of the United States I will hang the first man I can lay my hands on engaging in such treasonable conduct." When the news of the doings of the South Carolina con- vention reached the president he exclaimed : "The Union ! It must and shall be preserved ! Send for General Scott." General Winfield Scott with two war vessels was des- patched to Charleston, and the president issued a procla- mation saying that the law would be enforced and urging the people of South Carolina to obey it. When this availed nothing, Jackson asked Congress to enact a "Force Bill" giving the president authority to use the army and navy to collect the taxes. South Carolina had sympathizers in the West now, for the high tariff had been a disappoint- ment in that region, too. Through the mediation of Henry Clay a law was passed in 1833 providing for the gradual reduction of duties for ten years. By that time they would be back where they were under the law of 1816, and the revenue would just about support the government. The South Carolinians had won their contention, so they re- scinded their nullification resolutions, and war was averted. The panic of 1837. — The monetary panic of 1837 was preceded by ten years of speculation and reckless expendi- ture on the part of the American people. The law fixed the price of government land at a dollar and a quarter an acre. Speculators saw a chance, as they thought, to get rich, by buying these lands and holding them for a rise in value, so they borrowed large sums of money from th? 312 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY banks for the purpose. Between 1830 and 1836 the gov- ernment receipts from land sales had increased from $2,300,000 to $25,000,000 and the entire national debt had been paid off. Two years later there was such a large sur- plus that Congress decided to donate to the states $28,- 000,000. Who could deny that the country was prosperous ! Money was plentiful and prices were high. States, corporations and individuals all caught the BORN TO COMMAND KtNC ANDREW THE FIRST. speculative fever. Vast pub- lic improvements — canals, railroads and highways — were begun ; numerous cities were laid out and lots were sold at constantly increasing prices ; great stocks of goods were manufactured or im- ported, — all on borrowed money. Not only did Jack- son's "pet banks" have enor- mous deposits of public funds, but "wildcat" banks had sprung up all over the country whose principal ob- ject was to issue paper money. Competition between the banks was so keen that borrowers could get money on their own terms and vaults were bulging with doubtful securities. To help finance their public improvements the several states actually bor- rowed two hundred million dollars from foreign bankers. Jackson's "Specie Circular." — At last Jackson became alarmed at the amount of currency of questionable value which the government was accepting in payment for its lands. As a precaution, he issued his "Specie Cir- An Anti-Jackson Cartoon Used in the Election of 1832 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 313 cular," requiring all future payments to be made in gold and silver coin. This led to a general demand upon the banks for specie, and about the same time the Federal Gov- ernment began to withdraw the funds which were to be donated to the states. It, too, insisted on specie. In or- der to meet the situation, the banks began to call in their loans ; and to raise funds with which to meet these obli- gations business men had to ofifer for sale all kinds of prop- erty — houses, stores, factories, bonds, etc. Purchasers were few and prices sank lower day by day. When the banks refused to redeem their own notes in coin everybody lost confidence and soon the country was in the throes of the worst panic it had ever known. Before it was over a large part of the business concerns went into bankruptcy and several of the states not only refused to pay the interest on their bonds but actually repudiated them. Removal of the Indians. — When Georgia ceded her western territory to the Federal Government it was with the understanding that the lands within her borders be- longing to the Indians would be purchased and the red men removed from the state. After a long delay which had been very exasperating to the Georgians, in 1825 Presi- dent Adams sent a commission to Indian Springs, Georgia, to negotiate a treaty with the Creeks. This treaty pro- vided that they would relinquish their lands and move west of the Mississippi River. As soon as it was signed the state of Georgia began to survey the lands with a view to their settlement. Creeks living in Alabama protested to the president that the Georgia tribes had no right to cede these lands and demanded that he stop the survey of them. When Adams ordered the Georgia authorities to withdraw their surveyors and they refused to do it, an armed conflict seemed imminent. Before matters got serious, however, the Indians were persuaded to leave Georgia and move to a region set apart for them west of Arkansas Territory. 314 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY When Jackson became president he inherited a difficulty with another tribe of Georgia Indians — 'the Cherokees. These red men had set up an independent government within the state, and when Georgia tried to interfere they appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States. The Court held that they were a separate nation and free to act without reference to Georgia's wishes. The president sup- ported the state in its desire to be rid of the Cherokees and finally negotiated a treaty with them by which they agreed for five million dollars to exchange their lands for new homes in the Indian Territory (1835). The Indians of Michigan had already removed to Iowa and Minnesota and the Choctaws and Chickasaws from Mississippi to Indian Territory. President Monroe's plan of locating the Indians in new homes in the Far West and opening to settlement all their lands east of the Mississippi had at last been realized. Anti-slavery agitation. — The admission of Maine and Missouri relieved Congress of the slavery question for fif- teen years, since there were no more territories asking for statehood. The sentiment in the South against slavery had been silenced, as we have seen, by the profits from cotton raising. In the North and Northwest, however, this institution was coming rapidly to be regarded as out of place in a country where manhood suffrage prevailed. Anti- slavery societies were formed by men and women deter- mined to rid the nation of slavery. Some advocated gov- ernment purchase of the slaves and their emancipation, while the extremists among the abolitionists insisted that the slaveholders had been more than repaid by the toil of the ne- groes, and that they should set them free without any recom- pense. Garrison's radical views. — William Lloyd Garrison represented the most extreme abolitionists. In 1831 he be- gan, in Boston, the publication of a journal to agitate eman- JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 315 cipation. In its editorials the Liberator denounced slavery most violently, claiming it was a "sin against government and a crime against man." When urged to be more mod- erate Garrison declared that he did not "wish to think, speak or write with moderation," on this question. Con- i^*^i-J L?w3 l-^O Facsimile of the Heading to the Liberator fronted with the argument that, under the Constitution Con- gress could not interfere with the rights of the slaveholders, he said that such an arrangement was "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell." Sober-minded persons in the North as well as in the South read with horror the wild appeals of the Liberator to vio- lence and secession. At first Garrison was regarded as a mere fanatic, but later as an anarchist. The slaveholders hated him for advocating their financial ruin and because the literature he was circulating among the negroes tended to stir up insurrection. In fact, in the first year of the publication of the Liberator, Nat Turner, a Virginia slave, had incited an uprising which cost sixty lives. Rapid growth of anti-slavery societies. — In Boston a mob composed of persons friendly to the South and its in- terests gathered in front of Garrison's office, wrecked his printing press with stones and other missiles and dragged him through the streets with a rope around his body. Such persecutions, however, only gained the abolitionists more 316 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY / / / / / / / y^ / r^ / / / / / ^ \^ / y ^\ y / friends. By 1837, the anti-slavery societies had a hundred and fifty thousand members and had perfected a national organization. Congress was being petitioned to abolish slavery in the District 180O 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 J of Columbia and to pro- hibit the slave trade be- tween the states. With a view to putting a stop to all such propaganda, in 1836, the House of Representatives passed a resolution declining to receive any more anti- slavery petitions. The result was that while before they had borne a few hundred signatures, from then the signers were num- bered by tens of thou- sands and for eight years petitions continued to come only to be consigned to the waste basket. Although not more than one southern white man in six owned slaves, and there had been much criticism of the in- stitution among the slaveholders themselves, the whole South drew together against the northern anti-slavery move- ment. No longer could they afford to admit that slavery even had objectionable features, and from then it was held that "Slavery is a good, a perfect good." The independent treasury. — In the midst of the panic Jackson's term of office expired. His supporters believed that he could be reelected, but he declined to break the precedent established by Washington in regard to a third term. Four years before, the plan of holding national con- SLAVES FRtE NEGROES How the Negro Population of the District of Cohimbia Changed be- tween 1800 and 1850 JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 317 'l*RiWtm.,'-. i." !■—■?■ TN-*"" pviitk fl«B. ventions for the nomination of candidates had been adopted. The president induced the Democratic Convention to nom- inate Vice-President Martin Van Buren of New York for the presidency, and in the election which followed he won easily. During the first year of his adminis- tration Van Buren had to call a special session of Congress to consider means of meeting the govern- ment's expenses. When the banks were forced to dis- continue "specie payments" the na- tion's funds had been tied up. Taxes and other receipts were not sufficient to meet its needs. Congress authorized an issue of treasury ■ '. FOB PRESIDENT, • MnrHm fl»t* tiurem -FOR VICE ?RBSifiENT, RicBARP M, mumoN; bu/otiKCtom iOMN M. «00BEN6W, OTH>'IEL LOOKER. UCOB FELTEK, UMES 8. CAMKROKi ; MVIP S. DAVlSi **, Facsimile of the Electoral Ticket Used in Ohio by the Democrats in 1836 notes to the amount of ten million dollars for temporary relief, and ordered all further distribution of the former surplus among the states stopped. An independent treasury bill was passed, providing for a treasury independent of the banks which should have charge of all federal receipts and expenditures. Many persons who were heavily in debt because of specu- lations urged Congress to enact "stay" laws. As Van Buren opposed all such measures he became extremely unpopular. 318 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Andrew Jackson was a new kind of president, the first to be elected from the West. What states had furnished all the presidents before Jackson's time? Compare their political training and experience with that of Jackson. Compare Jackson Democrats with Jeflferson Democrats. 2. Jackson's followers believed they had been cheated in the elec- tion of 1824, and accordingly proceeded during the next four years to make certain the election of Jackson in 1828. What were some of the campaign methods introduced in 1828? De- scribe the reception given to Jackson in New Orleans. Your r-tgxt says that Andrew Jackson was a man of the people. ,;jc'- Explain. 3. ' What was meant by the "Spoils System" in politics? Was Jack- son right or wrong in removing so many persons from office? Should public offices be distributed as a reward for working for the party? Should public officials be appointed or elected on the basis of merit? What officials may properly be changed with a change of administration? Why? Name some of the great statesmen who opposed Jackson's policy of rotation in office. Why did they not succeed against Jackson? 4. What were the reasons why Jackson wished to destroy the Na- tional Bank? Did he succeed? Have we a National Bank to-day? 5. What was the "Tariff of Abominations"? Why were the manu- facturers of the East and the farmers of the West in favor of this tariff? Why were the planters of the South opposed to it? What was Jackson's position on the tariff question? 6. What was meant by the doctrine of "nullification"? What was Jackson's attitude toward nullification? 7. What was the subject of the debate between Daniel Webster and Robert Hayne? What position did each of the debaters take on the question of state rights versus national rights? 8. Usually the historian refers to the term of a president as an "administration." One writer refers to the "reign of Andrew Jackson." Write in your note-book all the reasons you can find which tend to show that Jackson really acted as a strong king would be expected to act. 9. What does the word "panic" mean ? What were the causes of the panic of 1837? What did President Van Buren do for the financial distress of the country when he became president in 1837? JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY 319 10. What changes were made in the names of the political parties during the "reign of Jackson"? Which of the two leading parties to-day resembles more closely the party of Andrew Jackson? To which party did each of the three great states- men of Jackson's time, Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, belong? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Webster-Hayne debate. 2. Jackson's Indian policy. 3. The abolition movement. 4. Effects of the railroad on American life and industry. REFERENCES 1. Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 17-21, 30-34, 88-94. 2. Thompson's History of the United States, P olitical-Industrial- Social, pp. 253-273. (Excellent reference for the teacher.) 3. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, Chapters IX and X. 4. Southworth's Builders of Our Country, Book II, pp. 149-157. 5. Wright's Stories of American Progress (The Railroad), pp. 179-194. The First Train Operated b&tween Albany and Schenectady in 1830 CHAPTER XXIV THE WHIGS AND TEXAS ANNEXATION William Henry Harrison, President, 1841-1841 John Tyler, President, 1841-1845 Harrison is elected president. — The campaign of 1840 was the most exciting the country had ever witnessed. The recent extension of suffrage had created a large class of voters who made up in party enthusiasm for what they lacked in seriousness. The Democrats renominated Presi- dent Van Buren regardless of his unpopularity, and girded themselves for the severe fight needed to overcome the ef- fect of the panic and hard times. The Whig candi- date was "General William Henry Harrison, the for- mer governor of Indiana Territory, who was now liv- ing quietly on his farm in Ohio. From the start, the campaign was one of personal abuse without any real An 1840 Political Badge "plat form" or state- On the building is the music of a ^ r i i campaign s.,ug meut of party pol- 320 THE WHIGS AND TEXAS ANNEXATION 321 icy. The Whigs assailed Van Buren as a mere pretender to the principles of Jeffersonian democracy. He was accused of living in a palace and eating from "real gold and silver dishes" while the common people starved. They extolled General Harrison's record as an Indian fighter and boasted that he was a real frontiersman. In reply to this the Demo- crats said the Whig candidate was "nothing but an old farmer who ought to sit in his log cabin and drink hard cider." Each side had its fiery speakers. Many of the meetings were held in the open air, and, where possible, on historic battle-fields. Immense crowds from all the surrounding country attended — more than a hundred thousand persons in the case of the Bunker Hill meeting. In the cities long processions marched by day and torchlight parades enlivened the night. Small log cabins mounted on wheels, with a coon skin nailed to the front and a cider keg on the porch, were dragged along by the Whigs to the tune of such rollicking campaign songs as Little Van Is a Used Up Man and Old Tippecanoe and Tyler Too. The result was that General Harrison was elected by a large majority, with John Tyler, of Virginia, as vice-president. The death of Harrison. — The exertions of the cam- paign were too great a strain for a man of sixty-eight years, and added to them were the hardships of the long journey from Ohio to \A'ashington in midwinter. So feeble was the new president that he was barely able to go through the inauguration ceremonies, and in connection with them con- tracted a severe cold. Unable to obtain the necessary rest because of the demands made on him by the usual crowd of office seekers, he rapidly grew worse, and in just one month from the day of his inauguration passed away. John Tyler becomes president. — Vice-President Tyler at once succeeded to the presidency. Tyler had been placed on the ticket to win support in the South, for he was at 322 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY heart a Democrat, though aligned with the Whigs in the recent elections. He soon broke with his party by refusing to follow the lead of Henry Clay. When Tyler vetoed the bill creating a new national bank all his Cabinet except Daniel Webster resigned their offices. Henceforth, the president was a man without a party, and consequently un- able to influence Congress. Aside from negotiating a treaty with Great Britain settling the dispute over the Maine boun- dary, to accomplish which Webster remained in the Cabinet, and enacting a new tariff law, his ad- ministration counted for little until just at its close. Texas secedes from Mexico. — In 1810 the Spanish province of Mexico revolted. The strug- gle which followed was extremely cruel and lasted for eleven years. At last, in 1821, Mexico's inde- pendence was recog- nized and a so-called republican govern- ment was set up. The Spanish prov- ince of Texas be- came part of this new nation. Only two years before, the c. u XT \ r ^u TT ..u United States had Stephen F. Austin, the Father of Texas made the treaty with THE WHIGS AND TEXAS ANNEXATION 3Z5 Spain by which the Sabine River had been accepted as the western boundary of Louisiana. This treaty was a cause of much disappointment to the southern slave owners, for al- ready they were casting longing eyes toward the fertile lands southwest of Louisiana. The Spanish authorities welcomed immigration from the United States and to encourage it agreed to bestow large grants of land upon those who would plant colonies. In 1820 Moses Austin, of Connecticut, who was interested in some western lead mines, contracted to settle three hundred families on the banks of the Brazos. Mexico confirmed this grant and the following year his son, Stephen F. Austin, laid the foundation of the present capital of Texas. Most of the immigrants were southerners, and many brought their slaves with them. By 1830 there were more Americans than Mexicans in Texas — probably twenty thou- sand in all — and the Mexican authorities were becoming ir- ritated at the independent manner they assumed toward the government. To check further immigration, Mexico forbade colonization, canceled the land grants, imposed du- ties on farming implements, and finally abolished slavery. Texas was administered by Mexican officials as a part of the State of Coahuila and wholly in its interests. Men like Sam Houston and Davy Crockett, Tennesseans who had fought with Jackson at Horseshoe Bend, and James Bowie, a fearless Georgia frontiersman, were not the type to sub- mit tamely to any such rule. W'hen Mexico failed to give Texas self-government, as she had promised to do, the Americans rose in revolt (1833). Three years later a con- vention was held, attended by three Mexicans and fifty-one Americans, all but five of whom were from slave states, and a declaration of independence was adopted (March 2, 1836). Severe fighting betvi^een Texans and Mexicans. — Gen- eral Santa Anna, the president of Mexico, at once 324 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY crossed the Rio Grande to put down the rebelHon. He laid siege to the old mission at San Antonio, called the Alamo, and threatened the whole garrison with execution if it did not surrender. The brave little band of Texans answered with a cannon shot and the battle began. True to his threat, Santa Anna Sam Houston The Surrender of Santa Anna Santa Anna kept up the fight until the last man of the gar- rison was killed. A few days later, three hundred more Texans were butchered at Goliad. A battle which was to determine the future of Texas was next fought at San Ja- cinto, near the present site of Houston, April 21, 1836. Gen- eral Sam Houston, in command of a small Texas army, was opposed by Santa Anna with his much stronger force of Mexicans flushed with victory. Urged on by shouts of "Remember the Alamo !" "Remember Goliad !" the Texans rushed upon the ATexicans and not only defeated them but captured Santa Anna himself. THE WHIGS AND TEXAS ANNEXATION 325 In September (1836) the people of Texas adopted a Con- stitution and soon after the '-'Lone Star State," as the Re- public was popularly called, set up a regular government with General Houston as its president. Annexation of Texas, — The Texans began at once to seek to become a part of the United States. Mexico had repudiated the treaty made by Santa Anna and was threat- From an old cartoon "Bringing in Texas" Notice Clay, Webster and other Whigs trying to hold back the car (Texas) ening new hostihties. The southerners were ardent in their support of annexation, but Congress hesitated. To annex Texas would add to the domain of slavery an area large enough to make eighty states the size of Connecticut, or, as Webster said, "A state so large a bird can not fly across it in a week." When Jackson found that he was unable to induce Congress to annex it, he proceeded to recognize the "Lone Star RepubHc" as an independent nation (1837) and soon other countries did the same. For eight years the question of annexing Texas was up- permost in the minds of the American people. The friends 326 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY of the proposition spoke of it as the "re-annexation," in- sisting that Texas had once belonged to the United States as a part of the Louisiana Purchase. Many feared that, if annexation was refused, Texas would be forced to appeal to Great Britain for protection. Others predicted that an- nexation would mean war with Mexico. Massachusetts was so opposed to the proposition that through her legislature she threatened to secede if Texas was annexed. In the spring of 1844 President Tyler submitted to the Senate a treaty of annexation which he had secretly made with Texas. It permitted Texas to come in as a single un- divided state, but with the right reserved to subdivide later into as many as five separate states. The United States as- sumed payment of the republic's debts amounting to seven million dollars, and allowed Texas to retain her public lands. This treaty failed of ratification. In the campaign of 1844 the Texas question was the real issue. The Democrats came out boldly for "re- annexation" and won. When the re- sult of the election became known, the friends of annexa- tion, who were in a majority in both Houses, decided to put through Con- gress a joint resolu- tion admitting Tex- as as a state on the same conditions as had been included in a Polk □ Clay ■ Territories-No^ Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1844 THE WHIGS AND TEXAS ANNEXATION 327 the treaty. Three days before his term closed. President Tyler signed this resolution, and thus realized the ambition of his administration, to make Texas one of the United States. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. What is meant by manhood suffrage? Is there a property quali- fication for suffrage in your state to-day? A tax qualifica- tion? What restrictions, if any, are there? 2. Do you think President Tyler did right in "breaking with his party"? Give reason for 3^our answer. 3. Why did Texas secede from Mexico? Until 1810 Mexico was a Spanish province, and when Mexico revolted from Spanish rule the Spanish province of Texas became a part of Mexico. Do you believe Texas vras justified in seceding from the Mexican Republic? What is meant by self-determination? 4. Your text states that the Spanish authorities welcomed immi- gration from the United States into Texas. Why? Later the Mexicans discouraged immigration from the United States. Why? 5. What arguments were advanced in favor of the annexation of Texas ? Why did the South particularly want Texas, and why was there so much opposition in the North to its" annexation ? 6. In your note-book make a sketch of the map of Texas. Com- pare Texas with your state as to area and population. In what year was Texas admitted as a state? Was her admis- sion the cause of the war between the United States and Mexico ? Explain. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY . 1. The revolt of the Spanish colonies in the New World. 2. The influence of the West on tlie extension of suffrage. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side LiyJits on American History. Vol. I, Chapter XII. 2. Wilson's Division and Rciininn, \i\). 141-152. 328 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY CHAPTER XXV WESTWARD EXPANSION James K. Polk, President, i84yi84g The Oregon Trail. — When the term of joint occupancy of the Oregon Country expired, it was renewed for an in- definite period. There was an understanding that either nation could terminate the agreement by giving a year's notice. Meanwhile, Russia had accepted the Monroe Doc- trine and confined her colonizing to the region north of the parallel of 54° 40'. After the war with England, Astor made The First Mission House in Oregon It was built in 1834 in the Willamette Valley about sixty miles south of Portland no efifort to renew fur-trading on the Columbia ; for some time the only whites in the Northwest were found in the forts and trading-posts of the Hudson Bay Company. About 1832 missionaries began to arrive for the purpose of converting the Indians, and soon after an overland route, known as the "Oregon Trail," was laid out. This road traversed the Platte Valley to its head, thence wound in a northwesterly direction around the north shore of Great Salt Lake to the Snake River, and followed that stream to 329 330 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the Columbia. Over this new trail, closely behind the mis- sionaries, came colonies of settlers. By 1845 there were at least seven thousand white people in Oregon, and two years before a territorial government had been organized by those living in the Willamette Valley. Lieutenant Fremont's explorations. — President Polk Hardships of Travel along the Western Trails believed that the "manifest destiny" of the United States was to control the continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific. He proposed to annex Oregon and acquire California. In 1842, when the rush to Oregon began. Lieutenant John C. Fremont was sent to what is now Wyoming to ascertain whether the pass selected for the Oregon Trail was the easiest one through the Rockies. W^ith his former guide from New Mexico, Kit Carson, Fremont made wide and valuable explorations. He proved Zebulon Pike was mis- taken in his observation that the ])lains east of the Rockies were a "desert placed by Providence to keep the American people from their diffusion and ruin," and that there was no "Great American Desert." WESTWARD EXPANSION 331 The next year, as the first step toward the acquisition of Cahfornia, Lieutenant Fremont was ordered to explore the country along the Santa Fe Trail. This dangerous road had been laid out fifteen years before to connect the Mexican settlements around Santa Fe with the Missouri River ports. Now, over it moved yearly great wagon trains transporting Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River It was located on the Santa Fe Trail about seventy-five miles south of Pueblo, Colorado. The fort was built of adobe brick and had walls fifteen feet high and four feet thick supplies for the Southwest, which had been brought from St. Louis to Independence by steamboat. A continuation of this trail led from Santa Fe to Los Angeles, and thence north to San Francisco, at this time a sleepy Mexican town of two thousand inhabitants. Leaving the Santa Fe Trail, Fremont took a northwesterly course and made extensive explorations of the Mexican territory in the Great Salt Lake Basin, and finally (1845) the ''Pathfinder," as he w'as now called, led another expedition to the Southwest, and this time spent the winter in the mountains of California. Fifty-four forty or fight.— ^Canada, too, appreciated the 332 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY value of the rich lands of the Northwest, and the need of strengthening British claims to the region by actual settle- ment. So many Canadians had begun to come into Oregon that the Americans became alarmed lest the whole country might be lost to Great Britain. In the winter of 1842-1843 Doctor Marcus Whitman, one of the pioneer missionaries, made a trip full of hardships "back East" to urge the im- mediate annexation of Oregon. By the next year the de- mand for annexation had become so strong that the Demo- cratic Convention included the proposition in the platform on which James K. Polk, of Tennessee, was elected presi- dent. In 1846 Congress notified Great Britain that the United States desired to terminate the joint occupancy of Oregon. Some of the politicians were insisting that the boundary be- tween the United States and Canada must be the parallel of 54° 40'. This cry of "Fifty-four Forty or Fight" created apprehension in England that the United States was insti- gating a war for the purpose of seizing Canada. Great Britain renewed her proposition that the tw^o nations com- promise on the forty-ninth parallel as far as the Strait of vSan Juan de Fuca, and thence by that body of water to the Pacific Ocean, and it was accepted. The Texas boundary dispute. — Alexico had never rec- ognized the independence of Texas, so the boundary between the two countries had not been established. The Texans insisted that it was the Rio Grande River, while Alexico claimed that none of the territory south of the Nueces had ever been included within Texas. As soon as he signed the joint resolution admitting Texas, President Tyler ordered General Zachary Taylor, with two regiments, to proceed to Corpus Christi, on the south bank of the Nueces. This ac- tion and the arrival of an American squadron ofif the mouth of the Rio Grande made the Mexican Government very angry. WESTWARD EXPANSION 333 Soon after taking office, President Polk sent a new min- ister to Mexico, John Slidell, of Louisiana, with instructions to try to appease the Mexicans and, if possible, to purchase California. When Slidell reached Mexico City he found that the government was unwilling to receive him, so he was unable to carry out any part of his instructions. General Taylor was then ordered to advance to the Rio Grande, but before he arrived the Mexicans had crossed over and at- tacked a small detachment sent forward to reconnoiter. When news of this skirmish reached him, the president in- formed Congress that "War exists, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it — exists by the act of Mexico herself. Mexico has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil." Congress then declared the two na- tions at war (May 13, 1846) ; and troops were hurried to General Taylor, who was ordered to "invade Mexico and conquer a peace." The War with Mexico. — Now that the fight was on with Mexico, the president determined to subdue the coun- try so thoroughly that he could compel the Mexicans to give up all their territory north of the Rio Grande and west to the Pacific. Although the United States had fewer soldiers than Mexico, her troops had the advantage of better equip- ment and more thorough training. Moreover, a large part of the volunteers were southerners who fought with a feeling that the interests of their own beloved "Southland" w^ere at stake, for the greater the territory wrested from Mexico the greater the opportunity there would be for slavery to expand. It was not surprising, therefore, that the Amer- icans won every battle and speedily compelled Mexico to sue for peace. General Taylor, on receipt of orders, began the invasion of northern Mexico. Crossing the Rio Grande he captured Matamoras, opposite the present Brownsville, and advanced on Monterey. Here a hard battle took place, but the Mex- 334 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY icans were forced to yield the city and retreat toward the south. Meanwhile, General Winfield Scott had landed an army at Vera Cruz, and after taking the town started to fight his way through the mountains to Mexico City, When Santa Anna learned that Taylor was sending a part of his force to rein- force General Scott, he a t- tacked him on the "Plains of Buena Vista," a narrow moun- tain pass not far from Saltillo. The way in which Taylor, with only one- half as many men, beat back Santa Anna's furious charges, and finally routed the twen- ty thousand Mexicans, made "Old Rough and Ready," as he was called, the hero of the hour. General Scott's advance had been delayed by sickness among the soldiers not accustomed to a tropical climate, and by waiting for reinforcements, and it was August before his army of eleven thousand reached the plateau on which is situated the City of Mexico. At Puebla the Mexicans were defeated and then the road to the city was open. On August nineteenth and twentieth three heavy engagements THE MEXICAN WAR AREA WESTWARD EXPANSION 335 took place in its suburbs in which, although vastly outnum- bered, the Americans won. The assault on the city itself was delayed for three weeks while the Mexicans talked terms. Unwilling to wait longer, on September thirteenth General Scott moved forward and began storming the Heights of Chapultepec, the main defense of the city. Dur- ing the night Santa Anna fled and on the morning of the fourteenth the American flag was raised over the City of Mexico. At the outbreak of hostilities with Mexico, American set- tlers in California formed a republic known as the "Bear State," from the design of a grizzly bear upon its flag. Lieutenant Fremont aban- doned his exploring and aided them in overthrowing Mexi- can power in northern Cali- fornia. Later, with the co- ,• r a i. 1.-UI.J The Bear Flag Raised at operation of a fleet which had Sonoma, California, June arrived, Los Angeles was tak- 18, 1846, and Supplanted en, and by January, 1847, all ""^ ^'^ul? n,T846^'"'" of California had been freed from Mexican control. General Stephen W. Kearny had set out from Fort Leavenworth for the Far West the sum- mer before. He had captured Sante Fe and advanced three hundred miles westward when Kit Carson brought him a report of Fremont's campaign. With four hundred cavalry- men Kearny pushed on and by the spring of 1847 had taken possession of the whole of what is now New Mexico and Arizona. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, — From the start the northerners had looked on this as a "southern war" and as more and more territory fell into the hands of the American armies their opposition to it increased. To allay this feeling 336 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY From a comic paper of the day "The United States Despoiling Mexico" The American peace commissioner is saying, "My government, gentlemen, will take nothing shorter" President Polk asked Congress for author- ity to spend two mil- lion dollars to secure peace. While this was under discussion Da- vid Wilmot, a Demo- cratic member from Pennsylvania, offered in the House of Rep- resentatives a "pro- viso" prohibiting slav- ery in any territory which might be ac- quired from Mexico. This was defeated, although there was great difference of opinion over the matter. Some of the president's Cabinet even deemed it the nation's duty to annex the whole of Mexico in the interest of civilization. In February, 1848, a treaty was signed at Guadalupe Hi- dalgo agreeing that the boundary should be the Rio Grande and Gila Rivers and a rather irregular line connecting them. The United States promised to pay Mexico $15,000,000 and also claims due American citizens by Mexico amounting to $3,250,000. An area of 529,189 square miles, more than one and a half times that of the original thirteen states, was gained by the United States. Four years later, in order that a railroad projected from El Paso to the Pacific coast might be built wholly on United States soil, and also to eliminate the cause of certain friction which had arisen in New Mexico, the Mexicans were induced to sell 29,671 additional square miles. For this strip of territory in what is now southern New Mexico and Arizona, the United States paid $10,000,000. It is known as the Gadsden Purchase, because the negotiations were conducted by James Gadsden, the minister to Mexico at that time. z «o o UJ H ^oi iTi uJ < o 1- o '-> t- <0 - o o 1 % ^> ,^ o .0 <^ UJ <0 Q 1- !::? Z z ^ < 3 WESTWARD EXPANSION 337 President Polk was able to retire from office happy in having realized for the country its "manifest destiny" by planting the stars and stripes on the whole length of the Pacific coast from the Strait of San Juan de Fuca to the peninsula of southern California. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. In your note-book draw a map of the United States (or better, secure an outline map of the United States) and locate the Oregon Country, the Oregon Trail and the Mexican cessions. 2. For what purpose did settlers migrate to the Oregon Country? Write in your note-book a description of Fremont's explora- tions. Do you think President Polk's "manifest destiny" project right or wrong? Give reason for your answer. 3. Locate on a map of western North America the latitude of 54° 40', and explain why we did not fight for this boundary. 4. Give the causes that led to the War with Mexico. Why was this war popular in the South and unpopular in the North? 5. Write in your note-book a list of the most important results of the War with Mexico. Locate the Gadsden Purchase on a map. 6. Contrast our relations with Mexico in 1845 with our present relations, and determine which is the greater cause for war. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Oregon and Santa Fe Trails. 2. John C. Fremont, the "Pathfinder"; Kit Carson, the Scout; Marcus Whitman, the Father of Oregon. REFERENCES 1. Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 152-154. 2. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 332-333. CHAPTER XXVI THE END OF THE WHIG PARTY Zacliary Taylor, President, 1841^-18^0 Millard Fillmore, President, i8^o-i8^S The election of 1848. — As early as 1840 the question of slavery had begun to split the old political parties. That year anti-slavery enthusiasts from the North formed a new party and their candidate received about seven thousand votes. In 1844, when the country was wrought up over the question of annexing Texas, they called themselves the "Liberty Party" and polled sixty-two thousand votes. In their platform of 1848 neither Whigs nor Democrats mentioned slavery. The Whigs, whose strength lay in the North, nominated for the presidency Gen- eral Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista — a Louisiana slaveholder. The Democrats, al- ready considered a southern party, chose a candidate from the North — General Lewis Cass, of Michi- m Territory -No \Jo7c gan. Large numbers ^. ., . r T-1 1 IT . • .1 of anti- slavery men Distribution of Electoral Votes in the ■' Election of 1848 now withdrew from .138 THE END OF THE WHIG PARTY 339 both parties, accusing them of being afraid to take a position on the slavery question. Joining with the old "Liberty" vot- ers they launched the Free-Soil party and nominated Martin Van Buren, the New York State "boss," as their standard bearer. The Free-Soil platform stated that "it was once the settled policy of the nation to discourage and not encourage slavery," and declared, "We do not propose any interfer- ence by Congress with slavery within the limits of any state." The three hundred thousand votes polled by this new party took away so many votes from the Democrats that the Whigs were able to elect General Taylor. Gold is discovered in California. — Nine days before the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed, gold was discov- ered in California. Sacramento, the present capital, was then a village of two hundred inhabitants. About a hundred miles to the north- east John Sutter, a Swiss, had a large ranch. While dig- ging a mill race on the bank of the American fork of the Sacramento Riv- er his men observed some glittering par- ticles in the sand that looked like gold. Some of these were taken to Monterey and the army officers there pro- nounced the "find" genuine gold. The report spread as if borne by the winds, and from every direction there was a rush for Sutter's ranch. Soldiers deserted the army posts, and sailors jumped ashore as soon as their ships anchored Sutter's Mill at Coloma, California, in 1849 340 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY L.,..^ ^ P^f:fJ|H[^^^^H|^^^H^^^^HHB ^^^^&i^^^ ^ Sfe&^g;: ;i|^^S?- '*^§^: '" '^ Si® 9 -^' From an old inint A Scene at the Mines in California in San Francisco Bay. Merchants left their stores, and clerks forsook their employers to join in the mad race. The gold seekers swarmed over Sutter's ranch and ruined the owner by stealing his stock, digging great holes all over his land, and exhausting the streams of water to wash gold dust from the sand. Within four months Sacramento had a population of four thousand and before winter the region had yielded five million dollars' worth of gold. Gold seekers rush to California. — The following year (1849) saw a hundred thousand persons in California. They had come from Europe, in fact from every civilized land. The gold fields were reached from the East by three routes — around Cape Horn, across the Isthmus of Panama and up the Pacific coast, and by the overland trail. So great was the traffic by the Isthmus route that in 1855 a rail- road was built across the Isthmus. By far the largest num- ber of gold seekers, however, took the overland route, although it required at least a hundred days to make the THE END OF THE WHIG PARTY 341 trip from Independence and the other Missouri River ports. There were so many people going to California that the trails seemed alive with prairie "schooners" as far as the eye could reach. Many poorer persons even attempted the journey on foot, trundling their camp equipment in hand carts and wheelbarrows. In addition to constant danger A Caravan Attacked by Indians on the Road to California of attack from hostile Indians who infested the trail, the gold seekers had to endure all manner of hardships — steep mountains, waterless deserts, flooded rivers, hunger and thirst, and even an epidemic of cholera. For years after- ward the California trail was marked by the bleaching bones of the "forty-niners" and their beasts. California knocks for admission. — In 1849, although .San Francisco alone had a population of twenty thousand, Congress made no effort to provide California with a gov- ernment. "Vigilance Committees" had been formed by the citizens to keep a semblance of order in the mining camps by meting out justice as stern as it was swift. That year a convention was held to draft a constitution and organize a state government. In their constitution the Californians provided that the state should extend from Oregon to the Mexican border, and that slavery should be forbidden. Al- 342 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY From an old print The Vigilance Committee Meting Out Justice to a Man Who Stole a Safe though a few southerners had hrought their -slaves with them when they came to CaHfornia, they soon found that slavery would not be tolerated around the mines where all men insisted on an equal chance. Slavery and the Southwest. — After the adoption of the Missouri Compromise fifteen years elapsed before any new states were admitted. In 1836-1837 Arkansas came into the Union with slaves and Michigan without, and thus the sec- tions remained balanced in the Senate. The admission of Texas and Florida, in 1845, was balanced by that of Iowa in 1846 and Wisconsin two years later. The great accession of territory which followed the Mexican War at once raised the question, "Shall it be slave or free?" It was already evi- dent that California would eventually seek admission as a free state. The northern members of Congress generally believed in prohibiting slavery in any state created out of the Mexican cession. The southern statesmen fell back on the constitutional argument that Congress had no right to deal with the problem at all, and insisted that the region THE END OF THE WHIG PARTY 343 should be open to slavery. Members bent on compromise suggested that the hne 36° 30' be extended to the Pacific, dividing California into two states, one free and the other slave, as had been President Polk's plan. Texas insisted that her western bound- ary followed the Rio Grande. If this were allowed, a large part of New Mexico, in- cluding Sante Fe, would become slave territory. President Taylor strongly op- posed any such thing, and Henry Clay was of the opinion that since New Mexico had not been allowed slavery under Mexican rule, the institution was forbidden there by the terms of the Treaty of Guada- lupe Hidalgo. It was surely a Congress of varied views that received California's knock for admission in 1850. The compromise of 1850. — When Congress met in 1849 dissension was rife. Already displeased with California's constitution, the South was further irritated by a northern movement for the abolition of slavery in the District of CJiQff lumbia. From his beautiful "Ashland" estate, near Lexing- ton, Kentucky, whither he had retired to end his days in ■ Claimed by Texas and Mexico prior to 1848. Ceded to tlic United States by Texas in 1850. Confirmed l)y the United States to Texas in 1850. The Texas Boundary Dispute 344 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY quiet, the aged Henry Clay was summoned to return to the Senate in an effort to prevent disunion. In January, 1850, Clay submitted his "Omnibus Bill," designed to allay the feelings of both North and South, and to settle forever the differences growing out of the slavery question. The pro- visions of this great compromise measure were as follows : (1) California was to be admitted as a free state. (2) Texas was to be paid ten million dollars in settlement of her western claims. (3) The Mexican lands were to be divided into two terri- tories, Utah and New Mexico, in which slaves could be held. When ready for statehood the decision as to slavery should be made by each for itself. (4) The buying and selling of slaves was to be forbidden in the District of Columbia, but not the ownership of them. (5) An effective fugitive slave law was to be enacted. The Omnibus Bill was under discussion for seven months and during that time President Taylor, who opposed it, died. Vice-President Millard Fillmore, of New York, who now became president, favored the measure. Some of the most memorable speeches ever heard in the United States Senate were occasioned by it. John C. Calhoun, now so feeble that his speech had to be read for him, warned the North that unless they yielded something the Union would go to pieces. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, insisted that the line of 36° 30' must go through to the Pacific, let the Calif ornians say what they would. Daniel Webster, a John C. Calhoun champion of the compromise, THE F.ND OF THE WHIG PARTY 345 felt so sure that slavery would prove an economic failure in Utah and New Mexico that he "would not take pains to reaffirm an ordinance of nature or re-enact the will of God." The Fugitive Slave Law. — The Fugitive Slave Law of 1792 required state and county officials, sheriffs and con- stables to assist slave owners in recovering their runaway slaves. As the sentiment against slavery grew, these officers in Northern States frequently refused to obey the law. To render difficult its enforcement, some of the states enacted "Personal Liberty Laws" forbidding the seizure of slaves within their borders. Beginning about 1830 the "Underground Railroad" was organized for the purpose of assisting fugitive negroes to -•-^^g^^sJ&JijSgg :Lasm^?j^ masf^a The Irnproved a Md Lundy. with ihi accommodation for trips during the pres IhePalnarchalDom Genllemen and Lad health or circmnslar folly invited to sive SEATS FREE. Necessary Clothi live "fallen among NEW ARRANQEWIENT— NIOHT AND^ DAY. iii splendid Locomotivej, Clatkson Bu trains lived up in the best style of passengers, will run their regular sent season, between t^e borders of inion and Liberty ville. Upper C«nada. es, who may wish to improve their ces, by a northern tour, arc respect- us their patronage irrespzri'ms f>f color, ng furnished gratuitously (0 lltch 19 tAteitei." Hide the outcasts — let the oppreiseti go free.'' — BIblf. rCT^For seals apply at any of tha trap doors, or to the conductor of the train. , „ J. CROSS, Proprulor. IV. B. For the special benellt of Pfo-Slavery Police Officers, an ejtra heavy wagon for Teias. will be fur. nishcd, whenever it may be necessary, in v/hich ihev will be forwarded as dead freight, t» tha " Valley of Rai. cals,**. always a( the risk of the o\*ners. [C7"E»li'» Overcoats provided for such of their «« ^are alllicted with protracted f/iillyphoiia. Facsimile of an Advertisement of the Underground Railway Published in an Indiana Newspaper in July, 1844 reach Canada. There they were safe from arrest since slavery was excluded from the British colonies. Abolition- ists who placed the individual conscience above the law of 246 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the land banded together to encourage slaves to run away and even sent agents to the South to start them on the long trip. Once across Mason and Dixon's Line, traveling was easy, for they were concealed in garrets, cellars and barns by day and transported secretly by night, until at last they were safe across the Canadian boundary. In thirty years the southern planters thus lost at least thirty thousand slaves. The new fugitive law placed the responsibility for the cap- ture of the runaway negroes on the United States marshals, and provided that all persons, when called upon, were bound to assist in their restitution. Slaves were not to be permitted trial by jury, for their owners could not hope for justice from northern jurors. So strongly opposed to slavery were some of the states that in several the legislatures passed laws forbidding their citi- zens to aid in the capture of runaway negroes. A Wiscon- sin act required state officials "to use all lawful means to protect, defend and procure to be discharged every person arrested or claimed as a fugitive slave." This nullification of an act of Congress was defended on the ground that the higher law of right and justice took precedence over any enacted by man. Uncle Tom's Cabin. — While the country was excited over the effort to return hundreds of runaway negroes to their legal owners, Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel. Uncle Tom's Cabin, appeared. The book was written to arouse more sentiment against the enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Law. The author, a Connecticut woman, had not ob- served slavery farther south than just across the Ohio River. She drew an imaginary picture of the system, exag- gerating its evils, and readers unaware of the true condi- tions of slave life accepted the portrayal as genuine. Two hundred thousand copies of Uncle Tom's Cabin were sold THE END OF THE WHIG PARTY 347 the first year after its publication, and the book undoubtedly did much to make a continuance of the federal compact so intolerable that the Southern States were driven to secession. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. In what year was gold discovered in California? Describe the consequent rush to California, and trace on a map the three routes from the East to the gold fields. 2. What attitude did California take toward slavery? Why? 3. What was the opinion of the southern section of the country as to slavery in the Southwest? Of the northern section? 4. Henry Clay was known as the "Great Pacificator." State clearly his compromise of 1850. What is meant by "compromise"? On what other occasions did Clay succeed in making compro- mises in Congress? How many times was Clay a candidate for the presidency? Write in your note-book an account of Clay as a statesman, and try to learn the reasons why he did not succeed in becoming president. 5. What were the purposes of the "Fugitive Slave Law," "Per- sonal Liberty Laws," "the Underground Railway" and Uncle Tom's Cabin? Give both a northern and a southern view- point. 6. Write in your note-book a statement giving the views of Henry Clay, Daniel Webster and John C. Calhoun on the slavery controversy in the Southwest. 7. How did many people in the North justify the violation of the Fugitive Slave Law? How did the slaveholder feel about the violation of this law? SUBJECTS FOR P'URTHER STUDY 1. The history of the Whig party. 2. Tlie short-lived Free Soil party. 3. The growth of anti-slavery sentiment in the North. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side Lights on American History, Vol. I, Chapters XIII and XIV. 2. Spark's The Men Who Made the Nation, pp. 335-346. CHAPTER XXVII A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS Growth of population. — The growth of the United States, since its formation, has excited the wonder of the world. By the middle of the nineteenth century its area had expanded to nearly three and a half times that of the orig- inal thirteen states, and its population was eight times that enumerated in the first census (1790), While the natural increase was responsible for a part of this growth of popu- lation by far the most of it was due to immigration. The abundance of well-paid "jobs," the free homesteads in the West, and the liberal government attracted millions of good citizens from all parts of Europe. Between 1820 and 1850, the population In hundreds of thousands • , <• , 1 ^ . , ■ ■■. . I , :j mcreased from ten million to twenty- three million. Prior to 1820 immigration Germanv rn Other did HOt CXCCCd tCU ' \ I Countries T • *• 1 X 100A ^ locn thousand a year, but Immigration between 1820 and 1850 -^ . , after that it in- creased rapidly, due to the demand for laborers, occasioned by the establishment of mills and factories, the opening of mines, and the building of highways, canals and railroads. To help supply this demand in 1830 twenty-three thousand immigrants came to America, and by the end of Jackson's administration the number had increased to seventy-nine thousand a year. Most of them were from England, Ire- land and Germany, although as early as 1825 the "sloop 348 A QUART P:R of A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 349 folk" (Scandinavians), so called because they came in small vessels, began to arrive. Adverse conditions abroad foster emigration. — The number of foreigners coming to the United States in- creased from one hundred thousand in 1840 to three hun- dred and ten thousand in 1850. This tremendous growth was due largely to two events in Europe in no way con- nected with America. In 1845 and 1846 the potato crop failed in Ireland and, as fully one-half the Irish depended on it for their food supply, the condition of the island was pitiable. Within the next five years its population was re- duced over two million through emigration or an excessive death rate occasioned by lack of food. After recovering from the famine Ireland was in a state of discord for a long time. The Irish were rebellious because the British did not allow them an assembly of their own. Many of them were Roman Catholics and objected to being taxed to support the Church of England. Worst of all, most of the land be- longed to large estates owned by wealthy landlords who lived in England and had little interest in Ireland beyond getting their rents. In 1848 the people in many parts of Germany rose in re- volt and demanded a voice in the government and relief from the oppressive military system. For the most part this revolution failed. With its collapse thousands of indus- trious Germans began coming to the United States. Where the immigrants settled. — Most of the Irish and a part of the Germans settled in the eastern industrial sections. Other Germans formed colonies in some of the thriving western towns, like Chicago, St. Louis, Milwaukee and Cincinnati. The English and Scandinavians usually sought homesteads on the public domain and went to farm- ing. So great became the travel westward that more rapid transportation was required than that afforded by the Erie 350 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Canal and Great Lakes ; as a consequence through raihvay service from the East to Chicago was estabhshed in 1853. Why European immigrants did not settle in the South. — Of the three million immigrants entering the country prior to 1850, few located in the South. There was no demand for white laborers on the plantations and slaveholders feared many of them in the country would arouse discontent among the slaves and possibly lead to uprisings. Neither did the prospect of working alongside slaves appeal to even the poorest immigrants. The result was that, although in 1790 the population of the North and South had been about equal, by 1850 there were nearly three times as many per- sons in the free states as in those permitting slavery. Cities and city life. — In 1790 only about three per cent, of the population lived in towns of twenty-five hundred or more inhabitants. By 1850 twelve and one-half per cent, were residents of such places, and five-sixths of these towns were in the free states. In 1790 there were only eight cities of more than eight thousand inhabitants, and in 1850 there were eighty-five. Six of them had over a hundred thousand population each, and New York, the metropolis, boasted of five hundred thousand. One of these six cities was strictly a southern town — New Orleans — with one hundred and fifteen thousand people, while Baltimore and Cin- cinnati owed their prosperity largely to the southern trade. Problems in city government. — With the development of cities the inevitable municipal problems arose — water supply, lighting, sewerage, paving, transportation, policing and protection against fire. By 1842 New York had com- pleted an aqueduct bringing a supply of pure water from a lake thirty-eight miles distant and across a river, and soon after all the large cities were provided with water-works. The discovery that oil and gas could be made from coal led to lighting cities by placing "coal oil" lamps and gas-lights at the street corners. In the business districts the streets A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 351 were paved with cobble stones and macadam. In 1850 steam fire-engines began to supplant the hand engines and the old -fire buckets which by municipal regulation every householder was supposed to keep ready for instant use. The same year wit- nessed the first regu- lar police force — organized in Phila- delphia to replace the constables and unreliable "night watches." In New York and the other large cities omni- buses enabled those ^^ ^'^ ^=^"^ ^'"' ^"8'^^ who did not own carriages or wagons to get about more quickly than afoot. Inventions. — By the end of this period the invention of many kinds of machinery had lightened labor. Since with these machines more work could be done in less time, the cost of production of many articles in common use was re- duced and their price correspond- ingly lessened. Much of the new machinery required operatives of more than ordinary intelligence and this tended to arouse in youths an appreciation of the ad- vantages of an education. The sewing machine. — Within the homes cooking stoves had come into use, and oil lamps had taken the place of tallow candles. Friction matches, first made in 1837, had done away with the old flint and steel. The invention of the sewing machine in 1846 bv Klias Howe, a poor Massachusetts inventor, had The Original Howe Sewint>' Macliine 352 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY begun to revolutionize the life of women. Within fifteen years forty thousand of them were sold. The reaper. — Until about 1830 farmers reaped their grain by sickles and cradles, and either flailed it out by hand or had it stamped out by cattle or horses on the barn floor. In 1834, Cyrus McCormick, of Virginia, perfected a horse- drawn reaper, by means of which one man could do the work of several. Failing to interest his neighbors in his invention, McCormick went west and induced the farmers of the prairie states to try it. The machine was a success from the start and factories for its manufacture were built at Cincinnati and Chicago. The harvester was soon fol- lowed by the self-binder which not only cut the grain but raked it up and bound it into bundles, and this a little later by a thrasher operated by horses or an engine. These inventions had freed farming from much of its drudgery and made it more profitable, and were carrying "permanent civilization westward fifty miles a year." The telegraph. — In 1843 Congress appropriated thirty thousand dollars to test the invention on which Professor Samuel F. B. Morse had been working for years. It was an electrical device by which the inventor hoped to establish communication b e - tween persons at a distance. To the amusement of the doubting farmers along the way small oopi^er wires were From a comic paper of 1849 Old woman: "Well, I've been a-watching these plaguey wires these two hours, and haven't seed a single letter or anything pass" A Cartoon on the Telcgrapli A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 353 stretched from Washington to Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. On May 24, 1844, a few persons assembled in the Senate Chamber to watch Professor Morse click off. in dots and dashes, to the operator at the other end of the line, the message, "What hath God wrought." The intense suspense was relieved almost immediately by hearing in dots and dashes the same message repeated back from Baltimore. At last the possibility of rapid communication between places far removed had been established. Within three years telegraph lines were in operation connecting Facsimile of the First Telegraphic Message Sent by Professor Morse most of the larger cities in the United States, and were even being established in the countries of Europe. Other scientific discoveries. — In 1839 the first photo- graph was made by the Daguerre process — exposing in a camera a copper plate covered with a film sensitized to the action of sunlight. The year 1842 witnessed the first pain- less surgery. Doctor Crawford W. Long, of Georgia, had discovered that the fumes of sulphuric ether had a peculiar effect on the human system, producing temporary uncon- sciousness. By the use of this anesthetic surgeons were able to perform operations without pain and with less dan- ger. By many this discovery is considered the greatest blessing that science has bestowed on mankind. The next year the process of vulcanizing or hardening India rubber, so that it will not get sticky when exposed to heat, was invented by Charles Goodyear. Richard M. Hoe, of New 354 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY York, constructed the first rotary printing press in 1846. More impressions could be made by it in an hour than by an old hand press in a day. The iron industry. — Up to the Revolutionary War most of the iron goods used in the colonies came from Eng- land, although ore was found in all of them and forges were in operation where it was melted down into pig iron. The war with England gave a great impetus to the iron industry, but for a long time wrought-iron and steel goods were costly, due to the use of charcoal and imported coal for fuel. When the War of 1812 cut off the English coal, mines were opened in Pennsylvania. With fuel close at hand, this state could produce iron at less expense than other localities, and it quickly became the center of the iron and steel in- dustry. The rapid introduction of machinery and the building of railroads created an enormous demand for cheap iron. At about this time beds of coal and limestone were found close to large iron deposits in western Pennsylvania. This led to the establishment of many furnaces and rolling mills in the valleys of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers ; Pittsburgh, at their junction, became a large smoky city in its efforts to furnish the West with the iron and steel needed by its railroads and industries. Transportation. — During the ten years prior to 1840 two thousand miles of railroads were constructed in the United States, and in the next decade nearly five thou- sand more. Northern lines were built largely to accommo- date passenger travel ; southern to facilitate transportation of cotton, tobacco and plantation supplies. By 1842 a road had been completed from Boston to Buffalo ; by 1850 Fred- ericksburg, Virginia, was connected with Wilmington, Nor- folk with Raleigh, Savannah with Macon, and Charleston with Chattanooga. The first through trains between Chi- A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 355 cago and New York were installed in 1852. A ticket from Boston to Chicago cost twenty-three dollars and the