SB 
 
 LI. S. l)i:i'ARTMENT OI- AGRICl'LTURE. 
 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 3. 
 
 H. T. (iAl.lJiW.W ihiof„f HuriMu. 
 
 MA( A 1 i( )i\i WHEATS. 
 
 MAKK ALFKED CAHLKTON, 
 
 liREALIST. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 KslKli nECBMKKR 'Si, 1!K)1. 
 
 HMsm 
 JAN 21902 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVEKNMEMT PKINTIXO OFFICE. 
 1901. 
 

f^il. 
 
 U. S. DEPART.Mi:X'l" OF AGRICULTURE. 
 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 3. 
 
 B. T. UALUiWAY. Chlff of Burciiil. 
 
 MACAJiONl WHEATS. 
 
 MARK ALFRED CARLETOX. 
 
 CEREALIST. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL 
 INVESTIGATIONS. 
 
 I.asrEip Deckmhkr -3, 1901. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
 
 1901. 
 
 r3f 
 
 ^ 
 
 n" 
 
ST5 
 
 MAR 31 L 
 D. or D. 
 
\ 
 
 LETTFR OF TRAXSMI'ITAL 
 
 U. S. Dki'aktmknt ok Aoricli.ti.ke. 
 
 BuuEAU OF Plant Industry, 
 
 Office of the Chief, 
 Wmkhifftou, D. C Jnly .il, lf)01. 
 Sir: I have the honor to tninsmit herewith the luiimiscript <>f a 
 paper on Macaroni Wheats, by Mark Alfred CarletOn. Ceioalist, 
 VefjetaMe PathoK)i.'i( a! and Physioiojrical Investigations, this Bureau, 
 aud reconiniend its pulilication as Bulletin No. 3 of the Bureau series. 
 Respeetfully. 
 
 B. T. Galloway, 
 
 Cit iff iif liureau. 
 Hon. .Jajies Wilson, 
 
 Secretary of Agriculture, 
 
PRHl-ACH. 
 
 The following bulletin Ity M. A. Curloton. Ceifulist of this Ottico, 
 treats of the iiincHroni whi-ats, with speoiiil reforeiK-e to their jrrKwth 
 without iiTigiition in tin- si'niiiirid regionji of the United States. 
 Some of the best varieties of niao^ironi wheats have been imported by 
 the Department of Agrieulture, and have been tested in these regions 
 with extremely gratifying results. It is believed that with a little 
 care a large industry can be built np in regions of the United States 
 where the ordinary wheats do not succeed. Mr. Carleton has had 
 special advantages fur the study <>f these wheats in Russia and else- 
 where, and his bulletin is commended as the latest word on a very 
 interesting and piuctical subject. 
 
 Albkut F. Woods. 
 
 Offick of the Pathologist and P*ht8iologist, 
 
 Wa«hington, D. C, August 1, 1901. 
 
 5 
 
CONTRNTS. 
 
 Pose. 
 
 Introduction 9 
 
 fharacteristics of macaroni wheats 10 
 
 Distribution of nuicaroni wheats II 
 
 Adaptability nf duniin wheats to the ooniiitions of oureemiarid districts \:\ 
 
 Clinintic comparisons \.i 
 
 Comparison of soils '. is 
 
 Experimental proof Ill 
 
 Testimony of priN^atc parties 21 
 
 Testimony of exi>erinient Htations 25 
 
 Thi' market for macaroni wheat 28 
 
 Foreign demand 29 
 
 Quality of grain demanded .'53 
 
 Possibility of a home demand ;i8 
 
 Kiiidn of wheat now \\!»-<\ by our factories 39 
 
 Com|>ariMon of foreign and domestic macaroni 41 
 
 Preparation of semolina 43 
 
 Bread from macaroni wheats 44' 
 
 Cultivation of macaroni wheats 45 
 
 Preparation of the soil 45 
 
 Methods of nc-eding 4() 
 
 Can- in harvesting 4() 
 
 Effects of local variations in soil and climate 47 
 
 Varieties 47 
 
 Ghamovka '. 47 
 
 Amautka 48 
 
 Kuban ka 49 
 
 PereriMlka 49 
 
 Beloturka 50 
 
 Velvet Don 50 
 
 Blaik Don 51 
 
 Sarui-bugda 52 
 
 Me<leah 52 
 
 Pellissier 53 
 
 Candeal 53 
 
 Nicaragua 54 
 
 Wild Goose 54 
 
 Missogen 55 
 
 Polish 55 
 
 Winter varieties 55 
 
 ExiJerimental comparison of varieties 56 
 
 Russo-Jfediterranean traffic in macaroni wheat 58 
 
 Summary 60 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 Page. 
 Pl.\te I. Drought-resistant macaroni wheats: 1, Kubanlia; 2, Nicaragua; 8 
 
 Velvet Don; 4, Black Don; 5, Wild Goose 10 
 
 II. Drought-resistant macaroni wheats: 1, Polish; 2, Medeah; 3, Misso- 
 
 gen; 4, No. 1174 8.?. 1 12 
 
 III. Thrashing Gharnovka wheat by steam on the estate of Mr. Mikhal- 
 
 kov at Ambrocievka in Don territory 14 
 
 IV. Sarui-bugda in comparison with other varieties in cooperative field 
 
 experiments at the Maryland Experiment Station: 1, Sandomir; 
 
 2, Armavir; 3, Sarui-bugda 16 
 
 V. Volga River region near Sarepta 18 
 
 VI. Fig. 1, Macaroni wheat fields near Berdiansk, in the Azov Sea region. 
 Fig. 2, Macaroni wheat farm of Mr. Mikhalkov, at Ambrocievka 
 
 in Don territory -2 
 
 VII. Camp of Kirghiz harvesters near Uralsk, on the Siberian border. A 
 
 two-horse Russian vehicle from the city stands also in view 40 
 
 VIII. < iharnovka wheat at the New Mexico Experiment Station 48 
 
 IX. Fig. 1, Stacks of Kubanka wheat near Uralsk on the Siberian border. 
 Fig. 2, Method of shocking macaroni wheat near Sarepta, in the 
 
 Volga River region 50 
 
 X. Fig. 1, Port of Taganrog, Russia, the port of the largest export of 
 macaroni wheat in the world. Fig. 2, Loading Gharnovka (maca- 
 roni) wheat onto the steamer in bulk at Taganrog, to be shipped 
 to Mediterranean ports 58 
 
 XI. Fig. 1, Kubanka wheat brought to market by the Kirghiz farmers, 
 at Uralsk, on the Siberian border. Fig. 2, Carting macaroni 
 wheat to the wharves at Taganrog, to be shipped to ^Mediter- 
 ranean ports 60 
 
 TEXT FIGURES. 
 
 Fig. 1. Map of the United States, showing where macaroni wheat can be 
 
 grown 20 
 
 2. Cleaning Velvet Don wheat on the estate of INIr. Jlikhalkov in Don 
 
 territory 51 
 
 8 
 
MAPARONT AVFTEATS. 
 
 By Mahk Ai.fkkii (Mh.ktdn, 
 t Vriiilii-t. 
 
 INTBODUCTION. 
 
 For ninro tlmn tliirtv-livc vciirs then- lm\o lu'cii occasional iiitroduc- 
 tioiis into tins country of the hiinly. jrlassy wlicat^s of tlic diiruni trn)iip, 
 cliidly from Uiissia, hut also fmiu Alircriuaiid Chile. In Europe thoy 
 arc called simply hard wheats, and correctly so. since the hardest bread 
 wheats of the world are really soft compared with them. In thi.s 
 country they have not luitil recently been suHiciently well knf>wn to 
 receive a special name. Now. however, through th(> recent introduc- 
 tions and publications (»f this Department th(» term macaroni wheat is 
 becomin]Lr rapidly adopted, and its a|i|ilicatiiin is already pretty well 
 understood. 
 
 Heretofore the.se wheats have liecn receivetl with l)ut little faxdr. 
 In spite of their excellent yields and hardiness the lack of a market 
 made their est;;l(lishiuent a practical impossibility for the tirtic. Our 
 own macaroni faetoi'ies were usinj^ ordinary bread wiieats and the 
 attention of foreif^n factories had not l>een called to the pcj.ssibility of 
 securinjr excellent durum wheal from this country. Our milh-rs 
 refused to receive such wheat, not i>einy able to utilize it with their 
 present nu'thods of millin'r for bread (lour only. Elevator men also 
 refused to handle it. as it would spoil the .sale of other standard wheats 
 if mix(>d with them in the elevators. Also the different varieties intro- 
 duced ha<i not been tested sulKciently long to obtain a just idea of theii- 
 value, and were often yrown in localities to which they wi-re entirely 
 unadapted. Thus a comVdnation of unff>rtunate circumstance-, jrave 
 to these wheats a reputation not at all deserved. Only two year> ago 
 a writer severely criticised the Department for inti'oducing a i-onsign- 
 ment of Kubanka wheat, saying tliat the variety was already consid- 
 ered to be a failure in this cuuntrv. 
 
 Now. however, as a result of the effort.s of thi' Department begun 
 two years ago to establish these durum wheats, there is being mani- 
 fested a great change of opinion as to their merits, in view of their 
 probable coiuplete utilization in the future fcjr the manufacture of maca- 
 roni. The following are some of the rea.sons for this cluuige in opin- 
 ion: (1) Certain European manufacturers are ready at any time to con- 
 tract for large amounts of American grown wheats of this kind so long 
 
 9 
 
10 MAOAKONI WHEATS. 
 
 a.s thcv stand the proper test. (2) Samples already sent to Kuropeaii 
 experts for examination have given very favorable results in compari- 
 son with foreign samples, though it is almost certain that the samples 
 sent were in quality below the average of what can ))e produced and 
 is being prochiced in this country. (3) Quite a iuuu1)er of Ameri- 
 can factories are showing a disposition to use semolina' made from 
 these wheats just as soon as they can obtain a sufficient amount of it. 
 
 (4) Several American flour mills are now grinding macaroni wheat. 
 
 (5) From a rough calculation, probably 75.000 to lOii.OOO bushels of 
 macaroni wheat will be harvested in the Great Plains States in the 
 season of 1901. (6) From the standi)oint of results as a cultivated crop 
 numerous careful experiments have a1)solutely proved the success of 
 these wheats in the Great Plains. (7) Excellent bread as well as 
 macaroni can be made and is being made in large quantities (e. g., in 
 the Volga River region of Russia) from these wheats. In the light 
 of such facts one is forced to believe that there is before us the jjossi- 
 bility of establishing practically a new wheat industry of great mag- 
 nitude. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 Macai'oni wheats projjer ])eloiig in the durum group, known by the 
 botanical name of Trltlcuui duiuin. In France they are called BJe 
 ihir: hi Germany, JIarUreizen ; and in Spain, THgo duro. They are 
 also sometimes called barley wheats, or Gerstenweizen, because of their 
 resemblance to barley. The wheats of this gi'oup grow rather tall and 
 have stems that are either pithy within or hollow, with an inner wall 
 of pith, or, in a few varieties, simply hollow, as in the ordinary l)read 
 wheats. The leaves are usually bi'oad and smooth, but have a peculiar 
 whitish griHMi color and possess an extremely harsh cuticle. The heads 
 are comparatively slender in most varieties, cemipactly formed, occa- 
 sionally V(^ry short, and are alwavs l)earded with the longest lieards 
 known among wheats. The spikclets (meshes) are two to four grained. 
 The outer chati' is prominently and sharply keeled, and the inner chaff 
 somewhat compressed and narrowly arched in the l)ack. The grains 
 are usually \-ei'y hard ancl glassy, often translucent, yellowish-white in 
 color, orcasionally inclining to reddish, and usually rather large. In 
 certain varieties the grains are almost or fully as large as those of 
 Polish wheat, and are sometimes mistaken for it. 
 
 In the field these wheats resemble l)arlev \(»ry much, and one seeing 
 them there for the first time and not familiar with their appearance is 
 apt to think of them as being actually l)arleys. There are many \arie- 
 ties differing in shap(» and size of head, color, and amount of hairiness of 
 chatt'. color of beards, etc. (See Plates T and II.) Besides their excep- 
 tional fitness for the manufacture of macaroni and other edible pastes, 
 these wheats possess for the grower two other admirable i|ualities to a 
 
 'TIr' special name of the milled product as used by the maeanmi maiiulai-tiirer. 
 
Bui. No 3. Bursas Plant Ind^^ltry. U S. D>Qt Av 
 
 DfeoUGHT-RESISTANT MACARONI WHEATS: 
 
 1, KuBANKA; 2, Nicaragua; 3, Velvet Don; 4, Black Don; 5, Wild Goose. 
 
OKiXiKAI'Hir DISTKIHI TION. 11 
 
 •greater dcj^'rco than ordinary wlimts. 'I'licy arc cxtrcnicly rcsislant 
 to (Irouirht and to attneks of most fmijrous pests. Hlark stem rust, 
 however, sonietiiiies atfcets them hadly. Thov do not stool exten- 
 sively, niiriim wheats are partieuhirly sensitive to ehanjres of envi- 
 ronment and iiuiekly deteriorate when j^rown in a soil or eliiiiate to 
 whieh they are not adapted. A siilKeient ehan^'e of conditions to ellert 
 such u result may he found evi'ii within the distance <d" a fi-w nnloti 
 For example, it is well understood in s(»uth Russia that the c\-cellent 
 variety Arnaufka jfives the hest results only when "irown within a 
 limited area horderinif the .Vzov Sea. So also the hest Kuhanka is 
 found east of the Volj.ii on the .Silierian tiorder. In the Caucasus tJiis 
 variety a])i)arently has actually developed into a red winter wheal, 
 thoujrh th<' orijfinal is a yellowish-white spi-inir wheal. 
 
 Macaroni wheats are ailapted to soils rich in nitroi^i-nous matter liut 
 consideiiilily alkaline, and they iiivarial)ly {five the hest i-esults in a hot, 
 dry climate. Almost all the varieties are hest adapted for sprinj,' xiwinir. 
 The vouni,' plants are always lie-ht i^reen in color, and e\en when sown in 
 the autumn {frow at once erect and very nipiiUy, thus heinjr jtoorly i»re- 
 pared to survive a severe winter. W'hei-e the winters are mild, liow- 
 cver, as they are south of the thirty-tifth panillel in this country, they 
 may he jri'own as winter wheat>.' and in such cases the larjre amount of 
 autumn {.'rowth made allows ihem to furnish exci-llent fall piusturajre. 
 Polish wheats profluce a >rrain very similar in nature to that of the 
 durum wheats, and are also often used for makin^r vai'ious pastes. 
 These are varieties of Tntii-iim jmhiiiiriiin. (.See ]'l. 11./.) Thi' ])lants 
 are tall, with smooth stems that are more or less \i\X\\y within. They 
 stool very sparinjrly. The heads are extremely larjre and loosely 
 formed, and hei'ore ripeninji- are bluish •rreeii in color. .V special 
 IM'culiarity of Polish wheats is the nither lonjjr. narrow oute-v chatt', 
 papei-y in structure, and standin<r out slie-htly from the head instead 
 (d' heiu",' rij,''id and closely applied to the spikelets. us in other wheats. 
 The j^'rains are of <;reat size when normal, especially tpiite lonoc. yel- 
 lowish white in color, and very hard. Tliese wheats also withstand 
 drought and are somewhat resistant to leaf I'ust. 
 
 Varieties of the Poidard {TJ'oup of wheats (Triflcum fiiri/iifum) are 
 also occjisionally used for macaroni, hut are comparativtdy of minor 
 importance in this rcpird. The use of common hread wheats for 
 making macaroni will lii' refei-red to in other i)laces. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 Macaroni wheats stand foremo>t anion<jr all wheat irrou))> in their 
 excellent adaptation to rej^ions of intense heat and drought. In addi- 
 tion, however, they reiiuire for their most successful cultivation a soil 
 
 ' Results of recent experiment.^ show that tliey will succeed a.s winter wheats even 
 in parts of Kansas. 
 
l\> MACARONI VVHf:ATS. 
 
 ricli ill liunms and contaiiiiiijiii i^ood pvoportion of potash, phosphates, 
 and lime. AVhere these wh(>ats .succeed best the soil is always found 
 to he considerably alkaline. Naturally, therefore, they aie grown to 
 the greatest extent in east and south Russia, Turkestan, North Africa, 
 and the drier portions of Argentina, Chile, India, and Asia Minor. 
 They are also grown in Spain, Italy, (xreece, Roumania, Mexico, and 
 the Central American States. 
 
 By far the largest production of macaroni wheats is in east and 
 south Russia, a large part of which finds a ready market for macaroni 
 making in the cities of southern Fi-ance and Italy. Ten or moi'e 
 rather distinct varieties are grown in Russia. These are nuuii mixed 
 in shipping, and are often exported under the one name of Taganrog 
 wheat simply l)ecause thej' are so ('onnnonly shipped from the port of 
 that name. There is no spcn^ial variety correctly called Taganrog, but 
 that name is usually applied to any variety whatever of Russian durum 
 wheat after it leaves Russia. 
 
 Unfortunatelv in making up statistics of wheat i)roduction no dis- 
 tinction is made of macaroni wheats, so that it is impossil>le to give 
 accurately the distribution of these wheats in Russia. In a general 
 way, howevei", the governments in which these wheats are chiefly 
 grown are as follows: Orenburg, Samara, Turghai Territory. Uralsk 
 Territory, Saratov, Don Territory. Astrakhan, and portions of Kuban 
 Territory, Daghestan, Stavropol, and Taurida. In the Turghai and 
 Uralsk Territories and Astrtikhan certainl}' the largei' proportion of 
 the entire wheat production is of these wheats, it being practically 
 impossible to grow ordinary wheats in certain districts because of the 
 extremely low rainfall. The farmers are, many of them, Kirghiz, who 
 have given up nomadic habits and have adopted a settled mode of life. 
 The chief varieties grown are Kubanka and Beloturka. The greater 
 part of the macaroni wheat of south Russia is grown in thi? region 
 bordering the Azov Sea. Here there are several \iirieties grown, 
 the principal one being Gharnovka (PI. III). In jjortions of 
 Turivestan the climate is very favorable for durum wheats, because 
 of its great aridity. One variety especially, Sarui-bugda (PI. IV, 3), 
 apparentl}- the principal durum wheat grown in Turkestan, has 
 attained an excellent reputation in southeast Russia. Algeria pro- 
 duces macaroni wheats almost exclusivelv. xA.s the average annual 
 M'heat production of that I'ountr^y during the years 18H5-1900 was 
 23,785,167 bushels,' the comparative amount of these wheats grown 
 there is thei-efore rather large. There are manv varieties. Some 
 macaroni wheat is also produced in Egypt and Tunis, but a large por- 
 tion of Egyptian wheat is of the Poulard group (Triticum turgidum). 
 Almost all Spanish varieties are of the durum group, but the entire 
 
 'Statistics furnished by the Statistician of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
Bui. No ^ Bu'-au Plint lifluitrv. U S. DoDt Agr. 
 
 Drought-resistant Macaroni Wheats: 
 1, Polish; 2, Medeah; 3, MiSSOGEN; 4, No. 1174 S. P. I. 
 
ADAITAHILITY TO UNITED STATES SKMIARID I'LAINS. 13 
 
 wheat production of Spain is foniparativoly small. In CJioiho. Mexico, 
 and Centnil Anu'iica— particularly in Nicaraf,'ua — thcsf durum varie- 
 ties are also almost exclusively jrrown. 
 
 ADAPTABILITT OF DURUM WHEATS TO OUR SEMIARID 
 DISTRICTS. 
 
 The nature of the clini;ite ami soil of the rej^ions wliiTc macaroni 
 wheats ai'e already ifrown in ([uantity and most successfully, would 
 indicate that these wheats are admirahly adapted to the conditions of 
 our own semiarid districts. That this is true is pretty well proved 
 both in theory and by experiuuMit. Conditions of heat anrl droujjrht. 
 richness of .soil, alkalinity, etc.. exactly similar to those that prevail 
 in east Russia and North Africa, I'xist in the more arid portions of our 
 Great Plains, except that in the foruuM- rejrions these conditions are a 
 little more extreme as a rule. As the best macaroni wheats are gi'own 
 most successfully in east Russia, it will lie desirable to comiwiro the 
 climatic conditions of that repi<in with corresponding portions of the 
 Great Plains, that we may note more closely the degree of similarity 
 in this regard. 
 
 CLIMATIC COMPARISONS. 
 
