Glass S^-^^S^x:^ Book '( ^ BZ^ Copwighl N° COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/popularfruitgrow02gree Popular Fruit Growing BY s,/i :^" P SAMUEL B.^ GREEN Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in the University of Minnesota Author of "Vegetable Gardening," "Amateur Fruit Growing," "Forestry in Minnesota," "Principles of American Forestry," "Farm Wind-Breaks and Shelter Belts," Etc. Webb Publishing Company St. Paul, Minn. 1909 Copyright, 1909, By SAMUEL B. GREEN. ^ / ^6" ,n1 LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two CoDies Received MAY 241803 a Copyriifnt tntrv _ tLASS /4_ KXc, Nn PREFACE. The development of the teaching of Agriculture has made necessary, and has been largely dependent on, the making of text- books of various kinds adapted to the special technical work for which our best agricultural schools stand. When these agricultural colleges started there were no text- books adapted to their special lines of work, and the demand necessitated the hasty preparation of text-books which are now being replaced by those that are more complete and better adapt- ed in every way for teaching purposes. This book is the result of the development of the teaching of Fruit Growing in the University of Minnesota and is, in a way, a compilation of lectures on Fruit Growing given to the students which have been carefully revised and considerably extended. At the end of each chapter are suggestive questions on the mat- ter presented. An appendix is added which contains formulas for fungi- cides, insecticides and grafting waxes, etc.; lists of fruits recom- mended for special typical states and rules for naming fruits. The fruit lists are from the professors of Horticulture of the various Agricultural Colleges and from secretaries of the va- rious Horticultural Societies. In the preparation of this work I have had the earnest and intelligent assistance of Miss Jeannette Foster. I am also under obligations to my assistant in Horticulture, Mr. A. R. Kohler, who prepared tlie pages on Spraying and Spraying machinery; to Mr. Elvin Peterson, student of the College of Agriculture, who has made many of the drawings; to Prof. Frederick Wash- burn for cuts which he has loaned; to Prof. E. M. Freeman for many suggestions embodied in the chapter on Plant Diseases and to Mr. A. G. Ruggles for suggestions in regard to the chapter on The Suppression of Insects Injurious to Fruits. I am also under obligations to those who have assisted by furnishing data for the fruit list and in other v/ays aided in its preparation. SAMUEL B. GREEN, St. Anthony Park, Minn. February, 15, 1909. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Factors in Successful Fruit Growing. — Accessibility. Loca- tion. Soils. Topography. Business Aspect. Cultivation. Mulch- ing. Cover Crops. Plant Food. Manuring. Varieties. Planting. Nursery Stock. CHAPTER II. Orchard Protection. — Injuries. Frost Protection. Foretell- ing Frost. Protection. CHAPTER III, Insects injurious to fruits. — Insects: State Inspec- tion. Chewing Insects. Sucking Insects. Root Insects. Benefi- cial Insects. Parasites. Predaceous Insects. Apple Insects and Remedies. Pear Insects and Remedies. Peach Insects and Remedies. Plum Insects and Remedies. CHAPTER IV. Diseases injurious to fruits. — Plum Diseases and Remedies. Pear Diseases and Remedies. Apple Diseases and Remedies. Peach Diseases and Remedies. Grape Diseases and Remedies. Strawberry Diseases and Remedies. Blackberry Diseases and Remedies. Raspberry Diseases and Remedies. Cherry Diseases and Remedies. Quince Diseases and Remedies. Gooseberry Dis- eases and Remedies. Currant Diseases and Remedies. CHAPTER V. Spraying and spraying apparatus. — Dust Spraying. Liquid Spraying. Spraying Apparatus. CHAPTER VI. Harvesting and IViarketing. — Picking. Peddling. Associa- tions. Packing. Packages. Package Laws. Barrels. Packing Barrels. Grades of Fruit. Cold Storage. ' CHAPTER VII. Principles of Plant Growth. — Parts of Plant. Parts of Flow- er. Pollination. Hybrids. Assimilation. Transpiration. Rest Period. Classification of Plants. Varieties. CHAPTER VIII. Propagation of Fruit Plants. — Seed. Stratification. Offsets. Cuttings. Budding. Grafting. Inarching. . CHAPTER IX. Pome Fruits. — Apples: Classes of, Propagation, Apple Or- chards, Trees, Seedlings, Root Grafting, Planting, Heeling In, Cultivation, Pruning, Mulching, Varieties. Quince: Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Pear: Origin, Chinese Sand Pear, Standard Pears, Dwarf Pears, Propagation, Soil and Cultivation, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties, Packing. CHAPTER X. Stone Fruits. — Plum: Origin, Propagation, Stocks, Soil, Plant- ing, Insects, Varieties. Peach: Origin, Groups, Propagation, Planting, Pruning,'Soil, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. Nectar- ine: Origin. Apricot: Origin, Stocks, Planting, Pruning, Insects and Diseases, Varieties. CHAPTER XI. Grapes. — Origin, Propagation, Soil, Planting, Training and Pruning, Single Post Method, High Renewal Method, Kniffen Method, 4-Cane Kniffen Method, 2-Cane High Renewal Method, Munson Method, Tying Material, Thinning, Manuring, Girdling. CHAPTER XII. Small Fruits. — Strawberry: Origin, Location, Soil, Manuring, Planting Methods, Trimming, Protection, Renewing, Burning, Picking and Marketing, Varieties. Currant: Origin, Soil and Planting, Pruning, Protection, Marketing, Varieties. Gooseberry: Origin, Propagation, Planting, Pruning, Marketing, Insects, Dis- eases. Raspberry: Origin, Classes, Propagation, Location, Soil, Manuring, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning, Thinning, Mulching, Protection, Picking, Marketing. Blackberry and Dewberry: Groups, Propagation, Soils, Planting, Cultivation, Pruning. Cranberry: Location, Soil, Cultivation, Drainage, Planting, Pick- ing. Juneberry: Origin, Propagation, Cultivation, Varieties. Sand Cherry: Distribution, Propagation. Bullberry or Buffalo Berry: .Distribution, Propagation. Mulberries: Origin, Propagation, Va- rieties. Persimmon: American Persimmon, ViHiere found. Value of Fruit, Method of. Propagation, Japanese Persimmon, Value of Fruit, Propagation. CHAPTER XIII, Nuts. — Pecan: Origin, Soil, Harvesting, Marketing, Insects, Grafting. Chestnut: Groups. Chinquapins: Propagation, Plant- ing, Insects, Diseases. English Walnut: Propagation, Harvest- ing, Marketing. Japanese Walnut. Black Walnut. Almond: Soil, Planting, Propagation, Marketing. Hazel: Origin, Flower. APPENDIX. Appendix. — Spraying Calendar. Fungicides. Insecticides. Grafting Waxes. Rules for Naming Fruits. Lists of Fruit Rec- ommended for Different States. Distances apart for planting fruits. Popular Fruit Growing. CHAPTER I. FACTORS THAT MAKE UP A GOOD FRUIT-GROWING SEC- TION. Accessibility. — By accessibility is meant railroad and other communication; not only nearness to market but the possibili- ties of getting suitable transportation service at a reasonable figure. Water communication is often better than rail, especial- ly for those kinds of fruits that are easily injured by rough handl- ing. Two or more competing lines of communication generally tend to give the shipper better service than when one road has the monopoly. Accessibility is of the first importance though it will not entirely take the place of suitable soil conditions; how- ever, it may sometimes make it profitable to use an inferior soil. Good wagon roads make it easy to get to market quickly with large loads of produce in good condition and form, a very important factor in the development of any fruit section. If location is so far from the consumer that the produce must be shipped by a common carrier it is important that enough fruit be raised in the section to make the business of handling and shipping it one of sufficient importance to command special attention from the carrier and the buyers, so as to make it a place where buyers will go for fruit. In starting a fruit industry in a new place the pioneers often labor under the disadvantage of not having enough of their product to make it worth while to ship it. This difficulty can be overcome in new sections by starting the industry on a large scale so that shipments may be made in carload lots and by co-operation in selling. Soils. — The only sure way of determining the value of a soil for a particular fruit is by field-trial, because so many factors enter into the makeup of a good fruit soil that it is easy to make mistakes, and yet the best fruit soils have many evident pointa 8 POPULAR FRUIT aROWING. in common. There is hardly any soil but which under favorable conditions will be found adapted to some class of fruits. For instance, the pear prefers a rather heavy clay soil; the peach and cherry quite open and porous soils. The strawberry and blackberry will often do well on soil too sandy for other fruits although either one suffers froni drought on a heavy soil. The currant and gooseberry prefer an open clay loam but will adapt themselves to almost any location. Then there are loca- tions, such as the lands adapted to the Albemarle Pippin in Virginia, so wondrously fitted to special fruits that it seems impossible to raise these in perfection elsewhere. In the case of apples and many other tree fruits the condition of the sub-soil is generally of more importance than the surface soil, although the condition of the latter must not be overlooked. It is desirable to have a surface soil that can be cultivated easily and will not bake hard after rains. Soil that is extremely rich In plant food is usually undesirable for apples, pears and peach- es, especially if too rich in nitrogen. On such land the trees generally grow large and frequently do not bear until quite ma- ture. The unripened buds and wood, common under such con- ditions, kill back in winter and the vigorous growth of early summer seems to be predisposed to fire blight or similar dis- eases. Loess loam is the name given to an open clay soil which is made up largely of clay and small shells. On such land we generally find in the North a vigorous growth of Maple, Hack- berry and White Oak. It is perhaps the best kind of an all around fruit soil and any of our fruits will do well in it. A limestone soil, where the roots can reach th-e underlying lime rock or soil and which has much lime in its makeup, is especially favorable for all our fruits and comes next to or may equal in value the loess loams. In parts of Florida the coral rock and the old shells in the sand help to make good fruit soil. Heavy clay loam may be better adapted. to agriculture than to fruit raising, but if such soil is thoroughly underdrained and given a proper rotation of cover crops, manure and general cul- tivation, it will often be found adapted to a goodly number of fruits and especially to apples, pears, currants, gooseberries and FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 9 the sweet cherries. But such a soil requires • very careful management in order to get the best results from it. Sandy loam underlaid with a good, open clay sub-soil is almost ideal for any of the small fruits and grapes. It is the easiest kind of soil to handle and can be cultivated shortly after a rain without becoming lumpy or sticking to the tools, and it easily forms a dust blanket. Implements scour in it very read- ily, which is no small convenience. Altogether, it is the most pleasant kind of soil to cultivate and well adapted to a long list of fruit plants. Sandy soil dries out so quickly that crops on it suffer from drought. This is especially true where the soil particles are coarse. It gives quick returns from manure applied to it but does not hold soluble manures. In general it is not adapted to any of the fruit crops unless it can be irrigated, or is located where the water table is within the reach of the roots. Under such conditions this soil may, with proper management, give good results with .strawberries, blackcap raspberries, plums, sour cherries and peaches, and with many of the sub-tropical fruits. ■ Mucky soil is not well adapted to fruits of any kind but some kinds of strawberries and blackberries will occasionally yield enormously on such land where it is well drained. When muck is applied to sandy or clay land, it is often beneficial. Flat, black prairie soil is seldom sufficiently adapted to any kind of fruit to become the foundation of an important fruit in- dustry, although many kinds of fruits may do well enough on It to make them desirable for planting in the home garden. . Clay Soil, underlaid with gravel at a depth of from two to four feet, may be used for sour cherries, peaches and plums, but crops on it are liable to suffer from drought and such lands should generally be avoided for fruits. It dries out easily and yet the surface soil, being of clay, becomes lumpy unless care- fully handled. It has most of the disadvantages of both a stiff clay and sandy soil. Topography. — By the topography of a country we mean Its elevation. A rolling country gives good water drainage and our cultivated fruits, with the exception of the cranberry, are 10 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. intolerant oC surplus water in the soil. A rolling country also gives many high slopes where there is comparative immunity from unseasonable frosts. Its various slopes are adapted to a variety of crops. For these reasons good fruit sections are generally located where the land is hilly but land that is quite flat may sometimes prove valuable for fruit when near large water areas so that there is secured comparative immunity from frosts and when sufficiently elevated to secure good drainage. As a rule, however, flat land is not well adapted to fruit growing. BUSINESS ASPECT. Fruit growing as a business. — Success in any business is largely a personal matter and success in fruit growing likewise depends much on the individual and his adaptability. The de- mand for fruit is on the increase and the consumption of fresh fruits per capita is now greater than a few years ago. With the Introduction of improved methods of storing and shipping fresh fruit is destined to play a more important part in the diet of every American. Comparatively a few years ago fresh fx'uit was regarded as a luxury but now it is looked upon as a staple food having special hygienic values. Overproduction of fruit. — There is occasionally an overpro- duction of fruit but it is rare that there is an overproduction of good fruit. Our chief trouble is that our methods of distri- bution are faulty and our people do not get the fruit they want. Those fruits are most stable in price that can be readily used for canning or drying purposes because, when low in price, the surplus may be easily disposed of. The tendency is certainly toward cheaper, good fruit, but there is also a growing discrimi- nating taste for fruit of the best quality and the number of consumers who are willing and able to pay a fair price for a good article is fast increasing. As wealth increases this dis- crimination in favor of the best will become even more pro- nounced than it is today. The successful fruit grower must be well grounded in the principles of growing fruit and the many problems that are sure to present themselves in the course of the annual round of duties. Not only is it desirable that he know how to grow FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 11 fruit but he must know hovv to market it. lu otlier words, he must be a good business man. Some of the most successful fruit growers and horticulturists have been men who were not raised in the work but have taken it up late in life and succeeded large- ly because of their business training and ability. This is not to say that farmer's sons do not make good farmers, but they often fail to get the most out of their farm practice owing to the lack of business training in which perhaps another man ex- cels, although he may not understand the practice of handling the land. The fruit industry is especially adapted to the man of ready resources who can quickly adapt himself to changes of situation. Choice of Locations. — Most people who are making a spe- cialty of fruit growing, and most farmers who contemplate a change to fruit growing, are held fast by social ties, by land holdings or in other ways, so that they cannot easily change their location even if they wished to do so, therefore the choice of location for them is a settled fact. If they engage in fruit growing at all it must be in their present surroundings. To them it is a selection of crops and methods of management best suited to their conditions. If fruit growing cannot be made profitable where they are they had better devote their land to other purposes. On the other hand, there is a small class of people who wish to grow fruit of certain kinds who do have the opportunity of changing their location. For such, it would- be a good plan to visit the principal fruit sections and thoroughly study their conditions and probable future before locating permanently. In making such a study it is not well to be too quick to form an opinion as there are many factors to be considered. Rarely, indeed, is it desirable for a grower to change from a line of fruit growing that he is thoroughly acquainted with to one that is very different. Occasionally it may be 'desirable or necessary to do so, but in any case the change should be made with great caution. The successful apple grower of Missouri may make a successful California orange grower after he has had experience, but he will have much that is new to learn before he can do this. The man who is starting anew in the growing of fruit of 12 POPULAR FRtJIT GROWING. any kind will genei-allj^ find it best to start in a small way and not risk too much on a single venture. Cultivation of Fruit Plantations. In a state of nature, as in our primeval forests and groves, where trees do well, they generally have the surface soil about their roots covered with a loose accumulation of vegetable mould that is shaded from the sun and wind. The deeper soil is filled with roots more or less decayed and tending to keep the sub- soil porous. This covering protects the soil from baking, drying out and becoming too compact and gives the conditions aimed at in the cultivation of the land. For this kind of treatment, there must be a great accumulation of vegetable mould, which is in- compatible with the light and air needed for the production of cultivated fruit and with the opportunity to get at the trees from all sides for gathering the fruit and for giving the pro- tection that the trees need from noxious insects and diseases. The nearest approach to nature's method of cultivation is ac- complished by mulching the orchard, which is sometimes done to advantage. The reasons for proper cultivation are: (a) To give our favorite plants all the light, air and soil that they can use to advantage by destroying all competitors in the shape of weeds which would ordinarily make their struggle for existence more severe, (b) To protect from drought by keeping the top soil loose. In this way evaporation is prevented and the moisture saved in the soil for the use of the roots. Soil that is compact will transmit water upward to the surface by capillary attraction where it can evaporate, but when the surface soil is loose evapo- ration is prevented and the water thus transmitted from the sub-soil is retained near the surface. This is one of the chief reasons for the cultivation of the soil. TTie extent of this protec- tion is shown in the following table taken from "Soils and Fertil- ■ izers" by Professor Harry Snyder and giving the result of some examinations made in dry weather: Per cent, of Water in Field. With Shallow Surface Without Cultivation. Cultivation. Soil depth 3 to 9 inches 14.21 8.02 Soil depth 9 to 15 inches 17.21 12.38 FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 13 (c) The cultivation of the soil also sets plant food free. It opens the soil up so that the air can get in and assist in the devel- opment of the plant food locked up in an insoluble form. This is an important function of tillage. The soil should be regarded as a great laboratory in which many complex organic and inor- ganic changes are continually taking place. Humus is the decayed organic matter found in soils. It much resembles common charcoal in its physical properties, has great affinity for water and holds fertilizing agents in the soil. Humus makes the soil porous so that the air can readily pene- trate it and also assists in chemical changes. Since it keeps the soil porous it prevents it from baking hard, thus protecting it from drought. It is largely on account of these qualities of humus that stable manure, a large per cent, of which is humus, is often so much more effective than commercial fertilizers. The plowing in of green crops adds humus to the soil. The contin- ued cultivation of the soil sometimes affects it injuriously by oxidizing all the humus and leaving it in such a condition that it washes badly and will not hold moisture. A good illustration of this change is shown in the fact that newly cleared land will seldom wash badly until the decayed organic matt-er in the soil has become so thoroughly oxidized that the humus no longer holds the soil together. After this organic matter has disappeared clay soils lose their loose, porous texture and become hard, com- pact and liable to wash. The value of humus in the soil is well illustrated by experi- ments at the Minnesota Experiment Station. Corn, grown con- tinuously for six years on the same field, yielded an average of 21.4 bushels per acre, while corn in a three-rotation, including wheat and clover, yielded 47.1 bushels per acre. As the plot producing corn continuously has sufficient plant food to mature a normal crop annually, the low yield can only be accounted for by the poor physical condition of the soil produced through the depletion of the humus by frequent cultivation. Growing fruit trees in sod is a practice not to be generally recommended, but where the soil conditions are especially favor- able it may sometimes be done to good advantage. In locations where trees are especially liable to injury from drought it is a 14 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. poor practice. In the retentive soils of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa and elsewhere, apples may be grown to great perfection by spading up the soil about the tree for a distance of three or four feet from the trunk each spring and later in the season mowing the grass and weeds and putting them around the trees. However, such locations are exceptional and the great truth re- mains that, in general, orchards which are kept in sod are sel- dom profitable. When orchards are in a stiff sod the rain water is prevented from soaking into the land because an old sod on steep hillsides sheds water readily. The grass roots also carry up large amounts of water from the soil, which is evaporated and lost. Mulching. — Growing trees and other plants by mulching may sometimes be successfully practiced. Some of the points to be considered in this connection are: a — There is a great difference in the protective values of different kinds of. mulch. A covering of coarse weeds may af- ford little protection, while a mulch of hard-wood sawdust would give excellent results. b — Trees that are gi'own by mulching generally do best when the soil about them is worked in the spring before the mulch is applied. c — ^A mulch may often be used to advantage close to trees where the soil near them is not easily cultivated. In such cases it is a good plan to protect the tree trunks with galvanized iron wire netting from injuries by mice which are especially attracted, by the mulch. d — Raspberries, blackberries, currants and gooseberries niay be grown by a system of mulching without cultivation but it is seldom desirable to grow them in this way. e — While the cultivation of the soil is not as successful in the conservation of moisture as mulching, yet, when the best cultivation is practiced it is far better than mulching as com- monly done. f — Mulching fruit plants the year around without spring work- ing of the soil tends to encourage a development of large surface roots which may later be winter-killed. Large surface roots also interfere with cultivation when mulching is discontinued, FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 15 although the risk of permanent injury from this source is much less than is generally supposed. g — Mulching sometimes causes great danger by fire. h — The mulch about plants may harbor insects, such as cur- culio, etc., which might injure the trees. These are most easily kept in check by clean cultivation; but where fruit trees are mulched, pasturing hogs in the orchard will greatly help in check- ing, the spread of such insects as remain in the fruit after it falls. Cover crops is a term used in connection with the growing of crops in orchards. In a general way, the best fruit growers are a unit in believing in the importance of clean cultivation for orchards. However, as we have already noted, this is often impractical on steep hillsides liable to wash badly. Clean cul- tivation also leads finally to a poor condition of the soil which can only be fully remedied by the addition of