trip required fifty-four hours. About this time the Woodruff sleeping cars were placed in op- eration, and railway bridges across streams replaced the inconve- nient ferries. The elec- tric telegraph had not yet been utilized for con- trolling the movement of trains, so when one failed to arrive at its destination on time an engine equipped with chains and jackscrews was sent to the rescue. Accidents were so frequent that laws were enacted making railway companies liable for damages in case of injury or death to passengers. So anxious were the people to have railroads built that the plan of aiding them by grants of land and money bonuses was inaugurated. It is claimed that one-third the cost of construction was paid by contributions received from states, counties and towns. Congress granted large tracts of public lands to the Illinois Central and to the Mobile and Ohio com- ])anies, while the Western and Southern States — especially Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Georgia and Tennessee — gave much financial assistance. Post-offices. — The rapid settling of the West resulted in thousands of new post-ofifices, for it was the government's policy to place one wherever a permanent settlement was made. Postage stamps came into use in 1847. The rates From a Comic Paper A Sure Way to Prevent Railway Accidents Chaining two directors to the front of each engine 356 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY were five cents a half-ounce for distances under three hun- dred miles, and ten cents for those over. In 1851 a uni- form three-cent rate was adopted. postTSrncE s Facsimile of Postage Stamps Issued by Local Postmasters about 1845 The Wells-Fargo express service. — As early as 1839, W. F. Harnden began making regular trips between Boston and New York for the purpose of carrying valuable let- ters and packages. Encouraged by the patronage of busi- ness firms he opened offices along the route and extended his service to Philadelphia. Six years later Wells and Fargo established a company called "express" because of the fast time made between Cincinnati, St. Louis and Chicago, and the eastern cities. When the rush to Cali- fornia began the company sold its eastern lines (1852) and established express service to the Pacific coast by way of Panama and the overland routes. Stage-coach lines and wagon trains were added, and later the Wells-Fargo Pony Express which made the trip from San Francisco to Inde- pendence on the Missouri River by way of Salt Lake City in eight days. Early transcontinental express service was costly — five dollars for a letter to the "states" by the pony express, and seventy-five cents a pound for large pack- ages from New York to San Francisco by the Panama route. Steamships. — The first steamship to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, which made its initial voyage from Savannah to Liverpool in 1819. The possibilities afiforded by steamships for ocean transportation did not appeal to A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 357 An American Clipper American ship owners, and they kept on building fast sail- ing "clippers" for the China and East India trade. In 1840, by liberal "subsidies" or money grants. Great Britain en- couraged the Cunard Steamship Company to establish a regular line of pack- ets between Liverpool and New York. In 1845 Congress began encouraging the estab- lishment of compet- ing American lines, by subsidizing one from New York to Bremen and another to Liverpool. Three years afterward the Pacific Mail Steamship Company inau- gurated service between New York and San Francisco by way of Cape Horn. When Congress discontinued its sub- sidies, as it did a few years after the return of the Demo- crats to power, American steamship companies languished and soon the carrying trade was almost wholly in British hands. The labor movement. — With the rise of the factory system came new economic problems. Formerly in their own homes or in small shops the workmen — weavers, join- ers, shoemakers, etc. — had turned out finished products. In the factories, however, each workman learned to operate a single machine which completed only one step in the process of manufacture, and of course became expert in his partic- ular part of the work. Formerly employer and employee worked side by side in the shop ; but under the factory sys- tem there could be little personal relationship between them. In their work the employees were supervised by "foremen" kept in their places to secure "production" by driving the workers as much as possible. The owners were busy, too. 358 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY but their labor was not so much in evidence. Out of the new system there developed two classes which apparently had nothing in common — Labor and Capital. In the eyes of Labor the life of Capital was easy. It appeared to have no worries and lived amid luxury that Labor's scanty wages could never buy. Capital demanded the largest profits pos- sible from the smallest outlay, and was sure that if Labor would not shirk so much production could be greatly in- creased. Neither recognized his dependence on the other. In 1840 President Van Buren fixed the length of the working day for government employees at ten hours, much to the disgust of private employers who often exacted twelve to fourteen. Unskilled labor received fifty or sev- enty-five cents a day, while such artisans as carpenters, blacksmiths and masons were paid about a dollar and a half. In order not to deprive the farmers of their "hired men," when the New England cotton and woolen mills were established they began the employment of women and chil- dren. For a long time most of their "hands" came from the farming communities and foreign immigrants did not readily find employment in them. The Irish, mostly un- skilled, sought work that required brawn. They dug canals and tunnels, laid railway tracks, drove teams and handled freight. The German element became farm hands. Organization of labor unions. — Persons in the same business or occupation are always disposed to unite for mutual benefit, and very early American manufacturers saw the coming of trade unions with demands for shorter hours and more pay. The state legislatures were induced to enact laws forbidding the formation of unions and mak- ing "walk-outs" and strikes punishable as misdemeanors. These laws, however, were not enforced, and labor unions came into existence rapidly after 1825. The first was formed by New England women workers in cotton mills. Next, Philadelphia machinists organized, and then New A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 359 A Labor Parade in the Early Days of Unionism York ship carpenters formed a imion and demanded a ten- hour day. By 1828 the laboring classes began to awake to their strength at the polls, as now manhood stififrage pre- vailed in most of the states. Organizations in certain locali- ties decided to support only those candidates who favored recognition of the rights of labor. As traveling facilities in- creased different groups of working men planned national organizations, and soon after 1850 several were eft'ected. Little interest in labor movement in the South. — Fac- tories were so few in the South that the labor movement excited little concern there. Many slaves had been trained to be skilled mechanics and were "rented out" by their owners. Though by means of overseers the planters ex- acted all the labor possible from the slaves, few were so blind to their own interests as to overwork or abuse them, any more than they would maim or injure a valuable horse. It is probably true, as Calhoun insisted, that slaves were 360 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY better conditioned than the average white factory workers — sure of being fed, clothed and housed in bad times as well as good, and cared for in sickness and old age. Education. — The quarter of a century ending with 1850 witnessed a great advance in educational opportunity. Gradually legislatures had been forced to provide funds for the support of public schools which should replace those maintained by tuition or private contributions. Now that the states had manhood suffrage an ability to read and write was imperative. The factories, too, were constantly demanding more intelligent workmen. Foreign immigrants, mostly illiterate, were arriving in great numbers, and these must be prepared for citizenship lest the safety of the nation be endangered. The "three R's" would no longer meet the needs of the times so geography and history were added to the public school curriculum. Organization of public schools. — All this had not come about easily. The foundations of the public school system were, laid amid violent opposition. Prominent educators had spent years agitating the need of schools supported by adequate taxes. Among these "evangelists" were Horace Mann, of Massachusetts ; Henry Barnard, of Connecticut ; Emma Willard, principal of the Troy (New York) Semi- nary; and Fanny Wright, the Scotch labor agitator. By 1850 all the states had made some provision for public schools. In the South the wealthy planters still preferred to employ private tutors and patronize the excellent acad- emies within easy reach, but schools were established in the towns for children who could not enjoy such privileges. Beginning of state universities. — Without the aid of l)ublic lands, such as had been received by the states carved from the Northwest Territory and the Louisiana Purchase, the Southern States took the lead in founding stale uni- versities. North Carolina established hers in 1795, Georgia in 1801 and South Carolina in 1804. Tn 1805, a year be- A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 361 fore his death, Thomas Jefferson saw his ambition for higher education in Virginia reahzed by the opening of the University of Virginia in a group of beautiful buildings designed by himself. The Old Quadrangle at the University of Virginia Rise of American literature. — The people of the United States had disproved the statement of a certain Englishman who said, "The mass of the North Americans are too proud to learn and too ignorant to teach, and having established themselves by act of Congress as the most enlightened peo- ple of the world they bid fair to retain their barbarism from mere regard to consistency." Already books written by Americans were being read in England. The year 1820 saw the dawn of American literature when Washington Irving ])ublished the Sketch Book, filled with fascinating legends, and James Fenimore Cooper his exciting revolutionary tale, The Spy. The next thirty years are rightly entitled the "glorious period" of American literature. During this period appeared the poems of the New England quartet — William Cullen Bryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell and John Greenleaf Whittier. Edgar Allan Poe, the southern genius, was writing his weird tales ; and Nathaniel Hawthorne and William Gilmore Simms were producing their inimitable stories. The daily newspaper. — The more rapid facilities for travel and communication brought about the daily news- 362 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY paper. It was now possible to gather news quickly and dis- seminate it before it had lost its "freshness." Popular education had so increased the number of persons who could read that by 1850 there were over three hundred "dailies" in the United States. The great increase in circula- tion and advertising had brought subscription prices down and in 1838 the Nezv York Sun aston- ished the public by com- ing out as a "penny pa- per." The demand for more rapid means of printing these papers than that afforded by the old "lever" press was met by harnessing the steam engine to the new rotary printing press. By 1850 Liverpool steamers bound for New York were met by fast express boats a hundred miles ofif Halifax to obtain the latest European news, which was then tele- graphed to the New York dailies from the Nova Scotia capital. The magazine. — Magazines had improved greatly in quality. The North American Review, founded at the close of the War of 1812, was still published. Others were Har- per's Magazine, with one hundred and forty thousand sub- scribers ; The Southern Literary Messenger and Russell's The Printing Press on Which the Missouri Gazette Was Printed at St. Louis in 1819 A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 363 The Friends* Alms House at Pliiladelpliia Built in 1729, it was the first in America Magazine. Since the publication of the Ladies' Magazine (1827) with its attempt at illustration, magazines had given more and more at- tention to that fea- ture, and as a re- sult the art of steel engraving had reached a high state of perfection. The reform movement. — In no way was progress better shown than in the more hu- mane attitude dis- played toward the weak and unfortunate. Prison reform had spread from Philadelphia, and everywhere jails were being made more sanitary. Imprisonment for debt had been abolished and laws enacted to protect bankrupt persons. Asylums had been built for the orphaned and aged, and slowly the states were taking their insane from the jails and placing them in hospitals. Drunkenness. — The hard times of Monroe's adminis- tration caused general misery and degradation among the people. An official investigation showed drunkenness to be the chief cause of it. Whisky and rum drinking was com- mon to all classes of society. The minister took his toddy before starting for church ; the merchant and his customer concluded their trade over glasses of the "real thing" ; and working men and women insisted on their "drams" regu- larly. Everywhere city grocers and country merchants carried stocks of liquors the same as other merchandise. In 1824 the first total abstinence society was formed in Boston and by 1850 there were over a thousand such or- 364 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ganizations. In 1846 Maine was able to enact a prohibition law which forbade the manufacture and sale of liquor, and later this was incorporated in the state constitution. Child labor. — The labor unions were opposing "child labor" in factories. From the beginning the employment of children had been part of the factory system. They could operate the light machinery of cotton and woolen mills as well as grown persons and cost their employers but half as much. Profits increased where child labor was employed and the poverty and avarice of parents kept the demand supplied. At one time forty per cent, of the cotton and woolen mill operatives of the country were under seventeen — many of tiiem as young as ten. Not only were they de- prived of schooling, but stunted in growth and weakened for life. Much of the crime of mill communities was traceable to the evil ideas obtained by children of "tender years" in the factories. Woman suffrage. — B}^ 1850 women had gained a place in the economic system. More than a hundred industrial pursuits were open to them and by a general strike they could close the doors of many mills and factories. Some of their number had been demanding political equality for years. Frances Wright, in 1824, made a plea for "universal suf- frage," along with that for betterment of conditions for the laboring classes. At first their efforts A u' 1 /- . .1 Air . rnet with jeers An narly Cartoon on the Women .s . . •' Rights Movement and ridicule. A QUARTER OF A CENTURY OF PROGRESS 26S They were informed that they ought to be at home instead of on the platform, and that for women to "mix in poHtics" was unthinkable. But by 1848 the advocates of woman suffrage were sufficiently numerous and widely scattered to warrant the holding of a national convention. This con- vention met at Seneca Falls, New York, and in addition to the women many men were in attendance, including William Lloyd Garrison, Wendell Phillips and other abolitionist leaders. It was logical for the woman suffrage leaders to endorse abolition of slavery in the hope that freedom for the negroes would be accompanied by universal suffrage. On account of this attitude the movement naturally received little consideration in the South in its early days. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Write in your note-book a statement indicating the several acquisitions of territory between 1789 and 1850. Note growth in area, wealth and population. To what was this wonderful growth due ? 2. What kind of citizens did the Irish and German immigrants make? Why did they come to the United States? Where did they locate? Why? Were the motives which prompted the Irish and German migrations in the nineteenth century similar to the motives which caused so many Englishmen (Puritans and Cavaliers) to leave England in the seventeenth century to find homes in America? If not, what was the difference? 3. What caused the rapid growth of cities? What problems came with the growth of cities? How did the cities solve these problems? Compare a modern city with one in 1850 as to lighting, water, etc. Give some reasons of your own for the growth of cities. 4. What part did the United States take in the great Industrial Revolution? Name some of our great inventions. What is meant by the factory system of manufacturing? How does this differ from the domestic system of manufacturing? What is meant by "division of labor"? 5. What effect did rapid transportation have on the development of our country? Write in your note-book a list of inventions which promoted industry and improved transportation. 366 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 6. What did labor do to protect itself against capital? What are labor unions? Are they desirable? What is a strike? 7. What causes influenced the rapid development of public educa- tion? Why was public education violently opposed? Do you think the state should educate its citizens or should that work be left to private individuals? Give reason for your answer. What is meant by illiteracy? Why was the development of public education slow in the South? 8. Name some early American writers. What did they write? Which of their works have you read? Of what benefit are newspapers and magazines In the development of a country? 9. What was the "Reform Movement"? Compare the former method with our present method of dealing with (a) crimi- nals, (b) debtors, (c) the insane, (d) intemperance, (e) child labor, (f) woman suffrage. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. Causes afifecting foreign immigration. 2. The development of manufacturing in New England. 3. Important inventions : cotton-gin, steam engine, steamboat, steamship, sewing machine, reaper, telegraph. REFERENCES 1. Thompson's History of the United States, P olitical-Industrial- Social, pp. 148-158, 171-178, 180-196, 198-230. Note. Thomp- son's text should be in the hands of every teacher for the period covered by this chapter. 2. Mowry's American Inventions and Inventors. A Prairie Plow Compare this with the colonial plow on page 135 CHyVPTER XXVIir THE DEMOCRATS ONCE MORE IN POWER Franklin Pierce, President, 1833-18^/ James Buchanan, President, i8jy-i86i Franklin Pierce elected president. — In their platforms for the election of 1852 both \\ higs and Democrats en- dorsed the Omnibus Bill as a permanent adjustment of the slavery dispute. The Free-Soilers, however, still agitated the question and put forward John P. Hale, of New Hamp- shire, as their candidate for the presidency. General Win- field Scott became the Whig standard bearer and Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, was the <:hoice of the Demo- crats. From the start the Whigs were handicapped, for since the death of Clay and Webster they had been without strong leaders. General Scott, their candidate, had come into national prominence solely through his military record made in a war generally denounced by the North and West. Moreover, many Free-Soil Democrats who had voted the ticket in 1848 now came back to their old party. After a campaign of petty personalities, Pierce carried all but four states. Ambitions of the new president. — The new president desired to eliminate discord and unite all sections in the cause of national progress. He had three distinct ambitions — to build a railroad to the Pacific coast, to acquire Cuba from Spain and to expand American commerce. Early in his administration the Gadsden Purchase was made, and surveyors were set to work under the direction of the secre- 367 368 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY tary of war, Jefferson Davis, to lay out a route for the projected railroad. Much against the wishes of eastern Democrats an effort was made to purchase Cuba from Spain, but so badly was it managed that the two coun- tries w^ere nearly embroiled in war. While the matter was pending the ministers to Great Britain, France and Spain met at Ostend, a popular watering place on the coast of Belgium, to confer on the question. They drew up and signed jointly a public statement, since known as the "Ostend Manifesto," that "Cuba ought to belong to the United States," and should Spain refuse to sell it, the country could acquire the island by force. This "Manifesto" was severely condemned in the United States and helped to prevent the president from realizing his Cuban ambition. As an aid to commerce more subsidies were granted to steamship companies. In 1853 an expedition was sent to the Pacific to undertake to establish trade relations with the "hermit kingdom" of Japan, which had never opened its ports to European commerce. Commodore Matthew C. Perry, brother of the victor of the battle of Lake Erie, with an American squadron, sailed into the harbor of what is now Tokyo, and by the exercise of much tact overcame Japanese desire for isolation. The next spring Perry made a treaty establishing friendly relations between the two na- tions. Immediately a rich trade sprang up with the Jap- anese and their country entered upon an era of develop- ment which has made it one of the most prosperous nations in the world. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. — In January, 1854, contro- versy over the slavery question broke out again in Congress. Senator Stephen A. Douglas, the "Little Giant" of Illinois, introduced a bill which came to be known as the "Kansas- Nebraska Act." This measure provided for dividing what was left of the Louisiana Purchase into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska. It also established "squatter sov- THE DEMOCRATS ONCE MORE IN POWER 369 ereignty" throughout the whole of the vast area, by stip- ulating that "all questions pertaining to slavery in the terri- tories and the new states to be formed therefrom are to be left to the decision of the whole people residing therein." Migration westward was filling up this region so rapidly that government of some kind was imperative. By the terms of the Missouri Compromise, slavery was forbidden, since all of it lay north of the parallel of 36° 30', but Douglas believed that act had been superseded by the Omni- bus Bill. Anti-slavery Democrats condemn Douglas, — The wrath of the anti-slavery Democrats toward Senator Douglas knew no bounds. He was accused of selling out party principles for southern support in his ambition to receive the nomination for the presidency in 1856. Popular in- dignation vented itself freely in public gatherings. Doug- las was burned in effigy so frequently that he said he could travel all the way from Washington to Chicago by the light of the bonfires. The South had taken no part in formulating Douglas's measure but naturally supported it, since the idea of popular sovereignty agreed with their contention that Congress had no right to forbid slavery in any part of the national domain. How the Kansas-Nebraska Act was received. — The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act was celebrated by the firing of cannon in Washington and southern cities generally, but with the tolling of funeral bells in the North. Now, excepting only Washington and Oregon, all the terri- tories of the United States might become slave states through popular sovereignty. Henceforth, extension of slavery would hinge on the relative ability of the North and South to efi^ect settlement. Bleeding Kansas. — To abolitionist and slaveholder alike, Kansas was now a battle-ground where majorities would win 'the fight, and the race for settlement began. 370 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Slaveholders hastened to move across the Missouri and form settlements on the rich lands along its western bank. To oppose them, lowans, too, crossed over and an Emigrant Aid Society was formed in Massachusetts to aid those will- ing to move to Kansas. Before long much of the country south of the Kansas River was occupied by a distinctly "free-state" population. ]\Ien of both factions went about their business heavily armed and con- stantly on the lookout for trouble. The pro-slav- ery forces won the election of 1855, with the result that the first act of the legislature legalized the holding of slaves and made assisting them to escape a crime punishable by death. The anti-slavery resi- dents would not submit to this and proceeded to hold a con- vention and adopt a state constitution. Then, following the California precedent, they applied for admission to the Union as a free state. Meanwhile, two rival governments were established and civil war broke out between their ad- herents. Bands of "Border Ruffians" and "Black Repub- licans" raided the homes of their opponents, killing and burning far and wide. A party of men, headed by a pro- slavery sheriff, set fire to buildings in Lawrence, the anti- slavery capital, and to avenge this John Brown, an abolition- ist, aided by his sons and neighbors, killed five pro-slavery Early Days in Kansas Notice the gun strapped to the rider's back and the ulil "cable" ferry at the left of the building THE DEMOCRATS OX'CE MORE IX POWER 371 United States Troops Dispersing a Constitutional Convention in Kansas men on the Pottawatomie Creek. Brown justified this mur- der by saying: "I have no choice. It has been decreed by Almighty God." Two years of turmoil for the whole country followed, until at last United States troops quelled the disorder. In the meantime popular sovereignty had sent two rival con- stitutions to Congress for it to choose between, and once more the Federal Government was involved in the slavery tangle. The president and Senate favored the pro-slavery faction, but the House of Representatives was strongly op- posed. Senator Robert W. Toombs, of Georgia, offered a fair compromise which was rejected and Kansas remained a territory until 1861, when it was admitted as a free state. The Republican party comes into existence. — A break- ing up of the old parties followed the enactment of the Kan- sas-Nebraska Bill. Southern Whigs, in distrust of their party, went over to the Democrats. Northern Democrats, 372 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY indignant over the "Kansas Crime," united with the Free- Soilers and anti-slavery Whigs to form a new party, called at first "The Anti-Nebraska" but soon known as the Re- publican. The Wilmot Proviso became its corner-stone and "No More Slave States" its battle cry. In the congressional elections of 1854 the Republicans almost gained control of the House of Representatives. By joining with some of the Whigs and the "Know Nothings" they were able to de- feat the admission of Kansas. The presidential election of 1856. — In 1856 the Repub- licans nominated General John C. Fremont, the "Path- finder," for the presidency. As their candidate, the Demo- crats selected James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania. This Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1856 election showed that the parties were splitting into distinctly northern and southern organizations. Though defeated, Fremont carried all the Northern States except four ; Buchanan all those holding slaves but one. Throughout the campaign the Republicans insisted that Congress not only had a right to exclude slavery from the territories, but ought to do it, while the Democrats stood boldly for popular sovereignty. THE DEMOCRATS ONCE MORE IN POWER 2,7Z The Dred Scott decision. — In the opinion of many, a slave secured his freedom when brought into a free state by his owner. Dred Scott had been taken by his master, a Missouri army officer, to IlHnois and thence to Minnesota. Ten years after he was brought back to Missouri, Scott brought suit for his freedom. The Saint Louis County Court decided in his favor but the case eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States. In a decision written by Chief Justice Roger P. Taney, this court held : (1) Slaves, or negroes descended from slaves, were not citizens and therefore could not sue in the courts. (2) Slaves, like cattle, horses, and other property, could be taken into any part of the United States at the will of their owners. (3) The Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, as Congress had no right to forbid slavery in the territories. This decision sustained southern opinion in the wrangle over the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and aimed to silence the Re- publican party by declaring unconstitutional the doctrine around which it had been organized. The Republicans, however, instead of being silenced, declared that the deci- sion had been drawn in the interest' of politics, made much of the opinions of the dissenting judges and proceeded with their plans to control the next election. The Lincoln-Douglas debates. — In 1858 Illinois had a memorable campaign for the office of United States sen- ator. The candidates were Stephen A. Douglas, author of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and Abraham Lincoln, an obscure country lawyer. As senators were chosen by the state legis- latures, candidates usually "stumped" the state to assist in electing legislators favorable to themselves. Lincoln was strongly opposed to any extension of slavery by popular sov- ereignty or otherwise, and challenged Douglas to discuss that doctrine with him in joint debates. 374 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY In popular opinion Douglas had a decided advantage, for he was reputed the most skilful debater in Congress. Be- sides, he enjoyed the prestige of being a national character, while Lincoln was scarcely known outside of Illinois. Per- sons came from far and near to hear the debates and many A Scene during One of the Lincoln-Douglas Debates actually followed the debaters from place to place. Lincoln demanded that the senator explain how the people of a ter- ritory could exclude slavery when by the Dred Scott de- cision Congress, conceded as supreme in the territories, could not interfere with it in any way. Driven to the wall by the question, Douglas was forced to fall back on the theory of "unfriendly legislation." By his adversary's adroitness the "Little Giant" had been compelled to choose THE DEMOCRATS ONXE MORE IN POWER 375 between pleasing the people of Illinois and pleasing those of the South. By his answer he won the election to the United States Senate but lost the support of the South in his presi- dential aspirations. The skill Lincoln displayed in these de- bates had suddenly elevated the unknown Illinois lawyer to the leadership of the Republican party. New states and territories. — \\'hen California was ad- mitted to the Union the balance that had been preserved be- tween free states and slave was broken forever. There were now sixteen free states to fifteen slave. One reason the North had opposed so violently the Kansas-Nebraska Act Avas because she knew northern preponderance of ])ower in the Senate would be lost if Kansas should become a slave state. When Minnesota entered the Union in 1858. and Oregon the next year, the South saw there was no pos- sibility of the old balance ever being restored. There were now thirty-three states and live territories — Kansas, Ne- 1)raska, Washington, New Mexico and Utah. The Mormons migrate to Utah. — While the eyes of the country had been focused on Kansas, Utah, too, had been passing through stirring times. In 1847, led by their ])resident, Brigham Young, a small band of Mormons had crossed the Rockies to seek new homes in the wilderness where they might live and worshij) as they saw fit. These Mormons belonged to a sect called the )>'^<.'e'^^iC^Gc/\f^j)(i\'^?U$l,^h,nh^^ -Church of the Lat- ^^^^^^^^^^ Ss>tMi^ci^t^^,.metibmi:3i, ter Day Saints of Jesus Christ," organ- ;^^ v^Mjf t'.7e/£ ci 7it;im^A^i'f^>=,- ized in New York in Facsimile of an Inscription Claimed to 1830. Joseph Smith. ^"^^^''^ Been Copied from One of Smith's . . , . Golden Tablets Its founder, claimed to have received from an angel divine revelation and some golden tablets from which latter he translated the Book of Mormon. This book, which the Mormons hold sacred, pur- n(, OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ports to be a history of ancient America, beginning at a time not long after the fall of the Tower of Babel and com- ing down to the extermination of the ancient Mormons by the Indians. Driven west by the intolerance of their neigh- bors in Ohio — their early location — the Mormons settled in Missouri, whence they had to flee to Illinois. There, on the banks of the Mississippi, a prosperous city, Nauvoo, was built by their industry and there the practise of plural mar- riages, or polygamy, was instituted. Soon they were once more in trouble with their neighbors and the "Prophet," as Joseph Smith was called, and his brother were arrested for treason and taken to Carthage. During the night, with the connivance of their jailers, a mob broke into the jail and murdered them (1844). To escape further molestation the Mormons left Nauvoo and joined the western migration. Settling in the desert regions of the Great Salt Lake Basin, under their skilful methods of irrigation and agriculture, these arid plains literally "blossomed as the rose." As the overland route to the gold mines led by way of their settle- ments the Latter Day Saints profited greatly from the sale of supplies to persons en route to California and Oregon, and Utah grew rapidly. When the territory was organized in 1850 their leader, Brigham Young, was appointed gov- ernor. The Mormons became involved in so many difficul- ties with some of the California emigrants that President Buchanan decided to appoint a new governor. So incensed were they by this action that a military force had to be des- patched to Utah to assist in upholding the authority of the United States, and it was not until 1860 that peace was fully restored. Two great discoveries. — During Buchanan's adminis- tration two great discoveries were made which were destined to increase greatly the wealth of the country. While the Lin- coln-Douglas debates were in progress a party of miners found gold in a creek near the present Denver, Colorado. THE DEMOCRATS ONCE MORE IN POWER ZTJ Another gold rush similar to that of the "Forty-Niners" peopled the Pike's Peak country with adventurers and for- tune hunters. The first oil well in the United States was tapped near Titusville, Pennsyl- vania, in 1859. Nine years before, oil dis- tilled from coal had been placed on the market at one dollar a gallon. When it was found that pe- troleum in large quantities could be obtained by sinking wells, there was a great rush to the "oil fields." Wells and refineries multi- plied throughout western Pennsyl- vania, Ohio and Indiana, and soon large quantities of satis- factory low-priced illuminating oil were being produced. John Brown's raid. — When law and order were re- established in Kansas, John Brown, the Pottawatomie mur- derer, removed to Harper's Ferry, Virginia. Here, with the aid of money supplied by abolitionists, Brown planned a negro insurrection. One dark night in October, 1859, he and his eighteen followers seized the government arsenal and arrested several prominent persons to be held as hos- tages. The outlaws then barricaded themselves within an old engine house and fought the citizens and militia for two days. Finally, Colonel Robert E. Lee, with two com- panies of United States Marines, arrived on the scene and captured Brown and those of his companions who had not Drake's Original Oil Well at Titus- ville, Pennsylvania 378 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY been killed. After a speedy but orderly trial for murder and treason the outlaws were sentenced to be hanged. Although in the North this lawless act was not generally upheld, in the eyes of the abolitionists, who were given to justifying means by ends, the execution of John Brown made him a martyr. In the South the thought of a terrible negro up- rising so narrowly averted brought home the great danger which threatened the southern people when fanatics would resort to such villainous methods. John Brown's raid was important solely because the bitter feeling it engendered brought the country one step nearer to the "partmg of the ways." Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. What were the three principal things President Franklin Pierce hoped to accomplish in his administration? Did he succeed? What was the "Ostend Manifesto"? Write in your note-book the story of the way in which the United States began to trade with Japan. 2. Write in your note-book the provisions of the "Kansas-Nebraska Act." It has been said that the Kansas-Nebraska Act was "the most momentous piece of legislation in the United States before the Civil War." Find reasons in your text-book or elsewhere for this statement, and write them in your note- book. What was meant by the doctrine of "squatter sov- ereignty"? Did the Kansas-Nebraska Act repeal the Missouri Compromise? If so, how? Senator Stephen A. Douglas be- lieved that the Missouri Compromise had been superseded by the Compromise of 1850. Was this true? 3. What was meant by "bleeding Kansas" ? In what year was Kansas admitted as a state? Did Kansas come into the Union as a free state or as a slave state? 4. Write a narrative in your note-book showing the steps which led to the organization of the Republican party. Who com- posed this party? What important party did it supplant? What was its doctrine on the question of the extension of slavery into new territory? What was the position of the party on the question of the existence of slavery in the old states ? THE DEMOCRATS ONCE MORE IN POWER ^7^) 5. What was the "Dred Scott" decision? What was its effect on the RepubHcan party ? W'as this decision ever nulHfied ? 6. What did Senator Douglas gain from the series of joint debates he held with Abraham Lincoln ? What did he lose ? What did Lincoln gain from these debates? What were some of the points of difference in the position each debater took on the question of the extension of slavery? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Mormons and the settlement of Utah. 2. John Brown's raid and the "Parting of the Ways." 3. The sectional struggle to secure control of Kansas. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side Lights on American History, Vol. I, Chapters XV and XVL 2. Wilson's Division and Reunion, pp. 182-188, 197-204. ^. Spark's The Men IVho Made the Nation, pp. 378-390. The Nation Expands Westward and Slavery Splits It in Twain I. Jackson's Administr.vtions Mark a New Epoch in Ameri- can History. ■ .\. Jackson's unique personality. B. A new political party with new political methods. C. New standards set at the White House. D. New methods of travel and communication. E. New industrial methods. F. Tarifif legislation. 1. Nullification. G. Jackson destroys the National Bank. 1. The panic of 1837. n. The Rise of the Whig P.\rty and the Annexation of Texas. A. The presidential campaign of 1840. B. Death of Harrison. C. Tyler breaks with his party. D. Texas struggles for independence from Me.xicn. v.. The annexation of Texas to the United States. 380 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY III. Expansion Westward. A. Oregon, Utah, California and Texas. B. Fremont's explorations. C. The dispute over the Oregon boundary. D. Dispute over Texas boundary. E. War with Mexico. 1. Taylor invades Mexico from the north. 2. Scott marches upon Mexico City from Vera Cruz. F. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. IV. The Great Territorial Acquisition as a Result of thk Mexican War. A. The discovery of gold in California and the great rush of gold seekers. B. The reappearance of the slavery question when California sought admission to the Union. 1. The compromise of 1850. 2. The Fugitive Slave Law. 3. Personal liberty laws. 4. The underground railway organized. 5. Uncle Tom's Cabin. V. A Quarter of a Century of Progress. A. Increase in population. B. The development of cities. C. Important inventions and discoveries. D. The increase in railroad building. 1. Land grants and money bonuses aided the movement. E. Improvement in ocean transportation and communication. F. Educational facilities multiplied. G. Gold discovered near Denver. H. First oil well tapped in Pennsylvania in 1859. \'I. The Democrats Once More in Power. A. The struggle over the extension of slavery into the terri- tories. 1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act. 2. The Dred Scott Decision. 3. John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry. 4. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. CHAPTER XXIX THE PARTING OF THE WAYS Abraham Lincoln, President, 1861-186^ Lincoln elected president. — In April, 1860, the Demo- cratic Convention met at Charleston to nominate candi- dates and agree on a platform. The northern delegates sup- ported Senator Douglas for the presidency and insisted on endorsing popular sovereignty once more. The southern delegates would not agree to either candidate or doctrine. Several state delegations withdrew and finally the Conven- tion adjourned to meet later at Baltimore. Here the party split into two distinct factions. The "Moderate Democrats" A Cartoon of the Day Showing the Dilemma of the Democratic Party in 1860 nominated Douglas and stood for popular sovereignty ; the "Pro-Slavery" chose John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and demanded that Congress protect slavery in all parts of 381 382 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the public domain. The RepubHcan Convention at Chicago selected Abraham Lincoln as its standard bearer. It adopted a platform opposed to slavery in the territories. To secure the support of the manufacturing element in the East it promised to enact a high protective tariff in place of the low one passed by the Democrats three years before. As a bid for the western farmer vote, the Republicans pledged them- selves to re-enact the "Free Homestead Law" vetoed by* President Buchanan. The few remaining Whigs reor- ganized under the name of the "Constitutional Union" party and nominated John C. Bell, of Kentucky. In their plat- form they ignored the slavery question but opposed secession. In the election the popular vote was distributed among the four candidates as follows : Lincoln 1,866,542 Douglas 1,375,157 Breckinridge 847.953 Bell 590,631 The electoral vote was divided thus : Lincoln 180, Doug- las 12, Breckinridge 72, and Bell 39. Lincoln, having re- ceived the electoral vote of all the Northern and Pacific States, which was more than a majority, was elected, al- though he had received considerably less than half of the popular vote. Douglas received the electoral vote of only two states, Missouri and New Jersey. Bell received the electoral vote of three states, Virginia, Tennessee and Ken- tucky, and Breckinridge carried all the other Southern States. South Carolina secedes. — The South believed that the Republican party was a sectional organization bent on free- ing the slaves. When, therefore, it was evident Lincoln had been elected she could see no way of preserving her rights except by the states withdrawing from the Federal THE PARTING OF THE WAYS 383 compact. On December 20, 1860, a convention of delegates from all parts of South Carolina assembled in Charleston and unanimously ^_. passed the following CHiRLESTOJV "Ordinance of Se- MERCURY EXTRA: cession : We, the people of the state of South Carolina, in conven- tion assembled, do declare and ordain, and it is hereby de- clared and ordained, that the ordinance adopted by us in con- vention, on the 23rd day of May, in the year of our Lord 1788, whereby the Constitution of the United States was ratified, and also all acts and parts of the acts of the General Assembly of this state ratifying amendments to the said Constitution, are hereby repealed ; and ■that the Union now subsisting between South Carolina and other states under the name of the United States of America is hereby dissolved. Six other Southern States follow South Carolina. — Soon afterward similar ordinances were passed by six other states, as follows : Patsea unantmousia at 1.15 o'eloek, JP, Jlf~ Beeemhtr SO/A, I860. JLS ORDIKTANCE 'To dUtotre Ihe Orion Mieftn lite Statr tif South Caroltna attd oilur Slatet tmttfd ttllh htr under Iht eompnet entitled " Tk* CoMlUutlon of the CuUed Slalee ej .laieriea." Wt^tit PapU cf lU SuOi tf SouX OmiUna, oi CcneaHom aufnMi^Jodttlvtmd cnla>i\and tl <3 imbf ikdartd and ffrdamed^ TbU tha OriiouM »dopl«d I; u In ConTention. ea Uio twtotj-OiM A»y of Vaj, fa (b* jmt of out Lonl oo* thooiud eereo 'bosdnd tai elghlj-otgbl, irbenbj tbe OouUtotioa of tb« VoiM BUl«a of Am«ric4 vu oUfled, and alio, til Aau aod patte of Acts of Iba Qooettl AimaHj of Ibis Stafa^ aUi^l^ anaadoeiiU of tba aald CooititaUoo, are bonb/ rcptated; aod Ibu tbe aalon oow aalelitlss baCnaa Boolb Carolina aad otbv Slalas, lUkler ;b« aana of « Iba Vailad EUlas of Aaarlok* is benb; disaolrad. THE UNION DISSOLVED! Facsimile of the Charleston Mercury's Extra Announcing the Passage of the OffJinance of Secession 384 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Mississippi, January 9, 1861 .... 84 yeas, 15 nays Florida, January 10, 1861 62 yeas, 7 nays Alabama, January 11, 1861 61 yeas, 39 nays Georgia, January 18, 1861 208 yeas, 89 nays Louisiana, January 26, 1861 .... 113 yeas, 17 nays Texas, February 1, 1861 166 yeas, 7 nays The right of the Southern States to withdraw from the Union was defended on the ground that each possessed sovereignty. Their view was that the Treaty of Paris had been made with them as individual states — not as a Union — and neither the Constitution nor the act by which it had been ratified had deprived them of the sovereignty granted by King George. As sovereign states they insisted that they had a legal and moral right to exercise all the privi- leges of free and independent nations, and could not law- fully be coerced in any way. Moreover, at the time of the ratification of the Constitution several states took the precaution to proclaim their right to secede. Since then, in resolutions of protest against acts of Congress, legislatures had frequently maintained this right, even as recently as 1844 in Massachusetts. That the seceding states were act- ing within their legal rights was conceded by many north- erners. Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, said, "Let the erring sisters go in peace." President Bu- chanan, although he doubted their right to secede, was sure that he had no constitutional authority to prevent it. Organization of the Confederacy. — On February 4, 1861, delegates from all the seceding states except Texas assembled at Montgomery, Alabama, to organize a tempo- rary government. In order that there might be no misun- derstanding in the future as to the sovereignty of the sev- eral states they nam.ed it the Confederate States of America. In general, its constitution followed closely that of the United States. In the document emphasis was laid on the THE PARTING OF THE WAYS 385 fact that each state was free and independent, and it was specifically provided that : (1) Congress should never impose a protective tariff. (2) Congress should never appropriate money for in- ternal improvements, subsidies, etc. (3) The institution of negro slavery, as it then existed in the Confederate States, should be recognized and en- couraged. Jefferson Davis, of [Mississippi, was elected president, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, vice-president. Both had been members of the United States Congress when their states seceded and were among the twelve senators and thirty-one representatives who resigned their seats at this time. Montgomery was made the capital of the Con- federacy and remained so until the next May, when the seat of government was transferred to Richmond. Immediately after seceding, the states set about securing possession of all government property within their borders, as far as this could be accomplished without violence. They desired to withdraw in peace and to be able to establish friendly relations with the United States, so avoided any acts likely to cause annoyance to their neighbors. For this reason the postal system was left undisturbed for several months. By ]\Iarch 4, 1861, most of the forts, arsenals, navy yards and custom houses had been willingly handed over to them. Attempts at compromise. — The secession of the South- ern States was received variously in the North. Some re- garded the Confederacy as merely a temporary "blufif" and predicted that the seceding states would return of their own accord. Those who thus believed were not in favor of con- ceding anything to them and would compel their return by the use of force, if necessary. Others agreed with Horace 386 OUR GOUXTRY'S HISTORY I'h.t.i li.ui L'nclerwMi.d & Undenvood Jefferson Davis THE PARTING OF TTIIC WAYS 387 Greeley, that the states were actually within their consti- tutional rights. The extreme abolitionists, like William Lloyd Garrison, were glad that they had taken their de- parture. Another element, composed of persons who really loved the Union, believed it possible so to amend the Con- stitution that all could live together in harmony. In the South, especially in the border states of Kentucky and Vir- ginia, many leaders stood ready to unite with these northern moderates in effecting a compromise. Both houses of Congress appointed committees to try to adjust the difficulty. Senator Crittenden, of Kentucky, pro- posed a compromise reestablishing the parallel of 36° 30' as the northern limit for slavery in the territories, and pro- viding that as new states were created the question should be decided by popular sovereignty. It also stipulated that the Federal Government should pay for all slaves escaping to the North. This compromise was defeated because on the advice of Lincoln the Republicans refused to consider any further extension of slave territory. Congress, how- ever, did refer to the states a proposed amendment pro- viding that the Constitution should never be amended so as to abolish or interfere with slavery, but this was ratified by only two states, Ohio and Maryland. \^irginia had not yet seceded and in an effort to devise some plan of compromise she invited the states to send delegates to a convention. In response to this call, repre- sentatives from twenty-one states met at Washington in February, 1861, but none of the seceding states were repre- sented and the effort to save the L^nion failed. President Lincoln's inauguration. — President Lincoln entered office amid threatening hostilities. All government property in South Carolina had been surrendered to the Confederacy except the forts in Charleston harbor. Since they resisted and the state was opposed to violence, no at- tempt was made to take them. When the ^^^^shingtnn gov- 388 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ernment sent the steamer Star of the West to Charleston with suppHes and reinforcements for Tvlajor Anderson, the commander of Fort Sumter, this was looked upon as a hostile act against the sovereignty of South Carolina. Therefore, her militia fired on the vessel and compelled it to retire. To avoid further difficulty the new Confederate Government sent a commission to Washington to confer with President Buchanan on the peaceable surrender of such Abraham Lincoln THE PARTING OF THE WAYS 389 property within the seceding states as still remained under the jurisdiction of the United States. To receive this com- mission would have been a recognition of the Confederate States as a nation, and the Cabinet, composed largely of northern men, so strongly opposed it that the president yielded, and refused to confer with the southerners. So bitter was the feeling of many northerners toward Lincoln that he had to change his plans and "slip" into the capital by night on a special train for fear of being assassi- nated on the way. Guarded by United States troops, brought to Washington for the purpose, Lincoln took the oath of office and delivered his inaugural address, stating his policy definitely. He asserted his opinion that the Union was perpetual and that no state could lawfully with- draw from it. He stated that it was not his intention "di- rectly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the states where it existed." He declared that he expected to execute the laws of the United States in all the states and to "hold, occupy and possess the property and places belonging to the government, and collect the duties and imposts." Lincoln knew the seceding states had but two alternatives — abject surrender or war to maintain what they believed to be their rights — and that as true sons of America they would undoubtedly choose the latter. He therefore tried to throw on them responsibility for what- ever bloodshed might follow, by saying, "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow countrymen, and not in mine, is the mo- mentous issue of civil war." The capture of Fort Sumter. — Hostilities were de- layed for about a month, and leaders on both sides believed that the other would not fight after all. Late in March, President Lincoln received word from Major Anderson that he could not hold out much longer unless supplies were sent him. Thereupon the president notified the governor of South Carolina of his intention to send relief to Fort Sum- 390 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ter and ordered a strong fleet to be despatched to Charles- ton. The Confederate States were compelled to regard this as an act of war. As South Carolina was already in posses- sion of Fort Moultrie and had erected strong batteries cov- ering Fort Sumter, on April 11. 1861, by order of President Firing on Fort Sumter I'roni an old print Davis, General P. T. Beauregard demanded the surrender of the island fortress. This was refused and the next morn- ing the bombardment of Fort Sumter began. Although the fleet sent to its relief was just outside the harbor, it failed to enter and take part in the battle. On the afternoon of April fourteenth, after the walls of the fort had been badly battered and fires had broken out in THE PARTING OF THE WAYS 391 the barracks, JNIajor Anderson marched out his Httle band of one hundred twenty-eight men and surrendered the place. General Beauregard raised the Confederate "Stars and Bars" over the ruins and the first battle of the War of Secession was ended. Neither side lost a man, but the prophecy of Robert Toombs, Secretary of State in President Davis's Cabinet, was to come true. "The firing on that fort will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the world has yet seen." The two governments prepare for war. — The next morning after the fall of Fort Sumter President Lincoln issued a call for seventy-five thousand volunteers to put down "an insurrection." Expecting northern armies to at- tempt to overrun the seceding states and set their slaves free, President Davis called for volunteers to defend the soil of the Southern States from invasion by forces bent on their ruin. Lincoln's call went to all states, North and South alike. Confronted by this situation, Virginia, by a vote of 88 to 55, decided to join the Confederacy (April seventeenth). Soon after, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee did the same, as follows : Arkansas. May 6, 1861 89 yeas, 1 nay North Carolina, May 21, 1861 LInanimously Tennessee, June 8, 1861 Unanimously Four border states remain in the Union. — In the bor- tler states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Mis- souri, sentiment was divided. While thousands of the best citizens sympathized with the Confederacy, the rapid as- sembling of federal troops there enabled the Unionists to control the legislatures. Delaware, which from the start had been lukewarm toward the Confederacy, aligned her- self definitely on the side of the United States. Li Mary- land a collision occurred between the citizens of Baltimore and Massachusetts troops on their way to the defense of 392 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Washington, in which several persons were killed. Union and Confederate troops clashed in Missouri and Kentucky. At first success was with the South, but in the face of su- perior numbers these states finally had to be abandoned by the Confederacy. Not allowed to remain neutral, as they desired, they were forced to join the Union side, though thousands of their citizens fought under the stars and bars. Southern mountaineers oppose secession. — The people of the valleys of western Virginia and North Carolina and eastern Tennessee 5 ,0 ,5 20 25 30 3S« 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 .00 |^^^ nCVCr OWncd ttiaUy slaves and had differed with their states on most national ques- tions. Now they were opposed to secession. In Virginia forty-three western counties re- fused to be bound by the act of secession and elected officials claiming to be the legal authorities of that state. Congress recognized this government and al- lowed its senators and representatives to occupy the seats belonging to Virginia. Unable to spare troops to put down the rebellion eastern Virginia was compelled to allow them to defy the state's authority. North and South respond alike to the call for volun- teers. — The call for volunteers met with quick response and thousands rallied to the support of their respective gov- ernments. Many were youths not over sixteen years of age. Neither North nor South thought the conflict would last more than a few months. President Davis believed north- ern resistance would crumble as 'soon as southern armies carried the war to the jrreat cities of the North. President - - ■ VIRGINIA 1 1 NCAROUNA SCAROUNi ' " " KENTUCKY ■ I I TtNNtSStS __ ■ I 1 OTHER STATES I Percentage of Southern Families Owning Slaves in 1850 THE PARTING OF THE WAYS 393 Lincoln expected to capture Richmond and thus shatter the Confederacy at one blow. Relative strength of the belligerents. — The advantage was with the North, which had a population of twenty-two million against nine million in the South, many of whom were slaves. Before the war closed the North armed more soldiers than there were white males in the South when it began. Military age in the North was from eighteen to forty years, and it had twice the required number of eligible men. The South had to enlist nine-tenths of all its males between the ages of seventeen and sixty. Most of the fac- tories needed to arm and equip armies were in the North. Possessing but one cannon foundry and two powder mills at the start, the Confederacy had to depend for nearly three years on England and France for its ammunition. The wealth of the South was largely invested in lands and slaves and there was little ready money. In order to secure funds to pay for their supplies it was necessary to ship car- goes of cotton, rice and tobacco to Europe. The North, on the other hand, had vast sums invested in stocks and bonds, against which large loans of European gold could be se- cured. Before the war the South had not raised enough food to supply its own needs and had imported large quantities from the North and from abroad. Now it must feed itself from the labor of the slaves, unaccustomed to raising such crops and equipped with old-fashioned implements. It had no navy and few trained sailors. However, at the start the North was not much bettei- ofif, for most of its vessels had been sent on long cruises and were, therefore, not available for immediate use. In its shipyards, however, it was soon able to convert enough of its many merchantmen into vessels suitable for maintaining a blockade of southern ports until the regular vessels could be recalled and new fighting craft constructed. 394 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Advantages possessed by the Confederacy. — The Con- federacy had the advantage of a president who, trained as a soldier, had served through the Mexican War and as sec- retary of war under President Pierce. Lincoln, on the other hand, had had practically no military experience. One- fourth of the best officers in the United States army and navy had entered the service of the Confederacy, and be- sides, as the fighting took place on southern soil, they could choose the best positions for defense. Finally, the south- erners were fighting for their homes and everything which was dear, and such soldiers are always difficult to defeat. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Explain how Lincoln was elected in 1860 though he received only one-third of the popular vote. 2. What is meant by secession? What other states before 1860 had threatened to secede? Is it true then that the doctrine of secession originated in the South ? 3. Find out about the secession convention in your state. Was the ordinance severing the relations with the Union passed unani- mously? 4. Do yott think that war might have been prevented if Buchanan had been firm and resolute and acted as Andrew Jackson did in 1832? Why did Buchanan act as he did? 5. Read the Confederate Constitution. Are there any clauses in it that are really an improvement over the Federal Constitution ? 6. Describe the attempts to compromise after secession was imder wa\'. 7. Compare the relative strength of the two belligerents, bringing out the points of advantage that each had over the other. 8. Describe the bombardment of Fort Sumter. What was the result? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Republican Convention of 1860. 2. The adoption of the Ordinance of Secession in j-our state. REFERENCES 1. Southworth's Builders of Our Country. Book II, Chapter XXIII. 2. Rlson's Side Lights on American History, Vo\. IT, Chapters T-IV. CHAPTER XXX THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR How it was planned to win the war. — Early in the war both governments adopted definite plans for bringing it to a successful conclusion. The logical objective of the Con- federates was the capital city, and at first the North was much alarmed lest they might attack it before troops could be rushed to its defense. By the time Virginia had seceded and the Confederacy was ready to strike at Washington, Federal forces had been mobilized on the banks of the Potomac sufficient to insure the safety of the city for a time. With its lesser resources the Confederacy adopted a de- fensive policy in order to utilize its advantages to the limit. As soon as this became evident, the Federal Government determined upon a strong ofifensive along four distinct lines: (1) Restraining the border states from joining the Con- federacy by stationing Federal troops in them. (2) A blockade of southern ports so as to prevent the shipment of cotton to Europe and importation of munitions. (3) The capture of Richmond. (4) Driving a wedge by way of the Mississippi Valley through the heart of the Confederacy and thus preventing the Western States from aiding those east of the river. We have already seen how the Federals not only suc- ceeded in holding all the border states, but in addition, by despatching a strong force to western Virginia, encouraged the people of that section to rebel against their state. We shall now follow them in their efforts to carry out the rest of their plan for subduing the Confederacy, and see how 395 396 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY J" 1/ k'^Po y^) [Williamsburg • v^. V - iHanisons ^S^^ '-^ 10 20 30 Scale of miles CP .Railroads The War Area in Northern Virginia frequently defeat threatened, because of the superior abihty of southern generals and the unsurpassed valor of the "boys in gray," a name given southern soldiers because of the color of their uniform. THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 397 The battle of Manassas. — Encouraged by the successes in Kentucky and western Virginia, the northern people and press began to raise the cry, "On to Richmond." The Con- federates were holding most of north- ern Virginia, and General Beauregard had a force of eighteen thousand men posted along Bull Run Creek, not far from Manassas Junction, a railway sta- tion thirty miles south of Washington. By the time General McDowell, who was in charge of the defense of Wash- ''•'^^^^'"" ington, had assembled an army of forty p q 'p Beaureo-ard thousand, the demand for an attack on Beauregard was too strong to be resisted. On Sunday, July 21, 1861, McDowell moved south and engaged the Confed- erates. At first their lines wavered and a northern victory seemed assured. General Bernard E. Bee's troops had be- gun to fall back when suddenly their commander called out : "Look at Jackson's brigade. It stands like a stone wall." Cheered by the sight of General Thomas J. Jackson's sol- diers calmly holding their ground with ranks unbroken, Bee's men turned and fell so fiercely upon the Federals that the northern lines crumpled like paper, and before their in- experienced officers could check them the "Yankees" were in full retreat for the protection of the Washington defenses. When news of this disaster reached the capital city it was thrown into a panic in expectation that the Confederates would make an immediate attack. This terrible defeat, which cost them over three thousand casualties, aroused the North to an appreciation of the seriousness of the war. Congress at once authorized the en- listment of five hundred thousand additional soldiers and appropriated five hundred million dollars to equip the army and navy. General George B. McClellan, who had been so successful in western Virginia, was placed in command of 398 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY all the Federal forces. In the South, overconfident because of this rout of the invaders, many believed that northerners would not fight and that the war was practically over. As a result the government found it difficult to keep up prepara- tions for the bitter conflict it knew to be ahead. Blockade of southern ports. — In April, 1861, President Lincoln declared a blockade of all southern ports from Virginia to Texas. At this time he had only ninety naval vessels with which to enforce it, and half of them were sailing craft. In order to guard the harbor entrances, mer- chantmen, ferry boats, tugs and even fishing schooners, were armed and pressed into service. In 1860, the seceding states sold abroad, principally to England, 4,700,000 bales of cotton, valued at $220,000,000. The next year, poor as the blockading forces were, these exports fell to $42,000,000, and in 1862 to $4,000,000. The blockade caused the price of cotton in America to tumble, and in England ^=i^. &===_ I^^teA^tei':..,^- to soar. The profit went to the owners of many small swift boats called "blockade runners." On dark nights, and when storms were raging, these cunning craft would slip past the patrol boats and speed, for the West Indies, where steamers were waiting to load the cot- ton for England. Taking on munitions and supplies the runners w^ould endeavor to steal into port, or strive to find some unguarded landing-place along the Confederate coast. As the blockade became more effective their risk A Blockade Runner THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 399 increased and it is estimated that fifteen thousand of them were captured during the war. Had the South not been so "choked," her resistance would have been so much more effective that it is not improbable the North would have de- spaired of success and insisted on abandoning the struggle. Trouble threatened with England. — The Confederate cause had the sympathy of the wealthy and governing classes in England. Fully four-fifths of the House of Lords and most of the House of Commons believed that the South would win, and desired to see the Union broken as a proof that the republican form of government was a failure. Even William Gladstone, the Great Commoner, thought the North would be beaten. The working classes of England, though four million of them were suffering from hard times occasioned by the closing of the mills for lack of cotton, favored the northern cause, as a result of their natural op- position to slavery. In November, 1861, President Davis sent John Slidell, of Louisiana, and James M. Mason, of Virginia, as commis- sioners from the Confederate States to Great Britain and France. Mason and Slidell ran the blockade from Charles- ton to Havana and took passage on the British mail steamer Trent. Off the Bahamas the steamer was halted by the United States Sloop of War, San Jacinto; Captain Wilkes insisted on searching the Trent, and the two commissioners were seized, taken to Boston and imprisoned. Irritated be- cause England had already recognized the conflict in Amer- ica as a zvar which, according to the laws of nations, com- pelled the United States to treat all captured Confederates as prisoners of war and not as rebels, the North was only too glad to approve the seizure of Mason and Slidell. On the other hand the British Government was furious and despatched war vessels and troops to Canada. In fact war was only averted by the intervention of Queen Victoria, who insisted that her ministers modifv their demands. 