 The macaroni wheat district of oast Russia comprises in a general 
 way the Volga River region from about the latitude <>{ Kazan to the 
 Caspian Sea, but extending eastward to the Siberian boundary and 
 even beyt)nd into the Kirghiz Steppes. The entire district is at least 
 semiarid, and .some jwrtions of it seem to be. more properly, arid. The 
 degree of aridity increases to the eiust and south, the rever.se of the 
 conditions in this respect in our Great Plains, where the degree of 
 aridity increa.se.s to the west. Near the Siberian border begins the 
 Kirghiz Steppes of western Siberia, a monotonous, unbroken expanse 
 of treeless arid plains, with a rainfall reaching le.ss than 1<» iiuhes, but 
 nearly all of which falls in the growing season. Sages, feather giusses 
 (Stipa). .salt bushes, etc, make up a large part of the native vegetation. 
 The dry heat of midsummer is .so intense that mirages are frequent. 
 The rich black earth is dry, strongly alkaline, and powdery, but 
 absorbs greedily the rain that does fall. Evaporation goes on rapidly, 
 and well-iida])ted i)lants are provided with means of resisting evapora- 
 tion. (See PI. V.) 
 
 The particular climatic features which characterize a region of this 
 sort, and which distinguish it from ordinary agricultural districts so 
 far a.s macaroni wheats are concerned, are as follows: (1) The very low 
 average annual rainfall; {2} the very large proportion of this rainfall 
 which occurs during the growing season; (3) the character of this pre- 
 cipitation, occurring in the form of quick thunder stoniis, with very 
 little fog or mist; (4) the prevailing clearaess and diyness of the 
 
14 
 
 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 atiiiosplieii'. and (5) the great extremes of temperature, especially 
 intense smnmer heat. 
 
 The following table will illustrate some of these features. In this 
 table are given the normal mean temperatures for January. July, and 
 the year, and the normal rainfall for the year and for the growing- 
 season (May to September, inclusive) as taken at ten meteorological 
 stations representing as fairly as possible the durum wheat districts of 
 east and south Russia, and also similar data for nine stations correspond- 
 ing to these in our Great Plains. For contrast with humid areas similar 
 data are also given for three stations — Eastport, Oswego, and Lj'nch- 
 burg — in the eastern United States. 
 T.\ni.E I. — Temperature and rainfall in several localities in Russia and in the United States.^ 
 
 'The figures in this table are averages of many years' observations and are given by the following 
 authorities: Wild, Die Temperaturverhiiltni.s>e dcs Russischen Reiches. Tabellen. S. LXXII-CCXL, 
 and Die Regenverhaltnisse des Russischen Reiches, S. 12-28; Kaiserl. Akad. der Wisscnsch. St. Peters- 
 burg, ISSl and 1887. Klossovski.KlimatOdessui (Russian); Meteorological Observatory of the Imperial 
 New Russian University, Odessa, 1893. Moore, Report of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1'. S. 
 Department of Agriculture, for 1896-97, Washington, D. C, 1897. 
 
 A study of the figures in the ditlerent columns for the stations in 
 east Russia is very interesting. Great extremes of heat in one are 
 offset by just as great extremes of cold in another. Moreover, at the 
 northern stations the July extremes are still ver}- high, though the 
 yearly mean is normally very low. The small amount of yeiwly i-ain- 
 fall is offset liy a proportionately heavy rainfall for the growing season. 
 The latter will partially account for the fact that a crop can be grown 
 at all in a district of such low annual rainfall. The contrast between 
 
Bui. 3, BuTuu of Pliint Industry. U. S Diipt. of AiHculturi 
 
COMPARISON OF CLIMATES. 15 
 
 tlif lii,'uii'.s for this district mid tliosc for the throe phiee- in tiie liuiiiid 
 urea of the eustern I'liited States i> very strikiii<r. While tlie .liinuarv 
 and mean yearly tenipi>niture> at Samara and Orenluir}:. Kiissia, are 
 muili lower than those at Osweijii and Kastjjort. on the other hand 
 the .lulv temperatures at the former plaees are hijrlier than those at the 
 latter. Thi- .lamiary and .luly extremes at Orenhwrjr and Sarepta are 
 remarkulile. Orenhurjf. with a.Ianuaiy normal extremely low and an 
 annual mean noi-nially nearly .'> lower than Oswejro. yet pos.sessesa.July 
 normal over U hi^rher. The January normal at Lynehliiirir is ahove 
 freezinir mi'l the normal yearly mean over •> hijrher than at Sarepta 
 (see PI. V). Russia, yet tin- latter ])oint with a January normal loA 
 helow freezing lacks hut a little over 1 of beinpas hot in July as Lyneh- 
 linrtr. The anf>malies of rainfall are fully as strikinjr. At no jioint 
 in the Uus^ian rejrion does the mean yearly niinfall reach 17 inches, 
 while at ()sw<'iro it is over tw ice that amount and at Ea.st]iort and Lynch- 
 hurjr over two and one-half times that amount. But one-half to tivo- 
 eiijhths of the total yearly rainfall in the Russian region occurs during 
 the growing months (May to .SeiUemlier. inclu.sive), while in the humid 
 area of the United .States consideiiildy less than one-half falls in the 
 growing season. The conditions at Kazan. I'fa. and Simbirsk are 
 particularly interesting. M these points, although the yearly mean i.s 
 only It) or 17 inches, the amount falling in the growing sejison is about 
 live-eighths of that amount. .Vs the nature of the soil in i)niirie 
 region> enaltles it to retain an unusually large proportion of the niin- 
 fall. it results that the actual amount of water available for plant 
 growth in this semiari<l area during the growing seiuson is more than 
 in humid arer.s w here the yearly niinfall is two to three times a.s great. 
 The lowest rainfall of this region occurs on the borders of the Kirghiz 
 StepiM's and near the Caspian Sea. At Orsk. for example, the yearly 
 niinfall is but lo.ti inches anil the mean for the growing sea.son is 5.7 
 inches. Hut even there the actual amount of water directly available 
 to the jdants from May to September is probably nearly as large a.s 
 at Oswego. In the (^rsk district a considerable <iuantity of excellent 
 macaroni wheat is grown. 
 
 The climatic conditions of our northern and centr;il (ireat Tlains 
 region are remarkably similar to those of the region just descrilied, 
 except only that conditions in the former region are in general con- 
 siderably less severe than in the latter. At no point a.s far west a.s the 
 one hundredth meridian is the mean annual rainfall le.ss than 18 inehe.s 
 in the Cireat Plains region, while, as above stated, the amount falling 
 in the similar Russian region is nowhere more than 17 inches. At 
 three points in the Great Plains region, viz. Bismarck. North Platte, 
 and Dodge City, all near the one hundredth meridian, the yearly mean 
 is normally over IS inches, the average for the three points being 18.8 
 inches. The average of the normal means of the points in the Russian 
 reeion. i-ven excluding the verv low titrures for Orsk, is 15. H. In other 
 
IC) MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 words, ihe ri(inn<il i/mrhj niinfiiTl cf the (rn-at Pl<(itix <ii tlte. one Inin- 
 (TrrdtJi iiirriditin, wIkvi irJunf (jrinriiKj /'■■< (it jiriKiiif j>racficfilly non- 
 c.ri.^tuit on arcoiuit of tl„ lorl nf (] nno/hf-r, sisfujit rorofHs. ;.v n.orly 
 ilirir 'inchea greater tlmn flmi for flu.' rutin Kruuoriil Vn/i/o rnjion^ 
 irliicli is one of the ^''i^incijuAl n-hxit /•iijions tf Ii'i/fsiif, and irhidi jiro- 
 daceti tlw finest macaroni irhtvt in the irorld. 
 
 A comparison of the normal temperatures of the two regions shows 
 the same sort of similarity, with extremes a little more severe in the 
 Russian region. Points in the Volga region having correspondingly 
 low winter and annual mean temperatures, always show a July tem- 
 perature a little higher than those of the Great Plains region. At 
 Orenburg, Samara, and Ufa the July temperatures are especially sur- 
 prising, considering the very low winter temperatures. At Huron, 
 Bismarck, and Moorhead are the best examples, probably, of tempera- 
 ture extremes in the Great Plains, but the extremes are not quite so 
 great as at the three Russian stations. 
 
 The humidity of the air is a feature of climate often entirelj^ over- 
 looked, but it nevertheless has a remarkable influence upon plant 
 growth. In the relations of climate to the development and maturity 
 of the wheat grain there are many things not yet thoroughly under- 
 stood, but the degree of humidity is known to be of the utmost 
 importance. The exact manner in which the influence of humidity is 
 efl^ective — the actual changes in the plant which take place by virtue of 
 its presence or absence — is j'et to be investigated in detail, but that there 
 is such an influence seems positive. Its efl'ect upon the wheat plant is 
 in general unfavorable if long continued, and particularly if it occurs 
 near the time of ripening. Great humidity retards maturity, inter- 
 feres with the production of proteids in the grain, and thereby indi- 
 rectly softens it and thi'ough an overproduction of starch gives it a 
 whiter color, weakens the straw, and presents conditions favorable for 
 the attacks of various fungous pests. It is not so much the great pre- 
 cipitation that causes an inferior quality of grain in the humid areas, 
 but the prevailing humiditj^ of the air and lack of sunshine. Indeed, 
 as already stated, the actual rainfall dui-ing the growing season may 
 be nearly or cjuite as much in the semiarid areas as in the humid areas. 
 Edmond Gain has stated the law in regard to this matter, viz, that 
 " ripening is promoted in a dry air and a humid soil, but is retarded 
 in a humid air and a dry soil."' It is pretty generally admitted in 
 regard to many crops that the quality of the fruits or grains is, in 
 some respects at least, injured by excessive humidity. It is especially 
 true, however, of those crops which are characterized by a large pro- 
 portion of protein or sugar in the fruits or grains, and in the case of 
 durum wheats humidity is so injurious that semiarid conditions are 
 absolutely necessary for the best results in growing them. So long 
 
 1 Influence de I'humidite sur la vegetation. Compt. Rend. 115: 890. 1892. 
 
Bui }. Buiaau ol Plint Indultry. U S Otpt ol AgM 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 Sarui bugoa in Comparison with other Varieties in Cooperative Field Eapehiments at 
 THE Maryland Experiment Station 
 
CiiMrAKlStiN OK CLIMATES. 
 
 17 
 
 ns the sdil is of tlio i-itjlit kind. thorof<iro. tlio conditioiis in mir scnii- 
 iiiid plains, even lu-ar tlio one iiiin<lioflth iiH'riditm, mo not only none 
 too arid for such wheats, but aro thi> conditions that arc iirtmiUij io<'<h- 
 min/ for tlicir siu-ccssful cultivation. 
 
 In Tal)Ii' II arc given the alisolutc and relative huiuidity for six 
 localities in east Russia and two localities in the Crimea, in coiui)ari- 
 son with similar data for tlu^ localities of the Great Plains, already 
 discussed, and, in contrast with the two .series, similar data for the 
 same three places in the humid area already mentioned. Tin' aliso- 
 lute humidity is given not as actual moisture content. I>ut in the form 
 of va])or pressure, heing rcckontnl like harometric pressure, and is 
 stated in both millimeters and imluvs. The avemge total number of 
 ilear days in June. July, and Augirst is also given for as many of the 
 localities as ])ossil)le. 
 
 Taiiik II. — Almitliilr 'imt nliitiir linmiiillii fur tin' ijroviiig m-nfiiii niiil fur il,: .,.•>,, null 
 the nremijf liiliil inimlirr of clear iltiyn in Mine, J>il;i, nnii Aiiijn 
 
 ' The rlnta for RuHsla art' obtained from the excellent work of A. Kaminskl, '• Verthcilnng der 
 Feuehtigkeit dur Luft RuNiland," pp. 34-3.il, St. Petersburg, 18W, and from A. Klosaovaki's "Contri. 
 buttons to the climatology ot Southwest Ku»<ia, Ode.«sa, 1899." The data for the Vnitcd Slates is 
 taken partly from the Annual Report of the V. S. Weather Bureau, 1896-97, and partly from unpub- 
 lii«hed reports kindly furnished by that Bureau. 
 
 »No figures given. All other data for Samara are meager and cover but a few years' time. 
 
 'Relative humidity calculated from three daily observations Instead of two, a-s in case of the other 
 stations. 
 
 6659— No. 3—01 2 
 
18 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 From the table it is seen that the humiditj' for the summer months 
 in the east Russian region is quite low compared with our humid area 
 in the east, but that at the same time it corresponds xevy well with 
 that of the semiarid plains region. The figures for relati^'e humiditj' 
 for a number of points in our Great Plains are verj- low, being all 
 under TO. On account of the close proximity of the Russian point 
 Genichisk to the Azov Sea its summer humidity is considei'ahly 
 greater than it would be otherwise. The district near to Genichisk is 
 really quite dry and produces a good qualitj' of Gharnovka wheat. 
 The most interesting feature concerning humidity is that while the 
 actual rn'mfaU of the growing season in the semiarid districts is 
 greater than in the humid area — a fact in itself interesting and most 
 significant, as already pointed out — the hunnldity is as a rule less; 
 that is, the rain of the semiarid districts falls in quick storms, alter- 
 nating with mauA' hot, clear da^'s, ideal conditions for durum wheats. 
 
 The climatic features of these two regions have thus been compared 
 somewhat in detail, since the east Russian region is at present the most 
 important in the production of macaroni wheat and is likely to have 
 as its strongest future rival the very similar northern Great Plains 
 region of this country. But, as before stated, there is also a large 
 production of these wheats in southern Russia, particularly in the 
 region boi-dering the Azov Sea (see PI. VI, figs. 1 and 2) in Kherson 
 district and in the extreme North Caucasus. The corresponding dis- 
 tricts of this country for which varieties from south Russia should 
 be well adapted are the western portions of Texas, Oklahoma, and 
 Kansas, and eastern Colorado, and perhaps portions of New Mexico, 
 Arizona, and California. In all the south Russian region there are 
 constant droughts and great extremes of temperature, but especially 
 intense summer heat. On the west shore of the Caspian Sea and in 
 the Azov Sea region the heat and drought are particularly severe, 
 these regions being very similar in these respects to western Kansas, 
 western Oklahoma, and the Texas Panhandle. The average rainfall 
 from Dodge City, Kans. to Abilene, Tex., is about the same as from 
 Kerch to Taganrog, as may be seen in the table; but the average tem- 
 perature of the Azov Sea region is a little lower. In Texas, New ]\Iex- 
 ico, and Arizona the Algerian varieties will probably be best adapted 
 for trial. In New Mexico and Arizona especially the conditions seem 
 to be particularl}' suited foi- Algerian wheats. 
 
 COMPAKISOX OF SOILS. 
 
 The macaroni wheat districts of Russia lie in the well-known 
 Chernozem or "black earth" belt, which is almost a perfect counter- 
 part of our Great Plains in depth and richness of soil. The most 
 thorough investigations have been given to the Chernozem soils by 
 Russian geo-botanists, chemists, and agronomists, and manv analyses 
 
Bui. 3, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Oopt. of Agnculturg. 
 
 I I, 
 
 \! 
 
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF ADAPTABILITY. 19 
 
 have been made, both chemical and mechanical. Mechanical analyses 
 of a luimber of .soil samples obtained by the writer from that country 
 have also been made b^- the Bureau of Soils of this Department. All 
 such analyses, in comparison with similiar ones made of the soils of 
 the (xreat Plains, show a most remarkable similarity. 
 
 From a chemical standpoint the soils of the two regions are similarlj' 
 characterized: (1) By an exceptionallj' large amount of thoroughl}' 
 humified org-anic matter; (2) by the presence of an unusual proportion 
 of phosphates, and (3) by a great amount, comparatively, of lime, pot- 
 ash, and other alkalies. These soils are therefore rich in base-forming 
 metals, and are not acid, while forest soils are distinctly acid. It is 
 well known that the substances thus more abundant in these soils than 
 in others are just those usually needed by the wheat plant. But the 
 indirect influence of the great proportion of lime and humus in so 
 changing the condition of other substances as to cause them to be more 
 easily made use of by the ^jlant is of equal importance. Of course, 
 the amount of soluble mineral salts present ma}' become so great some- 
 times as to be realh^ injurious to plant growth, forming actual alkaline 
 wastes. But these are found only in certain restricted areas near the 
 borders of salt lakes, and even in the vicinity of these wastes the very 
 best quality of macaroni wheat is sometimes grown. 
 
 The mechanical structure of the soils is of the verj' nature best 
 adapted for giving the plant the benefit of the substances contained, 
 even under adverse conditions of climate. Humus is a great absorb- 
 ent of water, and the extreme fineness of the soil particles makes it 
 very retentive of moisture. This quality is still further increased by 
 the presence of so much alkali. Such soils therefore retain for the 
 growing plants a much larger proportion of the rain that falls than is 
 possible in humid areas. 
 
 A map (fig. 1) shows the portion of the Unit(>d States in which 
 macaroni wheat may be grown. The district in which these wheats 
 will be most successful is a comparatively narrow belt extending 
 northward and southward through the Great Plains. Of course, the 
 boundaries must be understood to be arl)itrary and only approx- 
 imately correct. One hundred to two hundred miles east of this belt 
 macaroni wheat may give good yields and prove hardy, but the (|uality 
 of grain will not be what it should. In all wheat area west of this 
 belt the gluten content of the grain will not be so good, because of the 
 lack of nitrogen in the soil. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL PROOF. 
 
 After all, the most convincing evidence that a new crop is or is nof 
 adapted to the region to which it is introduced must be found in the 
 results of actual trials of the crop in that region. Such evidence, if 
 there is suflicient of it, must be received as final and conclusive. If 
 
21) 
 
 MACAHllNI WHEATS. 
 
 those results siil)stantiiito the coiu-hisions :irri\ecl at by a comparison of 
 the features of soil and climate, such as we have given above, it is a 
 gratifying confirmation of the idea that introductions of new crops 
 
 I 55 
 
 >*i<S2^ 
 
 should proceed ui)tin llie basis of a picvious scientific inv(^stigation of 
 environment.' 
 
 'See Russian Cereals Adapted for Cultivation in the United States. Bull. Xo. 23, 
 Division of Botany, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 7-11, paragraph (1). Also the 
 Basis for the Improveineiitof American Wheats, Bull. No. 24, Division of Vegetable 
 Physiology and Pathology, pp. 7-9, 42 (top of page and note), and 81, paragraph 17. 
 
TESTIMONY AS TO ADAPTABILITY. 21 
 
 As already stated, macaroni wheats have been introduced now and 
 then and grown in a very few places for many j-ears, but the growers 
 becoming discouraged b^- the absence of anj^ demand for the wheat, 
 usually abandoned its culture soon. Nevertheless, the admirable 
 qualities of these varieties — their great 3aelding power, earliness, 
 drought resistance, and resistance to diseases — have always been 
 noticed and remarked upon. 
 
 So far as the writer can determine, Russian macaroni wheat was 
 first introduced into this country in 186i bj- this Department. It was 
 of the variety Arnautka and was purchased at Odessa, Russia. It 
 was afterwards distributed annually by the Department for several 
 years and attracted much attention because of its hardiness, early 
 maturity, and yield. In Lincoln County, 111., it ripened two weeks 
 earlier than other spring wheats. In Dixon County, Nebr., it yielded 
 30 bushels per acre and ripened four to six days earlier than other 
 varieties. In Minnesota it ripened a week earlier than Scotch Fife 
 and 3'ielded remarkably.' At that time, however, the possible use of 
 these wheats for making macaroni was apparently not thought of, and 
 their cultivation did not continue extensivel}'. During the last three 
 years the Department has agai^i taken hold of the matter in a 
 thorough and comprehensive way and with the aim to stimulate as far 
 as possible a market, 1)oth domestic and foi'eign, when they are grown. 
 A number of the veiy best Russian varieties have been introduced 
 and tested systematically in comparison with standard varieties in 
 cooperation with State Experiment Stations and certain private 
 parties. 
 
 That the results of these experiments, both at the stations and l)y 
 private parties, abundantly prove the adaptability of durum wheats to 
 our semiarid districts is shown by the evidence which follows. 
 
 TESTIMONY OF i'HIVATE PARTIES. 
 