humus. This humus may be added by the application of coarse stable litter or other organic matter directly to the land. In this case the humus is confined almost entirely to the few upper inches and is not dis- tributed throughout the soil as it is by the growth of clover or similar crops. The decaying roots of a cover crop leave humus both in the sub-soil and in the surface soil, thus rendering the whole mass more porous. Still other advantages of cover crops are (a) they protect the soil to some extent from deep and sudden freezing and thawing; (b) they prevent the snow from blowing away. in the winter; (c) such cover crops as clover and peas not only improve the physical conditions of soils on which they grow, but actually leave them richer in nitrogen. On this account plants of this class are especially desirable for orchards, (d) They ar-e some- times helpful in checking the production of the wood in late sum- mer by using up some of the plant food and moisture in the soil. This checking of late growth in the fall ripens up the wood earlier, leaving the tree in better shape to stand the winter. How to combine the advantages of cover crops and cultiva- tion is often an important question for orchardists. In many fruit sections, this may" be done by the cultivation of the soil during the summer and seeding down to some cover crop in the 16 POPULAR FRUIT aROWING. late summer or early autumn. This may be a crop that will kill out in winter or that will live over and be allowed to grow on the land until late in spring, when it is turned under. Occasionally it may be a good plan to seed an orchard down to clover for a year or two in order to increase the humus in the soil; as, for instance, in the case of soils on steep hillsides where the humus is nearly exhausted. For this purpose the land should preferably be plowed in late autumn and the clover seed sown in early spring without any nurse crop. Examples of practical use of cover crops. — Cover crops are of various kinds, among which may be mentioned the following: (a) Peach growers of Michigan and apple growers and nurserymen in Minnesota use oats in their orchards, sown from the first to the middle of August, to protect the roots from severe freezing. Such a cover holds the leaves in autumn and the snows in winter, thus preventing frequent freezing and thawing as well as deep freezing of the ground. (b) Crimson clover is an excellent cover crop for parts of New York State and south to Alabama. It should be sown in late summer or early autumn in New York but later in Alabama where it grows all winter. (c) Buckwheat is a good cover crop for steep slopes or other places where it may be desirable to use a cover crop in summer. It shades the ground and aids it in holding moisture, thus preventing the soil from drying out. (d) Vetches and cowpeas may sometimes be used to ad- vantage for a cover crop and should be sown in early spring. The cowpea is the great cover crop of the Southern states. (e) Soy beans is a good cover crop and is sown in mid- summjer in rows. (f) The Velvet bean and Beggar Weed are great cover crops for the extreme Southern states. (g) Mammoth clover and alfalfa may be used as cover crops if plowed under the second or third year. They should be sown in orchards without a nurse crop in the early spring. Sometimes they are sown in the orchard, leaving a space of four feet for cultivation by the side of the rows of trees. Amount of seed of cover crops to sow per acre. — The follow- ing table shows the number of pounds of seed required per acre FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 17 to obtain a good stand of the cover crops generally used in this country: Nitrogen Collectors. Nitrogen Consumers. Alfalfa 40 lbs. Rape 9 lbs. Hairy Vetch 40 lbs. Turnip 2 lbs. Cowpeas 90 lbs. Rye 30 lbs. Soy Beans 90 lbs. Oats 2 bu. Velvet Beans 25 lbs. Barley 1% bu. Mammoth Clover .... 20 lbs. Buckwheat % bu. Crimson Clover 20 lbs. Corn Vz bu. Sweet Clover 15 lbs. Crops in the orchard.— rThe question of cropping the orchard is an important one. As a rule this should never be done, yet it may often happen that while the ti^ees are young, before they need all the space between them, some other crop can be grown on the land to advantage. In such a case, the soil must be man- ured or it may run down so much that the fruit crop will not be profitable. The best test to apply to this is to see that the young trees make a reasonable growth of wood each year and, with this accomplished, there is no danger in cropping the orchard. It often happens that a cover crop may permit a fair growth of wood but will so rob the Soil of moisture late in the summer that the fruit will fail to fill out properly. It is also true that while in some locations trees may be grown without irrigation to bearing size, the fruit is very small unless water is applied to the soil at the time the fruit is filling out. The small grains are especially objectionable in the or- chard because they do not permit the cultivation of the soil nor shade it sufliciently to keep it from baking. These crops also take much plant food from the soil. Potatoes and corn require the cultivation of the soil in summer and consequently are among the best to grow in the orchard. In the orchard preference should be given to those crops that do not require the cultivation of the soil in late sum- mer or early autumn, since cultivation seems to encourage late growth of wood. If the orchard is to be cropped care should be taken that the fertility of the soil is not impaired thereby, and ordinarily it will be necessary to add manure to replace the plant food removed. 18 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Small fruits of various kinds may be used in orchards but must be removed when the trees get large enough to need all the land. It may often be a help to an apple orchard to have the tree trunks shaded by small fruits, such as raspberries and -currants. Planting with fillers is the name given to the system of plant- ing whereby an extra number of trees are set out with the pur- pose of cutting them out as soon as they get large enough to crowd the trees that are to grow to maturity. Good examples of this practice are found in the planting of peaches or plums in the intervals between apples; again, in planting twice as many peaches or plum trees on the land as can grow to maturity; the intention in each case being to cut out one-half of them as soon as the trees begin to crowd. This is not a bad practice when well carried out but in the hands of the average fruit grower the thinning process is seldom begun soon enough. This may result in serious injury and is always harmful. Fruit Crops and Plant Food. The most important factor in the growing of a fruit, or other agricultural crop, is the proper preparation of the soil. This should be attended to before anything is attempted in the way of fertilization of the land. Get the soil into the best physi- cal condition and then manure* may be used to best advantage. In the case of orchards in new forest land it is poor practice to plant until the stumps and trash are well subdued, except where mulching is to be practiced, since the soil can be cleaned most economically before the trees are planted out. Ail agricultural soils contain plant food in two forms: (a) -Where the soil is rich in plant food which is easily available to the roots of plants and which they can absorb read- ily. This is the condition of the soils in new fruit growing sec- tions where the land has not yet been cropped extensively. Such soils may also contain a large amount of plant food which is not readily available. (b) Soils also contain plant food in a form which is not readily available to the roots of crops. This is the condition of *As here used, tho term "manure" includes both animal manures and commercial fertilizers. FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 19 the largest amount of plant food in all soils and especially so in the case of soils that have been poorly tilled for long periods. Each year a portion of the insoluble plant food in the soil is made soluble or put into such a condition that the roots of plants can use it. In the soils of the older sections the soluble plant food is largely used up and sometimes only the amount that is set free each year is available to the plants. It is this store of food that we should aim to supplement by the manures which we apply to the soil. There are some new soils so rich in plant food that nothing is gained by manuring them. In fact, fruit trees on such soils are occasionally damaged by the use of manures which encour- ages a late growth in autumn, but such cases are rare and prac- tically all our fruit lands, especially those in the older fruit growing sections, are greatly improved by the addition of manures. This is especially true of bearing orchards. In manuring the orchard the object is to get the maximum crop. The average crop or one just below the average is sel- dom profitable, being generally inferior in quality as well as in quantity. It comes in competition with the crops of all the poor- est fruit growers and is sold only to people of small means. The application of manure is for the purpose of getting the most profitable crop. It matters not how much money we put Into our land providing we can take it out with a good profit. In other words, exp-ensive manuring may be most profitable. It is the best grower that gets the profitable crop. . Manure will not take the place of good tillage, insect protection and other similar factors, but the well fed plant, like the well fed animal, will overcome adverse conditions under which the weak, under- fed individual will succumb. The elements that enter into the composition of fruit crops are the same as those that compose our farm crops. They dif- fer largely in the relative proportions in which they enter vari- ous crops, but as our information about the composition of the soils in which our plants grow is indefinite, and as we use manures to supplement the plant food in the soil, we need not be particular about the exact proportions in which we apply it. Each grower should study his own soil conditions and the ef- fects of different manures on it in order to get the best results. 20 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. The chemical elements composing our fruit and agricultural crops are oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, pliospliorou^, sulfur iron, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, chlorin and silicon. Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous are the elements commonly lacking in the soil and it is these that we look for in the so- called commercial fertilizers and manures. These elements each act differently in affecting vegetation. To he used by the plants they must be soluble in the soil solutions. Soil that has an excess of soluble nitrogen in it encourages a vigorous, soft growth of wood and a dark green color in the leaves. Often such plants are unproductive, but when they bear fruit it is gen- erally large in size. On such land trees are liable to grow late in autumn and as a consequence winter-kill. For peaches, such soil is more injurious than for apples a,nd other hardy crops. Nitrogen encourages a growth of wood rather than fruit. Large amounts of potash and phosphoric acid in the soil cause a firm, solid growth of wood, early maturity of plant, high color and extreme fruitfulness but do not increase the size of the fruit like nitrogen. Potash and phosphoric acid, with the proper pro- portions of nitrogen, give the best results, all of these elements being necessary for healthy plant growth. Amount of plant food in a crop of apples. — It is interest- ing to note the amount of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric, acid taken from the land by a crop of seventy-five barrels of apples — that number being used as it represents a good aver- age crop of apples per acre. TABLE SHOWING THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF 7-5 BARRELS OF APPLES. Water Dry Matter Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash 9563 lbs. 1687 lbs. 4.5 lbs. 2.25 lbs. 11.25 lbs. or 85% or 15% or .04 % or .02% or .1% To raise this crop of apples there are perhaps 50 trees, each one of which is fifteen years old and in its branches, trunk and roots, there are 400 pounds of wood of which 40% is water. It is probably fair to assume that the weight of the new growth of wood of a thrifty apple tree at fifteen years of age is twenty pounds per year, from which the amount of plant food used for the production of wood each year can be readily computed. It is also safe to assume that the amount of plant food yearly set FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SE3CTI0NS. 21 free in the soil is sufficient to take care of tliis growth of wood. Th-e leaves are returned to the soil and hence the material in them does not have to be supplied to the soil. Therefore, if we supply enough plant food to put back that taken away from the land in the crop, we will keep our land in good condition. There is nothing exact about such statements, as they may vary as much as different soils do from one another. The following table shows approximately the amount of plant food materials removed in one year from the soil of an acre of land fully stocked with thrifty trees. This includes the amount contained in the new wood, foliage and fruit: PLANT FOOD REMOVED FROM THE SOIL BY ONE ACRE IN APPLE ORCHARD. Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash Lime Magnesium lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. Apple 51.5 14 55 57 23 Peach 74.5 18 72 114 35 Pear 29.5 7 33 38 11 Plum 29.5 8.5 38 41 13 The following table shows the amount of nitrogen, phos- phoric acid and potash found in a good crop of fruit grown en one acre: PLANT FOOD OF MANURIAL VALUE REMOVED FROM THE LAND BY VARIOUS FRUIT CROPS. Fruit Pounds Nitrogen Phos. Acid Potash lbs. lbs, lbs. Apples 11,250 4.5 2.25 11.25 Pears 10,000 4 1 12 Plums 7,200 7 3.6 14.4 Peaches 4,950 4 2 9 Quinces 7,200 8 3.6 17.2 Raspberries 4,800 5.6 4.3 12 Blackberries 4,800 9.6 2.4 11 Strawberries 4,000 5.2 2 9.2 Currants 4,000 12 4.8 12 Gooseberries 4,000 6 2.8 - .8 Grapes 6,000 9 4.2 18 This manurial value may be applied to the land in many forms. Maynard gives the following formulas: 22 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. (a)" For fruit trees over ten years of age (forty trees), vary- ing in quantity according to the condition of the soil and crop, 2o0 to 500 pounds of fine ground bone, 100 to 300 pounds of sul- fate of potash, 50 to 150 pounds of nitrate of soda. (b) Unleached hardwood ashes at the rate of one to two tons per acre and 500 pounds of fine ground bon-e. (c) 400 to 600 pounds of South Carolina rock, ground fine, 100 to 300 pounds of sulfate of potash, 100 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda. (d) Barnyard manure, 6 tons per acre. No manure needed in some cases. — In the case of some new and extra fertile fruit soils there may be no apparent diminu- tion of fertility of the soil for many years. Such soils may often be maintained in their best condition indefinitely without the addition of manures by the use of nitrogen-gathering cover crops, such as clover, vetches and peas. Time to apply manures to fruit lands. — In the case of fresh anim.al manure not yet decayed, there is little loss ordinarily in applying it broadcast as soon as removed from the stables or yards. As a rule this is the most economical way to handle it and is the general practice among good farmers, fruit growers and gardeners. However, partly decomposed manures contain so much soluble plant food that the loss might be very serious were the manure applied to the surface of frozen ground. Such manure is most economically applied in the spring and at once covered by a light plowing or harrowing. Such manure should generally be covered at once after applying and not allowed to dry out on the surface of the soil. It is generally best to apply commercial manures to fruit plantations in the early spring or early summer. This Is especially true of such soluble, quick acting fertilizers as ni- trate of soda and muriate of potash. These may be applied broad- cast to the soil about the trees. The surface covered should g-enerally be fully as large as the diameter of the top of the tree but in the case of upright trees a larger surface should be cov- ered. When the land is well stocked with mature tr&es the manure should always be applied to the whole surface of the soil. Varieties of fruits to grow. — The varieties of fruits best FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 23 adapted to a given location cannot be named without special and careful study. Some varieties are very profitable in one local- ity but close by, in another locality, they may be a failure. The matter of selection of varieties for profitable culture is one of the most important subjects the fruit grower has to consider. There are many new varieties of fruit introduced each year and only a few of them are any better than old standard sorts, while the greater part have very serious faults. Among the varieties of fruit in cultivation, we may dis- tinguish several classes: (a) Varieties of great vigor and productiveness, adapted for a wide range of country. Thes-e are oftentimes somewhat inferior to the best in quality but of good appearance and good enough in quality for the average market. Among such varieties may b-e named the Duchess of Oldenburg, Talman Sweet and Ben Davis apples; Bartlett and Anjou pears; Lombard and Quackenboss plums; Crawford and Elberta peaches; Concord and Niagara grapes; King and Marlboro raspberries; Snyder blackberry, and Dunlap, Splendid and Bederwood strawberries. These varieties do well over a large extent of country. Some of them may not bring the highest prices in our markets but they sell well and are the popular standards. (b) Varieties that are very particular about location and are not generally successful, but, wh-ere they do well, produce fruit of very superior quality. Among this class of fruits may be mentioned the Newtown Pippin, Gravenstein and Willianas ap- ple; Green Gage plum; Bosc pear; Columbia peach; lona grape; Herstine raspberry; Lawton blackberry and Jucunda strawberry. In selecting varieties for growing, the fruit grower should choose those that are adapted to his market for it is there they are to be finally tested. The fruit grower's success is depend- ent on how the market regards his product, and he should not expect to change the prevailing desires of people very much. Ther-e is, however, much in the power of a good example and there- la a growing number of people who are particular as., to the quality of their food and are willing to pay a fair price for it. The fruit grower shouM not try to sell white strawberries, rasp- berries or currants, for the general markets demand that they be red in color and blackberries must be black and not red or 24 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. White. It is not worth while to attempt to chauge pi'-evailing opinions in such matters for the sake of pushing some new variety, no matter how good its quality. By this it is not meant that the market will not use the unusual kinds but it does not desire them. In general, the market wants large siz-e, bright, warm colors and at least fair qualities in fruits. The fruit grower should not select varieties because they are doing well elsewhere but should become familiar with the ex- perience of fruit growers in his section and get in touch with the officers of the Experiment Station of his state and advise with them in these matters. The reports of his local Horticul- tural society should be very helpful and they mjtist be poor in- deed if he cannot get some benefit from them. Choose varieties that will pollenize well together. — It should be more generally known that there are some varieties of fruits that are self-sterile and will not be productive unless near other similar kinds. The following partial lists show varieties that are both self-sterile and self-fertile but it is quite possible that some of these may be self-sterile at one time and self-fertile at an- other time or in another locality. Fruit Self-sterile Self-fertile Plums Miner Robinson Wild Goose De Sota Mariana Forest Garden Itasca Oheney Grapes Brighton Wilder Concord Niagara Agawan Delaware Apples Winesap Gravenstein Northern Spy Ben Davis Duchess Baldwin Red Astrakan Pears Bartlett Anjou Nelis Flemish Beauty Clairgeau KiefCer FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 25 An experiment with the Kieffer pear at the Michigan Agri- cultural College during the summer of 1907 seems to indicate that the Kieffer ought sometimes to go on the self-sterile list. A Kieffer tree was enclosed in a canopy of muslin with one branch left outside the canopy. The air within the canopy was made to circulate daily by artificial means during the blossom- ing period so as to insure pollination of at least some of the flowers. Not a fruit set under the canopy, while the branch that was left outside and was free to receive foreign pollen fet fruit freely. Preparing the land. (a) The land on which the fruit plantation is to stand should be in as good condition as possible before the fruit plants are set out. Do not leave this work to be done after the plants are set for it costs more to do it then and the plants will very likely be injured in the process. (b) Get the land into good shape for a first class crop of corn; then it will be in good condition for fruit plants. Time to plant. (a) In severe locations and with the more t-ender kinds of fruits early spring is undoubtedly the best time for planting. It is also the best time for the beginner, as there is less lia- bility of failure in spring planting. (b) For the hardy fruits, such as apples, plums and pears, in sections where there is little danger of winter injury, autumn is possibly the best season for planting. (c) It is often desirable to plant in autumn even though extra care is required in order to save the crowding of work in the spring. In severe locations autumn planting may often be practiced successfully, providing, the stems of plants are laid flat on the ground after planting and covered with a few inches of earth, and afterwards mulched on the approach of winter. In doing such work the location of the top of the tree should be niarked with a stake so that it may be found easily in the spring when it is to be uncovered. Autumn planting is often a convenient practice and may save the necessity of doing such work in the spring when fruit growers are generally crowded. 26 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Selecting the tree nursery stock. (a) It is important to secure vigorous, thrifty nursery stock that is free from scale insects, root lice or other injurious insects or diseases. (b) Select trees that have their bark green and smooth and that have made a thrifty growth the year before. (c) In the case of grafted fruits the fruit grower should insist upon having his stock worked on roosts adapted to his location. This feature does not need so much attention in the best fruit sections; but in cold, northern climates, in the ex- treme South and in some other locations it is a matter of first importance. This will be found discussed under the propaga- tion of each fruit. (d) In order to make early autumn delivery it is customary in some nurseries to strip the leaves from the tree^. This is not th-e best practice and such trees should not be selected. Fig-. 1. — Young- apple trees of different forms. FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 27 Age of nursery stock to buy. (a) As a rule young, thrifty nursery stock is to be pre- ferred. The tendency anaong beginners is to use stock which is too old. (b) Old plants are much more injured by moving than those that are young and often give poorer results. Where to buy.