400 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY President Lincoln, aware that Wilkes had committed the same offense for which the United States had once gone to war with England, promptly apologized. Mason and Slidell were delivered over to the British and the incident was closed. The campaign of 1862. — After the battle of Manassas there followed a long period of preparation by both sides. In the South, factories were established to manufacture guns and ammunition, clothing, blankets, saddlery and other army equipment. By the oi)ening of 1862, the North had six hundred thou- sand men under arms and the S'outh about half that number. The Confederates were holding a line which crossed north- ern Virginia to Cumberland Gap, and then extended through southern Kentucky to the Mississippi, just below the mouth of the Ohio. A large Federal army in northern Virginia was making ready to advance on Richmond and General Halleck was gathering troops at St. Louis, Cairo and Louis- ville, for holding Kentucky and Missouri as bases from which to secure control of the Mississippi Valley. Fighting in the West. — The Confederates rallied from their defeat at Wil- son's Creek in south- ern Missouri and made a desperate but vain effort at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, to secure control of southern Missouri (March, 1862). Meanwhile, General Ulysses S. Grant, by order of General Halleck, had moved south and captured Fort Henry, on the Southern Missouri and Northern Arkansas THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 401 Tennessee River, just below the Kentucky line. Grant then marched across the hills to attack Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland, a few miles to the east. Surrounded by vastly superior forces and, though fighting bravely, unable to break through, General Buckner was forced to accept Grant's terms of "unconditional surrender" (February sixteenth). Not only was the loss of men and supplies serious to the Confederates, but, worse still, the western -end of their first line of defense had to be abandoned, and Kentucky and most of western and central Tennessee came under Federal con- trol. This enabled the armies operating south of the Ohio to move their base to Nashville. The bloody battle of Shiloh Church. — -The Confederate second line of defense extended from Memphis through ) / /4- y 1 I Ohio / (/. y y , , /\ c ( '^ ( r r — 1 ) / \ ^ J / '^J 1 /J^ \ ^ V ^ / \) y j^ /•S' \ r \ ( r { "^ \ /^ \r9^ \ f I L / vT \ / _^ C'^v / J^ )yy^~^^ r" \ ^ — \y^ .sP^ V r /^^ y WFrankfort I ^K> \ . •Bow/imj '•PulasKl^ i ~ ( Where the Western Campaigns Were Fought 402 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY southern Tennessee and the northeastern corner of Missis- sippi, and across northern Alabama to Chattanooga. Grant carried his army down the Tennessee on transports, ac- companied by a fleet of gunboats, and disembarked at Pitts- burgh Landing. He encamped at Shiloh Church and awaited General Buell's army, which Halleck had ordered to reinforce him before he should strike the Confederates again. Generals. Albert Sidney Johnston and Beauregard had united their armies and were at Corinth, Mississippi, about twenty miles to the south. In an effort to defeat Grant before Buell should ar- rive the Confederates attacked him on Sunday morning, April sixth, with such an onslaught that he was driven back to the protection of the gunboats on the river. Their plans went amiss Albert Sidney though, for during the night Buell ar- Johnston *= ' . *'..,. rived and with the aid of his twenty thousand fresh troops General Grant was able the next day to force the Confederates to retreat. The casualties in this terrible battle numbered twenty thousand and the South met with an irreparable loss in the death of General Johnston. On the same day Island Number Ten, commanding the Mississippi just below Columbus, Kentucky, was taken by General Pope, aided by a fleet under Commodore Foote. Pope then joined Grant and Buell at Pittsburgh Landing, and the combined armies moved southward to Corinth, which fell without resistance. This enabled the Federals to cut the only railroad running east and west, the main line of communication on which the Confederates in this region depended for reinforcements and supplies. Com- modore Foote moved his fleet southward and captured Memphis. The capture of New Orleans. — In .\pril. Admiral Far- THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 403 ragut entered the Mississippi from the Gulf of Mexico. He had a powerful squadron and was supported by a land force of fifteen thousand men commanded by General But- ler. Farragut cut the cables which had been stretched across the river seventy-five miles below New Orleans, and for six days sustained a terrific bombardment from the forts on both banks. Finally, he resorted to the desperate plan of running by them at night, and after destroying the little Confederate fleet easily took the city (April twenty-seventh). The Confederates had now lost control of the whole Mis- sissippi, except for a stretch two hundred miles long extend- ing from Vicksburg to Port Hudson. Both of these points were defended by fortifications on such high bluffs that they were out of reach of the guns on naval vessels. The Confederate counter-blow. — In order to prevent the Federals from realizing their plan of driving a wedge through the Mississippi Valley, General Braxton Bragg, who had succeeded Beauregard, moved northward into Ken- tucky, evidently headed for Louisville. Should that city fall into his hands, the Confederates expected so many Ken- tuckians would champion the southern cause that Kentucky would join the Con- ^ „ •^ . -^ ^ . Braxton Bragg federacy. Moreover, with Kentucky in their control, an invasion of the states across the Ohio would be easy. General Buell was ordered to hasten north to oppose Bragg, and the two armies met at Perryville. Outnum- bered, Bragg was forced to retreat. He gave up his plan of holding Kentucky and withdrew to Tennessee, taking along great quantities of captured supplies. The campaign had failed, for it had not forced Grant to abandon his po- sition in northern Mississippi. So dissatisfied was the War Department in Washington with Buell for allowing Bragg 404 OL'R COUNTRY'S HISTORY to escape that his command, now cahed the "Army of the Cumberland," was assigned to General Rosecrans. A few weeks before Rosecrans had repulsed a Confederate force at Corinth (October fourth), and now he proceeded to attack Cragg in winter quarters on the Stone River near Murfreesboro, about thirty miles southeast of Nashville. After three days of fighting the Confederates withdrew, although Rosecrans sustained the heavier losses, and for months both armies rested and tried to recuperate their strength. The peninsula campaign. — During the fall and winter of 1861 the Confederate and Union forces were encamped only a few miles apart near Manassas Junction. Both were drilling and equipping in preparation for the next drive against Richmond. By March, 1862, McClellan had a hun- dred and eighty thousand soldiers, and the northern news- papers were criticizing him for his inaction. There were four ways for an army to get from Washington to Rich- mond. The direct overland route was the shortest but by far the most difficult, for it led across many rivers and considerable swampy ground — obstacles equal to a large opposing :army. A longer land approach could be found by way of the Shenandoah Valley, called the "back door to Washington." Then there was the all-water route, down the Potomac River, through Chesapeake Bay and up the James River. The peninsula between the James and York Rivers offered a combined water and land approach. When the campaign was being planned McClellan pre- ferred the all-water route, but President Lincoln desired the army to march overland in order to keep between Wash- ington and General Joseph Johnston's Confederate forces. As a compromise the peninsula approach was chosen. Early in April McClellan moved his army down to the tip end of the peninsula. General McDowell was left in northern Vir- ginia with forty-five thousand men to guard the approaches THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 405 Joseph E. Johnston Lo Washington, and over in the Shenandoah Valley General Banks and Fremont were to keep the "back door" tightly closed. The Confederate defenses at Yorktown delayed McClellan a month ; but by the last of May he had fought his way to within ten miles of Richmond. His army was en- camped on both sides of the Chickahominy, with its base at Whitehouse Landing on the York. While the river was flooded, General Johnston at- tacked the forces on the south- ern bank and for two days the battle of "Seven Pines" raged with a relentless fury. Rein- forcements finally managed to cross the river and save the Federals from a catastrophe. General Johnston was wounded and General Robert E. Lee succeeded him in command of the Confederate army. Lee immediately ordered "Stonewall" Jackson, who was over in the Shenandoah region watching Banks and Fre- mont, to make a dash toward Washington. Within a month Jackson had fought six battles and a number of skirmishes and was driving the Union troops in a rout toward the Potomac. Lincoln was so alarmed that he ordered McDow- ell, who had started south to reinforce ]\IcClellan, to bring his army back to the defense of the capital. Having accom- plished Lee's purpose, Jackson abandoned his pursuit and marched quickly across the country and joined in the defense of Richmond. While waiting for McDowell, McClellan decided to trans- fer his base from the York to Harrison's Landing on the James. In the midst of this move Lee fell upon him, and from June twenty-sixth to July second the "Seven Davs' 406 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Robert E. Lee Battle" raged. Defeated at Malvern Hill by an army not half so large as his own, McClellan withdrew to his new base where he was now under the protection of a strong reinforcing fleet. Sixteen thousand lives had been sacri- ficed in the attempt to capture Richmond, which was still THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 407 in Confederate hands. Disheartened, the Federals lost con- fidence in their leader, while the elated Confederates be- lieved Lee invincible. President Lincoln immediately issued a call for three hundred thousand more soldiers and sum- moned General Halleck from the West to become com- mander-in-chief of all the Federal armies. The "Army of Virginia" was created, consisting of the forces which were under Banks, Fremont and McDowell, and its command given to General Pope. The invasion of Maryland. — McClellan was ordered to unite his forces with the Army of Virginia. As soon as Lee and Jackson learned that he had begun to embark it for transport by water, they turned north to meet Pope, who was advancing in their direction. The two armies met on the old battle- ground of Bull Run, and here was fought the second battle of Manassas. After a terrific engage- ment the Army of Virginia was completely rout- ed, and as hap- pened a year be- fore, the Federals {\ed for protec- tion to the de- fenses of the cap- THE PENNSYLVANIA AND MARYl THEATER OF WAR 408 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ital. The Confederates did not pursue, for, barefoot and in rags and destitute of supplies of all kinds, they were in no condition for such a struggle as must ensue before the Wash- ington fortifications could be reduced. They, therefore, turned northwestward and crossed over into Maryland. Now Pope had been reinforced by McClellan, and together they started in pursuit, overtaking the Confederate rear at Antietam Creek near Sharpsburg (September seventeenth). In the engagement which followed, more men were killed than on any other day of the war. It was a drawn battle ; the Con- federates withdrew from Maryland, but the exhausted Fed- erals dared not attack them even while crossing the Potomac. His failure to capture Lee's army caused McClellan to lose his place as commander-in-chief. He was superseded by the brave but reckless General Ambrose E; Burnside, who almost immediately started a drive for Richmond by the direct overland route. When Burnside reached the Rap- pahannock River at Fredericksburg he found the Confed- erates fortified on the heights back of the city, and ready for him. Six times the "boys in blue" charged the position, only to be laid low by the Confederates' withering fire. After having sustained appalling losses Burnside gave up the effort and recrossed the Rappahannock and established winter quarters. Soon afterward, General Joseph Hooker supplanted Burnside in command of the Army of the Po- tomac. Well might the North be gloomy over the future, for by the end of 1862 its success in the West had been more than wiped out by the disasters in the East. An effort to break the blockade. — Early in the war the Confederates made an effort to break the blockade. A few- destroyers succeeded in getting to sea and were assisted in preying on northern commerce by several swift cruisers built and equipped in England. Though contrary to interna- tional law, the British Government allowed this over the constant protest of the United States authorities. These THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF THE WAR 4n9 C. S. S. Alabama Confederate vessels spread havoc among the "Yankee' mer- chantmen, which were to be fomid in all parts of the world, and kept many Federal war-ships busy trying to capture them. The most destructive of them was the Alabama, built in Liverpool and al- lowed to put to sea despite the protest of the American minister. Com- manded by Captain Raphael Semmes, \\\iS: Alabama roamed the seas for two years and destroyed sixty-eight northern merchantmen. At last, in 1864, it was sunk in the English Channel by the U. S. S. Kcarsage. Before the navy-yard at Norfolk was surrendered, the old wooden vessel Mcrrimac was sunk. The Confederates raised her, cut away all the upper works and plated the decks with two layers of sheet iron. As cannon balls would have no more efifect on her now than hail on a- tin roof, they thought she would be more effective in breaking the blockade than a whole fleet of wooden vessels. With much appre- hension the Federal authorities awaited the appearance of the Virginia, as she had been rechristened, among the block- ading fleet in Hampton Roads, near the mouth of Chesa- peake Bay. On March 8, 1862, just when McClellan was opening his peninsula campaign, the Virginia steamed into the "Roads" and made for the blockading fleet. Three of the Federal vessels ran aground in advancing to battle, but the Congress and Cumberland, aided by land batteries, poured a heavy fire on her in vain. At last the Cumberland was sunk by one blow of the Virginia s great iron beak, and the Congress was set on fire. With nightfall the "ironclad" steamed back to Norfolk and the North was rightly alarmed, 410 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY for she had broken the blockade at Norfolk and would likely continue her work all along the coast. First naval battle in the world between ironclads. — That night there arrived in Hampton Roads a strange- looking vessel which had just been built at the Brooklyn Navy Yard as an experiment. In derision, the Confed- -''-',S3^,— ,., ; , J^f^frfJ^'p^: ,~''*''^f^*v Battle between the Monitor .in'/ni>^-'^ Round Top 'Si THE BATTLEFIELD OF GETTYSBURG HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 417 had planned. Fifteen thousand of Virginia's finest sol- (Hers, led by Pickett, Pettigrew and Trimble, in the shape of a human wedge a mile wide, charged straight across the fields and up the slopes of the ridge, which' bristled with Federal guns. It was a thrilling sight, but appalling in car- nage. Thinning and thinning as the murderous cannon fire and volleys from the Union infantry poured upon them, the Confederates closed up their ranks and pressed on until at last they neared the first line of Federals, posted behind a stone wall. General Armistead leaped over and swinging his hat to encourage his men shouted, "Give them the cold steel, boys!" A hand-to-hand con- flict ensued as the Confederates tried to seize the northern guns. Armistead was shot down with his hand on a cannon and hundreds of brave men fell with victory almost within their grasp. Pickett was forced to sovnid the retre.'it, and the remnant of the shattered Confed- erate forces withdrew to their lines. The next day Lee began to with- draw into Virginia, leaving behind in killed, wounded and captured over twenty thousand of his soldiers. General Meade had lost twenty-three thou- sand, but the North was saved. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. — On November 19, 1863, a part of the battle-field of Gettysburg was dedi- cated as "a cemetery wherein to l)ury the bodies of the slain." At the ceremonies l^resident Lincoln delivered an address expressing his faith in the destiny of the nation as follows : Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. George G. Meade 418 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedi- cated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense we can not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hal- low this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, not long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be dedi- cated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devo- tion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people shall not perish from the earth. The attitude of France. — In France the ruling classes, the bankers, many of the business men, the higher clergy, in fact a large part of the best Frenchmen, favored the Con- federacy. Napoleon III, the Emperor, desired to see the North lose, because he had designs against Mexico which could not be carried out were she to emerge from the con- flict strong enough to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. Mexico owed a large amount of money to citizens of England, France and Spain, and as she had been for some time in a state of insurrection these debts could not be collected. In 1861, while the United States was busy getting ready for war with the Confederacy, Napoleon sent an army to Mex- ico, and within two years had subdued the country. Mexico was then proclaimed an empire and the Archduke Maxi- milian, nephew of the Austrian Emperor, was placed on the throne with the aid of French soldiers. For the purpose HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 419 of putting the South under such obHgations that it would not interfere with his Mexican plans. Napoleon had been importuning the British Government to join France in rec- ognizing the Confederate States as a nation, and in inter- vening to stop the "useless bloodshed." After Burnside's defeat at Fredericksburg it looked as though Parliament would do this, but while it hesitated Lincoln issued his Emancipation Proclamation. Then the fervor of the work- ing classes for the northern cause became so great that Parliament dared not act so contrary to the people's wishes. London bankers, too, had begun to lose confidence in Presi- dent Davis because of the insinuation of northern agents that he had been responsible years before for Mississippi's repudiating some of her bonds which were owned in Great Britain. Opening of the Mississippi. — Although by the end of 1862 the Federals controlled much of the Mississippi, they had not cut the Confederacy in two. The stretch between A'icksburg and Port Hudson afforded opportunity still for shipping supplies from the Western States to the armies op- erating east of the fiver, and in this way considerable am- munition which had been sent from Europe to Mexico was reaching the Confederates. Vicksburg, the key to this gap, was considered so impregnable that it was spoken of as the "Gibraltar of the Confederacy." Situated on a bluff which rises almost perpendicularly two hundred feet above the Mississippi, the city had been provided with many concealed batteries and was garrisoned with thirty thousand troops commanded by General Pemberton. Early in 1863 General Grant and General W. T. Sherman, with seventy-five thousand soldiers, aided by a flotilla of gunboats under Commodore Porter, set out to take this stronghold. Three months were spent in vain attempts to capture the place by storming it from the north. Then Grant decided to move his army down the Louisiana bank 420 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY to a point below the city, whence he could cross over and make an assault from the south. In order to be ready to ferry the troops across, Commodore Porter ran his fleet past the city in the night in the face of a most terrific bom- bardment. So desperate was the effort of the Confederates to prevent the fleet from passing that they set houses on fire Federal Gunboats Passing Vicksburg at Night (April 16, 1863) in dilTerent parts of the city to light up the river and aid the gunners in making their fire more elTective. It was all in vain, for in a few hours the vessels were safely below the city, ready to ferry the troops back to the Mississippi side. The fall of Vicksburg. — General Pemberton hastened south to attack the Federals before they could reach Vicks- burg. General Johnston was on his way with reinforce- ments, but before the two armies could unite Grant had beaten Pemberton at Port Gibson. A few days later he met Johnston at Jackson and defeated him, too. From there the Federals turned west and fought another l^attle with HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 421 Pemberton at Champion Hills, a small place between Jack- son and Vicksburg. In this engagement Pemberton was so badly beaten that he had to retire within the fortifica- tions of the city. After failing again to take Vicksburg by assault, Grant settled down to a siege. An incessant bombardment was kept up for seven weeks and the resi- dents, driven from their wrecked homes, were forced to seek shelter in caves. Food be- came so scarce that the soldiers were reduced to a ration of a single cracker and a small piece of bacon a day. When the city was finally so near starvation that the resi- dents' were actually eating dogs and rats, General Pember- ton decided that every humane consideration demanded that he should surrender. On July 4, 1863, Vicksburg fell. Four days later, Port Hudson also surrendered. At last the Con- federacy had been completely severed from north to south, and in the language of President Lincoln, "the father of waters rolled unvexed to the sea." Raising the armies. — Never before in its history had the American people known compulsory military service, for all the previous wars had been fought with the aid of state militiamen and volunteers. Early in 1862 General Lee per- suaded President Davis to ask the Confederate Congress to enact a law requiring all able-bodied males between the Ulysses S. Grant 422 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ages of eighteen and thirty-five to enter the army. Later as more men were needed to overcome the losses and offset the huge armies the North was' raising, the age hmit was ad- vanced to forty-five, and before the end old men and young boys were being drafted. From the start conscription was abhorrent to the mountaineers, and to many small farmers and tenants of the piny woods districts. It is estimated that as many as one hundred thousand fled to remote parts of Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee, where they were aided by Union sympathizers in their efforts to avoid service. Conscription was not employed by the Federal Govern- ment until 1863, although some of the states had resorted to it to fill their quotas the previous year. Under the draft law, enrollment was made of all males from eighteen to forty-five and soldiers were drawn by lot as needed. Since for three hundred dollars a drafted man could buy a "sub- stitute" and escape military service completely, it was only the poor who were compelled to serve. As a result, opposi- tion to conscription became so bitter that in many northern cities riots broke out. The worst occurred in New York during July, 1863 ; in four days over a thousand persons A Draft Riot in New York City HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 423 were murdered. The mobs wreaked their vengeance espe- cially on abolitionists and negroes by hanging them to lamp posts at the street corners. Before the disorder was quelled troops had to be brought from Gettysbvirg. Meanwhile, in order to encourage voluntary enlisting, bounties were paid recruits by the Federal, state and city governments, and by 1864 these amounted to a thousand dollars each. As a result "bounty jumping" became com- mon ; that is, a man would enlist under an assumed name, serve a short time, collect his bounties and desert. Then he would reenlist elsewhere, under another name, and collect additional bounties. Getting control of Chattanooga. — The battle of Alur- freesboro left the armies of Rosecrans and Bragg too ex- hausted for further hostilities and they watched each other from safe distances until after the fall of Vicksburg. Then Rosecrans was ordered to push Bragg out of Tennessee, as the first move toward driving another wedge through the Con- federacy — this time from west to east. With his large army Rosecrans was soon able to push Bragg east- ward to a final stand at Chatta- nooga. Both sides were alive to the importance of this "Gateway to the South." The city is situated in the valley The Vicinity of Chattanooga 424 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY of the Tennessee and is surrounded by a number of low mountain ranges between which there are passes which afford easy access to the southeast. Through one of these gaps ran the railway to Atlanta, by which most of the sup- plies from the Southwest reached the armies in Virginia. Chattanooga also was the key to eastern Tennessee and Kentucky, and so long as the Confederates held the city they could use it as a base for raids upon the Union sym- pathizers in those regions. By moving south of Chattanooga Rosecrans was threat- ening to cut oft' Bragg's supplies, and in order to prevent this the Confederates abandoned the city on September ninth and moved to Lafayette, Georgia, twenty-six miles away. Reinforced there by General Longstreet, Bragg soon felt strong enough to turn on Rosecrans. On September nineteenth and twentieth a severe battle was fought along the banks of Chickamauga Creek, a few miles to the north. In this engagement the right wing under Rose- crans was completely routed, and all that saved the Union forces from disaster was the firmness with which General Thomas's troops stood their ground on the left wing and protected the rear of the fleeing Federals. In the battle of Chick- amauga the Confederates lost twenty thousand men and the Federals seventeen thousand. As soon as the Union forces George H. Thomas ^^^<^ retreated into the city the Confederates occupied Lookout Mountain on the south and Missionary Ridge on the east, arid that almost completely bottled them up. For weeks all their su])plies had to be brought into the city over a steep rough road on the north side of the Tennessee, concealed HOW THE WAR ^VAS FINALLY WOX 425 from attack by some low hills. So scarce was food that when Grant arrived to assume command the men were on half rations and ten thousand horses and mules had died from starvation. By a skilful move he drove the Confeder- ates out of the Tennessee Valley and opened up his "cracker line" by way of the river. As soon as supplies had been obtained, Grant began an effort to oust the Confederates from wdiat appeared impregnable positions. On November Tlie Assault on Lookout Mountain — the So-Callecl "Battle aliovc the Clouds" twenty-fourth. General Hooker charged up the precipitous slopes of Lookout INlountain and, after desperate hand- to-hand fighting in the clouds, reached the rocky crest. The next day the Federals stormed and took the northern end of Missionary Ridge and forced Bragg to beat a hasty re- treat into Georgia, through Ross's Gap. There he went into winter quarters at Dalton, and soon after was supplanted by General Johnston. Grant adopts "hammering tactics." — When the cam- paign of 1864 opened the war area had contracted to four states — \'irginia. North Carolina, South Carolina and Geor- 426 OUR COUNTRY.'S HISTORY gia. General Grant had been put in command of all the Federal armies, with the rank of Lieutenant-General, and General Sherman had succeeded him as commander of the troops in the West, which numbered one hundred thousand. For all practical purposes there were only two Confederate armies in the field — General Lee's, defending Richmond, and General Johnston's, in north Georgia. Both were far apart, and Grant and Sherman determined to keep them so and, no matter what might happen, to hammer them in- cessantly. They were sure the time had come when the South could be beaten by Lincoln's prescription — "Hold on with a bulldog grip, and chew and choke as much as pos- sible." The man power of the Confederacy was exhausted now, while the Union had several millions to draw upon. While General Meade remained in immediate command of the Army of the Potomac, Grant proposed to take per- sonal charge of the drive against Richmond. By arrange- ment with Sherman, the battle cries "On to Richmond !" and "On to Atlanta !" were to resound early in May, simul- taneously, though seven hundred miles apart. The Wilderness campaign. — On May 4, 1864, Grant ordered the Army of the Potomac to cross the Rapidan and, by outflanking Lee, to get between him and Richmond. The Confederates, however, were too quick for this move to succeed, and in a few hours were posted directly across his path. Had Grant tried, he could not have found a more disadvantageous battle-ground than the "Wilderness," as these sandy barrens with their dense growth of scrubby trees were called. Unable to see twenty feet ahead, the southerners' knowledge of the region made Lee's forces more than a match for Grant's army of twice their number. Although his plans had failed and two days of terrific fight- ing had made no impression on the Confederate resistance, Grant had no thought of abandoning the effort as his prede- HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 427 cessors had done. Instead, he executed another flank move- ment and came out of the Wilderness near Spottsylvania Court House. Here he was again confronted by Lee and the slaughter was re- sumed. Unable to advance he tried the flanking movement once more, and this time arrived at Cold Harbor. Lee ad- vanced to Malvern Hill, one of the out- posts of Richmond, and awaited Grant's next attack. The reckless sac- rifice of human life — fifty-five thousand killed and wounded in six weeks — ap- palled the North, and the press was demanding General Grant's removal. Lee's losses had been only about one- third that number and the skilful maneuvering by which he had saved his men won for him the reputation of being one of the world's ablest generals. Grant, seeing that he must be less prodigal of his forces, decided to abandon all effort to take Richmond from the north. While Lee awaited him at Malvern Hill, he crossed the James River, and by the time his feat was known was in the open country east of Petersburg. Defeated in I Pefersburg RICHMOND AND VICINITY 428 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORV his plan to take that city by storm, Grant settled down to an eight-months' siege. Lee's counter-blow. — Just as he had done two years before when McClellan was threatening Richmond, Lee de- cided to strike at Washington in order to draw off Grant's forces. General Jubal A. Early swept down the Shenan- doah Valley with twenty thousand men, and was soon at the outer defenses of the city. But this time the Union forces were so strong that Grant could despatch a portion of his troops to the aid of the capital and not interfere with his campaign. Early returned to the Shenandoah but later made a flying raid into Pennsylvania and burned Chambers- burg. In order to prevent any more such raids Grant ordered General Philip H. Sheridan to the Shenandoah Valley to keep his eyes on Early and lay waste this granary of the Confederacy. After three hard-fought battles the Confed- erates withdrew before the superior numbers of the enemy and the devastation was so complete that it was said, "A crow passing over this region had to carry his rations with him." Over two thousand houses and barns, and seventy mills filled with flour and grain were burned. Cattle and sheep were slaughtered by thousands and the new crop of grain destroyed in the fields. This was a vital blow, as Lee's army was depending on this fruitful valley. for much of its food. "On to Atlanta." — According to his plan Sherman be- gan his southern advance early in May. As soon as he re- ceived a telegram saying that Grant had moved forward, it was his intention to finish splitting the Confederacy in two by driving the w^edge across Georgia to the sea. This would place a large part of its arsenals and w^orkshops be- yond reach of the armies. His first objective was Atlanta, the great manufacturing and railroad center, one hundred and forty miles southeast of Chattanooga. Li this plan HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 429 Sherman assumed a great risk, for he would be continually lengthening his line of communication with his base at Nash- ville — a line in constant peril from the cavalry of General Nathan B. Forrest, operating in northern Mississippi. Johnston, with his sixty-five thousand soldiers at Dal- ton, refused to be drawn into an en- counter, as he was conserving his strength for the defense of Atlanta. By tactics of masterly adroitness he evaded Sherman's flank movements and withdrawing gradually succeeded in keeping just ahead of him. The Nathan B. Forrest Confederates reached Kenesaw Moun- tain without serious losses, although there had been sharp fighting at several points along the way. Here Sherman recklessly made a direct assault on them and received a severe repulse. After this battle Johnston retired to At- lanta. Soon he was supplanted by General John B. Hood because of dissatisfaction with his policy of evading battle which had allowed Sherman to penetrate so deeply into Georgia. Hood at once assumed the ofifensive and live heavy battles were fought in the suburbs of the citv. Finally Sherman seized the railway by which the Confederates received their supplies, and to escape a repetition of the Yicksburg disaster, Hood blew up the powder magazine and evacuated the city (September 2, 1864). Sherman's march to the sea. — Sherman's forces imme- diately occupied Atlanta and busied themselves destroying its shops, mills and factories, and giving to the torch every- thing of use to the Confederate cause. In vain General Hood tried to draw him from his plan by hurrying north- ward for an invasion of Tennessee and destroying the rail- road to delay pursuit. Leaving to the Army of the Cum- berland, under General Thomas, the task of taking care of 430 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY this invasion, Sherman proceeded to spread straight through Georgia a broad area of desolation in which no Confederate army could subsist. About the middle of November, with sixty-two thousand troops, he started from Atlanta for Sa- vannah, three hundred miles away. Meeting but the slight resistance that General Wheeler's cavalry and the local mi- Sherman's Route through Georgia and the Carolinas litia could ofifer, in less than a month he had cut a swath sixty miles wide across the state. Telegraph wires were pulled down ; railroad tracks were torn up ; towns and villages were laid waste ; houses, farms and mills were burned ; slaves were set free ; nothing was left in the blackened belt which would support man or beast. On December 21, 1864, Savannah surrendered, and a few days later Sherman reported : "We have consumed the corn and fodder . . . and also the sweet potatoes, cattle, hogs, sheep and poultry, and have carried away ten thou- HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 431 A T3pical Scene on Sherman's March to the Sea sand mules and horses, as well as countless numbers of their slaves. I estimate the damage done to the state of Georgia and its military resources at one hundred million dollars, at least twenty million dollars of which has inured to our advantage and the remainder is simply waste and de- struction." It is natural that the untold suffering of thou- sands of helpless women and children in the path of his "march to the sea" should have caused Sherman's name to be detested in the South. He is said to have declared that "War is hell" and surely did his best to make it so. General Hood's campaign in Tennessee. — ?^Ieanwhile General Hood was struggling to regain Tennessee. At Franklin he was defeated by General Schofield with frightful cas- ualties. Although the North was much alarmed by his allowing Hood to penetrate so close to the Federal base at Nashville, Thomas was quietly gathering a formida- ble force for the encounter by which he hoped to crush him, once and for all. On December lif- teenth he was ready for the decisive engagement and at- John B. Hood 432 OL'R COUNTRY'S HISTORY tacked the Confederates in the outskirts of Nashville. The battle raged for two days, until, overwhelmed, Hood with- drew his poorly armed, half -clad troops toward the south and settled down for the winter in northern Mississippi. He resigned soon after this, and Johnston resumed his old command. The work of the Federal navy. — A\'hile the Federal armies were reducing the seat of war on land, the navy was tightening the blockade. By 1864 few ports were left in Confederate hands and Mobile was the only one of impor- tance. This city, which was now a center for blockade run- ning, was defended by two powerful forts at the entrance to the bay and by strong land batteries. On August fifth Ad- miral Farragut set out to capture the place with the aid of five thousand land forces. He lashed his wooden vessels to- gether in pairs and placing the gunboats between them and the forts attempted to run through as he had done at New Orleans. In the face of a terrific fire, all but one vessel got by safely, and easily defeated the little Confederate fleet in the harbor. In a few days the forts surrendered to the land forces and IMobile Bay was under Union con- trol. Early the next year, with the capture of Fort Fisher, its principal defense, Wilmington, N. C, passed into the hands of the Federals. After that Charleston was the only port of any importance remaining to the Confederates, and it was bottled up tightly by the Union war-ships just outside the harbor. Lincoln reelected president. — At the beginning of the war party lines had been wiped out in the North as well as in the South, but as the struggle progressed violent opposi- tion arose to the policies of both presidents. In the fall of 1862 the Democrats elected congressmen in several border states and a governor in New York, on the issue that the HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 433 war was a failure and peace should be made. By 1864 the opposition to Lincoln was so bitter that it actually split his own party. The "Radical Republicans" nominated General Fremont, who later refused to allow his name to appear on the ticket. The Lincoln wing under the name of the "Na- tional Union" party renominated the president, and as a bid for the votes of the border states selected a War Democrat, Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, for the vice-presidency. In their platform they pledged the preservation of the Union and abolition of slavery by constitutional amendment. The Democrats put forward General McClellan on a plat- form declaring the war a failure find pledging the country ])eace. So alarmed became the National Unionists at the prospect of an overwhelming defeat that some thought Lin- coln should withdraw from the canvas. Before they could act, however, news was received of the fall of Atlanta and of Farragut's success at Mobile, and the North became more hopeful; Sheridan's raid through the Shenandoah Valley saved the day for Lincoln, and he was reelected by a major- ity of 400,000, though McClellan polled a vote of 1,800,000. The collapse of the Confederacy. — A\'hen Lincoln was inaugurated for his second term, March 4, 1865, it was evi- dent that the Confederacy was near its end. Realizing that the next four years must be devoted to reconciliation and reconstruction, he consecrated his administration to that task, saying, "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who has borne the battle and for his widow and orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." General Lee, now commander-in-chief of the entire Con- federate army, sent Johnston to the Carolinas to collect 434 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY forces with which to prevent Sherman from uniting with Grant. It was Lee's plan to march south and join him a little later, so that with their combined armies they might defeat Sherman and afterward settle with Grant. Mean- while, his own situation was becoming daily more hazardous. Only a single railroad for bringing up supplies remained in his control, and there was constant danger of this being cut by one of Grant's flank movements. Sherman had left Sa- vannah early in February and was pushing northward rap- idly. When Lee decided it was unsafe to delay his start longer, he set out with his half-starved army, though it was still winter and many of the soldiers were wearing uniforms in tatters and shoes dropping from their feet. Finding the. horses and mules too weak to drag the artillery and baggage trains over the muddy roads, he was compelled to abandon the undertaking. Sherman's progress through the Carolinas was vigorously opposed by small forces of Confederate cavalry under Gen- erals Wheeler and Hampton. Enraged by this opposition, he did not try to re- strain his soldiers, who, after burning the warehouses at Columbia, wantonly aj)plied the torch to the city. Charleston fell easily, for Forts Sumter and Wag- ner had already been nearly pounded to pieces by a combined land and naval ex- Wade Hampton pedition, and the city was in no condi- tion to resist. At Bentonville, North Carolina, Sherman pushed past Johnston and during the last week in March entered Goldsboro. Here he was within a hundred and fifty miles of Grant and in direct railway com- munication with him as well as with the coast. Lee had been delayed too long, and it was useless now for him to think of keeping Sherman from joining Grant. In an effort to save his supply line as long as possible, he ordered General John HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WOX -lo5 B. Gordon to storm a part of the Federal works at Peiers- burg. By most heroic fighting Gordon took one of the forts, but could not hold it against the ter- rible shelling of the Union batteries. By this time General Sheridan had arrived from the Shenandoah region, and on the way had destroyed the canal and railroad connecting Rich- mond with the West. On April first he dealt Lee a deadly blow by seiz- in.g Five Forks, a few miles from the city, and cutting his sui)i)ly line. In t i r. r- i -' * . . John B. Gordon an attempt to retake this point was fought the last battle of the war. To secure the necessary soldiers Lee so weakened his lines that the Federals easily broke through. His only chance now was to retreat and await the arrival of Johnston's army. That same night Lee evacuated his positions before Petersburg and Richmond, and began a hasty flight for the mountains toward the west. In the confusion attending the destruction of the records and the departure of the government the capital caught fire. A third of Richmond lay in ashes before the Union soldiers, who occupied the city on April third, were able to extinguish the flames. The surrender at Appomattox. — To capture Lee and his army was now Grant's one concern. Day and night the Federals pushed on in pursuit. One week after the evacua- tion Sheridan's cavalry outflanked the retreating columns and wheeled about directly across their line of march near Appomattox Court House, seventy-five miles west of Rich- mond. With the last avenue of escape closed, Lee saw the futility of further resistance and sought a conference with Grant. The two leaders met in the parlor of one of the residences in the little village. Grant was accompanied by his staff and 436 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Lee by a few Confederate officers to witness the formalities which were to mark the close of the terrible conflict. Gen- eral Grant's terms were honorable and generous, such as befitted the chivalrous valor of his conquered enemy. All the Confederate officers and privates who were willing to promise not to engage in any more war against the United States until exchanged were allowed to leave for home. In- formed by Lee that the horses and mules in his army be- The McLean House at Appomattox Where Lee Surrendered longed to the men individually, Grant allowed them to re- main in the possession of their owners, remarking, "The country has been so raided by the two armies, it is doubtful whether they will be able to put in a crop . . . without the aid of the horses they are now riding." Grant refused to humiliate General Lee by requiring the surrender of his sword and ordered the Union soldiers to salute the Confed- erates as they marched by to stack their arms. As Lee's men were without food, Grant sent them twenty-five thou- sand rations and absolutely forbade his own soldiers holding any celebration which would add to the humiliation of the Confederates in their hour of defeat. For, he said, "they are our fellow-countrvmen." HOW THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 437 With the surrender of Johnston on April twenty-sixth, at Durham, North Carohna, and of General Kirby Smith in Texas, a month later, the War of Secession came to an end. On May tenth President Davis was arrested near Irwins- ville, Georgia, by a detachment of Sherman's cavalry. For two years he was imprisoned at Fortress Monroe, and then released on bail partly through the influence of Horace Greeley. The Federal Government knew that he was inno- cent of all wrong-doing and that they could not convict him of treason or any other crime, and so never brought the case to trial. The remaining years of President Davis's life were spent in retirement at his home in southern Mississijjpi. His death occurred on December 6. 1889, at New Orleans. Assassination of President Lincoln. — On April four- teenth, while the North was still celebrating its victory, the whole country was plunged into grief by the report that at ten o'clock that eve- ning President Lin- coln had been shot and mortally wound- ed. This terrible crime had occurred while the president and his wife were at the theater. During the play John Wilkes Booth, a half-insane actor, entered the box in which the president was sitting and shot him in the head. Then, leaping to the stage Booth shouted, "Sic semper tyrannis!" — the motto of Virginia, meaning "so be it always with tyrants." In the confusion following the awful deed he ran out through the back door of the theater, mounted his waiting horse and escaped to Virginia, where a few days later he was killed by United States soldiers as he lay hid- Ford's Theater, Where President Lincoln Was Assassinated 438 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ing in a barn. It was learned that he belonged to a band of conspirators who aimed to avenge the downfall of the Confederacy by killing the Union leaders. All the other members of this conspiracy were arrested and either hanged or imprisoned for life. President Lincoln died early in the morning of April 15, 1865. His cruel murder was denounced in the South no less indignantly than in the North. The fallen Confederacy had lost its most sympathetic friend in the North. Gone was the one man able and willing to take up the work of reconstruc- tion with "malice toward none." What the war accomplished. — The War of Secession settled two tremendously important questions. The collapse of the Confederate States of America established that the United States is "one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." No longer could, there be any question as to the supremacy of the nation over the individual states. Out of the war, too, came a settlement of the slavery ques- tion, for by December 18, 1865, enough of the states then recognized as part of the Union had ratified the following amendment to the Constitution to warrant its being pro- claimed as the Thirteenth Amendment : Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as pun- ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. That the war achieved the great purposes of the founders of our nation and vindicated their principles let no man deny. We rejoice in political, industrial and social progress, because we have now no North, no South, no East, no West, but "one indestructible union of indestructible states." HO\\' THE WAR WAS FINALLY WON 439 Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. What is meant by "contraband" of war? Why did the northern generals declare slaves to be contraband of war? 2. A clause in the Constitution of the United States provides that no person shall be deprived of property without due process of law. By what authority did President Lincoln issue his Emancipation Proclamation destro^'ing millions of dollars" worth of property in slaves? 3. For what reasons did the Confederates invade the North? "When the battle of Gettysburg was over the tide of the Con- federacy had set out to sea forever." Explain why. 4. Wh}r was Vicksburg called the "Gibraltar of the Confederacy'"? 5. Describe Sherman's march to the sea. 6. Give several reasons whj' the Confederacy was finallj' defeated. 7. Make a biographical study of the following: Jefferson Davis. Thomas J. Jackson, Abraham Lincoln. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Battle of Gettysburg. 2. Hardships suffered bj^ residents of Vicksburg during the siege. .\ The C. S. S. Alabama. REFERENCES 1. Southworth's First Book in American History, Chapters xxxni, XXXIV. xxxvL 2. Elson's Side Lights on Avicrican History, Chapter V. 3. Hart's Romance of the Civil War, pp. 277-282, Z\2-Z17, 342-368. ^^^.^if^/^^^^^^f^ Facsimile of Part of Lincoln's Original Draft of tlie Emancipation Proclamation CHAPTER XXXII WHAT THE WAR COST The sacrifice of men and money. — War is the great despoiler of nations. A destroyer of all that life holds dear, its actual cost can not be estimated. The greatest loss to the state is the destruction of its man power by death, Graves of Soldiers Killed in the Fighting around Richmond crippling and permanently disabling through wounds and disease. Next comes the draining of its treasury and the exhaustion of its credit to equip and maintain the army and navy and provide munitions. An enormous destruction of property in the fighting area is, of course, inevitable. And finally, there is the grief and privations of the dear ones left at home, and the intense suffering of the families of those who never return. 440 WHAT THE WAR COST 441 At the close of the War of Secession the Union forces numbered about one milHon — the largest number under arms at any one time — and during the four years preceding there had been nearly two million additional enlistments. Three- fourths of all these soldiers had entered the service under twenty-one years of age. The death list totaled 359,528, and the estimated number of crippled and disabled was four hundred thousand. Many records of the Confederacy were destroyed in the burning of Richmond, therefore the exact number of its enlistments and casualties is unknown. It is thought, how- ever, that three- fourths of the whole man power of the South served in the army at some time, and that approxi- mately 259,000 lost their lives. No estimate of the crippled and permanently disabled can be made. In July. 1865, the debt of the United States was about $2,800,000,000 and most of it had been incurred in connec- tion with the war. Taxes which had been levied and ex- pended by the nation, states, counties and cities to aid in prosecuting it added $2,000,000,000 more to the North's huge bill. The cost of the war to the Confederacy was $1,500,000,000 on a gold basis, but to this must be added $2,000,000,000 more to cover the value of its slaves. This makes a direct cost to the two belligerents of $8,000,000,000. Allowing for interest paid on the national debt, restoration of property destroyed, pensions, business losses and lessened production occasioned by the reduction in man power, the total cost was probably $25,000,000,000, or fifty times the entire wealth of the nation when it first came into existence. How the two governments financed the war. — Both governments resorted to similar means to finance the war —the selling of bonds and issuance of paper money — but the United States, with its vaster resources, found it much easier. Both in the North and South gold and silver coins disappeared from circulation as the war progressed, for 442 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY people hid them away, not knowing what might happen. The only money left was the currency issued by state banks, which very early suspended specie payment and refused to redeem their notes. Postage stamps were used in place of small coins. In 1861, the Northern Congress enacted a law levying new- taxes, which l)rought home to almost every person the mean- ing of taxation, for there was a special tax on nearly every- thing he ate, drank or wore. This law provided taxes on land, on incomes exceeding eight hundred dollars, on jewelry, pianos, horses and carriages. Every kind of docu- ment from receipts, notes and deeds to insurance policies, steamship tickets, mortgages and leases had to bear a special stamp costing from one cent to two hundred dollars. In 1865 these stamps produced revenue amounting to about $300,000,000. Bonds running for twenty, thirty and forty years and bearing six and seven per cent, interest were sold in an amount exceeding $2,000,000,(X)0, and vast quantities of paper money were issued. There were $375,000,000 worth of interest bearing notes and more than that amount of notes not bearing interest, which from their color were called "greenbacks." To take the place of small coins which had been driven from circulation, small-sized notes, pop- ularly called "shinplasters," were issued. The only secur- ity behind these "promises to pay" was the people's confi- dence that the government would be able to redeem them in coin at some future time. As hope of winning the war grew less, all of them depreciated in value. By the sum- mer of 1864 United States bonds sold for less than half their face value, and it took three dollars in currency to equal the purchasing power of one gold dollar. Still the government required this depreciated paper money to be accepted as "legal tender" for all debts except interest on its own bonds and tariff duties. From the beginning of the war the Confederate Gov- WHAT THE WAR COST 443 Facsimile of Currency Issued by tht Bank of South Carolina in 1861 emment issued bonds and paper money. Before the block- ading became so tight as to make it impossible, shipments of cotton and tobacco brought in more than enough foreign gold to pay for the munitions and supplies purchased abroad, and there was some in circulation. With the shutting ofif of these exports all coin disappeared, but the soldiers, merchants and plant- ers were so confident the Confederacy would win that they willingly accepted its currency in payment for their services and supplies. Much of this money even- tually found its way back to the treasury in exchange for l)onds. Later, as the Confederate armies began to sufifer reverses, the value of these notes depreciated greatly, and prices rose accordingly — flour was two hundred and fifty dollars a barrel and tea thirty-five dollars a pound. Taxes were made payable in farm produce like corn, bacon and wheat, and finally a direct levy of one-tenth of all foods pro- duced was made to supply the needs of the army. By 1864 so great dissatisfaction had been occasioned by the onerous taxes and compulsory military service that many good southerners were bitter toward President Davis, and were urging that peace be made with the North. The new national bank system. — Since President Jack- son's difficulty with the United States Bank all currenc}' had been issued by state banks. Although after the panic of 1837 the states had imposed restrictions on the issuance of such money, still many of the notes did not pass at par. In 1863, as a part of its war financing. Congress established 444 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY a new system of national banks. These banks were required to buy government bonds to the amount of one-tenth of their capital, and deposit them with the treasury at Wash- ington. They were then authorized to issue "national bank notes" up to ninety per cent, of the par value of the bonds on deposit. In order to eliminate state bank notes and to en- courage the banks to become part of the new system, pro- hibitive taxes were laid on their currency. War times in the North. — Business went on in the North much as before the war, except that the younger men disappeared from farm, shop and factory, and women and girls largely took their places. The government was spend- ing enormous sums for uniforms, shoes, blankets, tents, guns and ammunition. To supply its needs factories were kept running at full speed and wages were high. Every- body was busy and apparently prosperous in spite of the high prices which prevailed. Ladies' Aid Societies were organized all over the country and met regularly to knit and sew, scrape lint, fold ban- dages, prepare jellies and other delicacies, and pack boxes of books and magazines for the "boys in blue" in camp and hospital. In the cities "Sanitary Fairs" were held fre- quently by churches and other organizations. At these home-made ice-cream, cake and candy were sold, meals served and musical programs and amateur theatricals ren- dered. The proceeds were used to send doctors, nurses and medicine to the front, and to maintain hospitals. Re- cruiting officers were stationed in every village. Patriotic speakers addressed mass meetings and urged the young men to enlist. Each new company of volunteers was sent off to the front amid cheers and stirring music. As the war went on the i^ublication of the enormous casualty lists, and the return of the wounded and crippled cast a gloom over every community. This was the war as the North knew it. War times in the South. — Serious as were the losses WHAT THE WAR COST 445 and privations of the North, it knew nothing of actual suf- fering when compared with the South. Three- fourths of all males over sixteen years of age eventually left their homes for the battle-field, and of these one out of five never returned. Even after the Union armies had overrun the country most of the slaves remained on the plantations and continued loyal to "ol' Massa and Missus." Women and girls who had never known the ineaning of hard work took The Burning of Richmond the places of men in shops and as overseers on the plan- tations. In the North little was known of the devastation caused by war except in a small area around Chambersburg and in southern Ohio and Indiana, where Morgan's men made their bold raids. On the other hand much of the South became a vast battle-ground over which two hostile armies drove each other back and forth, leaving a waste of trampled fields of shell-shattered and blackened ruins. In many sec- tions, to women, children and slaves, the word "Yankee" meant the plundering of peaceful plantations, the destruc- tion of growing crops, the slaughter or theft of all live stock 446 OUR COUXTKVS HISTORY and the burning of buildings. The approach of the Union army was a signal for the concealment of valuables and hasty flight to regions still within the Confederate lines. Here, with true southern hospitality, a place was always found for the unfortunate "refugees." They were made welcome to a share of the meager supplies that remained, even though they consisted of nothing more than sweet po- tatoes, corn bread and sorghum molasses, with bran for cof- fee, and raspberry leaves or sassafras root for tea. Business was at a standstill. Stocks of goods when sold out could not be replenished because of the blockade and the breaking down of the railways and other means of transpor- tation. In time there was little inducement for opening the stores, since the merchants who had goods became unwilling to part with them for currency so nearly worthless that it was a common saying it took a wheelbarrow load of it to buy a hat. When dry goods and articles of wearing ap- parel could no longer be obtained, all sorts of makeshifts were resorted to. In many homes the old spinning-wheels and hand looms which had been used years before, were got out and on them was produced a coarse cloth to meet the family needs. Hats were made from plaited straw and split palmetto leaves ; shoes from leather of old carriage tops, valises, saddles and pocketbooks, with wooden soles stripped with pieces of light metal. Salt for curing meat had to be obtained by evaporating sea water, and where it could not be had, wood ashes made a poor substitute. Paper became so scarce that newspapers were printed on the back side of wall-paper with ink made from pokeberry juice and oak balls. Southern women, like those of the North, made wines and jellies to relieve the sull'ering of the sick and wounded far away at the front. In their devotion they even cut up their household linen to make shirts and bandages. History re- cords but few such instances of martvrdom for a cause as WHAT Tin-: WAR COST 447 that of the South for the Confederacy. For four long years, full of danger, fatigue and famine, the "boys in gray" fought against ever increasing odds for what conscience told them to be their duty, and meanwhile the "folks back home" suffered untold anguish because of inability to pro- vide them with the comforts which their valor so merited. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Explain why war within recent years has become so much more expensive than it was a few decades ago? 2. "Even the most glorious wars are bad wars." Explain the mean- ing of this statement. In addition to the toll in men and monej', what are other expensive items in the cost of war? 3. Until the World War was fought, the War of Secession was considered as being one of the greatest struggles of modern times. Show that when the latter is compared with the former, it was but a "small fight." 