 In Texas a great deal of attention has been given to Nicaragua 
 wheat (PI. I, £), a vai'iety of the macaroni wheat group. One of 
 the pioneers in experience with this wheat, formerly a millwright, 
 and afterwards statistical correspondent of this Department, is Mr. 
 James J. M. Smith, of Turnersville, Tex., who has often urged the 
 importance of giving more attention to it. The following extracts 
 from his correspondence with this Department give his testimon}' con- 
 cerning this wheat: 
 
 There were thousands of Inishela raise<l here (Burnett, Tex. ) as late as seventeen 
 years ago, and agentleman who liailed from New Orleans bought in this seetion about 
 100,(100 Ijushels for shipment to Europe for use in making graham flour and macaroni. 
 This wlieat was hardy, and was not attacked by smut or rust, and was a sure crop, aver- 
 aging from 20 to 100 per cent more in yield per acre than any other wheat. Its hard 
 qualities make it secure from weevil or becoming musty and spoiling in vessels or 
 elevators in transit. (Letter of October 9, 1897. ) 
 
 ' See Annual Report U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1868, pp. 249, 2S0. 
 
ii'i MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 Again, in a letter dated April 15, 1S98: 
 
 Our farmers out here (Turnersville, Tex.) are well acquainted with the culture of 
 this wheat, and the cause of their abandoning its culture was mainly twofold: (1) 
 The indisposition of millers to handle it properly, and (2) the want of a market. 
 The yield is certain. It tufts in winter (when sown in fall), pastures well, has a 
 heavy straw, is easily threshed, and the best keeper of all cereals. The bread is 
 nutritious, and for bakers' loaves it will not, after being baked, become dry and hard 
 as bread from the softer varieties. The wheat grows .sometimes as high as 6 feet and 
 yields 60 bushels per acre. It grows well as far as Velasco, Tex., and flourishes 
 where the tropical climate is no longer good for other wheats. 
 
 Mr. A. W. Parrott, proprietor of a stock farm at Holland, Tex., 
 writes under date of May 24, 1898, concerning the Nicaragua wheat, 
 as follows: 
 
 We used to plant it here some eight or ten years ago. We made at that time from 
 25 to 30 bushels per acre. It would grow from brea,«t height to the height of a man's 
 head. It could be planted either in fall or spring. I planted 4 bushels last fall about 
 November 15. It was very dry and the wheat did not get a very good start. I cut 
 it last week and it will make douljle the yield that Mediterranean planted at the same 
 time will make. Planted 6 bushels in February of this year. It was in full head, 
 good stand and breast high, and will, with a good rain in a few days, make a great 
 deal more than seed sown last fall, as there is a better stand. It is a surer crop than 
 corn even, making on an average more to the acre than corn, besides requiring less 
 labor to make and gather. It stands the cold lietter than our native wheats, thereby 
 making a good and lasting winter pasture, and still producing a full crop of grain if 
 not pastured too late. 
 
 The testimony- of the Texas Seed and Floral Company, of Dallas, 
 Tex. (in letter of Miiy 2i, 1898), is as follows: 
 
 Nicaragua hard wheat was grown here several years ago, Init the farmers stopped 
 raising it on account of the millers not wanting to grind it, as it was so hard. It is 
 very productive, and will produce one-third more than Mediterranean here, and 
 makes splendid feed for hogs and other stock. We think it a good thing for the 
 Te.xas farmer. 
 
 In 1899 this seed company kindlj- gave the writer the addres.ses of 
 certain parties in Texas who were growing Nicaragua wheat. On 
 request, reports were received from three of these parties giving their 
 experience with the wheat as follows: 
 
 G. M. Givens, Lisljon, Tex.: 
 
 I have been raising it for three years now. Tlie first year (1896) I sowed it in 
 December on account of getting the seed late. I got about IS bushels per acre. The 
 fall of 1897 I sowed l.ith to 20th of October; had the finest winter pasture I ever saw, 
 and harvested 30 busliels per acre, thresher measure, which weighed out a good deal 
 more. My other wheat by the side of it, sown at the same time, made only 20 bush- 
 els per acre. The Nicaragua yields one-third more than Mediterranean with the 
 same show. In the fall of 1898 I sowed Christmas week and got about 15 bushels per 
 acre. AVe had no rain to amount to anything until spring. My other wheat made 
 10 to 12 l;)ushels per acre. This fall ( 1899) I sowed Nicaragua November 10. It is a 
 fine stand and doing well. It is a very hardy wheat, and when sown early will ripen 
 about the same time as Mediterranean' or other bearded varieties. I think the 
 proper time to sow is in October or November. 
 
 ' A standard red bearded wheat of Texas, and hence often referred to for compar- 
 ison bv Texas farmers. 
 
Bui 3. Burgau of Plant Industry. U. S. Ocpt of A^ncullu 
 
 Fia 1. -Macaroni Wheat Fields near Berdiansk, in the Azov Sea Region. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Macaroni Wheat Farm of Mr. Mikhalkov, at Ambrocievka in Don Territory. 
 
TESTIMONY AS TO ADAPTABILITY. 23 
 
 N. B. Harrell, Celeste, Tex., November 20, 1899: 
 
 It has been sown here iu this section and yielded a good croji, fome of it making 
 from 40 to 50 bushels per acre. 
 
 L. L. Ayers, Gutesville, Tex., November 18, 1801): 
 
 The wheat (Nicaragua) I sowed last year did not do well on account of late sowing 
 and the almost unprecedented winter drought. It is a very hardy cereal, and should 
 be sown about the time for other wheat and ripens about the same time. It is very 
 productive in the black lands of Texas, yielding from 25 to 75 bushels per acre accord- 
 ing to soil and season. Two years ago a farmer near Belton, Tex., raised 75 bushels 
 per acre. It used to be raised here for hogs, but of late has fallen into disuse. 
 
 Mr. Edward K. CaiT, of Ken-ville, Kerr County, Tex., writes: 
 
 The remarkable success of Nicaragua wheat, which I have sown for about twenty- 
 four years in succession on my farm, leads me to believe that we must look to Southern 
 latitudes for our wheat. 
 
 Concerning Nicaragua, as tried in the North, Mr. J. F. O'Gi-ady, of 
 Eola, Roberts C'ounty, S. Dak., writes February- 1-i, 1001: 
 
 I do not think the wheat had a fair trial last season, as it was a poor one for small 
 grain in this locality. The sample was planted on April 20, the day that we finished 
 seeding the common Blue Stem, which is the main variety used here, and Nicaragua 
 came rijie a week ahead. Wheat averaged about 8 bushels per acre here, and the 
 Nicaragua would have gone at least 50 per cent better. 
 
 Dr. F. W. D'Albini, of Waring, Tex., writing February 12, 1001, 
 of results with No. 579 (variety Kubanka) of the Section of Seed and 
 Plant Introduction, a macaroni wheat obtained h}' Prof. N. E. Hansen, 
 says: 
 
 The plants were very robust and healthy and not inclined to lodge at all. There 
 was little rust on them, though our common wheat showed it badly. The yield was 
 very good. I think it would have made 22 bushels to the acre. 
 
 Mr. T. N. Oium, of Lisbon, N. Dak., who has been growing an 
 excellent quality of macaroni wheat on a considerable scale, is one of 
 the first to secure a market for his wheat at a good price. He is grow- 
 ing the variety Arnautka, originally from the Azov Sea region, and 
 has this testimony to give from his own experience (letter of May 
 6, 1901): 
 
 In regard to the Arnautka wheat, will say that I have grown it for several j'ears, 
 and last year I had 1,000 bushels. * * * I And this wheat is admirably adapted 
 to this country. It will yield about double what other wheat will and seems to be 
 smut and rust proof. * * * I have succeeded in distributing enough seed so that 
 with a normal crop I expect we will raise from 50,000 to 100,000 bushels next year. 
 * * * Our local mill grinds flour from this wheat, and we like it much better than 
 otiier flour. It makes better bread. All who use it here will use no other.' 
 
 The Hougen Milling Company, of Northwood, N. Dak., has not 
 only grown macaroni wheat (of Russian origin), but has ground some 
 
 'The Arnautka wheat from North Dakota, given in Table IV, is a sample of the 
 wheat grown by Mr. Oium. It compares very favorably with the others direct from 
 Russia. 
 
24 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 of it for broad Hour. Tho company writes as follows in a lettcM- dated 
 March 23, HM)1: 
 
 We have iiuule Hour from about 200 bushels of this wheat. It take.s considerable 
 more power to grind tlio same quantity of this wheat than our spring wheat usually 
 grown here. Tliere will not be a great deal of this wheat sown liere this year, aa 
 there has been no market for it. A few fanners will sow some, intendin<r it for feed, 
 as the yield is usually very good. AVe e.Kpect to i)ut in about 100 acres of it, and in 
 ca.se we can find demand for the product there is no doubt a large aniotnit of it will 
 be raised here. The "grits" or breakfast food made from this wheat, a sample of 
 whirh we send you, we think superior to that made from our native wheat. 
 
 ^Ir. Paul Landeiiiann, of Scotland, 8. Dak., and a fonuor resident of 
 llussia. has this to say in a hotter of March 26, 1901, of the Arnautka 
 wheat o-rowu hy Genuan-Eussian faiiiier.s in his .section of South 
 Dakota: 
 
 I linil that most of them have fed the la.st kernel of their seed to hogs on account 
 of no market for this wheat, but everyone is hajipy that a market is in view, and it 
 will take l:)ut a few years and there will be plenty. This wheat is not only good for 
 macaroni, but it gives ns a line bread. Often in the city of Odessa I went to a well- 
 known bakery tn liuy this bread, wliich was baked only twice a week, and found 
 it all solil, to our sorrow. .\s .soon as our American peoi)le Mill taste this bread it 
 will lind a sure market. 
 
 Concerning Kvtbaidva a heat No. 2953 S. P. I. (PI. I. 7), obtained by 
 the writer in 1S9S, the testinion\- of Mr. A. Meyerle, of Arapahoe, 
 Nebr.. is as follows: 
 
 Tlic wlu'ut was planted April 26, 1899. It had one rain Jvnie 10, 1 inch, and no 
 luorc rain till harve.sted. Harvested just seventy-six days after i)lanting. It is so 
 early, anil that is what we want in this country. 
 
 "Wheat No. 1174 S. P. I. (PI. II, J^), a macaroni variety obtained b}' 
 Prof. N. E. Hansen from Turkestan, Avas tried by Mr. James Curtis 
 at St. Thomas, N. Dak. He .states results as follows: 
 
 I planted it on the 10th of April, 1900, and harvested it on the l.'ith of August. 
 Intend to give it another trial this spring (1901). It is a large plmni) l)erry and 
 seems to be (|uite flinty. (Jrain men say that it will grade Xo. 1 northern. 
 
 Mr. James H. Canipl)ell, Nvritiny from Sk(>ltOn, Nov.. says concern- 
 ing the same variety. No. 1174: 
 
 No. 1174 did well, better than our Nevada wheat. Planted .\)iril 1, ripened Sep- 
 tember 4. I gave the neighbors some to try. 
 
 This \ari(>ly was also tried by Mr. A. P. Stanley at Eciio, Umatilla 
 County, Oreo-. His testimony, oivcn in a letter of February 12, I9(ll, 
 is as follows: 
 
 Wheat No. 1174 was sown broadcast March 2(i, 1900, and harvested .Tune 29. Yield 
 per acre (estimated), 2:i bushels. The grain was large, plumji, and far sujierior to 
 the seed .-own. I consider this variety worthy of further trial, whii'h I shall give it 
 the coming sea.«on. The fine stand of volunteer now on the ground, after the hard 
 freezing weather of the last month, is evidence of its hardiness. 
 
TESTIMONY AS TO ADAPTABILITY. 25 
 
 Mr. H. C. Warner, of Forestburg, S. Dak., .superintfiident of State 
 fair, Department of the South Dakota State Board of Agriculture, has 
 taken much interest in the trials of macaroni wheats. He experi- 
 mented with Arnautka (S. P. I. Nos. 11.53 and 1156) and No. 1174, and 
 has this to say concerning results with it: 
 
 A summary of results would be about a.s follows: 1153 and 11.56 Arnautka were 
 fine, withstood drought well, berry plump, color good, yield fine, ripe July 24. No. 
 1174 will be a good early wheat if it does not rust. Ripe July 7. 
 
 Three other correspondents report results with No. 117-1. as follows: 
 
 Alois Wallman, Crandon, S. Dak. : For durability it will prove to be tlie wheat 
 best suited for the dry prairie States. 
 
 H. J. Wilson, Husted, Colo.: No. 1174 was quite hardy; can not say what the 
 yield would be, but consider it a good variety. 
 
 C. A. Snodgrass, Salmon City, Idaho: It is the finest wheat I ever saw; I sowed it 
 on the 10th of May anil it was ripe on the 25th of August. It think if it were sown 
 on fall plowing it would make a crop without irrigation, and, as to yield, I think it 
 will yield fine. It seems to be hardy. 
 
 In Canada the Wild Goose wheat (PI. I, 3), a macaroni variety, 
 which probably came originally from South Russia, has been grown 
 considerably for several years. Mr. William Beacham, of Cambray, 
 Ontario, writes April 3, 1901, as follows, concerning this wheat as 
 grown in that locality: 
 
 The straw is strong, not liable to lodge, and is not affected by rust at all. It does 
 not shell in cutting as much as others if left till overripe. It will grow on wet or 
 dry land and is not affected by exti-enie dry or wet weather. 
 
 TESTIMONY (IF EXPERIMENT ST.\TI0NS. 
 
 Without any disparagement to tht^ reports of private parties who, 
 no doubt, .state honestly the results of their experiences, it is never- 
 thele-ss to the experiment stations that we must look for conclusions 
 that are to be considered final concerning the behavior of varieties in 
 their particular districts, as their variety tests are not only carried out 
 scientifically and .systematically, but in a highl}^ comparative waj', 
 dozens, or even hundreds of varieties of diflerent wheat groups being 
 tested side by side, under the same conditions. No complete series of 
 experiments with macaroni wheats has j^et been published by any sta- 
 tion, but several' of the stations have kindly given the Department, ])y 
 letter, brief reports of two-year results with the three varieties 
 oljtained in Russia by the writer in 1899, through the Section of Seed 
 and Plant Introduction. In one instance the variety Nicaragua is also 
 included. Fortunately, two of these stations are in the very districts 
 to which these wheats are naturally best adapted. 
 
 The two States in which macaroni wheats have so far proved to be 
 the most succes.sful are North and South Dakota. The wheats not 
 only give excellent yields in these States, but the grain produced is 
 
26 MACAKUMI WHEATS. 
 
 often ;ippan>nt]y of .better quality thiiii the original imported seed. 
 Prof. J. H. Shepperd,agrieulturist of the North Dakota Station, reports 
 briefl\' as follows the results with Kabanka and Perei-odka at that sta- 
 tion during 189!) and 1900: 
 
 I am planning to do con.siderable work with macaroni wheat in this district. The 
 two bwt Russian sort.s out7-anked everything else. In 1899 Pererodka S. I'. I. Xo. 
 2954 gave a yield of 39.9 bushels per acre and Kubanka S. P. I. No. 29.i:i yielded .iOA 
 busliels per acre. Both were very hardy and thrifty and were early enough to be 
 entirelv safe in tliis district. The Pererodka made a performance of about 8 l)ushels 
 per acre better than our best-bred Fife and Blue Stem sorts. I am very favorably 
 impre.'i.sed with their i)erf<irman<-e indeed. The unusual conditions of last season 
 (1900) vitiated the results of our work with wheat to such an extent that I have no 
 confidence in the comparative yields which we obtained from the different sorts. 
 Pererodka was subject to very adverse conditions from drought and conditions of 
 soil, but made a yield of 17.1.3 bushels per acre even with so severe a handicap. The 
 Pererodka is a very promising sort for this section. 
 
 In South Dakt)ta comparative residts indicate very stronoly the 
 hardiness of these Russian varieties. Concerning results at the sta- 
 tion in 1900, a ver\-discouragingseasonfor the entire Northwest. Prof. 
 D. A. Saunders writes: 
 
 ■\Vith reference to the macaroni wheats, Xos. 29.54 and 2953 are very ivromising 
 indeed. They both stood our drought wonderfully well, and yielded, in this very 
 unfavorable season, .somewhere about 30 bushels by the side of wheat that yielded 
 2 to 8 bushels to the acre. No. 2954 did not discolor quite as badly as No. 2953. 
 Otherwise there is no difference between the two numbers. 
 
 Aside from their value for making macaroni and as a means of 
 largely increasing the yield in the semiarid Great Plains, the use of 
 the.se wheats will ])e one of the greatest factors also in the establish- 
 ment of what is known as '"dry farming'" in the irrigated districts; 
 that is, farming without irrigation. Prof, elohn A. "Widtsoe. director 
 of the Utah Station, is very favorably impressed with the behavior 
 of Russian cereals in this respect. He has kindly furnished results of 
 two years" e.vperiments with these cereals in Utah, and writes as follows 
 in regard to the matter: 
 
 In accordance with your request for a tjrief report on the behavior of the Russian 
 cereals sent us by the Department of Agriculture I am pleased to inclose a copy of 
 the report on this subject made to me by the station agriculturist. As you will 
 observe, some of the varieties sent us have done exceptionally well. I consider that 
 this work is of very great importance to us here in Utah, especially as regards the 
 discovery of wheats and other grains with great drought-resisting powers. Dry 
 farming or farming without irrigation is becoming very important in Utah. The 
 Utah Station is in constant receipt of requests for information and recf)mmendations 
 concerning varieties of wheat especially adapted fordry farming. 
 
 In the report mentioned from tlic station agriculturist, Lewis A. 
 Merrill, is the following paragraph; 
 
 It may lie of interest to know that an exhibit was made, at our recent State fair, 
 of these wheats, and they excited considei-able favorable comment on account of the 
 plump kernel, the color, the smoothness of bran, hardness, and general appearance. 
 
TESTIMONY AS TO ADAPTABILITY. 
 
 27 
 
 In the following table are given the dates of .seeding and harvesting, 
 yields, etc., of the wheats only. Three of the varieties, Kubanka, 
 Polish, and Pererodka, are Russian macaroni wheats. Romanov is 
 also Russian, but not a macaroni wheat. The macaroni variety 
 Nicaragua is included in the experiments of 1900. 
 
 T.VBLE III. — Co)n]xiral i re rexiilh 
 
 •nil irliail rarictli/t iit the Utah Aijricidturat Experiment 
 Station. 
 
 Xamo of variety. 
 
 S.P.I. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Date 
 seeded. 
 
 Date har- 
 vested. 
 
 Number 
 of irriga- 
 tions. 
 
 neT acre ■^^'••^g^ 
 
 
 I 1898 
 I 1900 
 
 1900 
 f 1899 
 l 1900 
 r 1899 
 I 1900 
 ( 1899 
 i 1900 
 
 1900 
 
 Apr. 11 
 Mar. 19 
 
 ....do... 
 Apr. 13 
 Mar. 19 
 Apr. 13 
 Mar. 19 
 Apr. 19 
 Mar. 19 
 
 ....do... 
 
 July 25 
 Aug. 13 
 July 19 
 July 28 
 Aug. 13 
 July 28 
 Aug. 13 
 ,\ug. 7 
 Aug. 13 
 July 23 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 ^■^^ \ 32.09 
 
 Lamona '. 
 
 Pererodka 
 
 Kubanka 
 
 rolish 
 
 Wellman's Fife 
 
 4276 
 2954 
 
 2953 
 
 2957 
 4404 
 
 30.00 
 34.34 
 36.00 
 33.27 
 38.42 
 2S. 76 
 29. .50 
 21.00 
 32.50 
 
 34.34 
 } 34.63 
 
 1 33.69 
 
 } -- 
 32.50 
 
 
 
 It is seen that the highest j-ield of one j'ear, .38.42 bushels, was made 
 by Kubanka. The 3'ields for Lamona and Wellman's Fife are given 
 for onh' one year. These are known, however, to be fairly drought- 
 resistant varieties. Of the four varieties that were grown two years 
 Pererodka and Kubanka made the highest average yields, these being 
 the same varieties, too, that were so successful in North and South 
 Dakota. Pererodka seems again to be the better of the two varieties 
 in this case, as was found to be true in the tibials of the North Dakota 
 Station. The writer .saw these varieties in the shock just after harvest 
 at the Utah Station in 1899, and observed then that the straw w as long 
 and the heads bright and well tilled, though that was the first year of 
 their trial. The wheats were given two irrigations, but it is probable 
 that in the most favorable localities in Utah the}' will produce a good 
 average crop without irrigation. 
 