— As nursery stock cannot be fully judged by its appearance as easily as many other lines of merchandise, buyers are very dependent upon the representations made to them by the parties from whom they purchase. As a rule, it is desirable to buy of the nearest reliable man who will furnish what is wanted at a fair price. Purchasers will often find it advan- tageous to deal directly with the principal instead of through his agent. Expect to pay a fair price and be suspicious of bar- gain counter nursery stock, for the buyer in any case is greatly dependent upon the honesty of the seller for the genuineness of his stock. "You cannot always tell what it is by its appear- ance. It may not even be true to name. Shapes of trees. (a) The general public wants a tree that is of good form and the nurserymen prefer to grow that kind. (b) Some of our best varieties are so crooked that they do not look well and hence have not been pushed by our nursery- men. (c) The difference in the habits of trees can be easily seen in any orchard of many varieties. The upright form of the Tetofsky apple is in marked contrast with the spreading form of the Roxbury Russett. The spreading form of the Wild Goose plum is very different from that of the Lombard. A per- son who is very familiar with the appearance of certain varie- ties of pears or apples can easily separate them from oth-er kinds by the app-earance of the tree even when devoid of foliage. From this the impression should not be taken that all fruit trees mjay be distinguished from each other by their forms, ' color of bark and other characteristics, for while a person of much experience in this line may thus distinguish many kinds. It is quite out of the question to separate the members of all our long lists of fruits in such a way. 28 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. How shall we plant the orchard? — There are several ways of setting out trees. The two methods most commonly fol- lowed are known as setting in squares and setting alternately. It is important to have the rows straight both ways as it is more convenient in cultivation and looks better. The rows can be made straight in various ways but perhaps in no better way than to set out the trees around the outside first or, if the or- chard is large, say a row every 40 rods. By using these outside trees as sight stakes, the other rows may easily be made straight both ways. If the land is laid off carefully with a corn marker one way and by a plow the other, the trees are quite easily put where they belong by sighting to the trees set at the ends of th-e rows. Digging the holes. (a) In digging the holes make them large enough to re- ceive the roots without crowding and deep enough as a rul« to bring the union of the stock and cion well below the surface. Trees should generally be planted a little deeper, say from four to eight inches, than they grew in the nursery. In severe lo- cations and on gravelly soils they are frequently planted a foot deeper to protect from frost injury. (b) In the case of fruit trees of best planting out size, if the land has been properly plowed and furrowed out only a little digging will be required. (c) In digging holes in shallow soil put the surface and sub-soils separate and then use the surface soil to cover the roots and put the sub-soil on top. (d) Firm the soil around the roots of the trees until it is solid. For this purpose it is a good plan to use a packer of wood such as is used to firm the soil around posts. This is es- pecially important on dry soils. Pruning the trees. (a) Trees may be left until after they are set out before pruning but sometimes it may effect quite a saving in freight to prune the trees before they are shipped from the nursery. , (b) Severe pruning is often needed for young trees as much depends upon the forming of the tree when young. FACTORS IN FRUIT GROWING SECTIONS. 29 (c) Perhaps no pruning is mor-e important than that of deciding at what height the trees should branch out. This will depend much on location. Trees with long trunks certainly tend to make cultivation methods easy and in very favorable sections they may be safely thus trained. In the Middle states and the Pacific coast states, best results have come from al- lowing the branches of trees to start within two feet of or close to the ground and thus the trunk is protected against sunscald and other climatic troubles. (d) It is generally advisable to shorten the roots of or- dinary two-year-old apple and pear trees and vigorous one- year-old plum and peach trees to about eight inches, where there are several roots, as such treatment facilitates planting and does not injure the trees. Larger trees should have their j-oots short- ened in the same proportion and the ragged ends of roots should always be cut off before planting. Such pruning as this may easily be done with a sharp hatchet on a block. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER I. 1. What is meant by accessibility? 2. "What are the characteristics of a good fruit growing section? 3. What soils are best adapted to different fruits? 4. What is the composition of limestone soil? Of clay loam? Of sandy loam? Of sandy soil? Of mucky soil? Of prairie soil? Of clay soil? 5. Wliat is meant by the topography of a country? 6. What is the best location for fruit growing? 7. What are some of the things upon which the. success of fruit growing depends? 8. What is the result of an overproduction of fruit? 9. What are some of the problems that a fruit grower has to contend with? 10. What treatment does the soil need in a fruit orchard? 11. WTiat are the reasons for cultivation of the soil? 12. What is humus? Of what value is it in the soil? 13. How may fruit trees be grown in sod? 14. What are the advantages of a mulch to a fruit crop? What are the disadvantages? 1.5. What is a cover crop? What are the advantages of a cover crop ? 16. How may the advantages of cover crops be combined with cultivation? 17. What field crops are used as cover crops for the orchard? 18. How much seed should be sown per acre In order to get a good cover crop? 19. Is it practicable to raise garden crops In the orchard? WTiat crops are best to grow? 20. How is the orchard planted with fillers? 30 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 21. What is the best way to get new fruit growing land into the best physical condition? 22. In what two forms is plant food found in the soil? 23. What is result of a soil too rich in plant food for fruit grow- ing? 24. What Is the purpose of applying manures to the land? 25. What are the elements that enter into the composition of the fruit crop? 26. What effect does an excess of nitrogen In the soil have upon fruit crops? 27. What effect does an excess of potash and phosphoric acid in the soil have upon the fruit crops? 28. How is the plant food, taken from the soil by the plants returned to it naturally? 29. What are some of the formulas for combining and applying different fertilizers to the soil? 30. When should manures be applied to fruit lands? 31. What is the general practice of applying manures to the land? 32. When should commercial fertilizers be applied and how? 33. How are varieties of fruits adapted to different districts? 34. How may the varieties be classified in regard to their adapta- tion? 35. What general principles should the fruit growers follow in selecting varieties for planting? 36. How and when should land be prepared before planting fruit trees? 37. When is the best time for planting? 38. How should the fruit grower select his nursery stock in ref- erence to the hardiness, age and shape of the trees? 39. What methods may be followed in setting out the trees? 40. How should the holes be dug for the trees? 41. What pruning do the young trees need when set out? CHAPTER II. ORCHARD PROTECTION. Throughout the whole life of fruit plants there is danger of injury from a variety of causes. At no time can we say that our fruit plants are safe, and we must be continually on the lookout to head off some injury. Among the more common of these injuries may be mentioned the following: sunscald, win- ter killing of the twigs, roots and fruit buds; injuries from birds and live stock, from wind, rain and frost in the growing season, from ice on the branches in winter, from girdling' by mice and rabbits, from label wires, injuries from cultivation and from insects and diseases. Sunscald is the name given to the condition of the bark of trees which probably comes as a result of exposure to the sun under cer- tain peculiar conditions. Its ef- fect is usually to kill the bark on the fouth and southwest sides of the tre-9; later on, this bark peels off, leaving the wood exposed which soon decays and permanent injuries result. It is found that anything which shades the trunk will pre- vent this, hence one of the com- mon remedies is to shade the trunk .with burlap, corn stalks or simi- lar material, especially during the time when the branches are not protected by leaves. The en- couraging of branches on the south side of the tree to protect the trunk from the sun, and the inclining of the trees to the southwest, are also remedies. This injury is most liable to occur during severe droughts and in the early spring or late winter before growth has fairly started. It is supposed to be caused by the warm sun of the 2. — Apple tree injured by sunscald. 32 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. middle of the day starting active life in the portion of the trunk exposed to its direct rays. Later, when a cold spell comes, the protoplasm is destroyed and the soluble compounds formed by the renewal of active life are decomposed. The trees most liable Fif -Apple trees in trial orchard protected from sunscald by corn stalks. to this injury are those that are newly set and weak, those with smooth bark such as Hard Maple and Basswood, those trees with the trunks inclining to the northeast and those on dry land. ORCHARD PROTECTION. 33 The philosophy of this disease should come in for more than passing notice. It. is well known that one bi'anch or portion of a dormant plant may start into growth independent of the con- dition of the rest of the plant. Thus a branch from a grape vine fr'L v1i<». ^rh'^ ^-ffLT :- Fig. 4. — Apple tree with trunk protected by boxing. Such treatment protects from sunscald, from severe freezing', and from cultiva- tion injuries. or other plant, brought through an opening into the greenhouse in winter, will soon start into growth while the rest of the vine is frozen out doors. So the portion of the trunk of an apple 34 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. tree that is exposed to the direct rays of the midday sun may start into growth independently of the rest of the tree. Injuries from birds. — Birds are often very injurious by eating cherries, raspber- ries and some oth-er fruits. At times they become so exceedingly injurious that it may be necessary to use the shot gun, but as a rule the birds that commit these depre- dations are very helpful in destroying large numbers of injurious insects and the toll they take in fruit is not more than they are justly entitled to. The Yellow-belly Sap- sucker is a bird that often girdles the larg- er branches of our choicest trees. He should be destroyed. Partridges and perhaps quail will sometimes eat the buds of our fruit trees in winter. They may be kept off by giving them a shock of grain to work on instead. injuries to trees by cattie. — In remote sections deer will browse the twigs off fruit trees and break them down. Farm stock is also occasionally injurious in the same way. Reasonable precautions will prevent this. Injuries from wind. — ^Wind often causes beUy^'laSuckerr ^^^^ ^^J^^^^' to trees heavily loaded with fruit by shaking off the fruit or even break- ing the trees. The remedy is the use of windbreaks, the support- ing of branches by stakes or by tying one branch to another on the opposite side of the tree. Attention to these precau- tions will often prevent serious injury. Young trees in exposed places are often injured by being blown about. This is th-e case for the first year with trees that are newly set and especially those that are set out in autumn and not properly staked or laid down. Such trees are liable to be blown about very much in windy spring weather when the ground is soft, and the tree is then easily loosened and killed. Autumn-set trees should al- ways be staked if they are large enough to take the wind; a Fig. 5. — Bark of ap- ple tree injured by the sap-s u c k e r ORCHARD PROTECTION. 35 pile of soil about a foot high arouud theiii will often be very helpful in holding them in place. lu staking, the method of tying the tree so that it will not be scraped by the stake is very Important. It would be better not to use stakes at all than not to tie the tree to them properly. It is generally best to tie trees to two stakes, using one on each opposite side. Mice and rabbits. — Mice and rabbits eat the bark off the trees and where this injury is not more than three or four inch- es wide and only extends around a portion of the tree, it will often heal over in one or two seasons. But it will be greatly hastened in healing by covering the wound with grafting wax or, better yet, piling up the soil over it if near the ground. When the injury extends completely around the tree and Is wide, the tree may be saved by setting some cions in the live bark, above and below the wound, which will carry over the sap until the wound is covered. In such a case, however, the wound should be entirely covered with grafting wax or clay after the cions are put in. Cultivation injuries. — Cultivation is frequently done in such a rough way that it results in serious injuries. These can be largely prevented by the use of narrower singletrees and by protecting the ends with leather, or, better yet, using leather traces that go completely around the end of the singletree, so that when a tree is struck it is not injured. The best way of treating wounds of this kind is by covering them with grafting wax or grafting clay and then covering th§ whole with burlap. Root galls result from the presence of low forms of life known as Nematodes and possibly also from a bacterial disease. Their life history is not well known. They are often exceedingly Injurious but some of them do little harm. Prevention is bet- ter than cure and It is a good plan to refuse to receive nursery stock having such blemishes. They are sometimes prevented by using stocks that are resistant to such injuries. Winter killing may be confined to the twigs and roots or flower buds of fruit trees. Any of these Injuries may occur in deep valleys, when comparative immunity is secured on the higher land. Winter injury to twigs and trunks. — This is due to the use of 36 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 6. — Twigs of j^oung cherry trees that have been pulled out by settling of snow crust which had piled in over them. varieties too tender for the locality and the most successful remedy is to secure hardier sorts if possible. But this is not always possi- ble and the varieties grown may be most profitable if the trunk is protected in winter. Thus, in" northern Min- nesota the best authori- ties recommend that the trunks of young ap- ple trees be surrounded with a box six inches square up to the branch- es and that the same be filled with soil to furnish protection against winter injury. It is well known that even though the smaller branches may be seriously injur- ed in the winter, they stand a good chance of recovering, pro- viding the trunk is vigorous and uninjured. Such protection also prevents scald, injuries from mice and other animals. In Florida some of the orange growers protect their tree trunks by piling up the soil about them as far as the branches. Winter injury to tine buds of fruit trees. — This is a common source of loss to growers of cherries and peaches at the North. The fruit buds of these trees are liable to start a little in warm winter days and then to be killed by a low temperature, al- though the leaf buds m,ay not be injured at all. Various reme- dies have been tried for this, among the most successful of which is the bending of the trees to the ground in autumn and covering with corn stalks. The tops are sometimes tied to- gether and covered with corn stalks or' matting in winter. Ex- periments have also been made in covering the trees with va- rious paint compounds for the purpose of giving an extra cover- ing to the buds, but without good results. One of the most ORCHARD PROTECTION. '>'7 ingenious ways of furnishing protection to peach buds has been tried by Prof. Whitten of the Missouri Experiment Station who worked on the well known principle that dark colors absorb ^ '1': Fig. 7. — Protection of young trees . a. — Trunk protected by wooden box. b. — Trunk protected by lath screen, c. — Trunk protected against mice by mound of earth. more heat than the lighter ones. He found that light colored peach twigs were slower about starting into growth and con- ceived the idea of spraying peach trees with lime wash to pre- vent their starting on mild days in winter. He claims to have been very successful in this practice. The roots of fruit trees may be seriously injured in winter. — This may result from the use of a root stock too tender for the section in which the tree is grown. For instance, in Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota and Minnesota the best root to use for the plum is the Prunns americana, but when they are scarce the nurserymen there often use the Mariana, Myrobalan or even SS POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the peach for stocks. The plum takes well on these and they are commonly used in milder sections, hut with such roots, trees are often injured or killed out entirely in severe winters in those sections. The same is true of some other trees. It is important to have them on hardy roots in order to prevent root killing. Fig. 8. — Tree gnawed by mice and the wounds bridged over with cions. Heavy mulching about the roots of trees that are on tender roots will often make them safe against winter injury. Deep planting of trees on tender roots bring the roots deep in the ground where they are not injured and the cion above will generally send out hardy roots. As stated above, it is not un- common to have the tender stocks on which trees are worked killed out, and if the cion has rooted the effect is seen in a weakened growth until a new root system has formed. If there are no roots from the cion the tree dies. Protection from frost. — Freezing affects different plants in various ways. "We can therefore divide plants into two classes: (a) Frost tender plants, such as the asparagus, ash, oak, spruce and various other plants whose young foliage is easily injur-ed by severe frosts. (b) Frost hardy plants, such as the apple, peach, willow, poplar and birch whose foliage is not destroyed by even a se- vere frost. The flowers of many plants will stand a severe freeze with- out injury providing they are not open when it occurs. This is ORCHARD PROTECTION. 39 the case with the apple, pear, strawberry and most cultivated northern fruits. We also have fruit plants like that of the Buffalo Berry and Juneberry whose flowers are seldom injured by severe frosts, even if fully expanded at the time it occurs. The pistils are the parts of flowers most easily injured. — Thus, in the strawberry, after a severe frost in flowering time, we will often find the pistils ruined but the stamens apparently uninjured. When injurious frosts are most likely to occur. — Injurious frosts are most likely to occur in places where the air is still, especially in low spots where the air is not only still but where the cold air from the surrounding elevations drains in. If the air moves rapidly, the warm air is mixed with the cold air and does not separate. Such frosty places are evident at the time of the first severe autumn frosts, especially if this comes early. It will then be seen that the frosty air fills certain hollows, as water might fill it. In such places, often called warm sheltered nooks, winter killing is frequently serious. A windbreak mjay also make a frost pocket on the side hill by interfering with the free circulation of the air. The locations where injurious frosts are least likely to oc- cur and hence afford the best location for fruit growing are high elevations tipping to the north or east where growth is rather backward in spring. Other locations that are comparatively exempt from injurious frosts are such as are' near lakes or streams which tend to produce an equable climate. Foretelling of frosts. — Frosts may be foretold some hours in advance by means of the wet and dry-bulb thermomteters, the readings of which are compared. The difference between the readings is due to the evaporation from the wet bulb ther- mometer which produces a degree of cold in a direct ratio ac- cording to the dryness of the air. If the air is very dry, the wet bulb thermometer may record ten or fifteen degrees lower than the dry bulb. If the air is saturated with moisture they will read exactly alike. The basis for the calculation is the fact that we seldom have injurious early autumn or late spring frosts after the dew begins to fall. By referring the difference 40 POPULAR FRtriT GROWINa. between the readings of th-e two tliermom,eters to a table, tlie dew point may be determined and if it is several degrees above the freezing point, no injurious frost need be expected. The psychrometer is an instrument made up of a wet and dry-bulb thermometer attached to a board or frame for determining the humidity of the air. One adapted for this purpose may be purchased at a reasonable price from instrument dealers or it may be made as follows: For the frame, take a board eighteen inches long, two inches wide and one-half inch thick with a hole bored in one end to hang the apparatus up with when not in use. Get two all-glass thermometers with cj'^linder bulbs and the degrees Fahrenheit engraved on the stem. Cover the bulb of one thermometer with a thin piece of cotton cloth, fastening it securely by a thread. When the cloth covering is wet with water and exposed to evaporation in the air it constiiuies the wet bulb thermometer; the other thermometer has no coverihg on its bulb, is not wet at any time and constitutes the dry b'ulb thermometer. The following extract from Bulletin No. 23 of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled '"Frost," explains the meth- od of using a psychrometer to foretell frost. To make an observation. — The bulb of the so-called wet bulb thermometer is thoroughly saturated with water by soaking it in a small cup or, wide mouthed bottle until the covering is thoroughly wet. The thermometers are then whirled rapidly for fifteen or twenty seconds, stopped and quickly read. A mental note of the reading is made when they are again whirled and read. Subtract the reading of the wet thermometer from that of the dry. Find this differences in the column at the side of the following dew point table. FoIIot/ the horizontal line under this figure until it intersects the column under the reading of the dry bulb thermometer at the top of the column to the right. The number at the intersection is the dew point Fig. 9. — Pscyro meter for fore telling frosts. ORCHARD PROTECTION. 41 reading. If this comes above thirty-two degrees there is no danger of a frost, but if below there is danger, although frost may not occur owing to wind, clouds or other phenomena. DEW-POINT TABLE. Difference of reading of dry Temperature of Air in Degrees (Fahrenheitt. and wet bulbs. 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 1 11 16 22 27 32 38 43 48 53 58 63 69 2 6 12 18 24 30 35 41 46 52 57 • 62 67 3 7 14 21 27 33 39 44 50 55 60 66 4 1 10 17 24 30 36 42 48 53 59 64 5 4 13 20 27 33 40 46 51 57 62 6 7 16 24 30 37 43 49 55 61 7 1 11 20 27 34 41 47 53 59 8 5 16 24 31 39 45 51 57 9 11 20 28 36 43 49 55 10 4 16 25 33 40 47 53 11 11 21 30 38 45 51 12 4 17 27 35 42 49 1.^ 11 23 32 40 47 14 5 18 28 37 45 15 12 24 34 42 First Example. Dry bulb thermometer 60 degrees Wet bulb thermometer 47 degrees Difference 13 degrees Dew point from table 32 degrees Probably no frost. Second Example. Dry bulb thermometer ■■ . . 47 degrees Wet bulb thermometer 39 degrees Difference • 8 degrees Dew point from table, between 24" and 31° or 27 degrees Probably a severe frost. Protection from injurious spring and autumn frosts may be given in various ways according to circumstances: (a) By covering up the whole plant and thus retarding its period of bloom until danger of frost is past, as may be done with strawberries and other small fruit. For this purpose th-ey may be covered with earth or mulch. Peach trees are some- times covered with corn stalks or hay to retard flowering. They 42 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. may also be laid on the ground and successfully carried through the winter when covered with corn stalks. (b) By smudges which make a cloud of smoke over the land and thus prevent evaporation. This is effective when there is sufficient wind to spread the smoke. The material used for this purpose is wet straw, tar, resin, etc., or a combination of such material. It may be carried about the orchard on a stone boat or the smudges may be located in various places. (c) By heating the air directly by means of fires, as is done in parts of Florida where wood is piled ready to be set on fire whenever frost threatens. (d) By cultivating the land; moist soil is exposed, which furnishes considerable protection by the evaporation of the mois- ture from the freshly exposed soil. (e) By spraying the plants; the air is brought near to dew point and also warmed. In order to make this effective the spraying must be repeated during the night when frost is ex- pected. (f) By irrigating the land; the air is brought near to dew point and it is also warmed. This is frequently resorted to in the case of cranberries. (g) By covering with tents, as practiced in Florida and other places and even by using stoves in tents. (h) Covering the flowers with straw mulch at night is practicable in the case of strawberries. Where the mulch is kept between the rows to protect the fruit from dirt, it may be thrown over the plants when frost threatens the flowers. If the weather continues cold, it may remain on the plants for a few days without injury, otherwise it should b-e promptly re- moved. Protection against frost. — In the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1907, G. Harold Hume has the following to say in regard to frost protection in Cali- fornia, which is of very general application: "There are few districts in the citrus belt of California that may not be visited by frost, in December, January, or February. The prevention of injury by frost may be influenced to a large extent by the location of groves on lands over which there is a sufficient air drainage. The new groves established during ORCHARD PROTECTION. 