4. Explain the following: government bond, greenbacks, shin- plasters, income tax, tax in kind, and legal tender. 5. Explain why it is that when paper money begins to depreciate it works a greater hardship on the poor than on any other class. 6. Compare the Confederate Government's method of financing the war with that of the Federal Government. 7. What are the objections to having the individual states issue paper money? Give the chief features of the National Bank Act of 1863. 8. Why did the War of Secession cause so much more suffering in the South than in the Nortli ? 9. Describe the privations, hardships and suffering that the south- ern women endured for the cause of the Confederacy. SUBJECTS ]"()R rURTHKR STUDV 1. Wh}- tlie World W'nv cost so inucli more tlian liic War of Se- cession. 2. Methods of financing tlie War of Secession. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side Lights on Awerican History, Chapter \'I. 2. Hart's Romance of the Civil IJ'ar, pp. 416-418. . CHAPTER XXXIII RECONSTRUCTION DAYS Andreiv Johnson, President, 186^-1869 Ulysses S. Grant, President, 1 86(9-187"/ Conditions in the South. — When the weary Confeder- ate soldier reached home after his parole, he found little as he had left it, except the loyalty and love of his dear ones. To cheer him in the hour of defeat, he had as Henry W. Grady, the great Georgian, expressed it, "His home in ruins, his farm devastated, his slaves free, his stock killed, his barn empty, his trade destroyed, his money worthless . . . his people without law or legal status, his comrades slain, and the burden of others heavy on his shoulders. Crushed by defeat, his very traditions gone, without money, credit, employment, material." Union cavalry were still scouring the country looking for Confederate leaders. As these were arrested, they were sent to forts and confined until the Federal authorities could decide what to do with them. The negroes were intoxicated with their new sense of independence. Accustomed to the care and oversight of their masters, they did not understand freedom. Many re- mained on the plantations to work for wages, but the more adventurous wandered to the towns and cities, and were soon reduced to begging and stealing. Crowded by neces- sity into shanties they contracted malignant diseases and died by the thousands. Without money and without credit the planters found it difficult to procure the live stock and 448 RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 449 implements necessary for putting in crops, and consequently work for the freedmen was scarce. As a result the re- turns were poor and distress was great. In some of the states, notably Georgia, conditions were so serious that pub- lic aid had to be given both whites and freedmen. The reconstruction problem. — During the war the Fed- eral troops maintained a military government over the parts of the South under their control. By 1863, however, the problem of governing the conquered territory had become a deep concern to President Lincoln and the Federal Con- gress. "If the Southern States had never possessed the right of secession they are still a part of the Union," some argued. Why could not the whole matter be settled by just allowing them to elect new state governments and members of Con- gress in the usual way ? But there was a feeling on the part of many that those who had been secessionists could not be trusted to hold public offices. Until 1861 the rich planters' aristocracy had furnished most of the candidates for office, both state and Federal, and all of them had taken a promi- nent part in the Confederacy. What Lincoln had done toward reconstruction. — Lincoln held that, as the Union could not be dissolved, the seceding states had only made a vain attempt to leave it, and should be allowed to renew their old relations with- out delay or difficulty. He promised that a state might re- establish its government whenever one-tenth of the voters in the election of 1860 should have taken the oath of loy- alty to the United States. As Congress had the sole right to determine its own membership, Lincoln could do no more than urge it to seat such senators and representatives as these states should then elect. In December, 1863, he issued a Proclamation of Amnesty, in which pardon was offered Confederates who would take an oath to uphold the Consti- tution, the acts of Congress and the Emancipation Procla- mation. Officeholders under the Confederacy and former 450 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Federal officials who had joined the secessionists alone were excepted. Congress refused to accept the president's plan, and when delegations from Arkansas, Louisiana and Ten- nessee appeared, it declined to seat them (1864). What Congress thought about reconstruction. — ]\I em- bers like Thaddeus Stevens, of Pennsylvania, and Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, demanded the punishment of the South. Asserting that the old southern leaders could not be trusted to deal fairly with the freedmen, they proposed to eliminate them from politics by disfran- chisement. [Moreover, they insisted that negroes be allowed to vote and hold office, although outside of New England and New York, in no part of the North did free negroes possess these rights prior to 1860. Eventually, President Lincoln himself favored granting suffrage to some of the freedmen, "for instance, the very intelligent and especially those who have fought so valiantly in our ranks." President Johnson and his policy. — Andrew Johnson was born in North Carolina of jjoor white parentage. He had no toleration for slavery and believed secession a plot engineered by slaveholders in their own interests- against those of the small farmer. W'hen he was eighteen years of age, Johnson's family moved to eastern Tennessee, with all their belongings in a two-wheeled cart drawn by a blind pony. He did not learn to read until after his marriage. Under the tutorship of his wife he acquired a fair educa- tion and rose to political prominence. Johnson was the only United States senator from a seceding state who refused to resign his seat in Congress. When the death of President Lincoln elevated him to the presidency, he naturally desired to see all political power in the South pass into the hands of the poor non-slaveholding whites. To accomplish this he favored the disfranchisement of former slaveholders on the ground that they had been "rebels." He was willing for President Davis and other Confederate leaders to be put RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 451 to death. On the other hand, Johnson was not deeply con- cerned in seeing the freedmen given any political rights, for he knew how unfitted they were to take part in the gov- ernment. With Johnson's administration began the work of recon- struction. He raised the blockade, restored the mail service, reestablished the United States courts, appointed provi- sional governors for the several states, and issued a new amnesty proclamation not so liberal as Lincoln's had been. The governors were instructed to have all white men, quali- lied to vote, choose delegates to a constitutional convention. When these delegates convened they were to draft new con- stitutions in conformity with the president's plan of re- construction, as follows:' (1) Nullify the Ordinance of Secession. (2) Ratify the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. (3) Repudiate the Confederate debt. (4) Provide for the election of congressmen. Congress objects to the president's plan. — When Con- gress met in December, 1865, newly-elected members from the several Southern States were refused admission. Con- gress claimed the sole right to determine by what measures reconstruction could be accomplished, and accused the presi- dent of having exceeded his authority. Furious at this, Johnson asserted that it had no more right to refuse to seat the southerners than their states had to secede. In his anger he spoke so contemptuously of Congress that the Re- publican majority turned against him. As this majority consisted of more than two-thirds of each house the presi- dent was shorn of all influence, for no sooner did he veto an obnoxious bill than Congress made it a law by the nec- essary two-thirds vote. Congress worked out a plan of reconstruction designed 452 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ostensibly to protect the freedmen, but really to punish the South. Five military districts were formed of all the se- ceding states except Tennessee, and they were administered by generals. Soldiers were stationed in each to enforce the acts of Congress. One of these acts provided that before Military Districts Created b}^ Congress for the Government of the South civil government could be* reestablished delegates selected by those who had taken the oath of loyalty should meet in convention and draft new constitutions, giving suffrage to all males, white or black, over twenty-one years of age, ex- cept those who had served the Confederacy in the recent war. Another, the Civil Rights Bill, authorized negroes to bring suits in the courts, and required the military forces of the South to see that the freedmen were given all their rights. The ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Consti- tution had abolished slavery in Kentucky and Delaware, where it had still been lawful. Congress now proposed the Fourteenth Amendment, with provisions as follows : RECONSTRUCTION DAYS 453 (1) All persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens. (2) No act of a state shall interfere with one's per- sonal rights. (3) The right to hold any political or military office shall be removed from all persons who had taken an oath to sup- port the Constitution of the United States and then joined the Confederacy and served its government. (4) All debts contracted in support of the Union shall be paid ; those incurred for the Confederacy repudiated. (5) Representation in the House of Representatives shall be reduced in the same proportion any state may refuse the right of suffrage to males over twenty-one years old. Had not Congress required the Southern States to ratify this amendment before restoring their rights to them, the necessary three-fourths vote could not have been secured. Ohio and other Northern States, which not only still denied negroes the right of suft'rage and of testifying in court against whites, but even refused to allow their children to attend the public schools, objected strongly to it. The Freedmen's Bureau. — The freedmen remaining on the plantations were helpless like children and were cared for by the former owners to the best of their ability. Alarmed by the wave of crime which had followed the swarming of idle negroes in the towns, the legislatures, con- vened by President Johnson's governors, passed "vagrant laws" requiring all negroes to accept employment at custo- mary wages and to keep steadily at work. Failing to do this they were arrested and fined and, usually unable to pay their fines, w^ere compelled by the courts to work them out in the service of the planters. Negro children were liable to be "bound out" until they were old enough to be self-support- ing. In 1865 the Freedmen's Bureau was established to look after the protection and welfare of the former slaves. This Bureau, located at Washington, employed agents in the 454 OUR COUXTRV'S HISTORY South to take charge of wandering negroes and place them on farms cut from lands which had been con- fiscated during the war. The needy were given food, clothing and fuel ; and the sick medical attention ; schools were opened for the instruction of young and old. Ef- forts, too, were made to adjust any disagreements be- tween them and their white neighbors. In theory it was a good measure, but one that worked out very badly. In- stead of becoming self-supporting, the freedmen believed that freedom meant a life of idleness, and refused to work. Some of their new-found political friends started a rumor that "forty acres and a mule" were to be given every one of them and many hovered around the offices of the Bureau agents waiting for theirs. The Bureau came to an end in 1872. Result of military rule in the South. — As soon as the policy of Congress became known, many northerners hastened south to take paj-t in the new governments which would be set up. They were called "carpetbaggers," be- cause they were supposed to have brought all their pos- sessions in valises made of carpet, such as travelers car- ried in those days. Alost of the intelligent and honest sovitherners had served the Confederacy and so were dis- franchised. Legislatures were elected by the freedmen, who owned no property and were even unable to care for them- selves. The white voters were largely a low element called "scalawags" and the carpet- baggers from the North. The negroes were told that if the From ail "The Honorable Mr. Callaway votes 'yes' " An Incident in the Alabama Reconstruction Legislature RECOXSTRUCTION DAYS 455 Democrats got control of the government they would be made slaves again, and that the Republicans were their only friends. In most of the states a majority of the legisla- tures were negroes. Although the carpetbaggers held the chief ofifices. hundreds of minor positions went to illiterate negroes. In South Carolina, it is said, there were even two hundred black judges who could neither read nor write. With the aid of negro politicians, the carpetbaggers bribed the legis- _ — — , KiVi pay fcjy^rrfc/- o/Atr ^' 'Z'- .ftjrfu»t»^wn*.pasieii ^^^ I I W«olthin 1870 I 0113 Wealth < I Wealth lo«T 1860-1870 ned 1670-1880 Effect of the War of Secession and Recon- struction on the Wealth of the South negro cation. In 1870 '^ Ten over thirty-two j^, per cent, of the va. adult population was illiterate, chiefly due to negroes, of course; by 1910 this percentage had been reduced one-half through the work of rural public schools. The great difficulty of. obtaining competent teachers at- tracted the attention of George Peabody, the London banker, and through his generosity $3,000,000 was made In percent of the progress made by the rest of the country ID 20 30 40 50 60 TO 8 90 I I School attendance I I Length of school year ■H Expenditure per child of school age K.x;^^ Teacher's salary Educational Progress of the South Compared witli That of the Rest of the Nation 472 OUR COUXTRVS HISTORY available to aid young persons secure normal training. An institution for the purpose was established at Nashville in 1869, and later this became the Peabody Normal College. In 1882 John F. Slater, a New England manufacturer, do- nated $1,000,000 to assist in educating the freedmen. At first much of the income from it went to the support of Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute in Virginia and Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama. Since then every state has established one or more normal schools for each race. No country ever made such educational progress with the same handicap and in the same length of time as has the South, and while other states are ahead of her this is due solely to their greater wealth and earlier start. Nowhere is the privilege of an. education held higher and nowhere will rich and poor alike support more cheerfully anything which promises to -better the public schools. This is the spirit which animates the New South and promises so much for the future. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. President Grant was honest himsel-f and imbued with good in- tentions. Wh}- was there so much corruption and graft dur- ing his administrations? What was his weak point as presi- dent? 2. President Haj-es removed the United States troops from the South, appointed an ex-Confederate officer as postmaster- general in his Cabinet, and was quite considerate in his deal- ing witli the South. Did he have any political reasons for doing these things? 3. Explain what is meant by the "sohd South." 4. Read the clause in the Constitution that provides for the count- ing of the electoral votes by the two houses of Congress. What happened in 1877? 5. Although the Democrats believed tliat they had been robbed of the presidency in 1877, yet tlie}' abided by the decision. Does this act of acquiescence speak well for democracy? Explain your answer. THE RISE OF THE NEW SOUTH 473 6. Why does the Federal Government undertake to control the Mississippi? Of what value are the Eadcs jetties? 7. Did slavery have anything to do with producing the southern tenant system? Explain how. 8. How did the credit system in the South just after the War of Secession tend to fix the one-crop system in that section? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The Tweed Ring in New York City. 2. The contested election of 1876. REFERENCE Elson's .S';(/(' I/tijJits on .1 iiicn'cait History. Vol. H. Cliapter XI. The War between the States Results in the Supremacy of the Union and the Problems of Reconstruction Are Solved I. The Secession of the Southern States. A. The effect of the election of Lincoln in 1860. B. The Ordinances of Secession passed by Southern States. C. Seceding states take over federal property within their limits. II. Hostilities Begin at Fort Sumter. A. The relative strength of the two belligerents. B. Efforts at compromise fail. C. The plan of campaign during the first two years of the war. 1. To hold the border states in the Union. 2. A blockade of the southern ports. 3. Attempts to capture Richmond. 4. Attempts to open the Mississippi River. D. The Confederate armj' successful in the first important engagements of the war. E. Threatened trouble with England. F. The last two years of the war. 1. The Emancipation Proclamation. 2. The battle of Gettysburg. 3. The fall of Vicksburg. 4. Tlie hammering campaign. 5. Sherman's march to the sea. 6. Lee's s'urrender at Appomattox. 7. The assassination of Lincoln. 474 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY III, The Cost of the War. A. The toll in men. B. The cost in money. C. The methods of financing the war by both belligerents. 1. The National Bank Act. D. Why the war was so much more costly to the Confeder- ates than to the Federals. E. Substitutes and makeshifts resorted to by the people of the South. IV. Reconstruction. A. Some problems of reconstruction. 1. The conditions in the South at the close of the war. 2. Northern statesmen unfamiliar with conditions in the South. 3. The desire on the part of some to punish the South. 4. Different theories as to relations of seceding states to the Union. B. The plans of reconstruction. 1. Lincoln's plan. 2. Johnson's plan. 3. The Congressional plan. a. States that had seceded were divided into mili- tary districts and placed under military rule. b. The freedmen enfranchised and many whites disfranchised. c. The Freedmen's Bureau established. 4. The Ku Klux Klan becomes a means of regulating the conduct of freedmen and carpetbaggers. V. Foreign Affairs during the War. VI. The Rise of the New South. A. The election of President Hayes. 1. The contested election. B. The end of carpetbag government in the South. C. The rise of new political issues. D. Material improvements and the industrial awakening in the South. CHAPTER XXXV THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR WEST The Far West in I860.— The "Far West" was the vast region lying beyond the frontier settlements. In 1825 when the states north and south of the Ohio were considered "out west" the country beyond the Mississippi was the "Far West." By 1850 the settled area had moved westward to the Missouri River and the eastern part of Texas, and the "Far West" had become that great stretch of country be- tween this region and the new states of California and Oregon. It was nearly equal in size to all the states lying east of it, and comprised the territories of Kansas, Ne- braska, New Mexico, Utah, Washington and the unor- ganized Indian country. That portion east of the Rockies was composed of vast plains which sloped gradually into a semi-arid plateau near the foothills. Over these plains roamed great herds of buf- A Common Scene on the Southern Plains about 1860 475 476 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY f aloes and millions of long-horned cattle, the increase of a few brought by the Spanish priests to their missions in the Southwest. In 1860 the entire white population of the Far West, con- lined largely to the eastern rim and the Mormon settlements in the Great Salt Lake Basin, was about two hundred and seventy thousand. Agriculture and cattle-raising were the chief occupations. So fertile was the soil that the shallow- est plowing and sowing yielded abundant harvests wherever the rainfall was sufficient. The recent discovery of gold in Colorado (1858) and the Comstock Silver Lode in western Utah (1859) had drawn the usual hordes of adventurers and fortune seekers across the plains, and both regions were now dotted with mining camps. Little was known of the Far West by those living "back east," but it was generally believed to be a land of burning deserts and lawless mining camps, infested Avith Indians and desperadoes. Means of communication were meager. The railroad stopped at St. Joseph, on the eastern bank of the Missouri. The first pony express rider had just started from St. Joseph, to the music of the band and cheers of the crowd, proudly bearing a letter from President Bu- chanan to the governor of California, felicitating him on the progress made in binding together the East and West. The population moves westward. — A\^estern expansion was greatly accelerated by the coming of j)eace. In 1870 nearly 850,000 of the 38,000,000 people of the United States lived in the Far West. The plains were rapidly being dotted with homesteads, and some of the bonanza wheat farms in Dakota, which contain twenty thousand or more acres, had been laid out. Many a poor rancher, starting with a few head of cattle, had built up herds running into tens of thou- sands. Half-wild, with nothing to show ownership save a brand burned into the hide, looked after by happy-go-lucky "cowboys." winter and summer they grazed on the public THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR WEST 477 domain, and were driven from one region to another as pas- turage failed. Sheep raisers were contesting with the "cattle barons" for the grassy slopes and waterholes of the Rockies, and bloody battles were often fought between the rival cow- boys and sheep herders. New cities spring up in the West. — Omaha, Kansas L'ity and Denver had become flourishing cities. Kansas and Nebraska had been admitted to the Union, and seven new territories had been formed — Colorado, Nevada, Dakota, Arizona. Idaho, Montana and ^^'yoming. In 1864 Con- gress became alarmed lest the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution might fail of ratification, and ]:)ermitted the new territory of Nevada to become a state although the total population of its mining camps was only forty thou- sand. In consideration of the liberality of Congress, the miners hastened to ratify the amendment. Reasons for westward migration. — The rapid settle- ment of the Far West was due largely to the scarcity of good farming land in the older sections and the ease with which any one could acquire a homestead on the public domain. No small factor were the labor-saving- inventions of McCormick, Deering and Case, which enabled a few men to do what formerly required many. The building of railroa~^ ^ / \ 55 50 s, 1 / \ \ / ^ V \A / 1 I V ■-\., / 35 ,^ 1 1 7V / s / \ j 25 20 15 10 A / \./ \ 1 /^ 1 I / \ ! . r \ ' \ i /- ^^ \ /•. ,'■^ 1 / ' \ _, ••■ -1 r \ ,.'•-, ••• \. . ../ \ Market value of the silver 111 ci bilver dollar 1.05 1.00 .95 .90 .85 « 60 c .75 o .70 c 65 .60 .55 .50 .45 .40 F.fFect of Production oti the ^^alno of Silver THE CONQUEST OF TH1-; FAR W EST 485 to exchange on demand whatever paper or silver nione} might be presented. Before the discovery of the Colorado deposits there was not enough silver mined in the country to supply the demand of the silversmiths, and the market price rose to more than a dollar an ounce. As a result for years no bullion was presented for coinage. Therefore in 1873, Congress passed an act demonetizing silver, that is. stopping the coinage of silver dollars and declaring them no longer to be legal tender. So great, however, was the out- put from the new mines — the Virginia Consolidated in Ne- vada alone produced bullion worth three hundred million dollars — that the silversmiths could not use all of it, and so the price began to fall. By 1876 a ten-dollar gold piece would buy silver enough to have made eleven silver dollars under the old law, and finally silver became so cheap that the silver dollar in circulation was worth only half a gold dollar. The silver party demand the recoinage of silver. — The loss fell on the owners of the silver mines in the West, for they were the only persons having bullion for sale. They began at once to demand the recoinage of silver at the old ratio of "sixteen to one," which would double the value of their bullion. By the argument that it would put more money in circulation, which was bound to raise the price of everything they produced, the silver men succeeded in inducing many southerners and western farmers to indorse ihis demand. The "gold bugs," as the capitalists and bank- ers of the East were called, opposed it, insisting that they would lose by having to accept depreciated silver coins in payment of the loans they had made. They demanded that all government bonds and currency should be redeemable with gold only, since it alone has a fixed value and can be used in international commerce. In 1878 Congress enacted the Bland Bill. »is a sort of compromise. The silver dollar 486 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY was made legal tender once more and the government agreed to buy enough bullion each month to coin from two to four million. Gold, not silver, our monetary standard. — Inasmuch as the production of silver continued to increase, the metal steadily depreciated, regardless of the govern- ment's purchases. In 1890 the "Silverites" got control of Congress and passed the Sherman Silver Act, increasing the amount of bullion to be purchased by the government each year and stipulating that it should be paid for with treasury notes redeemable in either gold or silver, but the coinage of the silver was not compulsory. The next year the Populist party, composed mostly of western farmers, was organized, and in its platform was a plank championing "free silver," that is, allowing any one possessing silver bullion to have it coined free of charge by the United States mints. In 1900 Congress finally settled the matter by enacting a law which made gold the standard of the country's monetary system. This means that all government bonds and notes are payable "on demand" in gold coin. Most mortgages and other evi- dences of indebtedness also stipulate payment in gold. Indian difHculties. — The Indian tribes of the Far West were more hostile than those farther east. During the War of Secession some of the Sioux rose in rebellion against the invasion of their hunting-grounds and murdered a thousand Minnesota settlers. They were finally overpowered and removed to a reservation in the southwestern part of Dakota. When General Grant became president he saw the need of a new Indian policy. Under the old plan large tracts of the public domain were set aside for the different tribes and they were required to stay on these "reservations." Treaties were entered into with the Indians by which the government agreed to supply them with food and ammu- nition, and to provide teachers and physicians. To super- vise carrying out the treaties an agent was placed on each THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR WEST 487 reservation, but instead of looking after the interests of these "wards of the nation," he often cheated and misused them. As a result, for years there had been so much strife that fully half the expense of the War Department was incurred in putting down In- dian disturbances. Grant had observed that the Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and Semindles had be- come so settled in habits and peaceful since they were lo- cated in the Indian Territory that it was no misnomer to call them "the five civilized tribes." He decided to try the experiment of en- trusting some of the reservations to the care of the So- ciety of Friends in hope that they would be as successful in winning the friendship of the Indians as their predecessors had been in colonial days (1869). In course of time more reservations were placed in charge of other denominations. Not long after the new policy was adopted, the Modocs, a tribe in southern Oregon, went on the warpath and at- tacked many of the outlying settlements. They finally fled to the lava beds of northern California and for months kept up guerrilla fighting with the troops sent to dislodge them. In the spring of 1873 several of their chiefs were captured a R. T A a L CTfaV^a h^ %^ffi Ajra Jy/i iigv ^a h. eO^- V/ia \au din.v W/. ^/. a Gi^ M/. ^Iv ^. \j\mt> H., JlW X. tf/M li.l/yATT-z^ A.. h. Z.. q^ a. iLif/ia Vdfu, 'iqui i&),uu Gnuv U«c£>.r ^se b. *.. e^ Ksv Laiz Wii iide b-4' A.diAu V^ s^ (Tav IWaiii Ij/^a L&. \jr6: w^ iJL P.lv 0/j<2 ffie \Xtsi K*. 5rsu O-tSV G». m... 0« C.. ^.. 6w dD,.. dtjv 7ij-i ajv yjou Bjv' The Cherokee Alphabet, Invented b}^ Sequoyah in 1821 This shows how far from being savages the Cherokees were. Many other tribes were almost equally advanced 488 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY and either hanged or imprisoned and the remainder ot the tribe was removed to Indian Territory. General Custer and the Sioux Indians. — When gold was discovered in the Black Hills of Dakota, a part of the Sioux reservation, President Grant tried to buy the region from the Indians in order to avoid the trouble sure to follow a rush of miners. The Sioux chieftains, still bitter because many had been removed from their former hunting-grounds, refused to sign the treaty. The next year (1876) two of them. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, led their "braves" in attacks on the white settlers of Montana and Wyoming. Federal troops were despatched to the scene to force the Indians back to their reservation. In the war which followed, General Custer with his two hundred and sixty cavalrymen was surrounded in the Little Big Horn Valley in northeastern \\'yoming. Riding round and round the little band, the savages did not cease their deadly fire until the last man fell. In the end the Sioux were over- powered, and those who did not escape to the wilds of Can- ada were driven back to their reservation. Until the Far West was conquered by the railroad there were frequent Indian disturbances in many localities. The Apaches in- fested the stage routes in New Mexico and Arizona and committed many petty depredations. In 1877 the Nez Perces, of Idaho, went on the warpath, and so adroit were they that months were spent by General Howard in their pursuit before they were finally rounded up in the Bear Paw Mountains of Montana. The red man and landownership. — In 1885, by passing the Da vies Act, Congress at last adopted a policy designed to appeal to the Indian's pride. This sought to make out of him a citizen rather than a pauper, by encouraging indi- vidual ownership of land and offering an opportunity to acquire a useful education. Since then there has been no THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR WEST 489 serious difficulty with the red men, and many of them have become good citizens. The opening of Oklahoma. — Before 1890 good farming land available for entry under the Homestead Act had be- come scarce and many were casting "longing eyes" at the Sioux reservation in Dakota and the western portion of In- dian Territory. The Seminoles had sold their lands in what is now western Oklahoma to the government, with the un- derstanding that white settlers were to be kept out. For years United States marshals and soldiers were busy eject- ing those who persisted in "squatting" and "running cattle" on these lands. Finally, worn out trying to keep the whites out, the government bought from the Indians all of west- ern Oklahoma and President Harrison issued a proclamation The Arrival of the First Train at Guthrie, Oklahoma, April 22, 1889 that, on April 22, 1889, the region would be thrown open for settlement. For several days "live times as many people as could hope to obtain a foothold" in the territory were encamped just across the line and held back with great difficulty by the troops assembled to enforce the regulations. Promptly at noon on April twenty-second, bugles sounded the signal for the rush to begin. Mounted on fast horses, in buggies and wagons, and afoot, thousands of land-hungry men and women swept into Oklahoma like a whirlwind. Each made a "bee line" for the particular land he had set his mind on securing and as soon as he had driven down stakes to show 490 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY it was claimed, he hurried to one of the many land offices to enter it. So fierce was the struggle to get into line before the shanties where the government land agents were at work that many persons were actually injured. Closely behind followed the families of thousands of those who had taken part in the rush, with all their belongings, ready to settle down wherever their claims might be. By nightfall Guthrie had a population of eight thousand and rude "shacks" were springing up where had been open prairie in the morning. City officials had been elected, four business streets laid out, and a bank with a capital of fifty thousand dollars organized. Before the end of the year Oklahoma Territory had a population of sixty thousand, and its mushroom capital city boasted of electric lights, a street railway, blocks of substantial buildings, good schools and several churches. A year later the Sioux went on the warpath again. This time they were punished by being forced to sell their lands to the government and were removed from their old reser- vation which was then thrown open for settlement. The World's Columbian Exposition. — To commemorate the discovery of America four hundred years before, in May, 1893, Chicago opened the gates to the World's Columbian Exposition — the greatest enterprise of its kind that had ever been undertaken. Hundreds of acres were covered with palaces housing exhibits from all parts of the world. Each state in the Union and many foreign countries had separate buildings designed to give visitors an idea of their resources. Never had such crowds assembled before. On Chicago Day more than seven hundred thousand visitors passed through the turn- stiles of Jackson Park. Expositions at Omaha, St. Louis and Portland. — Five years later the Trans-Mississippi Exposition was held at Omaha to show the progress made by what had been THE CONQUEST OF THE FAR WEST 491 kit I f%"*^ The Court of Honor at the World's Columbian Exposition the Far West thirty years before. On April 30, 1904, the Louisiana Purchase was commemorated by throwing open an exposition in St. Louis, which even exceeded in the size, number and magnificence of its exposition palaces that held in Chicago eleven years before. A year later the Pacific coast revealed the wealth of the Northwest in its Lewis and Clark Centennial, at Portland, Oregon. Here, in full view of Mount Hood and other snowcapped peaks, thousands of visitors viewed wnth amazement the exhibits from the Far West, and especially from iVlaska and the Orient. By these expositions the country awoke to a realization that the old Far West had gone forever and that in its place was a new Far West, rich in resources and alive with men eager for big things. The last continental states. — Nebraska was admitted to the Union in 1867, and soon after Colorado began to clamor for statehood. \\'ith the discovery of silver in 1876 came such a rush of settlers that its claims could no longer be ignored, and later in the year it was admitted as the thirty- 492 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY The Mormon Tempk at Salt Lake Citj' None but Mormons are permitted to enter this building eighth state. Utah, the oasis in the western desert, would have followed Colorado as the thirty-ninth state had it not been for the ^^lormon practise of polygamy. Plural marriages had been prohibited by act of Congress in 1862, but the Mormons insisted on adhering to the practise as a part of their relig- ious belief. Arrest and imprisonment had little effect, so in 1887 Con- gress authorized the con- fiscation of all their church property. 3*Iean- while the Gentiles, as the non-Mormons were called, were increasing rapidly in the larger towns and protesting loudly against this policy of punishing the whole territory for the wrong-doing of a few hundred "Latter Day Saints." Fortunately, President Woodruff decided it was best to bring the practises of his church into conformity with the law of the land, and issued a "manifesto" forbidding plural marriages, and later this was approved by a church conference held in Salt Lake City. As a result Utah came into the Union in 1896 w^ith a consti- tution forever forbidding polygamy. Four new states were admitted in 1889 — North Dakota, the northern half of Dakota Territory ; South Dakota, the southern and by far the richer half, due to the gold deposits in the Black Hills ; Montana and Washington. A year later Idaho and Wyoming came in. W^yoming had in her con- stitution a clause granting suft'rage to "all male and female- citizens," and thus became the first state to bestow full suf- frage on women. By 1907 Oklahoma had grown so fast that THE COXQLKST OF THK FAR WEST 493 she was admitted as the forty-sixth state. Indian Territory was made a part of the new state in anticipation of the time when the Indians w^ould relinquish their tribal lands and laws and desire to enjoy the full rights of American citi- zens. The wisdom of this union was soon evident, for within seven years the segregated lands had been brought under state control and one hundred and fifty thousand In- dians admitted into full citizenship. And finally, with the admission, in 1912, of New Mexico, with its large Spanish- speaking population, and Arizona, the Far West ha'd disap- peared from the American continent. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Explain the meaning of frontier. Point out on a map the coun- try that was considered the Far West in 1850. Name the vari- ous things that attracted settlers to the Far West. Describe tiie means of communication between the East and Far West. 2. Describe the life of a cowboy in the Far West. What great labor-saving inventions made the development of the Far West possible? Explain how. .^. How did Nevada get into the Union as a state with such a small population? What religious sect settled Utah? 4. Why have the people of the United States been so wasteful of the material resources of the country? How might a farmer secure a home in the West under the Homestead Law of 1862? Did that law prevent one person from getting posses- sion of large tracts of land? 5. After the War between the States how were poor foreigners enabled to get to the United States ? 6. Explain what is meant by the free and unlimited coinage of both gold and silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. Why have the people in the West advocated it? 7. Mention some of the difficulties that the United States had in dealing with the Indians before Grant's administration. What was the Davies Act of 1885 ? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The inducements that attracted immigrants to the United States. 2. The rush to Oklalioma in 1889. CHAPTER XXXVI THE BEGINNING OF REFORM LEGISLATION James A. Garfield, President, 1S81-1881 Chester A. Arthur, President, 1881-1885 Graver Cleveland, President, i88j-i88p A martyr to the cause. — By his Hberal attitude toward the South President Hayes had offended his party so much that his defeat for renomination in 1880 was decreed by the Republican leaders. The extremists proposed to nominate ex-President Grant, but the precedent of not more than two terms was too strong and in the end James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, became the standard bearers. The platform demanded civil service reform and the suppression of polygamy in Utah. The Democrats put forward a war veteran, General Winfield S. Hancock, on a platform advocating "honest money" and a "tariff for revenue only." Not only did the Republicans win the election, but they even gained control of the House of Representatives again. After Garfield's inauguration, it looked as though a pe- riod of much prosperity was in store for the country. The value of currency had become stable and the silver dollar was legal tender once more. However, a few months later the entire nation was shocked by the news that the president had been shot by a disappointed office seeker. For three months he fought a heroic fight, while prayers were uttered from all quarters for his recovery, but the struggle was too great and on September nineteenth he passed away, the sec- ond president to fall at the hand of an assassin. 494 THE BEGINNING OF REFORM LEGISLATION 495 President Garfield did not die in vain, for the people were now awake to the evils of the spoils system. His brief oc- cupancy of the White House had been one of constant com- bat with the pernicious practise of appointing men to office simply to please certain congressmen. In all sections pop- ular indignation ran high and there was a demand that the spoils system should go forever. The reform of the civil service. — Ever since President Jackson's day faithful party workers had been rewarded with positions in the civil service, and with a change of ad- ministration many were threatened with the loss of their places. As a result government employees became a great machine of self-interested politicians, who could be counted on for loyal work and generous contributions to campaign funds at election time. Listening to the pleas of office seek- ers and their advocates consumed an undue amount of the president's time. Even during the War of Seces- sion their impor- tuning was so incessant that Lincoln said, "I am like a man so occupied with letting rooms in one end of his house that he can not put out the fire that is burning at the other." Both Urant and Hayes Cle^eTandHamsonClevelandMcKinlev Roosevelt Roosevelt Taft desired to elimi- r, •■• t5i j j ..u n- -i c Fositions rlaced under the Livil service nate politics from 1887 to 1917 by Administrations ) / ^ / •o 1 ^/ c 1 / 3 / r: / / e(j thr D«.Ui r.6l cerns operated under the "open shop" system, that is, employed both union and non-union labor, frequently members of the committee would not be union men. To prevent this the unions insisted that their officers should conduct the negotiations for the whole body of workmen, and not long afterward the national officers began to appear at the meetings, claiming the right to speak, on the theory that "an injury to one is the concern of all." Most employ- ers were unwilling to allow union officials to speak for their non-union workmen, and refused to confer at all with na- .tional officials not in their employ. As a result a demand was made for "closed shops," that is, the em- ployment of none but those carrying union cards. The pow- er of the unions was so great that many employers yielded, and in return for the concession were allowed to label their products as "union made." Others, on the contrary, not only refused, but even retaliated by operating strictly non-union shops. As a result, much ill feeling arose be- tween capital, as the employers were popularly called be- cause they supplied the money, and labor. The American Federation of Labor. — Weakened by dissensions the Knights of Labor began to lose their influ- ence and eventually gave way to the American Federation of Labor. This new organization was started in 1881 and by 1920 had a membership of 4,078,740. Controlling thou- feartip «, ihe I.VIH in the land. Un- i^ like the Knights J. of Labor, the I American Federa- tion permits each national union to conduct its own negotiations with employers, and in- tervenes only when the disputes afifect the interests of all labor. Labor disturbances. — When workmen are unable to in- duce their employers to grant the wages, hours or working conditions they desire, their only alternative is to quit work. If this is done in a body, and under the direction of union officials, they are said to go on a "strike." The first serious strike in the history of the country occurred in 1877. Dur- ing the panic four years before most railroads and mining and industrial concerns had lost money, and when condi- tions began to improve the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and the Petmsylvania Railway reduced the wages of their em- ployees. The brakemen and other trainmen "struck" and the disturbance spread so rapidly that in a few days it involved nearly all the western and southern lines. For two weeks not a wheel turned on all these roads, business everywhere was paralyzed, and much suffering was occasioned from lack of food, especially in crowded cities. The strikers at- tempted to prevent the companies from employing new men 518 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY as "strike breakers" and in many places resorted to violence. Irresponsible mobs seized railway stations, freight houses and shops, destroying property in Pittsburgh and other cities to the value of ten million dollars. At last President Hayes Destruction Wrought by the Mob at Pittsburgh Notice the remains of burnt freight cars in the foreground and the burning round-house sent United States troops to reinforce the state militia which was under arms, and order was soon restored. So wide-spread was the sympathy of unions for the strikers that workers in many lines struck when their employers per- sisted in shipping goods over the roads which had resumed operations with the aid of "scabs," as the strike breakers were called. In 1886 St. Louis and Chicago were the centers of serious strikes. The trouble started with a dispute between the Knights of Labor and some of the railroads, and was fol- lowed by sympathetic strikes which eventually involved most of the cities of the central and eastern states. Thousands of railway men, street-car employees, factory operatives and miners quit their work and became a menace to public safety. In Chicago, during a labor meeting held in Haymarket THE DEMOCRATS U I ".CAIN OFFTCl' 519 Square, one of the speakers was urging the use of violence. When the poHce attempted to arrest the man a riot broke out, and an anarchist sympathizer threw a bomb filled with dynamite into the police, killing many and wounding almost fifty. This act so thoroughly aroused the public that the labor leaders attempted no interference when the govern- ment hanged four persons concerned in the outrage and f 1 Federal Troops Guarding Train Engaged in Interstate Commerce during the Strike of 1894 adopted a stern policy toward those who would employ violence to accomplish their ends. As we have seen, the approach of the panic of 1893 caused such a business depression that many concerns were compelled to reduce wages. When the Carnegie Steel Works at Homestead, Pennsylvania, attempted to do this, thousands of the employees struck. The company had hired a large force of guards to protect its property from injury. Many of the strikers armed themselves and before long col- lisions occurred in which a considerable number of persons 520 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY were killed, and order had to be restored by the state militia. One of the worst strikes in the history of the country occurred the next year when business was struggling to recover from the panic. It was confined largely to railway men and coal miners. Feeling the need of reducing ex- penses the Pullman Car Company offered its employees in the shops at Pullman, a suburb of Chicago, a lowered wage scale. Their refusal to arbitrate the question with the union officials caused three thousand men to strike and resulted, through "sympathetic strikes," in "tying up" nearly every railroad in the West and South. Traffic was at a standstill for three weeks. Millions of dollars' worth of perishable merchandise, such as meat, eggs, butter, fruits and vegeta- bles spoiled in transit. As in 1877, mines and factories had to shut down, and men and women were thrown out of work and actually threatened with starvation. At last President Cleveland decided that interference with the mails and in- terstate commerce must cease. Accordingly, he sent Federal troops to Illinois, over the protest of the governor of the state, and with this protection the companies at once re- established train service. The strike soon collapsed, but not until it had cost both sides over seven million dollars in lost earnings and wages. The Monroe Doctrine on trial. — Ever since securing her independence from Spain (1821) Venezuela had been disputing with Great P)ritain over the boundary between her territory and the ])rovince of British Guiana. Great Brit- ain seemed disposed tS'TwiMIDAD Is. >,^^Xp*) 6<''We»t Lonoituoc *° Where the Venezuelan Boundary Dispute Arose THE DEMOCRATS REGAIN OFFICE 521 to disregard Venezuela's rights because the repubHc was too weak to resist, and to demand such a boundary as suited her own interests. Relations between the two countries had become so strained by 1895 that the United States made one more effort to induce Great Britain to submit the dis- pute to arbitration. A sharp reply came from the British Government telling the Washington authorities that it could settle the matter without any assistance. Cleveland then warned Great Britain that if in the settlement she secured any territory not hers in 1821, it would be regarded as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Still obdurate, the Brit- ish intimated that the Monroe Doctrine was, in their opin- ion, not binding. The president immediately sent a vig- orous message to Congress, which made clear that he was ready to employ force to protect Venezuela and uphold the Doctrine. Politicians on both sides of the Atlantic indulged in war talk; but at last (1897) cooler counsels prevailed in London and the government referred the dispute to a court of arbitration by which it was settled two years later. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. State one thing that the Democratic party to-day regards as a part of its platform that the PopuUst party advocated in 1892. Why was the Popuhst party considered sociaHstic? 2. Find out the meaning of "panic." Show that President Cleve- land was not entirely responsible for the one in 1893. 3. Show why working men found it to their interest to com- bine when the railroads, mines, factories, etc., began to con- solidate. How do you account for such a great lack of sym- pathy between the employers and laborers? What is a labor union? State some of the demands of the labor unions. Ex- plain why labor unions object to arbitration as a means of settling labor disputes. 4. What is the chief way labor unions enforce their demands? Explain the following : open shop, closed shop, strike, lockout and boycott. 5. Explain just how the Monroe Doctrine was involved in the Venezuelan boundary dispute of 1895. CHAPTER XXXIX THE UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER William McKinlcy, President, iS^y-igoi The election of 1896. — Excitement over the possibility of war with Great Britain had scarcely subsided when the country was upset by the bitter campaign of 1896. Party feeling ran high over the tariff question and whether gold only or both gold and silver should be made the basis of the nation's monetary system. When the Republicans held their convention they nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, author of the tariff act of 1890, on a platform favoring a high protective tariff and a gold standard, and promised a "full dinner pail" to every working man. So dissatisfied □ McKinley cm Bryan M Territ-ory- No Vohe Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1896 522 UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 523 were the delegates from the silver states that twenty-one of them withdrew from the party. Refusing to follow the lead of President Cleveland, who advocated a gold standard, the Democrats declared for bi- metalism, that is, the free and unlimited coinage of both gold and silver at the old ratio of sixteen to one. They chose as a candidate William J. Bryan, orator-newspaper man from Nebraska. This caused many eastern Gold Dem- ocrats to leave the party and put out a ticket of their own. In the election Bryan's eloquent protest against "crucifying Labor on a cross of gold" won many Silver Republicans and Populists, but enough Gold Democrats "bolted" their ticket to offset this loss, and INIcKinley was elected and a Republican majority in Congress as well. Gold is discovered in Alaska. — While the Democrats were arguing that there was not enough gold to serve as a sole basis for the monetary system, events were happening in the North destined to upset their calculations completely. Late in 1896 a prospector from Illinois discovered rich de- posits of gold along the Klondike River, in the region near the boundary line separating Canada's Yukon territory from Alaska. Within two months five million dol- lars' worth of gold had been taken from the "diggings" and an un- precedented rush of for- tune-seekers — men and women — had begun, re- gardless of mountain barriers and intense cold. CHm'^i^g tlie Snow-covered Trail tlirough Chilcoot Pass on the As the output of the new Way to the Klondike in 1896-97 j:%% 524 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY mines became available a great change occurred in the rela- tive values of gold and silver — either gold fell or silver rose. A new tariff law. — Soon after his inauguration, Presi- dent McKinley called a special session of Congress to revise the tariff again. The Dingley Act was passed, restoring the duty on woolen goods which had been re- moved by the \\ ilson law, and raising the rates in gen- eral higher than they had been since the War of Se- cession. Cuba long a source of trouble. — Cuba was a prosperous Spanish colony long before even Jamestown was settled. According to the Spanish system colonies were despoiled of their wealth to enrich the king and a coterie of corrupt grandees, whose one ambition was to amass fortunes from the plantations by means of cheap labor, and then to return to Spain. As a result Spanish rule became so hated that soon after the colonies on the mainland revolted Cuba did likewise (1838-1842). Thenceforth the history of the island consisted of continual uprisings on the part of the natives and their suppression by Spain in a most cruel manner. Cuba and the Ostend Manifesto. — Frequent filibuster- I ing expeditions were fitted out by wealthy Cubans living in the United States, with the assistance of other sympa- thizers, and despatched from American ports to aid the J cause of ''Cuba Libre." So concerned were Great Britain and France over this filibustering that in 1853 they re- quested the United States to disavow forever any intention of acquiring Cuba. This request, however, was refused, and the next year President Pierce made an effort to pur- chase the island for one hundred million dollars, in order to satisfy the southern demand for more slave territory. This failed and, as we have seen, the relations between the United States and Spain were badly strained by the un- fortunate Ostend Manifesto. UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 525 Cuba revolts from Spain. — In 1868 a part of the Cubans revolted and set up a provisional government. The con- flict dragged on for years and, although President Grant tried to preserve strict neutrality, conditions became so intolerable that at last he notified Spain peace must be re- stored (1875). This warning was heeded and such vigor- ous efforts were made that within three years the rebellion had been put down. Cuba was promised reforms in its government and an emancipation of the slaves. In 1895 intelligent Cubans, aided with money from friends in the United. States, started a new revolution and proclaimed the island an independent republic. These disorders were of deep concern to the United States. Her citizens had fifty million dollars invested on the island and their Cuban imports and exports amounted to fully one hundred million dollars a year. So poorly gov- erned a region within a hundred miles of Key West was a constant menace to the country. ]\Ioreover, Spain's disre- ,,^^ t BAHAMA 60 \ZO 180 240 5CAlE of miles Cuba and Its Relation to Florida 526 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY gard of sanitary measures was responsible for many of the yellow fever epidemics that swept over the Southern States every few years, taking a toll of thousands of lives. Spanish cruelty in Cuba. — The governor, General Campos, defeated the revolutionists at Matanzas, but the insurrection continued its course from eastern Cuba to the western provinces. In a few months the whole island was literally ablaze, for the patriots not only set fire to the rich plantations btit even burned the crops in the fields. Alarmed by the progress of the revolt, Spain made a mighty effort to crush the Cubans by a regime of the severest cruelty. For this work she chose the inhuman General Weyler, who was sent over to succeed Campos. With the aid of a large army Weyler inaugurated the "reconcentration policy." This re- quired the Cubans who lived in rural districts to leave their homes and move to large camps in the suburbs of the cities. Here, herded like beasts, they were easily prevented from assisting the patriot cause. Meanwhile their farms were despoiled and their villages burned in an effort to starve the "rebels" into submission. Fully one hundred and fifty thousand Cubans died in these reconcentration camps be- cause of insufficient food and lack of sanitation. Reports of Weyler's cruelty aroused such indignation in the United States that President Cleveland found the preser- vation of neutrality extremely difficult, especially since many congressmen favored the recognition of Cuban independence. In the campaign of 1896 the Republican platform went so far as to assert it was the duty of the United States to "use its influence and good offices to restore peace and give independence to Cuba." Of course all trade with the island was paralyzed and claims amounting to millions of dollars were piling up against Spain for damages sustained by American citizens in Cuba. The American press boldly denounced Spanish misrule and devoted much space to Weyler's brutality and the suffer- UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 527 ing of the Cubans. Agencies in New York and other cities were raising money to send supplies and equip fihbustering expeditions. As a result of all this Spain naturally became very indignant, and showed her resentment by arresting in Cuba newspaper men and other citizens of the United States who were suspected of sympathizing with the revolutionists. The United States demands Cuban independence. — Early in his administration President McKinley remon- strated with Spain without avail. On his recommendation Congress voted fifty thousand dollars for Cuban relief work, and the American Red Cross sent to the island a band of workers, headed by Miss Clara Barton, to dispense charity to the sick and needy. In order to give the United States no excuse for intervention, Spain recalled Weyler, and his successor. General Blanco, adopted milder measures. A proclamation issued a few days before Congress met (No- vember twenty-fifth) granted the Cubans a parliament with a limited amount of self-government. However, it came too late, for the patriots were now bent on "independence or death." Moreover, the Spanish residents were so opposed to the concession that in Havana and other cities they made "home rule" a farce. Negotiations between President McKinley and the Span- ish Government continued, but before anything was accom- plished an unexpected event brought matters to a head. Early in 1898 Spain had been compelled to recall her min- ister because he had spoken disrespectfully of the president in a letter which had fallen into the hands of a New York newspaper. The Maine is blown up in Havana harbor. — Hardly had he left before word was flashed over the cable that on the night of February fifteenth the United States battle-ship Maine, at anchor in Havana harbor to protect American cit- izens, had been blown up. In this frightful catastrophe two hundred and sixtv-six of the crew lost their lives. Assum- 528 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY ing Spain responsible, a demand for war arose from every section of the country, and "Remember the Maine !" became the slogan of the day. A naval court of inquiry spent four weeks investigating the affair and, although Spain denied any knowledge of the explosion, decided that it had been caused by a submarine mine. Realizing now the seriousness of the situation, the Span- ish Government assented to nearly everything the president asked, including self-government for the Cubans. Regard- - ^ ^ T 1* ■^'^ ^^?M- V '" IL :^r^ L- The Wreck of the Maine less of this, and urged on by the impatience of i)oliticians, McKinley decided to refer the whole matter to Congress with a recommendation for intervention. On April 11, 1898, he addressed a message to it declaring, "In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of en- dangered American interests which give us the right to speak and act, the war in Cuba must stop." Eight days later a joint resolution was passed recogniz.ing the independence of the Cuban Republic and demanding tliat Spain withdraw her troops and relinquish all control over the island. In the event of refusal on the part of Spain, the president was em- powered to employ the -nationf* land and naval forces to compel acquiescence. /L groclamatjon. was made, to the UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 529 world that the United States only intended to exercise con- trol over Cuba long enough to establish peace and order, and that when this should be accomplished the government of the island would be left in the hands of the Cubans. Spain declares war upon the United States. — As was expected, Spain refused to withdraw, and declared war on the United States. The day after (April twenty-fifth). Congress passed another resolution declaring that war had existed since April twenty-first. The president called for two hundred thousand volunteers and each section vied with the others in filling its quota first. Among the officers were many who had worn "the blue and the gray" thirty years be- fore. United now in a common cause, and proving by this action that there was no North, no South — instead a re- united America to which all were proud to yield allegiance. Internal revenue taxes were levied on checks, legal docu- ments, patent medicines, etc., as was done during the War of Secession. A bond issue of two hundred million dollars The Battle of Manila 530 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY at three per cent, interest was eagerly subscribed for, so popular was this war in behalf of a downtrodden people. Dewey captures the Philippines. — When hostilities looked imminent, Commodore Dewey, in command of the Asiatic squadron, was ordered to remain at Hong Kong and await developments. As soon as Congress had declared the nation at war, he proceeded to the Phil- ippine Islands where he knew an insurrec- tion against Spanish power was in prog- ress. In the harbor of Manila a small Spanish fleet was an- chored under the pro- tection of strong shore batteries. Just at dawn May 1, 1898. Dewey steamed into Manila Bay with his squadron and gave battle to the Spanish fleet. Although ex- posed to a heavy bom- bardment by the forts, the American cruisers were able to sink or burn, in four hours, the ten vessels com- posing it. Over twelve hundred Spaniards lay dead or wounded, while Dewey sustained no losses, and had only eight men wounded. No attempt was made to take Manila for it could not have been held by the small force of marines with the fleet. Congress immediately made Dewey a rear admiral and the War Department sent twenty thousand men under com- The Philippine Islands UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 531 riiuta from Underwood & Underwood George Dewey mand of General Wes- ley Merritt to aid in capturing Manila and overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines. The thirteen thousand soldiers defending the city could not with- stand the combined land and naval attack, and on August third Manila surrendered. Hostilities between the two countries were already ended, but the news had not yet reached the Philip- pines, for there was no direct cable at that time. As Manila is the key to the whole archipelago its capture marked the end of Spanish power there. The Cuban campaign. — As soon as war was declared Rear Admiral Sampson, commanding the Atlantic squadron, was ordered to blockade Cuba so as to prevent Spain from reinforcing her armies on the island. A Spanish fleet, un- der command of Admiral Cervera, was known to have been at the Cape Verde Islands on April twenty-fifth, and it was not improbable this fleet would cross the Atlantic and at- tempt to bombard some of the coast cities in the United States. To prevent it Commodore W. S. Schley was put in command of a "flying squadron" with orders to keep watch of Cervera's movements and be ready to join the Oregon, then on its way up the South American coast to take part in the Cuban blockade. The Spanish fleet succeeded, how- ever, in eluding Schley and when located was anchored 532 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY safely in Santiago harbor, on the southern coast of Cuba, engaged in coahng and taking on supphes. In order to "bottle up" Cervera and prevent his putting to sea, Schley stationed the flying squadron just outside the entrance to the harbor. For fear lest some dark night he might slip through this cordon, the Americans decided to try "putting a cork in the bottle" by sinking the collier Mer- rimac directly in the narrow channel through which the Spanish would have to steam. Lieutenant Hobson volun- teered to take command of this dangerous undertaking and had almost succeeded when the Merrimac was discovered by the enemy. A volley from one of their shore batteries ren- dered her unmanageable and as a result the sinking did not occur at the place intended. On the morning of July third. Admiral Cervera made his expected dash for the open sea. Commodore Schley's squad- ron was ready, and within a few hours all six of the Spanish vessels were either destroyed or captured, with a loss of nearly six hundred men. Once more the American casual- ties were almost negligible — one killed and one wounded. Meanwhile, the United States had been assembling its land forces in training camps along the coast of Florida and in other Southern States. Shortly after Cervera reached Santiago seventeen thousand troops were sent to Cuba to take that city and assist in destroying the Spanish fleet. By June twenty-second the army had disembarked and General W. R. Shafter was able to begin his overland march with the cavalry, commanded by General Joseph Wheeler, an ex-Confederate army ofticer, leading the way. Progress was slow and difficult for the roads were only rough trails, frequently crossed by mountain torrents. The intense heat and humidity of tropical jungles threatened the soldiers with fevers more deadly than Spanish bullets. Under these conditions the advance of his heavy artillery was so slow that Shafter decided not to wait for it, but to push UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 533 on and attack the outposts of the city. On July first, two strongly fortified positions, El Caney and San Juan Hill, were taken after severe fighting in which the "Rough Riders," organized by Leonard Wood and Theodore Roose- velt, won renown for their prowess. Tbe Spanish fell back into Santiago, and sustained a bombardment for two weeks after Cervera's ill-fated attempt to escape. Unable to hold out longer, the city sur- American Troops Storming the Blockhouse at El Caney rendered and twenty- four thousand Spanish soldiers became prisoners of war. With the fall of Santiago all of eastern Cuba fell into the hands of the Americans at a cost of only about fifteen hundred casualties. The invasion of Porto Rico.