 Polish wheat (PI. II, i), a macaroni variety, has been grown along 
 with other varieties at experiment stations and elsewhere in this coun 
 try at various times, and almost always with good results as regards 
 yield, drought resistance, and rust resistance. The experiments hav^e 
 always been short-lived, however, either from sheer neglect or because 
 there was no particular incentive for growing the variety. In 1891 
 10 acres of this wheat was planted by the Division of Botany of this 
 Department at its grass and forage experiment station at Garden 
 Cit}', Kans.^ Two hundred and fort}' bushels were harvested, mak- 
 ing a yield of 2-t bushels per acre, or about twice the ordinai-y vield 
 
 ' See Report of Grass and Forage Expt. Sta. at Garden City, Kans., for 1891, by 
 Dr. J. A. Sewall, pp. 3-5. Reprint from An. Rept. Sec. of Agr. 1891. 
 
28 MACAHONI WHKATS. 
 
 of spring wheats in that State. Dr. .). A. Si'wali in iiis it-port of tho 
 experiments at that .station for 1891 says: 
 
 With reference to the experiments as a whole, I know that with fair culture in 
 this region, without irrigation, any person can raise ordinarily a fair crop of Polish 
 wheat, and with a reasonable amount of rainfall, a large crop. Rejjorts on the 
 Polish wheat distributed last winter state a yield of from 20 to 60 bushels per acre, 
 without irrigation. The rainfall from January 1, IKOl, to May 21, 1891, was only 
 1.41 inches. From May 21 to October .3, ISitl, the rainlall was 23.20 inches, nearly 
 8 inches more than the average annual lainfall. 
 
 (iufden City is at a consiilerable distance west of tlie one inuulrcdth 
 meridian. 'I'liis wlieat also ])ro(hieed a i>()od eoniparative yield at tlu^ 
 Arkan.sas Valley E.xperimiMit Station in C'olorado, htit was ap))arently 
 .soon afterwards discarded. It has also oiven o()od residts in Washing- 
 ton. Utah, Iowa, and other States. 
 
 The strong resistance to h^af rust exhibited by macaroni wheats has 
 been diseiissed in <U'tail in previous pul)lieati<)ns of this Department.' 
 so that no special treatment of that subject is necessary here. 
 
 Ill closing this topic, the results of tield trials with macaroni wheats 
 in the seiiiiarid districts of this country may be summarized as follows: 
 (1) Afaearoni wheats are far more resistant to leaf rust than common 
 wheats; (2) the}' iire more resistant to attacks of smut and other dis- 
 eases than common wheats; (3) in the South, when sown in good time, 
 they furnish a good supply of winter pasturage and that without 
 diminishing the after harvest of grain, if not pastured too late; (i) in the 
 middle (treat Plains eastern Russian varieties ripen earlier, as a rule, 
 than the ordinary spring wheats; (5) in many places west of the 100th 
 meridian, where wheat growing with other varieties is practically im- 
 possible on account of drought, these varieties by virtue of their 
 extreme drought-resistance will produce ordinarily a crop of from 12 
 to 20 bushels per acre; by the use of these wheats, therefore, these 
 localities may become actual additions to the wheat ai'ea; (6) in the 
 larger part of the (ireat Plains where drought is less inten.se, but suf- 
 ficiently severe to make the average yield p(>r acre of common wheats 
 (juitc low. these varieties increase the yiekl on ;in average one third 
 or more. 
 
 THE MARKET FOB MACARONI WHEAT. 
 
 From a purely culturtil standpoint — that is, the standpoint of yield, 
 hardiness, etc., there is no question that the success of macaroni wheat 
 growing in the Great Plains of this country is even now an estal)- 
 lished certainty. There is only the (piestion of a market that concern.s 
 
 •See Cereal Rusts of the United States, Bui. Xo. Hi, Div. Veg. Phys. and Path., 
 Dept. of Agr., pp. 23-40, especially pp. 33 and 40, Sept. 27, 1899 (illus.); also. The 
 Basis for the Improvement of American Wheats, Bui. No. 24, Div. Veg. Phys. and 
 Path., Dept of Agr., in column "Resistance to leaf rust," of table, pp. 44-.58, Dec. 
 10, 1900. 
 
FOREIGN DEMAND. 29 
 
 the fin-iiier at present. It is a ijuestioii. however, that ouylit to be 
 capable of early .solution. A market is likely to be realized in one or 
 more of three ways: (1) B3' stimulating a foreign demand for the wheat 
 for macaroni making; (2) b}- the development of a home demand from 
 our own macaroni factories; and (;-5) hy the use of macaroni wheat flour 
 in })read making.' 
 
 KOKEIGX DKMAND. 
 
 It is alreadj- known that certain French manufacturers of semolina 
 desire to use macaroni wheat from this country, and indeed a consid- 
 erable amount of the variety Wild Goose has been shipped to France. 
 But at present there are apparently two chief obstacles in the way of 
 extensive foreign shipments. First, the foi'eign factories have not 
 been brought through proper middlemen to see what the grower has 
 to offer. Second, tliere has })een no systematic effort, as there should 
 be, to send to these factories for inspection well-authenticated samples- 
 of our best grades of these wheats, with accompanying information 
 as to the amount that can be furnished of each. 
 
 French factories are quite read}- at anj' time to use these wheats if 
 they can get always a good grade. The demand for such wheat is 
 shown by the following statements of United States Consul, John C. 
 Covert, at Lyons, France:" 
 
 It i.s estimated that the French (Hitput of these pastes is from 120,000,000 to 
 170,000,000 pounds per annum, and the prodiiet is unquestionably destined to 
 increase greatly. To Americans it may seem strange that the power to jiurchase 
 wheat foods is only now becoming general 'in most of the civilized countries. Thirty 
 years ago black rye bread was universally consumed by the working classes and the 
 peasantry in France. Bakers tell me that they all sold rye bread up to about 1870; 
 now it is rarely found in any bakery and is eaten onlj' in the country. * * * As 
 the use of wheat has become more general and the power to pay for it has grown 
 correspondingly, it is but natural that a strong tendency to seek variety in its jirepa- 
 ration for food should exist. * * * The new and better methods for the manu- 
 facture of the edible pastes, the knowledge of just the kind of pastes certain classes 
 of wheat will produce, and the improvements in the heating and drying processes 
 are coincident with the sudden and widespread increase in the use of wheat foods. 
 The continued growth of this industry will depend upon the supply of s)5erial kinds 
 of wheat, for a decline in consumption would inunediately follow au}- attempt to 
 manufacture pastes of ordinary wheat. 
 
 Paste makers are unanimous in the opinion that American wheats [i. e., common 
 bread wheats] will not answer their purposes, but when one considers the almost 
 endless variety of our soil and climate it seems that some locality must be found 
 where a suitable wheat can be grown. What is wanted is a hard wheat [durum, or 
 macaroni wheat, not ordinary "hard wheat"] containing a large percentage of 
 gluten and a relatively small percentage of starch. Our wheat is lacking in both 
 
 ' Since the above was written facts have developed upon which a market for at least 
 5,000,000 bushels can be safely guaranteed for the season of 1902. 
 
 ^ Wheat for Alimentary Pastes in France. Consular Reports, 60: 468-470, N(j. 226, 
 July, 1899. 
 
30 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 these tlesiderata. * * * An AunTii-ain-heniist, ]\rr. Kdwiii W. Serrell, now living 
 near Lyons [France], has carefully inve.'^tijrated this siiliject and informs nie that 
 the wheat which is now considered the best is that .grown in the neighborhood of 
 Taganrog,' Kussia; the next is from Algeria. That produced in southern Italy, 
 where the manufacture of pa,stes originated, has lost the high place it formerly held. 
 Tli)3 best wheat grown in France — considered better than the American product — is 
 from the neighborhood of Clermont-Ferrand. 
 
 Rapidity of growth and ripening is considered of j)rime importance in the produc- 
 tion of the de.sire<l qualities in the wheat. These are the chief factors in the Taganrog 
 product. If our farmers could produce such a wheat it would find more uses than 
 in the jidtes alimcntaires above referred to. There would be an excellent market in 
 years of drought in Russia. 
 
 Jlillers and bakers in France have found that bread is improved by putting into 
 it a larger amount of gluten than is found in French or American wheat.«, and as a 
 consequence very hard wheats — the Taganrog generally — are mixed with the others. 
 These wheats can not be raised in France, but must be imported, and they are the 
 only kinds which are always sure to find a market in this country [France], as the 
 French farming community will always demand and are politically strong enough 
 to secure a high protective tariff on wheat and other grain. 
 
 If it be remembered that the French people eat more bread than any people in 
 the world; that, generally, France needs very little ordinary wheat, but that she 
 always will need a very considerable percentage of hard wheat^ (hard is not under- 
 stood in the American sense in France), it will at once be seen that there is a possi- 
 bility of finding a large opening for American agricultural products in this country, 
 not to speak of the great consunq)tion of hard wheat in such macaroni and spaghetti- 
 eating countries as Italy and Spain. Moreover, as the experience of the French has 
 proved that an admixture of hard wheat, in small quantities, improves the quality of 
 the bread, it is reasonable to infer that this practice will extend to other comitries," 
 further enlarging the market for hard wheats. 
 
 The following words appear also in Consular Reports, 62: 300-301, 
 IVIarch, 1900: 
 
 Consul Skinner sends from Marseilles, December 1, 1899, the following copy of a 
 letter from ]\Iessrs. Beudit Leinburger & Co., 21 rue Sylvabelle, Marseilles: "We 
 are desirous of establishing connections with some first-class American grain 
 exporters for the importation of American hard wheat into this market; and, as our 
 efforts in this direction have thus far met with no satisfactory results, we make free 
 to address you the present, in order to inquire if it is in your power to place our 
 request before the proper party in the United States. 
 
 " This description of wheat, commonly known as Goose* wheat, is in considerable 
 demand in our market. It is employed by the millers in this district for the manu- 
 facture of semolina, which is used in the production of macaroni, etc. It is better 
 adapted for this purpose than any other quality of wheat. Russia, India, Africa, 
 and to some extent Chile have been furnishing our market with this commodity 
 
 ' Nearly all Ru.ssian macaroni wheat is known in France 'as Taganrog, simply 
 because Taganrog is the chief point of export. .\s a matter of fact some of the very 
 best of this wheat is grown in the Volga River region. 
 
 ^Xearly all French wheat is very soft, much softer than our wheats, but imported 
 wheats of the durum group are mixed with them for making bread. 
 
 ' In Eastern Russia macaroni wheats have been used in bread making on a large 
 scale for many years, a fact not generally known. 
 
 •Grown rarely in North and South Dakota, but in larger ciuantities in Canada. 
 See PI. I, fig. 5. 
 
FOREIGN DEMAND. 31 
 
 hitherto. A clear, yellow-ooloroii, and wt-ll-oleaned wheat will always i-cimniaud 
 full prices." 
 
 Mr. Skinner adds: "I have already coniniunicated to Me-ssrs. Bendit Lein- 
 burger & Co. the facts set forth on page 400 of Consular Reports No. 230. There is 
 no doubt that wheat of the quality described would meet with a steady demand in 
 this market. I might add in this connection, however, that a local firm other 
 than the one named above complains to me that certain transactions with American 
 exporters proved unfortunate, because of the arrival of the grain in liad condition 
 and not as represented by samjile." 
 
 In 1899 Mr. Jame.? B. Sitnp.son, of Dallas, Tex., being miicli inter- 
 ested in the statements of Consul John C. Covert above quoted, .since 
 it indicated a possible outlet for Texas grown Nicaragua wheat, wrote 
 this Department requesting its assistance in forwarding 2 bushels of 
 this wheat to the United States consul at Lj'ons to be tested as to its 
 fitness for use by French manufacturers of edible pa.stes. The letter 
 was referred to the Department of State. It was accompanied by 
 another letter, which was also printed in the Galveston News, and 
 from which the following words are here quoted:' 
 
 Believing that the wheat exactly adapted to the making of macaroni and similar 
 edible pastes is that hard, flinty, glutinous wheat called in north Texas the Nicara- 
 gua wheat, and seemingly almost indigenous to our black lands and warm climate, 
 and knowing that there never was a failure in the growth of this grain in north 
 Texas, and that such is its wonderful productiveness that an average of .50 bushels 
 to the acre is made, I took occasion to write these facts to Mr. Covert. 
 
 Mr. Cov'ert became deeply interested in my letter, realizing at once the great 
 possibilities to north Texas, and referred it to M. Edwin W. Serrell, a distinguished 
 chemist of Chabeuil, France. That gentleman wrote in reply a letter of some six 
 pages (too long to insert here), but substantially stating that if we could grow this 
 character of wheat a practically limitless demand existed for it in Europe, and that 
 it could readily be shipped through Galveston. 
 
 Mr. Serrell further suggested that he be sent 2 bushels of this Texas-grown 
 wheat for chemical analysis, which he would gladly make; and if it was as antici- 
 pated, not only could France take all produced in north Texas, but that capital 
 would quickly come from France to Texas, putting up here establishments with a 
 yearly output of §18,000,000. 
 
 Since 1 have taken up this grain matter, I have spoken with several farmers of 
 Dallas County, who are unanimous in their opinion that we can grow to perfection 
 in north Texas just the wheat required by this great European industry, and so 
 satisfactory would be found the jirofits that our black lands would advance quickly 
 from 25 to 50 per cent in value. 
 
 Letters of recent date have been received through the Department 
 of State from the consuls at both Marseilles and Lyons, responding 
 courteously to requests for certain information by this Department. 
 In the.se letters reference is made again to the foreign demand for 
 macaroni wheats. Consul Robert P. Skinner, at Marseilles, in a letter 
 of February 6, 1901, says: 
 
 As to whether or not it would pay American farmers to export their wheats to 
 France, I think there is no question. Buyers here are constantly looking for hard 
 
 'See "American wheat for the manufacture of macaroni," Consular Reports 61: 
 400, 401, No. 230, Nov., 1899. 
 
32 MACAKoNi \vhp:ats. 
 
 wlioats comparable to tliose exported from Russia to tliis market. It has been found 
 impossil>le to frrow these wlieats in Kranee,'and the snpi)ly pnxhiced in Alcreria is 
 quite itisudieient to meet local reciuirements. 
 
 ■ Cun.siil Covert, at IjVoiis, also niaki's tl>e following statement 
 regardiiio- the ssiiiie matter in a letter of Mareh 8, 1901: 
 
 As to the Kuropean market f(jr hard wheats, I am toUI by dealers that it will he 
 able to absorb all that our country can |)rodnee. T know merchants in this city who 
 would like to contract for handlin<x lar}.'e quantities of these wheats. 
 
 The i'oreo'oino- .statements r(>fer to France only. Kijiuil di'mtmd,-! 
 exist. IK) (lotiht. in Italy. Constii .lo.seph K. Ilayden. at Castelhimtire 
 di Stal)i:i. Italy, also states in a letter of April l'."i. I'.uil. with refer- 
 ence to Italitm macaroni — 
 
 In the manufacture of macaroni of the best quality a special kind of wheat is used 
 called "'hard wheat," and for the makinj; of cheap macaroni a mixed wheat is used. 
 This nnxed wheat is neither hard nor soft. Nearly all the hard wheat conies from 
 Russia, liut some c-onies from India, the Orient, Tunis, and Tnrkey. Italy would be 
 a very important inarkri for .VmeiMcan wlieat, either soft or hard. 
 
 Aoain. in tinocher pla(<' and more recently he <jives a more extensive 
 reixirt on the subject,' as follows: 
 
 .\fter efforts covering a period of over two years, I have succeeded in demonstratiiifr 
 the fact that the very finest (|uality of macaroni can he made of American wheat. 
 This has been declared an impossibility by tho.se eufjafred in its manufacture here, 
 and there are hundreds of establishments in this district. Up to the present time 
 Russian wheat and wheat from tlie Orient have been used, together with Italian 
 wheat, for the production of this article of food, the American wheat being consid- 
 ered too soft. Through the cooperation of one of the largest establishments in this 
 district it has been founil that this conclusion was based ujion the proverbial con- 
 servatism of the people. When it is remembered that macaroni consists of wheat to 
 the extent of 60 per cent, it will he readily seen that here is an opening for American 
 wheat of no inconsiderable importance. It should be understood that while there is 
 a tax on American wheat there is also a tax on all foreign wheat — 7.50 francs ($1.44) 
 for 100 kilograms (220.46 pounds). It should also be borne in ndnd that interna- 
 tional freights covering transportation of grain from Russia, the Orient, and the 
 United .States are practically the same. 
 
 I inclose extracts from a letter from one of the largest manufacturers in Italy and 
 send also a sample of crude American wheat, with a sample of the wheat ground 
 anil a sample of macaroni made from the same.'- It has Ijeen suggested to me that 
 if the United States Government would admit free of duty, or at least at a lower 
 tax than the present tariff, macaroni made from American wheat, a market for 
 our wheat would he opened in competition with that of Russia and the East. The 
 present tariff on 1,000 pounds of macaroni is 5il5, or H cents per pound; under the 
 plan proposed 00 per cent of the said 1,000 pounds would enter free, leaving 40 per 
 cent to be faxed at the present rate of IJ cents per pound, making on the 1,000 
 
 ' "American wheat for Italian macaroni,'' .\dvance Sheets of Consular Reports, 
 No. 1071, J)]!. 1, 2, June 2."), 1901. 
 
 '•'The samples were transmitted to this Department together with a copy of the 
 report. A portion of the wheat .sample is true macaroni wheat, Ijut a large portion 
 is ordinary bread wheat, and the whole of it has been very poorly cleaned. If tliis 
 makes good macaroni, as stated by the Italian manufacturer, our best well-cleaned 
 grain will find abundant demand. 
 
FOREIGN DEMAND. 33 
 
 pounds a tax of S6 instead of $15. It shnuhi l)e remembered iu thin connection that 
 the Italian manufacturer of macaroni under the scheme proposed would have to pay 
 freight from the United States to Italy, and also pay freight on the same wheat 
 manufactured into inacarotii and transported to the United States. 
 
 H.XTH.\CTS FKOM l.BTTER OP DOMENICO ORSINI. 
 
 I send you herewith the result of my experiments in producing macaroni from 
 American wheat. Up to this time, I am sure no Italian manufacturer of macaroni 
 thought it was possible, believing it necessary to use a mixture of either Italian and 
 Russian wheat, or of wheat from the Orient and Tunis. I now put in your posses- 
 sion the accomplished fact, which will serve to oi^en up in Italy a wide market for 
 American wheat. America imports macaroni from Italy, mostly from this district. 
 The wheat used, samples of which are here inclosed, is known as " unfalcated wheat," 
 and was purchased by me in New York City. You will notice the rich golden color 
 of the macaroni, and as to its consistency, I would note that it can be cooked in one- 
 half the time consumed in the ])r6paration of the macarnni now in use. 
 
 Not only is thei-e a great demand for .-iiich wheats in soutlicrn 
 Europe, but American macaroni wheat La.s already found its way to 
 that market in .small (juantities. It is chiefly the Wild Goose wheat, 
 expoi-ted mainly from Canada. Concerning thi.s matter the following 
 statements are made in the report for 1900 of the Ontario Agricidtural 
 College and Experimental Farm:' 
 
 There has been a considerable demand in Italy and France for the A\'il(l Goose 
 wheat within the past four years. One firm alone in Toronto exported in all al)0ut 
 600,000 bushels of the ^^'ild Goose spring wheat in 1899. About one-half of this 
 went to Italy and the other half to France. It is estimated that nearly 90 per cent 
 of the Wild Goose spring wheat which is shipped from Canada is used for the manu- 
 facture of macaroni. The price of tlie Wild Goose for export purposes will likely 
 vary somewhat from year to year, as our keenest competitors are Russia, India, and 
 Turkey. If the crops of these countries are good, the quantity which is shipped 
 from Canada is correspondingly reduced. It is thought, however, that there will be 
 a good demand from the Mediterranean and from other continental ports for Ontario 
 grown Goose wheat for a long time, providing the quality is f'ood.^ 
 
 But if such sales have been made and are being made of this Canada 
 grown Wild Goose wheat, the prospects should be very hopeful for a 
 constant foreign demand sufficient for the dispo.sal of all the Kubanka 
 and Gharnovka (or Arnautka) wheat that can be grown for several 
 j^ears in North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and Colorado, where the 
 quality of the grain produced is already known to be superior, the 
 product being much inore uniform and usually free of soft grains. 
 This leads naturall}' to a discussion of the necessary character of the 
 grain required. 
 
 qt'ALITV OF (;k.\in de.m.^ndeii. 
 