4S the past few years have been located on the higher lands with this factor prominently in view. To protect them against the extreme cold, many of the groves on the lower lands are equip- ped with wicker coal baskets, briquets of shavings, crude oil, and asphaltum, or sheet-iron stoves in which the same material is burned. Oil smudges (in tin receptacles) or other materials, which are located at definite intervals in the spaces between the trees, are sometimes burned. It is a common practice, also, to run the water in the irrigation furrows between the trees on cold nights, in order to make use of the latent heat in the water Fig. 10.- -Form of smudger for use in protecting orchards from frosts. It is used with a protected stone boat. as a means of frost protection. The materials employed in this protection against frost injury are used to cause a circulation of air over the grove in order to mix together the strata of differ- ent temperatures or for the production of a cloud of smoke over the grove in the morning in order to exclud-e the direct sunlight and thereby prevent the rapid thawing of the fruit when it has been frozen during the preceding night. It is the rapid thawing, rather than the freezing, of the tissues, that causes most of the injury to citrus fruits that hav-e been subjected to ordinary frost temperatures. 44 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. "A general idea of the operation of frost fighting may be gained from a brief description of the work observed in a grove on a cold night. There were twenty-five perforated sheet-iron stoves scattered over each acre of grove, one stove being placed in the center of the square between four trees. These stoves were filled with a prepared mixture of shavings, asphaltum, and crude oil. When it was determined to light the fires a force of men appeared, each one carrying a can of oil and a torch. A small quantity of oil was poured over the smudging material and was then quickly lighted with the torch. As soon as all the fires were burning, the men returned home, except one man to about 5 acres, who kept the fires replenished and in good, burning condition. "Just how much benefit is derived from these various devices it is difiicult to estimate, as the experience of the growers is confiicting and the experiments that have been conducted have not always been comprehensive. There seems to be no doubt, however, that the judicious use of the various devices used in frost protection has been of great commercial value. One who has had an experience of many years and who has large finan- cial interests involved writes: " 'We have been able to protect against the severest cold we have had since we secured the coal baskets. Several times the temperature has been around 24° or 25° until we got our coal baskets under way, but we were usually able to make a change of from 3° to 5° when our baskets Avere lighted and were giving off a good heat.' "Aside from the injury to the fruit and the young wood by frost, continued cold weather causes the wood of the lemon trees to mature and the fruit to develop a coarse, rough texture and to ripen prematurely." QUESTIONS— CHAPTER II. 1. What is sunscald and how can it be prevented? 2. What injuries to trees are caused by birds? By cattle? Ey wind? By mice and rabbits? By cultivation? 3. What are root galls? 4. What effect does winter injury have upon orchard trees? 5. How may twigs, trunks, roots and buds be protected from winter injurj'? 6. Into what classes may plants be divided, considering their susceptibility to frosts? 7. When are injurious frosts most likely to occur? 8. By what means can frosts be foretold? Explain each. 9. In what ways may trees be protected from frosts? CHAPTER III. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. The work of the fruit grower is not only one of tillage, prun- ing and fertilizing the crop, but he. must be ever on the watch to ward off or kill the insects and diseases that injure or destroy his crop. None of these treatments can be neglected with im- punity, yet if the crop has good cultivation and manuring It will overcome insect injuries and adverse conditions much bet- ter than if neglected. However, spraying will not take the place of manuring, nor manuring of spraying. The great growth and wide specializing in fruit growing has led to the increase of troublesome pests. In some sections where the natural food of the native insects has been destroyed by cleaning the land, they have attacked the introduced plants. Then, too, new and exceedingly injurious insects and diseases have been introduced from other countries and have spread rapidly within recent years and these often need extremely dras- tic measures for their prevention. Good illustrations of the latter are peach yellows and root galls among diseases, and San Jose scale, Gypsy and Brown Tail moths among insects. By the introduction of insects and diseases some of the old standard varieties have been driven oat of cultivation, even in sections where they formerly grew, or else can now only be grown when they are given much more care than was former- ly necessary. The presence of these pests and the discovery of methods of checking their injuries has worked for the intei-ests of the careful, painstaking grower who now has a decided ad- vantage over the slovenly cultivator. In other words, it takes more brains and application to raise fruit now than formerly. Comparative exemption from pests is often the case in new fruit areas but this exemption seldom lasts more than a few years, as is shown by the history of the new fruit areas in the Pacific Coast states where exceptional immunity from insect pests was enjoyed for many years, which might have been continued indefinitely had there been a suitable inspection law 46 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. properly enforced. The codlin moth, and the plum curculio and other insect pests have come in and are now extremely trouble- some and much care is required to hold them in check. State Inspection. — Much has been said in favor of and against State Inspection laws for the prevention and suppression of insects and diseases. They have accomplished much good in some sections although they have been unquestionably used at times to restrict trade between the states. One of the great- est things that they have accomplished has been to cause peo- ple to think about insect pests and diseases and to impress upon them the importance of subduing them. Laws for the suppression of noxious insects and diseases vary much in the different states but there is a tendency today for all the states to bring their laws to the same standard. These laws generally provide for the appointment of a state entomologist who is required to inspect all nurseries in his state and to furnish a suitable certificate if he finds them worthy. There is also a rule providing that no nursery stock shall be shipped from one state to another without a copy of this, or a similar certificate, being attached to the parcel containing It and that badly infested nurseries and orchards must be prop- erly treated. Suitable penalties are provided for those avoid- ing the provisions of the law. In a few of the states and Canada the law requires that all nursery stock must be fumigated at the destination before its delivery to consignee. It would be hard to say now just what is a fair law for all concerned, and it ought perhaps to vary in different sections of the country ac- cording to crops and climate. A national law is needed to regulate interstate commerce in nursery stock, fruit and other products that might carry noxious insects and diseases from one state to another. The intelligent fruit grower should be familiar with the life habits of the insects in which he is most interested and should not work blindly by "Rule of Thumb," Insects. — ^Noxious insects are held in check in various ways and from this standpoint we conveniently class them in groups: Chewing insects. — Examples of these are grasshoppers, cat- erpillars, beetles and their grubs, etc. TTiese are quite easily reached by arsenical and other poisons which may be placed INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 47 on their food. The great problem in dealing with this class is to find something which will hold the poison on the leaves for a reasonable length of time and will at the same time prevent the arsenical poisons from burning the leaves. This is particu- larly true of plants belonging to the plum family, including plums, peaches and apricots, which are easily injured by ar- senious acid even when present in such small quantities that it would not be injurious to the foliage of apple, p-ear, currant or gooseberry. This burning is especially bad when its application Is followed by several days of bi'ight, dry weather. Another Important problem which we have not solved Is how to apply these poisons so that they will not wash off from the leaves. Among the insecticides commonly used for this class of insects are, Paris Green, arsenate of lead and hellebore. Some of the chewing insects may be destroyed by the acrid or oily applica- tions which are commonly used for the destruction of sucking insects, such as tobacco water and kerosene emulsion. Insects that work in the wood of the tree belong to the class ■■of chewing insects. These vary in their habits and nearly as various are the remedies used against them; each must be con- sidered in the light of its life history. When borers are in their holes and can be reached easily by gas fum-es, perhaps as satisfactory a remedy as any is to squirt a small amount of carbon bi-sulfide into their holes with a common oil dropper and stop up the holes with a little putty. In the case of borers that tunnel just under the bark, the location of which can be seen by the discoloration of the surface bark (as with the borer of the peach), the best remedy is probably to look over the trees in the early spring and again in the late summer and dig them out with a sharp knife. Sucking Insects — Examples of this class of insects are plant lice, scale insects and chinch bugs. These do not chew, but their food is the juice of plants. Th-ey obtain it by sucking. As they do not bite they cannot be destroyed by internal poisons, such as arsenic and hellebore, but they must be reached by something that will affect their respiratory organs. All such in- sects breathe through small pores in their sides and may be de- stroyed by a covering of a film of oil or soap (whale-oil soap 48 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and kerosene emulsion). TTie bodies of leaf lice, which form a considerable portion of this class of insects, are covered with a thin skin and are injured or killed by astringent solutions, such as tobacco water, and also by hot water. Fumigating with hydrocyanic acid gas in case of scale or other sucking insects is a good remedy. Fumigating with tobacco smoke will kill most kinds of leaf lice. In fact, it would seem that fum;igation, be- ing so sure a remedy, is destined to be more largely used in the future. The us-e of strong compounds, when trees are dormant, for the destruction of scale insects, must continue to gain in popularity. Among the best of the vcompounds used for this purpose are the lime and sulfur mixture and the soluble oil preparations. Insects that attach themselves to roots generally are of the sucking class and are extremely difficult to destroy. Among the worst of these pests is the wooly aphis or root louse of the apple, and the phylloxera or root louse of the grap-e, the latter having been extremely injurious to the roots of the European Wine Graps in France. In the case of the wooly aphis the trouble is largely avoided by planting trees that are known to be exempt from it. If the trees are once well started there is little danger of injury, since the pest is seldom harmful to large trees. Fumigation of stock insures the removal of the root louse. In the case of the phylloxera on the European Wine Grape the only satisfactory remedy has been to graft on th« roots of some resistant stock such as the American Frost Grape (Vitis riparia). So common has this practice become in Europe that the result is the European wine industry stands on Ameri- can roots. Beneficial insects. — In a state of nature, each species of the animal kingdom is held in check so there is a nicely balanced relation between them, but occasionally «ven in nature some one species becomes too numerous and breaks the bounds that are ordinarily strong enough to hold it. Among th-e natural agencies that destroy insects may be mentioned heavy rains, sudden changes to a freezing temperature, winds, predaceous and parasitic insects, and fungous and bacterial diseases. Parasites. — A most important factor in checking the spread INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 49 of insects are the numerous parasites to wliicli ttiey are sub- ject. These may be either animal or vegetable. Any one who has had much experience in gardening may have seen many instances of the increase of animal parasites until certain kinds of insects were no longer injurious. This is common in the case of the cabbage worm, the tent caterpillar, grasshoppers and many others. Animal Parasites. — The most common of animal parasites that destroy insects are small wasps and some two-winged flies which deposit their eggs in or on the eggs and larvae of the in- jurious insects on which the growing wasps feed. These destroy enormous numbers of insects and should be regarded as among the greatest aids to the fruit grower. Among vegetable parasites that destroy insects may b* mentioned the diseases which destroy the chinch bugs, and which the states of -Kansas, Nebraska and Minnesota attempted to introduce on a large scale for the subjugation of this pest. Another instance is the disease which often destroys cabbage worms and even house flies. A good illustration of this oc- curred recently in the experience of a Minnesota gardener. He found the Cabbage Plusia getting very numerous in his twenty aci'-es of cabbages and got a spraying outfit to kill them with, but had hardly started when he found the worms dying naturally, as the result of a fungous disease. He put up the machine and the disease successfully did the work for him. Predaceous insects search out and destroy their prey. In this class of insects may be included the Preying Mantis, Tiger beetles, ladybugs and some wasps and dragon flies. The Cottony Cushion Scale was first noticed in California In 1872 and was greatly feared on account of its spreading so rapidly and protecting itself from insecticides by excreting a waxy substance which completely covered the insect. The pest was finally destroyed by a lady bird (lady bug) imported from Australia. Insects Injurious to the Apple. Affecting the Fruit: Codlin Moth fCarpocap-ia pomonclla). — The Codlin Moth is the common cause of wormy apples and makes the infested 50 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 11. — Injury caused by the lar- va of the Codlin Moth. places to spin their cocoons nearby, which, is often be- tween the hoops and staves of the barrels holding the fruit. Remedies. — The fallen fruit should be promptly gathered and destroyed. Keeping hogs in the orchard is very bene- ficial as they destroy the worm-infested fruit; but it should be remembered that when too much stock is pas- tured in the orchard and the grass becomes scarce, they are liable to bark the trees. If bands of burlap, or even paper, six inches wide, are fastened around the trunks fruit ripen prematurely and fall to the ground. The moths deposit their eggs in the calyx (or eye) of the apple just as the blossoms fall. On hatch- ing, the worm eats into the fruit where it lives until it is ready to change to the moth stage. It then leaves the fruit and spins a cocoon in which it undergoes its changes. There are two or more broods in a season. The worms that are in the late apples leave them in the winter and find Fig. 12. — Flowers of the apple; the proper stage for spraying to control Codlin Moth. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 51 not later than the first of June, many of the worms and chrysa- lides of this moth will be found under them and may be easily destroyed. The bands should be examined about once in ten days until the last of August. The most common way of protecting against this insect is by spraying the trees just after the blossoms fall, when the ap- ples still stand upright, with Paris Green and water at the rate of one pound to one hundred and sixty gallons. When the trees are sprayed to prevent scab, the Paris Green may be added to thQ Bordeaux mixture at the rate of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of the mixture. Plum and Apple Curculio (AntJionomus guadrigihbus). — These are snout beetles which cut small holes in the fruit as they feed, and also use the fruit as a place for laying their eggs. The latter soon hatch into a small grub which, at maturity, is about one-half inch long. The special injury to the fruit from this insect comes from the hard knots that form where it has been stung, which makes the apple gnarled and of poor quality. Remedies. — These insects breed mostly in the wild plums, haws and wild crab apples, and destroying these generally re- sults in lessening the damage to the apples in their vicinity. The windfalls should be destroyed, and pasturing hogs in the or- chard is probably the easiest way to accomplish this. Clean culture has proven most satisfactory in ridding orchards of the . curculio as they winter over in grass and rubbish. Spraying the fruit with Paris Green, lime and water, as recommended for the tent caterpillar, has sometimes proven satisfactory. Affecting the foliage: Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americana). — The character- istics of this insect are readily seen in Fig. 14, which shows the . 13. — -Apples distorted as the re- sult of injury by Curculio. 52 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. caterpillars resting on the outside of the tent-like structure in which they live, and also a twig on which a bunch of eggs is /artened. The habit of this insect is about as follows: The eggs are laid on the smaller twigs of fruit trees in ring-like clusters during the first two weeks in July. Two or three hun- di-ed eggs are laid in each cluster and they are firmly cemented together. These hatch out early in the spring just as the leaves open. The young caterpillars soon commence to make a tent by extending sheets of silk web across the nearest forks of the twigs and this tent or nest is enlarged as more room is needed. It has holes in it through which the caterpillars enter and they re- treat to the nest at night, in stormy weather and usual- ly when not feed- ing. They gener- ally come out of their nest once in the morning and once in the after- noon to feed. They are very voracious and soon strip the infested tree of its foliage. They change to moths in June and soon com- mence laying eggs. The eggs of the Western Tent cat- erpillar are ' not laid around the twig but in bunches Fig-. 14.— Tent Caterpillar. a.— Web house of tent caterpillar much redurpd. Caterpillar nearly full size. b. — Eggs nearly natural size. c. — Moth natural size. on the sides of the twigs. Remedies. — The tents are readily seen. They should be gathered and destroyed early in the season when the worms are within them. The egg masses are also easily seen against a cloudy sky when the trees are leafless, and can be gathered and destroyed in winter or at any time before they hatch, INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 53 Fall Web Worm (Hyphantria cunea). — ^This is often mis- taken for the Tent Caterpillar from which it is quite distinct. It appears later in the season, generally in July or later. Its webs are larger and loose or open and the caterpillars stay in them and feed. TTie web is extended to include other foliage as that enclosed is eaten. TTie remedies should be the same as in the case of the Tent Caterpillar. Leaf Lice or Aphis (Aphis mall). — The leaves of the apple are frequently attacked by plant lice which, by sucking the sap, cause the leaves to curl up and assume a very unnatural appearance. They work almost entirely on the lower side of the leaf and are most abundant on the new and tender growth which generally becomes distorted as a result of such attacks. Similar lice attack the foliage of the plum, currant and other plants. The eggs are laid on the branches of apple, plum and other trees in autumn. They are yellowish in color when first laid, but become a glossy black by winter. These hatch in the spring and locate themselves on the small, young- growth and feed by sucking sap. All hatch- ed at this time are females and reach ma- turity in ten or twelve days, when they com- mence to give birth to living young, pro- ducing about two daily for two or three weeks, when they die. The young ones soon commence to pi'oduce live young and their increase is very rapid, in fact so fast that the new growth is kept covered with them. As the season advances, .some of the lice acquire wings and found new colo- nies on other trees. On the approach of cold weather males appear and the season closes with a stock of • eggs for the con- tinuation of the species. Remedies. — The lice should be destroyed in the spring be- fore they become numerous. The eggs hatch about the time the buds are bursting, and as soon as the lice appear, they should Fig. 15.— Eggs of Plant Lice on twig of young apple tree. 54 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. be sprayed with strong soapsuds, kerosene emulsion or tobacco water. If the lice are allowed to get very numerous before spraying is commenced, the work will have to be repeated sev- eral times. Where trees are heavily infested, smoking may be the most desirable treatment. (See reference to this under the head of Insects Injurious to the Plum.) Climbing Cut Worms (Agrotis sp.) — When the foliage or buds are being destroyed without any apparent cause, climbing cue worms should be searched for. If present they will be found in the day-time buried in the ground near the base of the trees and occasionally do much damage. They are closely allied to and resemble the common cut worms so well known to gardeners. Remedies. — They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage as recommended for the Tent Caterpillar and by jarring the trees after dark and then gathering the worms. Insects Attacking Trunks and Branches. Flat Headed Apple Tree Borer (Ghrysodothris femorata). — This borer is quite abundant in some sections but generally does not cause serious losses here. It prefers to work in trees that are newly trans- planted, or weakened by some disease, making its borings in the trunks and larg- er branches and often completely girdling them. It is the larva of a beetle that is oblong, flattish in form and of a shining greenish-black color about three-eighths of an inch long. The beetles emerge from the borings in the trees in the early summer. They are very active in the middle of warm days and may be found in the hot sunshine running up and down the trunk of the tree, whence they fly quickly if an attempt is made to catch them. They lay their eggs, which are yellow, under loose scales on the bark or in cracks and crevices. The young soon hatch and - eat their way through the bark, feeding on the sap wood. As the borer approaches maturity, it usually bores into the more solid wood Fig. 16.— Flat head- ed Apple Tree Borer, a. — Borer full grown, b. — Pupa. c. — Reverse side of head. d. — Mature borer. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 55 and finally out to the bark where it changes into the beetle form. This insect also attacks the pear, plum, peach and cherry. Remedies. — All trees should be examined early in autumn; If there are borers present, they may be detected by the dry ap- pearance of the bark or by the exudation of sap or sawdust-like castings. When such signs are seen the parts should be at once cut into with a knife and the borer destroyed. As a pre- ventive measure there is perhaps nothing better than to coat the trunk and larger branches with a mixture of soft soap reduc- ed with a solution of washing soda to the consistency of a thick paint, and if a little car- bolic acid is added, it will be even more repulsive to the beetles. This should he kept on the trees during the summer months when the insect is in- jurious. Twig Borer (AmpMcerus bi- caudatusj. — A dark colored, cyl- indrical, small beetle that bores into the twigs of the apple, grape and some other fruits. It is seldom extremely injurious. Remedies. — The remedy is to cut out in early summer the in- fested twigs which contain the borers and to burn them. Buffalo Tree Hopper (Geresa duMlusJ.' — An active, jumping, ridiculous looking creature about one-third of an inch long, re- sembling a beech nut more than any insect. Its eggs are laid in slits cut into the bark of apple trees by the female. Their presence seems to seriously injure the adjoining wood and bark and causes numerous irregular wounds which often seriously check growth and are sometimes taken for hail injuries. It feeds on the foliage when young, but does little injury in this stage. Fig. 17. — ^Buffalo Tree Hop- per; showing scales on old wood as the result of its injuries; also mature in- sect. 56 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies. — The best treatment is to prune away and burn the infested wood in winter, but this is seldom entirely practicable and we have largely to depend on natural remedies and on high cultivation to enable the plant to resist the pest. San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus penuciosus). — ^This is perhaps the most insiduous and destructive of all our insect pests. In appearance, it is nearly circular, about one-six- teenth of an inch in diameter, dark brown in col- or, with a darker spot in the center. It lives on the bark of nearly all of our garden and lawn plants. It is a sucking insect and moves only when very young and then only for a short time, after which it becomes fix-ed in place. Several generations are produced each year. At the North many of the scales die in winter but those left breed so fast that they soon cover their host. It is probably spread to young trees by the feet of birds, etc. When this pest is discovered for the first time some good expert in such matters should be con- sulted. Remedies. — The best remedies now known are the lime and sulfur wash and some of the soluble oils specially prepared for this purpose, the formula for which will be found in the Appendix. Scurfy Bark Louse fChionaspis '[urfurus) affects the apple and pear. The life history of this insect is similar to that of other scale insects. The fe- males are larger than the males, and oval; the males are very small and slender. A branch in- fested with this pest appears to be covered with whitish scurf or dandruff. It is seldom very injurious. Remedies. — The remedies for the San Jose Scale are effective here but covering the branches with whitewash or lightly brush- ing them with kerosene oil is extremely satisfactory. The Oyster-Shell Bark Louse (Lepiclosaphes ulij is about the color of the bark on which it grows. It is very injurious where it occurs in great numbers. In appearance each scale is long and shaped somewhat like an oyster. Its life history Fig. 18— Oyster Shell Bark louse in place on twig. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 57 and remedies are much like those for other scales. It generally yields readily to the whitewash treatment, but where many trees are badly infested they should be treated with some of the solu- ble oils, or lime and sulfur wash should be uSed. Woolly Apple Louse (Schizoneura lanigeraj; branch form. — When fully grown, this insect is dark colored and covered with a cottony coating. They may be found covering the new bark about wounds and in the axils of leaves and buds and they may cause serious wounds when neglected. It comes from small eggs laid near the base of the twigs. Remedies. — They are easily destroyed by painting with kero- sene. Where very numerous, it may be best to use whale oil soap mixture, on account of the danger to the tree from using kerosene. Insects Attacking the Roots of the Apple. Woolly Apple Louse (ScJiizoneura lanigera); root form. — This insect attacks the roots as well as the branches of the apple. On Fig. 19. — ^Woolly Aphis, a. — ^Mature Insect, b. — Swellings on the root as a result of its injuries. 58 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the roots it causes warty swellings and may kill the trees. It is one of the most dangerous of all insect pests affecting the apple. Remedies. — The best remedies for it when occurring on the roots are as follows: Remove the earth about the crown for a distance of about two feet and put on from four to seven pounds of tobacco dust. Put back the soil and irrigate where practicable to do so. Removing the soil from about the roots and apply- ing hot water has been satisfactorily practiced. Bi-sulfide of carbon poured into holes made with a bar about the trees has also been successfully used. In doing this, make the holes about ten inches deep n-ear the "infested roots and then pour three ounces of the bi-sulfide into each hole. Three or more holes should be made about each tree. Young trees are often destroyed by the woolly aphis but the old trees are seldom hurt by it. Insects Injurious to the Pear. Any of the foregoing insects referred to as attacking the apple maj"- also attack the pear except the wooly aphis, and the same remedies should be used. In addition to these, the pear is attacked by the fol- lowing insects: Pear Tree Slug (Eriocampoa cerasij. — These slimy look- ing insects are hatch- ed from eggs laid in the tissues of the leaves by a glossy, black fly soon after the leaves expand in spring. When first emerging from the egg they are white but soon become cov- ered above with a slimy brown matter ^*^- J°-T-^^'' '^'■^^ ^^""^ ' a.— Mature in- that oozes out of the sect. b. — Larva, c. — Worms feeding on leaves partly skeletonized by them. skin. The slug, when INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 59 mature, undergoes its changes in the ground whei-e it also re- mains during the winter. There are several broods each season. The slugs eat off the green surface of the foliage, leaving it skeletonized. It attacks the cherry, plum and rose as well as the pear. Remedies.— The remedies are the same as for any of the leaf-eating insects, Paris Green and Pyrethrum Powder being most commonly used. Dusting the leaves with air-slaked lime is also a good remedy. The Pear Psylla (Psylla pyricola). — This is a minute insect that has occasionally done much injury to pear trees by sucking the sap. It is so small as to be seen with difficulty with the un- aided eye. In severe attacks old trees put forth but little growth, new shoots often wither and drop in May, the leaves turn yellow and the fruit prematurely ripens in midsummer and falls off. Its presence is also indicated by the honey dew which is excreted by the insect in large quantities so as to cover the tree and even the vegetation under it. In this sweet solution a kind of fungus soon starts and smears the tree with a blackish coating. The mature insects pass the winter hidden in crevices un- der the loosened bark on the trunks and limbs of pear trees. During warm days they crawl about. In the first warm days of spring the egg-laying season begins. The eggs are laid in creases in the bark and in the old leaf scars. In two or three weeks they hatch into what is known as "nymphs," Which first locate along in the axils and petioles of the leaves. As these nymphs grow, they change their skin and in about one month become full grown with wings, and resemble the' harvest fly in miniature. They can jump like a fiea and fly away upon the. slightest unusual jar. Remedies. — There are several natural enemies that help to hold the pear psylla in check, among which are the lace winged fly and the red ladybug. The most effective treatment seems to be spraying in the spring with kerosene emulsion, applied with considerable force to destroy the young. The mature insect is not easily reached in this way. Insects Injurious to the Peach. Peach Twig Borer (Anarsia UneaiellaJ. — ^When the buds of the i)«ach begin to open in the spring, a small, brownish larva 60 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. with a black head eats into the buds and destroys them. When the new shoots start, the borer eats into them causing them to wilt and decay. Many of the second brood of this borer eat iiito peaches, causing a gummy exudation and ruining them for mar- ket. The larvae that appear in the spring spent their winter in little excavations which they made in the fall in the bark of the trees. Remedies. — Early in the spring, just before the buds open, spray the trees with lime and sulfur wash or with whale oil soap, in the proportion of one pound to two gallons of water. Fish oil soap, diluted once with water or kerosene emulsion, will doubtless do the work nearly or quite as well as the lime and sulfur wash. Many of the larvae may be caught under band- ages used as for the Codlin Moth. Peach Borer (Sanninoidea exUiosa). — The yellowish white borer commonly very destructive in peach trees is the larva of a wasp-like appearing moth that lays its eggs on the trunks Fig. 21. — Peach borer; showing trunk of peach tree injured near surface of ground where gum and grass are mixed together, a.— Male. b. — Female. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 61 and larger branches of peach trees from the middle to the last of summer in the North. The eggs soon hatch and the larva works into the trees, which exude a quantity of clear, jelly- like gum that is often mixed with borings. The borer lives in the tree about one year. Remedies. — ^Carefully inspect the trees in autumn and spring, just below as well as above the ground, and remove all borers with a small pointed knife. Wrapping the trunks with stout paper or wire screen during the egg-laying period is recom- mended. Other insects attacking the peach are sevei'al kinds of aphis and curculio. For each of these see similar heads included under "Insects injurious to the apple and plum." Insects Injurious to the Plum. Plum Curculio (Cvnotrachelus nenuphar). — This is the insect which causes the plums to prematurely ripen and drop to the ground. It is not nearly so destructive to our native plums as to those of European origin (Primus domestica). The lat- ter are often so badly infested that none of the fruit comes to full maturity. While our na- tive plums are stung just as much by the curculio as the European plum, but few of the eggs of the curculio develop into the grub in this fruit, prob- ably on account of its rapid growth. This insect is a small grayish or blackish beetle, about one-fifth of an inch long, with a black shining lump on the middle of each wing and behind this a more or less distinct band of a dull yellow color with some whitish marks about the body and with a rath- er short snout. The female lays her eggs in the young, green fruit shortly after it is formed. Then she cuts a circle around the portion of the fruit in which the eggs are laid to prevent it Fig. 22. — Showing the way in which apples are injured by the Plum rough Curculio. ' 62 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. from growing. The eggs hatch in a few days and the larva works around the outside of the stone. This causes the fruit to become diseased and it falls prematurely to the ground. . Within the plum the growth of the larva is completed. It then goes into the ground where it transforms to a beetle, which soon escapes. Remedies. — Recent investigations seem to show that clean cultivation and burning of any grassy areas near by, in which the beetles can winter over, is most desirable in checking the spread of this pest. When the curculio gets alarmed it draws itself together and falls to the ground. Advantage is taken of this peculiarity to catch and destroy it. A sheet is spread under the tree whose branches are suddenly jarred, when the beetles, which fall on the sheet, may be gathered and destroyed. As it is important to catch as many beetles as possible before any mischief has been done, jarring should begin while the trees are in blossom and should be continued every morning until they are gone. If the insects are abundant this will generally take about three weeks. It will be found that where hens with their broods of chickens are enclosed within the plum orchard, they will devour a large number of the larvae of the curculio. If hogs are kept in the same enclosure as the plum trees, they will pick up the fallen fruit and so destroy a great many of the larvae and assist very much in reducing the injury from this cause. Plum Gouger (Coccotorus scutellaris). — The plum gouger is a snout beetle somewhat resembling the curculio, but readily distinguished from it by a little careful examination. It is about five-sixteenths of an inch long. The head and wing cases are brown with a leaden grey tinge, the latter with whitish and black spots scattered irregularly over their surface. It appears in the spring about the same time as the curculio, but instead of working around the stone it eats through the soft shell and lives within the stone where it undergoes its changes and emerges a perfect beetle. Both sexes of the Plum Gouger bore cylindrical holes in the fruit for food. These cause the fruit to become knotty and worthless but it does not prevent their re- maining on the tree until maturity. This insect does not cut INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 63 a flat or half circle around the hole -in which the egg is placed, as is so characteristic of the curculio. Remedies. — The remedies recommended for the curculio are also best for preventing the work of this insect. The Plum Leaf Aphis (Aphis prunifoUiJ commonly called "leaf lice," is frequently troublesome and occasionally appears in such large numbers as to seriously check the growth of the trees. The life history of this insect is the same as for the apple leaf aphis, which see. Fig. 23. — ^Hoop tent ready to put over trees. 64 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies. — Tobacco water, kerosene emulsion and similar materials often hardly appear to have any effect when th-e lice are very abundant, as the leaves curl up and protect the lice, so that they are not easily reached and the waxy covering of the Fig. 24. — ^IIoop tent in place over tree. lice sheds water. At such times it will be found that tobacco smoke is a most valuable and certain remedy. In applying it, a tent made of unbleached cotton, large enough to cover the INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 65 tree should be used. The best form for this tent is bag shaped, and large enough to easily take in the tree. The tent should be fastened at the bottom to a hoop made of gas pipe. In operating the hoop tent the hoop is lifted up on its edge close to the tree and gradually lifted over it, the slender, long, side branches being pushed up under the tent. When the tree is finally enclosed, tobacco smoke is applied until the tent is filled with smoke so thick that the hand cannot be seen before the face; it is allowed to thus remain for fifteen minutes, which is long enough to kill all the lice. There is no danger of injuring the tree if the tobacco does not flame up. To prevent this, the tobacco used should be dampened. The most convenient form of tobacco to use is leaf stems which come from cigar factories and can be obtained at a very low price. A tent that will answer the purpose very well may be made out of two large pieces of cotton cloth supported on a light wood- en frame. Where the trees are so vei-y large that they require a tent more than 14 feet in diameter, a piece of one-inch rope will be found to work better than a gas pipe hoop to hold the boi-ljr.-. of the tent.. Other insects injurious to the plum include the peach borer, leaf slug and flat headed borer which are desci'ibed elsewhere. Insects Injurious to the Cherry. The Insects injurious to the cherry are about the same as those injurious to the plum and include borers, curculio and aphis. The cherry is also commonly injured by the leaf slug which attacks the pear. These insects may be • found under their respective heads. Insects Injurious to the Grape. Grape Vine Leaf Hoppers (ErytTironeura vitisj. — These are small, grayish insects that sometimes appear on our grape vines in countless numbers. When abundant, if disturbed on a hot, dry day, they appear in clouds, make a short flight and quickly settle on the vines again. They breed most rapidly in hot, sum- mer weather and do most injury to varieties having no down on the under side of the leaves, such as the Clinton and Beta, but may destroy the foliage of any kind. They are sucking in- sects and cause the leaves to turn yellow and even finally dry up. 66 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedies. — By taking advantage of the fact that the insects are dumpish early in the morning and may be easily jarred to the ground, large numbers may be destroyed by shaking the vines after first laying down strips of cloth covered with coal tar or similar material that will catch them. Perhaps the best remedy consists in making two frames four feet square out of common lath and covering them with cloth coated with fresh cOal tar. Two men are required to use these, who place the frames opposite one another on each side of the rows, and as near as practicable at the bottom, at the same time gently jarring the vines by striking downwards, with a few light branches, on each side. In this way large numbers of the insects can be caught, and if this method is persistently used this pest may be kept in check. The Grape Phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix) or root louse, is an American insect that is frequently found on the roots or leaves of American vines. On the roots its presence results in the formation of swellings or knotty excrescences. It occasion- ally appears on the leaves of some species that have thin foliage such as those of the Riparia class, where it forms many galls on the under side of the leaves which sometimes become so abundant as to seriously check the growth of vines. 1'his leaf form is seldom very troublesome and is not necessary for the propagation of the species. It spreads by winged forms that occur on the roots or leaves and may travel through or over the land for considerable distances. On the American vines its presence does not necessarily cause death or seriously check their growth, but European vines succumb very quickly to its attacks and it has been the principal cause of the inability of growing European grapes successfully in this country. The im- portation of this insect into Europe and its spread there threat- ened to destroy the vine industry of many sections. Remedies. — The danger from this insect has there been large- ly overcome by grafting the European kinds on native American species which are resistant to this pe&t; the native Y. riparia (our River Bank grape) is commonly used. Immense quantities of wood of this species have been sent to Europe for this purpose. The Phylloxera is a native of America east of the Rocky Mountains INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 67 and is not found on the Pacific coast, but it lias been intro- duced into California and foresighted growers there are prac- ticing grafting their vines on resistant roots. Bi-sulfate of car- bon placed in the ground about the roots is a good remedy. Probably the best treatment for the leaf form is to pick and destroy the infested foliage. The Rose Chafer or Rose Bug. (Macrodactylus sul)spinosus) eats roses, the flowers of the grape, and, when very abundant, many other garden plants. It is a beetle with long, hairy legs which is rather slow in its movements. It is especially injurious by reason of its eating the flowers of grapes. Remedies. — Where they are very abundant, insecticides are too slow in acting to do much good and all remedies fail. Where not unusually abundant, they may be kept in check by picking. Covering the flowers with bags has also been resorted to with excellent results. Bordeaux mixture seems to be distasteful to them and spraying with this material will often largely prevent their ravages as well as check fungus dis- eases. Other insects Injuri- ,ous to the grape are the Snowy Tree Crick- et and ocasionally some scale insects and leaf eating insects. Insects Injurious to the Currant and Gooseberry. The Currant Worm fNematus ventricosus) is the most trouble- some insect that at- The female lays her the under side of the They are white in color Fig. 25. — Currant "Worm. Eggs of worm on under side of midribs; holes in leaves gnawed by young larva. tacks the currant and gooseberry, eggs in rows on the veins on leaves quite early in the season. 68 " POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and about one-twentieth of an inch long. These eggs hatch in about ten days. The young worms feed in companies, at first eating small holes in the leaves, but later on they destroy all the green tissue in the leaf and then spread in all directions over the bush, eating the foliage. They will frequently strip a bush of its foliage in a few days time if left to themselves. When full grown they are three-quarters of an inch long. There are two broods of these worms; the first appearing before or about the time the fruit is ripe and the second, two or three weeks later. The mature insect is a fly, somewhat resembling the house fly. • Fig'. 26. — Currapt Worm at work. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 69 Remedies. — Powdered hellebore, mixed with its bulk of flour, may be dusted on the plants when the foliage is wet or it may be used at the rate of one ounce of hellebore to a gallon of water and be sprayed on the foliage. Used in either way it is a very cheap, effective and easily applied remedy. But hellebore is quite poisonous and is not safe to use when the fruit Is ripe, although no danger will exist if several days should elapse after the application before the fruit is gathered. A light shower after the hellebore is applied will remove all danger from it. Pyrethrum insect powder is a good, safe and effective remedy when applied just at night, but it is very expensive and difficult to obtain of good quality. Paris Green and arsenate of lead make efficient remedies when proper- ly- applied and are most commonly used. Where these insects have made their appearance, the first indication of them should be watched for in following years and great care taken to destroy the first brood each season. It is a good plan to begin spraying early, even if no worms are seen. Growers of this fruit should be very particular not to neglect the bushes Fi°- 27.— Currant Bor- ^^t^r the crop is gathered, ■ for it is very er in its tunnel in important for the next year's crop that thfi cGnt.Gr of tli© cane, where pit has they should make a good growth of wood, been eaten out. ^nd neglecting them at this time often al- lows a crop of worms to mature and cause more extensive injury the following year. The fly seems to prefer the foliage of na- tive varieties of gooseberries, such as the Houghton seedling, for its eggs and a few of these bushes may be planted among the currants, when most of the worms can be destroyed on them as soon as the eggs hatch. Imported Currant Borer (Sesia tipitliformis). — In many sections this insect in its larva state causes great injury to the stems of the currant and gooseberry by so weak-ening them that 70 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. they break off when loaded with fruit or by making them sickly. The female lays her eggs in the stems early in the summer. In a few days the eggs hatch into little white grubs, which work into the pith of the stem, where they make th-eir burrows and live until the following season. They then finish their trans- formation and appear as wasp-like moths and the females shortly commence to lay eggs. This insect infests chiefly the red and white currant, but it also attacks the black currant and often the gooseberry. Remedies. — The infested stems should be cut out in the au- tumn or very early in the spring and burned at once. If the growers in any vicinity will follow this method in united effort they can keep this insect in subjection. Lice (Aphis ribisj are frequently very abundant on the foli- age of currants and gooseberries, where they cause the leaves to curl up and become distorted, thus checking their growth but seldom causing serious injury. The life history of this in- sect is about the same as for the apple leaf louse. Remedies. — They may be destroyed by spraying the foliage with tobacco water, soap suds water, or kerosene emulsion. In fighting these insects, it is very important to commence as soon as the first of them are seen as they often increase with great rapidity. On account of the position of the leaves these lice are very difficult to get at with a spray, and on their first appearance the infested foliage should be destroyed. It is some- times most practicable to apply tobacco water by dipping the affected branches into the emulsion or into tobacco water. Insects Injurious to the Raspberry and Blackberry, Raspberry Flat Headed Borer {Agrilus ruficoUis). — ^The per- fect form of this insect is a beetle which lays its eggs in the growing canes sometime during the summer. Where the eggs are laid, peculiar gall-like swellings may occur, having many rough slits in them; but this is not always the case, for some- times canes may be killed by the insect and no swellings at all - appear on the canes. The eggs hatch into little yellowish- white larvae, having flattened bodies, brown jaws and tails furn- ished with two dark brown horns. One swelling may contain many larvae. When full grown the larva is from one-half to INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 11 three-fourths of an inch long, and by burrowing in the wood fre- quently girdles the canes. The perfect beetles emerge about the time that the plants are in full blossom. Remedies. — As the insects winter over in the canes, they may be destroyed by cutting and burning all the infested wood some time during the winter. Snowy Tree Cricket {Oecantlius mi;etts).