— After the fall of Santiago, General Nelson A. Miles, commander of the United States Army, was sent to occupy Porto Rico, and put a stop to 534 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Spanish rule there. His troops landed and were rapidly overrunning the island, taking one town after another, when the news came, on August twelfth, that Spain had sued for peace. At the beginning of hostilities the Spanish Gov- ernment had entrusted to the French ambassador at Wash- ington the care of its interests, and now through hirti she agreed to the protocol, or preliminary treaty, by which the war was brought to an end. Results of the war. — In the final treaty signed at Paris on December 10, 1898, it was agreed that: (1) Spain should recognize the independence of Cuba. (2) Spain should cede to the United States Porto Rico and some small Spanish islands in the West Indies ; Guam, one of the Ladrone Islands in the Pacific Ocean ; and the Philippine Islands. (3) The United States should pay Spain twenty million dollars in compensation for the Philippines. In the Teller Resolution, passed at the time Congress rec- ognized the independence of Cuba, it was declared that the island would not be annexed. Accordingly, a protectorate was established and a small military force stationed there to administer its affairs until such time as the people should adopt a constitution and organize a permanent government. United States Troops Landing in Cuba UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 535 In 1901, Congress insisted that the Cuban Republic grant to the United States certain sites for naval stations, and that it never enter into any agreement with a foreign power which might be considered detrimental to American inter- ests. The right of intervention whenever necessary to pre- serve order was also reserved by the United States. The next year the American troops were withdrawn and Cuba was launched on its career as an independent nation. Only four years later, however, they had to return, for one of the Cuban factions was attempting to overthrow the will of the majority, by revolution, and had compelled the presi- dent to resign. After remaining three years they were withdrawn and Cuba was again allowed to go her own way. During their occupancy the Americans had revived in- dustry, established a school system, built sewers and cleaned up the fever-haunted cities. In connection with this sanitary work, army surgeons at Havana discovered that mosc^uitos were carriers of the yellow fever germ, and that by keeping them away from those sick with the disease it could easily be controlled and epidemics prevented. Porto Rico was glad to exchange the domination of Spain for that of the United States. It was organized as a terri- tory with a governor appointed by the president and a legis- lature elected by the citizens. In 1899 the island was devas- tated by a West India hurricane and to assist in relieving its distress Congress voted to return two million dollars col- lected as duties on goods exported to the United States since it had been a territory, and that in the future all trade with the island should be free. Trouble in the Philippines. — Under the leadership of Don Kmilio Aguinaldo, the Filipinos had taken up arms against Spain before the intervention of the United States. A so-called Philippine Republic had been proclaimed, and as they had cooperated with Dewey and Merritt in the cap- ture of Manila, the Revolutionists expected the islands tO 536 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY be handed over to them. In January, 1899, the intent of the United States to keep the Phihppines became known, and Aguinaldo and his followers were so disappointed that they started an insurrection. Fighting began near Manila and for three years a desultory sort of warfare, characterized by much barbarity, was kept up. With the capture of the leader in the spring of 1901 the insurrection quickly went to pieces, and peace was restored. Meanwhile, the United States had set up a civil government to supplant that of the army, and the islands were administered by a governor and a commission of nine members appointed by the president. Later an insular legislature was authorized. The right to vote was conferred on all men able to speak English or Spanish and possessed of property valued at two hundred and fifty dollars or paying as much as fifteen dollars in taxes. An efftcient school system was established, courts organized, and many measures designed to promote sanita- tion and to advance the natives were enacted. The Philip- pines have never been a source of revenue to the United States ; in fact, the admission of their exports free of duty has cost the country millions of dollars. The division of China. — The w^ar between China and Japan (1894-1895) closed with the seizure by Japan of Formosa and other Chinese territory. Alarmed at Japanese encroachment on the mainland, Germany, Russia and France intervened and compelled restoration of a part of this ter- ritory. As a reward they forced China to permit a virtual annexation of areas along the coast known as "spheres of influence," while Great Britain also obtained a concession. In these they controlled trade and dictated the policy of the government solely with a view to the enhancement of their own influence in Chinese affairs. So serious was the situation that it began to look as if a partition of China was imminent. At last John Hay, McKinley's secretary of state, intervened and insisted on the "open door," that is, a guar- UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 537 antee that all nations should enjoy equal trading rights in China (1899). The Boxer Rebellion. — The danger of dismemberment had excited alarm and resentment among many Chinese, and resulted in the Boxer Rebellion a year later. The "Boxers" were members of a Chinese secret society, always hostile to European interference with Chinese affairs. They rose against all foreigners and murdered many persons, includ- ing the German ambassador. At Peking the foreigners were forced to take refuge in the British legation, where they were immediately besieged. The United States, Japan and the leading powers of Europe then joined in sending an international force of seventeen thousand soldiers to Peking, and this quickly subdued the Boxers. China was compelled to settle for this outrage by the payment of large sums of money as indemnities, but her territorial integrity was left undisturbed. Regarding the sum awarded her as exces- sive, the United States returned a part of it and the money was used to pay for the education in American colleges The Hawaiian Islands 538 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY of promising Chinese youths. In the settlement of this trouble, the United States injected a new and more Chris- tianlike principle into international relations, by insisting that the interests of the weaker nations must be guarded by the more powerful. Imperialism: a new political issue. — Up to 1898 the United States had no territory outside the North American continent except her small interest in the Samoan Islands. The injunctions of Washington and Jefferson had been heeded and the country had held aloof from the quarrels and intrigues of the Old World. The war with Spain had unexpectedly made her a world power. Porto Rico's million inhabitants occupied an area three times the size of Rhode Island. The Hawaiian Islands, which were finally annexed soon after the battle of Ma- nila, had added an area equaling Rhode Island and Connecti- cut, and furnished homes to over two hundred thousand na- tives, Chinese and Japanese. In the acquisition of the Philip- pines, the country gained control of territory as great as New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland, with eight million inhabitants. Among the three thousand islands of the archipelago lived at least a million savages, divided into many tribes differing in language and customs, some of whom were actual cannibals. Wake Island, an islet two thousand miles west of Hawaii, and Guam had also been acquired and found useful as naval stations. By arrange- ment with Great Britain and Germany joint control of the Samoan Islands had ended and the American flag floated in undisputed sway over Tutuila and five smaller islands. This new policy of acquiring colonial possessions, or "imperialism," as it was popularly termed, became a burn- ing issue in the campaign of 1900. It was denounced as dangerous by the Democrats, and so heartily approved by the Republicans that they renominated McKinley and asso- ciated with him Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, of Rough Rider UNITED STATES BECOMES A WORLD POWER 539 fame, for the vice-presidency. With Wilham J. Bryan again as their leader the Democrats assailed the adminis- tration for waging war on a people like the Filipinos, who were struggling for independence, and demanded the grant- ing of it to them at an early date. Their orators urged the nation to return to the teachings of its fathers, and avoid foreign entanglements. The Republicans replied that the Government House at Agana, Guam Philippines had fallen to the country as an accident of war and that to abandon them would mean their seizure by one of the great European powers. It was America's duty to establish law and order and then train the people for self- government. The assassination of President McKinley. — McKinley and Roosevelt were elected. Six months after his inaugura- tion the president was shot by an anarchist while attend- ing a reception at Buffalo where the Pan-American Ex- position was then in progress. For eight days he lingered while the people prayed that he might be spared. With President McKinley 's death on September 14, 1901, anarchy 540 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY had claimed another noble life as a victim to its fanaticism. A few hours later Vice-President Roosevelt took the oath of office and became president. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Explain why the promise of a high protective tariff appeals to many working men during a political campaign. Who were the presidential candidates and what were the chief issues of the campaign of 1896? 2. Why has the "free silver" question ceased to be a live issue since 1898? 3. Find a number of reasons wliy the United States was deeply concerned in the disorders in Cuba. 4. Explain the Spanish policy of "reconcentration" in Cuba. 5. What business did the battle-ship Mai)ic have in the harbor of Havana? 6. State the important battles in the Spanish-American War and name some of the leading men on both sides. 7. Tell how the Spanish-American War helped to bring the North and South closer together. 8. Why did the United States declare, upon taking over Cuba, that it would control it only long enough to establish peace and order? 9. Find a number of reasons why President McKinley took over the Philippines at the close of the war. What is to be the policy of the United States in dealing with these possessions in the remote future ? 10. Did the United States violate the Monroe Doctrine in bringing on the war with Spain? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The policy of isolation pursued by the United States until the nation became a world power. 2. The difference between the Monroe Doctrine and the policy of political isolation. REFERENCES 1. Elson's Side Liglits on .Imcrican History, Vol. H, Chapter XIV. 2. Letane's From Isolation to Leadership. 3. Hart's Source Book, pp. 373-390. CHAPTER XL A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT Theodore Roosevelt, President, ipoi-ipop IVilliam H. Taft, President, ipop-ipi^ The man Roosevelt. — Theodore Roosevelt, suddenly elevated to the presidency by the act of an assassin, was the most versatile man that has ever presided over the destinies of the nation. With a Dutch ancestry reaching back to the days of New Amster- dam, the Roosevelts were one of the old aris- tocratic families of New York. At the age of twenty-three Theodore entered politics and from then until his death in 1919 was constantly be- fore the public. Always a believer in "being ready," it was he who, as assistant secretary of the navy, was responsi- ble for whatever prepar- edness the American navy possessed when the war with Spain began. It was Roosevelt who in a few weeks organized Theodore Roosevelt 541 542 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY that motley but intrepid regiment of cowboys, bear hunters, stage drivers, policemen, college students and Indians, known as the "Rough Riders," and it was the famous charge of this regiment at San Juan Hill, with its fearless colonel in the lead, that made him the popular hero of the war. A relentless foe to graft in public office, he was con- stantly at "outs" with the party bosses. As governor of New York, with his reform ideas and his refusal to obey orders, Roosevelt incurred the hatred of the Republican "machine." These leaders had him nominated for the vice- presidency, with the intention of putting an end to his politi- cal career. Well they knew that few vice-presidents had ever reached the presidential chair except by accident ; and none could foresee that an anarchist's deed would thwart their purpose. A tremendous worker himself, Roosevelt was ever the advocate of a "strenuous life." In jiis v/ars against corruption and in his foreign policy he adopted what came to be known as the Roosevelt motto, "Speak softly and carry a big stick." The Isthmian Canal. — From the time when Balboa fought his way through the jungles of the Isthmus of Darien to be the first European to gaze on the Pacific Ocean, the project of a canal connecting it with the Caribbean Sea had been discussed. In the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) Great Britain and the United States agreed to permit one to be constructed under their joint control. No definite steps in this direction were taken, however, and it was left for the French to make the first attempt. De Lesseps, one of their engineers, had won renown by the successful com- pletion of the Suez Canal, connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean (1869). Encouraged by this the French or- ganized another company to build a similar canal across Panama, and work actually began in 1881. According to De Lesseps' plans the ditch was to be dug to sea level for A NEW AMKRICAN SPIRIT 543 the entire fifty miles — an apparently feasible project, since the deepest cut would be only about three hundred feet. After working a number of years and spending several hundred million francs the company abandoned the under- taking. The labor problem had greatly exceeded its expecta- tions, due to the enormous loss of life occasioned by yellow fever and other tropical diseases. -. pi),,,, ^i., -'■^^'''^I' The Isthmian Canal Act.— The War with Spain brought the United States to a realization of the ne^d for a shorter water route from its Pacific coast to the Atlantic than by way of Cape Horn. The country still remembered the long time it had taken the Oregon to steam from San Francisco to Cuban waters, and what an embarrassment this had been. Shortly after Roosevelt became president a treaty was negotiated with Great Britain by which she relinquished her rights in the proposed Panama Canal, on condition that when constructed it would be open to "vessels of commerce and war of all nations," without any discriminations as to tolls. The following June (1902) Congress passed the "Isthmian Canal Act," authorizing the president to purchase from Colombia a strip of land not less than six and one-half miles wide and extending across the Isthmus. Should this be impossible, the optional route through Nicaragua was to be selected. Roosevelt recognizes the Republic of Panama. — After the two governments had agreed upon terms the Colom- bian Congress refused to ratify them. President Roose- velt was so much vexed that he despatched men-of-war to the Isthmus in anticipation, no doubt, of some sort o,f revolutionary disturbance. Ir this he was not disappointed, for the Panamaians, alarmed by the prospect of losing the canal and all the advantages which it would bring, on Nor veniber 3, 1903, revolted and proclaimed themselves an inde- pendent republic. Ten days later Roosevelt recognized their government and on November sixteenth a treaty was 544 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY concluded with it by which Panama ceded to the United States a strip known as the "Canal Zone," five miles wide on either side of the proposed waterway, in consideration of an immediate payment of $10,000,000 and an additional one of $250,000, payable annually, beginning nine years The First Vessel to Pass through the Gatun Locks in the Panama Canal after the completion of the canal. For $40,000,000 more all the rights of the old French company were obtained. Sanitation of Canal Zone and cost of the canal. — After long deliberation Congress decided upon a canal with locks, rather than one at sea level, as De Lesseps had planned. To destroy the breeding places of mosquitoes and thus to prevent malaria and yellow fever from interfering with the work. Major General Gorgas was sent to the Isthmus. Under his direction the rank vegetation was cleared from great areas, swamps were drained, sewers and a modern water system were installed, and by the time digging began the Canal Zone had been transformed from one of the "hot- test, wettest and most feverish regions in existence" into a place far healthier than most large cities. In the construc- tion work over forty thousand laborers were employed at A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT 545 one time, most of them being West Indian negroes. The canal was completed at a cost of $375,000,000 and on Au- gust 3, 1914, the first vessel pass- ed through it. The toll rate is $1.25 for each net ton of cargo space. Although this amounts to a large fee, ves- sels are glad to make use of the canal, owing to the distance it saves. The voy- age from New York to San Francisco is ac- tually shortened by eight thousand miles, while that to Aus- tralia is reduced half that many. Roosevelt believed in peace. — Though an advocate of a large, well-equipped army and a thoroughly modern navy, Roosevelt was a supporter of peace. According to his belief, when a nation was known to be prepared at all times to de- fend its rights, it was most secure against aggression. In 1904 Japan went to war with Russia, because the czar in- sisted on occupying the Chinese province of Manchuria upon the pretext that Russian soldiers were needed to guard the Manchurian railway, recently built by Russian capital. From the beginning this war was disastrous to the czar's armies, and after the fighting had gone on more than a year Presi- dent Roosevelt concluded that its continuance would be a "very bad thing for Japan and even a worse thing for Rus- sia." In view of its menace to the general peace through Panama Canal — the World's New Gateway 546 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY involving other European powers he directed a note to the belHgerents on July 2, 1905, urging them in their own inter- est and that of the civilized world to try to agree on peace. As both nations were in financial straits by this time they gladly accepted the suggestion and sent envoys to Ports- mouth, New Hampshire, to confer. Long deliberation ensued, and when their minimum demands seemed irreconcilable and the conference about to end in failure, Roosevelt, by a remarkable display of tact and good judgment, secured a The American Fleet in the Harbor of Colombo, Ceylon, on Its Cruise around the World delay. Appealing directly to the two monarchs, he secured concessions sufficient to make a treaty of peace possible. Our battle-ships circumnavigate the globe. — To show how well prepared the United States was to defend her rights President Roosevelt ordered a fleet of sixteen bat- tle-ships to make a voyage around the world. As a result of this cruise, which began in 1907 and covered thirty thousand miles — by far the longest ever undertaken by any similar fleet — the influence of America was increased tremendously. The growth of trusts. — We have seen how railway "combines" and "pools" were formed soon after the War of Secession. The same thing happened in other lines of indus- try, and as a result a few gigantic corporations eventually A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT 547 controlled many es- In hundreds of millions sential articles of commerce and kept '8si-7o , • , , 1871-80 |i prices nign enough to insure large divi- "11 I II 1 1 h inl 1 1 111 Ml ill M il n i i l rrirl i M i liii 60 55 lllllll 188 1- qo leqi-noo dends and the accu- iqoi-oa. mulation of enor- _ „ , . ^ , t.t • , t , J Consolidation of the Nation s Indus- mous surpkises. in tries and Gas. Electric Light and Street the beginning no at- Railway Companies . , , ^ The approximate capital is shown in tempt was made to hundreds of millions of dollars combine, but con- cerns in the same business entered into agreements to cut down production, raise prices and divide territory so as to eliminate competition. During the eighties, when the courts began to adjudge such methods unlawful and refuse to en- force the agreements, "trusts" came into existence. At first the stock of all the companies composing the trust was placed in the hands of trustees, who then proceeded to con- trol the business of all the member concerns. Later came the formation of the powerful "holding companies" of the present day. These great corporations bought a controlling interest in many independent concerns, and operated them solely in the interest of the stockholders of the trust. In some cases they even dissolved the small companies alto- gether. Trusts are the logical outcome of the factory system. Shoes can be made cheaper in factories where each workman turns out only one part than by a single shoemaker in his own shop. Likewise steel can, be manufactured cheaper when many mills are combined tinder one management. The war against trusts. — By 1890 so many small con- cerns had been forced out of business by the unfair meth- ods of trusts, and the price paid producers for such raw ma- terials as tobacco, hemp, sugar and wool had been forced so low that a loud demand for laws to curb their activities 548 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY arose. When this could be ignored no longer, Congress en- acted the Sherman Anti-Trust Law. By this act, combina- tions designed to restrain trade between the states or with foreign countries were declared unlawful and subject to dis- solution by the courts. Little effort was made to enforce this law until President Roosevelt started on his "trust-busting" campaign. During his administration and that of his suc- cessor, President Taft, over one hundred and fifty suits were brought against trusts controlling the manufacture or sale of sugar, beef, lumber, steel, tobacco, harvesting ma- chinery, window glass and other commodities. Like most cases which have to pass through the Supreme Court, prog- ress was slow. A suit brought against the Standard Oil Company in 1906 was not settled until 1911, and the public suffered meanwhile. Autocratic "captains of industry" at first paid little heed to these attempts of the government to regulate their activi- ties, for heretofore the utmost penalty imposed had been a fine not so large as a single day's profits. In derision over the apparent inability of the law to stop their evil practises, one of them went so far as to ask a government attorney. "Can you Whst! Make a Political Issue of Me Now? unscramble eggS ?" . ^ ^ T> ,,■,,, ■ ,1 His question was an- A Cartoon Publisned during the * FJcction of 1904 swered ni 1904 when A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT 549 the Supreme Court ordered the Northern Securities Com- pany to be dissolved, and competition to be restored between its two railway lines — the Northern Pacific and Great North- ern. Henceforth the lawless magnates had a wholesome respect for Roosevelt and his "big stick." In 1906 Congress enacted laws regulating the slaughter of live stock and the preparation of food products for inter- state commerce. Three years later a tax was levied on cor- porations, partly to bring their affairs under government supervision. In 1914 a Federal Trade Commission was created to exercise a control over corporations engaged in interstate business similar to that of the Interstate Com- merce Commission over railroads. Arbitration of labor disputes. — Since President Cleve- land had employed federal troops to quell a strike, there had been little improvement in methods of settling labor disputes. Labor and capital fought out their disagree- ments usually until one side or the other became exhausted or saw the hopelessness of the struggle and yielded. In 1902 one hundred and fifty thousand coal miners in Penn- sylvania struck in an attempt to force their employers to grant them shorter hours, higher pay and "collective bar- gaining," that is, the right of union offtcials to represent the workmen in all negotiations with the employers. At the end of five months both sides were still obdurate. Hard coal had risen in price from five to thirty or more dollars a ton and the whole East was facing a coal famine. The struggle had ceased to be one of interest only to mine owners and miners, for winter was approaching and mil- lions of lives were being placed in jeopardy. To pre- vent this President Roosevelt intervened and made ready to seize the mines by military force and resume operations. He asserted that, "No man and no group of men can so exercise their rights as to deprive the nation of the things which are necessary and vital to the common life." An able 550 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY commission was appointed to investigate both sides of the controversy, and finally its decision was accepted. From this act dates the feeling that the public is an inter- ested party in labor disputes and has rights which must be recognized by both sides. Since then many strikes have been settled by the intervention of governors and mayors, and New York, Massachusetts and several other states have boards of arbitrators to take a hand in settling labor dis- putes by making investigations, declaring the right and wrong of the issues, and serving as conciliators. The De- partment of Labor also acts in a similar capacity in dis- putes afifecting interstate commerce. Conservation the need of the hour. — In 1873 the Amer- ican Association for the Advancement of Science started a movement for the preservation of the forests, which were rapidly disappearing because of fire and wasteful methods of lumbering. According to estimates, since the first settle- ment was made at Jamestown, forest fires had destroyed more timber than had been cut by man. As a result the Bu- reau of Forestry was established under the Department of Agriculture, and during President Harrison's administration Congress enacted laws authorizing the president to set aside or purchase forest areas as national reserves. The United States has now over one hundred and sixty national forests, mostly among the mountains of the Far West, containing about one hundred and sixty million acres. Gifford Pinchot and our conservation policy. — It is, however, to Gifl'ord Pinchot, chief of the Bureau of Forestry under President Roosevelt, that the nation owes its greatest debt of gratitude for the adoption of a con- servation policy. Through his efforts systematic steps were taken to protect the natural wealth of the country from spoliation. A naturalist of eminence himself, President Roosevelt whole-heartedly ac(|uiesced in Pinchot's plans. In May, 1908. he convened at the White House a "Conference A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT 551 of the Governors" to discuss conservation. Thirty-four states were represented in this conference for the conserva- tion of the nation's natural resources — minerals, waters, forests and soils. During Roosevelt's administration not only were vast areas added to the forest reserves, but the government began to supervise the grazing of cattle and sheep on the public A Field Destroyed by Erosion — Another Result of Deforestation domain, and to charge fees for the privilege. Heretofore electric light and power companies had bought or been given perpetual rights to dam up streams, and develop water power, but now new laws were enacted providing for leas- ing these privileges for terms .not exceeding fifty years. To check the enormous losses from forest fires, roads and trails were opened through the reserves and a force of forest rangers was organized to patrol them. Millions of acres of mineral lands were withdrawn from sale or entry under the homestead law, and in 1910, after Taft became president, Congress enacted a law providing that where minerals, oils 552 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY or gas were found on public lands thereafter sold, the de- posits should belong to the government. Upon the invitation of President Roosevelt commissioners from Mexico and Canada met with those of the United States in Washington (1909) to consider the conservation of the resources of the whole of North America. The im- mediate result of this was the creation by the Dominion Parliament of a Commission of Conservation for Canada. Two new amendments to the Constitution. — Notwith- standing its tremendous growth and the radical changes which had occurred in nearly every phase of its life, the United States had made no amendments to its Constitution since those relating to slavery had been adopted at the close of the War of Secession. To make up the loss of revenue occasioned by the tariff reduction the Wilson bill had pro- vided for a tax of two per cent, on incomes above four thousand dollars, but the Supreme Court declared it un- constitutional. In an efTort to distribute the burden of taxation more equitably, in 1909 Congress proposed an amendment to the Constitution authorizing the levying of such taxes. Advocated first by the Populists and later made one of their platform demands by the Democrats, the propo- sition of an income tax was now regarded with almost equal favor by the Republicans. A few weeks after President Taft's term expired this amendment had been ratified by the necessary three- fourths of the states and was proclaimed a part of the Constitution. Later in the same year an in- come tax law was enacted and taxes levied (1913). Since the formation of the government there had been a governing class composed of persons who had time and an inclination for politics. In the early days the taverns and village stores were the gathering places for these politicians, and there was started the practise of distributing the offices among themselves. With the advent of the nominating con- vention the politicians were careful to be chosen as delegates A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT 553 and thus continued to keep the power in their own hands. In the districts and counties they organized committees to "hne up" the voters and see that they voted the tickets "straight." The agitation of election reforms, which followed the adoption of the Australian ballot, created a demand for some plan by which voters could choose their candidates directly. In 1903 Wisconsin met it by adopting the "direct primary" system. According to this plan, each party holds an election about three months before the general election, and affords its members an opportunity to indicate their choice as to who shall be the candidates. The direct primary spread rapidly and proved so popular that a demand soon arose for the election of United States senators, too, by a direct vote. As early as John Quincy Adams's administra- tion this had been debated in Congress, but always stub- bornly opposed by the senators themselves. By 1910 so many states had applied the direct primary to the election of their senators that a majority of the Senate had been chosen in that way. The next year, therefore. Congress pro- posed an amendment to the Constitution requiring that sena- tors be chosen by popular vote, and on May 31, 1913, it was proclaimed as the Seventeenth Amendment. The rise of dollar diplomacy. — Prior to the United States becoming a world power, the great nations of Europe had proceeded on the theory that political control was essen- tial to foreign trade. Barbarous and half-civilized countries had been seized as colonies, and spheres of inflluence and concessions, or exclusive rights to build railways and oper- ate mines and factories, had been obtained from weaker nations by persuasion and even threats of violence. We have seen the leading powers of Europe in their greed making ready to partition the Chinese Empire among themselves, and how this was averted by the insistence of the United States on the "open door" policy. 554 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY During Taft's administration a policy, termed by its ene- mies ''dollar diplomacy" because it sought to establish closer commercial relations with these weaker nations, was adopted. When the new Chinese Republic needed financial aid the Washington authorities did not wait until the big New York bankers came to ask their assistance in the ne- gotiations. Instead, the government appealed to them to join the syndicate of European bankers which was arrang- ing to advance the funds, because of the effect it would have on American influence in the Far East. Dollar di- plomacy also brought assistance to American bankers who were willing to lend financial help to the Central American republics, provided their loans could be properly safe- guarded. The United States arranged with several Latin American governments that her officials might take charge of their custom houses and collect the duties, so as to in- sure the payment of these foreign loans. This, however, led many to distrust the motives of their "giant neighbor" and they began to resent bitterly the domineering attitude its size and wealth had enabled it to assume in American affairs. To these the disposition of the "gringos" to act as international policeman in the unruly and impoverished republics south of the Rio Grande, has proved very dis- tasteful. The split in the Republican party. — The Republican party was by no means a unit on the tariff question. The manufacturing interests in the Eastern and Central States strongly favored the high rates, but the farmers of the West were equally insistent on a reduction. By this time the peo- ple generally had learned that a high tariff causes high prices and that any increase in wages or the selling price of agri- cultural products is more than offset by the increased cost of everything they have to buy. So bitter became some of the Republicans in Congress toward the conservative ma- jority, derisively termed "standpatters," that after Taft ap- A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT 555 proved the Payne-Aldrich Bill, another protective tariff measure, they broke with their party. Afterward they voted against so many party measures that they earned the popular title of "Insurgents." By 1910 the quarrel had di- vided the party sufficiently to allow the Democrats to gain control of the House of Representatives for the first time since 1892. With the aid of the Insurgents the Democrats now passed a new tariff law, which would have reduced considerably the rates on iron and steel products, woolen goods, sugar and farm implements, had not the president vetoed it. The next two years were stormy ones for Taft, who was now accused by the Insurgents of being a "standpatter," and so exposed to attack from within as well as without his own party. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. How did the political leaders try to end Roosevelt's political career? Why did they do that, and how did they fail? 2. President Roosevelt was the most versatile man that ever pre- sided over the destinies of the nation. What other president stands next to him as a versatile man? Enumerate the most important public services that Mr. Roosevelt had performed before he became president. 3. Show how Roosevelt drew the line of demarcation between human rights and property rights. 4. The United States and Great Britain agreed by the terms of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) to build a canal across Nica- rauga. Why was this never done? 5. Explain Roosevelt's methods of getting control of the strip of territory through which the Panama Canal was constructed. Do you think that the United States should charge its own citizens the same toll for the use of the canal that it does British sul)jects? Explain your answer. 6. President Roosevelt believed that the best way to keep out of war was to be well prepared. Is that always a safe pre- ventive ? 7. What are trusts? \\'hat are holding companies? Should all trusts be "unscrambled"? How is the government trying to dissolve the trusts? 556 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 8. On what ground did Roosevelt interfere in the coal strike of 1902? How did he settle it? 9. Give reasons why the people of the United States have heen so wasteful of their natural resources. What did President Roosevelt do to call a halt in this? 10. What is an income tax law? Does it impose the burden on the ones best able to bear it? 11. Explain dollar diplomacy. SUBJECTS FOR FURTHLR STUDY 1. Roosevelt and his versatility. 2. The acquisition of the Canal Zone. The Fight against Corruption Results in the Development of a New American Spirit I. The Settlement of the Far West. A. The Far West in 1860 and the conditions that existed there. B. Aids to the movement of population westward. 1. The homestead law. 2. Immigration to the United States. 3. Building of railroads. 4. Expositions. 5. Influence of mines. 11. New Legislation. A. Assassination of Garfield and civil service reform. B. A law excluding Chinese immigrants from the United States. C. The Presidential Succession Act. D. Consolidation of railroads and tlie Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. E. Introduction of the Australian l)allot sys'.eni. F. Tariff legislation. I!^!. Crover Cleveland Again Preside.xt, 1393-1897. A. The Panic of 1893. 1. The causes. 2. The effort of the president to relieve tlie money stringency. B. The Wilson Tariff Bill. C. The growth and organization of labor unions. 1. Consolidation of railroads, and factories. A NEW AMP:RICAN spirit 557 2. The War of Secession gave, the labor unions an op- portunity. 3. Means employed by labor unions to enforce their demands. 4. The nature and demands of labor unions. D. The Monroe Doctrine on trial. 1. The Venezuelan boundary dispute. 2. Great Britain agrees to arbitration. IV. The Spanish-American War, 1898. A. Election of McKinley. B. Causes of the War with Spain. 1. The interest of the United States in Cuba. 2. Spanish cruelty toward Cuba. 3. The demands of the United States upon the G;ianisli Government. 4. The sinking of the battle-ship Maine. C. The waging of the war. 1. The naval battles. 2. The Cuban campaign. 3. The invasion of Porto Rico. D. The results of the war. 1. The United States comes into possession of territory outside of North America; the traditional policy of isolation broken. 2. Control of Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines by the United States. E. Secretary John Hay insisted on an Opcn-Door Policy in China in 1899. F. Interest of the United States in the Boxer Rebellion. V. Roosevelt Elevated to the Presidency. A. Roosevelt wields the big stick. 1. The Canal Zone is obtained and tlie Panama Canal is built. 2. War made on trusts. 3. Roosevelt intervened in the coal strike of 1902 and brought about a settlement of the trouble. B. Conservation plan of Pinchot. C. Inauguration of the policy of dollar diplomacy. In two millions \nm ■IHH \H<¥) ^■i^™ 1900 ^■"■■"^ iqio mc CHAPTER XLI A HALF-CENTURY OF PROGRESS Population. — In 1860 the population of what is now the United States was about 31,000,000. During the next fifty years the number had almost tripled, reaching 91,972,266. In addition, the nation's new possessions — Hawaii, the Phil- ippines and Porto Rico — contributed 10,000,000. Over one- fourth of the population was living west of the Mississippi River — nearly as many as dwelt in the far older states south of the Ohio and Potomac. While in 1860 less than twenty per cent, of the inhabi- ■ Urban (towns of Z500 or over) DRurol tauts rCsidcd iu tOWUS of The Shifting of Population from more than eight thou- Country to City between , , , i m rv ^.u 1880 and 1920 ^^nd people, by 1910 the percentage had doubled itself. In some of the Eastern States, particularly Massa- chusetts and New York, only ten or twenty per cent, were residents of rural districts. Increased growth of cities due to foreign immigration. — This increase of city dwellers was largely due to the vast armies of immigrants which had been pouring into the coun- try. During the two decades ending with 1913. nearly 14,000,000 had arrived. Unlike their predecessors, few of these newcomers were from the British Isles and the north of Europe ; instead, they came from Russia, Poland, Hungary. Italy, Mexico, Syria and other countries where living stand- ards were much lower than in the United States. Largely il- 558 A HALF-CENTURY OF PROGRESS 559 literate and without any qualifications except muscular strength, the men furnished the unskilled labor demanded in the mines/ mills and commerce, while the women and children found work in the shops where ready-made clothing was manufactured, and in cheap restaurants and similar places. Poorly paid and unfamiliar with better condi- tions, they hud- dled together in the "slums" or tenement dis- tricts close to their work, a menace to the public health and morals. By 1910 New York City had a population of 4,766,883, nearly twice that of the thirteen colonies on the eve of the Revolutionary War ; Chicago of 2,485,283, and Philadelphia of 1.549,000. Each of forty-eight cities boasted over one hundred thousand inhabitants, and three-fourths of them were situated along the coast or on the navigable streams of the Mississippi Basin. In the Congested Section of New York Each of the buildings houses hurnlreds of jiersons 560 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Center of popu- lation moves west- ward.— In 1790 the center of population was just east of Chesapeake Bay, but so rapid was the western migration that only seventy years were required for it to move in- land to the vicinity of the Scioto River in Ohio, and fifty more to reach Bloomington, Indi- ana. Just ahead of it moved the center of improved farms and close in its wake crowded the center of manufactures. Truly may it be said, "Westward the course of empire takes its way." Additional re- striction on foreign immigration. — So mixed became the genealogy of the people that, after fifty years of immi- gration, less than one-third the popu- A HALF-CENTURY OF PROGRESS 561 lation of the country could trace its ancestry back to colonial families. To check the introduction of undesirables, Con- gress imposed more and more restrictions. In 1882 a law was passed excluding convicts ; invalids, particularly those afflicted with eye diseases ; anarchists and members of other societies opposed to law and order. In 1917 Congress finally passed over the veto of the president an Illiteracy Act, for- bidding entrance to all grown persons unable to read in some language. Improvement in transportation. — In 1860 there were thirty thousand miles of railway in the country; in 1910 eight times as many (240,000), largely parts of a few great systems. Heavy rails and rock ballast had made possible larger locomotives, and these larger and heavier trains. Since the first wide river was bridged at Albany in 1866, even the Mississippi had been spanned in a dozen places and passengers could cross the continent without changing cars. The crude sleeping cars of the early fifties had given place to palaces on wheels, in which the traveler could en- joy his bath, dine on the best the Atlantic and Pacific af- forded, keep in touch with the stock market, and dictate to a stenographer, while speeding along at sixty miles an hour. A few large express companies had supplanted the many smaller ones and in 1918 these were finally merged into a single corporation. The Parcel Post Law enacted during President Taft's administration had made it possible to send large packages by mail at a low rate. Two great telegraph companies had enmeshed the country with their lines and made instant communication available wherever a railroad extended, and to hundreds of interior places through con- nection with the various telephone systems. The omnibus of fifty years before became inadequate to the needs of the growing cities, and was replaced by the larger and faster horse car. Later, when it had been demon- strated at Richmond, Virginia, in 1888 that cars could be 562 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY A Street Railway Car in New Orleans about 1840 operated successfully by electricity, horses and mules were soon supplanted. Bvit before this the crowded thorough- fares of such cities as New York, Philadelphia, Chicago and Boston had de- manded more rapid means of transit, and in 1870 the con- struction of over- head or elevated railways was begun. These were steel bridges built over the streets and ex- tending for miles, with stations reached by stairs, at convenient distances. On them long trains of light cars were operated, which went whizzing past the housetops without any interference from street traffic. By 1900 even these became inadequate, and the cities turned to subway systems for relief. Great tunnels were excavated beneath the streets, under high buildings, and even below wide rivers, and through them trains thundered along at forty miles an hour. The bicycle and the automobile. — About 1880 there was placed on the market a bicycle, clumsy but adapted to hard usage and sold at a price low enough to be within reach of the masses. With it one could travel several times faster than with a horse and buggy, and when the original high wheel had been su- perseded by the low compact one of to-day the bicycle took an important place in city and sub- m-ban life. Ten years later there appeared a new vehicle — The First High-Wheel Bicycle A HALF-CENTURY OF PROGRESS 563 Couricby ui Tlic Hayncb Autuuiubilc Cunipaiiy The First Automobile Made in America — the automobile — des- tined to revolutionize the life of the country in twenty-five years, al- though at first it was deemed a rich man's plaything. The first au- tomobile races in Amer- ica were held at Chicago in 1895, and the winning car covered ninety miles in eight hours and forty- eight minutes with the aid of cakes of ice to keep the engine from overheating. By 1900 about four thousand cars were being manufactured annually; fifteen years later the output had increased to nine himdred thousand. The good roads movement. — The immediate result of popularizing the automobile was a clamor for "better roads." To satisfy this many hundred millions of dollars have been expended on the improvement of highways ; and where a few years ago farmers were unable to get to town with their cotton, grain and other products for weeks at a time because of impassable roads, now, in the worst weather they can haul heavier loads than before in the best. The Atlantic cable. — Soon after Professor Morse had perfected the telegraph for sending messages by land he began experimenting with devices for transmitting them un- der water. By 1854 the submarine telegraph was an accom- plished fact, and several cables less than a hundred miles in length were in operation. That year Cyrus W. Field, a suc- cessful New York financier, organized a company for the purpose of laying the first cable across the Atlantic. The route chosen extended from Newfoundland to Ireland, and 564 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY was two thousand miles in length. Work began in 1855, but the attempt was unsuccessful, due to the breaking of the cable in mid-ocean from the tremendous strain of its own weight as it was being paid out from the ship. A second effort also failed, but still Field did not give up. With the aid of British and American war-ships, he at last succeeded in laying his A Section of the Atlantic ^able, and over it President Bu- Cable Laid m I800 ,,. . chanan and Queen victoria ex- changed greetings. After a few weeks, however, it refused to work, and as the company meanwhile had become bank- rupt, the project was temporarily abandoned. In 1865 Field succeeded in forming a new company and chartering the Great Eastern, the largest steamship afloat, set to work once more. On July 27, 1866, the work was completed, and since then cable service between the two continents has never been seriously disturbed. In place of having to wait nearly three weeks for a reply to a letter, the cable made it possible to send a message from any telegraph ofiice and receive a reply in a few hours. Inventions. — Much of the progress of the country is attributable to the Bessemer process of making steel, in- vented in 1864. By this method the best quality of steel can be produced for little more than it had cost before to roll iron. As a result the railroads have been able to employ the more durable steel rails absolutely essential for the heavy locomotives demanded by the steep mountain grades. The building of stronger bridges, larger vessels and loftier build- ings has also been made possible. Cheap steel has meant low-priced machinery, and this has enabled manufacturers to increase the output of their plants and thus to market their products at greatly reduced prices. At the Centennial Exposition held in Philadelphia in 1876 thousands of the inventions that were already revolutioniz- inV^^. t^ ^ Kingdom inherited ' by Charles Albert Italia irredenta Annexations in 1860 Ceded to France in I860 Wrested from the Pope in I870 Reward for part taken m Seven Weeks War « I Surrendered by Austria How the Unification of Italy was Effected THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 583 gling for their independence. Receiving a crushing defeat, he abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel 11. In 1859 Victor Emmanuel finally succeeded in wresting Lombardy from Austria. Two years later, after Garibaldi, with his army of patriots, had captured Sicily and over- thrown the kingdom of Naples, Victor Emmanuel was pro- claimed king of Italy. By this time all the peninsula except Venice and Rome was included in his kingdom. Venice was The Vatican at Rome— the Residence of the Pope As a protest against the capture of Rome, since that time no Pope has ever left the Vatican grounds added after the Seven Weeks' War as a reward for aid ren- dered Prussia in the attack on Austria. An effort, however, to take Rome in 1867 failed because Louis Napoleon, the French king, who was an ardent Catholic, sent troops to aid the Papal forces. Three years later when war with Ger- many was imminent, France withdrew her soldiers, and •Victor Emmanuel compelled the surrender of the "eternal city" on the seven hills, and made it the capital of a united Italy. Alonsf the northern and eastern shores of the Adriatic 584 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTOR^■ and among the Alps there still remained under the rule of Austria-Hungary, however, large areas peopled by Italians. In this Italia Irredenta ("Italy Unredeemed") lay the great cities of Trieste and Trent, as well as the Austrian naval base, Pola. Bismarck's ruthless policy. — In 1861 William I be- came king of Prussia. Urged on by his chancellor, Prince Otto von Bismarck, his reign was devoted to uniting all the German states into one great confederation under the domination of Prussia. Prussia owed her commanding in- fluence in German afifairs to her army, and Bismarck would brook no opposition to his plans for making it the great- est fighting machine on the continent. When the Diet (assembly) refused to cooperate, the chancellor dissolved it, declaring, "Not by speeches and majority votes are the great questions of the age to be decided, but by blood and iron." Enforced military service had prevailed since the days of Frederick the Great, and at this time every able- bodied youth was compelled to spend several years in the army. After that he became one of the "reserves" and was liable to be called to the colors at any time. It was to escape this enforced military service that many German youths fled to the United States. There was only one serious obstacle in the way of Bis- marck's ambition for Prussia — the old German Confedera- tion presided over by the emperor of Austria — and some plan must be found for destroying this creature of the Con- gress of Vienna. In 1864 Prussia and Austria had forced Denmark to renounce her claims to the provinces of Schles- wig and Holstein ; so Bismarck proceeded to pick a quarrel with Austria over their administration. The Seven Weeks' War followed and put an end to Austrian influence in Ger- man affairs. Those states in northern Germany which had sided with Austria were annexed to Prussia, and Bismarck then proceeded to complete the first stage of his ambition, THE STRUGGLK FOR ICLROPKAN SL'PREMACY 585 by organizing the North German Confederation, a league of the states north of the Main River, vuider the presidency of Prussia. The struggle for European supremacy was now on. % ^W^:' JOINED the- "X, CV "Vi^FGERMAN EMPIREJ M^ ie7o ,-•'' m SWITZERLAND ■■ Prussia Orifinall^ I Au&fnan Territory ] \ Wrested from 1 adJed in 1740 F^^ Denmark m 1664 I Fblisb "Territory added ISSSS! AnncKafions after rtie 1 from 1772 to 1795 \it°%\ Seven Weeks War 1866 ] Annewfions confirmed |;;::;;;J Annexations efter the j byCongrcss dl Berlin l!!:::!:] Franco Prussian War In 1815 in 1871 How Prussia Gradually Became Supreme in Germany France viewed with alarm the sudden overthrow of her old- time ally, Austria, from leadership in German affairs, and openly used her influence to prevent the southern states from joining the new confederation. The Franco-Prussian War. — This war was unique in that it was desired by both belligerents. In order to realize his ambition to make Germany, under the leadership of Prussia, the dominating continental power, Bismarck needed to humble France. Louis Napoleon, chafing because his im- perial rule lacked the brilliancy of his illustrious uncle's, felt that a successful war with Prussia would go far to- ward wiping out his unpopularity. He was by no means blind to the discontent occasioned throusrhout France bv his 586 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY humiliating fiasco in Mexico, by his alhance with Victor Emmanuel as a result of which French troops had aided the Italians wrest Lombardy from Austria for two trifling bits of territory, and more recently by his profitless intrigue with Bismarck which enabled Prussia to attack Austria while France remained inactive. A cause was not long lacking, for in 1868 Spain dethroned her queen and offered the crown to a Prussian prince. Louis Napoleon, fearful that it would upset the balance of power in Europe, protested against this arrangement, and although the prince had de- clined the offer, demanded that William should give his promise that no Prussian prince should ever be a candidate for the place. Bismarck refused rudely to consider any such demand, and France hastened to declare war. Germany was ready with four hundred seventy-five thou- sand highly trained soldiers and that many more in the re- serves, while her opponent could muster only about two hundred seventy thousand. Small as their forces were the French made the mistake of dividing them into two widely separated armies. Taking advantage of this the Germans drove a wedge between them and then settled with each separately. One was surrounded at Metz in the French province of Lorraine ; the other, with the emperor himself, was forced to surrender at Sedan, in northeastern France, September 2, 1870. When news of Napoleon's defeat reached Paris, the people once more proclaimed France a republic, and made ready to withstand a siege. Their re- sistance was unavailing, for threatened with starvation the city was forced to capitulate, late in January, 1871. Bis- marck dictated as terms of peace, the return to Germany of Alsace and the German-speaking portion of Lorraine, which two hundred years before Louis XIV had annexed to France. In addition the French were to pay a war indem- nity of one billion dollars. Before this war Bismarck had formed a secret alliance THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 587 with the rulers of the southern German states, by which they pledged their assistance should Prussia be attacked by France. The pride of the whole "fatherland" had been so stirred by the brilliant success of the German armies that Bismarck took advantage of the opportunity to change the confederation into an empire, with the king of Prussia as muHHi "' s. ' ' '-^ ^tm t ■ '^Ci^#^^^^^^^^ ;f» Im V r ^u•^m ^*"" : Coronation of William I as Emperor of Germany, January 18, 1871 hereditary emperor. On January 18, 1871, in the old palace of the French kings at Versailles, a suburb of Paris, William was crowned as the first emperor of the reunited Germany. The sick man of Europe. — For centuries the entrench- ment of the Turks on the shores of the Bosphorus had been a source of constant irritation to all Europe. As has al- ready been noted it was the fall of Constantinople and the subsequent interference with the Far Eastern trade by the Turks that inspired the effort to find a water route to the Indies and led incidentally to the discovery of America. Urged on by their hatred of the "Christian dogs," as they called Catholic and Protestant alike, the Mohammedans 588 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY overran all southeastern Europe and even threatened the Germans. About the time of the American Revolution their progress northward was definitely checked by the half-sav- age armies of Russia. Later, after one of the most heroic struggles recorded in history, the Greeks, led by Marcos Bozzaris, threw off the Turkish yoke (1821). From then the sultan's power declined steadily and his empire was so woefully mismanaged that he was commonly spoken of as the "Sick Man of Europe." For a long time Russia had been casting longing eyes at Constantinople, which she greatly needed to give her Black Sea commerce a free outlet to the Mediterranean. Europe now became alarmed lest she might be able to reach this goal, and thus disturb the balance of power. In 1854, the czar undertook to take under his "protection" the Turkish provinces of Serbia, Bulgaria and Bosnia, and thus l)rought on the Crimean War. Great Britain, France and Victor Emmanuel, closing their eyes to Turkey's atrocious treat- ment of her Christian subjects, hastened to the sultan's aid. In the peace treaty which followed, the powers guaranteed the integrity of the Turkish dominions in Europe, and Rus- sia renounced all designs on them. The rise of the Balkan States, — Intolerance of other re- ligions has always been a part of the Mohammedan creed and for three-quarters of the nineteenth century the mas- sacres of Christians and Jews in the sultan's Balkan prov- inces shocked the civilized world. At last, in 1875, the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina revolted. All the other Balkan peoples cooperated and the Russians, related to them by blood, came to their aid. As a result the Turks were totally defeated (1878) and, but for the intervention of the great powers, the Near Eastern question would have been settled once for all. At a congress held in Berlin, Great Britain, France, Germany and Austria again saved Turkev, lest Russia should realize her ambition on the Bos- THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 589 phorus. Montenegro, Roumania and Serbia were recog- nized as independent nations ; Bulgaria was awarded the right of self-government under the nominal sovereignty of Turkey ; and Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under the protection of Austria. The most far-reaching result Courtesy of lUe Independent The Goal of Russia's Ambition The narrow white line connecting the Black Sea with tlie Sea of Marmora is the lic^sphorus was the bitter feeling toward Germany felt by the Russians, who considered Bismarck responsible for the opposition of the Congress of Berlin to the realization of their national ambition. Bismarck forms the "Triple Alliance." — When Bis- marck realized how bitter Russia and France felt toward Germany because of his selfish, ruthless policy, he formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary (1879) and Italy (1882). The primary purpose of this "Triple iMliance" was to pre- vent Russia from expanding into the Balkan region and to bring aid to Germany in case she was attacked by France. To of?"set it, Russia and France formed the "Dual Alliance," and for many years these two alliances kept Europe in a state of peace. The military strength of the two groups of 590 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY powers so nearly balanced that the outcome of any war was too uncertain to cause either to be desirous of precipitating a struggle. Meanwhile Great Britain held herself aloof from both alliances, though by no means blind to Germany's aspiration to become supreme in European affairs. The Germany of the twentieth century. — By the twen- tieth century Germany had become a menace to the world. Although nominally a constitutional empire with a parlia- ment called the Reichstag, the real power was vested in the Bundesrat. This was a council composed of sixty-one am- bassadors representing the rulers of the several kingdoms, duchies and principalities, and the three free cities, that made up the empire. The king of Prussia had the most in- fluence in the Bundesrat for he controlled twenty-one votes and his prime minister acted as its president. Unlike the United States, where many measures must originate in the lower house of Congress, in Germany all important bills originated in the Bundesrat. The power of the Reichstag was limited to approving such legislation as had been en- acted in the Bundesrat with the consent of the princes of the realm. As commander-in-chief of the army the kaiser could wage a war of defense without any authorization, and only needed to obtain that of the Bundesrat for one of aggression. Whereas in Great Britain the prime minister is responsible to Parliament, the German imperial chan- cellor was appointed and dismissed by the kaiser, and al- though a member of both the Bundesrat and Reichstag, was responsible to neither. In the United States all officials, including the army, are sworn to support and defend the Constitution ; in Germany they took an oath to defend the kaiser. Most officials were chosen from the "war lords," as the army officers were called, or from the "junkers," that is, the rich landowners. Kaiser William, the War Lord of Europe. — Twentieth- century Germany can not be understood apart from Kaiser THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 591 William II, the War Lord of Europe. His declaration, on ascending the throne in 1888, was, "We consider ourselves as designed by God to govern the peoples over which it is given us to reign." A stern autocrat, he had no patience with opposition, insisting: "One shall be master. It is I." To the Socialists in the Reichstag who opposed his military program, he referred as "a horde of men unworthy to bear the name of Germans." Never did Kaiser William forget that it was the army which placed the imperial crown on his grandfather's head at Versailles, and on becoming em- peror said, "So we are bound together — I and the army." When he demanded Bismarck's resignation, shortly after coming to the throne, in order to have a freer hand, he in- sisted it was "ordained of God." After the close of the Franco-Prussian War and the acquisition of the rich iron and coal deposits of Alsace- Lorraine, the Germans rapidly became the leading manu- facturing nation of Europe. A firm believer in the old doctrine that a nation must have colonies to supply raw ma- terials for its manufactures and controlled markets for its products and that the flag follows trade, early in his reign Kaiser William became imbued with the idea of winning for Germany "a place in the sun." He encouraged the ex- pansion of German trade with every means in his power. Unfortunately for Germany, by 1890, little territory re- mained available for colonization, and she found herself so tardy in entering the "colony game" that it seemed as though she must content herself with such remnants as the Shantung Peninsula wrested from China, a few islands in the Pacific, and several fever-infected districts in Africa. It was not unnatural for her, therefore, to look with land- hungry eyes on the rich colonial possessions of Great Brit- ain and France, her great commercial rivals. The Pan-Germanic scheme. — Out of his ambition for the fatherland grew the kaiser's Pan-Germanic scheme. 