 As already stated in another place, a clear, almost translucent, very 
 hard, yellowish grain is, in a general way, what is required in the for- 
 
 1 Twenty-sixth An. Kept. Ontario Agr. Coll. & Expt. Farm, p. 102. 1900. 
 ^In a letter of very recent date Consul Skinner reports that 100,000 tons (3J million 
 bushels) of this wheat has arrived at Marseilles from Canada since March 1, 1901. 
 
 66.59— No. 3~0l 3 
 
34 MACARONI WHKATS. 
 
 eigii niiirkot, just such a grain as can unciiu'stionably be producod. too, 
 and is lieinir produced in the greatest perfection in the noi'thcrn Stiites 
 of tlie (ireat Plains. It is also especially important that there shall 1)6 
 no adniixtui-e of soft or otherwise inferior grains, hut that the entire 
 crop shall tic uniform in the quality of grain. It is l)ecause of lack of 
 attention to these ret[uir(Muents and occasional careless inspection of 
 grain in this t'ountry that there hasnotl)een even greatei- demand than 
 now exists for our wheats. Consul Skinner otters some suggestions of 
 wai'ning in this connection which are of special value, as h(> is situated 
 at Marseilles, the chief port of entry for macaroni wheat imported 
 into France. His stat(>nients are as follows: 
 
 (1) In letter of Fobrnary fi, 1901: One of the iiianul'actnrerpi in this city ha,s very 
 recently been called upon to test a shipment of Goose wheat from Manitoba, and 
 nientionerl to me the other day that the result was extremely unsatisfactory, a.s the 
 qu.ality of the grain was not even, a large percentage of the kernels being suili- 
 ciently hard, and the remainder not harder than ordinary winter wheat. (2) Con- 
 cerning grain insjiection:' Three protests have been formerly lodged with me in 
 regard to the condition of a cargo of wheat arriving from New Orleans; a like com- 
 plaint has been made against wheat from Galveston, and an English trade jiaper 
 noting a communication from its Marseilles correspondent, says, "We may add that 
 London importers have been making similar complaints." These facts suggest that 
 whatever aecurac} the criticism may possess, they an; not confined to an isolated 
 case or to a single city. As my correspondents explain, wheat from New Orleans is 
 purchased in Marseilles on the faith of the certificates of inspection issued by the 
 board of trade of tliat city. The exporter appears to have no responsibility for 
 quality of the grain beyond the production of an " official" certificate of inspection, 
 which being in proper form binds the buyer to accept the consignment. It neccs.sa- 
 rily follows that unices the trade organizations i.ssuing certificates exercise proper 
 care in making the statements i-onform to the facts, they must lose credit and drive 
 business into other cbanni'ls. 
 
 Mr. Skinner also emphasizes the tlesiral)ility of submitting standard 
 samples of each year'.s crop at Marseilles in the following words: 
 
 ^lany American cereals are unknown here. I have conversed with several brokers 
 who say that if they had samples of the new .\merican crop they could make sales. 
 This difliculty could be overcome and a step in advance of every other grain export- 
 ing nation would lie taken if our produce exchanges, notably at Chicago and Xew 
 York, would send to this market annually, after the new crop is in, a complete set 
 of standard samples. To reach the trade of Marseilles, two sets should be sent — one 
 to the Chambre Syndicale des Minotiers et des Fabricants de 8emoules de Marseille, 
 4 rue des Templiers, and the other to the Chambre .Vrbitrale des Cereales de Mar- 
 seille, sitting at the bourse. The utility of the suggestion is shown by the fact that 
 the French consul at New Orleans has forwarded some few samples to the Syndicate 
 des Jlinotiers by recpiest. Samples should be selected with scrupulous care, indorsed 
 by the exchange sending them and sealed by the French consul, in order to be fully 
 accepted lierc. The idea is applicable not only to cereals, but to cotton, oils, etc. ] 
 am extremely ilesirous of having this matter considered and acted upon, and will be 
 haj)]iy to see that samples are properly placed. 
 
 'Inaccuracy in American Grain Inspection. Consular Reports, 62 : 303-305, No. 
 234. March, litOO. 
 
FOREIGN DEMAND. 35 
 
 In regard to the .same matter of a guaranteed produet being- neces- 
 sary to insure an extension of our wheat trade, the situation as eon- 
 cei"ns our export to Malta (where hard wheat is mainly used at present, 
 coming chiefly from Russia) is stated by Consul John H. (xrout, jr.' 
 With special i-eference to a cargo of wheat and flour shipped direct 
 from New York to Malta in 1899, he says: 
 
 Unfortunately the wheat sent was not up to the standard required foi- military use. 
 i have received a fair sample of it, and find it full of tares and unc-lean. The grains 
 also are too small. This makes tne second time that wheat from the United States 
 has been received and sach time it was below the standard. I wish to state as a 
 result of my recent investigations on the subject, that although there is every chance 
 for our wheat to gain this market, no headway will be made with such qualities as 
 have thus far been received. It is utterly useless for our shippei-s to send wheat 
 that will not come up to the requirements. I know that we have the required 
 article, and it only rests with those desirous to secure a market here to .send large 
 samples first and then, if accepted, to send wheat equal to the samples. * * * 
 Mr. Turnbull, of Turnbull, jr., & Somerville, Valleta, recently said to me: "We have 
 large dealings with the (iovernment here and desire to secure an American brand of 
 wheat that will be acceptable. We desire to do busine.ss with souie resjionsiljle 
 Ameiican firm that will send us samples of wheat up to the standard, and that will, 
 if we order from them, send us wheat up to the sample." * * * 
 
 In sending samples one thing umst be strictly remembered, and that is not to send 
 poor wheat. At Malta the ijuestion is not cost, but quality. There are several good 
 firms here that are ready to deal \\-itli our exporters. Among them are the firms 
 above mentioned — C. Breed Eynaud & Co. and S. Scieluna & iSon. The latter firm 
 has for some time been trying to get some samples of American wheat of good quality, 
 but thus far has not succeeded in securing what is most desired.^ 
 
 Whatever we may think of the justness of the above criticisms, the 
 suggestion of Consul Skinner that certified samples of each year's crop 
 be placed with chambers of commerce at Mai'.seilles and other ports is 
 manifestly of the greatest importance. Such a course will be particu- 
 larly eflective in securing a (juick market for our macaroni wheat, and 
 the writer would urge upon our produce exchanges and boards of 
 trade the desirability of carrying out such a plan at once after each 
 harvest. Let the .samples be in duplicate or triplicate for each foreign 
 market, and be large enough and of sufflcienth' average character to 
 represent the crop as accurately as possible. Duplicate .samples with 
 corresponding numbers should be kept by the home as.sociation. of 
 course. Then, what is still more important, let no consignment be 
 permitted that is not "up to" sample sent. It is absurd to think that 
 anything is gained in making a shipment inferioi; to the .sample on 
 the basis of which the purcha.se price is paid ; but, on the other hand, 
 the entire market may be lost because of a few shipments of that 
 
 1 .American wheat at Malta, Consular Reports, 60 : 479, 480, No. 226, July, 1899. 
 
 ^ For further discussion of this subject see testimony of Frank H. Hitchcock, Chief, 
 Section Foreign Markets, before the Imtustrial Commission; Foreign Markets for 
 American Agricultural Products, Kept. No. 67, U. S. Dept. Agr., Washington, 1901, 
 pp. 32-42. 
 
3(i MACAKONI WHEATS. 
 
 kind. The importer sljould i)e able to ))uy ]ty sample with positive 
 assurance of i;etting- just what ho has ordered. The sliu-ht changes 
 that are underg'one in storage or lonjf transportation are soon under- 
 stood by the experienced dealer. In the purchase of these macaroni 
 wheats especially no dependence can l)e placed upon a mere state- 
 ment of grades without accompanying samples, for three reasons: (1) 
 Because these wheats are in this country a new factor to the grain 
 inspector, who can not yet grade them understandingly; {'2) there is 
 at pi-esent a grievous lack of uniformity in grading even our ordinary 
 wheats; and (3) the manufactui-e of semolina for macaroni recjuires 
 certain qualities in the grain that ai'e not usually coiisidei'ed in ordi- 
 nary grain inspection. 
 
 In all tests that have so far been made of AnuM'ican macaroni wheats 
 by the semolina manufaciturers of France the results have been fairly 
 satisfactory, it being stated in several instances that the semolina is 
 fully equal to that of the Tagftnrog wheats. But these tests have been 
 made almost wholly with Texas and Canadian wheats, which are 
 apparently inferior to those grown in the northern and middle Great 
 Plains. The writer firndy ludieves that when the North and South 
 Dakota macaroni wheats shall be thoroughly tested in foreign factories 
 they will be acknowledged to eijual in quality any otliei- wheat of that 
 kind in the world. 
 
 In an article entitled " Wheat for edible pastes in France,"' Consul 
 Covert reports to the State Department ' the results of tests made of 
 the 2 bushels of Nicaragua wheat sent to him liy Mr. James B. Simp- 
 son, as alread}' noted. ^ Messrs. Gilibert & Teziei-s. Valence. France, 
 reported upon a package sent them as follows: 
 
 Macaroni can be made out of this wheat, but of au onlinary quahty, because it 
 can not contain a great deal of gluten. It contains considerable .soft wlieat, and 
 some of it i.= moucheth; that is to say, black about ends. It seems to us that w lu>at 
 more evenly hard and not mouchelcs ought to be grown in Texas. The wheat which 
 we want would bring at Marseilles about IK francs (^3.47) per 100 kilograms (220.46 
 pounds). 
 
 Another package sent to Mr. Edwin W. Serrell, at Paris, was given 
 to an expert for examination, who reported as follows: 
 
 ITS FORM. 
 
 Long grains, indicating a high average of gluten. A horny or corneous form; the 
 best variety of hard wlieat. It is, in fact, very hard. 
 
 Grains regular in sizi'. 
 
 But very little impurity; a few grains of tender white wheat. 
 
 Unfortunately there are a few spotted grains. This defect, which ought not to be 
 inherent in the quality, diminislies the value somewhat, for it will necessitate 
 more time for sifting to eliminate the black spots from the .semolina. 
 
 ' Wheat for Edible Pastes in France. Consular Reports. 62: 301, 302. No. 234. 
 March, 1900. 
 ■' I'agc :U. 
 
FOREIGN DEMAND. 37 
 
 ANALYSIS OF THE GLLTEX. 
 
 Paste very rai^idly obtaineil. 
 
 Gluten very easily separated; very homogeneous and elastic. The analysis shows 
 damp gluten 30 per cent; dry gluten 10 per cent. 
 
 These proportions oci'ur only in the superior grades of hard Russian wheat. 
 
 With well sifted semolina there i-ould be made from this wheat edible pastes carry- 
 ing 13.33 per cent of gluten. This wheat wqukl therefore make the best quali- 
 ties of edible i)astes. 
 
 Mr. Covert adds: 
 
 The above report eoming with Mr. Serrel's indorsement should leave no doubt as 
 to the value of pastes, for no man in Eurojie is more competent than he to pronounce 
 an opinion on this subject. 
 
 The gentleman to whom I sent specimens of this wheat in Marseilles rejiorted ver- 
 bally that it would And a ready market in that city at 16 francs ($3.08) per 100 kilo- 
 grams. Dealers have been one week investigating this subject in Marseilles. Their 
 first report was favorable. This morning they confirm the first opinion. 
 
 While the above reports are in the main favorable, the consid<'rul)]e 
 number of grains with black ends is a detriment. These grains were 
 noted by the writer in samples from the same soni'ce sent to this 
 Department for the Paris E.xposition of 1900, and were at once con- 
 sidered to be the result of being grown in a locality a little too damp. 
 In Russia macaroni varieties when grown in a locality too damp like- 
 wise deteriorate in the same manner. The use of Taganrog wheat for 
 seed in Texas, as suggested by the French manufacturer,' would there- 
 fore probably make little diflerence. The defect will no doul)t best 
 be overcome, as the writer has before suggested, by growing the wheat 
 farther westward, in the region between Wichita Falls and Abilene. 
 The present Nicaragua wheat area in Texas, if extended over one-half 
 its width westward, would furnish a quality of grain much superior 
 to what it now produces. At the same time it would add to the gen- 
 eral wheat area of the Sbxte thousands of acres of semiarid lands at 
 present supposed to be unsuited to wheat culture, but which woidd 
 yield a good average crop of this wheat because of its drought resist- 
 ance. The writer has observed that this wheat, when grown in eastern 
 Colorado or extreme western Kansas, produces a grain as clear, hard, 
 and yellow as the east and .south Russian wheats. 
 
 As the traffic in macaroni wheats increases it will be necessary to 
 construct special elevators for handling them. It is plainly impossible 
 to handle these wheats and the common wheats together, as each would 
 ruin the other by the mixture. There ought to be, and probably will 
 be, a sufficient amount of these wheats grown in the ne.xt live years to 
 justify the construction of several large terminal elevators at such 
 points as Galveston, Chicago, and Minneapolis, in addition to various 
 smaller local elevators, all of which will handle only macaroni wheats. 
 
 ' See "Wheat for edible pastes," by .Tohn C. Covert, Advance Sheets of Consular 
 Reports, No. 668, pp. 5, 6, March 3, UH»0. 
 
38 MACAKOXr WHEATS. 
 
 POSSlI'.II.irV ()!• A llOMK nK.MAND. 
 
 Wliih' tlic [Ji-Dspci-ts ;in' vciv <r<'<>'l t'H" '^ t'oi'i'iiin iii;irki>t for those 
 wlu'iits sutticieut to utiliz(> protnihly all that we can produee for several 
 years, an excellent iiiarUet is also likely to he developed sooner or later 
 ill our own iiiacuroiii factories. .\t iiresmt all these factories, with 
 rare exceptions, use the lioiir of coiiiiiion bread wheats in their opera- 
 lions. Of course this is chiefly due to the fact that heretofore it has 
 been impossible to obtain true macaroni wheats in this country, and it 
 is considered impracticable to import them. Most of the factorie.s 
 realize the importance of usinir the semolina of such wheats as soon as 
 they can obtain it in siiilicient amount and of j^'ood quality. It will 
 certainly lie of the ereutest adxantaye to the factories as well as to th(^ 
 growers to estal)lish trade between them in the use of these wheats. 
 TIm' factories will thus be al)le to obtain either the wheats or semolina 
 made froi;: them at much less cost than the imported material, and the 
 fiirmers will have the IxMietit of a (juick home market. 
 
 .Vnother strong- advantage in using these wheats in our own factories, 
 and which especially afi'ects the consumer, lies in the fact that the 
 homemade product, other conditions being equal, is always muc^h better 
 from the standpoint of simjile fi'eshness. We all know how much 
 better fresh bread is than old. and what a nutty flavor newly-made 
 flour gives to the bread. These facts apply with even greater force 
 in macaroni making. All imported macaronis must of necessity have 
 lost a large per cent of their flavor, and as the homemade product is 
 madt; almost entirely from common wheats, it follows that the inajorit}' 
 of American people really have ne\ cr tasted the very best macaroni. 
 
 More than all else the use of macaroni as a food is far from general 
 in this country, and should become more popular. It is a comparatively 
 rare foou with us. As already cpioted in another place, in France 
 alone theannual out[)ut of edible pastes is estimated at from l:^0.(i()0,i)tH) 
 to 170,0()(»,000 pounds. A c-onsiderable amount of this is of course 
 exported, but there remains an enormous amount which is consumed 
 in France. These pastes are among the most common and popular 
 foods in that country. The same may be said of Italy. Let a suf- 
 flcient amount of good wheat be grown and our factories begin pro- 
 ducing from these wheats its best article possible, in a variety of 
 forms, and there is no good reason ai)i)arent why such foods should 
 not soon rank in po})ularity with our breakfast foods. 
 
 Concerning the (juestion of a home demand for macaroni and maca- 
 roni wheats. Consul Skinner writes as follows: 
 
 Wliilf the cultivatiijii of :v liard wheat suitable for tlie manufacture of macaroni for 
 (■.xpiirt to Kuro]ii' is a matter of great iinportani'e to our people, ] consider of oijual 
 importance, if not greater, the creation of a demand in the T'nitcd States for a maca- 
 roni for domestic consuniiition. Macaroni in southern Europe takes a liundred dif- 
 ferent forms, and constitutes a staple article of diet that is cheap and palatable. Its 
 
POSSIBILITY OF HOME DEMAND. 39 
 
 possibilities in America are quite unknown, and macaroni in its most ordinary form 
 is consumed in a very small number of families. Nor are these facts the result of 
 popular ignorance entirely, for macaroni and semoule, to be good, should be manu- 
 factured in the country of consumption, as the deterioration in quality sets in even 
 a few weeks after production. It necessarily results from this that the macaroni 
 exposed for sale in American shops and imported from Europe is stale and tough, 
 and therefore little in demand. I have no doubt you have seen, as I have frequently, 
 large cases of bulk macaroni exposed to the air for weeks in small grocers' shops. 
 What is true of macaroni is still more so of the semoule or flour from which macaroni 
 is produced. This flour is in a moist state, and could not be used by the French man- 
 ufacturers of first-class macaroni two months after grinding, and in most cases goes 
 directly from the mill to the factory. A few importers do succeed in packing 
 semoule in tight cases, but even with these precautions it loses much, and the 
 demand for it in the United States is trifling indeed. 
 
 Similarly, Consul Covert makes the following- statement: 
 
 But an important market ought soon to be created for them (macaroni wheats) in 
 the Tnited States. The e<lil)le paste factories make paste of hard and soft wheats 
 with the same machinery. Soft wheat, liowever, is most used in Belgium and in 
 the Vosges, a department in France. The best pastes are made with hard wheats. 
 The use of edible pastes is steadily increasing in Europe and there is no rea.son why 
 the same should not be true of the United States. It is a common article of food in 
 the wealthy families of this country and is of daily use among the poor. It is 
 cooked with meat, cheese, vegetables, and in various forms used in soups and sauces. 
 The French paste makers are said at present to lead the world in this product, and 
 if Americans expect to obtain the custom of our country which now goes to France 
 they should lose no time in using only hard wheats. The same identical machinery 
 is used whether the wheat is hard or soft. 
 
 KINDS OF WIIE.\T NOW I'SED EY OUR F.\CTORIES. 
 