— This insect does not feed on the raspberry plant in any way but it is injurious on account of its peculiar habit of puncturing the canes with lines of little holes in which it deposits eggs. If this work does not kill the canes, it so weakens them that when they start in the spring they are very apt to break off as soon as the foliage is expanded. The eggs, which are laid in autumn, are yellow and about one-eighth of an inch long. They are not readily seen when laid, but by the latter part of winter the infested canes take on an unhealthy appearance by which they may be readily located. This insect feeds upon leaf lice and is thus beneficial to some ex- "^^^atS're-fns^e^. b^^In^if/dSaV- t^^^, but it causes so much in- bgrry cane with portion removed jury by laying its eggs in rasp- to show how eggs are placed in , , ,, , ^ cane, c— Showing injury to cane berry, grape and other plants as it ordinarily appears. .^^ith pithy wood that it should be destroyed as nearly as possible. Remedy. — The only remedy is to cut out and burn the in- fected wood before the eggs hatch. Insects Injurious to the Strawberry. Leaf Roller {Ancylis comptana). — This insect is injurious in its larva stage when it is about one-half an inch long and a very active worm. It will be found nicely encased in a straw- 72 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING^. berry leaf that it has drawn together by silken bands and of which it is devouring the green surface. When abundant, this insect may do very much damage. It changes to a small rust colored moth with white markings on the wings at maturity. It has at least two broods. It winters over in the pupa state in the ground near the plants. Remedies. — The larvae are not easily reached with any in- secticide as they are protected by the folded leaf. The first brood is rather difficult to destroy without injuring the fruit. Since the second brood does not appear until July, they may be destroyed by mowing off and burning the foliage of the plants or by scattering straw and burning it. Where there are but a few infected leaves, they should be crushed In the hand. A few trials will show the best method of crushing the worm in- side. Arsenical sprays are also used but the insect is so well protected that this remedy is seldom satisfactory. White Grub (LacJinosterna spj. — This is the common white grub found in sod land. It is the larvae of the June beetle and is sometimes exceedingly destructive, when plants are set out on land that has recently been in sod, by eating the roots of the .new- ly set plants. On land that has been culti- vated for two years it is seldom trouble- some. It lives several years in the ground before emerging as the full grown June bug. It may be avoided by not planting on land that was the preceding year in sod. Fig. 29.— a.— White Grub. b. — Its ma- ture form, known commonly as June beetle. QUESTIONS — CHAPTER III. Insects. 1. What care should the fruit grower take In suppressing In- sects and diseases? 2. How have insects and diseases been introduced Into the fruit growing sections? 3. What effect do they have upon the fruit grower's work? 4. What sections are usually exempt from insects and diseases? Example. 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of State In- spection? INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 73 6. What do the State Inspection laws provide for? 7. "What would be the benefit of a national law? 8. Into what groups may the destructive insects be classified? 9. What are the habits of each? 10. What are the remedies best adapted to each group? 11. Into what groups may the beneficial insects and parasites be Cl£LSSifl6d.? 12. What are the habits of eacli? 13. What is the liistory of the cottony cushion scale in Cali- fornia? 14. What insects are injurious to the apple? 15. What is the life history of the Codling Moth? 16. What injuries do they cau-se? 17. What are the best remedies for this insect? 18. How does the curculio injure the apple? 19. What is the remedy for it? 20. What insects injure the foliage of the apple? 21. What is the life history of the Tent Caterpillar? 22. What are tlie remedies for the Caterpillar? 23. How do the Tent Caterpillar and fall web worm differ In their habits? 24. What remedy should be used for them? 25. What injury does the climbing cut worm cause on the apple tree? 26. How may it be destroyed? 27. What insects injure the trunks and bi'anches of the trees? 28. What is the life history of the flat headed apple tree borer? 29. What harm does it do? 30. What remedy is used as a preventive for the injuries caused? 31. What injury is caused by the twig borer? The buffalo tree hopper? • 32. What is the remedy for the twig borer? 33. What is the life history of the San Jose scale? 34. What injury does it cause? 35. What is the remedy for the San Jose scale? 36. Wliat injury is caused by the scurfy bark louse? 37. What is tlie remedy for it? 38. What is the life history of the oyster shell bark louse? 39. What is the injury caused by and the remedy for the same? 40. What is the injury caused by the branch form of the woolly aphis and remedy for it? 41. What injury does the woolly aphis cause on the roots of ap- ple trees? 42. What is the best remedy for it? 43. What insects are injurious to the pear tree? 44. What injury does the slug cause? 45. How are its ravages prevented? 46. How does the pear psylla injure the trees? 47. What is its life history? 48. WTiat remedy should be applied? 49. What insects are injurious to the peach? 50. What harm does the twig' borer cause?- 51. What is the best remedy for it? 52. What injury is caused by the peach borer? 53. What is the remedy for it? 54. How does the plum curculio affect the plum? 55. What is the remedy? CHAPTER IV. Diseases Injurious to Fruits. The diseases which the fruit grower has to combat are numerous. No portion of the plant is exempt from their rav- ages. Some diseases are perhaps not due to a special growth in the tissues, but result from some physiological weakness of the plant, due probably to unfavorable surroundings. Such trou- bles can be stopped only by doing away with the cause, and practically the only method of preventing them is by improved cultural conditions, as is the case with Peach Yellows. The great majority of plant diseases are what are known as fungus diseases. These are propagated by small bodies or spores, given off in various ways, which act as seeds in starting new growths. The life habits of these diseases are extremely vari- able and often very complex. Some of them live one generation on one plant and the next generation on some very different plant. For instance, the Apple Rust {Gymnosporangium) lives one stage on the foliage of the apple and the next on the Red Cedar, where it develops the cedar apples that produce the scarlet, gelatinous fruiting bodies commonly seen on Cedar trees in early summer. This disease may be largely avoided by de- stroying the Red Cedar in the vicinity of orchards. The remedies commonly used for plant diseases are to cover the susceptible portions of the plant with some antiseptic cover- ing. Such materials are generally termed fungicides. The ac- tive fungicidal principle in most of those in common use Is some salt of copper, so combined as not to injure the foliage. The most generally useful fungicide is Bordeaux mixture, which is a combination of the salts of copper with lime and water. This material* is adapted for use in diluted form when the tree is in leaf, or when of increased strength, for use when the tree is bare of foliage. Sulfate of copper solution is a valuable fungicide for use when trees are dormant, but is very injurious to young ♦Formulas for insecticides and fungicides will be found In the Ap- pendix. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. W vegetation. Potassium sulfide 'and other forms of sulfur are used alone or in combination as fungicides. As noxious diseases and insects are present on many plants at the same time, it is a common and good practice to use an application that shall combine the advantages of fungicide and insecticide. A good illustration of this is Bordeaux mixture to which has been added a small amount of Paris Green. Such a mixture Is an effective remedy for apple trees that are affected with scab and the Codlin Moth. A very complete list of fungicides and recipes for them will be found in the Appendix. Diseases of the Apple. Apple Blight, Fire Blight (Bacillus amylovorus). — This is the disease that commonly kills the twigs and branches and occasionally injures the trunks of apple, pear and quince trees. Its cause is a bacterial disease which gains entrance to the tree through wounds or through the flowers. The germs are carried by insects to the flower. The insects are attracted by the dark, mucilaginous fluid that oozes out of the diseased wood in the spring and which is swimming with bacteria. From the flowers and other centers of infection the disease spreads through the whole plant. This is the disease which so commonly kills the young growth of apples in June. Remedies. — Some varieties are quite subject to it, while others are only slightly, if at all, affected with it; hence; it may be avoided by selecting resistant sorts. When it ap- pears the best treatment is to remove and burn the infected parts, cutting considerably below where the disease appears. The disease may be carried, in pruning implements from a dis- eased to a healthy tree. It may be well under some conditions to disinfect pruning tools by the use of kerosene or in other ways so as not to spread the disease by them. Bitter Rot (Glomerella rufoviaculans). — The summer spore stage of this fungus does serious injury to the apple in some sections. It attacks apples before they are ripe and also ap- ples in storage. The spots which appear become sunken, are soft and have a bitter taste. On the surfaces of these spots the spores issue in long, gelatinous, cylindrical masses. These are washed apart by rain water and spread the infection. The 76 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. wintei- spores are produced on the branches in canker spots from which come the new sources of spring infection. Remedies. — Remove and burn all canker spots found on the trees each year, as these are the sources of infection. De- stroy the diseased fruit. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture and later, when the fruit begins to ripen, with a copper carbonate solution will hold the disease in check. Black Rot (Sphaeropsis malorumj is a common source of trouble. It especially attacks the summer ap- ples at the time of ripening and the other kinds in storage. This fungus also occurs on the branches and leaves of apples. Remedies are the same as for Bitter Rot. Root Galls, in the shape of roundish swellings, are sometimes found on the roots of apples and other trees. Stocks thus affected should be regarded with suspicion, although some of these galls do not appear to be seriously injurious. Leaf Rust (Gymnosporangium niacropusj and (G. glohosum). — This disease causes serious injury to the foliage of apples and pears so that the foliage and fruit crops are destroyed. This fungus causes yellow blotches on the leaves, and later, cluster cups with thorn-like tops appear on the under side of the leaves. One stage of this dis- ease lives on the Red Cedar, where it produces Cedar apples from Fig. 3a.— Bitter rot of ap- which in the spring come the bright pie. Branch infested scarlet, gelatinous, honey-like with canker of toitter „, „ - ., „ , rot. masses. The spores from the Red DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 77 Cedar form grow on the apple and those from the apple on the Cedar. Remedies. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is one remedy. The best remedy, however, is to remove the Cedar apples in winter or to destroy the Cedar trees. Fig-. 31. — Leaf rust of apples, a. — Apple leaf infested with the rust disease, b. — Twig of red cedar showing old and young cedar apples, c. — Portion of the tissue of the infested apple leaves en- larged. Apple Scab (Venturia pomi). — A very serious disease of the apple. It attacks and kills the foliage and causes black, scab- like spots on the fruit, and also attacks the young growth oc- casionally. The sources of infection are the fallen leaves on which- the fungus matures its spores in early spring in time to infect the unfolding leaves. 78 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedy. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the only known satisfactory remedy. Several sprayings are usually neces- sary where this disease is well established. A winter spray with strong Bordeaux mixture before the buds open is recom- mended, followed by two or three sprayings after growth has started, at intervals of from two to three weeks. Good ventila- tion and prop-er spacing of trees aid very materially in avoiding conditions favorable to fungus growth. Burning or plowing un- der the diseased leaves which have fallen will also aid in stamp- ing out this disease. Powdery Mildew (PodospTiaera leucotrichaj. — This mildew seldom injures apples except young plants in seedling beds m ^^£^-^^'-- Fig. 32. — ^Apple Infested with scab. or nursery rows. It is most injurious to seedlings in their first year, especially when severely crowded. Remedy. — This disease may be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, commencing in the early summer and re- peating at intervals of about two weeks. Fruit Scald. — This occurs most commonly on apples that are kept in cold storage. Some varieties with tender skins DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 79 may be injured in piles in the orchard. The scald shows as large brownish or black blotches on the fruit. Some varieties are much subject to it while others are quite exempt. The subject is not well understood, but varieties liabl-e to this trouble should be stored where they will have free circulation of air. Spraying Injuries. — In spraying plants it is not uncommon to cause them" some little injury. This often shows in the rus- setted appearance of the fruit or foliage. It may be due to the use of chemicals of unknown purity or to the unusual sus- ceptibility of the plant. Carelessness in making Bordeaux mix- ture is often the cause of spraying injury. These injuries may sometimes be so serious that they kill the foliage. As a rule, however, the earliest spraying on the young leaves does not seem to cause injury so frequently as later sprayings. Frost Injuries. — Apples and pears are sometimes slightly Injured by frost soon after the flowers open, and in such cases there will often be a russeted ring around the fruit or on one side. Sunscald. — This is a name given to a condition of trees when the bark becomes dead on the southern or southwest side of trees. It is a very serious cause of loss of trees in some sections and in such places all trees should be protected against it. For description of this trouble see chapter on Protection. Diseases of the Pear. The pear is injured by about the same diseases as the ap- ple. It is especially subject to fire blight, scab and rust, which are more fully mentioned under apple. It is also injured by leaf blight (see Quince) and leaf spot, for which Bordeaux mix- ture is the best remedy. Diseases of the Quince. The quince is subject to Brown Rot, Leaf Spot, Rusts, Scab, Fire Blight, and it is also subject to the following: Leaf Blight (Entomosporium maculatum). — This trouble af- fects the leaves and in bad cases may entirely defoliate the plants. On the fruit, the fungus produces black areas. On pears, it may cause the fruit to turn black in places, grow one- sided and crack open= 80 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Remedy. — The remedy foi- this is Bordeaux mixture applied just before the flowers open in the spring and two to four ap- plications of it later at intervals of about two weeks. Black Rot fSpliaeropsis malorum). — This disease often causes serious rotting of the quince just befoi'e maturity. It generally starts from the calyx end. The remedy is a preven- tive, and consists of spraying with Bordeaux mixture. Diseases of the Plum. Plum Pocket (Exoascus prunij. — This is a name given to certain peculiar deformities which occasionally take the place of plums on the trees. They consist merely of a thin shell with no evidence whatever of seed. They appear in early summer, and some seasons this disease is very abundant and then for a number of yeai's it may scarcely appear at all. It is due to the presence of a parasitic fungus which attacks the young fruit, and by growing with- in it causes the peculiar de- velopment which finally re- sults in the formation of the so-called pocket. This, or a similar fungus, may also at- tack the foliage and cause ['J irregular swellings and dis- tortion. Remedies. — It will some- times be found that a sin- gle tree will be troubled with this fungus for a se- ries of years and it will not spread much. When this is the case such trees should be destroyed, as they are likly to be centers of in- fection, and the diseased fruit should be picked and destroyed. Some varieties are more subject to its attack than others. The leaf curl of peaches is caused by a fungus similar to that which causes plum pockets and recent experiments show that this disease may be kept in check by spraying with thick Bordeaux mixture or a solution of sulfate of copper just be- Fig. 33. — Leaf curl of plums volving twig and foliage. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 81 fore the buds open. Later, sprayings of Bordeaux mixture may be necessary if the weather is rainy. The object of these spray- ings is to kill the spores of the disease which are found on the bark. Black Knot or Wart of the Plum (Ploivrightia viorbosa). — This manifests itself by wart-like or knot-lik6 growths appear- ing on the smaller limbs as well as on the larger branches and sometimes even on the trunks. In sections of the country where the European Plum (Prunus do- mesticaj is grown this is one of the most serious ob- stacles to its suc- cessful cultiva- tion. Our native plums are not often destroyed by it, but it some- times causes seri- ous injury to them. This knotlike growth is spongy and of a black color. Upon examining it with a microscope it is found that the surface has many little cavities that contain the spores by which the disease spreads. Spores escape from the knots during the late winter or early spring. Remedies. — Upon their first appearance these swellings should be removed and burned, if they are on the smaller branches where it is practicable to get them off. If on the trunk or larger branches where the branch cannot be cut off, they should be cut out as much as possible and painted with thick Bordeaux mixture. Where trees are badly infested they should be removed entirely. This same disease also grows on the wild choke cherry and black cherry and, if abundant on them, their removal will make the extermination of the disease easier in the nearby plum orchard. Fig. 34. — Plum pockets as they ap- pear on the tree. 82 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Brown Rot of the Plum (Sclerotinia fructigena) is a common and serious cause of loss, peach. See Brown Rot under the head of Shot Hole Disease. — This may be caused by any of the several fungi or even by spraying injuries. Any of these causes may destroy the foli- age in spots; after the deadened tis- sue drops out the shot-hole appear- ance is produced. Crown Gall is the name given to a morbid growth which general- ly takes place near the surface of the ground. It is of a spongy na- ture and often spherical in form. The same disease or class of diseases also attacks the peach, raspberry, blackberry, apple and other trees. It is most commonly injurious to trees growing in the nursery. All stocks showing it should be regarded with suspicion. Scab of plums (Cladosporium carpopliynum) causes dark, hard spots in the skin of the fruit. It may be prevented by spraying with weak Bordeaux mixture. Diseases of the Peach. Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena). — This disease principal- ly attacks peaches about the time the fruit begins to ripen and often spreads rapidly. It also causes decay in the fruit after it is picked, and is likewise one of the most injurious foes of plums and cherries, as well as of the peach, while apples, pears and quinces are sometimes injured by it. It sometimes destroys the young growth. If the diseased fruit is allowed to remain on the tree it dries up and does liot fall off. The fungus passes the winter in the diseased branches and also in the dried fruit. In the spring these send out spores which start new centers of infection. Remedies. — The diseased dried fruit should be removed DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 83 Fig. 36. — Brown rot; half grown plums rotting with this disease. from the trees and ground and destroyed by burying deeply or burning. During the ripening season all rotting fruit should be gathered promptly and burned. Where the fruit sets thick, thinning is of much assistance in keep- ing the disease in check. Spraying has not general- ly proven successful, on ac- count of the rapidity of the spread of the disease when once started and be- cause of the liability of th-e foliage to injury from the spraying solutions. It is probably desirable to use Bordeaux mixture on the trees in the spring before the leaves open, and then apply two or three sprayings of potas- sium sulfide about picking time. Crown Gall or Foot Rot. — This disease or class of diseases affects the peach in much the same way as the plum. In the case of the peach, however, the wood is made weaker and the trees are broken off at the surface of the ground. It is thought by some that it is the result of too much moisture, and the or- ganism to which it is ascribed (DendropTiagus gobosus) comes in later as a saprophyte. There is no known remedy. Diseased trees seldom amount to much and the best treatment is prob- ably to remove and burn them. Leaf Curl (Exoascus deformans] . — This disease appears soon after the leaves come out. It causes them to become distorted and swollen and later those that are infected the worst fall off, leaving the tree nearly or quite bare of foliage. The remedy for it is spraying with Bordeaux mixture about two weeks be- fore the buds begin to swell in the spring. In wet springs a second application of one-half strength can be used to advan- tage. Where the trees are sprayed with lime and sulfur in winter for scale, the disease is held in check. A weak solution 84 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. of copper sulfate, containing one pound to twenty-five gal- lons, applied in the spring about two weeks before the buds open, is effective. Scab (Cladosporium carpophylum). — 'This fungus occurs on the fruit, leaves and twigs. On the fruit it makes black spots which may unite and involve a large part of the surface in a black scab, disfiguring the fruit and causing it to become one- sided. The mycelium lives over winter on the infected twigs. Winter or early spring sprayings are recommended for the Peach Scab. Yellows. — This disease is now considered due to some de- rangement of the plant functions. It is evidently contagious. The disease is not easily distinguished from troubles due to other causes and weak trees may present symptoms closely re- sembling those that are infected with Yellows. Its symptoms are a general premature ripening of the fruit, which becomes streaked with red, or spotted, and is of a poor quality; a pre- mature development of the winter buds, giving rise to exces- sive branching on new shoots resembling "witches brooms", the formation of water sprouts, and finally a scanty, yellowish de- velopment of the foliage. Peach Rosette. — This disease is very similar to the Yellows. It is distinguished by the peculiar rosette arrangement of the diseased water sprouts which spring from the branches. It gen- erally causes the death of the tree in one season. No remedy is known except to dig out and burn all affected trees at once. Remedies. — The best treatment is to grub out and burn the diseased trees. A rigid enforcement of such treatment would probably keep it in check, as this seems to be a fair lesson to draw from the wide experience of the state of Michi- gan in combatting this trouble. Diseases of the Cherry. The cherry is subject to the following diseases: — Black Knot, Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Leaf Spot and Powdery Mildew. These are all discussed under Plum and Peach. The remedies for these is ''Bordeaux mixture. Diseases of the Grape. Anthracnose fSphaceloma ampelinum). — This rot may at- tack the twigs, fruit or leaves. On the fruit it forms small, dark DISEASES INJURIOUS TO PRUlTS. S5 spots with bright borders and is called bird's-eye rot. The dis- eased wood should be removed. When vines are sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for other diseases, this is held in check, and it is seldom abundant enough to warrant spraying for it alone. Black Rot (GuignarcUa MdweUiiJ. — One of the most com- mon of injurious diseases affecting the grape. It sometimes attacks the leaves, but is most common on the fruit, which causes it to rot, turn black, and finally dry up. The disease breeds in the mummified fruits and in the diseased leaves of th-e Ampelopsis as well as of the grape. Remedies. — The dried grapes should be removed and burned. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is probably the most certain remedy and if persistently fol- lowed up year after year will be found quite effective. The fruit should be kept covered with it until it begins to color, after which ammoniacal carbon- ate of copp-er should be used. If Bor- deaux mixture was used up to ripening time the fruit would look dirty. Bag- ging the fruit is commonly a satisfactory remedy, provided the bags are put out as soon as the fruit is set. To spray effectively with Bordeaux mixture will generally take three or four applications, accord- ing to the weather. It is sometimes washed off before it is dry, when it should be applied again. _ Some vineyardists are get- ting good results by using a solution of copper sulfate (1 lb. to 25 gals, of water) just before growth starts. Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticolaj. — This fungus may attack the young wood, flowers or fruit, or all these at the same time. When it attacks the foliage it appears as greenish yel- low, or brownish, irregular spots on the upper surface, with corresponding spots of whitish, frost-like mildew on the under side. The effect of this is to have the leaves dry up and fall Fig-. 37. — Black rot of the grape, showing infested fruit rotte'd and dried. 86 POPULAR FRUIT GROWIN^. off, frequently when the fruit is quite green, which, consequent- ly, does not ripen. But, besides the loss of fruit from this dis- ease, the wood is often left in a very poor, immature state, and the whole plant so seriously weakened that it will not produce a full crop of fruit for several years. It frequently acts in this manner on the Delaware, while it seldom injures the fruit of that variety. On some other varieties the fruit is more sus- ceptible than the foliage and it produces brown rot of the ber- ries, which may cause sev-ere loss in some season. In this case the first perceptible effect of the disease is when a purp- lish spot appears on the side of the berry. Later, the fruit is covered with a white mould, then it turns brown, and later on becomes soft and wrinkled. Remedies. — Spraying as recommended for Black Rot. Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator). — This mildew forms a superficial, cobweb-like growth on the leaves and new growth, and occasionally on the fruit. The remedies are the same as for Downy Mildew. It is also r-ecommended to spray the vines in the winter with copper sulfate solution to destroy the win- ter spores. Flowers of sulfur has also been used successfully against this pest. Preventives of grape diseases. — Every effort should be made to keep fungus diseases from getting a hold of the plant. It has been found that where the vines are closely shut in, so that ther-e is but little circulation of air and the water does not quickly dry off the foliage, or where the soil is wet and cold, the vines are very liable to become diseased. On this account, where a vineyard is subject to such troubles, the first thing to do is to remedy, as far as is practicable, anything that ob- structs free circulation of air through it. If the land is moist and cold it should be underdrained. For brown and black rot of the fruit early bagging of the clusters will be found quite ef- fective. But after these things are done, disease may gain a foothold and cause serious injury to weak varieties; hence spraying may be necessary. Some varieties are uniformly h-ealthy in some locations, while others are very susceptible to disease. Yet these latter are often the most profitable kinds to grow for marketing purposes. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. Bl Diseases of the Strawberry. Leaf Spot, Rust or Sunburn (Sphaerella fragariae) is a dis- ease which lives in the tissues of the leaves and stem. In the early spring small purple or red spots appear on the new leaves. About the time the plants are ex- hausted by fruit- ing, or perhaps, before the fruit is fairly ripe, these spots increase rapidly in siz6 and in a few days what was a promising straw- berry bed is dried up and worthless. Many varieties that are hardy otherwise have foliage that is susceptible to this dis- ease, and some kinds should not be planted unless some fungi- cide is used to protect them from it. Our growers at present prefer to obviate the necessity of using fungicides by planting only those varieties that are very robust and healthy. How- ever, it may he desirable to grow some varieties with weak foliage. In such a case the newly set plants should be sprayed three or more times the first season, commencing as soon as the young plants are well established and twice the following spring, with Bordeaux mixture or some other fungicide, begin- ning as soon as the leaves appear. To do this requires no more labor or expense than it does to spray for the potato bug the same number of times, and the grower will be well repaid in the increased crop. Highly cultivated plants are less liable to disease than those that are neglected. Pig. 38. — Rust or leaf spot of strawberries. POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Diseases of the Blackberry. The Crown Gall occasionally attacks blackberry canes near the surface of the ground, causing irregular swellings. It has not generally proven seri- ously injurious, but un- doubtedly, the part of wisdom would be to avoid petting new plantations from a field so infested. The diseased canes should be gathered and burned. Leaf Spot fSeptoria ruMJ. — T/his disease pro- duces dark colored spots on the foliage, which are sometimes very abundant. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is the best rem- edy. Orange Rust. — The blackberry is also injured by the orange rust, which is referred to under the head of Rasp- berr3^ Diseases of the Raspberry. Leaf Curl. — This name is indicative of one of the early stages of the disease. The leaves curl up, and though they may remain green all through the season, the plants make a poor, weak growth. The fruit is dull in color, small in size and rather bitter in taste. Later the plants kill out, and any healthy sets with which they may be replaced soon succumb to the trouble. TTiis disease spreads very slowly and, as a rule, at the beginning there are only a few infected spots in a planta- tion, which slowly increase in size from year to year. The spread of the disease may be prevented to a great extent by pulling and burning the diseased plants as soon as they ap- pear. In setting out a new plantation, use only land which has not been in raspberries for several years and take great care to have young, healthy sets. Do not accept plants from £t weak plantation on any account. -Crown or root blackbeiTies. all of DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 89 Red Orange Rust (Oymnoconia interstitialis) is most harm- ful to the Black Cap raspberries, though it frequently injures blackberries, dewberries 'and allied plants. It produces a weak appearance in the canes and foliage, and in the latter part of the summer the under side of the foliage becomes completely covered with a thick coat- ing of orange colored spores, which easily rub off. One soon learns to know the plants that are dis- eased, even before the spores appear, and they should be pulled and burned at once. This is es- pecially neecessary with the black-cap varieties; but even with these, if the affected plants are destroyed, the disease may generally be kept in check until a new plantation can be well started, and sometimes assiduous attention to pulling and burning results in stamping out the disease. Crown Gall is sometimes injurious to the rasp- berry the same as to the blackberry, but it is sel- dom very injurious at the North. In s-electing new sets care should be taken to avoid those from infested fields. Cane Rust or Anthracnose (Gloesporium neca- tor) manifests itself on the raspb-erry by small purplish spots, which may spread and form whit- ish patches with purplish edges. The tissue is killed out under the spots. It affects raspber- rust on rasp- ^'iss generally, but the purple and cap varieties berries. are most liable to its injury. Remedy. — The best treatment is to spray the canes be- fore the leaves start with thick Bordeaux mixture. The badly diseased canes should be cut out at pruning time and only re- sistant varieties planted. Spray the new growth in the spring once or twice. There is a great difference in the power of dif- ferent varieties to resist this disease. Diseases of the Gooseberry and Currant. Mildew ( Spliaeroilieca morsuvae) is the worst disease of the gooseberry. It attacks the foliage which, as a result, be- comes covered with a whitish mould. Later the leaves dry up &0 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. and drop off and the wood fails to mature. In bad cases the berries become discolored and perhaps ruined. As a rule, this disease does not cause serious injury in good locations in this section; but in wet seasons, or on wet land in any season, or where there is a poor circulation of air it may be very destruc- tive. Remedies. — These should be preventives larg-ely, and con- sist of allowing plenty of room between the plants for a good circulation of air and keeping them in as vigoi'ous a state of health as possible by manuring and cultivating. If the disease makes its appearance in the face of these precautions, recourse should be had to the following remedy, which is very satis- factory: Spray the plants in the spring as soon as the young leaves begin to unfold, and repeat it as often as once in eigh- teen or twenty days, except in. times of heavy rains when it must be done oftener. For this purpose use liver of sulfur (Potassium sulfide) dissolved in water at the rate of one-half ounce to the gallon. Leaf Spot (Septoria ribesj —Both currant and gooseberry are injured by what is termed leaf spot, which causes deadened spots in the foliage. It may be prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture before the fruit begins to color and again after the fruit is picked. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER IV. Diseases. 1. What portions of the plant are most susceptible to disease? 2. How are the majority of plant diseases propagated? 3. What is meant by the alternation of generations? 4. How are plant diseases generally treated? 5. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the plum and give remedy for each: Plum Pocket, Leaf Curl, Black Rot, Brown Rot, Shot Hole Fungus, Crown Gall. 6. What diseases are injurious to the pear? 7. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the apple and give remedy for each: Apple Blight, Bitter Rot, Black Rot, Crown Gall, Leaf Rust, Apple Scab, Powdery Mildew, Fruit Scald. 8. How does spraying sometimes injure the trees? 9. How does frost affect the trees? ' 10. What is sunscald and how does it injure the trees? 11. How may it be remedied? 12. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the peach and give reme'dy for each: Brown Rot, Crown Gall, Leaf Scald, Scab, Yellows. DISEASES INJURIOUS TO FRUITS. 91 13. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the grape and give remedy for each: Anthracnose, Black Rot, Downy Mildew, Powdery Mildew. 14. What are some general preventives for diseases of the grape? 15. How does rust or sunburn affect the foliage of the straw- berry? 16. What is the remedy for it? 17. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the blackberry and give remedy for each: Crown Gall, Leaf Spot, Orange Rust. 18. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the raspberry and give remedy for each: Leaf Curl, Orange Rust, Crown Gall, Anthracnose. 19. What diseases affect the cherry? 20. What diseases affect the quince? 21. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the quince and give remedy for each: Leaf Blight, Black Rot. 22. Describe the injury caused by the following diseases of the gooseberry and currant and give remedy for each: Mildew and Leaf Spot. CHAPTER V. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. The methods of spraying of plants naturally divide them- selves into two groups, (1) dust spraying and (2) liquid spray- ing. Dust and Liquid Spraying Compared. — In a general way it may saf-ely be stated that insecticides and fungicides applied in the dust form to trees are not as efficient as when applied in the liquid form, and the difference in efficiency is enough to make it worth the extra trouble necessary to employ the liquid form under all ordinary circumstances. The principal difficulty with the dust spray is in getting it to stick to the foliage and fruit. It should be applied while the foliage is damp. This may be soon after a rain, or while the foliage is damp with dew. Advantage cannot often be taken of the former condition; hence one must usually rely on getting the dust spray on very early in the morning or oc- casionally late in the evening. In either case it will be out of the regular working hours and therefore disagreeable. The wind also interferes much more with the application of dust sprays than with liquid sprays. This difficulty, however, is helped by the fact that in the early morning, when the dust spray must usually be applied, there is seldom much wind dur- ing the summer months. Another reason for the comparative inefficiency of dust sprays — and this applies especially to the application of dry Bordeaux mixture — is that the dry form can never be obtained in as finely divided condition, whether pre- pared at home or in the factory, as good home-made liquid sprays. This means that an equal or even greater quantity of the dust form cannot be as thoroughly distributed over a given amount of leaf surface as can the liquid form, and h«nce will leave more unprotected spots, through which disease or insect pests may enter. The great advantage in favor of dust sprays is the comparative cheapness of their application because large quantities of water do not need to be hauled around in order to apply the spraying material, but, as previously stated, this SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 03 is not enough, to make up for the difference in efficiency. How- ever, it may become of much importance in the case of hilly land. Here the light dust spray outfits can be used when it would be impossible to get around with a barrel of liquid spray, or, much less, with the large wagon outfits. Liquid Spraying Outfits. Pressure. — The important point In the application of liquid sprays is to get a high pressure. This should not be less than 75 pounds on an ordinary pres- sure gauge. For high trees better work will be accomplished with a pressure of 125 pounds. It is not usually advisable to us-e a pressure of over 125 pounds, because it is too hard on the machinery and apparatus in general. The higher the pres- sure it is practicable to maintain, however, the more efficient will be the application of the spray. This should be applied in the finest mist-like form pos- sible, and a good pressure is nec- essary to accomplish this. A fine mist will float among the foliage like a fog if there is not too stiff a breeze, and will cover both sides of the leaves and fruit much bet- ter than could possibly be the case with a spray of drops such as comes from an ordinary nozzle under low pressure. Agitation in Barrel Outfits. — The movement of the barrel while in use is often sufficient to keep well made Bordeaux and other light sprays from settling, but with the heavier sprays, like Paris Green and lime-sulfur wash, some provision for agitation is necessary. Probably the best way to provide for this agitation is to have a paddle attached to the pump near the bottom of the barrel in such a manner that it will move with every stroke of the handle and thus keep the liquid stirred up and prevent settling. Another method of providing for agitation, known as "jet agitation," is to leave a small hole in the bottom of the cylinder, through which a part of Fig. 41. -Knapsack spray- er. 94 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the liquid is forced out with each stroke. This method works quite well while the putap is new and the packing tight, but as the pump becomes worn it will usually be found that all of the liquid which the cylinder will handle will be needed in order to maintain sufficient pressure. Moreover, the hole through which the jet escapes wears larger in time and thus further helps to decrease the efficiency of the pump. Agitation in Tank Outfits. — ^All tank outfits should be equip- ped for agitation for all kinds of spraying compounds. It is, however, desirable not to have the agitation too violent, be- cause with some spraying compounds, especially with the lime- sulfur wash, there may be considerable sediment which, while small enough to pass through the strainer on the suction hose and through the nozzle in small quantities, may in larger quantities cause con- siderable difficulty with these parts. The agita- tion should be just sufficient to keep the finer particles in suspension and still allow the coarse particles to settle. One way of providing agitation is to have the tank sectioned crosswise with partitions every two and a half or three feet, leaving a hole about a foot wide and six inches high through which the liquid will rush and cause a general stirring up every time the wagon is driven forward to another tree. This method does well with small to medium-sized trees with well made Bordeaux and the lighter spraying compounds but where they tend to settle rapidly, such agitation is seldom sufficient, and where the trees are so large that considerable periods occur between movements of the wagon it is entirely insufficient. Another objection to this method is that the partitions make it difficult Fig. 42. — Plum leaf covered with arsenate of lead after 10 days. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 95 to clean out the tank and remove the coarse sediment which collects in the bottom. A better method of providing for agi- tation is by means of a rod running lengthwise of the tank, with perforated cross pi-eces about six or eight inches high, cut rounding to fit in the bottom of the tank, and twelve to sixteen inches wide, attached at every two and one-half or three feet. There are two methods of giving this apparatus the alternating backward and forward movement necessary for agitation. Prob- ably the most common way is by means of a chain drive from one of the hind wheels of the wagon. This method, of course, supplies agitation only when the wagon is in motion and is therefore to some extent open to the same objections as the preceding method. It has the advantage, however, of giving more thorough agitation while it is working and of being such a simple arrangement that it can easily be made, and there is little about it to get out of order. The other method of supplying the mo- tion to the agitator is by hav- ing it connected with the pump. Up to the present time no really substantial method of connection has been devised, and little pro- vision has been made for regulating the amount of agi- tation given. Usually this agitator gives more agitation than is needed. It will, how- ever, probably be the best perfected, because it is con- tinuous. Provision is sometimes made for hand operation of the agitator by means of a handle fastened in the top of the tank. The working parts of pumps and the lining of the bamboo spray poles should be of brass for most spraying compounds. If the parts are made of iron they are liable to ordinary rust- ing and to corrosion by Bordeaux mixture and similar corn- Fig. 43. — Barrel sprayer, method when it has become 96 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. pounds. With the lime-sulfur wash iron parts last longer than brass parts, hut any kind of metal will wear rapidly, since this compound contains much grit on account of the large quan- tities of lime used in making it. Air Chamber. — All spray pumps should be' provided with an air chamber of liberal size. This equalizes the pressure between the strokes of the pump, thus giving a more even flow of spray from the nozzle and easing the strain on the hose. Nozzles. — Most of the nozzles now in use have a chamber, known as the "ed- dy chamber," underneath the nozzle-cap, with the entrance into the chamber so ar- ranged that a rapid, whirling motion of the liquid results and causes the liquid, if under proper pressure, to break up and leave the nozzle in a very finely divided, mist-like condition. There are a number of types of nozzles, but the amateur will probably have the best success by using nozzles of the Vermorel type. Where sufficient power is available, as with gasoline engines, two or more poles may be run from one pump, each pole bear- ing from two to four nozzles. Clogging of the nozzle may result from seyeral causes. The most common is improper straining. The spraying mixtures should always be strained, when run into the spraying barrel or tank, through as fine a mesh as possible. For lime-sulfur wash about twenty meshes per inch must be used because a sma,ller mesh fills up badly. For most other sprays a mesh as small as twenty -five per inch should be used if possible. A much finer mesh can be used when the strainer is made with the wire mesh on the sides as well as on the bottom because this allows the liquid to continue to pass through the strain- er when the bottom has been covered with sediment, as frequent- ly occurs with lime-sulfur wash. The mesh should be of brass or copper. Whenever burlap is used for holding the dissolving Fig-. 44.— Bucket pump outfit. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 97 blue vitriol, it should be of a good, firm grade. If it is flimsy, much fiber may leave the burlap and ultimately get into the noz- zles and clog them. Wood fiber, becoming loose from the in- side of the spray tank, will also frequently cause clogging of the nozzle. A high pressure will drive much sediment through the nozzles that otherwise would clog them. Hose. — The hose must be strong and durable in order to avoid delays from breakage and disagreeable leakages. Three- ply three-eighth inch is most commonly used. One extensive" fruit grower in the East uses seven-ply three-eighth inch hose. It is not advisable to use a larger hose because it does not stand the pressure so well and is heavier to drag around from tree to tree in spraying. Thoroughness of work is es- sential to real success in spray- ing. The man who goes about his trees in a "hit or miss" fash- ion, leaving a branch unsprayed here and the center of the tree unsprayed there, is the one who finds that spraying does not pay. An apple that is not completely covered with a coat of poison is not completely protected from the second brood of the codlin moth larvae. Every inch of twig and branch of a tree sprayed for the San Jose scale, that is not coated with the mixture, has just as many live scales on it as it had before the spraying outfit came by that tree, and hence remains unmolested as a source of infection on the new growth and of re-infection on the treated portions as soon as the coat of spray becomes ineffective. Many who begin to spray after an orchard is about full grown find that the trees are set too closely together. Enough space should be left between the rows to permit the ready passage of the spraying outfit at all times. It is impossible to do good work in spraying trees where one cannot get around conveniently with the spray pole. More- over, in a closely set orchard, a horse pulling a barrel outfit oo Figr. 45. — ^Inexpensive com- pressed air sprayer for spraying currants, pota- toes, cabbages, etc. 98 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. a stone-boat will often not be able to get down the row, to say nothing of the impossibility of getting through with a power outfit. Kinds of Spraying Outfits. — For spraying on a very small scale, the knapsack, bucket pump, and five-gallon compressed Fi{ 46. — One of many tjpes of sprayers with power fnam engine. gasoline air outfits are very serviceable. The cheapest and most gen- erally useful spraying outfit on areas up to five acres is a first- class oil barrel set upright on a stone-boat with a good spray pump fastened in it. On larger areas up to 15 or 20 acres the wagon tank with a horizontal hand pump is more practicable, since it has greater capacity and efficiency. On areas of over twenty acres the air-cooled gasoline outfit will usually be a good investment. It relieves the laborious work of pumping by hand, and correspondingly reduces the working force necessary and gives a higher pressure. With a little mechanical ingenuity and care on the part of the operator it should be easily kept m good working order. SPRAYING AND SPRAYING APPARATUS. 