592 OUR COUXTRV'S HISTORY His fertile mind saw that could Germany only drive a wedge from the North Sea to the Persian Gulf, she would separate the Latin peoples in western Europe from the Slavs in the east, and that world domination would then be easy to ac- complish. According to the Pan-Germanic scheme, this vast area, of which Germany, and more especially Prussia, was to be the mistress, would consist of three grand divi- sions. Extending through central Europe there would be a great confederation of allied states, embracing the Ger- man Empire, ^Vustria-Hungary, Holland, Belgium, the rich eastern portion of France, Switzerland, and Russia's west- ern provinces. To the south the Balkan nations would be- come a group of vassal states, while the Turkish Empire, increased eventually by the annexation of Eg>-pt and Persia, would for a time be a j^rotectorate under the strict ]iolitical and economic domination of Germany. So strongly did the kaiser insist, "God has called us to civilize the world," that in the eyes of his subjects this idea of "Pan-Germanism" took on the aspect of a crusade, the object of which condoned any dishonorable means employed to attain it. Although unwilling to believe that this man, who liked to be called "the Apostle of Peace," was prepar- ing to impose "German Kultur" on the world with the sword. Great Britain, France, Russia, and in fact all the leading powers, began making lavish expenditures for mili- tary preparedness. The British adjusted their long-standing differences with Russia and France, and then the three na- tions organized an informal alliance, known as the "Triple Entente" because there was no definite treaty (1907). The powder magazine of Europe. — No sooner were the Balkan States rid of Turkish tyranny than they became the "Powder Magazine of Europe," for they were engaged in constant turmoil over boundaries and trade restrictions. Be- ins;^ on the direct route from Berlin to Bagdad, Serbia was in many respect.s the dominant power, but her progress was THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 593 594 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY handicapped by lack of a seaport, and the burdensome trade restrictions imposed by Austria. Between Serbia and the Adriatic Sea lay the Slavic provinces of Bosnia and Herze- govina, which were under the protection of Austria. In 1908 Austria broke her pledge not to interfere with their sovereignty, and annexed them. The Serbians had long been dreaming of a "greater Serbia," embracing all the Slavic peoples in the Balkan region, as well as those living north of the Danube under the rule of Austria-Hungary, with themselves at its head. Without these Adriatic prov- inces they could never hope to become a strong nation. Russia, the champion of the Slavic world, was just emerg- ing from her crushing defeat by Japan. She dared do no more than to protest to Austria for Germany coolly in- formed the czar's government that any aggression against Austria would compel Germany to take up arms in support of her ally. German domination of the Near East. — While German settlers and traders were hewing out an empire in the African jungles, German bankers and manufacturers were seeking the commercial conquest of the Near East, as the Balkan regions and Turkey in Asia are called. Austria- Hungary, a subservient ally since 1879, was encouraged by Germany in its desire to extend southeastward. The Rou- manians and Bulgars had chosen German princes for their kings, and now the kaiser married his sister to Constantine, heir to the Greek throne. Turkey, not unmindful of what German influence had done for her in the past, unwittingly cooperated. Prussian army officers were allowed to re- organize the Turkish army and to fortify the Bosphorus. and German bankers were granted concessions to build rail- ways throughout the empire. In 1893 a German company completed the Anatolian Railway, which connected the lead- ing cities of Asia Minor with Constantinople. Ten years later an extension to Bagdad was begun and by 1914 four- THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 595 Terminus of the Bagdad Railway across the Bospliiirii-^ from Constantinoi)le fifths of the hne was in operation. With these railroads Germany planned to compete for the rich Indian and Af- rican trade, and to develop such commanding influence among the J\Io- hammedans that they would ally themselves with her in the final struggle for su- premacy. Only one se- rious ohstacle stood in her path — Serhian ambition. The Serbians are a Slavic people, bound to the Russians by blood, language and religion. They hated Austria even more than did their Rus- sian kinsmen, and resented the high-handed policy pursued toward her weak Balkan neighbors. As Germany could not hope to bribe Serbia, she resorted to coercion through xA.ustria-Hungary on the north and Bulgaria on the east. The Balkan Wars.— In 1912 the Balkan States sur- prised the world by submerging their dififerences and making a joint war on Turkey. The avowed purpose was to bring to an end the atrocious treatment of the sultan's Christian subjects dwelling within the peninsula, by freeing them com- pletely from Turkish rule. Underneath there lurked, how- ever, the ambition to divide among themselves Turkey's European possessions. Attacked almost simultaneously by Montenegro, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Greece, Turkey was soon forced to sue for peace. By the terms of the treaty signed in London on ]\Iay 30, 1913, the sultan relinquished all claims to European territory, except a small region sur- rounding Constantinople. 596 OUR COUXTR\'S lUSTORV Serbia now expected to gain her longed-for port on the Adriatic, but German intrigue blocked this. During the pre- ceding year the Turkish province, Albania, lying south of Montenegro, had been proclaimed an autonomous state, and now Serbia was compelled to recognize its independence. The Treaty of London had failed to define the boundaries of the Balkan States. Bulgaria, urged on secretly by the kaiser with a view to weakening Serbian influence in the peninsula, insisted on more than her share of the territory recently won. As a result, just one month after the signing of the Treaty of London, the Balkan States were at war again. This time Bulgaria was opposed by Roumania, Serbia and Greece. Turkey, too, seized the opportunity to pounce upon the territory Bulgaria had just wrested from her. The Treaty of Bucharest. — Much to Germany's chagrin the Bulgars were beaten. Li the Treaty of Bucharest which followed (1913), not only was Turkey able to double at ^Apfi-Cerman Govemmenrs. +■♦++ Berlin -Daftdad Railroad The Barrier in the Balkans to the Pan-Germanic Scheme THE STRUGGLE FOR EUROPEAN SUPREMACY 597 Bulgaria's expense what she had saved of her former Euro- pean possessions, but the Bulgars were forced to cede to Roumania a rich corner of territory adjoining the Black Sea. Most important, however, was the loss sustained by German influence in the peninsula. Roumania now began to cast longing eyes at Austria's rich Transylvania province with its large Roumanian population, and no longer were the kaiser's royal relatives at Athens and Bucharest able to prevent their governments from receiving with favor the advances of the Triple Entente. It was apparent that an anti-German barrier had suddenly been erected in the Balkans which efifectively blocked the kaiser's Pan-Ger- manic scheme. North of the Danube Francis Joseph's Slavic and Latin subjects were clamoring so boldly for the political power to which their numbers entitled them that the German-Magyar supremacy in the dual monarchy was threatened with extinction, and with it would come to an end German domination. Far-sighted statesmen in the capitals of Europe saw that the Treaty of Bucharest was merely a truce and that an- other and greater war must soon follow. All the important powers began to make feverish military preparations, for it was felt that the next explosion of the "Powder Maga- zine" would reverberate throughout Europe. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1 To understand the causes of the Great World War it is neces- sary to go back at least one hundred years in European his- torj', to the time when the seeds of national jealousy and in- justice were planted. What was the Congress of Vienna? When was it held ? 2. The text states that tlie "Holy Alliance" grew out of the Con- gress of Vienna. What was the "Holy Alliance"? Can you explain how it grew out of the Congress of Vienna? 3. Learn what is meant by the statement that Belgium has been the shuttlecock of Europe for centuries. When was the neu- trality of Belgium guaranteed? By whom was it guaranteed? 598 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Did Belgium live up to her part of the agreement? Did all the other nations live up to their pledges? 4. Explain the origin of the Italia Irredenta question. 5. What great political achievement was accomplished by Fred- erick William I and his Chancellor, Prince Otto von Bis- marck? Do j-ou believe Bismarck's "blood and iron" policy was just and right? Why? 6. What political changes in Italy were made by the Congress of Vienna? Who was largely responsible for the unification of Italy. 7. Write in your note-book an account of the Franco-Prussian War, using the following outline: (a) Cause; (b) Result; (c) Peace terms. 8. Turkey has been called the "sick man" of Europe. Learn why. Why has Russia been desirous of the straits at Constanti- nople? What was the Crimean War? 9. The nations in Europe have played the "colony game" for cen- turies. What was the old theory of colonization? Has this theory been abandoned? What countries formed the "Triple Alliance"? Why was this alliance formed? What countries formed the "Dual .Alliance"? Why was it formed? Explain the origin of the "Triple Entente." 10. Name and locate on the map the Balkan States. Why have these states been called the "Powder Magazine of Europe"? SUBJECTS I'OK FURTHER STUDY 1. "Pan-Germanism" and "German Kultur." 2. The Crimean War. 3. The Crime of the FrancorPrussian War. REFERENCES 1. Gordy's The Causes and Meaning of the Great War. 2. Benezet's The World War and What Was Behind It. CHAPTER XLIII A SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE WHITE HOUSE W'oodrow JJ'ilson, President. iQi^-igiy The presidential election of 1912. — During the first part of President Taft's administration ex-President Roosevelt was engaged in a himting expedition in Africa and a lecture tour in Europe. On his return to the United States, finding the Republican party split in two factions over the question of jM-ogressive legislation, he aligned himself with the In- surgents and became their recognized leader. So bitter was the fetid that in 1912 many of the states sent two contesting delegations to the Republican convention — one representing the Conservative wing, the other the In- surgents. After a long wrangle, enough Conservatives w-ere seated to renominate President Taft. Roosevelt's support- ers insisted that the nomination hatl been stolen and with- drew from the convention. They immediately proceeded to form a new party which they called the Progressive, and in the convention which followed they nominated Theo- dore Roosevelt for their leader. The Democrats chose as their champion \\'oodrow Wilson, then governor of New Jersey, but whose life, until a few years before, had been spent as a. teacher. The campaign resembled somewhat that of 1840. Taft and Roosevelt toured the cotmtry, and indulged in violent attacks on each other's policies, often descending to per- sonal criticism. \\'ilson made but few speeches away from home, relying mainly upon his friends to present the merits of his candidacy tn tlic pcojik'. In the election Taft secured .=59Q 600 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY eight electoral votes, Roosevelt, eighty-eight, and Wilson, four hundred thirty-five, although he had received only 6,300,000 of the 15,000,000 voteg cast. The startling feature of the election was the number of votes polled by the Socialist party — 898,000 — an increase of Distribution of Electoral Y'otes in the Election of 1912 nearly one thousand per cent, since 1900. An outgrowth of the old Socialist Labor party organized in 1892, it had grown rapidly with the increased immigration which fol- lowed the return of prosperity after the panic of 1893. Believing that economic conditions made it possible for some people to enjoy great wealth and forced many others to suf- fer poverty and misery, the Socialists proposed that the na- tional government should confiscate all natural resources such as mines and forests, and public utilities such as rail- roads and telegraph lines. They would then have it utilize them for the benefit of the whole people. The new president. — Woodrow Wilson entered office with the distinction of being the first southerner to occupy A SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE WHITE HOUSE 601 the White House since Andrew Johnson. Born of Scotch- Irish ancestry at Staunton, \'irginia, most of his youthful years were spent in Georgia. On completion of his edu- cation he became a teacher of history and government, and even- tually the president of Princeton University. His great work there consisted in transform- ing the institution from "a place where there are youngsters doing tasks to a place where there are men thinking." In 1910 the people of New Jersey decided that a reform in their state government was impera- tive. The Democrats met this demand by nominating for the gov- ernorship the man who had freed Princeton University from its outgrown tradi- tions and in the election were victorious. Governor Wilson inaugurated the plan of going outside the state, if neces- sary, to secure suitable men for public ofifices. Believing that a chief executive "is at liberty, both in law and conscience, to be as big a man as he can," he used the weapon of direct appeal to the people as a means of securing the enactment of the legislation he desired. New Jersey had long been notorious as the domicile of many of the country's most corrupt business organizations. Wilson effected such a re- vision of the corporation laws that this stigma was removed Woodrow Wilson 602 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY from the state. With his record he became by 1912 the logical person for the progressive element in the Democratic party to urge for the presidency. A new tariff law and an income tax. — President Wilson at once summoned Congress in special session and appear- ing before it read his message in person, a thing Avhich had not been done since the administration of John Adams. With his aid a tarifif measure framed by Representative Underwood, of Alabama, which lowered duties to a level of about twenty per cent, was enacted. To make up the loss in revenue an income tax law was passed, as authorized by the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. By this law, as subsequently amended, incomes of single persons in ex- cess of one thousand dollars a year, or two thousand dollars in the case of heads of families, were made subject to taxa- tion. The Federal Reserve Banking System. — The great panic of 1893 and a smaller one in 1907 had convinced bankers that the country needed a new financial system which would enable the supply of money to be increased quickly in times of stringency, and permit idle funds to be shifted easily to localities suffering from a shortage. Again with the aid of the president, Congress enacted the Glass- Owen Law, which divided the United States into twelve districts and created in each a Federal Reserve Bank. The act further required all national banks in the district to own stock in the reserve bank, and under certain conditions permitted state banks to do likewise. Control of the na- tion's currency was placed in the hands of a Federal Re- serve Board, consisting of the secretary of the treasury, the comptroller of currency, and five other persons appointed bv the president. This board was authorized to issue cur- rency and retire it according to the needs of the nation. An anti-trust law; — 1'o redeem their platform pledge the Democrats enacted the Clavton Anti-Trust Law. This A SCHOOL-TEACHER IX THE WHITE HOUSE 603 law forbade an individual to act as director in more than one corporation in the same or closely related lines of business, and sought in other ways to regulate trusts so as to make them a benefit to society instead of an injury. Another popular act was that creating the farm loan banks from which farmers may obtain loans, secured by their lands, for long terms at a rate of interest lower than that charged by other money-lenders. The revolution in Mexico. — As we have already learned, after the ^lexicans got rid of Maximilian they re-established their so-called republic. In reality Mexico did not know the meaning of democratic government, for she had been ruled by dictators ever since she had secured independence. In 1876 the Great Dictator. Porfirio Diaz, became president and gave the unhappy land the first peace it had known in many years. The "reign" of Diaz brought prosperity to a small part of the people, but the condition of the masses was little im- ])roved. In Mexico there are two widely sepa- rated classes — the Cas- tilians, or descendants of the Spanish conquer- ors, and the "peons."' a mixed race mainly of Indian descent. The land belonged to the Cas- tilians, and individual holdings frequently reached millions of acres. The "peons" occupied a position of serfdom on the large "haciendas" (plantations). Alany of them were paid only twenty-five cents (worth only half as much in United States money) a day. A Peon Village in Southern Mexico 604 OUR COUXTRY'S HISTORY Diaz inaugurated the plan of granting concessions to foster railroad building and the development of mining, manufacturing and agricultural enterprises. Citizens of the United States obtained many of them, and hundreds of millions of American capital were invested in their exploi- tation. In 1910 Francisco Madero, an aspiring politician, espoused the cause of the downtrodden "peons" and started a revolution in northern Mexico. This uprising spread so rapidly that by the next year the whole country was in turmoil, and Diaz was compelled to resign and flee from his native land. Madero was then elected president, but early in 1913 another revolution drove him from office. A few days later he met death at the hands of an assassin, and General Huerta, the leader of the revolutionists, pro- claimed himself president. The United States invades Mexico. — Early in this tu- mult Mexican forays across the border became frequent. Lonely ranches were raided, their cattle stolen, and if re- sistance was offered, the ranchers murdered. President Taft warned Mexico that this violation of American sov- ereignty would not be tolerated, but accomplished little. Like Taft, President Wilson refused to recognize Iluerta's Government on account of suspicion that the general had been the instigator of Madero's murder. Angered by this, Huerta retaliated by persistent insults and by refusing pro- tection to American citizens. Meanwhile, for defense of the border settlements large numbers of troops were sta- tioned all the way from Brownsville, Texas, to San Diego, California. In April, 1914, the Alcxican authorities at Tampico ar- rested several United States marines who had gone ashore on peaceful business. President Wilson immediately des- patched a fleet to Mexican waters and ordered the seizure of Vera Cruz. In July the "Constitutionalists," as the revolu- tionists headed by General Carranza called themselves. A SCHOOL-TEACHER IX THE WHITE HOUSE 605 forced Huerta to resign and leave the country. Carranza became president and soon after the United States withdrew her troops. The following January, through the intercession of the so-called "A B C" powers — Argentina, Brazil and Chile — the Carranza Government was recognized by Presi- dent \\'ilson. During much of this time the rebel Villa was terrorizing all northern Mexico. Several engagements be- tween his followers and the government's forces occurred near the United States boundary, in the vicinity of El Paso, Texas, and Douglas, Arizona, and stray shots killed a num- ber of Americans. When Villa deliberately crossed the line and murdered several persons at Columbus, New Mex- ico, President Wilson abandoned his policy of "watchful waiting" and ordered an invasion of Mexico. General John J. Pershing with twelve thousand United States troops thereupon crossed the border in pursuit of the outlaws. Instead of giving cheerful cooperation, Carranza viewed the undertaking with such resentment that war looked im- minent. A hundred thousand of the National Guard were sent to the border to reinforce Pershing and to be ready for eventualities. The Mexican invasion, however, proved a failure, for Villa escaped into the mountains, so the United States decided to give Carranza a free hand in restraining the bandits. Pershing's force was withdrawn from Mexi- can soil and the National Guards were returned to their several states. Troubles in the West Indies. — Wlien Wilson became president, the Republic of San Domingo on the island of Haiti was in the midst of one of its periodical revolutions. Nearly ten years before (1905) President Roosevelt had been compelled to intervene to save it from occupation by France and Italy as a means of collecting debts owed by its government to their citizens. As a result, a treaty was en- tered into by which the United States was to supervise the collection of the Dominican taxes and see that the nation's 606 OUR COUXTRVS IIISTOKV llaiti, the Dominican Republic. Porto Rico and the Vira:in Islands obligations were met. Inasmuch as San Domingo is on the direct route to the Panama Canal and close to Porto Rico, President Wilson decided that American interests de- manded that its lawlessness be brought to an end. In October. 1914, marines were landed to insure the holding of a fair election, and again a few months later to pre- serve order. It was thought that this would serve as a warning to other similar rev- olutionists, that they might expect United States intervention, too, unless they observed law and order. The next summer, however, a faction of disgruntled Haiti- ans at the other end of the island, paying no heed to the experience of the Dominicans, rebelled and assassinated their president. By President Wilson's orders marines were landed there, also, and remained until a treaty had been ne- gotiated authorizing the United States to administer the nation's finances and police the country. The United States buys Virgin Islands from Denmark. — In 1917 Denmark sold to the United States for twenty- five million dollars her little West India colony, now known as the Virgin Islands, of which St. Thomas, St. Croix, and St. John are the largest. Although the population con- sisted of only about thirty thousand negroes, the location of the islands, forty miles east of Porto Rico, made them so desirable as a coaling station and naval base, in the event that either the Canal Zone or Porto Rico should be attacked, that twice before an efifort had been made to purchase them. A consistent advocate of the right of a people to determine its nationality, President Wilson insisted that be- A SCHOOL-TEACHKR IX THE WHITE HOUSI'. 607 fore the transfer should become effective the question should be submitted to the islanders. This was done, and they voted overwhelmingly in favor of annexation. The momentous Serbian tragedy. — On June 28, 1914, a tragedy filled with momentous consequences to the entire world took place at Sarejevo, the capital of Bosnia. While on a visit there the Archduke Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife were assassinated. Because the murderer was a Slav, Austria claimed that the crime had been planned in Serbia, as a step toward the dismemberment of Austria-Hungary. As the Serbian Government was re- sponsible for keeping alive the Slavic aspiration of a "greater Serbia," Austria insisted she should answer for the crime. On July twenty-sixth she sent an ultimatum to the Belgrade Government and demanded its acceptance within forty-eight hours. So anxious was Serbia to avoid war that she overlooked its humiliating character and agreed com- A ^ - ,- .-'"^v. ^ /■^ '^/ -% '^-.^--' ^* ■' ^h> \ •Pragut ^*-- •Cracow ,. ■ ^^ ^ '^ s ; ^/ /" "*■•»,, W Slavic Peoples Italian The Cradle of tlic World War 608 OUR COUNTRY'S IIISTORV pletely to all the stipulations except those which she re- garded as direct blows at her sovereignty. Francis Joseph, with the connivance of the kaiser, re- jected Serbia's reply, and on July twenty-eighth declared war. Germany declares war on Russia. — Russia notified Austria that the day her troops crossed the Danube she would mobilize in defense of Serbia. In a last effort for peace, the czar of Russia joined with Great Britain and France in an appeal to Emperor Francis Joseph to save Europe from the horrors of war by a peaceable adjustment of the Serbian difficulty. On the contrary, Germany urged that all the powers keep out of it, and allow Austria to wage an independent war against Serbia. Moreover, Ger- many announced that if this policy was not adopted she would support Austria. Italy, the third member of the Triple Alliance, assumed a neutral position, claiming she was not obligated to take up arms, since neither one of her allies had been attacked. Austrian armies crossed the Dan- ube and Russia began to mobilize. Germany, fearful lest Francis Joseph might weaken at the sight of Europe on fire as a result of his action, hastened to declare war on Russia, August first. Thus did the kaiser confidently hope to undo the Treaty of Bucharest and at last to realize his Pan-Ger- manic dream. Germany's declaration of war against Russia forced France to mobilize in defense of her own country as well as that of her ally. Thereupon the kaiser declared war against her, too. Germany invades Belgium to attack France. — The Germans planned to throw their whole strength against France and to overcome her resistance before Russia was able to complete her mobilization, and then to settle with Russia. Relying on the guarantee of the Powers to respect the neutrality of Belgium (1839), France had not fortified A SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE WHITE HOUSE 609 her Belgian boundary, and Germany knew it would be easy to make an invasion from this direction. To the kaiser's demand for permission to move the German army through his domain, King Albert bravely replied : "Belgium is a na- tion, not a road." Emperor William then gave the fateful command, and on August fourth his army began the in- vasion of Belgium. At midnight of the same day Great Britain declared war on Germany, and the "World War." to which Germany had been looking forward so eagerly, had begun. The United States tries to be neutral. — From her "splendid isolation" the United States looked on but not with indifiference. Thousands of native sons of each war- ring nation had become American citizens, and the ardor of their sympathies might easily lead to disastrous conse- quences. In his proclamation of i\ugust eighteenth Presi- dent W'ilson urged all Americans to "act and speak in the true spirit of neutrality, which is the spirit of impartiality and fairness and friendliness to all concerned." Although the majority of its citizens favored the cause of the Allies^ Great Britain, France, Russia and Belgium — the United States employed every means in its power to preserve abso- lute neutrality. Whenever one of the belligerents over- stepped the rules of war and violated the rights of Amer- ican citizens, President Wilson was quick to protest, and all the Powers except Germany and Austria promptly apolo- gized and made amends. Our country sells munitions and foodstuffs to the Al- lies. — The economic effect of the war was soon felt. Great Britain blockaded the German and Austrian coasts, and seized German vessels in all parts of the world. Ship- ping bound for Norway, Denmark and Holland was searched for contraband goods destined for Germany. In the United States dyes and chemicals, and other articles which came exclusively from Germany, disappeared from 610 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the market. Such supplies of them as were on hand rose to several times their normal price. The Allies immediately became enormous purchasers of American foodstuffs and munitions. Although the United States was strictly within its rights as a neutral in allowing such supplies to be fur- nished, Germany was greatly offended because her enemies could obtain easily what she could not secure because of their blockade. Divided opinion in our country over the sale of muni- tions. — In America a small group of "pacifists," who thought it wrong for the country to export munitions "for the murder of innocent people," tried to force Congress to abandon neutrality by establishing an embargo against their exportation. In this they were aided by German agents. Although German manufacturers had sold large quantities of munitions to both belligerents in the Russo-Japanese War and to the Dutch inhabitants of South Africa in their strug- gle with Great Britain a few years before, Germany now objected to such trade. Were she able to prevent the Allies from buying munitions in America, she believed that the war would soon come to an end. Neutral European countries protest against England's blockade system. — -On the other hand, the neutral coun- tries of Europe, especially Norway, Denmark and the Neth- erlands, protested vigorously against Great Britain's inter- ference with their commerce. As soon as the war started Germany began to buy from them openly great quantities of foodstuffs, far larger than was their total production. .\s a result their imports from the United States increased tremendously, and they soon became great depots for sup- plying Germany with American products. When Great Britain became aware that certain cargos en route to neu- trals eventually reached Germany, she began a vigorous search and seizure policy. The United States lodged pro- tests against this, since food for civilians is not contraband A SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE WHITE HOUSE 611 of war. Great Britain, however, justified her action on the ground that Germany had confiscated all foodstuffs in the Empire and was rationing her entire population from this common supply. Besides, she insisted, there was no way to make sure that foodstuffs imported into Germany would reach only the civilians. Germany announces her vicious submarine policy. — Maddened by her failure to induce the United States to forbid the sale of munitions to the Allies, and now by this interference with her food supply, Germany announced that with her submarines she would sink all vessels flying an enemy flag. She knew^ that England was even more de- pendent on food from overseas than she herself, and con- fidently expected to starve her into submission. This new policy was opposed to international law, which prescribes that ships laden with contral)and must be taken into port after capture, and confiscated by the courts. Such pro- cedure, however, would be impossible by submarines, espe- cially after the merchantmen began carrying mounted guns and naval detachments. Germany had the choice of not utilizing the full power she possessed in her submarines and keeping within the law of civilized w-arfare, or of employing them to the limit and violating the accepted principles of humanity. She chose the latter, and early in 1915 her sub- marines invaded the waters about the British Isles and be- gan the indiscriminate destruction of merchantmen belong- ing to the Allies. Citizens of neutral countries were w^arned not to travel on or ship goods by such vessels and to keep their own shipping out of the danger zone. The United States could not tolerate this, and President Wilson notified Germany that she would be held strictly accountable for any damage done by her submarines to United States citizens or their property. The sinking of the Lusitania. — On May first the Ger- man Embassy published notices in American newspapers, 612 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY w n R. t1. ay t tips ,19. •n Ilea ADVEHTIBEMENT. rir Hav 47th lOih b» I / H \ placed just below the advertisement of the Cunard Steam- ship Company, warning all persons against taking passage on vessels bound for the danger zone. A few days later the news was flashed over the cable that the steamship Lnsi- tania of that line, while en route to Liverpool, had been sunk by a tor- pedo fired by a subma- rine. Of the 1,150 per- sons drowned 112 were American citizens. The whole nation was aroused by this outrage, and a large part of the American press insisted on an immediate decla- ration of war. Loath to cause such suffering to the American people, the president ignored popular clamor and merely demanded that Germany disavow the act, refrain from such ruthlessness in the fu- ture, and make repara- tion for the losses sus- tained. While the Ger- man Government argued that Germany had acted within her rights, the Germans took such pride in the outrage that medals were actually struck to commemorate the deed. However, for a time the submarines were more careful. Ruthless submarine warfare. — On February 1, 1917, after only twenty- four hours' notice, Germany began the indiscriminate sinking, without warning, of vessels of what- NOTICE! TRAVELLERS intending to embark on the Atlantic voyage are reminded that a state of war exists between Germany and her alh'es and Great Britain and her allies; that the zone of war includes the waters adja- cent to the British Isles; that, in accordance with formal no- tice given by the Imperial Ger- man Government, vessels fly- ing the flag of Great Britain, or of any of her allies, are liable to destruction in those waters and that travellers sailing in the war zone on ships of Great Britain or her allies do so at their ovm risk. IMPERIAL GERMAN EMBASSY WASHIKOTON. D. C, APRIL. 22. 1615. BAMKBPPTOY NOTICES. Facsimile of the Advertise- ment Published in the Nezv York Times by the Impe- rial German Embassy A SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE WHITE HOUSE 613 soever flag engaged in commerce with her enemies, and wherever found. By this new poHcy she expected to de- stroy so much of the world's shipping that within four months the British people, threatened with starvation, would force their government to yield. So numerous were her submarines that in addition to infesting the waters sur- rounding the British Isles they were able to establisli danger zones around the French coast and in the Mediterranean. In a single month they sank ships with a total carrying capacity of six hundred thousand tons, enough merchandise to fill five hundred trains of fifty freight cars of the largest size. In reply to a protest from the United States Germany had the insolence to agree to allow her to send one vessel a week to England under stipulated conditions. The German ambassador at Washington plots against our country. — While Germany was maintaining the out- ward evidences of peace, the German ambassador at Wash- ington took advantage of the opportunity to plot with the Mexican Government for Mexico to make war on the United States, should this country be drawn into the European conflict. As its reward Mexico was to receive back the territory ceded to the United States by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Truly could President Wilson sa)/ the sparks of the great conflagration were flying danger- ously near and threatening to overwhelm the American people in the world's holocaust, regardless of all the government could do to prevent it. Woodrow Wilson re-elected in 1916. — As was to be ex- pected the war had developed strongly divergent opinions and President Wilson's policy in connection with it had offended many of the extremists. His "watchful waiting" and "note writing" were denounced as weak methods, which had accomplished nothing calculated to insure safety of life and property to citizens on the high seas. German- Americans accused him of sympathizing with the Allies 614 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY and held him responsible for the failure of Congress to stop the export of munitions. When the Democratic National Convention met in 1916 President Wilson was renominated, and the platform made an appeal for his reelection on the ground that he had kept the country out of war. The Republicans selected ■ Hughes □ Wilsor Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1916 Charles E. Hughes, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, to head their ticket. The Progressive party put forward ex- President Roosevelt, and when Mr. Roosevelt declined the nomination they recommended to their followers the sup- port of Plughes. The Republicans attacked the Democrats for their failure to uphold the rights of American citizens. They condemned vigorously the subserviency displayed by Congress in enacting a law giving unionized railroad em- ployees an eight-hour day. in order to ward ofif a threatened nation-wide strike. So close was the election, that at first it was believed Hughes had won, but when the complete returns were in Wilson had a majority of twenty-three electoral votes. The A SCHOOL-TEACHER IN THE WHITE HOUSE 615 president was evidently more popular than his party, for while he had received 2,000,000 more votes than in 1912, the Democrats had all but lost control of the House of Rep- resentatives. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Was there anj' similaritj' between the condition of the Repub- lican party in the election in 1912 and that of the Democratic party in the election of 1860? Can you explain why the So- cialist party has grown so rapidly since 1900? 2. Show that Mr. Wilson, as governor of New Jersey and as president of the United States, introduced man}' innovations and broke many precedents. Explain some of the important laws passed during his first administration. .1. President Diaz ruled Mexico about thirtj^-five years, during which time that country enjoA^ed peace, order and prosperitj'. Explain whj^ this period failed to prepare the Alexican people for self-government. From j"our reading, study and observa- tion, what do you conclude is the great trouble with Mexico to-day? What remedy would you offer for this trouble? 4. Did Germany really want Serbia to submit to the terms of the ultimatum that Austria sent her after the assassination of the Austrian crown prince ? Give evidence to show that Germany and Austria had deliberately decided upon war before Serbia replied to this ultimatum. Why was Germany so bent upon crushing Serbia? .^ How were Russia, France. Belgium and Great Britain drawn into the war? (i. l-'xplain what is involved in a true spirit of neutraHty. If the United States had refused the sale of munitions to the Allies before she entered tlie war, would not that have helped Ger- man}' and been a violation of neutralitj'? 7. Could the United States have kept out of the war and main- tained her self-respect as a sovereign nation? Explain j'our answer. SUBJECTS FOR FURTIIKR STUDV 1. Woodrow Wilson, the man and his work. 2. The resemblance between haciendas and medieval manors. 3. The Potsdam Conference of July 5, 1914. REFERENCE McKinley's Collected Materials for the Study of the War. CHAPTER XLIV EUROPE IN CONFLAGRATION The victory of the Marne. — On August 2, 1914, Ger- many delivered her ultimatum to Belgium and a few days later her huge guns began to batter the fortifications of Liege. Although these had been made as strong as man could devise and were thought impregnable, by August fif- teenth they had been pounded to pieces by the German artillery, and Liege was forced to surrender. A few days later the government of King Albert was in flight, and Brus- sels, his capital city, was in the hands of the invaders. On and on swept the gray-green hosts, pressing farther and farther back the little Belgian army, with the French and British troops which had been rushed to its aid, until on September fifth they reached the Marne River, only forty miles distant from Paris. For two days the battle raged, with one terrific blow following another until, ex- hausted by their titanic efforts to break through Marshal Joffre's lines, the German horde fell back in retreat. An extensive system of trenches and dugouts was excavated, forming a semi-subterranean camp in which they settled down for the winter. Although Germany failed to realize her plan of taking Paris and overwhelming the French, she had brought practically all of Belgium under her control, as well as nearly one-tenth of the richest mining and agricul- tural districts of France. Von Hindenburg's eastern drive. — Meanwhile Russia had surprised Germany by her rapid mobilization, and al- ready the big guns were roaring in the East. Two great armies moved west and crossed the boundary — one into East Prussia, the other into Austria. General von Hinden- burg's army, reinforced by troops hurried from the western 616 EUROPE L\ COXFLAGKATIOX 6i; Where the Armies Fought in the West front, met the northern invasion and quickly hurled the Russians back with great slaughter. Overwhelmed in the south by the Russian numbers, Austria was forced to sur- render her strongly fortified fortresses at Lemberg (August thirty-first). As soon as East Prussia was cleared of the in- vaders, von Hindenburg took the offensive and advanced into Poland. By October his army was within seven miles of \\'arsaw. Here he was so badly defeated by Grand Duke 618 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Nicholas with a fresh Russian army that he was unable for some time to go to the aid of the hard-pressed Austrians. But the Russians in their impetuousness had pushed forward too far into Austria, considering the weakness of their sup- l)ly lines, and eventually, in Alay, 1915, were nearly annihi- lated by the army commanded by General von Mackensen. The year 1914 closed with the two belligerents in a defensive deadlock along the whole eastern front, which was longer than the distance from New York to Chicago. The campaign of 1915. — Great Britain and France spent the winter of 1914-15 working with feverish haste to increase their supplies and munitions by every possible means. Day and night the great foundries and arsenals were alive with men, women and children, struggling with almost superhuman efforts to meet the needs of the enormous armies Great Britain was mustering in every part of her empire. With the aid of importations from the United States, the Allies were at last almost as well supplied as the enemy. The campaign of 1915 opened with a powerful drive for Calais on the English Channel. Germany greatly desired this city in order to make it a base from which to attack the lines of communication between England and France. Her effort was unsuccessful, however, as well as an attempt to take Ypres, where she introduced poison gas as a weapon of war. In the west the lines now stretched from the North Sea to Switzerland, a distance nearly equal to that from New Orleans to jMemphis. Although the Allies made three desperate attempts to break through them at widely sepa- rated points, the end of the year saw little change on the western front since spring. The opposing armies remained deadlocked in their trenches, frequently so near to each other that the sound of voices and singing was wafted across the desolate shell-torn "no man's land" between them. On the eastern front 1915 was a disastrous year for the Russians. In the sprin.Q' the Central Empires sent large EUROPE IN CONFLAGRATION 619 A Portion of the Trench Systerhs on the Western Front as Seen from a Scout Plane Notice "Xo Man's Land" between the two sj'stenis armies to drive them out of Austria. They were forced to evacuate Lemberg. and then were badly beaten in the battle of Gorlice because of lack of ammunition. Before the Grand Duke Nicholas finally got his army back into Russia hun- dreds of thousands had been killed or taken prisoners. 620 OUR COUXTRVS HISTORY In late summer the Germans captured Warsaw, and a little later far to the north were threatening Riga, the most important city between them and Petrograd. Fearful lest the city might fall into their hands, the czar and his govern- ment began hasty preparations for moving to Moscow, Russia's ancient capital, situated far in the interior. Well might the Allies be gloomy, with the realization that Russia, from whom they had hoped so much, was so badly demoral- ized, and that Germany would be free to release for service on the western front a large part of her eastern forces. The war in the East. — In November, 1914, the Central Powers gained an ally in Turkey. This extended the battle lines to the eastern Mediterranean and gave the Allies an excuse for undertaking the capture of Constantinople. On December second the Austrians occupied Belgrade, the cap- ital of Serbia, but two weeks later were driven back across the Danube. Meanwhile the Allies had assembled a large fleet in the eastern Mediterranean with a view of forcing the Dardanelles and taking Constantinople. Russia needed munitions. They had only two routes by which to.ship sup- plies to her, and both were most unreliable. The one by way of the Arctic Ocean to Archangel, whence a single track rail- way led to Petrograd, seven hundred miles to the south, was icebound except during a few months in summer. The other was by a ten-thousand-mile ocean voyage to Vladivostok, whence the eastern front, six thousand miles distant, could be reached via the Trans-Siberian Railway. Once in control of Constantinople, the Allies could easily supply Russia with munitions by way of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, and she, in return, grain to feed their armies. The forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles were taken, and a British and French army was landed on the narrow precipitous Gallipoli peninsula with the intention of reducing the defenses by a land assault. For a year the struggle went on by land and sea, but at last in January, 1916, EUROPE IN CONFLAGRATION 621 o CO ^ ^ ^ ^eovJJRL^A/^ i'ME-MEL -^ DV1N5K c:- CP LEMBERi ^TARNOPOL,' -^^ BUOAPE.ST Q ^ «? so T» lOO SCALE OF MILES ^ ^^•.•::^ ^ •♦..'f^ CZ'tRNOWITZ Tlie Eastern Tlicater oi War 622 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY the undertaking was abandoned. This disastrous expedition occasioned great loss of prestige for the AlHes in the Near East, and was partly responsible for Bulgaria's allying her- self with the Central Powers (Ov^tober, 1915), in expecta- tion of winning back the territory lost in the Second Balkan War several years before. In the autumn Austria, with the aid of German troops, set out to subjugate Serbia and thus open a road to Con- stantinople, by which men and supplies might be sent the Turks, who were clamoring loudly for aid. Serbia could get no assistance from the Allies, as all their troops in the Near East were needed to combat the Bulgars along the Greco-Bulgarian border. As a result; by December the whole country was in the hands of the Central Powers ex- cept a small strip along the Montenegrin frontier and an- other in the extreme south. Italy abandons neutrality. — Although Italy had be- longed to the Triple Alliance, far-sighted statesmen never expected to see her fighting on the side of the Central Em- pires in a European war. As we have learned, for years she had claimed certain Austrian territory contiguous to Trent and Trieste which was peopled by those of Italian stock. This "Italia Irredenta" question occasioned a situa- tion which precluded any real sympathy between Italy and Austria. Besides, their interests in the Adriatic were so opposed that for years any effort on Austria's part to strengthen her naval base at Pola wotild lead to correspond- ing activity on the part of Italy, in order to preserve the balance of power. As the war progressed and it became recognized as a struggle between democracy and autocracy, the liberty-loving Italians naturally sympathized with the Allies. By the end of the first year popular sentiment in Italy for the allied cause was too strong to be ignored, and on May 24. 1915. the country entered the conflict by declar- ing war on Austria-Hungary. This was followed later in EUROPE IX CONFLAGRATIOX 623 the year by a declaration against Turkey, which extended the battle front over three hundred miles. From this time opposing armies were stretched along a line with length sufficient to reach from New Orleans to Los Angeles. The battle of Verdun. — The giant wa-estling match at X'erdun is tl;e chief feature of the 1916 campaign. This great French fortress blocked the main road leading from central Germany to Paris and prevented an invasion from that direction. The Germans determined on its capture, and no battle in history is to be compared with this one, which raged almost without cessation from February twenty- second to the end of September. So confident of success A Tank Going into Action Notice how isolated the eountry has become were they that the crown prince himself took active com- mand, that the glory of the crowning achievement of the war might be his. The Allies contested so fiercely every inch of ground that positions of advantage were taken and lost several times in one day. When at last the Germans abandoned the effort, it had cost the lives of more than two hundred thousand brave soldiers to advance a bare four miles and they were still three miles from their goal. Never, after Verdun, did the German soldiers evince the same con- 624 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY fidence in the ultimate supremacy of "Kultur" as before, and Verdun may rightly be considered the turning point of the war. Meanwhile, far to the north the Allies had started a drive along the Somme, which lasted from July till December. It was a monster artillery duel. During much of the time, two hundred and fifty thousand shells a day were being hurled from their guns against the German lines along a front of only about twenty-five miles. Slowly but surely the German army was being forced back, leaving a waste dotted with heaps of blackened ruins to mark the site of once prosperous French towns and villages. The campaign in the East. — During the winter of 1915- 1916 Russia had gathered herself together once more and by summer had thrown across the Austrian border another formidable army. Little opposition was met at first, for so sure were the Central Powers that Russia was out of the fighting, they had withdrawn the larger part of their troops from the eastern front. Austria had sent many of hers south to defend the passes through the Alps against the Italians, who were making efforts to break through so as to attack Trent and Trieste. Before cold weather set in the czar's soldiers were again threatening to take Lemberg. Meanwhile Roumania had cast her lot with the Allies and invaded the Austrian province lying to the west. Like the Russians the year before, her troops advanced too fast and drove a narrow wedge so deeply into Austria that they were caught between a powerful German army on the north and the Bulgars on the south, just as if by a pair of giant pincers. When the campaign ended, the Central Powers had "pinched ofif" half of Roumania clear to the Black Sea, including Bucharest, the capital. After his crushing defeat in 1915 the Grand Duke Nich- olas was relieved of his command by the czar himself and placed in charge of operations in the Caucasus, the region EUROPE IN CONFLAGRATION 625 about the eastern end of the Black Sea. Here he was in- flicting some crushing blows on the Turks. He had actually- penetrated the mountain fastnesses of Armenia and cap- tured Trebizond and other important places. In Syria, too, the sultan's soldiers were meeting with severe reverses. Their effort to cross the desert and take the Suez Canal had % «' '•♦♦♦». "^cC::^ ^Se3^ fet ^''V Mediferranean , , 'fGaz^a / S Y R I /A. IM DESERT" O so 100 200 ^00 Scale of miles «-» Railroads Scene of the Asiatic Campaign failed dismally, for Great Britain threw a large army into northeastern Egypt to protect her lines of communication with India and Australia. The Russian revolution. — When the Russian people realized that much of the appalling losses their armies had sustained was due to the inefficiency of the government, there was bitter discontent. Later it was learned that many of the czar's most trusted officials were German sympathiz- ers, either because of ancestry or bribery. These traitors deliberately delayed the sending of ammunition to the hard- 626 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY pressed armies, and prevented any cooperation with the Roumanians when they began their invasion of Austria. Enraged by the czar's faikire to oust them from office, on March 15, 1917, the army and navy revoked against the government. The czar was forced to abdicate, and together with the whole royal family was sent to Siberia, there to meet death at the hands of their guards. A provisional government was set up with the Socialist Kerensky at its head. After driving the Austrians back and threatening to clear Poland of German troops this govern- ment suddenly collapsed, and all Russia fell into a state of Russian Soldiers that have Surrendered to llie Germans in Preference to Fighting anarchy. Most of the soldiers and sailors were Socialists and Socialism is opposed to war. Kerensky and the more far-sighted Socialists knew that a defeat of the Allies would mean a crushing of Socialism by the kaiser, but the rank and file of their followers could not see that far ahead. They had been taught that war is wrong, so they not only refused to fight, but actually threw away their arms and fell back to open the way for the advancing Germans. Relieved of any further resistance from the Russians, the Central Powers began transferring their armies to the West for another drive toward Paris, and to the Italian front. The immediate result was that later in 1917 the Italians, now close to Trieste, were forced back through the Alps to the Piave River and only by a most heroic stand were able to save Venice from capture. EUROPE IN CONFLAGRATION 627 Germany violates the rules of warfare, — With the prog- ress of civilization a more humane spirit has entered into the conduct of war. Civilized nations by treaties have agreed upon definite rtiles of warfare, designed to free it of as much sufifering as possible. These rules guarantee immu- nity from attack to non-combatants or persons not connected with the fighting. Hospitals, together with the sick and wounded and their attendants, must not be molested. Cer- tain inhuman practises, which were once common, such as torturing prisoners, poisoning wells, and pillaging or de- stroying captured private property, are prohibited. Although Germany had subscribed to all these rules, as the war proceeded and her situation be- came more perilous, she disregarded them whenever it furthered her inter- ests to do so. When the Pope and neu- tral governments re- monstrated with the kaiser for the sav- agery practised by his soldiers, he in- sisted that by these ruthless methods the war would be more ([uickly brought to an end. That the indus- tries of France and Belgium might be Photo from Undenvood & Undenvood so completely para- A Battle in the Air on the Western Front 1 ) .1 J. r One of the three (lerman planes shot lyzed that for years down is shown failing 628 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY after hostilities ended they would be unable to compete seri- ously with Germany in foreign markets, their mines were flooded and their mills and factories stripped of essential ma- chinery. Thousands of farms were devastated, orchards cut down, and buildings burned. Non-combatants were herded in gangs and deported to Germany, that their labor might help to relieve the shortage occasioned by the war. Cities Ruins of a Hospital Destroyed by a German Bomb were compelled to buy immunity from devastation by pay- ing large sums of money, and the most trivial transgression of the military regulations by their inhabitants was fol- lowed by the imposition of heavy fines. Not only were civil- ians robbed of their small food supplies, but even much of that contributed by generous citizens of other countries was appropriated. Not content with the sinking of vessels without warning, their flying machines dropped deadly bombs on towns and villages far removed from the front, and singled out for attack hospitals. In England thousands of women and children were killed by these raids, the i EUROPE IN CONFLAGRATION 629 only object of which was to intimidate the people into de- manding peace. Because of this return to the savagery of the barbarians from whom she sprang, by the end of 1916 Germany had forfeited the respect of every civilized nation, and hence- forth the war became a crusade to rid the world of her mili- tarism. For this reason, hard pressed as they were, the Allies refused Germany's proffer of peace, although it promised the evacuation of Belgium and France. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Germany promised to restore Belgium, and to pay an indemnity at the end of the war, if Belgium would permit the Germans to pass through that country to France. Give various reasons why King Albert refused to grant this permission. If he had, what would have been the effect on the course of the war? 2. The battle of the Marne will go down in history as one of the decisive battles of the world. Explain why. Why was the French territory overrun by the Germans so important? What was the stategic value of Calais? 3. Give some estimate of the importance of Russia's part in the early history of the war. Why did she fail? 4. Why was Constantinople important? Describe the Gallipoli ex- pedition. 5. Although Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance for years, she entered the war on the side of the Allies. Why? 6. What was the relation between the ruling houses of Germany and Russia at the outbreak of the war ? Enumerate the causes of the Russian Revolution. 7. Did the inhuman practises of the Germans help to defeat them? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHKR STUDY 1. King Albert of Belgium. 2. The Italia Irredenta, the weak spot in tlie Triple Alliance. REFERKXCES 1. McKinley's Collected Materials for the Study of the War. 2. Gordy's The Causes and Meaning of the Great War. 3. Benezet's The World War and What Was Behind If. CHAPTER XLV THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY Woodrozv Wilson, President, igi'j-1^21 The United States declares war. — Woodrow Wilson had been reelected because "he kept us out of war," but over a month before his inauguration the United States broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. Incensed by her avowal of an intention to sink without warning all ves- sels entering certain prescribed danger zones, President Wilson dismissed the German ambassador and recalled the United States embassy from Berlin. It became evident that whether the United States would enter the war or not rested in the hands of the Imperial German Government. On April 2, 1917, Congress met in special session and listened to an address by the president in which he re- viewed Germany's acts of aggression and continual viola- tion of pledges, and asked a declaration that a state of war existed. Four days later, by an overwhelming vote. Con- gress adopted a resolution reciting that "the Imperial Ger- man Government has committed re])eated acts of war against the Government and the people of the United States,"' and formally declaring "the state of war between the United States and the Imperial German Government which has thus been thrust upon the United States." Aw his address to Congress President Wilson made it plain that the United States was not drawn into the war because of any quarrel with the German people. He said : "We have no feeling toward them but one of sympathy and friendship. It was not upon their impulse that their govern- ment acted in entering this war. ... It was a war deter- mined upon as wars used to be determined upon in the old, 630 THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 631 unhappy days when peojjles were nowhere consuked by their rules. ... In such a government, following such methods, we can never have a friend." America's unpreparedness. — Always a peace-loving na- tion, the United States had not imitated the European powers by keeping a large standing army or requiring com- ^'^^^x^:^-^: ^\?^ Photo from Undenvood »S; Undenvood President Wilson Reading His Famous War Message, April 2, 1917 pulsory military service. At first it was believed at home, as well as in Germany, that the part of the United States in the war would be to furnish money, food, clothing and nuuiitions. The transportation of troops in large numbers three thousand miles by water did not seem feasible. Still, great training camps were established and to them were sent the several state guards. A nation-wide campaign for recruits was started and resulted in nearly a million young men volunteering for service in the army and navy. Mobilizing the nation's man power. — Soon, however, it became evident that if the war were to be won, the United 632 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY States would have to furnish men as well as supplies, and Congress was confronted with the question of whether the government should rely on volunteers or resort to conscrip- ' tion. Many denounced enforced service as un-American and recalled the draft NAVY! . -. s. . . ..=,-.. YOU! DO IT NOW! riots of the War of Se- cession. At last, profit- ing by the experience of Great Britain, which had been forced to adopt conscription after her long-standing volunteer system had failed to supply enough men, Congress enacted the Selective Draft Law. This law re- quired all men between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one to regis- ter for service. Later the age limits were amended to include all men between eighteen and forty-five. From these registrants the order in which the nation's man power should be placed in the army was determined by drawing numbers at Washington. In order not to interfere with industries essential to winning the war, or to cause undue privation, the draft law provided deferred classification, equivalent to exemption, for those engaged in such labor or with families absolutely dependent on them. On September second the first half million "conscripts" were received at the cantonments which had been established throughout the country for the purpose of training them in I WANT YOU A Government Poster Calling for Volunteers THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 633 the science of war. These camps were really well-built cities, consisting of wooden barracks, modern hospitals, enormous warehouses, repair shops of all kinds, well- equipped libraries and numerous recreation halls. Although constructed in a few weeks, they were provided with paved streets, sewage and water systems, electric lights, telephone service and fire and police protection. The smallest canton- ments accommodated thirty thousand soldiers, while in some of the largest eighty thousand could be cared for comfortably. HB'i"iiirj" in' ip'.iiiif-ifil— MBHi [l^^&«. -iAvfcss^S^ „„,,aSS!«* ' ^il iiiiiiii^i'il^l"!! tSANXXlKci- ■ 1 "T*™^. , '^^'MHII ■■■i^ii^;;::::^! Plioto by Underwood & Underwood A Bird's-eye View of a Cantonment Raising the money. — Eleven days alter the declaration of war, Congress appropriated $7,000,000,000 for its prose- cution — more than twice the entire cost of the War of Seces- sion. By the end of two years, additional appropriations had almost tripled that sum, and the government was spending more in a day than its entire expenses amounted to during Washington's administrations. To raise this enormous amount of money the taxes on incomes were increased greatly, postage rates were raised, new taxes were levied on express and freight receipts, railway, steamship and theater tickets, telegrams, long-distance telephone calls, and many other items. An issue of "Liberty Bonds" to the 634 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY amount of $2,000,000,000 was placed on sale in June and oversubscribed by more than fifty per cent. Three other "Liberty Loans" followed, and a final "Victory Loan" in 1919. Government control of railroads. — From the start the transportation problem was a difficult one. Although the railways pooled their interests in an effort to handle expedi- tiously the enormous movement of men and supplies, by autumn traffic had become so congested that it was evident they were unequal to the task under private control. There- fore, in December, President Wilson issued a proclamation placing them under government management, and appointed William G. McAdoo, Secretary of the Treasury, as director- general. A few months later Congress made provision for the compensation of their owners and agreed that the roads should be returned within twenty-one months after the con- clusion of peace. As the exigencies of war made it neces- sary, telegraph and telephone lines, the express companies, and lastly the cables, were taken over by the government under presidential proclamation. A "bridge of ships" across the Atlantic. — In order to win the war it became imperative to build a "bridge of boats" across the Atlantic ! "Ships ! Ships ! Give us more ships, or we lose the war" be- came the slogan of the nation, for with her submarines Ger- many was making big dents in the world's available shipping. A "Ship- ,9.4 ,9,5 ,9,0 ,9,7 .9,8 pj,-,g Board" was .