 There are at least fifty rather large macaroni factories known by the 
 writer to exist in the United States, and no doubt there are many 
 others. With a number of these factories the Department is in 
 regular correspondence, and has found the manufacturers, with few 
 exceptions, to be fully awake to the advantages of using macaroni 
 wheats and desiring to obtain semolina from such wheats wherever 
 they can do so. In the absence of such wheats it is interesting to 
 know that they almost invariably use the very hardest red wheats 
 that are grown in this country, chiefly Kansas hard winter and the 
 hard spring wheats, which is in itself virtually an admission on their 
 part that the harder the wheat the better. The following extracts 
 from a few letters show fairly well the trend of opinion among the 
 mills and factories along this line: 
 
 (1) We are now using a mixture of hard Kansas wheat and the hardest grades of 
 winter w^heat that we can obtain in this vicinity for our macaroni purposes. This 
 makes a fairly good article of macaroni, but we have no doubt but that the true 
 macaroni wheat would make a superior article. We have never been able to obtain 
 the same, and if we could now get a supply of this wheat we should be very glad, 
 indeed, to do so. Any information tliat you can give that would assist us in getting 
 this wheat would be highly aiipn-ciattMl. * * * In the meantime could vou tell 
 
40 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 us where the name Arnautka' wheat comes from. We had never before heard ol 
 wheat under that name, but recently have had .some corre.spondence with a party in 
 Nortli Dakota wlio raises a wlieat called .Arnautka, and from a sample we are satislied 
 that it would be just what we wanted for macaroni purposes. (2) I liave jriven the 
 subject of macaroni flour special study, and as a result have on hand mon^ t ban twenty 
 different samples of wheat flour sent me from Europe. In my estimation there is 
 nothing like it raised in this country, and I am certain that if it should be raised 
 there would be a good tnarket for it among macaroni manufacturers. We are using 
 at present the bread flour mamifactured by the Minneapolis mills, whicli gives very 
 satisfactory results, but not eijual to the imported Italian macaroni. There is no 
 question in my mind that if the .\merican farmer produces it he will receive a pre- 
 niimn for the right kind of wheat for macaroni. Kindly inform us where this partic- 
 ular wheat is being rai.sed in the United States, and in wliat quantities. If at any 
 time you come across an enterprising miller who will grind macaroni wheat and is 
 willing to cooperate with the manufacture of it into macaroni, kindly refer him to 
 us. We will be always ready to manufacture from that high gradeof wheat. (3) We 
 are using in our factory flour, and have also used farina, which we get from districts 
 where they raise the hardest spring wheat, and the result has teen very satisfactory, 
 it being equally as good as the imported. (4) We find the flour which gives us the 
 best results is that which is made from wheat grown in northern Kansas. This 
 wheat is very hard and contains a very large percentage of gluten, which is neces- 
 sary for a good macaroni. (."5) I only use in the manufacture of the goods the best 
 grade of spring-wheat flour, preferably of Minnesota wheat. (6) We agree with 
 some other manufacturers that so-called Taganrog wheat is slightly superior to the 
 American wheat, it having more gluten; and again we know it to be a fact that a 
 hard sjiring-wheat flour, if properly used, produces goods that are equal to imported 
 and only an exjiert can tell the difference. * * * We are using the high grades 
 of spring and winter wheat flour. (7) We arc using the ordinary bread wheats 
 called "Kansas hard wheat" for the nianxifacture of macaroni, wliich has proven 
 quite satisfactory, but not of a quality equal to the true macaroni wheats. * * * 
 The macaroni wheat is, of course, much superior to the ordinary bread wheat in the 
 production of macaroni, and if the flour could be produced at a reasonaI)le price a 
 much superior article could be produced and theindustry stimulated in a correspond- 
 ing degree. (8) We would be only too pleased to use it (macaroni wheat) in pref- 
 erence to other wheat flour; for we feel confident that with the improviMl American 
 method, and using Taganrog flour, the American product would be superior to the 
 imported article now used in this country, and we heartily approve of your ideas in 
 experimenting and raising an American ])roduct. (9) All the manufacturers hereof 
 macaroni and all grades of the Italian paste, with the exception of one, use the grade 
 of flour manufactured from wheat grown in the arid .section of nortliwestern Kansas 
 and known as the Russian hard wint<'r wheat. * * * Macaroni made from ordi- 
 nary wheat will not do. This has been demonstrated time and again. Of course 
 macaroni can be made and the goods will have a limited sale; but to insure success 
 in that branch of manufacturing industries the quality of wheat must be such as to 
 insure satisfaction to the patrons. We have an idea that the wheat which was 
 introduced here some time ago from Nicaragua, and which was turne(l down by all 
 the mills that had given it a trial as being worthless, is just the quality adajitcd (n 
 the manufacture of macaroni. 
 
 The above reports are from some of the most prominent man- 
 ufacturers in that line in the principal cities where this indu.stiy is 
 carried on. 
 
 'As mentioned in another place, this variety is a macaroni wheat already grown to 
 a slight extent in North and South Dakota, and winch came originally from Ru.ssia. 
 The derivation of the name is uncertain. 
 
FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC MACARONI. 
 
 41 
 
 COMPARISON OF FoREIC.N AND DOMESTIC MACARONI. 
 
 It is rather difficult for one who is not an expert to compare tlie 
 American and foreign products, especiall}' since the foreign is neces- 
 .sarily tjuite old before it can be obtained, and therefore has deterio- 
 rated more or less. There are in general these differences, however, 
 which are usually ciuito distinct: (1) The foreign is yellowish, the 
 domestic white or grayish white: (•2) the foreign is more vitreous in 
 fracture than the domestic; (S) the foreign preserves its shape longer 
 in cooking than the domestic; (4) the foreign is more elastic and not 
 sticky in chewing like the domestic. The word foreign must be under- 
 stood here to apply to the best French and Italian products made from 
 true macaroni wheats. Of course there is a considerable amount of 
 foreign pastes made from soft wheats and really inferior to our own 
 products. In actual kitchen trials of various samples it will be found 
 that the product made from our hardest bread wheats, by virtue of 
 improved methods of manufacture, is really very good, but always 
 falls a little short of tiie foreign in tiuality. This being true, it is pos- 
 sible that our best factories, using true macaroni wheats as grown in 
 this country, would produce an article superior to the best foreign 
 product. 
 
 In the following table are shown such differences as exist between a 
 number of various grades of macaroni from a chemical standpoint: 
 
 Table IV. — Analiises of macaroi-i j. 
 
 Vddnci'd from different wlieats, residtx r.rpresxcd a.v 
 jierceiitages. 
 
 Name of product. 
 
 Egg noodles . 
 
 Spaghetti 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 Spaghetti 
 
 Mezzani 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 Spaghetti 
 
 Do 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 Macaroni (artifi- 
 cially colored). 
 Macaroni 
 
 Do 
 
 Macaroni (splits 
 
 easily). 
 Macaroni (very 
 
 large). 
 
 Hard spring (with eggs) 
 
 Bread wheat, kind unknown. 
 
 Kansas hard winter 
 
 Dakota and Minnesota 
 
 ....do 
 
 Minnesota spring 
 
 Hard hread wheat 
 
 Hard spring 
 
 Kansas hard winter 
 
 do 
 
 Hard spring '. 
 
 Mixed hard iiiid .«ott bread 
 
 wheat. 
 Mixed Kansas liard and ordi- 
 
 Hard bread wheal 
 
 9.27 
 9. .55 
 10.20 
 10.36 
 10.24 
 10.15 
 10.20 
 10.19 
 10. 15 
 10.06 
 10.06 
 
 9.79 
 10.00 
 
 9.73 
 
 Pro- 
 tein. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates by 
 differ- 
 ence. 
 
 15.63 
 
 69.72 
 
 12.63 
 
 76.06 
 
 12.31 
 
 75.98 
 
 12.06 
 
 76. 12 
 
 11.06 
 
 77.47 
 
 12.63 
 
 75.97 
 
 12.56 
 
 76.32 
 
 13.88 
 
 74.71 
 
 13.44 
 
 75.26 
 
 12.56 
 
 76.00 
 
 12.63 
 
 75.91 
 
 13.25 
 
 75.92 
 
 .48 ' 14.06 
 
 I I 
 
42 
 
 MACARONI WHKATS. 
 
 Table IV. — Analyses of macarnni produced from different tcheats, resultn expressed as 
 percentages — Continued. 
 
 Name 111' proiliicl. 
 
 Kind of wheat from which 
 made. 
 
 Mois- 
 ture. 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Crnde 
 liber. 
 
 .\sh. 
 
 Pro-, 
 tein. 
 
 Carbohy- 
 drates by 
 difTer- 
 ence. 
 
 
 10.05 
 
 .24 
 
 ■ .50 
 
 .65 
 
 13.06 
 
 7.5.50 
 
 im- Italian im- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 portL'iii. 
 
 
 9.91 
 9.61 
 10.50 
 
 .49 
 
 .58 
 
 .39 
 .38 
 .22 
 
 .44 
 .43 
 ..50 
 
 12. 06 
 13.81 
 17.13 
 
 76. 71 
 
 Dci 
 
 
 75. 19 
 
 Do 
 
 True macaroni wheat grown 
 to order. 
 
 70.90 
 
 
 
 
 
 10.2.5 
 10.29 
 10.02 
 
 .58 
 .67 
 .39 
 
 .22 
 .23 
 .25 
 
 .64 
 .43 
 
 .71 
 
 10.19 
 12.38 
 12.25 
 
 78.12 
 
 
 Best Minnesota spring 
 
 fnknown 
 
 76.00 
 
 
 76. 38 
 
 iiie FrfiK-h im- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ported). 
 Mezzaiii (Kenu- 
 
 .American mixed durum and 
 
 10.88 
 
 .41 
 
 .23 
 
 ..53 
 
 11.. tU 
 
 76. 43 
 
 ine Italian iin- 
 
 bread wheat. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 porte(i). 
 Mat-aroni 
 
 Bread wheal, kind unknown. 
 
 11.88 
 
 .40 
 
 .27 
 
 .52 
 
 10.06 
 
 76.87 
 
 Tho.so analyses were made ))y the Bureau of Chemistry of this 
 Department, and include 21 domestic samples of macaroni and sjia- 
 ghetti, a sample of French and two of Italian production, and a sample 
 of egg noodles. As already mentioned, it will he noted how much of 
 these pastes is made from our hardest l)read wheats, in the ab.scnce of 
 the proper durum wheats. It is an indication of the fact that the very 
 harde.st wheats are recjuired, and therefore the sooner the real durum 
 wheats can be obtained the better for the factories. Comparing this 
 table with Tabl(> V it is seen that the average protein content of these 
 samples is considerablv les.s than that wliich could be obtain(>d from 
 true macaroni wheats if they were u.sed instead. The ditierence is 
 even greater than here shown, however, since in Table V only the 
 albuminoids are given, while in Table IV the entire protein content is 
 given. In connection with these facts it is interesting to note that the 
 one sampk-^ only, made from true macaroni wheat, ' shows a protein 
 content ut least i' per cent higher than the best of the others, and a 
 correspondingly low percentage of carbohydrates. The protein content 
 of the egg noodles is of course increased by the addition of egg. Of 
 still further interest, and much importance to us, is the fact of the 
 high protein content of the .Vrnautka wheat from North Dakota, men- 
 tioned uikUm- remarks in Table V. 
 
 The gluten content of these macaroni samples was also determined, 
 1)ut on ticcount of the great change.s in the gluten effected in drying 
 
 ' The writer ha.-; examined this wheat anil kno\v.s it to be a good quality of leal 
 duitini w heat. It is the only instance in this coiuitry known to the writer where 
 macaroni is alreaily liein^' made from durum wheat, though one other factory is pre- 
 jjarinj: to jml out a product from tlie same class of wheat. 
 
NEKD OF SEMOLINA MILLS. 43 
 
 the macaroni during its inaniifactui-e, these results are entirol\- niis- 
 leading and of no vahie in this connection. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SKMOLINA. 
 
 Macaroni factories, with few exceptions, obtain their Hour or semo- 
 lina already prepared. In this country, while the ))read wheats are 
 being used, it is a comparatively simple matter, the flour being obtained 
 from the ordinary flour mills. In Marseilles the preparation of semo- 
 lina has become a .special industry, and large establishments for this 
 purpose have been formed, which stand in the same relation to the 
 macaroni factories there that the flour mills here do to our bakeries. 
 It has thus become an easy matter for the factories there to secure 
 material ready prepared and always of just the right grade for the 
 best macaroni. 
 
 In this country just now, in connection with the development of the 
 macaroni industry, one of the greatest needs is for a few enterprising 
 millers to begin this same business of specializing in the manufacture 
 of semolina from true macaroni wheats, in response to the demand 
 that already exists among our own factories. To make the matter a 
 success it should be begun in direct cooperation with certain factories 
 who would agree to take all the semolina the mills could furnish, pro- 
 vided it were always of the grade reciuired. It is known to the writer 
 that a number of factories would be glad to do this. On the other 
 hand, with due notice of such a movement to the farmers and grain 
 dealers, the necessary supply of excellent wheat will be forthcoming 
 in good time; in fact, will probably be ready in sufficient amount for 
 a good beginning after the coming year's harvest. At the same time 
 there is probably opportunity for considerable business in the sale of 
 miscellaneous products from these wheats, such as flour for hn-ad 
 making, grits for breakfast foods, etc. 
 
 Millers have usually been deterred from operating with such wheats 
 because of the idea that it would involve too radical a change in their 
 methods in proportion to the proflts that would likely follow. It is 
 probable, however, that the difficulties in the work are greatly over- 
 estimated. From testimony of those who have investigated the mat- 
 terj'^if appears that the important thing is to know the nature of the 
 semolina required. This being known, i^he methods of producing it 
 are learned by practice, and may be carried out it seems, simply l\v 
 the addition of moisture and slight modification or arrangement of the 
 ordinary milling machinery ust'd in making bread flour. Consul Skin- 
 ner says concerning this matter:' 
 
 The devices reciuired for prodiu-ingsemoule are essentially the same as those essen- 
 tial to the grinding of first-class Hour, the main difference lieing that the grinding is 
 less fine and that moisture is introduced. 
 
 'In letter already quoted. 
 
44 JIACAKiiM WHEATS. 
 
 The foUowiiiofstateriieiits are (quoted from ii paper by Mr. Edwin W. 
 Serrell. of Paris, an authority in this line, and transniitt(?d to this 
 DepartniLMit throii(,>-ii th(^ I)('])artnicnt of State by the eourtesy of Con- 
 sul Covert: 
 
 Any Aint'iicaii '^r\M mill fitted with modern inafhiiiery ain be made to do the work 
 if j)roi)eily luiiidleil. * * * Tlie i»anufa<^turers in America have been making 
 inferior jiastes from soft wheats, and the millers may lie trying to turn out something 
 which is not the thing wanted for paste manufacture. If they have been trying to 
 turn out Itiiiir for this purpose, then it is certainly the ca-se, for fiour i.« not what is 
 used for the manufacture of high-grade ,'dil)le paste. * * * Unless I am very 
 much mistaken in .so far as milling is ooncer-ied, what is needed, and the only thing 
 needed, is a definite knowledge on the part of the millers of the exact nature of the 
 jiroduot to be turned out, ami of the arrangement of their existing machinery best 
 adapted to its iiroduction. I may add that I think only very slight changes of 
 method would be needed in .Vmerican mills to enable them to turn out what is 
 wauled, and that such changes would be rather in the operations than in the 
 marhincry. 
 
 BREAD FHOM MACAKONI WIIKATS. 
 
 Aside from the tt.se of macaroni wheats in i)aste making-, the writer 
 is eonlident that a iarye demand is in store foi' these wheats in future 
 for bread makino-. not only in foreign countries where they are already 
 seeking for such wheats for bread, l)ut in this country as well. Let 
 the use of these wheats once become general for making paste.-; and 
 the peoj)le will soon di.seover their e.xeellenee for bread making as w^ell. 
 The evidence from actual experience in favor of these wheats for 
 bread from the standpoint of both taste and nutrition is too great to 
 be longer ignored. On the other hand, the objection to their use in 
 this wa,y from the standpoint of difficulties in milling operations will 
 soon be found to be not well taken. If they are properly handled 
 thcA- can be readily ground into bread fiour. tiiough in some instances it 
 may be found advisable to mix a small p,'rcentage of hard red wheats 
 with them. There i.s no good reason w'hy the much despised ""(Toose" 
 wheat of th(> Northwest may not yet rank well with the Fifes and Blue 
 Stems even in the production of bread tloui'. .Vt least four prominent 
 flour mills in this country are now known by the writer to be grind- 
 ing these wheats, and in absolutely every ease of those so far known 
 to the writer where bread made from the resulting flour has been used 
 the parties now pi-efer it above all other kinds. It is found also that 
 the grits made from these wheats make excellent breakfast foods. 
 
 By far the largest amount of bread floui- from macaroni wh(>ats is 
 manufactured in the Volga Kiver region of East Russia, the native 
 home of the best varieties of these wheats, iuid it is in this region that 
 the use of such Hour for bread was flrst practiced on an extensive 
 scale. Besides being one of the largest wheat regions of Russia, it is 
 also one of the most important milling districts, and yet a large pro- 
 l)ortion of I lie wlieut used in most of these mills is the variety Kubaidva, 
 
CULTIVATION OF MACARONI WHEATS. 45 
 
 a macaroni wheat. The mills ai-c tittod in the most modern stj'le 
 with the Hungarian system of rolls, but invariabh' possess steaming 
 machines for moistening and softening the grain. The bread of that 
 region made from this wheat has become very popular, and the visit of 
 everj^ foreigner who is a lover of good bread increases its reputation. 
 The famous bread of Moscow called " Kalach," as well as several excel- 
 lent kinds in Odessa, are made from this wheat. There is a certain 
 richness of flavor in such bread not found in other bread. But prob- 
 ably the most important quality is that it will remain palatable so 
 long, not drying out readily nor becoming stale. The color of the 
 flour and bread is j^ellowish, and indeed the preferred color of bread 
 in east and southern Russia, and to a gi"eat extent in France, Greece, 
 and Italy, is yellowish and not white. 
 
 It will be proper to close this topic with a few remarks on the use 
 of macaroni wheat flour for bread in France and the possibilities of 
 extension of our foreign markets for wheat and flour in case we should 
 grow this kind of wheat. Quoting still further Consul Skinner's 
 letter, he says: 
 
 French bread to be satisfactory must be made of mixed flour, and consequently 
 until popular taste undergoes a radical change, and irrespective of the amount of 
 wheat grown in France, there will always be a market for a really hard wheat, in 
 the first place to supply the requirements of semoule manufacturers, and in the sec- 
 ond place to supply flour for mixing. What is true of France is largely true of the 
 entire'lNIediterraneau country, and the farther East one goes the greater is the desire 
 for hard wheat. In Greece, for example, the bread is manufactured exclusively from 
 hard wheat, and there is a pretense that it is more nutritious and palatable on this 
 account. It has the further advantage of remaining fresh for a longer period, being 
 said to be as good at the end of a week as the day after baking. Right here in Mar- 
 seilles a special loaf is manufactured for sandwich purpose.^, and the delicate slices, 
 I know from personal experience, remain fresh for from twelve to eighteen hours 
 after they have been cut. My recollection is that our American bread hardens very 
 promptly after the loaf is cut. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 In a general way the methods to be employed in the cultivation of 
 macaroni wheats are similar to those required for the best results with 
 any other wheats. Early plowing, thoroughness in preparation of the 
 seed bed, early seeding, and all those other principles of prime impor- 
 tance in general wheat culture are perfectl}' applicable in the culture 
 of these wheats. The chief thing to be kept in mind is that with 
 macaroni wheats some of these principles need special emphasis. 
 Since the.se wheats are to the farmer of .special value foi- growing in 
 semiarid districts, the principles needing particidar emphasis are the 
 .same that are to be observed in all wheat growing in such districts. 
 
 PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 
 
 As rapidity of growth and ripening seems to be one of the requi- 
 sites for the production of a good macaroni wheat grain, these wheats 
 
46 MACAKONI WHEATS. 
 
 are pretty generally used as sjniiijr wheats, for in districts of short 
 hot summers the winters are usually too severe foi- ((rowing winter 
 wlieats.' All i^lowiiiii' should therefore he done the j)revious summer, 
 if the wheat is not to he sown on a summer fallow. The plowing 
 should he rather deep. Then afterwards it should he lightly cultivated 
 once or twice before winter. It is particularly important to disk lightly 
 or harrow as soon as piacticahle after a heavy rain. After the alter- 
 nate freezing and thawing of the winter and further spring cultivation, 
 the ground will be in excellent condition for seeding. .Seeding should 
 be done as eai'ly as j)()ssible, just as soon as the ground can be put in 
 good condition after the frost is out. Karly seeding will promote 
 eariy ripening. 
 
 METHODS OK SKKDINU. 
 
 All the tillage of the ground after the original plowing, up to the 
 time of seeding, should be such that only the portion near the surface 
 is cultivated, while the portion below remains compact and in condi- 
 tion to hold as much moisture as possible. All experience in wheat 
 culture is so full of evidence in favor of the use of the drill, that it is 
 hardly necessaiy to say that seeding should be done with that machine. 
 There is special reason, however, for seeding only with the drill in 
 growing these wheats in semiarid districts, and not only that but for 
 the use of a particular kind of drill. It nuist be remembered that we 
 are preparing to resist drought — possibly intense drought — and while 
 we are using drought-resistant wheats, which will make all the better 
 grain, too, because of the drought, yet in order to make a crop at all 
 we should aid the wheat by tiiking all the steps possible to conserve 
 and utilize the little moisture that falls. A drill should therefore be 
 used which is a sort of combination of the press and lister drills. 
 That is, in addition to the listed furrow, the grain should be put down 
 still deeper, and the soil compacted around it as in case of the press 
 drills. Then the depth of the furrow and the tine dirt rolling in from 
 above will combine to protect the moist earth below from evapora- 
 tion, and at the same time the dry south winds will not be able to blow 
 the dirt away from the roots- or what is wor.se blow the wheat itself 
 out of the ground. The rate of seeding per acre should be about the 
 same as with other wheats. These wheats do not stool as nmch as 
 ordinary wheats, but produce all the better heads by not doing so. 
 
 CAUK. IN IIAl;VKSTINU. 
 
 It is important for producing a perfect (luality of grain that maca- 
 roni wheats should In- harvested at just the right time. They should 
 be entirely ripe, and hai'vesting should not be done in damp or even 
 cloudv weather, if it can be avoided. The brighter the sunshine and 
 
 'Thes'e may l)e grown us winter wlieats, however, as far north as southern Kansas. 
 