— New Tonnage ConMruCed. created, CmpOWCrcd Tonnage Dcilroyeo ^ The War and the World's Shipping to buy and build In quariers of yeari 1 1 1 ' c s D ^^ ^ \ 1 •- ^ / >s u / / ■*■«. ■— ^ ^ / \ / / y t ^^ --^ h^ _ ^ 3 ^^ -^ ^' "*~ ■*^ ,'' ~' THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 635 ships in unlimited numbers. Many American vessels plying between the United States and South America, Asia and Australia, and every steamship which could be spared from the coast trade or the Great Lakes, were taken from their regular runs and diverted to transporting troops and sup- plies across the Atlantic. Besides, the interned German merchantmen, which had sought safety in American ports when the war broke out, were confiscated, and even boats belonging to neutral countries, especially Holland, were forcibly pressed into service. Great shipyards were established along the coast, and from them, before long, several vessels of wood, steel or concrete were being launched each day. Before the war ended they had become so efficient that a large wooden steamship could be built and completely equipped for sea in less than forty days. As a result of the shipbuilding ac- tivity in the United States and Great Britain, by the summer of 1918 more new tonnage was being constructed than the Germans were able to destroy, and fear that the Allies might be starved into submission was at an end. Conservation of food, fuel and labor. — For many years Great Britain had not produced enough foodstuffs to feed her own people, and now due to the war France and Italy, too, were dependent on importations from overseas. The shortage was greatly aggravated by the large number of cargoes which were being sunk by German submarines. So scanty had become the available stocks of food, fuel and other necessities that drastic regulations were enacted to prevent wealthy persons from hoarding supplies, and to equalize the suffering and keep it as low as possible. In order that there might be sufficient food to meet the needs of the soldiers in camp and at the front, as well as the civilians at home, and a generous surplus for the na- tion's allies, Congress enacted a drastic measure for food and fuel conservation (August 10, 1917). Herbert Hoover, 636 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY an American citizen who had become famous as director of the Belgian relief work started soon after the beginning of hostilities, was made food controller. As a means of en- couraging wheat raising, the government guaranteed the farmers a minimum price for their crop a season in ad- vance. Regulations prescribing the amount of wheat, meat and sugar to be allowed each person were proclaimed by the president. To save fuel for vessels in trans-Atlantic service and for essential industries, stores, office buildings, and concerns not engaged in war-work were forced to submit to heatless days, and were cut off from electric lights on certain nights of the week. The government commandeered many large industrial plants producing articles essential for winning the war, in order to increase the output and avoid labor difficulties. To meet the shortage of la- bor in the essential in- dustries men engaged in unnecessary occupations or whose places could be filled by women were compelled to get into useful work. Without the aid of this second line of defense — "the men who remained to till the fields and man the factories" — the War for Democracy would not have been so speed- ily won. General Pershing in command. — General John J. Pershing was John J. Pcrshin.'; chosen to command the THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 637 American Expeditionary Forces to be sent to France, and in June, 1917, he left with his staff for Europe. Large camps were made ready in different parts of France for finishing the training of the American forces before send- ing them to the front. In the French port placed at the dis- posal of the United States the engineers built huge docks where scores of vessels daily unloaded their cargoes, and not far distant miles of warehouses were hastily constructed to store them. To connect this supply depot with the Amer- ican camps a double-track railway as long as the distance from Washington to Atlanta was constructed, and the larg- est freight yards in the world were built. The United States even installed her own telegraph and telephone lines and these alone required twelve thousand operators. June twenty-sixth the first American regiment landed in France, exciting much contemptuous comment from the German press. Before the next July, however, soldiers were leaving American ports at the raie of ten thousand a day, and of the two million men under arms nearly half were "over there." The surrender of Russia. — During the fall and winter of 1917, while the Allies on the western front "marked time" in their trenches, awaiting the arrival of Americans in sufficient numbers to take from the Germans their mili- tary superiority, Russia became so demoralized that troops had to be sent there. Disappointed in her efforts to force the Kerensky Government into making a separate peace, Germany despatched a strong land and naval expedition to the Gulf of Finland (September). Riga offered little resist- ance, and soon after a decisive naval victory opened the way to Petrograd. In the midst of the excitement which fol- lowed, the "Soviet," a secret organization of Socialist work- ing men and soldiers, seized the government (November). For weeks a reign of terror existed throughout much of Russia and thousands of persons in Petrograd and Moscow 638 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY were killed. Lenine and Trotsky, the leaders of the Bolshe- viki Government which the Soviet set up. announced their intention of making peace with the Central Empires, and then confiscating all the land in Russia and parceling it out to the common people. A traitor to his country, Lenine the following March signed a humiliating treaty dictated by Germany, agreeing to surrender Poland and the provinces along the Baltic Sea. Still German rapacity was unsatisfied and by the summer of 1918 her armies had overrun much of the Ukraine, the region lying between Poland and the Black Sea. The last German drive. — Although by the end of 1917 German armies were occupying vast areas of the enemy's territory, the kaiser and his war lords knew that if the war were to be won the Allies must be beaten quickly on the western front. The submarine campaign had failed to starve them into submission, and was becoming constantly less effective, due to the increased activity of their destroy- ers. No longer did the German leaders ridicule America's efforts, for they had seen with alarm that not only could she transport huge armies across the Atlantic, but that she was actually pouring troops into France so fast that in time Germany would be beaten by sheer numbers. After having spent the winter in their trenches, on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched an ofifensive along a front extending fifty miles southward from Ypres. By this drive General von Hindenburg jM-omised to be in Paris by April first. Such an onslaught the world had never before wit- nessed. During the first day the Germans hurled more shells than they had fired in the whole Franco-Prussian War. The British, who held that sector of the Allied line, were not able to endure such an onslaught and were forced to abandon their trenches. Fighting desperately and inflicting terrific losses on the enemy, they were slowly pushed back. Ten days later, when General LudendorfT was compelled to THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 639 halt the drive so as to give his men rest, the British had retreated twenty-five miles. Marshal Foch assumes supreme command. ^ — -While Ludendorff's men rested, the Allies, thoroughly alarmed by their desperate situation, abandoned their national jealousies and, adopting the plan of the enemy, placed all the forces operating on the western front under one Photo from UndenvooJ & Underwood Part of the Trench System on the Western Front supreme command. For this important position by unani- mous consent they chose the eminent French strategist, Marshal Ferdinand Foch. As a result of this centralization of authority, it became possible to coordinate Allied efforts. 640 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY Paris again in danger. — After a month's delay, Luden- dorfif struck in Flanders and threatened to sweep through to that long-coveted goal — the English Channel. Repelled again and again by General Haig's solid wall of British soldiers, aided by strong French reinforcements, the Ger- mans finally gave up the attempt to break through, and rested a second time. When Ludendorf¥ renewed his drive, the last of May, the French forces blocking the roads to Paris received the blow. Once more the Allies were obliged t'^ttit - 1 L^H^ 1^^ HhHI ^' ^uTij ^9h H^BBT^. ^ ^T^ ^^^^^Rij^^SIra ^Br^^MHiM s di if m^^. *" -.sasSS A Bridge Destroyed by the Allies m an Effort to Delay the German Advance to yield ground, and the Germans advanced until they reached some of the positions on the Marne which they had held nearly four years before. With the super guns recently brought into service, they actually hurled shells into Paris. Although to reach this point Ludendorff had sacrificed five hundred thousand men and his reserves were near ex- haustion, he fought his way across the Marne. It was a dark hour, indeed, for the Allies, as the French capital seemed (loomed. With the aid of Pershing's soldiers Foch launches a counter-blow. — On March twenty-eighth General Persh- ing had placed five divisions of American forces at the dis- posal of Marshal Foch to aid him in hol(lin<2;- back the victo- THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 641 rious German hordes. By their stubborn resistance at Can- tigny and Montdidier they gave the He to that popular gibe of the Germans, "Americans can't fight." At Chateau Thierry and all along the Marne it was more of these despised American fighters which early in July aided the wearied French in bringing the invaders to a halt. By the fifteenth of the month Pershing had four hundred thousand young, American Soldiers on Duty in France vigorous soldiers at the front and seventy-five thousand fresh troops were reaching France every week. Three days later, without giving the Germans an opportunity to rest from their offensive, Foch, confident now of superiority in man power, launched the gigantic counter-blow he had planned. The enemy quailed before it, yielded, and, fight- ing desperately, retreated slowly all along the Marne. The Allies breathed freely once more — Paris had been saved and the German tide had begun to ebb. Without giving Luden- dorfif opportunity for recuperation, Foch followed up this drive with tremendous blows at widely separated points 642 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY along the whole front. With his constantly increasing re- serves of fresh American troops he was able to change his point of attack so swiftly that no time was allowed the Germans to move troops from one salient to another. Slowly but surely the great German fighting machine was pushed back until by the end of August it rested on the old Hindenburg line, from whence five months before it had ad- vanced so boastingly. St. Mihiel and the Argonne Forest. — Just south of Ver- dun the Germans had driven a sharp wedge into the Allied The BatHe Tronh when hhe Allies bega-n fheir drive. \\'here the AmericaiT; Fouolit front, reaching to the city of St. Mihiel on the Meuse River. This salient was a constant menace to the Allies for any further projection of its point would place the whole south- ern end of their lines in extreme jeopardy. In the late sum- mer the task of wiping it out was assigned to General Pershing and his American army. On September thirteenth the battle began and continued for three days. Never be- fore did American soldiers bear themselves better under fire. By the end of the third day their ferocious charges THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 643 had driven the Germans back eight miles along a thirty-mile front. A short distance north of St. Mihiel and northwest of Verdun lay a heavily forested region known as the Argonne Forest. The German line ran through it and guarded the railroads to the east upon which their troops in this section depended for supplies. No sooner was the St. Mihiel sa- lient wiped out than Marshal Foch ordered the Americans to take position on the French right and help drive the Ger- mans from the Argonne Forest. This battle-field resembled that of the Wilderness in the War of Secession. Not only did great trees and dense undergrowth impede the army at every step, but miles of barbed wire had been stretched and nests of machine guns planted at strategic points. How- ever, once given the command to advance, Pershing's men knew no such word as stop, and by the middle of October ihey had forced the Germans out of the Argonne Forest and penetrated deeply into their line of fortified trenches in the rear. In spite of a most stubborn resistance the French-American army drove its wedge deeper and deeper, until at last it brought the German supply lines within gun range. At the same time another titanic movement was taking ]ilace in the north, where the British and French were roll- ing up the enemy's lines and gradually driving them out of France. With their reserves exhausted, their morale shat- tered, and given no opportunity to rest and reorganize, the Germans could do nothing now but retreat, and it was evi- dent to all that their collapse was inevitable. Fighting on other fronts. — As a part of the drive which was expected to end the war, the Austrians in June crossed the Piave, threatening to take Venice and overrun all north- ern Italy. Aided by French and British troops the Italians succeeded in hurling back the invaders. An Allied army advancing from Macedonia was fighting its way northward 644 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY through Serbia and already threatening to overwhelm the Bulgars. General Allenby had set out from Egypt with another British army and pushed his way across the Syrian Desert in the face of many hardships. Already he had driven the Turks out of Jerusalem and was pressing north- ward into the heart of the sultan's empire. In the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates near the Persian border still another British army was slowly fighting its way northward along the railroad leading from Bagdad to Constantinople. Germany's allies give up. — Forced to mass all her avail- able troops on the western front for the final grapple, Germany was unable to send reinforcements to her hard- pressed allies. Faced by starvation, with their resources exhausted, the people of Austria, Bulgaria and Turkey be- gan to demand peace at any price. Unable to resist longer, while the battle still raged in the Argonne Forest, Bulgaria asked for peace terms, and finally on September 30, 1918, surrendered. Now cut off completely from her allies and hopelessly bankrupt, Turkey was soon forced to yield (Oc- tober 31). Four days later, threatened with revolution and dismemberment, Austria-Hungary gave up, leaving Ger- many to fight it out with the Allies single-handed. Germany seeks peace. — The Imperial "high command" realized when Ludendorflf's great iTrlve failed that Germany was beaten. Still it fought on, trying to force the Allies into granting them more liberal terms ©f peace. When Bul- garia surrendered and it was evident that Austria and Tur- key could not hold out much longer, the German press began to talk peace. As Foch's offensive brought the Allied armies toward the German frontier, and there was a prospect of the war being carried into their rich Rhine provinces and perhaps to Berlin, the people demanded peace on any terms. Finally the situation in the army as well as at home became so desperate that on October fifth the German Government asked President Wilson to secure for it an armistice, as a I THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 645 temporary cessation of fighting is called. It declared itself ready to discuss peace on the basis of America's war aims, as set forth by the president in his address to Congress, January 8, 1918. For a month the question was informally considered, and meanwhile the German retreat had become almost a rout. The signing of the armistice. — At last the Allies in- formed Germany that to secure a cessation of hostilities she would have to apply to the commander of the armies in the field, as is the usual way. This her "high com- Photo from Undenvood & UuderwuuU The German Envoys Crossing the Lines on Their Way to a Conference with General Foch to Seek an Armistice mand" proceeded to do, thus acknowledging its defeat, and without delay an armistice was signed, which went into effect on November 11, 1918. As a guarantee against a renewal of hostilities, Germany was required to evacu- ate all Allied territory ; to surrender Alsace and Lorraine, the two French provinces wrested from France in the Franco-Prussian War ; to hand over her "high seas" fleet of 646 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY dreadnoughts as well as all submarines ; and to disband most of her army. The Allies then proceeded to occupy certain strategic positions along the Rhine, so as to be ready to enforce their linal terms. American Troops Entering a German City to Enforce , the Terms of the Armistice President Wilson's fourteen points. — After the United States entered the struggle much discussion of the causes which had occasioned it went on among the Allies with a view to being able to draft such terms of peace as would make it the last war. It was agreed that Germany's ambi- tion for commercial supremacy had led her into a desire to dominate the world on the old theory that trade follows the flag. The bitterness of the struggle had given birth to the demand, "Never more!" For at last the. civilized world had awakened to the fact that war does not pay. In four years the accumulated wealth of generations had vanished in the general waste and destruction, and strong nations had been reduced to bankruptcy. Heretofore, wars had been settled with indemnities and THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 647 cession of territory imposed by the victor on the van- quished. In his address urging Congress to declare a state of war existent, President Wilson had served notice on all nations that the United States would wage war to make the world safe for democracy and would seek no indemnities nor territorial gains. In his message to Russia, after the overthrow of the czar's government, he said : "No people must be forced to live under a sovereignty un- der which it does not wish to live. No territory must change hands except for the purpose of securing to those who in- habit it a fair chance of life and liberty. No indemnities must be insisted on except those that constitute payment for manifest wrongs done. . . . And then the free people of the world must draw together in some common covenant, some genuine and practical co-operation that will in effect combine their force to secure peace and justice in the deal- ings of nations with one another." On January 8, 1918, in a message to Congress, President Wilson, for the information of the people of Germany and Austria, enumerated the war aims of the United States in the form of "fourteen points," as follows: The abolition of secret treaties between nations ; the right of all nations to navigate the seas ; equal trading opportunities for every nation ; the reduction of armaments as much as internal conditions will permit ; fair adjustment of all colonial claims ; restitution by Germany of territory seized from Russia, and Russia's right to be governed by "institutions of her own choosing"; restoration of Belgium; return of Alsace and Lorraine to France ; readjustment of the Austro- Italian frontier so that districts inhabited by Italians would be under the jurisdiction of Italy; restoration of Serbia, Roumania and Montenegro ; securing to peoples under Turkish rule their lives and liberty ; dismantling of the forts along the Dardanelles, so as to make its navigation free to all nations ; the creation of an independent Poland ; and the establishment of a "league of nations," to secure to 648 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY all nations, large and small, their independence and terri- torial integrity. The treaty of peace. — In January, 1919, delegates from all the Allied Powers met in Paris to formulate a treaty of peace. President Wilson attended, thus breaking the prece- dent that no president shall leave the United States during his term of office. From the start it was conceded that his "Fourteen Points" would constitute the basis of the treaty that was to restore peace and make the world safe for de- mocracy. President Wilson knew the jealousies of Euro- pean Powers, and that in the adjustments weak nations were likely to suffer injustice at the hands of the stronger, and therefore deemed it his duty to be present as a champion of the principles for which the United States had entered the war. Meanwhile, the Central Powers were undergoing great political changes. Revolutions took place accompanied with rioting and some loss of life. After the kaiser and crown prince had fled to Holland, and had renounced their rights to the imperial throne, Germany was proclaimed a republic. The emperor of Austria-Hungary was dethroned, and his realm broken into several parts, according to nationality. For five months the Peace Congress deliberated, assisted by an army of experts and secretaries. Every continent was concerned in the readjustments, and the views of the several Powers were so conflicting and hard to reconcile that at times much bitterness of feeling was engendered. Italy was so peeved because her claims to certain territories near the head of the Adriatic Sea were not recognized that her pre- mier even withdrew. Japan became offended over what she considered a discrimination against her people in the refusal of the Congress to allow them to emigrate at will. China, at the end, refused to sign the treaty because the Shantung peninsula, taken from her by Germany at the time of the "Boxer" troubles, was not returned directly. THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 649 Germany was compelled to readjust her boundary lines so as to satisfy the national aspirations of those peoples whom she had forcibly annexed in former years. She was also required to pay an indemnity of not less than twenty billion dollars to reimburse the Allies for the damages they had Photo iiom UudenvQod &. Umierwood The Peace Conference at Versailles, France, Drawing up the Treaty of Peace suffered. The treaty further compelled her to abolish com- pulsory military training, to cease manufacturing munitions on a large scale, and to reduce her army and navy to such proportions as were deemed sufficient for the preservation of domestic peace. Upon President Wilson's insistence, the treaty included a "League of Nations" covenant. This pro- vided for the creation of a council of nations whose func- tion should be to preserve world peace, by preventing any nation from committing acts which interfered with the rights of another. It also provided that a people not yet 650 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY fitted for self-government should be assigned to one of the powers and governed by it as a "mandatory'' of the league. On the afternoon of June 29, 1919, in the same palace at Versailles that witnessed forty-eight years before the coro- nation of King William of Prussia as the first Emperor of Germany, the German envoys and representatives of the Allied Powers affixed their signatures to the treaty, which would reestablish peace as soon as it was ratified by their respective nations. The cost of the war. — The cost of the AYorld War stag- gers the imagination. Germany's expenditures were the largest of all the belligerents'— at least $35,000,000,000— with Great Britain's not far behind. In the short time the United States was engaged in it she spent $20,000,000,000 and lent $8,000,000,000 more to her allies. Including dam- age to property and loss of trade, the entire cost to all the nations is estimated at $200,000,000,000— four times the entire annual income of every man, woman and child in the United States. It is not possible to state the exact number of lives lost, but according to careful estimates the war cost Europe seven million of her most able-bodied men. The American loss was about seventy thousand. On account of poor gen- eralship and inadequate equipment, Russia suffered the heaviest losses ; Germany came next. France was rapidly being "bled white" by the large percentage of her man power sacrificed as gun fodder. Estimates place the total number of wounded at nineteen million, of whom two hun- dred thousand were Americans. Were the loss to the production of wealth, through the destruction of so large a i^art of the world's man power, considered, the cost of the war would be double or even triple the actual expenditure of money. For generations Europe will stagger under the burden of debt and poverty the war has entailed, and for years the cost of living will THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 651 be high due in part to scarcity of workers. Verily, the sins of the fathers are visited upon the children unto the third and fourth generations. A few revelations of the war. — The war brought to light some startling facts in regard to illiteracy in this covui- try. W'e found that there were 700,000 men of draft age who could not read or write in any language. There are more than 4,600,000 persons over twenty years of age who are illiterate. Probably the most striking fact of all is that 1,500,000 of them are native whites. The country is losing from this ignorance $825,000,000 annually. The government is spending millions of dollars on publications for farmers, while ten per cent, of the country folk can not read or write. The war showed that in the United States there were In per cent, of the total population. ' I ' I ^ I " I ' I ^ I ^ I ° I ' I "* I " r '^ I ' I '* I ' I I J i Middlf Atlantic StOtM Pocjric ana RockijMt.SlatM S i ■i Native White Pirentaqe S Negroes □ foreign Porentoge Illiteracy in the United States According to the Census of 1910 three hundred national societies of foreigners with forty- two thousand local branches. For the benefit of those who could not or would not read English there were eleven hun- dred forty-six foreign-language papers, not including the eight hundred forty-three German papers. The Selective Service Acts revealed interesting and vital facts heretofore unrecognized regarding the physical condi- tions of Americans. So many men were rejected who thought that they were normal physically that we were made to realize our imperfections. Under the terms of the first draft act two million five hundred thousand Americans, between the ages of twenty-one and thirty-one, were ex- amined by the local-board physicians. Out of this number 652 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY more than seven hundred thirty thousand, or nearly one-third, were rejected on account of physical unfitness. Additional rejections on arrival at the training camps where special tests were given to determine mental and nervous fitness, made the number of unfit still greater. It is esti- mated that, all told, as high as forty per cent, of the pros- An American Cemetery in France pective soldiers under this act failed to measure up to the military requirements. One of the regrettable things about the situation was that so much of this unfitness was caused by diseases that can be prevented by j^ersonal cleanliness and public sanitation. Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. Describe the intrigues of Ambassador Bernstorff. Is the dis- missal of an ambassador always a cause of war? What was President Wilson's policy of "watchful waiting"? 2. Read the Joint Resolution of April 6, 1917, and point out the parts that indicate that the responsibility for the war between the United States and Germany rested with the latter. 3. Why did President Wilson make a distinction between the Ger- man Government and the German people? In discussing the American Revolution, have the historians been careful to THE WAR FOR DEMOCRACY 653 make such a distinction between the government of George III and the English people? Do you think that if the German Government had been a democracy in 1914 the war would have occurred? 4. What are some of the difficulties that a democratic government has to overcome in waging war? Enumerate the problems that confronted the United States upon entering the war. 5. Explain the volunteer and conscription methods of raising an army. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? Was not the Selective Draft Law of 1917 really more demo- cratic than the volunteer method? 6. How did the United States finance the War of Secession? Compare that method with those employed in the World War. 7. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 prohibited the pooling of railroads. Why did the government pool those east of the Mississippi River after entering the war? 8. Napoleon once said that armies fight on their "stomachs." What did he mean by that? Why did food play such an important part in the World War ? What evidence can you give to show that the government appreciated this? 9. Why was it necessary for the United States \o do so much con- structive work in France upon entering the war? Describe it. 10. Describe the last German drive, and show how the Americans upset Germany's plans. 11. Do you think that the war would have ended differently if any one of the powers, Belgium, Russia, England, Italy or the United States, had not entered it? Explain your answer. 12. Read President Wilson's "Fourteen Points." What are the chief things in them? What is an armistice? 13. Read the Covenant of the League of Nations. What is the tenth article? Do you see anything in it that is contrary to the Monroe Doctrine? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. General John J. Pershing, General Haig, and Marshal Foch. 2. The "Doughboys" at Chateau Thierry. 3. The fight at the St. Mihiel Salient. 4. The battle of Argonne Wood. Much valuable information on the subjects in this chapter will be found in the copies of the Historical Outlook and Current History that were issued while these events were happening. CHAPTER XLVI FROM WAR TO PEACE President Wilson's policy not upheld. — In the election of 1918 the Democrats lost control of both houses of Con- gress, President Wilson's policy of not consulting the Sen- ate with reference to the treaty, while the Peace Congress was in session, offended the Republican majority. For this and political considerations, when Congress met in special session to enact such legislation as was needed to restore the nation to a peace basis, feeling ran high and a determined effort was made to humiliate him. As soon as tWe president returned to the United States he laid the treaty before the Senate for ratification. When it seemed likely that the Senate would insist on amending it, he resorted to his favorite device for forcing legislation — a direct appeal to the country. In a tour of the leading cities of the United States President Wilson addressed the public, explaining the provisions of the treaty to which cer- tain senators objected, and urged his hearers to insist on its ratification without amendment. This time, however, he failed for the people showed a disappointing interest and did not make their influence felt. At last, after much de- bate, the Senate ratified the treaty with a series of reser- vations attached. President Wilson refused to accept it in this shape, believing that these reservations would cut the life out of the League of Nations covenant. Demobilization. — Meanwhile the country was in a state of extreme unrest. When the war closed about three million men were under arms and nearly two million of 654 FROM WAR TO PEACE 655 them were in Europe. Not only must these men be demo- bihzed and returned to their places in the economic life of the nation, but the factories which had been running night and day to produce munitions and war supplies had to be turned to new uses. The railroad and telegraph systems must be restored once more to their owners, under condi- tions which would enable them to meet the greatly increased cost of operation acquired during government control as well as to return a reasonable profit on the investment. For the hundreds of soldiers who had been disabled for life during the war new means of earning a living had to be found. Although it was feared by many that demobilization would glut the labor market and cause much suffering, it was accompanied by such a falling off in production of everything, due to a disposition to take things easy, that there was an actual scarcity of workers for both farms and manufactories. At a conference of governors and mayors held in Washington in the fall of 1919 the Secretary of Labor declared . there was actually less unemployment in the country than in normal times. Whereas there are usu- ally about a million laborers out of work, at that time there were only about seven hundred thousand. Unrest and radicalism throughout the country. — Dur- ing the war labor of all kinds had received the highest wages in the history of the country, and although the cost of living had reached unheard-of levels, still it was able to enjoy comforts and luxuries never before known. Now when the cost of necessities was mounting higher and higher due to shortage occasioned by a falling off In production and profiteering, many branches of organized labor not only demanded higher wages but also shorter hours. The whole country was suffering from strikes or threats of strikes, and demands were actually made on Congress for the employees to be given control of the railroads. Much of this unrest and discontent resulted from a wide-spread campaign con- 656 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY 'U / 90 / / f' / / / SO / / / / . so 20 10 / / /' ^ ^ __,-»'' Coi r o( Living sjes (June (1914 used aa 1914 used as basis) basis) How the World War Afifected Cost of Living and Union Wages in the United States ducted by those whose sole object was to overthrow the pre- vaiHng social system, just as had been done in Russia two years before. The Bolsheviki and their wicked philosophy. — The word ''Bolsheviki" came from Russia, where in 1903 it was applied to the Social Democratic party led by the same Lenine who fifteen years later so willingly surrendered the Russian provinces to Germany. The Bolsheviki advocated control of the government, monasteries, railroads and land by the laboring class, and to-day Russia's one hundred and eighty million people are under the dictatorship of two hun- dred thousand of them. The Bolsheviki are opposed to majority rule, universal suffrage, or democracy. They en- courage the lazy, shiftless, discontented and lawless to hate and plunder everybody not in their own class. In the United States the war showed labor how much the FROM WAR TO PEACE 657 other classes depend on it. As a result, certain extremists were carried away with Bolshevism and in their enthusiasm actually tried to establish soviet control. In their efforts they were aided by many periodicals and newspapers, and tons of revolutionary literature filled with misrepresenta- tions designed to poison the minds of the discontented against their government. This propaganda made its strong- est appeal to the homeless laborers in the mines, forests and wheat-fields, and to foreigners of low intelligence in the ranks of organized labor. The Industrial Workers of the World and their vicious activities. — The Industrial Workers of the World is a revolutionary labor organization which was organized in Chicago in 1905. It includes men of all crafts and trades and has for its chief object the overthrow of our industrial system and the ownership and control of factories, shops, and railroads by organized labor. In 1917 it claimed a membership of eighty-five thousand and was closely affili- ated with the Bolshevikr. Within the past few years it has conducted many bitter strikes such as the silk workers of New Jersey (1913), the iron miners of Minnesota (1916), and the lumber workers of the Northwest (1917). During the war it undertook the destruction of various things essen- tial to military success, interference by strikes and other- wise with plants engaged in making war materials, and an obstruction of the drafts. In 1919 at Centralia, Washing- ton, Industrial Workers fired from their headquarters into an Armistice Day parade and killed a number of ex- soldiers. The deportation of Bolshevists. — At last the country awoke to its danger from these radicals. The members of the American Legion, as the organization of ex-service men in the World War is called, the farmers' organizations, the employers and the conservative element in organized labor demanded that they be rooted out. Congress responded by 658 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY enacting a law authorizing the government to deport ahens who print, edit, display or circulate anarchistic literature, or those who are members of organizations that issue revo- lutionary publications, or financially aid such propaganda. Under this law many persons, including the notorious an- archists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, have been deported to soviet Russia. From all parts of the coun- Phuto troui Underwood & Undenvood Bolshevists Going Aboard the "Ark" Buford for Deportation to Russia try a demand has come for more stringent laws governing immigration, and especially for one placing immigrants on probation and making naturalization more difficult. It is generally agreed that foreigners must be Americanized be- fore being allowed to become citizens, in order that they may be protected against the insidious arguments of revolu- tionary propagandists. The coal strike of 1919. — The United Mine Workers of America, claiming that the advance in their wages had not kept pace with the cost of living, met in convention at Cleve- land, Ohio, in September, 1919, and adopted a new scale which included a sixty per cent, increase in wages, a six- FROM WAR TO PEACE 659 hour clay, and a five-day week. When this was presented to the mine operators and they refused to accept it, the president of the United Mine Workers issued a strike order to take effect on October thirty-first. Although President Wilson had been seriously ill for several months, the situa- tion was brought to his attention and a statement was given out over his signature urging a recall of this order on the ground that it was "unjustifiable" and "unlawful." Mean- while the federal judge at Indianapolis, Indiana, had issued an injunction restraining the miners' officials from calling the strike. In spite of all this the strike order stood and on Novem- ber first about four hundred thousand miners struck. Threatened with imprisonment and confronted by open war with the government, the leaders of the mine workers finally yielded and withdrew their strike order. President Wilson then proposed an increase of fourteen per cent, in wages and the appointment of a commission to investigate the coal in- dustry to ascertain whether a further increase was neces- sary. The miners accepted this proposition and returned to work. This did not happen, however, until many com- munities were actually suft'ering from lack of coal and public opinion had been violently aroused at the expense of organized labor. In Kansas where the mines had been worked in the emergency by volunteers drawn from the younger business men and the state colleges, a special ses- sion of the legislature was convened which, much against the wishes of organized labor, enacted a law prohibiting strikes and providing for an industrial court to adjudicate labor dis- putes. Thus ended what had threatened to be the most seri- ous clash with organized labor in the history of the country. Recent relations with Mexico. — Notwithstanding the repeated warnings given Carranza that American citizens in Mexico must be protected, their condition was constantly becoming more intolerable. The Carranza Government had 660 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY actually proclaimed a law preventing further production of oil on lands owned by American interests, and had sent rep- resentatives to South America to seek a market for petro- leum. This seemed to indicate a disposition to confiscate the oil fields around Tampico where much American capital is invested. Bandits and revolutionary marauders continued to rob, murder and kidnap Americans living along the border, while the Mexican Government remained either unwilling or un- able to prevent such outrages against international law. When, however, William O. Jenkins, the American consular agent at Puebla, was kidnaped and held for one hundred and fifty thousand dollars' ransom the nation's patience was about exhausted. While the press was vigorously insisting on action, a part of the ransom demanded was paid and Jenkins was released. Soon, however, he was arrested by the Mexican authorities, first on a charge of connivance with the bandits and later of perjury. Owing to President Wilson's illness. Secretary of State Lansing, with the advice of the Cabinet, took matters into his own hands and notified the Mexican Government that such conduct was "surprising" and "exasperating" and de- manded the liberation of Mr. Jenkins. Mexico replied by questioning whether the United States had a right to make such a demand, since Mr. Jenkins was being tried according to Mexican criminal law. Ever since Carranza became president of Mexico he had been engaged in desultory warfare with Villa and his rebel forces. Finally in the spring of 1920 while the Mexicans were excited over the impending presidential election, re- bellion broke out in widely separated parts of the country. Carranza and his government were forced to flee from Mexico City and after declining to surrender to the rebels on promise of safe conduct to the frontier, the president was assassinated by one of his own party. In the election Gen- FROM WAR TO PEACE 661 Doll a r s eral Alvaro Obregon was chosen president. Many promi- nent persons from the United States attended his inaugura- tion, and if he adheres to the pledges made then Mexico has entered upon a period of peace and prosperity. The presidential election of 1920. — After many ballots the Republican convention nominated Warren G. Harding, United States Senator from Ohio, for the presidency, and Governor Calvin Coolidge, of Massachusetts, for the vice- presidency. The Democrats chose as their standard bearers Governor James M. Cox, of Ohio, and Franklin D. Roose- velt, the assistant secretary of the navy. The Socialists and Prohibitionists and a new organization calling itself the Farmer-Labor party also nominated candidates and made a bid for support. The campaign was exceedingly hard fought. Harding adopted the McKinley plan of staying at home and making "front porch" speeches to visit- ing delegations. Cox on the other hand made an extensive "swing around the country," traveling over twenty thousand miles, visiting thirty-six states, and delivering several hundred speeches. The Democrats in- sisted that the issue was the League of Na- tions covenant in the Treaty of Versailles, which the Senate had refused to ratify without reservations unsatisfactory to President Wilson. They claimed that un- How the Per Capita Cost of the Federal Government Has Increased 662 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY less Cox was elected the nation would be remiss in its duty to civilization by failing to align itself on the side of those who would enforce world peace. The Republicans accused D HARDING ■ COX Distribution of Electoral Votes in the Election of 1920 the Democrats of extravagance in the conduct of the gov- ernment and demanded that the country return to the teach- ings of the Father of the Repub- lic and avoid any international obligations which might jeopar- dize American sovereignty. The result of the election was a landslide for the Republicans. Not only were Harding and Coo- lidge elected but the Republicans were assured large pluralities in both houses of Congress as well. For the first time since 1868 the "Solid South" had been broken and Tennessee chose Republican Warren G. Harding electors. FROM WAR TO PEACE 663 Questions and Directions for Reading and Study 1. At the close of the War of Secession it was an easy thing for a discharged soldier to pass into the peaceful pursuits. Why was this more difficult at the close of the World War? 2. What was included in demobilization ? What are the advantages of locating discharged soldiers and sailors on farms? De- scribe Secretary Lane's plan for doing this. 3. What are the things that cause people to be restless, to engage in strikes, and even to try to overthrow the government under which they live? Can you show that the Bolsheviki are try- ing to destroy civilization itself? Why does Bolshevism find advocates here in the United States? 4. Find out the chief things that the Industrial Workers of the World stand for. Which is the more effective method of rid- ding the country of anarchistic organizations, legislation or education? 5. Do you think the United States should take over the coal mines of the country? Why was the public so vitally interested in the coal strike of 1919? 6. How did the kidnaping of Mr. Jenkins in Mexico complicate the relations between the United States and Mexico? SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY 1. The deportation of anarchists. 2. Rehabilitation of the wounded and crippled soldiers. 3. The Kansas Court of Industrial Relations. The United States Enters the Great War and Helps to Make the World Safe for Democracy I. A Half-Century of Progress. A. New and improved methods of transportation and com- munication. B. The development of woman suffrage. C. Government becomes more popular. D. The prohibition movement increases. E. A greater interest shown in education. II. War Breaks Out in Europe. A. War between Austria and Serbia. B. Germany, Russia, Belgium, France and England drawn into the struggle. 664 OUR COUNTRY'S HISTORY * 1. The battle of the Marne. 2. The Russians invade East Prussia. Hindenburg's drive. C. The campaign of 1915. 1. The Germans make a powerful drive for Calais. 2. The Russians driven out of Austria. Austria in- vaded. 3. The Gallipoli Expedition. 4. Italy enters the struggle on tlie side of tlie Allies. D. The campaign of 1916. 1. The battle of Verdun. 2. Fighting on the Italian Front. III. The United States Enters the War. A. The efforts of the United States to remain neutral. B. Germany violates the rules of warfare and the laws of humanity. ■ C. The United States mobilizes her resources. 1. The Selective Draft Acts. 2. Methods of financing the war. 3. The government takes control of transportation fa- cilities. 4. The government controls food and fuel. 5. The American soldiers turn tide of battle. D. Germany seeks peace. 1. The Armistice. 2. President Wilson's fourteen points. 3. The Peace Conference. E. Problems of peace. 1. Demobilization. 2. Rooting out radicals and anarchists. 3. Restoring order and contentment in tlie industrial world. 4. Eliminating the evils revealed by tlie war. APPENDIX APPENDIX THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- fect union, estabhsh justice, insure domestic tranquiUity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I SECTION I All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. SECTION II The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of A^ew Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massa- iv APPENDIX chusctts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Con- necticut five, Nezv York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers, and shall have tlie sole power of impeachment. SECTION III The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Sen- ators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the ex- piration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess of the Legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments vmtil the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine 3'ears a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concur- rence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the APPENDIX V party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indict- ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. SECTION IV The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legis- lature thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. SECTION V Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and quali- fications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penalties, as each house may provide. Each house may determine tlie rules of its proceeding, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judg- ment require secrecy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in wliich the two houses shall be sitting. SECTION VI The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their at- tendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments vi APPENDIX whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. SECTION VII All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Rep- resentatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amend- ments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. H after such reconsider- ation two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. H any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. SKCTION VIII The Congress shall have power to laj' and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; APPENDIX vii To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States; To establish post-ofhces and post-roads ; To promote the progress of science and useful arts by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas and offenses against the law of nations ; To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in tlie service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over sucli district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of par- ticular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings ; and To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. SECTION IX The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight. viii APPENDIX but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be pub- lished from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. SECTION X No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit making anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law im- pairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. APPENDIX ARTICLE II The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of Sen- ators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote bj' ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an in- habitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the Presi- dent of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the pres- ence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the cer- tificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall im- mediately choose by ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like manner choose the President. But in choos- ing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representa- tion from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.]* The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. *This clause of the Constitution has been amended. See twelfth article of the Amendments. X APPENDIX No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he may have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the following oath or affirmation : "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." SECTION II The President shall be Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require tlie opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur ; and he sliall nominate, and, by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise pro- v'ded for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress APPENDIX xi may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have the power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commis- sions which shall expire at the end of their next session. SECTION III- He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall com- mission all the officers of the United States. SECTION IV The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and con- viction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III SECTION I The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a com- pensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. SECTION II The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies be- xii APPENDIX tween two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of diflferent States, and be- tween a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con- suls, and those in which a State shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before men- tioned the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. SECTION III Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. SECTION II The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive avithority of the State from which he fled. APPENDIX xiii be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. SECTION III New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States or parts of States, without the consent of the Legis- latures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property be- longing to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular State. SECTION IV The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of the executive (when the Legislature can not be convened), against do- mestic violence. ARTICLE V The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Con- stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress, provided that no amendments which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner aflPect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. xiv APPENDIX ARTICLE VI All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the adoption of tbis Constitution, sball be as vaHd against the United States under this Constitution as under the confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the mem- bers of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifj'ing the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. George Washington, President, and Deputy from Virginia. New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicliolas Oilman. Massachusetts — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. New York — Alexander Hamilton. New Jersey — William Livingston, David Brearly, William Pat- terson, Jonathan Dayton. Pennsylvania — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin. Robert Mor- ris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wil- son, Gouverneur Morris. Delaware — George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. Maryland — James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. APPENDIX XV Virginia — Jolin Blair, James Madison, Jr, North Carolina — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. South Carolina — John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. Georgi.\ — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest : William Jackson, Secretary. The States ratified the Constitution in the following order: — Delaware December 7, 1787 — Unanimously Pennsylvania December 12, 1787 — Yes, 46 ; No, 23 New Jersey December 18, 1787 — Unanimously Georgia January 2, 1788 — Unanimously Connecticut January 9, 1788— Yes, 128 ; No, 40 Massachusetts February 6, 1788— Yes, 187 ; No, 168 Maryland April 28, 1788— Yes, 63 ; No, 12 South Carolina May 23, 1788— Yes, 149; No, 73 New Hampshire June 21, 1788— Yes, 57; No, 46 Virginia June 25, 1788— Yes, 89; No, 79 New York July 26, 1788— Yes, 30 ; No, 28 North Carolina November 21, 1789— Yes, 193 ; No, 75 Rhode Island May 29, 1790— Yes, 34 ; No, 32 ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ARTICLE I Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging tlie. freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peace- ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II A well regulated inilitia being necessary to the securitj' of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a man- ner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise in- famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the (Tiilitia, wheii iii actual service in time of war or public danger ; nor xvi APPENDIX xvii shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to he a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and dis- trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall ex- ceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, tlian according to the rules of the com- mon law. ARTICLE VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. December 15, 1791, the President in a message to Congress declared that the above ten amendments had been ratified by all the States. ARTICLE XI The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosi-cuted xviii APPENDIX against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. This amendment was submitted to the States by Congress, March S, 1794. Its ratification by all the States was proclaimed by the Secretary of State, Jan- uary 8, 1798. ARTICLE XII Section 1. The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which lists they shall sign and certify, and trans- mit sealed to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted. The person hav- ing the greatest number of votes for President shall be the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose imrnediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a ma- jority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as Presi- dent, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. Section 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no per- son have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the pur- pose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a, majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. APPENDIX xix Section 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. This amendment was submitted to the States by Congress, December 12, 1803. Its ratification bj; all the States, except Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, was proclaimed by the Secretary of State, September 28, 1804. ARTICLE XIII Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress sliall have power to enforce this article by appropriata legislation. This, the first of the "Reconstruction Amendments," was submitted to the States by Congress, l'"ebruary 1, 1865. Its ratification was proclaimed by the Secretary of State, December 18, 1865. Delaware and Kentucky rejected it; Alabama and Mississippi ratified it conditionally; Texas took no action. ARTICLE XIV Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any per- son of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But wheti the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citi- zens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for par- ticipation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty- one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in XX APPENDIX Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same or given aid or com- fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two- thirds of each house, remove such disability. Section 4. The vahdity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States or any claim foi the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- priate legislation, the provisions of this article. This, the second of the "Reconstruction Amendments," was submitted to the States by Congress, June 16, 1866. Its ratification was proclaimed ty the Sec- retary of State, July 28, 1868. The ten Southern States and Delaware, Ken- tucky and Maryland rejected it; the twenty-three Northern States ratified it; California took no action. Later the Southern States were compelled to ratify this Amendment. ARTICLE XV Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. This, the third of the "Reconstruction Amendments," was submitted to the States by Congress, February 27, 1869. Its ratification was_ proclaimed by the .Secretary of State, March 30, 1870. California, Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland and Oregon rejected it; Tennessee took no action; al! the other States ratified it, although New Jersey at first rejected it (1870) and New York rescinded its ratification, January 5, 1870. ARTICLE XVI The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. This amendment was submitted to the States by Congress, July 12, 1909. Its ratification was proclaimed by the Secretary of State, February 25.1913. All the States ratified it except Connecticut, Florida, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah and Virginia. APPENDIX ARTICLE XVII Section 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Section 2. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies ; Provided, That the Legis- lature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointment until the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature may direct. Section 3. This Amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. This amendment was submitted to the States by Congress, May 16, 1912. Its ratification was proclaimed by the Secretary of State, May 31, 1913. All the States ratified it except Alabama, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Loui- siana, Maryland, Mississippi, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah and Virginia. ARTICLE XVIII Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have con- current power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Section 3. This article shall be in operation when it shall have been ratified as an Amendment to the Constitution by the Legis- latures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of submission hereof to the States by the Congress. This amendment was submitted to the States by Congress, December 19, 1917. Its ratification was proclaimed by the Secretary of State, January 29, 1919. It was ratified by forty-five States. Rhode Island rejected it, and also Ohio, by a referendum vote. ARTICLE XIX The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or aliridged by the United States or by any State on accotmt of sex. xxii APPENDIX Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. This Amendment has been ratified by the Legislatures of the States of Ari- zona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Dakota New York, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin and Wyoming. Its ratification was proclaimed by the Secretary of State Au- gust 26, 1920. o o o ^ ^ 0,0.0.0,0.0.0. a:S'S'S ~--^pii£pioiPioiPifii tab ||a|EaE|es|||^ o .2.2 fl a a a a a l-s emoc emoc ipub ;pub SiXl^Si &§.£.§. p\'^ PQ«rt pS«=:irt d.2 e a a c.2.2 a " S rt rt o ao.Ba,s, o.o,sgn. c a >> '3 3 3-5 — ■- a a"fefc « cSi-s 3 T3-a moa a a S o o o PS S o °oa^ S3 =3 -r° a a . o , ail- § e £ J, S -s 5 4? 2 2 — sa ;|:|:3(2(5(g(S^l^fg a e C3c!3cdrtc3rtrt*^c"3'*-'03rtrtrtc3+^*^rt ajaJajedacertdaaa=^S^a2i^5J^ad3^='='=3='=^^8=^cia3333c3q -o-S-a a a a a a a a a a a3-_3 a-_22 a a o,Q.a,o,aD.aaa ag 0.0.0.0.0.0 a ct3 rt *■ cj c3 ca y M M ^ MM^ S3 33 33 3 33 a"3 a"3 3 3 3 3 -- = -- = " - - - - - - - -=^-=0.0.0.0.0. a! 03 COO C3 C3^ , O o- >>>>>>>> ■ rs .-%•—. --» --..-I r-i --> ..-i --> &2 » S2 & S S S >> >> >^ >> >> -j- 050500C3*-c 3COOOOOCCJ700QO 3Q0O0X>O0 O«00 OOOOOO SjOOGOOOGOOS SjOlOSOSOiC oscot^'— <»oaic*?t^'— "locicor^i— '^^ OOCiOiOOO— '•-'C^iMCMCOfrO ^ -^ *'. OO GO 00 oo oo c ) t-^ ^H ,jL lo Ci fO t — . ... . ._, — ■;tj on^oooooasoi — ooo^ri^S^' ) O -f Ci 20 »0 "^ -^ CO Tj« o Tt<-tc r- o o o t-^ CO OS : ^^o cc^HO^x)'— "jO'-h CC:0 OOXJOOC^CCQOCCOOGO ) o o o o •-< oo XI oo OS Oi cr: lO CO ■^ I i l-'g-g'S I I § § O O d o O O ^ ^^ fc. ,?l < g Ka £• ;SJ o o S^J^.^K J3jSlfl|| S sIj^ a a a ai-f-f ssi a-2?= 3 aj g-a j. ,J23 3T3 ^ •■-£■£ — ■':-^ ^_^^ i 2 g s g's^ s fc'a - E e|| a s £ = xxiii ' > •5 rt 111 \o>j^c\ioooovooNOooooM30sroLor>»vocv)ioor^oooa"T~o ON c^i_.— I cvn^a\'^rooo^o\oooLoOO\rM'^>Oooooiot^t^oo I^OOOOOO^OOOOOOsMD^vOvO^t^' \ VJ s.^- V'VJ >*^ ^-AJ *^W ^— ^ ^J '-^J '«^ v^-* ^^^ ^^Z ' — ' >^' 'O ^O t"^ ^^ CM ^^ ^^ '^ ''^ '-i^io oq^TT <^_^rM ro Cj^ro ^ -^^^oq^vq^og ^o^»-<^«o_^'^_^io r'3 (30 "-I ,— ^odc^fr^f ^^ cvf u^' u-r t-C Tt"' csf <\f T-H cnT^"^ 10 "t'.--^' 10 >—r f\J<^0\f0^0t~>.^0^'*-^0MOr0O<^O\000CX)iOr^O'— i"OuO>— i(M«— 1>^00 ^ 0\_ OJ, 00^ O O O Tf 00^ 00_ C\l ro O C^J^ VO lO O O <~q "^^ ^ ^^ O 00^ 00 CO cm' >ooC o<~o' qo iJ-T-— "'ij-J o ■*' a\'\o' od oo o\ cm* oo t~>.' o' •^' oo" •<3-<^<-OCM'OOOCMOCArooO<^0\0'— 'Cs^O'^iovOOOOnO'^ rorot^'^ONCDCMO\00'^ '^ 0\ '^ ^>. -^ r^ t^ -^ 00 ^O ^^ t^ -rriTi cm"" '-Tro '-T cm" VO'cm CM'^'cM-T-r .-Tfo r^^C^^'-<' ro OSCMMDO^O 10 OOOVO \O^H CM CM O t^ 00 t^ »-i Os ooO\oooooo* * 00* 00 00 00 00 00 1^ 00 00 * * oooooooooo ^ O f! OOiO^CMt^VOb^"— iOCM<^t^'^<^^000'-H'^CM^-<^^OOrO CVJ CM ^ -^ CM CM ^H CM <^ CM --I <>0 «*5 CO -^ -^ CM '-' <~0 ^ H<,?§ ,-h" ro fO 00 <^ •^' cm' 00 OC ro \0 VO C^l' O 00 (\f 00 l~>r Tl-' vo' 0\' NO i-O .— I lO 1J^ o 10 LO 00 LO ro i-O 00 -^ "^ CO •— ' 10 00 ■^ NO -^ O lu « 5 ^ 5 rt § c o 2 5i ^:s ^o O d ns Iri ^ . c-^ ^ = c T3 D ^ i- O) C« r- u n i« i« g '.ox rovo".-rr\f.-<'cM' 0 E o Ji 5 w! "CO'-'Oro<-ir}-vOTt-^Tl-(MOO'Ot^ONU-)0'^OOr^^OI^ J^^'-i-^ 1— ICO (MC'J f^CMcO^H ■<3-rJ-C4t^CM'— irj- .2 o (Mt^cMQOO\'^0'^<^ONr^r^Ttt^iooo"Ooot^^H^Hr^(sj iv.ooooiorM(MooosoooOT-Ha\CM"^ogrMi^f^joo?MOvoo <~0_Tr^O^O\_^ro CX) '-<_^'0 fO CM_^fO 0_rorv._iO 00 CM_fO ■^ >— i_^\Ot~>._^o •^ vo^rC fo lo o" •^' ON to oC oo' ro' o ':»•' rrs' vd rvT ro oC (m' Os vo' .'*io'Oootorru-)(MoocMcoo<^co>-oi'ioo>-o\Ocoo\ C\l_ -rr ^co fO lO VOr^ O t^ t^ \0 O ^O ro >0 -^ ro ro ro Tf \0»-" ^* fO' O'CM* u-Tcm' Od ^"^ Cm''^' CM'^'r-^'CM' Tiii'5.2 CM 0\ fOOOOs '* » '—I* » 00 o o to . 0\vOto\0<— ' 0\f0000 J, J- 00 0\ •^ 0\ On J. 00 VO ■^ CTi * * oot^oooot^* 00 00 00 00 2 £ n^ o >- 3;r OO-Hrf'rt-'^vOt^Or^ONMDOOONiOfMNOO'^r^ CMQN'^(MrOOi^l<^-i-toON(^1^0C'-'^)ONO\NOf\) to NO <^^fM >0 IM, ^ OC O^ C^ NO •— '_ "^l CN O C: OC Cn to_^ NO _ , — . - ■ r->r o' On' 00 im' On cn)' o ^ C' nO' to' ^ o' t~C rvj' u-j tj-' On cm' On' '*' ^' rC t>»»-i CM'^toi^v ■^t^ON'^ cor^-^NOOO -^NOCMtoON r^r^ O NO Tt o) r^ >$ ^ On t tfl >>^^^ INDEX Abolitionists, encourage slaves to escape, 345, 346; aid John Brown, 377, 378. Acadia, 93, 95. Acadians, exile of, 105, 106. Act of Succession, 96. Adams, John, helps negotiate the Treaty of Paris, 202; the first vice- president, 218; administration of, 231-233, 241. Adams, John Quincy, inspires the Monroe Doctrine, 279; elected presi- dent, 283, 284. Adams, Samuel, 153, 158-160, 167. Agricultural and mechanical colleges, 570. Agricultural high schools, 571. Agriculture, colonial, 135, 136; in the South after the War of Secession, 466, 467. Aguinaldo, Emilio, 535, 536. Alabama, visited by De Soto, 29; se- cession of, 384; political rights re- stored to, 455. Alabama, the career of, 409; claims arising from, 460. Alamance River, battle of, 158, 159. Alamo, the siege of, 324. Alaska, Russian posts established in, 247; purchase of, 460; discovery of gold in, 523, 524. Albania. 596. Albany Congress, 103. Albert, King, 609, 616. Alexander, Emperor, 576. Algonquins, tribes of, 24; conspire against the English, 150; in the Revolutionary War, 200, 201. Alien and sedition laws, 233, 238. Allenby, General, 644. Alsace-Lorraine, 586, 647. Amendments to the Constitution, I-X, 226, 227; XIII, 438, 477; XIV, 452, 453; XV, 458; XVI, 552; XVII, 553; XVIII, 566; XIX, 568; text of, xvi-.\xi-, America, discovery of, 13, 16; naming of, 21. American Expeditionary Forces, 636, 637. American Federation of Labor, 516, 517. Amnesty Act, the, 458. Anatolian Railway, 594. Andre, Major, 192. Andros. Sir Edmund, 76, 77. Annapolis, tea ships burned at, 160; convention held in, 211. Antietam Creek, battle of, 408. Anti-Federalists, 216. Anti-Nebraska party, 372. Anti-slavery agitation, 314-316, 338. See also Abolitionists. Appalachians, the, a natural barrier, 84; settlement of the western slope, 101, 102. Appomattox Court House, 435, 436. Apprenticeship in colonial times, 121, 122. Argonne Forest, battle of, 643. Arizona, early missions in, 84; ad- mitted to the Union. 493. Arkansas, visited by De Soto, 29; ad- mitted to the Union, 342; secession of, 391; political rights restored to, 455. Armada, the, 33, 34. Armistead, Gen. Lewis A., 417. Arnold, Gen. Benedict, 190-193, 196. Arthur, Chester A., 496. Articles of Confederation, the, 204- 206, 211. Ashe, John, 153. Astor, Fort, 274. Atlanta, destroyed by Sherman, 430. Atlantic cable, 563, 564. Attorney-general, 222. Augusta, 193. Austin, Moses, 323. Austin, Stephen F., 323. Australian ballot, introduction of, 504, 505. Austria, position in the old German Empire, 578, 579; leading state in the German Confederation, 579, 584; war with Prussia, 584. Austria-Hungary, rise of, 579-581; an- nexation of Bosnia and the Herze- govina, 594; a member of the Triple Alliance, 589, 594; revolution immi- nent after Balkan Wars, 597; ulti- matum to Serbia, 607, 608; begins the World War, 608; surrender of, 644; dismemberment by Treaty of Versailles, 648. Austrian Succession, the War of, 98- 100. Automobile, 562, 563. Bahama Islands, 13. "Balance of power," 92. Balboa, de, Vasco Nunez, 19. Balkan States, rise of, 588, 589; a source of continual trouble, 592- 594; at war with Turkey, 595. 596; in the Second Balkan War, 596. Baltimore, troops attacked in, 391, 392. Baltimore, Lord. See George Calvert. Baltimore and Ohio Railway, 307. Banks, Gen. N. P., 405. Baptist Church, the, 118. Barnard, Henry, 360. Barry, Commodore John, 198. Barton, Clara, 527. Bastille, the, 228, 229. Bean, William, 147. Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., captures Fort Sumter, 389-391; at the battle of Manassas, 397, 398; at Shiloh Church, 402. Bee, Gen. Bernard E., 397. Belgium, creation of the kingdom of, 577; neutrality of Belgium guaran- teed. 577, 578; invaded by the Ger- mans, 608, 609, 616. Bell, Alexander Graham, 565. Bell, John C, 382. Bering. Vitus, 247. INDEX Berkeley, Governor William, 69, 120. Berkman, Alexander, 658. Berlin-Bagdad Railway, 594, 595. Bessemer process of making steel, 564. Bicycle, 562. Bienville, de, Celoron, 102. Bienville, de, Le Moyne, 88, 89. Biloxi, 88. Bismarck, von, Prince Otto, ruthless policy of, 584; brings on the Seven Weeks' War, 584; organizes the North German Confederation, 585; desire for war with France, 585; terms imposed on France after Franco-Prussian War, 586; makes William I emperor, 587; forms the Triple Alliance, 589; deposed by Kaiser William II, 591. "Black death," the, 8. "Black hole of Calcutta," the, 100. Blanco, General, 527. Bland Bill, the, 485. "Blockade runners," 398, 399. Bolsheviki, the, obtain control of Rus- sia, 637, 638; principles of, 656; propaganda in the United States, 656, 657; deportation of, 657, 658. Boone, Daniel, 146, 147. "Boone's trace," 147, 200. Booth, John Wilkes, 437. Bosnia and the Herzegovina, revolt of, 588; become a protectorate of Austria-Hungary, 589; annexation of, 594; assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in, 607. Boston, massacre in, 157, 158; tea dumped into the harbor of, 159, 160; evacuation of, 171, 172. Boston News Letter, the, 123. Boston Port Bill, 160. Boundary disputes, Pennsylvania and Maryland, 81; Canada and the United States, 274, 460; the Louisi- ana Purchase, 275, 276; Oregon country, 332; Texas and Mexico, 332; Texas and New Mexico. 343; Venezuela and British Guiana, 520, 521. "Bounties," in the War of Secession, 423. Bowie, James, 323. Boxer Rebellion, the, 537, 538. r>ozzaris, Marcos, 588. Braddock, General, 105. Bragg, Gen. Braxton, invades Ken- tucky, 403; at the battle of Stone River, 404; in the Chattanooga cam- paign, 423-425. Brandywine Creek, battle of, 187. Breckinridge, John C. 381, 382. Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 515. Brown, John, in Kansas, 370, 371; seizes the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, 377, 378. Brown, Moses, 296. Buchanan, James, elected president, 372; administration of, 376, 384, 388, 564. Buckner, Gen. Simon B., 401. Buell, Gen. D. C, 402, 403. Buena Vista, battle of, 334. Bulgaria, granted self-government, 589; elects a German prince as its king, 594; defeated in Second Bal- kan War, 596; enters the World War, 622; surrender of, 644. Bunker Hill, battle of, 170, 171. Bureau of Forestry, 550. Bureau of Immigration, 479. Burgesses, House of, 44, 153, 161, 295. Burgoyne, Gen. John, 188, 189. Burke, Edmund, 162. Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., 408. Butler, Gen. B. F., 403, 412. Byrd, William, estate of, 42; library, 122; opposition to slavery, 142. Cabinet, Washington's first, 222, 223. Cabot, John, 20. Cahokia, 89, 201. Calhoun, John C, enters Congress, 258; position on the Omnibus Bill, 344; views as to slavery, 359, 360; opposes the Tariff of 1828, 309. California, early missions in, 84; northern boundary, 274; Polk tries to buy from Spain, 333; proclaimed a republic, 335; gold discovered in, 339-341; seeks admittance to the Union, 341, 342; admitted as a state, 344; anti-Japanese legislation in, 497. Calvert, George, 55. Calvert, Leonard, 5^. Calvin, John, 31. Camden, battle of, 193. Campos, General, 526. Canada, invasion of, 171; in the War of 1812, 260, 261, 263. Canadian boundary dispute, 460 • Canal building, 293, 294. Canal Zone, cession of, 544. Cantigny. fighting at, 641. Cantonments, 632, 633. Capitol, federal, location of, 225; burn- ing of, 263, 264. Carnegie, Andrew, 573. Carolina, grant of, 71; religious toler- ation in, 71, 72; made a royal prov- ince, 72; division of, 72. Carpenters' Hall, 161. "Carpetbaggers," the, 454. Carranza, Gen. Venustiano, 604, 605, 659, 660. Carroll, Charles, 307. Carson, Kit, 330, 335. Carteret, Sir George, 74. Cartier, Jacques, 58. Cartwright's loom, 296. Cass, Gen. Lewis, 338. "Cavaliers," 69. Centennial Exposition, 469. Cervera, Admiral, 531. 532. Chalmette plantation, battle at. 265. Chambersburg, burning of, 428. Champion Hills, battle of, 420, 421. Champlain, de, Samuel, 59, 60, 62, 63. Charles I, 50, 51, 55, 68, 69. INDEX Charles II, 70, 76, 93, 143, 247. Charles Albert, 581-583. Charleston, founding of, 71; attacked by Spaniards, 95; library in, 122; commerce of, 139; tea destroyed in, 160; threatened by Britisli, 172, 173; captured by British, 193; taken by Federal forces, 434. Charleston and Hamburg Railway, 308. Charlestown, 165, 166, 170. Charlotte, 175, 194. Chateau Thierry, battle of, 641. Chattanooga, battles around, 423-425. Cherokees, 314, 487. Chesaf'eakc and Shannon, 263. Chesapeake outrage, the, 251, 257. Chickamauga, battle of, 424. C hickasaws, 314, 487. Child labor, 364. China, spheres of influences in, 536; the Boxer Rebellion in, 537, 538; refuses to sign the Treaty of Ver- sailles, 648. Chinese E.xclusion Act, the, 496, 497. Choctaws, 314, 487. Church of England, origin of, 46; in the colonies, 117, 118. Cities in 1770, 129; growth of, 1790- 1850, 350, 351; 1860-1910, 558, 55'J; modern ideas as to government of, 569. Civil Rights Bill, 452. Civil service reform, 495, 496, 503. Civil War, the. See War of Secession. Clark, Elijah, 195. Clark, George Rogers, 201. Clark, William, 248. Clay, Henry, enters Congress, 258; se- cures the admission of Missouri, 282; proposes gradual reduction of the tariff, 311; views as to slavery in New Mexico, 343; author of the Omnibus Bill, 343, 344; candidate for the presidency, 306. Clayton Anti-Trust Law, 602, 603. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 542. Clermont, the, 2S0. Cleveland, Grover, first administration of, 498, 500, 501; defeated for re- election, 503, 504; opposed to an- nexation of Hawaiian Islands, 510; second election to the presidency, 512; second administration of, 520, 521. Clinton, Gen. Henry, 191-193. 196. Clinton, Governor DeWitt, 292. Coal, development of soiithern fields, 468; opening of mines in the West, 483. Colonial crimes and punishment, 123, 124. Colonial government, 126. Colonial land claims, conflicts in, 205. Colonial social life, 115-117. Colonial society, 112. Colonization, theories of, French, 61; English, 73. Colorado, admitted to the Union, 491, 492; grants suffrage to women, 567. Columbia, burning of, 434. Columbia River, discovery of, 248. Columbus, Christopher, the man and his ideas, 13; struggles of. 14, 15; voyages across the Atlantic, 15-18; lands on San Salvador, 16. Columbus, Mexican outrage at, 60S. Commerce, colonial, 138, 139, 144; under the Confederation, 211. Committee of correspondence, 158, 161. Committees of safety, 168, 174. "Commonwealth," the, 69. Compass, invention of, 9, 10. Compromise of 1850, 343, 344. Comstock silver lode, 476, 485. Concord, battle of, 166. "Conestoga wagon," 286. Confederate States of America, organ- ization of, 384, 385; attitude of North toward, 385; sends a com- mission to Washington, 388, 389; collapse of, 433-435; finances of, 442, 443. Confederation, the New England, 103, 104; of 1781, how formed, 204, 205; defects of, 205, 206, 210, 211. Confederation of German states, 579, 584. Confederation of the Rhine, 579. Conflicting land claims, 205. Congregational Church, 53, 76, 118. Congress of Berlin, 588, 589. Congress of Vienna, 575, 577-578 581. Connecticut, settlement of, 55; Dutch trading posts in, 64, 65 ; secures a royal charter, 76; during the Revo- lutionary War, 174; threatens nulli- fication, 254. "Connecticut compromise," the, 214. Conscription, during the W'ar of Se- cession, 422, 423; during the war with Germany, 632, 651, 652. Conservation of natural resources, 550- 552. Constantine, King, 594. Constantinople, fall of, 8. Constitution of the United States, drafting of, 213-216; ratification by the states, 216, 217; text of, iii- xxii. Sec also Amendments to the Constitution. Constitutional party, the, 382. Constitution and Guerricre, 261. Continental army, strength of, 170; condition of, 186, 189. Continental Congress, First, 161, 162; Second, 166, 167, 185, 190. Continental currency, 167, 209. Continental navy, 198. "Continental system," the, 252. "Contraband goods," 231. Cook, Capt. James, 247. Coolidge, Calvin, 661. Cooper, James Fenimore, 361. Copper, 483. Corinth, 402, 404. Cornwallis, Lord Charles, 185, 186, 193-197. Coronado, de, Francisco, 30, 31. Cortez, Hernando, 27, 28. Cotton Centennial Exposition, 469, XXX INDEX Cotton-gin, 294. Cotton manufacturing, 269, 296, 297. 468, 469. Cotton production, before the Revolu- tionary War, 294; effect of cotton- gin on, 295; during the War of Se- cession. 398; since 1865, 467. Cotton States and Industrial Exposi- tion, 469. County system of government, origin of, 126. Cowpens, battle of, 194. Cox, James M., 661, 662. Coxey, "General" Jacob S., 514. Creeks, the, attack Fort Mimms, 258; troubles with, 276; treaty for the removal of, 313. Crimean War, 588. "Crisis of the Revolution," the, 189. Crittenden, Senator J. J., 387. Crockett, David, 323. Crompton's mule, 296. Cromwell. Oliver, 69, 70. Crown Point, 106, 171. Crusades, the, 5, 6. Cuba, discovery of, 17, 18; attempt to purchase, 368; revolution in, 524; filibustering expeditions to, 524- provisional government established in, 525; proclaimed a republic, 525; bpanish cruelty in, 526; independ- ence recognized by the United Mates, 528; operations in, 531-533; ijpain withdraws from, 534; a pro- tec'orate of the United States, 534, Cunard Steamship Company, 357. Custer, Gen. George A., 488. "Dark and bloody ground," the, 146. Daughters of Liberty, 154 155 Davjes Act, 488, 489. Davis, Jefferson, position on slavery in California, 344; secretary of war, 367, 368; elected president of the Confederate States, 385; demands the surrender of Fort Sumter, 390; London bankers lose confidence in 419; arrest of, 437; death of, 437: discontent with, 443. Dearborn, Fort, 261. Declaration of Independence, the, 174- "Declaration of Rights and Griev- ances," 161, 162. DeKalb, Baron Johann, 187. Delaware, Swedes settle in, 65; ceded to Wm. Penn, 79; made separate colony, 79; refuses to secede, 391; abolishes slavery, 452. Delaware, Lord, 41. Democratic party, origin of, 234, 235; favors tariff for protection, 270; splits into two factions, 282, 283; secures control of Congress in 1874. 463. Democratic-Republicans, 234 235. De Soto, Hernando, 28-30. Detroit, 201, 246, 261. Dewey, Commodore George, 530, 531. Diaz, Bartholomew, 11. I Diaz, Porfirio, 603, 604. Dinwiddie, Governor, 102, 103. "Direct primary,'' the, 553. Dismal Swamp Canal, 294. "Dollar diplomacy," 554. Dominicans, the, declare their inde- pendence, 242. Donelson, Fort, capture of, 401. Douglas, Stephen A., 368, 369, 373- 375, 381, 382. Draft riots, 422, 423. Drake, Sir Francis, 32, 33. Dred Scott decision, the, 373. Drunkenness, 363, 364. "Dual Alliance," the, 589, 590. Duquesne, Fort, 103, 106. Dutch East India Company, 62, 63. Dutch West India Company, 63, 64. Eads, Capt. James B., 466. Early, Gen. Jubal A., 428. Early geographical knowledge, 1. Early maps, 2. Early settlements, 84, 128, 129. East India Company, 37, 159. East Indian and Chinese trade, 248. Ebenezer, settlement of, 97. lidison, Thomas A., 564, 565. Education, in the colonies, 120, 121; progress to 1850, 360; development of state systems in the South, 470- 472; progress, 1860-1910, 570-572. Election, of 1800, 238, 239; of 1816, 272; of 1824, 283; of 1828, 303, 304; of 1832, 306; of 1840, 320, 321; of 1848, 338, 339; of 1852, 367; of 1856, 372; of 1860, 381, 382; of 1864, 432, 433; of 1872, 458. 459; of 1876, 463-465; of 1888, 503; of 1892, 511, 512; of 1896, 522, 523; of 1900, 538, 539; of 1912, 599, 600; of 1916, 614, 615; of 1920. 661, 662. Electric light, the, 564, 565. Electric street-cars, 562. Eliot, Rev. John, 122. Elizabeth, Queen, 32, 33, 35, 37. Emancipation Proclamation, the, 413, 414, 419. Embargo Act, 253, 254. Emigrant Aid Society, the, 370. Endicott, John, 51. English manor, plan of, 4. Episcopal Church. See Church of England. "Era of good feeling," 272. Ericson, Lief, 10, 11. Erie Canal, 292, 293. Erie, Lake, 61, 86. Factory system, the, 357, 358, 547. "Fall line," 137, 468. Farragut, Admiral D. G., 402, 403, 432. "Far West," the. 475-477. Federal district, the, 225. Federalist. The. 217. Federalists, 216, 234, 235, 272. Federal reserve banking system, 602. Federal Trade Commission, 549. Ferdinand, Archduke, 607. Ferguson, Colonel, 193, 194. INDEX Field, Cyrus W., 563, 564. Fillmore, Millard, 344. Financial depression, after the War of 1812, 269. 270; in 1819, 276-278; in 1837, 311-313; in 1893, 512-514. Fisher, Fort, capture of, 432. F'isheries, Norse, 10; French, 20, 58; English, 20, 21; colonial, 132, 133. "Five civilized tribes," the, 487. "Five nations," the, 24, 60. Florida, discovery of, 28; attempts to colonize, 58; ceded to Great Britain, 108; returned to Spain. 202; annex- ation of western part, 275; seized by Jackson, 276; purchase of, 276; admitted to the Union, 342; seces- sion of, 384; political rights re- stored to, 455; l-'ederal troops re- moved from, 465. "Florida parishes," the, 275. Foch, ^larshal Ferdinand, 639-643. I'oote, Commodore A. li., 402. "Force Bill," the, 458. "Forks of the Ohio," the, 102. 103. Forrest, Gen. Nathan B., 429. Fox, Charles, 195. France, supremacy of, 92; alliance with the United Colonies, 190, 191; proclaimed a republic, 229; seeks American aid, 230; anger over Jay's treaty, 231; close to war with the United States, 232, 233; attitude during the War of Secession, 418, 419; tries to thwart Bismarck, 585; declares war on Germany, 585-587; restores the republic. 586; attitude on the Serbia difficulty, 608; mo- bilizes in defense of Russia, 608. Francis Joseph, 581. 608. Franco-Prussian War, the, 585-587. Franklin, Battle of, 431. Franklin, Benjamin, proposes a plan of vmion. 104; insists the colonies must stand together, 177; envoy to France, 186; helps negotiate the Treaty of Paris, 202. Franklin, the state of, 208. Fredericksburg, battle of, 408, 419. Freedmen. condition of, 448; John- son's policy toward, 451; educa- tional advantages provided for, 470, 471, 472. Freedmen's Bureau, the, 453, 454. "Free Soil" party, the, 339. Fremont, John C, explorations of, 331, 332; during the Mexican War, 335; candidate for the presidency, 372, 433; during the War of Seces- sion, 405. French and Indian War, the, 105- 109. French colonization, methods of, 61, 62. French Revolution, the, 228, 229. Friction between the states, 211; with the Spaniards, 243, 244. Friends, Society of, 77, 487. Frontier life, 286-288. Fugitive slave law, of 1792, 345; after the compromise of 1850, 346. Fulton. Robert, 290. Fur trade, 59. 61, 133-135, 247. "Gadsden Purchase," the, 336. Gage, Gen. Thomas, 160, 164, 166, 170, 171. Gallatin. Albert, 241, 292. Gallipoli, the campaign in, 620-622. Galveston, destruction of, 569. Gama, de, Vasco, 12, 18. Garfield, James A., elected president, 494; assassination of, 494, 4S5. Garibaldi. 583. _ Garrison,. William Lloyd, 314, 315, 365, 387. Gates, Gen. Horatio, 188, 190, 193, 194. General warrants, 153, 155. Genet, Citizen, 230. Genoa, 6. George I, 96. George 11. 104. 143. George III, 146, 148-150, 156, 157, 160, 174, 197, 198. 202. George. Fort, 274. Georgia, visited by De Soto, 29; origin of name, 96; royal charter, 97; early settlers in, 97; becomes a royal province, 98; slavery in, 142; assembly compelled to adjourn, 157; attitude toward First Continental Congress, 161; cession of western lands. 246, 313; the Creek lands dif- ficulty, 313; trouble with the Chero- kees, 314; establishes a university, 360; secession of, 384; political rights restored to, 458. Germans, the, in Virginia, 129; in Pennsylvania, 146. Germany, revolution of 1848, 349, 579; proclaimed an empire, 587; government of, 590; seeks domina- tion of the Near East, 594. 595; op- posed to a "greater Serbia." 596; effect of Second Balkan War on, 597; attitude in the Austro-Serbian difficulty, 608; declares war on Rus- sia and France, 608; blockade of, 609. 610; ruthless warfare of, 627; humiliation of Russia by, 638; in retreat on the western front, 643; deserted by her allies, 644; seeks an armistice, 644, 645; proclaimed a republic, 648. Gerry, Elbridge. 232. Gettysburg, battle of, 416; dedication of cemetery at, 417, 418. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 34. Gladstone, William E., 215, 399. "Glorious revolution," the, 93. Gold discoveries, in California, 339- 341; in Colorado, 376, 377; in Alaska, 523, 524. Goldman, Emma, 658. (^.oliad. battle of, 324. Good Hope, Cape of, 11, 12. Goodyear, Charles, 353, 354. Gordon, Gen. John B., 434. 435. Gorgas. Gen. William C. 544. Georges, Sir I'erdinand, 54. INDEX Ciorlice, capture of, 619. Governors' conference, the first, 550, 551. "Grand alliance," the, 93. "Grand model," the, 71. Grant, Ulysses S., captures Forts Donelson and Henry, 400, 401; at the battle of Shiloh Church, 401, 402; lays siege to Vicksburg, 419; opens up his "cracker line," 425; made lieutenant general, 426; de- vises a plan for ending the War of Secession, 426; in the Wilderness campaign, 427, 428; receives the surrender of Lee, 435, 436; elected president, 457; administration of, 457, 458; the Indian policy of, 486- 488. Orasse, de. Count Francois, 196, 197. Gray, Capt. Robert, 248. Great Britain, financial difficulties after the Seven Years' War, 150; recognizes the independence of the thirteen colonies, 202; closes West Indies to United States commerce, 209, 210; fails to observe the Treaty of Paris, 230. 231; at war with the United States, 258-268; opposes Spain's recovery of her American colonies, 279; attitude during the War of Secession, 399, 414, 419; passage of Reform Bill, 577; op- posed to intervention in Belgium, 578; attempts to preserve peace in Europe, 608; declares war on Ger- many, 609. "Great Law," the, 80. Great Meadows, 103. Greece, the winning of the independ- ence of, 588. Greeley, Horace, 384, 437, 459. "Greenbacks," 442. Greene, den. Nathanael, 194, 195, 196. "Green Mountain boys," the 188. Guam, ceded to the United States, 534. Guilford Court House, 194, 195. (Jutenberg, 10. Guthrie, 490. Haig, Gen. Douglas, 640. Hail Columbia, 232. Haiti, Columbus attempts to colonize, 18; I'nited States marines landed in, 606. Halleck, Gen. H. W.. 400, 402, 407. Hamilton, Alexander, delegate to the Annapolis convention, 211; joint au- thor of the Federalist papers, 217; secretary of the treasury, 222-226; leader of the Federalists, 234. Hamilton. General, 201. Hampton, Gen. Wade, 434. Hampton Normal and Industrial Insti- tute, the, 472. Hancock, John, 181. Harding, Warren G., elected presi- dent. 661, 662. Hargreavcs' spinning jenny, 296. Harnden, W. F.. 356. Harrison, Benjamin H., 489, 510. Harrison, William H., governor of Indiana Territory, 257, 258; in the War of 1812, 263; elected president, 320. 321; death of, 321. • Hartford Convention, 267, 2( Harvard College, 121. Havana, 108. Hawaiian Islands, proclaimed a re public, 5C9, 510; annexation of, 538 size of, 538. Hawkins, John, 31. 32. Hay, John, 536, 537. Hayes, Rutherford B., elected presi- dent, 463-465; administration of, 465, 518; defeated for renomination, 494. Haymarket Square riot, 518, 519. Hayne, Robert Y., 310. Hayne-Webster debate, 310, 311. Hennepin, Father, 86. Henry, Fort, capture of, 400, 401. Henry, Patrick, 143, 152, 153, 167, 201. Henry of Navarre, 58, 59. Henry, Prince, the Navigator, 11. Hessian soldiers, 169, 175, 185. 186. Highways, improvement of, 563. Hindenburg, von, General, 616-618, 638. Hobson, Lieut. Richmond P., 532. Hoe, Richard M., 353, 354, 573. Holland, rebellion in, 31, 62; mari- time supremacy of, 62; wars with England, 73, 93; attitude in Revolu- tionary War, 191. Holston Valley, settlement in, 147. "Holy Alliance," the, 278, 279, 576, 577. "Homestead Act," the, 478, 479. Hood, Gen. John B., defense of At- lanta, 429; in Tennessee, 431, 432. Hooker, Gen. Joseph, made com- mander-in-chief, 408; at the battle of Chancellorsville, 414, 415; in the battle of Lookout Mountain, 425. Hooker, Reverend Thomas, 55. Hoover, Herbert, 635, 636. Hopkinson, Joseph, 232. Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 258. Houston, Sam, 323, 324. Howe, Elias. 351, 352. Howe, Gen. William, 172, 183 185, 187, 188, 191. Hudson Bay, 95. Hudson Bay Company, the, 247. Hudson, Henry, 63. Hudson River, discovery of, 63. Huerta, Gen. Victoria, 604, 605. Hughes, Charles E., 614. Huguenots, 59, 71. Hull, Gen. William, 261. Huron, Lake, 59, 61. Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 54. Hutchinson, Governor Thomas, 157. Iberville, d', Le Moyne, 88. Idaho, admitted to the ITnion, 492; grants woman suffrage, 567. Illiteracy Act, the, 561. : I 184, INDEX Illiteracy, reduction in southern, 471; in the war with Germany, 651. Immigration, early, 348-350; after the War of Secession, 479, 480; from 1890 to 1913, 558, 559; restrictions on, 560, 561; from Germany, 579, 584; demand for more restrictions, 658. "Imperialism," 538, 539. Impressment of sailors, 251. Income tax, during the War of Seces- sion, 442; proposed by the Popu- lists, 511; legalized by constitutional amendments, 552; the law of 1913, 602. Indentured servants, 42, 43, 141. Independence Hall, 176. Independent treasury, creation of, 317. India, 100, 101. Indiana, territorial government organ- ized, 246. Indians, tribes of, 24; life and char- acter of, 24-26; difficulties with, 257, 258, 486-489; lands belonging to, 246, 247, 257; removal to Indian Territory, 313, 314; reservations established for, 486, 487. Indian Territory, 313, 314, 493. Industrial Workers of the World, 657. "Insurgents," the, 554, 555, 599. Internal revenue taxes, first imposed, 226, 227; repealed by the Demo- crats, 241; refused during the War of 1812, 260; in the War of Seces- sion, 442; in the War with Ger- many, 633, 634. Interstate Commerce Commission, the 499, 500. "Intolerable Acts," the, 160. Inventions, 351-354, 564-566. Iowa, admitted to the Union, 342. Iron industry, in the colonies, 138; development of, 269, 354, 564. Iroquois, tribes of, 24, 60; during the Revolutionary War, 200. Irving, Washington, 361. Isabella, Queen, 14, 15, 17. Island Number "Ten," capture of, 402. Isthmian Canal, French attempt to construct, 542, 543; authorized by Congress, 543; construction of, 544, 545. Italia Irredenta, 584, 622. Italy, in the fifteenth century, 20; unification of, 581-584; a member of the Triple Alliance, 589, 608; de- clares war on Austria-Hungary, 622, 623; disappointment at the peace congress, 648. Jackson, Andrew, in the Creek War 258; at the battle of New Orleans 265, 266; seizes Florida, 276; de feated for the presidency, 283 elected president, 303, 304; charac ter of, 304; administration of, 305 314; refuses a third term, 316; de sire to annex Texas, 325. Jackson, Gen. Thomas J., at the bat- tle of Manassas, 397, 398: dash for Washington, 405; death of, 415. James I. 37, 38, 43, 46. James II, 76, 93. Jamestown Colony, founding of, 38, 39; early history, 39-41; labor situa- tion in, 43; government of, 43, 44. Jamestown Tercentennial Exposition, 470. Japan, treaty with, 368; trouble threat- ens with, 497, 498; becomes of- fended at the peace congress, 648. Jasper, Sergeant William, 173. Jay, John, helps negotiate the Treaty of Paris, 202; joint author of the Federalist papers, 217; appointed chief justice, 223; negotiates a treaty with Great Britain, 231. Jefferson, Thomas, drafts the Declara- tion of Independence, 176; ap- pointed secretary of state, 222; be- comes leader of the Democrats, 234; elected president, 239; simplicity of, 240, 241; administration of, 241- 254; pucchases Louisiana, 244-246; refuses a third term, 254; opposed to slavery, 273; designs the Univer- sity of Virginia, 360, 361. Jenkins, William O., 660. Jerusalem, capture of, 644. Joffre, Marshal Joseph J. C, 616. Johnson, Andrew, nominated for the vice-presidency, 433; early life of, 450; reconstruction policy of, 450, 451; impeachment of, 456; compels withdrawal of French troops from Mexico, 459, 460. Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, 402. Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., at the bat- tle of Seven Pines, 404, 405; de- feated at Jackson, 420; in north Georgia, 429; attempts to join Lee, 433, 434; surrender of, 437. Joliet, Louis, 85. Junes, John Paul, 200. Kansas, visited by Coronado, 30; race for settlement of, 369, 370; slavery legalized, 370; rival government established in, 370, 371; grants women limited suffrage, 567. "Kansas-Nebraska Act," the, 368, 369. Kaskaskia, 89, 201. Kearny, Gen. Stephen W., 335. Kentucky, created a county, 200; ad- mitted to the Union, 228; enacts resolutions setting up the doctrine of nullification, 234; attitude toward the Confederacy, 392; invaded by Bragg, 403; abolishes slavery, 452. Kerensky, 626. Key, David M., 465. Key, Francis Scott, 264. King George's War, 98, 99. King Philip's War, 104. King William's War, 93, 94. King's Mountain, battle of, 193, 194. Knights of Labor, 515, 516. Knox, Gen. Henry, 222. INDEX Kosciusko, Thaddeus, 187. Ku-Klux Klan, 456-458. Labor party, the, 459. Labor unions, origin of, 358, 359; op- posed to Chinese immigration, 496, 497; growth of, 515; insist on closed shops, 516; invaded by Bol- sheviki propaganda, 656, 657. Labrador, discovery of, 10, 11. "Lady" Rebecca, 40. La Espaiiola, 17, 18. Lafayette, de. Marquis, 187, 189, 196. Land grants to aid public schools, 206, 207; to encourage railway build- ing, 355, 482; to establish colleges of agriculture, 570. La Salle, de, Robert Cavalier, Sieur, 86-88. Laurens, Henry, 202. Lawrence, burning of, 370. Lawrence, Capt. James, 263. "League of Nations" covenant, 649, 650. Lee, Gen. Charles, 185, 191. Lee, Richard Henry, 175. ' Lee, Robert E., captures John Brown, in, 378; becomes commander of Confederate armies, 405; in the bat- tle of Seven Pines, 405; invades Pennsylvania, 415; at the battle of Gettysburg, 416; opposes Grant in the "Wilderness," 426, 427; the de- fense of Richmond, 433-435; sur- render of, 435. 436. "Legal tender" laws, 210, 442. Lemberg, 617, 619. Lenine, 638, 656. Lesseps, de. Count Ferdinand, 542, 543. Letters of Marque, 199. Lewis and Clark Centennial, 491. Lewis and Clark Expedition, 248, 249. Lewis, Capt. Meriwether, 248. Lexington, battle of, 165, 166. "Liberal Republicans," 459. Liberator, The, 315. "Liberty party," the, 338. Libraries, in the colonies, 122; growth of public, 572, 573. Lincoln, Abraham, debates with Doug- las, 373-375; elected president, 381, 382; opposes any compromise with the South, 387; inauguration of, 387, 389; causes the attack on Fort Sumter, 389, 390; calls for volun- teers, 391; threatens to free the slaves, 412, 413; issues Emancipation Proc- lamation, 413, 414; his address at Gettysburg, 417, 418; opposition to his policies, 432, 433; assassination of, 437, 438; views as to reconstruc- tion, 449; the amnesty policy of, 449, 450. "Line of demarcation," 17. Literature, rise of American, 361. Livingston, Robert, 244, 245. Locke, John. 71. London Company, the, 37, 40, 41, 47. Long, Dr. Crawford W., 353. Long Island, battle of, 183. Longstreet, Gen. James, 424. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 425. Los Angeles, capture of, 335. Louis XIV, 93, 94. Louis XVI, 186, 190, 228-230. Louis XVIII, 575. Louisburg,' capture of, 99; restored to France, 99; destruction of, 106. Louisiana, visited by De Soto, 29; di- vided by Treaty of Paris, 108; ces- sion of French portion to Spain, 108; Spanish Louisiana returned to France, 241; purchase of, 245; ter- ritory of Louisiana created, 246; boundary in dispute, 275; Florida parishes annexed to, 275; celebrates the battle of New Orleans, 303, 304; secession of, 384; political rights re- stored to, 455. Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 491. Louis Napoleon. See Napoleon III. Louis Philippe, 577. L'Ouverture, Gen. Touissaint, 242. "Loyalists," the, 167, 168, 172. Ludendorff, General, 638-640. Lumbering, in the colonies, 131; in the Southern States, 469; wasteful methods of, 550. Lusitania, S. S., sinking of, 611, 612. Luther, Martin, 31. Mackensen, von. General, 618. Madero, Francisco, 604. Madison, James, joint author of the Federalist papers, 217; administra- tion of, 256-270; attitude toward in- ternal improvements, 292. Magazines, 362, 363, 573. Magellan, Fernando, 19, 20. Maine, made a part of Massachusetts, 77; invaded by British, 267; ad- mitted to the Union, 282; enacts first prohibition law, 364. Maine. The, destruction of, 527, 528. Malvern Hill, battle of, 406. Manassas, first battle of, 397, 398; second battle of, 407. Mantleville, Sir John, 1. Manhattan Island, 63, 64. Manhood suffrage, in Kentucky and Tennessee, 297; rapid spread of, 298. Manila, 108. 530, 531. Mann, Horace, 360. Manual training, 571. Manufacturing, in the fifteenth cen- tury, 7, 8; colonist, 136-138; growth of, 268, 269. Manufacturing Act, the, 151. Marco Polo, 1. Marconi, Signor, 565. Marcos, Fray, 30. Marcy, Senator, William L., 305. Marie Antoinette, 230. Marietta, battle at, 209. Marion, Francis, 195. Marne, the, battle of, 616. Marquette, Father, 85. INDEX XXXV Marshall, John, envoy to France, 231, 232; appointed chief justice, 241. Maryland, founding of, 56; govern- ment in, 56; position during the Commonwealth, 69, 70; indentured servants in, 141; assembly forced by governor to adjourn, 157; the "grand idea" of, 205; ratified the articles of Confederation, 205; pre- vented from secession by Federal forces, 391, 392; slavery abolished in, 414. Mason, James M., 399. Mason, John, 54. "Mason and Dixon's line," 80, 81, 280. Massachusetts, founding of the colony, 51, 52; early government, 52; in- dustrial growth of, 52, 53; intoler- ance in, 53; troubles with the Dutch, 65; royal province, 76; pro- vides for public schools, 120; rati- fication of the Constitution by, 217; enacts nullification resolutions, 254; threatens to secede, 326. Massachusetts general court, 52, 120, 133, 153, 157. Matagorda Bay, 87. Matamoros, battle of, 333. Maurepas, Fort, 88. Maximilian, Emperor, 418, 459, 460. "Mavflower compact," the, 48-50. McAdoo. William G., 634. McClellan, (Jen. George B., appointed commander-in-chief, 397, 398; the Peninsula campaign of, 404-407; at the battle of Antietam Creek, 408; nominated for the presidency, 433. McCormick, Cyrus, 352. McDowell, Gen. Irvin, 397, 404, 405. McHenry, Fort, 264. McKinley, William, author of the Mc- Kinley tariff, 506, 507; elected pres- ident, 522, 523; administration of, 524, 527-538; assassination of, 539. Meade, Gen. George G., 416, 417. "Mecklenburg Convention," the, 175. Mennonites, the, 119. Merrimac, The, sinking of. 532. Methodist Church, the, 118. Metternich, von. Prince, 579, 580. Mexico, conquest of, 27; secures inde- pendence, 322; confirms grant made Austin, 323; repudiates the treaty with Texans, 325; at war with the United States, 333-336; invaded by French troops, 418; proclaimed an empire, 418; revolutions in, 459, 460. 604. 605; during the Diaz dic- tatorship, 603, 604; invaded by United States troops, 605; intrigue with Germany. 613; troubles with the United States. 659, 660. Mexico Citv, fighting around, 334, 335. Michigan, territorial government or- ganized, 246; admitted into the Union. 342. Michigan, Lake, 61. "Middle Ages." the, 2-5. Miles. Gen. Nelson A., 533, 534. Mills, Roger Q., 501. Mimms, Fort, 258. ' Minnesota, admitted to the Union, 375. Mint, established at Philadelphia, 226. Minuit, Governor Peter, 64. "Minute mon," 164. Missionary Ridge, battle of, 425. Mississippi, visited by De Soto, 29; organized as a territory, 246; seces- sion of, 384; political rights restored to, 458. Mississippi River, discovery of, 29; settlements in the valley of, 89; closed to Americans by Spanish, 243; first steamboat on, 291; im- provement of, 465, 466. Missouri, slavery permitted in, 281; struggle over admission to the Union, 281, 282; prevented from se- ceding by federal forces, 392; slav- ery abolished in, 414. "Missouri Compromise," the, 281, 282, 369, 373. Mobile, founding of, 88; capture of, 432. Modocs, the, 487, 488. Monasteries, 3, 10. Money, in the colonies, 142-144. Montana, admitted to the Union, 492. Monmouth, battle of, 191. Monroe, James, envoy to France, 245; administration of, 272-280. "Monroe Doctrine," the, 279, 280, 418, 459, 520, 521. Montcalm, de, Marquis Louis J., 107, 108. Montdidier, fighting at, 641. Montenegro, 589. Monterey, battle of, 333, 334. Montreal, 58, 59. Moravians, the, 119. Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 194. Mormons, the, 375, 376, 492. Morrill Act, the, 570. Morris, Robert, 186. Morse, Samuel F. B., 352, 353, 563. Moultrie, Col. William, 172, 173. Moultrie, Fort, 390. Murfreesboro, battle of, 404. Xaples, Kingdom of, 581, 583. Napoleon Bonaparte, concludes peace with United States, 232, 233; mas- ter of Europe, 241, 242; war with Great Britain, 245; sells Louisiana to United States, 245; seizes mer- chantmen from United States, 256, 257; attitude toward the Spanish- American colonies, 278; abdication of, 575; return from Elba, 575, 576; exiled to St. Helena, 576; creator of the Confederation of the Rhine, 579; attack on Austria, 581. INDEX Napoleon III, sends troops to Mexico, 418; desire to aid the Confederate States, 419; forced to withdraw troops from Mexico, 459; supports the Pope, 583; willingness for war with Prussia, 585, 586; capture of. 586. ' Narvaez, de, Pamfilo, 28. Nashville, battle of, 431, 432. Natchez, 303. National Assembly, the, 229, 230. National bank system, 443, 444. National debt, after War of 1812, 267; in 1865, 441. "National highway," the, 289, 290. National political conventions, 316. 317. "National Union" party, 433. National Women's Suffrage Associa- tion, 567, 568. Navigation Acts, 7Z, 138, 139. Near East, the, German domination of, 594, 595; effect of Treaty of Bucharest on, 597. Nebraslia, admitted to the Union, 491. Nevada, admitted to the Union, 477. New Amsterdam, 64. New England Council, 51. New England Primer, 122. Newfoundland, granted to Gilbert, 34; colonization attempted, 55; tishing settlements established, 58; ceded to England, 95. New France, 59, 61, 108. New Hampshire, early settlements in 54; joined to Massachusetts, 54 made a separate colony, 54 77, popular disturbances in, 158; adopts a constitution, 174; ratification of the United States . Constitution by. 217. New Haven Colony, founding of, 55; annexed to Connecticut, 76. New Jersey, origin of name, 74; di- vided into two parts, 75; made a royal province, 75; attitude in the constitutional convention, 213. New Mexico, early missions in, 84; admitted to the Union, 493. New Netherlands, 63-65, 73, 74. New Orleans, founding of, 89; re- tained by France, 108; ceded to Spain, 108; importance of its pos- session to the United States, 242- 244; battle of, 265, 266; reception to Andrew Jackson, 304; capture of, 402, 403 ; commercial growth of, 466. Nexv Orleans, The, 291. Newspapers, colonial, 123; develop- ment of. 361, 362, 573. New York, origin of name, 74; a royal province, 75; distribution of settlers in 1770, 128; early schools in, 121; suffrage granted women, 568. New York City, appearance in 1770, 129, 130; destruction of tea in, 160; strategical position in the Revolu- tionary War. 183; effect of Erie Canal on, 292, 293; population in 1910, 559. New York Sun. the, 362. Nez Perces, the, 488. Niagara, Fort, 106. Non-importation agreements, 162. Non-Intercourse Act, 254, 256, 257. Nootka Sound, 247. Norsemen, tlie, 10. North, Lord, 162, 197, 198. North American Review, tlie, 362. North Carolina, early settlements in, 70, 72; settlement of the uplands, 129; authorized a declaration of in- dependence, 175; ratification of the United States Constitution, 227, 228; a university established in, 360; secession of, 391; political rights restored to, 455. North Dakota, admitted to the Union 492; enacts a referendum law, 568*. i\orthern Securities Company, the, 548, 549. North German Confederation, the. Northwest Territory, the, 205-207 246. ' Nullification, 234, 254, 310, 311. "Obnoxious acts," the, 150-152 Obregon, (ien. Alvaro. 660, 66l' Occupations of the colonists, li30. Oglethorpe, James E., 96-98. Ohio, admitted to the Union, 246; re- strictions imposed on negroes' in, Ohio Company, the, 102, 209. Oklahoma, opened for settlement, 489 490; admitted to the Union 49?' 493. ' "Old Hickory," 304. "Omnibus Bill," the, 344. "Open door" policy, 536, 537. Open shop" system, 516. Orders in council, 252, 256. Ordinance of 1787, 206, 207. Oregon, admitted into the ITnion, 375; enacts an initiative and referendum law, 568. Oregon county, claimed by both Spain and Great Britain, 247, 248; basis of the United States claims to, 250: the joint occupancy arrangement, 274, 329; early settlements in, 329, 330; annexation of, 332. Oregon. The. 531. "Oregon trail," the, 329, 330. Orleans Territory, 246. "Ostend manifesto," the, 368. Otis, James, 153, 157. Pacificists, the, 610. Pacific Ocean, origin of name, 19; dis covery of, 19. Pago Pago, 508. Pakenham, Sir Edward M., 265, 266. Pains. 15. 16. INDEX Panama, Isthmus of, discovery, 18, 19; railroad across, 340; proclaimed a republic, 542; independence rec- ognized by the United States, 543; cedes the Canal Zone, 544. "Pan-Germanic scheme." the, 591, 592. Panic of 1819, 276-278; of 1837, 311- 313; of 1893, 512-514. Parcel post, 561. Parliament, 148, 149. "Parson's Case," the, 143. "Patroon system," the, 64, 65. Paupers, treatment of English, 42. Pawtucket, 296. Peabody, George, 471, 472. Peabody Normal College, 471, 472. Pea Ridge, battle of, 400. Pemberton, Gen. John C, 419-421. Peninsula campaign, the, 404-407. Penn, William, 77-80. Pennsylvania, origin of name, 78; early history of, 81; colonial schools in, 121; distribution of settlements in 1770, 128. Pensacola, visited by Iberville, 88; captured bv French, 89; seized by Jackson, 27'6. Pensions, 507. Perry, Commodore Matthew C, 368. Perry, Commodore Oliver H., 262, 263. Perryville, battle of, 403. Pershing, Gen. John J., commander of Mexican punitive expedition, 60S; in command of American Ex- peditionary Forces in France, 636, 637; at the battle of St. Mihiel, 642, 643; in the battle of Argonne Forest, 643. Personal liberty laws, 345. Peru, conquest of, 28. Petersburg, besieged by Grant, 427, 428; evacuation of, 435. Petition, Congress refuses to receive. 316. Petroleum, discovery of, 377. Philadelphia, founding of, 79; growth of. 81; population in 1770, 129; holds a day of public mourning, 161. Philip II, 33. Philippines, the, discovery of, 20; cap- tured by Dewey, 530, 531; ceded to the United States, 534; insurrection in, 535, 536; government of, 536; size. 538. Phillips, Wendell, 365. Photography, 353. Pickens, Andrew, 195. Pickett, Gen. George E., 417. Pierce, Franklin, administration of, 367. 368. Pierre du Guast, Sicur de Monts, 59. Pike, Zebulon M., 249, 250, 330. Pilgrims, migration to Holland, 47; the American venture, 47, 48. Pinchot, Gifford, 550. Pinckney, Charles C., 232. "Pine tree shillings," 143. Pitcairn, Major John, 166. Pitt, William, 106, 149, 150, 153-155. Pittsburgh Landing, battle of, 402. Pizarro, Francisco, 28. Plymouth Colony, founding of, 50; union with Massachusetts, 77. Plymouth Company, the, 37. Pocahontas, 40. Poison gas in warfare, 618. Polk, Tames K., administration of, 330-337. Polygamy, 492. Ponce de Leon, Juan, 28. Pony express, the, 356. "Pools,'; 499, 546, 547. Poor Richard's Almanac, 123. Pope, Gen. John, 402, 407, 408. Population, in 1770, 128, 130; slaves in 1770, 142; growth from 1789 to 1820, 280, 281; growth from 1820 to 1850. 348; of the Far West, 476, •477; mcreases from 1860 to 1910, 558; movement of center of, 560. Populist party, the, organization of, 486; in the election of 1892, 511- 512; opposed to repeal of Sherman Act, 514. Porter, Commodore David D., 419, 420. Port Gibson, battle of, 420. Port Hudson, fall of, 421. Porto Rico, invasion of, 533, 534; ceded to the LTnited States, 534; government of, 535; size, 538. Port Royal, 59, 93, 94, 95. Portugal, 62. Portuguese, discoveries of, 11, 12. Postage stamps, 356. Postal system, colonial, 125, 126; ex- pansion of, 355, 356. Preemption Act, the, 478. Presbyterian Church, the, 118. President, the, how elected originally, 237; since 1804, 239, 240. President and Little Belt, 257. "Pretender," the, 94, 95. Pribilof Islands, 507, 508. Printing, invention of, 10; first print- ing press in the LTnited States, 122. Prison reform, 363. Privateers, during the Revolutionary War, 199; in the War of 1812, 261, 262. "Proclamation Line," the, 146, 200. Progressive party, the, 599. Prohibition, first state-wide law, 364; repeal of jirohibition laws after the War of Secession, 459; advance- ment of. 566. Prohibition party, the, 459, 566. Promontory Point, 481, 482. Protestantism, 31. Providence Plantations, the, 54. Prussia, rise of, 579; William I be- comes king, 584; expansion under Bismarck, 584, 585. Public lands, first survey of, 206; methods of settlement, 478, 479, Public utilities, 511. Puebla, battle of, 334, INDEX Pulaski, Count Casiniir, 187. Puritans, the, 46, 51. Quakers, in New Jersey, 75; in Vir- ginia, 70, 71; in Massachusetts, 11; in England, 11. Quartering Act, the, 160. Quebec, founding of, 59; description of, 107; captured by the British, 107, 108; attacked, by a Continental army, 171. Quebec Act, the, 160. Queen Anne's War, 94, 95. Queenstown Heights, battle of, 261. "Radical Republicans," the, 433. Railways, early, 306-309; increase from 1830 to 1850, 354, 355; popu- lar discontent with, 498, 499; ef- forts to regulate, 500; development from 1860 to 1910, 561; influence of the Bessemer process on, 564; placed under government control, 634. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 34. 35. Randolph, Edmund, 222. "Recall," the, 568, 569. Reclamation Act, the, 483. Reconstruction, the problem of, 449; President Johnson's plan, 451; the Congressional plan, 451, 452; condi- tions in the South during, 454-456. "Referendum," the, 568. "Reform Bill," the, 577. "Regicides," the, 75, 76. "Regulating Act," the, 160. "Regulators," the, 158, 159. "Reign of terror," the, 229, 230. Religion in the colonies, 117. Religious oppression in England, 46, 51, 55, 91. Renaissance, the, 9, 10. Republicans, the original, 234. Republican party, organization of, 371, 372; split during the War of Secession, 433; the split of 1872, 459; rise of the "Insurgents," 554, 555; the split in 1912, 599. "Restoration," the, 70. Revolution in England, the, 68, 69. Rhode Island, founding of, 54; the royal charter of, 76; government during the Revolutionary War, 174; ratification of the Constitution by, 227, 228. Rice growing, 98, 141, 142. Richmond, evacuation of, 435. "Rivers and Harbors Act," 506. Roanoke Island, 35. Robertson, James, 147. Rochambeau, de. Count, 196. Roman Catholic Church, the, during the Middle Ages, 3; in Maryland, 56, 69, 119; forbidden in (Jeorgia, 97; missionary efforts in the .South- west, 83, 84; influence in Middle West, 84, 85; effect of the Quebec i Act on. 160. Roman Empire, 3, 1 Rome, seized by Napoleon Bonaparte, 581; made capital of the Kingdom of Italy, 583. Roosevelt, Franklin D., 661. Roosevelt, Theodore, during the Span- ish-American War, 533; succeeds to the presidency, 540; char- acter of, 541, 542; the Panama coup, 543, 544; efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War, 545, 546; wages war on the trusts, 548; inter- vention in the coal strike, 549, 550; conservation policy of, 550-552; leader of the "Insurgents," 599; in- tervention in San Domingo affairs, 605. Rosecrans, Gen. William S., 404 423- 425. "Rotten boroughs," 148, 149. "Rough Riders," the, 533. Roumania, secures independence, 589; elects a German prince as king, 594; position in the World War, 624. "Roundheads," the, 69. Royal African Company, the, 141. Rum, 138. Rupert, Prince, 247. Russia, establishes trading posts in Alaska, 247; yields to the Monroe Doctrine, 329; sells Alaska to the United States, 460; ambition to con- trol Constantinople, 588; hatred for Germany, 589; a member of the dual alliance, 589, 590; protests against annexation of Bosnia and the Herzegovina, 594; mobilizes in defense of Serbia, 608; part in the World War, 616-620, 624, 625; revo- lution in, 625, 626. Russo-Japanese War, 545, 546. Sacajawea, 249. Sacramento. 339, 340. St. Augustine, founding of, 31; im- portance of, 93; attacked by South Carolinians, 95. St. Helena, 576. St. Lawrence River, discovery of, 58; settlements established along, 59. St. Leger, General, 188. St. Marks, 276. St. Mihiel, 642, 643. St. Pierre and Miquelon, 108. "Salary grab act," the, 462. Sanioan Islands, placed under a joint protectorate, 508, 509; Tutuila ceded to the United States, 509, 538. Sampson, Rear Admiral William T., 531. San Jacinto, battle of, 324. San Salvador, 13, 16. Santa Anna, General, 323, 324. Santa Fe, founding of, 31; capture of, 335. Santa Fe trail, the, 331. Santee Canal, 294. Santiago, sinking of the Merrimac at, 532; capture of, 532, 533, INDEX Santo Domingo, Roosevelt intervenes in affairs of, 605; treaty with, 605, 606; United States marines landed, 606. Saratoga, battle of, 188, 189. Saturday Evening Post, The, 573. Savannah, founding of, 97; captured by thq British, 193; captured by Sherman, 430. Savannah, The, 356. Scalawags, the, 454. Schleswig and Holstein, 479, 480, 584. Schley, Commodore W. S., 531, 532. Schofield, Clen. Tohn McA., 431. Schools lands, 207, 570. Schools, the Dutch in New York, 75, 121; the first public in America, 120; federal aid to, 207; consolida- tion of, 571, 572; free text-books in, 572. .Schuyler, Gen. Philip J., 190. Scotch-Irish settlers, in the Carolinas, 71; in Virginia, 129; in western Pennsylvania, 146. Scott, Gen. Winfield, ordered to Charleston, 311; lands at Vera Cruz, 334; campaign against Mexico City, 334, 335; candidate for the presidency, 367. Seals, trouble with Great Britain over, 507, 508. "Sea of Darkness," the, 2. Selective Service Act, the, 632. Seminoles, the, 276, 487. Semmes, Capt. Raphael, 409. "Separatists," the, 46, 47. Serbia, secures independence, 589; commercial barriers, 5''2. 594; am- bition for a "greater Serbia," 594, 595; the difficulty with Austria- Hungary, 607, 608; overrun by Ger- man troops, 622. Serfs, 4, 8. Seven Days' Battle, the, 405-407. "Seven great cities," the, 30. Seven Pines, battle of, 405. Seven Weeks' War, the, 583, 584, 586. Seven Years' War, the, 104, 150. Sevier, John, 147, 208. Sewing machines, 351, 352. Shafter, Gen. W. R., 532. Shantung Peninsula, the, 591, 648. "Shay's rebellion," 210. Sheridan, Gen. Philip H., 428, 435. Sherman, Gen. W. T., at siege of Vicksburg, 419; "on to Atlanta," 428, 429; the march to the sea, 429; in the Carolinas, 434, 435. Sherman Anti-Trust Law, the, 548. Sherman Silver Act, the, 486, 514. Shiloh Church, battle of, 401, 402. Shipbuilding, in the colonies, 131; during the War with Germany, 635. "Sick man of Europe," the, 588. Silver, discoveries of, 476, 483; de- monetization of, 485; coinage re- sumed, 486. Sioux, the, troubles with, 486, 488. Sitka, Russian post established at. 247. Slater, John F., 472. Slater, Samuel, 296. Slavery, in the Spanish colonies, 27; introduced into Virginia, 43; for- bidden in the Northwest Territory, 207; abolished in Massachusetts, 214; growing importance of, 273; northern hypocrisy, 280; effect of cotton-gin on, 295, 296; the non- importation acts, 295; agitation against, 314-316; not permitted in California, 341, 342; effect of Mex- ican VVar on, 342, 343; Congress refuses to receive petitions to abol- ish, 316; interference with, 343- 347; slave territory extended by Kansas-Nebraska Act, 368, 369; the Dred Scott decision, 373; effort to protect by constitutional amend- ment, 387; anti-slavery sentiment in the South, 392; relation to the War of Secession, 412, 413; abolished in the District of Columbia, 413; abol- ished in Tennessee, Missouri, West Virginia and Maryland, 414; abol- ished in_ Kentucky and Delaware, 452; a hindrance to manufacturing, 468. Slave trade, causes friction between Spain and England, 31, i2y in the col- onies, 141, 142; an issue in the con- stitutional convention, 214, 215; forbidden in the District of Colum- bia, 344. Slidell, John, 333, 399. Smith, Capt. John, 39. Smith, Gen. Kirby, 437. Smith, Joseph, 375, 376. Smith-Lever Act, the, 571. Smuggling, in colonial times, 139, 140; following the Embargo Act, 253, 254. Socialist Party, the, 600. "Sons of Liberty," the, 154, 155. Sophia of Hanover, 96. South Carolina, early attempts to col- onize, 58; settlement of^, 71, 72; slavery in, 141, 142; the assemoly forcibly adjourned, 157; attitude to- ward the slave trade, 295; threatens to secede, 310; rescinds its nullifica- tion resolutions, 311; establishes a university, 360; secession of, 382, 383; troops fire on Star of the West, 387, 388; political rights re- stored to, 455; Federal troops re- moved from, 465. South Dakota, 492. "South Sea," the, 19. "Southwest Passage," the, 18, 19. .Soviet, the, 637. Spain, attitude in the Revolutionary War, 191; cedes Louisiana to France, 241 ; revolt of her American colonies, 278, 576; friction with the LTnited States, 527; declares war upon the LTnited States, 529; sues for pesce, 534. xl INDEX Spanish-American War, the, 529-534. Spanish colonization, character of, 26, 28. "Specie circular," Jackson's, 312, 313. Specie payments discontinued, during the War of 1812, 270; during Van Buren's administration, 317; during the War of Secession, 442. Speculation in lands, 277, 311, 312. "Spoils system," the, 305, 495. Spottsylvania Court House, 427. "Squatter sovereignty," 368, 369. Stamp Act, the, 151-155. "Stamp Act Congress," the, 153. Standard Oil Company, 548. Stanwix, Fort, 188. Star of the West, The, 387, 388. Star-Strangled Banner, The, 264, 265. State banks, 277, 278. State sovereignty, 384. State universities, the first, 360, 361. "Stay laws," 210, 317. Steamboat, 290, 291. Steam engine, 290, 296. Steamships, 356, 357. Stephens, Alexander H., 385. Stephenson, George, 307. Steuben, Baron Frederick W., 187. Stevens, John, 307. Stevens, Thaddeus, 450. Stone River, battle of, 404. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 346, 347. Strikes, forbidden by law, 358; of railway workers, 517-519; at Home- stead, 519, 520; of the Pullman Car Company's employees, 520; the an- thracite coal miners, 549, 550; after the War with Germany, 655, 656, 658, 659. Stuyvesant, Peter, 65, 73, 74. Suffrage, colonial requirements for, 126; spread of manhood suffrage, 297. 298. See also Woman Suf' frage. Sugar Act, the, 140. Sullivan's Island, 172. Sumner, Charles, 450. Sumter, Fort, 388-390. Sumter, Thomas, 195. Superior, Lake, 61. Supreme Court, the, 223. Surplus, the, Congress votes to return to states, 312; during Cleveland's administration, 500. Taft, William H., 554, 555, 599, 600, 604. .... Tariff, the first law, 225, 226; for pro- tection in 1816, 270; the "tariff of abominations," 309; rates lowered in 1832, 310; the act of 1833, 311; the McKinley law, 506, 507; the Wilson Bill, 514; the Dingley Act, 524; the Payne-AIdrich Law, 554, 555; the Underwood Bill. 602. Tiriff question, the, 505, 506. Tarleton, Col. Bannastre, 194. Taxation, in England, 43; controlled by the burpesses in Virginia, 44; attempt to impose on the colonies, 150, 156, 157, 159. Taylor, Gen. Zachary, ordered to the Neuces River, 332; advances to the Rio Grande River, 333; the battle of Monterey, 333, 334; elected president, 338. 339; death of, 344. Tecumseh, 258. Telegraph, the, 352, 353. Telephone, the, 565. "Teller resolution," the, 534. Tennessee, admitted into the Union, 228; secession of, 391; abolishes slavery, 414; political rights re- stored to, 455. Tennessee Centennial Exposition, 469. 470. Tenure of Office Act, the, 456. Territory south of the Ohio, the, 208, 228. Texas, early missions in, 84; claimed by United States, 275; immigratioa from the United States, 323; revo- lution breaks out in, 323; proclaimed a republic, 325; agitation over the annexation of, 325, 327; boundary disputed by Mexico, 332; the Texas- iSiew Mexico boundary dispute, 343, 344; secession of, 384; political rights restored to, 458; Federal troops removed from, 465. Thames River, battle of, 263. Thirty Years' War, the, 578. Thomas, Gen. George H., at the battle of Chickamauga, 424; in middle lennessee, 431, 432; nominated sec- retary of war, 456. Ticonderoga, Fort, taken from the I'rench, 106; captured by Conti- nental soldiers, 171; retaken by Burgoyne, 188. Tilden, Samuel J., 463. Tippecanoe, battle of, 258. Tobacco, the raising of, 41, 56, 142; "receipts" serve as money, 142, 143. Toleration Act," the, 56. Tonti, de, Henry, 86. Toombs, Robert W., 371, 391. Tories, the, in England, 96, 149; in the colonies, 167, 168. Toscanelli. 14. Total abstinence societies, 363, 364. Toussaint L'Ouverture, General, 242. Town meeting, 126. Townshend Acts, the, 155, 156. Trade Laws, the, 151, 155. Trade routes to the East, 6, 9. Tanscontinental railways, need of, 481; completion of the first, 481, 482; later ones, 482. Trans-Mississippi Exposition, 490, 491. Transportation, in the colonies, 124, 125; early cost of, 242, 243; rates to the trans-Allegheny country, 288; effect of the Erie Canal. 292, 293; influence of railways, 308, 309; ef- fect of immigration, 349. 350; build- ing of the trans-continental rail- ways. 481. 482. Transylvania, 146. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 99, 100. Treaty of Bucharest, 596, 597. INDEX xli Treaty of Ghent, 268. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 336. Treaty of London, 595. Treaty of Paris, in 1763, 108, 109; in 1783, 202; in 1898, 534. Treaty of Ryswick, 94. Treaty of Utrecht, 95. Treaty of Versailles, terms of, 649, 650; reservations attacked by United States Senate, 654; an issue in the. election of 1920, 661. 662. Trent Affair, the, 399. Trenton, battle of, 185, 186. "Triple alliance," the, origin and pur- pose of, 589, 590; deserted by Italy, 622. "Triple entente," the, origin and pur- pose of, 592; effect of the Second Balkan War on, 597. Tripoli, war with, 250. Trotsky, 638. "Trusts," the, 547-549. Tryon, Governor William, 158. Turkey, integrity of Turkey guaran- teed, 588; loss of the Balkan prov- inces, 588, 589; friendship for Ger- many, 594, 595; defeated in the First Balkan War, 595; enters the World War, 620; the surrender of, 644. Turks, the, by oppressing Christians cause the crusades, 5; overrun southeastern Europe, 8; atrocious treatment of Christian subjects, 587, 588. Turner, Nat, insurrection led by, 315. Turnpikes, 288. Tuskegee Xormal and Industrial In- stitute, 472. Tutuila, 'cession of, 509, 538. "Tweed Ring," the, 463. Tyler, John, 321. Uncle Tom's Cabin, 346, 347. Underground railway, the, 345, 346. Union of England and Scotland, 95, 96. "United Colonies of Nevyr England,'' the, 103. United Mine Workers of America, strike of, 658, 659. United States Bank, the, first estab- lished, 226; renewal of charter, 270; blamed for the panic of 1819, 277, 278; an issue in the election of 1832, 305, 306; withdrawal of Fed- eral funds from, 306. United States Shipping Board, the, 634, 635. Utah, settled by the Mormons, 375, 376; polygamy delays its admission to the Union, 492; restores suffrage to women, 567. Valley Forge, 189. Van Buren, Martin, elected president 317; administration of, 317, 358 defeated for re-election, 320, 321 nominated for the presidency by Free Soil parly, ii9. Venezuelan boundary difficulty, the, 520, 521. Venice, 6, 626. Vera Cruz, captured by General Scott, 334; occupied in 1914, 604. Verde, Cape, discovery of, 11. Verdun, battle of, 623, 624. Vermont, secedes from New York, 174; admitted to the Union, 228. Verrazano, da, Giovanni, 21. Vespucci, Amerigo, 21. Vicksburg, fall of, 419-421. Victor Emmanuel II, 583. Victoria, Queen, 399, 564. Villa, General, 605. Vincennes, capture of, 201; made capital of Indiana Territory, 246. Virginia, origin of name, 35; early history of, 41-44; a royal province, 44, 45; growth of population during the Commonwealth, 69; education in, 120; distribution of settlements in 1770, 129; sympathy for Boston, 161; authorized a declaration of in- dependence, 175; cession of western lands, 205; attitude in the constitu- tional convention, 213; enacts reso- lutions threatening secession, 234; establishes a university, 360, 361 ; efforts to prevent a civil war, 387; secession of, 391; deserted by the western counties, 392; political rights restored to, 455, 458. Virginia Company, the, 41, 44. Virginia military lands, 208, 209. Virginia, The, 409. Virgin Islands, 606, 607. Wages, in 1840, 358. Wake Island, 538. "War Hawks," the, 259. War of 1812, declaration of, 259; un- preparedness for, 259, 260; military operations in, 260-266; opposition in New England to, 266-268; eco- nomic consequences, 268, 269. War of Secession, cause of, 388, 389; attack on Fort Sumter, 389-391; relative strength of the belligerents, 393, 394; plan of the North for win- ning, 395, 396; blockade of southern ports, 398, 399. 408-410, 432; the Trent Affair, 399; operations during 1862, 400-410; conscription resorted to, 422, 423; position of the slaves, 412-414; operations in 1863, 414- 425; attitude of France, 418, 419; operations in 1864, 425-436; collapse of the Confederacy, 435-437; result of, 438; cost, 440, 441; social life during, 444-447. War of the Spanish Succession, 95. Warsaw, capture of, 620. War with Germany. See World War. War with Mexico, 333-336. Washington, admitted to the Union, 492 J grants suffrage to women, 567. Washington (City), burning of, 263, 264. "Washington district," 148. INDEX Washington, George, messenger for Governor Dinwiddie, 103; attacked by French at Great Meadows, 103; in the French and Indian War, 105; commissioned general of the Continental Army, 167; during the Revolutionary War, 183-197; con- spiring against, 190; elected presi- dent. 218; administration of, 222- 231; neutrality policy of, 230; atti- tude toward the public service, 234; declines a third term, 254; opposed to slavery, 273. Waterloo, battle of, 576. Watauga settlements, 147, 193, 208. Watt, James, 290. Weaver, Gen. James B., 511. Webster, Daniel, enters Congress, 259; disgust over Jackson's inau- guration, 304, 305; reply to Hayne, 310, 311; appointed secretary of state, 322; position on the Omnibvis Bill, 344, 345. Wells-Fargo Express, 356. Wesley, John and Charles, 118. Westerners, the, in trouble with the Spanish officials at New Orleans, 244; character of, 286. "Western Reserve," the, 209. West Virginia, creation of, 414. Westsylvania, 146. Westward migration, cause of, 273. Weyler, General, 526. Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, 430, 434, 532. Whig party, the, 284, 382. Whigs, the. in England, 96, 149. Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 332. Whitney, Eli, 294. "Whisky boys," the, 227. "Whisky ring," the, 463. "Wildcat" banks, 312. Wilderness campaign, the, 426-428. Willard, Emma, 360. William I, becomes king of Prussia 584; crowned emperor of Germany 587. William II, character of, 590, 591 ambition for Germany, 591; his Pan-Germanic scheme, 591, 592; willingness for war, 608; orders the invasion of Belgium, 609; abdica- tion of, 648. /• William and Mary, 11, 93. William and Mary College, founding of, 121. William of Orange, 91. ■) ^ Williams, Rev. Roger, 53, 54. ; Wilmington, 195. \^ "Wilmot Proviso," the, 336, 372. Wilson, William L., 514. Wilson, Woodrow, elected president, 599, 600; character of, 600-602; first administration of, 602-607; trouble with Mexico, 604, 605; neu- trality policy of, 609, 610; warning to Germany, 611; re-elected presi- dent, 613-615; severs diplomatic re- lations with Germany, 630; com- mandeers the railroads, 634; his message to Russia, 647; the "four- teen points," 647, 648; attends the peace congress, 648; insistence on the League of Nations covenant, 649. 650; embitters the Senate, 654; ends the coal miners' strike, 659; friction with Mexico over the Jen- kins incident, 659, 660. Wilson's Creek, battle of, 400. Winthrop, John, 51, 52. Wireless telegraphy, 565. Wisconsin, admitted to the Union, 342; introduces the "direct pri- mary," 553. Wolfe, Gen. James, 107, 108. Woman suffrage, in New Jersey, 174; early agitation of, 364, 365; advo- cates holding a national convention, 365; granted by Wyoming, 492; progress of the movement, 566, 567; ratification of the Susan B. Anthony amendment to the Consti- tution, 568. Women's rights, demand for, 299. Woolen manufacturing, 297. Wood, Col. Leonard, 533. World's Columbian Exposition, the, 490. World War. the, beginning of, 608, 609; neutrality of the United States, 609, 610; economic results attend- ing, 609-611; Germany's submarine policy, 611-613; sinking of the Litsitania, 612; battle of the Marne, 616; early lighting on the eastern front, 616-618; operations in 1915, 618-623; battle of Verdun, 623, 624; struggle in the Near East, 624-625; the Russian revolution, 625-626; the Italian campaign, 626; entry of the United States, 630, 631; losses to shipping, 634, 635; the conservation movement, 635, 636; organizing the American Expeditionary I-'orces, 636, 637; Von Hindenburg's great drive, 638; Ludendorff crosses the Marne, 640; battle of Chateau Tliierry, 641; Foch's counter-lilow, 641, 642; fighting at St. Mihiel, 642, 643; final operations in the East, 644; the armistice, 645, 646; the peace congress, 648; cost of, 650, 651; revelations of,_ 651, 652; demobilization in the United States, 654, 655. Wright, Frances (Fanny), 360, 364. Wyoming, 492. "X. Y. Z. Papers," the, 232. Yellow fever, in Santo Domingo, 242; in tile Southern States, 526. York, retreat of the Continental Con- gress to, 190. Yorktown, surrender of CornwalHs at, 197. Young, Brigham, 375, 376. Ypres, struggle for, 618. IB 23 Z -3^ ^c ^,* .^V '^. .V .o-c ^. -3" ^o >V,' -^ .^-^ /:^r,:r ^-^ ^ ^^^ ... '^-^ ,-^^ .'J4"% ^-f .^Ji;^^» ^^-n^. .f" *i o j.o-^ fc ^..^ :ffll v^ t-^m .0' ^- ^ ^\<^%i/r> -^ .v^' ^^-^^^*^ •^'<.' s^;, ^/ .^^ ^^^ Wl^*" '^^^'^^ \^iPv" .^^^^ '"^. o 'b V^ ^\t,%^ .o'^ "^^^ '"'77.'" o,^' -o. * <^, ** .•:^:^ ^ O ' -> „ ^ fm.' ^^'\ '--WS J^'X ^m4•■ .-^'^ /■"^t^^: .* . "V. <}5 °-^ '■ 9> ^o "'V ■^ST. AUGUSTINE . V»^ .^ ♦"" ^.-. ^^S^ 32084 ♦ .\^ -i^^