, of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculturs 
 
EFFECTS oK VARIATH "XS IN SOIL AXD ri.IMATK. 47 
 
 clrior the iiir tlio lu'tttT. In oust Hussiii the peasant farmers (I'l.Vil) 
 even i^o so far as to jinietiee reajiinj.'' only at eertain hours in the hot- 
 tost part of the (hiy. ehiiniinif that the (|uality of the <.'niin is nia(h> 
 more perfeet in that way. 
 
 EFFECTS OF LOCAL VARIATIONS IN SOIL AND CLIMATE. 
 
 All niacaii'iii w iieats are i-xtremely sensitive to eiianjres of soil and 
 eiimate. This faet will aeeount for eeitain peeiiliarities in the ijiiality 
 of the isv.un that have ali'eudy been notieed hy trrowcrs occasionally in 
 this cotintiy. Sam])les are now and then received liy this Department 
 in which the i,'niins aie jiaitially soft and white. Those are from crops 
 jfrown either under damper, cooler conditions, or in places where there 
 is comparatively little nitroiron in the soil. Tiie nHpiisite conditions 
 for a perfect <rrain are a hlm-k jirnlrii: soil andn/it'/-/. /lof. i/ri/ sirini/n-/\s. 
 On the whole, chanjres of climate' apjiear to have a {greater effect than 
 clmnf,'es of .soil, hut if the soil l)ecomes almost bereft of humus the 
 f^rain shows the effect plainly by becomin},' more opaijuo and white, 
 because of the i)repondenince of starch. If in this case the <limate is 
 at the same time arid, the irniin remains rather hard, but simply 
 because of its dryness. If the soil is black and rich and the climate too 
 moist, there is considerable discoloi-.ition and l)lack ends (mouchotes) 
 nniv show thom.selvt's. Two or three jjood rains are sufHcient to 
 mature a eroi). Otherwise, the driei- and hotter the better, while a 
 humid atmosphere can not be toh-rated. 
 
 VARIETIES. 
 
 From .in to T.") so-called varieties of durum or macaroni wheats have 
 ))een described by ilitlerent writers. If we include with these a num- 
 ber of others that have not been mentioned in print, there are proli- 
 ably a hundred or more varieties already known to 1)C in use under 
 distinct names. A very critical study would be necessary to detei- 
 mine iiow many of these are identical with each other. Durum wheats 
 of nearly a hundred different descriptions are now under experiment 
 by this Department, and many more will l>e added Ix'fore the end of 
 this year. Thoujjfh the larjrer number of varieties are. in practical 
 u.se. of nnnor importance, there are a few havin<r well-marked charac- 
 teristics, and which have attained a high reputation. As some of 
 these varieties are likely to furnish the larger part of the entire maca- 
 roni wheat production of this country for a number of years at least, 
 it will be advisable to (h-scribe them tirieffy here. 
 
 GHAKXOVKA. 
 
 The variety which is the basis of a very large part of the macaroni 
 wheat export from the Azov Sea region is the Gharnovka. Consider- 
 able confusion exists concerning the names of these Kussian macaroni 
 
48 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 varieties, and even the statements of grain experts occasionally con- 
 flict with each other. But it is certain that the name Gharnovka is 
 most generally applied to the usual variety grown throughout this 
 region. The wheat itself has a medium long, square, dense, yellowish- 
 white head, while the beards are dark and very long. The grain is 
 quite large, light yellow in color, and rather translucent and vitreous. 
 There are several different strains even of the Gharnovka recognized 
 in the Don territory'. Probably the best of these is the Yellow Ghar- 
 novka, which has a grain of a deeper yellow than the others. The 
 best quality of Gharnovka seen:s to be grown in the district between 
 Kerch and Berdiansk. A good quality is occasionally obtained also 
 in the Eisk district just southeastof Rostov-on-Don. Both the Ghai-- 
 novka and Yellow Gharnovka have recently been obtained and dis- 
 tributed by this Department. This wheat is admirably adapted to such 
 districts as Kansas. Nebraska, Oklahoma, and eastern Colorado. It 
 will probably prove to be one of the best durum wheats for the middle 
 and southern Great Plains, as well as for New Mexico and Arizona. 
 Gharnovka is being grown this season bj' the New Mexico Agricul- 
 tural Experiment Station, and so far gives promise of excellent results. 
 A photograph of the wheat in the field (PI. VIII) is kindly furnished 
 by Prof. J. J. Vernon . 
 
 ARNAUTKA. 
 
 The two terms by which Russian macaroni wheats are usually 
 known outside of that country are Taganrog and Arnautka. The 
 former term is entirely meaningless. It does not correctly designate 
 a special variety at all, but may refer to any wheat in east or south 
 Russia, even to wheats that are not of the durum group. Arnautka is 
 properly the name of a special variety, but is also often applied in a 
 too general way. It is apparently not grown to so gi-eat an extent as 
 Gharnovka, but it is nevertheless one of the best varieties of south 
 Russia. So far as the writer can determine, what is properly called 
 Arnautka is a wheat having heads of a light red color, with a bluish 
 bloom and very long reddish beards. The grains are very large and 
 long, and when grown under favorable conditions are a clear j-ellow, 
 extremel}' hard and vitreous. This and Gharnovka are the two varie- 
 ties which have given Russia its reputation for macaroni wheats, 
 altlioughone or two other Russian sorts are probably even better than 
 these for making that product. Arnautka is the name always most 
 familiar to Americans in speaking of these wheats. It was one of the 
 first durum wheats to be introduced into the United States. The first 
 importation was made by this Department in 18t)-±, but the possibility of 
 its futui'e use with us as a macaroni wheat was then never thought of, it 
 seems. It was grown occasionally for many years afterwards, but meet- 
 ing with much opposition its cultivation was finally abandoned. The 
 
Bui. 3, Burnu of Plant Indultry, U. S. Oi<pl. of Africultun 
 
VARIKTIKS. 49 
 
 variety liiis. however, been imported oeeasioniilly for sei'd up to tlio 
 present time. The writer has so far seen nothinij luit thejriain of the 
 variety now yrown consideral>iy by the farmers of North and S)uth 
 Dakota under the name Arnauti<a, and ran not say wiietiier it is tiin 
 same as that ahove deserilied or not. Tiiis variety is well adapted for 
 cultivation in Kansas. (."oh)iiido. Okhdioma, and Ti-.xas. 
 
 This is a well-known antl plainly distinpnislied vaiiety (PI. I. /) yrown 
 fhiefly in east Russia, and from all standpoints is one of the two or 
 thret hest Russian mararoni wheats. It has lieen twire imjiorted l>y 
 this Department in tin' last two years, iind distrihuted rhietly to the 
 State experiment stations. In distrirts where it is adapted its ti'ial 
 has already heen followed liy lemarkahie results, much heyond the 
 exjiectations of the writer, who kni'w it to he the best wheat on 
 the Sitierian l)<)rder. It is one of the most drouifht-iesistant varieties 
 known in east Ru.ssia. and produces a jrrain of excellent (juality. It 
 has medium or short heads, that are white with ociasionally a sliffht 
 hlui>li bloom, and have rather Uiu^s beards. The ifraiti is larjre. yidlow- 
 ish white, and very hard. The variety is nuicii jrrown l)y the Kir;fhiz 
 and Turj,'hai jieople on the Sil»erian border (I'l. IX, liy. 1), wiici'c it is 
 alisojulely im))ossibli' to irrow ordinary wheats of any kind because of 
 the extreme droULdil. the rainfall Ix-ini,' as low as 10 inrhes per annum. 
 On bein<,' jrrown in the northern (Jreat Plains it hsus uniformly jriven 
 yields lietter than those of other wheats, and in the more arid portions 
 has yielded li to 4 times as nnich. In the Dakotas it ripens in <rood 
 time, and in Nebraska is miirh earlier than other wheats. At Arapahoe, 
 Nebr.. it matured in 7(> days from seedinjr. It is constantly resistant 
 to all disea-.es wherever tried in this country. This variety takes its 
 name frora the Kul)an territory. It is cultivated thrftuj.'hout the i-ntire 
 Volya Ri\er rejrion from Ka/.an to the taspiati Sea. and eastward int<j 
 the Kirghiz Steppes and Turkestan. It is the most popular lin-ad 
 wheat of the lower \"ol<ra rei,rion (I'l. IX. li}^. 'J.) At Saratov and 
 Tsaritsyn a very laiye amount of it is irniund into bread tlour. I)ut 
 is usually mixeil with !(• to l'o per cent of red wheat in <frindin<r. 
 The tlour is always yellow, and makes a yellowish l)read with a rich 
 blown crust. Kul)anka is ])articularly adapted for our northern 
 (ireat Plains as far south as Kansiis. but mijrht be •rrown as a winter 
 wheat still farther miiiIIi. 
 
 rKKKKoDKA. 
 
 This is properly but a special strain of the variety Kubjinka sup- 
 posed to hav»> been evolved throuo;h the iuHuence of chanjjcs of st)il and 
 climate, particularly the former. Thoufrh considered in east Russia 
 to be in oreneral rather inferior to Kubanka, it has in certain respects 
 t]t)5!t— No. 3—01 4 
 
50 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 given ))ottor results tliiiii the latter in this country. In North Dakota 
 it yielcl(>d better, and in South Dalvota the grain was discolored less 
 than that of Krbanka. It yielded considerably more to the acre in 
 North Dakota than the Fife and Blue Stem. The grain i.s darker col- 
 ored originally than that of Kubanka; otherwise they are practically 
 the same. 
 
 liELOTUKKA. 
 
 The variety Boloturka is very similar to Kubanka. l)ut dift'ers from 
 it in having a longer, narrower head, and longer grain which is not so 
 thick. Like Kubanka it is also extremely drought resistant. It is 
 grown thi'oughout the Volga region, but especially in southeast Russia. 
 The name means ''White Turkish." It is well known to be very 
 resisfamt to rust in all countries, but has been especially well tested in 
 this I'egard in Australia. Its value in this respect has been conclu- 
 sively shown in all experiments by this Department. Beloturka and 
 Medeah are the two varieties particularly recommended for rust resist- 
 anc(> in hot coast districts by the Australian Rust-in-wheat Conference 
 of lsu-2. The bright yellow grain is of the very best ((uality. It is 
 probable that if there were a better knowledge of varieties among the 
 macaroni wheat dealers of France and Ital}', it would be noted that 
 this variety and Kubanka arc really of better quality than the varie- 
 ties Arnautka and Gharnovka, which have obtained their reputation 
 partly by the mere association of being grown near Taganrog; and as 
 before stated all the wheat, Gharnovka, Kubanka, or otherwise, goes 
 to Mediterranean ports as simply Taganrog wheat. Beloturka is also 
 adapted for growing in the northern Great Plains especially. 
 
 VELVET DON. 
 
 This variety, called Chernouska in Russia (PI. I, 3), has heads of 
 medium length, rather thick, always with velvet chaff and long ])lack 
 beards. There arc usually brown spots on the chatf throughout the 
 length of the head. The grains are quite large, very hard, and darker 
 in color than in the varieties just descrilied. It is grown to a consider- 
 alile extent in the Crimea and near Sarepta in the Volga River region. 
 Mr. Nekludov, superintendent of the large Mikhalkov estate at Ambro- 
 cievka, Don tei'ritorj', says that under the general term Arnovka (prob- 
 ably the same as Arnautka) are included Gharnovka, Yellow Gharnovka, 
 and this variety. He also considers Yellow Gharnovka to be the best 
 variety in that region, and Chernouska or Vehet Don to be the next 
 best. (See lig. 2.) Velvet Don has been imported by the Depart- 
 ment, and is now being grown by several of the State experiment 
 stations. This variety is well adapted for growing in any portion of 
 our semiarid districts, but may prove to be specially titted for use as 
 
Bui 3 Bucau ol Pi.v 1 In.luilrv. U. S. D.-pt of Acncuit 
 
 Fiij 1. biAtKs ■ r Ki 1 A^^A Wmljt ne.vr URAL^K, on the Siberian Border. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Method of shocking Macaroni Wheat near Sarepta, in the Vo^ga River Region. 
 
VARIKTIKS. 51 
 
 a winter wlicat in Tcxa-. It i- vorv <li-(ni<:ht-ivsi.stnnt and najrlit to 
 Ijf quite roi^tant to leaf lii-t.' 
 
 Itl.ACK IM)N. 
 
 Wuck Don (IM. I. J[ is known as Clicinokoloska in Russia, and is 
 grown a great deal in the Don territory, as well as throughout the 
 Volga region, and to some extent in the Crimea and in Siberia. The 
 variety is characterized ))y heads of medium length witli lilack chaff, 
 having a tiluish-white Idooiii and long l)la<-k heards, and light yellow, 
 verv hard translucent gniins of medium or large size. The appearance 
 of the graiiiti is similar *to that of (iharnovka, though the ijuality is 
 
 Fi<!. 2— dinning Vulvil Ixm « lii-iil on Ihe i>inif i.l Mr. Mlkhnlkov, in Don Xerritory. 
 
 proUaldy not ipiite so good. The best (|uality of this variety seems to 
 he grown in the district near Sarepta. in the Volga Kiver region. 
 When grown from well-selected s(>ed its ap|)earance in the field is vei_v 
 striking, hecausc of the lilack heads. This variety has also been 
 imported hy this Department and distributed in several of the States of 
 the semi-arid districts. It is well adapted for any portion of these 
 districts, hut may he especially suitable for a winter variety in Texas. 
 
 'On the other liaml, in unusually ilanip, eloudy seasons all these macaroni wheats 
 are likely to be severely affecteil by the hlaok stem rust. In the Don territory, near 
 Taganrog, some tielJs were ahnost ruined hy that rust in 1900, as observed bv the 
 writer. 
 
52 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 8AKUI-BUGDA. 
 
 A variety known by this Tartar name and wliich is apparently dis- 
 tinct but may ))e closely allied to Beloturka or Arnautka, is grown 
 considerably in North Caucasus, near the Caspian Sea, but especially 
 in Turkestan. It is probabh' one of the most drought-resistant wheats 
 known anywhere, being the chief durum variety of the arid region of 
 Turkestan. It no doubt also resists extremely the injurious effects of 
 strongly alkarnic soils. The grain is very large, ^-ellowish white, ex- 
 tremely hard, vitri^ous. and ti'ansluccnt. Heads of the wheat as grown 
 in Turkestan have not ))een seen liy the writer, but from descriptions 
 the}' are in every way similar to Beloturka, except a tinge of red in 
 the chaff". So far as known to the writer, it has never been shipped 
 in rjuantity for making macaroni, so that its \-alue for that i)urpose 
 is not known. It is of special value to us at present, because of its 
 superior drought resistance, but may be found to be excellent for 
 macaroni as well. The best quality of grain so far seen by the writer 
 came from the Lenkoran district on the Caspian Sea. 
 
 In 1899 Prof. N. E. Hansen ol)tained for the Department a durum 
 wheat numbered ll7i. Section of Seed and Plant Introduction, which 
 came originally from Turkestan, and which appears to be equivalent 
 to Sarui-bugda, but which may prove to be distinct. A difficulty in 
 studying it (llT-i) ari.ses from the fact that it is badly mixed with 
 another variety; Init when grown in this country the part of the crop 
 resulting, which is true dui'um, is ver}' vigorous, extremely hardy, and 
 of fine appearance in head and grain. It was distributed rather widely, 
 and the results in semiarid districts have been uniformly good.' This 
 and Sarui-bugda a*, admirably suited for growing in the driest por- 
 tions of the Great Plains, where anything can be grown at all. 
 
 The variety Medeah (PI. II, 2) has of all wheats attained the greatest 
 reputation for rust resistance. '^ It is mentioned oftener than any other 
 in discussions of that subject, but it is especially recommended in Aus- 
 tralia^ and Cape Colony ' as a result of investigations with rust in those 
 
 'The selected iluruin portion of 1174 lias V)eei. separated an<lminibered 1548 in the 
 cereal investigations of the Department. Tlie other portion, \vhi<-h is a bread wheat 
 and is numbered 1550, may prove also to be of great value in further experiments OJi 
 account of its earliness in ripening. 
 
 ^ Probably referring to orange leaf rust in nearly all cases, however. This point is 
 difficult to determine, since there are so few cases of repf)rted rust resistance in which 
 it is stated definitely which rust i.s meant. 
 
 'See report of Australian Rust-in-Wheat Conference for 1892, p. 71; also various 
 articles in Agricultural Gazette, New .South Wales. 
 
 ' See numerous short articles in Agricultural .Tournal of ('ape Colony, and especially 
 Vol. XV, pp. 229-235, August 17, 1899. 
 
VAKIKTIKS. 53 
 
 (•(•uMti'ios. In thocoiu'lusioiis of tho sovonil rust-inwlioat confcroiiccs 
 in Australia, this variety was ri'i-oniiiu'iult'd along' with Rcloturka as 
 licinjr thi'lx'st for the hot coast districts. It has been mmh fiiiplnycd by 
 William Farrcr. a wheat expert of New South Wales, in hyliriilizingwitli 
 other varieties in order tt) introduce the same quality of rust resistance 
 into ordinary bread wheats. In experinnnits made by this Depart- 
 ment it ha.s l)een found to maintain consistently its reputation in this 
 repird in this country also.' It is a well-known Aljrerian variety, 
 havinjr medium-sized brown or black heads, with a bluish bloom to 
 the thatr. and black beards, and yellowish, hard jrmins. It is similar 
 to IMiick Don in irenenil appeaiimce. Aside from its rust resistance, 
 Medeali has a yood reputation for drought resistance and yield in many 
 countries. It is especially well adapted to our middle and southern 
 great plains, jjarticularly in Texas. 
 
 rKLI.lSSIKU. 
 
 This is a nui<h-praised. selected variety, bred in Alfieria. Tt seems 
 at ])resent to be one of the best of the Altieriaii varieties, and will 
 probably be a valuable variety for f>ur southern great plains. M. 
 Henri ^'a<Jnon, at Kherba. Clos des Bi-us. Algeria, has grown El Safni. 
 Nab-«d-bel. and several of the other best varieties, along with Pellissier, 
 in that part of Algeria, and as a result of his experiments highly 
 reconuneiids the latter." Seed of these varieties was ol)tained by the 
 Department from M. Vagnon in IS'.ttJ. and the varieties have been 
 grown in Kan.sas in exjieriments to determine rust resistance. Pel- 
 li.ssier not only |)roved to be ipiite rust resistant, but appeared to be a 
 good, hardy wheat in other respects. 
 
 This variety i.s the principal durum wheat of Argentina and Chile, 
 having been introduci'd there originally from .Spain. It has heads of 
 medium size, with white smooth chalf and rather long white beards. 
 The giains are rather large and light yellow. Practically all the wheat 
 furnished to France and Italy from .South Ameriia for macaroni, which 
 has come to be considerable in recent years, is of this variety. It has 
 been tested for rust resistance in Held experiments made by thi.'S 
 Department and found to l>c very good in that respect. Its drought 
 resistance and (piality of grain in this country is yet uncertain. It is 
 adapted for cultivation in our middle and .southern Great Plains region. 
 
 ' Cereal rusts of the United States, Hul. li>, I>iv. Veg. Phys. and Path., iip. 2:3-40, 
 September 27, 1899. 
 
 '.See "Culture Rationnelle des Cereales en .Mperie," Jour. d'Agric. Pratique, .59«, 
 Tome I, pp. 494—498, 189.7. In thiii report M. N'agnon names Pellissier, Kl .Safra, 
 and Volo as the best three in his experiments, placing Pellissier as tirst. 
 
54 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 NICARAGUA. 
 
 Until recently prol)!i))ly no oni^ of the durum wheats has attracted 
 so much attention in tiiis country as Nicaragua, and it is practically 
 the only wheat of this gi-oup yet kuown in the southern Unit(>d States. 
 Its origin is not known to a certainty, though the name would indicate 
 that it came from Nicaragua, and the wheat almost entirely grown in 
 Nicaragua is of the same group as this variety. The real Nicaragua 
 M'hcat has recently been received by the Department from Mr. I. A. 
 Manning, United States consular agent at ^latagaljja, Nicaragua, and 
 its appearance is in all respects like this variety, so far as the grain is 
 concerned. From various reports it appeal's that Nicaragua has been 
 grown in Texas nearly twenty -five j'ears. 
 
 Mr. James J. M. Smith, whose letters have already been quoted, 
 states in his letter of May 2;t, 1S9S, that— 
 
 In 1878 I found this wheat growing abundantly in Burnet, Williamson, Bell, 
 Travis, Lampasas, Llano, and San Saba counties. I learn also that it was raised 
 extensively all over this section of Texas. 
 
 Almost invariably it has given excellent yields, far ai)ove that of any 
 other wheat, including the popular Mediterranean. It has apparentl}^ 
 made average yields of from 20 to 80 bushels per acre, and quite often 
 yields 40 to 50 l)ushels per acre. Its cultivation has always been 
 chiefly in Texas, but it is grown occasionally also in South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Arkansas, Louisiana, and other Southern States. It first 
 became popular almost wholly on accotint of its rust resistance, but 
 has since l^een found to be excellent for late fall pasturage. 
 
 Nicaragua wheat has rather long, narrow heads, with white or j'el- 
 lowish-white chafi' and rather long beards, and a large, deep yellow, 
 hard grain, when grown under favorable conditions. When sown in 
 the autumn, as it often is in central and northern Texas, it makes a 
 rank, vigorous growth and furnishes abundant winter pasturage. It 
 is said to reach a height of 5 or more feet. 
 
 This variety to give best results in qualit}- of grain should be grown 
 farther west in Texas than it is now grown. -As grown in the region 
 from Wichita Falls and Abilene it ought to l)e of excellent ([uality for 
 macaroni. 
 
 WILD (iOOSE. 
 
 This variety is grown to a considerable extent in North and South 
 Dakota, l)ut on a much largei' scale in Canada. It is related that a 
 hunter found a few grains of wheat in tiie crop of a wild goose that 
 he had killed, the grains were planted and grew, and the present 
 variety has its origin in these few grains, and takes its name from the 
 incident. Even if this story is true, the original grains must of course 
 have been obtained by the bird from some farm in the Northwest, and 
 as the Russian farmers of the Northwest have occasionallj' imported 
 
VAKIKTIKS. 55 
 
 soi'd of (liinnn whoiits from Russia for many years, it is very prol)attIe 
 tiiiit tliis variety is oiiuivali'iit to one of tho South Russian macaroni 
 vurioti(<s. Tills and tiir pn-ccdinjr aro tlio oidy macaroni wliwits tliat 
 have so far hfcomi- pretty well estaliii.-hed in tliis country. 
 
 \\'ild (i<H)se lias a white chatf, heads somewhat similar to Kuhaid^a, 
 and rather ionj^r beards. The heads are siiorler and proportionally 
 thicker tlian those of Nicara<rua. The {jmins are (piite iar<;t'. li<;:ht 
 yellow In color, and very hard and translucent in the l>est ^rrades of 
 the wheat. A considenihle amount of this variety iias already iieen 
 exported from C'anuila to Fr.mco and Italy for maklnjf macaroiu, and 
 is reported to l>e in some instances eipial to the Taifanro},' wheat for 
 that jMirpose: and yet tlie wheat as jfrown in ( 'anada is probably inferior 
 to wheat of the sami' variety as ^.m-owii in the Dakotas. 
 
 .^II.SSOIJKN. 
 
 Almost the entire wheat jjroduction of (iroecc is from the durum 
 group. Bread there is commoidy made from these wheats. There arc 
 a numl)er of Important well-known varieties grown, such ius Mis.sogen, 
 Atalantl, \'olo. etc. Missogen (PI. II, ■>) is one of tho l)ost and is 
 fairly representative. It has a meflium or short head, rather thick 
 and flattened, and with white, or reddish-white, chatf and beards of 
 medium length. The grains are <iulte large, yidlow or light brown, 
 and very hard. In experiments of this Department it has proved to 
 bo extremely rust resistant with respect to orange loaf uist, and 
 appears to be generally rather hardy. 
 
 This wheat, which belongs to a group entirely distinct from the true; 
 durum wheats, is already n'ferred to and described on page 11. It may 
 also be ust<d in making various edible pastes, and possesses besides 
 several other valuable (|ualltles. It Is very resistant to drought and 
 leaf rust, and never was known l)y tho writer to l)o atfected with bunt 
 or smut. Its yield in semlarld districts compared with other sorts is 
 always good. As alretidy montiont'd, this wheat in iS'.il yielded 2-1: 
 bu.-hols per acre without irrigation at (larden City. Kans.. some dis- 
 tance west of the one hundredth meridian. Polish wheat was inti'o- 
 ducod from south Russia two years ago l)y this Department, and on 
 being tried at several stations has yielded well in semlarld localities. 
 It Is adapted for growing In any part of the semlarid Great Plains. 
 
 WINTEU VAIUETIES. 
 
 Macaioni wheats are as a rule to be considered as spring varieties. 
 Nicaragua, however, is very often sown in the autumn in Texas, and 
 is .said to give nuuh better results when sown in that season. Other 
 sorts when taken below the thirty-fifth parallel could no doubt also be 
 
56 1 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 transformed into good winter varieties l)y gradually increasing the 
 earliness of spring sowing until they are practically sown in autumn. 
 The wheat is thereby not only made more vigorous bj" its autumn 
 root growth, but is also likely to yield more and furnish an abundant 
 supply of earl_y winter pasturage; for these wheats always make a 
 vigorous growth at once after thej' come up. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL COMPAKISON OF VARIETIES. 
 
 As already noted, nearly all these macaroni varieties have been 
 under experiment by thi.s Department more or less at ditierent times, 
 testing their resistance to rust and drought, and in .some cases their 
 yields. Chemical analy,ses have also been made of many' of them by 
 courtesy of the Bureau of Chemistry of this Department and the 
 results furnished to this Bureau for publication. Certain data from 
 all these sources are here arranged in tabular form, for the most 
 important varieties of macaroni wheat, as follows: 
 
KXPKKIMFNTAL CdMl'ARISON OF VAKIKTIKS 
 
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58 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 As will 1)0 seen by the table, inacaroni wheats almost always are 
 light green in color in the first stage of their growth, while ordinary 
 wheats are a darker green. There is also rapid growth at this stage; 
 the leaves are usually' large and the plants grow erect, thus affording 
 the, abundant pasturage for which fall-sown varieties are noted. As to 
 chemical composition, neai'ly all varieties here presented are uniformly 
 high in gluten content and the percentage of albuminoids. Ordinary 
 ])read wheats are considered to have an unusual gluten content if it 
 reaches 11 or 12 per cent drj^ gluten, but it is not especially unusual 
 for these wheats to have 13 and 14 per cent. On the whole, Russian 
 varieties have invariably a higher per cent of gluten and protein than 
 those of other countries. In confirmation of the expectation of the 
 writer, it is seen that the Arnautka from North Dakota compares well 
 with the best varieties direct from llussia in protein and gluten content. 
 It is, however, a Russian variety originally, and when grown in North 
 Dakota, simply finds very similar conditions to what it has previously 
 been used to. The superiority of Russian varieties, already shown bj' 
 their greater demand as well as their higher protein content, and also 
 the excellent quality of durum wheat, when grown on our Great Plains, 
 is almost certainly due to the unusual humus content of the soils of 
 the Russian and American regions, respectively, which has already 
 been discussed. The proper climate is a feature probabh' of greater 
 importance, but a considerable amount of soil hunuis is absolutely 
 essential. In harmony with this thought it is to be (>xpected that 
 Algerian or Argentine varieties will improve on being grown on our 
 Great Plains, while Russian varieties will probably deteriorate when 
 grown in Arizona or New Mexico. But Russian sorts grown in the 
 region from North Dakota to west Kansas, or possibly to the Texas 
 Panhandle, will be the very best. 
 
 There seems to be something more than the simple amount of gluten 
 that gives macaroni wheats a superiority over Ijread wheats for mak- 
 ing macaroni, since often bread wheats having the same gluten content 
 do not apparently make as good macaroni. Nevertheless, gluten con- 
 tent is evidenth' important, and, besides, the unusual protein content 
 of such wheats is of great importance from the standpoint of nutrition. 
 
 RXJSSO-MEDITEBE.ANEAN TRAFFIC IN MACARONI WHEAT. 
 
 In making up statistics of wheat production and exjjort separate 
 figures are never given for durum wheats, even in Russia, where such 
 wheats are so important. It is therefoi-e only possible to obtain an 
 approxiuiate idea of the export of these wheats from Russia to the 
 western Mediterranean region. It is known to be quite extensive, 
 however, in proportion to the amount of other wheats exported from 
 that country. The Section of Foreign Markets of this Department 
 has kindly furnished data giving the entire wheat export of Russia 
 
Bui. 3, Bufsiu of Plant IndusKy. U. S. Oopt. of AKMCullurn. 
 
 Fig 1 — Port of Taganrog, Russia, the largest Port for the Export of Macaroni Wheat 
 IN THE World. 
 
 -Loading Gharnovka i Macaroni' Wheat onto the Steamer 
 be shipped to mediterranean ports. 
 
 T Taganrog, to 
 
RL'SSO-MEDITKKKANKAN TKAFKU'. 59 
 
 for tho yoais lv.t4-l.Sy8. inclusivo. and her export to Fraiui' and Italy 
 for tlir same jteriod. Tlio (Mitiro export averaji^es 12ti.ti77.n7!» Imslii'ls. 
 The averajje (>xport to France is r.t.S!l:i,.")17 bushels (iiicludiiifr spelt 
 and niasiin'), and tlie export to Italy avei-a<;es :il.:i(i4.4<!".» tiusiiels. It 
 is known that a considerable (|uantity of the export to Italy is soft 
 wheat. In other data jrivin',' imports into Fran<e and Italy from 
 Russia, also furnished by this section, it is definitely >tated that in 
 IMt'.t (>,L'74.lL".t bu.-hels of the import into Italy was soft wheat: that 
 is. considerably more than one-third of the entire amoiuit for that year, 
 which was ir).4iMi.i:i:i bushels. It is pretty certain that the propor- 
 tion of soft wheat shipped to Fiance from Russia is much less, prol)- 
 abjy not more than one-tifth. Tin- entire wheat export to both Fnince 
 and Italy is 41.()'.»G.ltst'> bushels. It is probable that the soft wheat, 
 .spelt, maslin, et<-., would altojrether make up no more than one-third 
 of this amount. To be safe in statements, however, the proportion of 
 macaroni wheat shii)ped from Russia to these two countries may l)cst 
 be^'iven, not us two-thirds of the entire amount. butasal)out lin.(MH»,0(i(» 
 bushels. Rut certainly not more than four-lifths of the Russian Medi- 
 terranean export of this wheat jjoes to Fr.mce and Italy. AiMinj,'', 
 therefoie, ."i.doo.UdO more for the other countries on the Mediternmean 
 we have what is surely a conservative estimate of •J.'i.ooo.ddc* bushcl.s 
 as ri'presentiiifr Russian exi)ort of thi.s class of wheat into the Mediter 
 ranean rej^ion. The Russian trade in these wheats is far j,''reatt'r than 
 American> realize. In fact, many do not realize that there is such a 
 trade at all. The writer is rather conlident that the entire annual 
 Ru>sian export of »lui'um wheat to all countries iloes not fall far short 
 of 4(>.diP(i.oou bushels. It nmst be rememliered, too, that in the mar- 
 kets where this wheat <xoes no other wheat can be substituted. To 
 compete with Russia in these markets we uuist therefore raise maca- 
 roni wheats. If we should succeed in securintr only half the market 
 it woidd mean an addition of 'jo.non.ddn bushels to our export trade. 
 It should be noted thiit interTiational freijrht lates on <,'rain exported 
 from this countiy api)car to be about the same as for Russia and the 
 oriental countries. 
 
 The steamers »Mi};a<red in the Russian export trade with this wheat 
 belong to several ditl'erent lines, the best known of which is prol(al)ly 
 the Russian Society of C'onuuerce and Navifjation. This is the most 
 important .steamship line in south Russia, has excellent harl)ors. and 
 touches at all ]K>ints on the Black and Azov sca.s. The principal jxiints 
 from which duriun wheats are shipped are Taj^^anrojif (PI. X. ti<(s. 1 and 
 2) and Berdiansk. but larj,'e ((uantities are shipped also from Rostov-on- 
 Don. Novorossisk, Theodosia. Kerch. Mariopol, and Nikolaev. Four 
 or five trunk lines of railway (at least two of which are doubled tracked) 
 
 ' Ma^^liii is a mixture of several grains, as rye, barley, and wheat. 
 
60 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 brintf most of the wheat that is grown at a distance to these points. 
 ISluch the larger part of this wheat from a distance comes from the 
 region about Uralsiv and Orenbui'g. (PI. XI, tig. 1.) At Tagani-og 
 and Berdiansk a large portion of the wheat shipped is macaroni 
 wheat. A great deal of it is grown in the surrounding region. The 
 wheat begins to arrive in greatest tiuantities in September. (PI. XI, 
 fig. '2.) 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 (1) Macaroni or durum wheats have been occasionallj- grown in this 
 country for many years, but the absence of a knoM'n market has 
 heretofore prevented their extensive cultivation. 
 
 (2) In connection with its seed and plant introduction work th(> 
 Department has been making special effort during the past three years 
 to stinudate an interest in American-grown wheat of this class. As a 
 result of this movement, and with the aid of private parties interested, 
 the following progress has already been made: 
 
 ((/) All macaroni wheat of good quality that will be produced this 
 
 ' present season (which will probably amount to over 75,000 
 bushels) is now practically contracted for at a good price. 
 
 {h) A majority of our own macaroni factories desire to use semolina 
 of durum wheats grown in the United States, and from some of 
 them there is now an urgent demand for it. but it can not be 
 obtained. 
 
 (c) Samples of our maciU'oni wheats sent to French manufacturers 
 of semolina have been tested and reported to be as good as wheat 
 from Taganrog, Russia, though it is known that a much better 
 wheat is now grown in Noi'th and South Dakota than the samples 
 that were sent. 
 
 (rf) Semolina manufacturers in France and Italy have only recently 
 discovered the excellent quality of our macaroni wheat, and 
 now they are demanding large quantities just as soon as it can 
 be furnished. Six or eight million bushels, if we could furnish 
 it, would no doubt now tind immediate sale at ]Marseilles and in 
 Italy. 
 
 (3) In connection with these facts it may be noted that since March 
 1, 1901,' three and one-third million l)ushels of Wild Goose wheat were 
 shipped from Canada to iNIarseilles. and yet the Canadian wheat is 
 somewhat inferior, as a rule, to wheat of the same class grown iA 
 North and South Dakota. 
 
 (4) A careful investigation of the conditions of soil and cliiuate in 
 east and south Russia in comparison with those of our (Ireat Plains 
 shows an interesting and remarkable similarity between the two 
 regions. As the very best macaroni wheat is produced in large quan- 
 tities in this Russian region one naturally infers that the cultivation 
 of such wheat in the Great Plains would be attended with o()od results. 
 
Bui. 3, Burou ol Plant IncJuMry, U. S Dopt o) Aet.cj". 
 
 Fig. 1.— KuB4NhA Wheat brought jv Market by the Kirghiz Farmers, at Urausk, on 
 THE Siberian Border. 
 
 F:G. 2. CA...ri.\o Macaroni Wheat to the Wharves at Taganrog, to be shipped to 
 Mediterranean Ports. 
 
SI MMAKY. (»1 
 
 (.")) The results of adiiptation t'xpiMimonts iiiiidc l)v this IVpHrtincnt 
 ii) (•oopiTiition with State exjieriment stations, as well a.s trials made 
 l>v jirivate parties, iiavi> stroni^ly contirincd the C()nelusit)ii drawn from 
 a study of the soil and climatic conditions. The jirincipa! facts shown 
 by these experiments are as follows: 
 
 (ii) Macaroni wheats are extremelv resistant to ln'at and drouirht. 
 (/<) They are also very resistant to tin- attacks of leaf rust, smuts, 
 
 and other jjiirasites. 
 (c) They yive the hest results in the (treat IMains near the one 
 
 hundredth meridian. 
 (//) In many places west of the one hundn-dth meridian where 
 wheat yrowiny is now pi'acficidly impossible because <d" 
 droui,dit macaroni wheats will yield ordinarily 12 to :.'<• 
 bushels per acr(». 
 (.) In semiarid districts macaroni wheats will yield an averay:e of 
 aliout one-third more ])ei' acre than the standard wheat.s 
 usually irrown there, 
 (ti) .Mararoni maimfacturers do not. as a ride. i,'rind their own wheat. 
 but nmst be furnished with semtdina liy nnllers of that product. 
 
 (7) Thi're is now a distinct demand for one or more enterprisinjr 
 millers in this coiuitry to airane-e for speciali/in},' in the manufacture 
 of semolina from diii'um wheats for our macaroni factories. 
 
 (s) Macaroni wheats can i>e readily jrround at our ordinary llf>ur mills 
 l)y a sliyht rearran>rement of ma<-hinerv. usinor more moisture, and 
 with a ])i'oi)ei' understnndinjjf on the j)art of the miller of the nature of 
 the product to be furnished to the faitories. The miller or manufac- 
 turer of semolina should stand in the same relation to the macaioni 
 manufacturer that the miller of Itread Hour does to the baker. 
 
 ('.•) Nearly all our own macaroni factories are at present usin;r Hour 
 made cither from Kansas hani winter wheat or from the hard s])rin}j;' 
 wheats. 
 
 (10) The superior value of durum wheats for makin<j luacaroid lies 
 chietly in the (piantity and ipiality of their jfluten. but possil)ly alsf) in 
 the amount and nature of certain other constituents. 
 
 (11) Macaroni when well nr.ido from our hardest bread wheats is 
 sometimes dilHcult to distinjruish fi'om macaroni made from durum 
 wheats. .Vlmost always a difference exists, however, in favor of the 
 product from durum wheat. The latter is usually (a) more yellowish 
 in color, (b) more vitreous in fracture, (c) preserves its form lon<^cr 
 in t)oilin<^, and (d) is more elastic and not sticky when served. 
 
 (1'2) Though macaroni wheats are usually considered to lie adapted 
 only for making macaroni, it is an idea entirtdy erroneous that they 
 do not make good bread. Rut in grinding for bread 10 to 2(> percent 
 of red wheat might, t)ften with advantage, be mixed with them. 
 
 (IS) In all instances in this country within the writer's knowledge 
 
62 MACARONI WHEATS. 
 
 whore these wheats have been ii.sed for bread the parties .so using 
 them have preferred the bread above all other kinds. 
 
 (14) The most popular bread flour in the Volga River region of Rus- 
 sia is made from Kubanlca, a macaroni wheat. 
 
 (15) The French people, who are the greatest bread eaters in the 
 world, prefer always a mixture of durum wheat in malving their bread 
 flour. 
 
 (1(>) Bread made from macaroni wheats is richer to the taste and 
 remains fresh much longer than bread.made from other wheat. 
 
 (17) Macaroni wheats furnish an excellent (jualit}* of grits for break- 
 fast foods. 
 
 (18) In the cultivation of macaroni wheats all means possible should 
 be employed for the conservation of moisture if they are to be grown 
 where the rainfall is very small. They are drought resistant, but they 
 must have the aid of proper cultivation. 
 
 (19) In all places north of the thirty-eighth |)arallel they should be 
 sown in the spring, and the plowing may be done the previous sum 
 mcr. South of this parallel they should be sown in late autunui. 
 
 (20) In the South when sown in the autumn these wheats furnish 
 excellent winter pasturage, usually, too, without greatly diminishing 
 the following crop of grain. 
 
 (21) The best macaroni wheats in all respects ai'e of Russian origin. 
 The results of chemical analyses show that Russian varieties contain 
 nearly oO per cent more gluten than varieties f rou] other foi'eign coun- 
 tries. Moreover, they are, as a rule, best adapted to the conditions of 
 our semiarid districts. 
 
 (22) The best of the Russian varieties, and those which are best 
 adapted to our middle and northern Great Plains, are the following: 
 Kubanka (or Pererodlva), Yellow Gharnovka, Gharnovka, Black Don, 
 Beloturka, Sarui-bugda, Velvet Don. 
 
 (23) Some of the best varieties from other countries and adajjtcd 
 to the region of this country south of the thirty-flfth pai'allei are as 
 follows: Nicaragua, Missogen, Medeah, Volo, Pellissier, Atalanti, 
 Candeal. El Safra. 
 
 (21) The Russian export of macaroni wlieats to the Mediterranean 
 region is probably at least 25, 000,000 bushels amiually, and is an 
 indication of the export trade with these wheats that we might 
 •secure (in part, at least) if we would grow them; for international 
 freight rates are about the same for us to the Mediterranean region as 
 for Russia. 
 
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