99 Another type of spraying outfit is what is known as the 'gas sprayer." The spray mixture is run into a tight steel tank Fig. 47. — Forms of Vermorel Spray nozzles in common use. a. — ^Ver- morel nozzle with an opening, c. — Vermorel nozzle with four openings, b. — The top and base of extension rod, showing a cap to keep the spray liquid off the hand. of 50 to 250 gallons capacity. A carbon dioxide gas tank is connected with this and the gas released from it^ according to the pressure desired, into the spray tank. This method has the advantage of being the most simple arrangement possibl-e. It is, however, expensive, since the gas tanks must be sent back to headquarters to be refilled, involving considerable cost in freight in distant locations, as well as the cost of refilling. In- jury has frequently resulted to trees sprayed with this type of sprayer, presumably because the carbon dioxide gas united with thf! "lime" in the Bordeaux mixture, leaving free copper sul- fate which burned the foliage. 100 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fi£ 48. — Spray pump with hori- zontal movement. QUESTIONS— Chapter V. Spraying and Spraying Apparatus. 1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of dust spraying-? 2. What are the important things to be remembered for success- ful liquid spraying? 3. By what means can the spraying mixture be kept well mixed in the barrel spraying outfits? In the tank spraying outfits? 4. What materials should be used for makipg the working parts of spray pumps? 5. What causes the clogging of the nozzles and how may it be remedied? 6. What care should be taken in spraying the orchard? 7. What spraying outfits are best adapted to small areas? To large areas? CHAPTER VI. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. While good, sound business judgment is necessary through- out the whole round of successful fruit growing, it is especially important when the grower comes to picking and marketing. The successful fruit grower must not only study how to raise fruit and what kinds are needed in the mai-kets of the world but he must learn the best way to market it so as to bring him the largest possible returns. Markets may easily be di- vided into small, local and large, and the methods of selling may vary greatly in different sections. The ways of doing busi- ness are much more uniform in the large markets, but there is much difference in this respect in different sections and th'5 grower should study carefully the peculiarities of his markets. Fruit growers may also be divided into class-es, according as they retail or wholesale their products, i^arge fruit growers must be wholesalei-s, while many small growers can often, to advantage, work up a retail business. The methods of dis- tributing fruit have become very much improved in recent years so that the prices are more uniform than formerly. This, to be sure, interferes with tbe high prices that occasionally pre- vailed in local markets under the old methods. On the other hand it makes less liable the glutting of the local market and the resultant low prices that were so troublesome formerly, so that the present conditions are probably better than the old for both the producer and the consumer. Picking. — The marketing of fruit begins with the picking for it is the first step in selling it. No matter how carefully other details are attended to, the picking must be done right or the fruit will be of little value. Fruit allowed to become too ripe before picking, or roughly handled in picking, may be rendered unsalable. For best results, fruit to be marketed in fresh condition must be picked by hand. The exact time to pick fruit can only be determined by 102 POPULAR FRUIT GROWINGS. experience. A rule for this cannot be laid down for every class of fruits. Time to Pick Fruit. — Strawberries are picked -swHen they begin to turn red, and raspberries when the fruits part readily from the stem on which they grow; blackberries and dewber- ries as soon as well colored, although the flavor would general- ly be improved by allowing them to remain longer on the plants. Gooseberries are generally marketed green; currants are allowed to color, but are not allowed to ripen and are gener- ally preferred for jelly-making when a few berries show some gi'een color. Cherries are picked as soon as well colored. This will depend somewhat on the variety. Plums may be picked when they are well colored. The Japanese kinds color well after picking. Prunes are generally allowed to ripen on the trees and are shaken of£ if to be used for drying. If to be shipped for use when fresh,, they are picked as soon as well col- ored. Pears are usually picked as soon as full grown and are preferably ripened in the shade. For the distant market it is necessary that pears be shipped green and be allowed to ripen in transit. At Fresno, California, the season for Bart- lett pears lasts two months, the first ship- ments beginning as soon as the fruit is large enough to sell. Peaches for the nearby market are picked as soon as they begin to show a slight softness and be- fore they are mellow; for the distant mar- ket, they are picked quite green. Summer cooking apples are generally picked as soon as large enough to use, without re- gard to ripeness. All the summer apples that are to be shipped must be picked green as they are quite perishable when ripe. It may be best, however, to allow them to color a little. Late varieties are picked as soon as well colored and before severe frosts. Apples should always be picked earlier if they show by the windfalls that they are Fig. 49. — Ladder in common use for picking fruit. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 103 ripening, as there is liable to be serious loss from this cause. Winter apples generally keep best if picked a little before they are fully colored, but while still firm and hard. Grapes should be picked when fully ripe, as they do not ripen after being picked. Fig. 50. — Ladder used for picking apples and bag for holding them. The stems should be left on strawberries, plums, apples, pears, grapes, currants and cherries. If the stems are pulled out of the fruits, injuries are caused that encourage rotting. Fruit should seldom be shipped in the same package that 104 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. it is picked in, but should be sorted into other suitable pack- ages in a cool storehouse. Local peddling is possible where the grower lives near his customers. In some sections the dealers have combined and se- cured legislation which has made this prohibitory; but where practicable, it is a very satisfactory way of disposing of the product so as to get the highest possible price. A variety of fruits are most easily disposed of in this way and under some conditions it is a good plan to combine the peddling of fruit with a vegetable business. Commission Dealer. — The larger grower must find some party to sell his produce. It may be best for him to do this through the commission merchant. In any case, it should be understood that the larger grower has a decided advantage over the small grower as he is a bigger factor in the market and will receive more attention. It is most important to secure an hon- est and able commission dealer if the business is to be done in this way. The usual charge for handling fruit is 10% of the gross sales. Associations of fruit growers, when well managed, offer the most satisfactory method of selling. Here the sales are made by an agent of the growers. Such an arrangement gives to a large number of small growers a power in the market equal to that of the big grower and shipper. It prevents their com- peting injuriously with one another in the local or distant mar- ket and reduces marketing to a simpler matter. The small grow- er can stay at home and look after the picking and packing, as he does not have to go to market when he sells through an as- sociation, and still he is a controlling factor in the market. Organizations of this kind should have correspondents over a large territory and they can often ignore the prices prevailing in the local markets. Fruit Packages, Packing. — The packages for fruits are many and various and the shipper should be familiar with them all. In some of the older fruit sections it is customary to have the pack- ages for small fruit returned to the packer. As a rule this is a poor practice and results in the use of unsightly pack- HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 105 ages which hurt the sale of the fruit. The same is true of the practice of using dirty barrels for apples. The common experi- ence of the larger fruit growers leads to a belief in the gift pack- age for general marketing. In fact, for long distant shipments, the return package is out of the question, although it may do for some local markets. Every fruit shipper should occasionally visit the great markets and study this question of marketing 7mmmw^MS^MWM^\^ Fig. 51. — ^Fruit packages, showing bushel basket with cover, S2-quart gift package for berries and grape basket. fruits at first hand. He will probably learn more about fruit packages in a single hour of inspection at such a place than in a week of studying such a subject in the small markets. Uniform packages. — While there are a great variety of fruit packages in use in the different markets of this country, it is very desirable that the packages used for selling fruit in the same market be uniform. For instance, it is important to have all the so-called quart boxes, such as are commonly used for selling small fruit, of the same size, otherwise there will be lack of fair competition among growers, since many buyers do not properly distinguish between the standard package and one that is short. In some states, and notably in Canada, legislation has been invoked for this purpose and with good effect. Thes'i laws generally take the form of prohibiting any person from offering for sale any fruit package smaller than the prescribed size unless each package is plainly labeled that it is short in size. There is much more attention paid to this subject in America 106 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. than in Europe where comparatively little fruit is used and 11'.: t generally marketed in a variety of packages. '^latim. Fig. 52. — Fruit package with separate compartment for each fruit. The following list shows some of the fruit packages that aro prescribed by law: Fruit Package Laws.' New York Small Fruit Package Law: Quarts shall contain 67 cubic inches. Pints shall contain 33 1^ cubic inches. ^e, Pint shall contain 16% cubic inche.s. New York Apple, Pear, Quince and Potato Barrel Law: Barrels shall contain 100 quarts of grain, dry measure. Head diameter shall be 17% inches. Stave length shall be 28 1/^ inches. Bulge shall not be less than 64 inches, outside measurement. Potatoes sold by weight shall weigh 174 pounds to the barrel. Harvesting, marketing and storing fruit. iu7 Massachusetts Berry Basket Law: Baskets shall be of the capacity of one quart, one pint, or one-half pint, Massachusetts standard dry measure. New Jersey Peach Basket Law: Peach baskets shall hold sixteen quarts, Winchester V2 bu. measure. Height of basket shall be 12 1,^ inches. Width across top 01 basket shall be 131/^ inches. Inside measurement shall contain 1075.1 cubic inches. Missouri Apple Barrel Law: Length of apple barrel shall be 28i^ inches. Chimes shall be % of an inch at the ends. Diameter of heads shall be 17%, Inches. Diameter of the center of the barrel, inside, shall be 20y2 inches. Canadian Fruit Package Law: Apples packed in Canada for export shall be packed in bar- rels. Distance between the heads, inside measurement, shall be 261/4 inches. Head diameter shall be 17 inches. Middle diameter of barrel shall be 18 1^ inches. Canadian Fruit Baskets shall contain, when level full a — ^Fifteen quarts or more. b — Eleven quarts and be 5% inches deep, inside measure- ment, c — ^Six and two-thirds quarts and be 4% in. deep, inside measurement. d — Two and two-fifths quarts! Michigan Peach Basket Law: Peach basket shall contain 716 4-5 cubic inches or 1-3 bu. Michigan Standard Barrel Law: Barrel staves shall be 27 inches long. Heads shall be 16l^ ins. in diameter. Maine Barrel Law: A barrel of potatoes shall weigh 165 pounds. Tennessee Apple Barrel Law: Apple barrels shall contain 2i/^ bushels. 108 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Wisconsin Apple Barrel Law: Apple barrels shall contain 100 quarts, dry measure. Florida Orange Box: The standard orange box adopted by the Florida Fruit Ex- change measures 12x12x26% inches. Georgia Peach Crate: The peach crate adopted by the Georgia Horticultural Socie- ty measures 8x12^2x22 inches. Raspberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, strawber^ ries and small plums are generally shipped in boxes that are com- monly called quarts and occasionally in pint boxes. There is quite a variety in the forms and sizes of boxes used for this pur- pose. In the Central states, almost without exception, the gift package is used and here the boxes are generally made of wood veneer, with the bottom raised about one-half inch and the cor- ners ventilated. Cases usually contain sixteen or twenty-four pints or quarts. This makes a very satisfactory package in which fruit carries well. Grapes are usually marketed in the so-called five or ten- pound veneer basket which usually contains either four or eight pounds. This basket has a wooden cover which is held down by wire. Plums are usually marketed in baskets containing about one-half peck each. In the Eastern states a package resembling the grape basket is often used, while in the Pacific Coast states a basket that fits into a case holding six or eight of them is a favorite. Peaches are shipped in much the same packages as plums although in Delaware round baskets are much used. The bushel basket. — In some sections a favorite package for marketing apples, pears and quinces is the bushel basket with a cover. While this does very Avell for local use it is too waste- ful of space in packing cars to warrant its general use. It is, however, a popular package with the purchaser as it is useful to him and he is willing to pay something for it, while the box package is regarded by the purchaser as being of no value. The bushel box is the popular fruit package in many of the Western states and has given excellent returns. For fancy fruit, it is an excellent package, but for fruit of orxlinary grades it is probably not as good as the barrel, as the cost of the pack- HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 109 ag-8 and packing is much more than where barrels are used. Much fancy fruit from the Western states is wrapped in paper before it is packed and is then put in the boxes in layers by hand. Of course such fruit ships and keeps better than fruit not so carefully handled. In some local markets it is customary to sell a large amount of choice fruit in a return package which is not covered. Such boxes present a much improved appearance if the fruit is faced down and packed in layers. This is done by taking off the bot- ■Fruit press for packing bushel boxes. torn, placing the box, bottom end up, on a small shutter and then putting in the fruit in layers. The bottom boards are then nail-ed on and the box turned upright. It is often worth while to take considerable care in packing fruit even if intended only for local consumption. A box packed in layers will hold con- siderably more than one in which the fruit is pour-ed in. In packing apples and pears in boxes for shipment to distant markets, some pressure must be applied to insure the fruit be- ing solid and firm in the boxes. This is generally given by springing on the head boards, which leaves the top bulging. 110 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. When packed in a car, such packages should lie on theii' sides and he held in place by the use of strips of wood between each tier of boxes. Fruit packing material is generally bought by the grower all cut out ready to put together. For many of the small pack- ages, a wire stitching machine is used in putting them together. Barrels are generally bought in the crate and set up in a local Fig. 54. — Sorting table for fruit packed in boxes. cooper shop. Box material is generally handled in the same way. By purchasing it in this way and putting it together him- self the grower can often utilize his- spare labor to advantage. Barrels are commonly used for marketing apples and some- times for pears. This package is preferred for apples in most of the Eastern markets, and especially when the fruit is some- HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. Ill what inferior in quality, or when low in price. It is probably best to always market the extra choice apples in boxes. Formerly there was a great difference in the size of barrels used for packing apples and this fruit came to mai-ket in barrels holding scarcely two and a half bushels, while sugar barrels, which hold nearly four bushels, were occasionally used. This worked in various ways to make the marketing of apples a very loose matter. To help overcome this difficulty, the National Ap- ple Shippers' association adopted, a standard size for apple bar- rels. According to these requirements a standard barrel must have a head ITYs inches in diameter; a stave 28y2 inches in length and a bulge of not less than 64 inches outside measure- ment. This size of barrel is by law the standard barrel in New York state for the marketing of apples, pears, quince and pota- toes. The standard Missouri barrel is nearly identical. How to pack a barrel of apples. — Select a clean barrel. If second hand barrels are to be used, such as flour barrels, they should be thoroughly cleaned by washing and rubbing. If this is not done, the fruit is apt to look dusty when opened which will detract from its sale. Under such conditions some packers follow the plan of lining the barrels with newspapers or other cheap paper which is an excellent plan. Ordinarily, new barrels are used. Sometimes a circular piece of paper is put on each end. The barrel being placed before the packer with the bottom out and the head down, the packer puts about a half bushel of apples in the bottom and proceeds to turn them so that the stem end faces the head, i. e. downwards. Two layers are gen- erally faced in the case of fruit of first quality but for ordinary fruit, one layer of facing fruit is enough. When these are in, the barrel is filled by pouring in the sorted fruit from a basket that is put down in the barrel before it is emptied so as to avoid the least chance of bruising the fruit. For this purpose a half-bushel basket with a swinging bale is best. As each basketful is put in, the barrel is gently shaken so as to settle the fruit but not enough to bruise it. When the barrel is nearly full, a layer of apples is put on with the stem end up. This layer should stand up out of the barrel two inches or more. Tlie chime hoops are ♦hen loosened a little and the outside one taken off, but not the 112 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. second hoop, as this would allow the barrel to spread too much. A head is then put on under a barrel press and is slowly forced into the barrel. While the pressure is being applied a few well directed strokes with a hammer directs the head into place, when the chime hoop is driven down and a few nails are put in to hold the head in place while the press is removed. The outside chime hoop is put on and nailed in place and then the lining hoops are nailed fast. The barrel is then turned over and sten- cilled on the end that was downward but is now the top. A package thus packed opens up with a nice show of evenly packed apples and makes a good appearance. The necessity of pressing in the apples arises from the fact that otherwise the apples will shake in the barrel when it is moved and will bruise. A properly pack- ed barrel has no movement of its contents. There is considerable bruising of ihe fruit where the pressure ,is ap- plied but such bruises ar-e not often injurious. Barrel press. — There are sev- eral kinds of bar rel presses In common use. Presses illustrated in figure 55 are the forms com- monly obtained from the implement dealers. Where such a press cannot be conveniently obtained, a very good one may be made by any blacksmith by using an ordinary bench screw for applying the pressure. Grades of fruit. — For the most successful handling of fruit there is nothing more important than proper grading. Even grades of fruit that can be depended upon soon establish for a shipper a reputation that is of. great advantage to him in marketing his product. The grades of fruit are variously designated. It is Fig. 55. — Packing presses for apples. Foot press, b. — Screw press. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 113 generally customax-y to mark the choicest fruit with the words "Choice," "Select," or "Fancy," but other special marks are used. The next grading is generally "Fii-st Quality", "A-1," or "AA." The lower grade may be marked "A" or "2nds," or for the various grades one or more "X's" may be used. It is seldom that more than three grades are made. In seasons when prices are low it will often be found unprofitable to ship fruit of third quality. Every shipper should put his name on his fruit package to indicate his responsibility for its contents. In this way a ship- per's product comes to be known and fairly valued, which is an advantage to him as well as to the dealer and consumer. For grading apples and pears, the Ontario Fruit Growers association has adopted the following standards which gives a good idea of what such grades should consist of: 1. X A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of uniformly large size and high color for the variety named; of normal form; at least ninety per cent, free from worm holes, scabs or other defects. 2. A No. 1. Sound apples or pears of nearly uniform size and good color for the variety named; of normal form; at least ninety per cent free from worm holes, scabs or other defects. 3. No. 1. Sound apples or pears of fairly uniform size; at least eighty per cent, free from worm holes, scabs or other d-efects, 4. No. 2. Apples or pears that are disqualified from be- ing classed under any of the aforementioned grades, but which are useful for culinary purposes, and not less than two inches in diameter. Storage and Storage Buildings. It is a common fault, at least with growers of late keeping varieties of apples, that they are often too quick to sell their product and in consequence stand in their own light in the matter of getting the best returns from their labor. As a rule. It is unwise for the apple grower to sell late-keeping apples from th-e orchard. It is generally far better to wait until those who wish to rush their fruit to market have disposed of it be- fore selling. If the grower sells his product as it is picked, 114 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. he has to look after his harvesting and marketing at the same time, which is apt to crowd him and his facilities to his disad- vantage. Of course, in order to store fruit properly, the grower must study the keeping quality of his product and he equipped with cool storage so that he can hold it for at least a few weeks. Such facilities are an incentive to the grower to give extra at- tention to the fruit he raises, as only good fruit can be stored to advantage. The inferior fruit, if to he marketed at all, should generally be disposed of early. Cold storage apparatus of the modern improved form is too expensive for general use by individual fruit growers and it longitudinal section. is a question whether it is not usually best, when fruit is to be stored for a considerable time, for the grower to patronize the owners of cold storage plants rather than build for his own use or, better yet, co-operate with others and erect a large, m'.odern, fruit storage building. Cooling rooms adapted to the storage of small fruit and other quickly perishable products, even for a short time, could be used to advantage on every fruit farm. These need not be expensive and ofte.n an old building may be refitted and made HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 115 to answer the purpose. The chief requirements are to arrange for thorough insulation against outside changes of temperature. This can be most satisfactorily arranged by the use of dead air spaces and building paper. There should be at least two well constructed dead air spaces about the storage room. These dead air spaces should be made in the floor and roof as well as in the walls. The windows, if such are found necessary, should consist of at least three sash set closely together so as to make two tight dead air spaces between. It will be found that rooms above ground, surrounded by well made dead air spaces, are more satisfactory for cooling fruit than cellars even if the latter are provided with proper insulation. The cost of properly fitting up a cellar as a cool- ing room is nearly or quite as expensive as the fitting up of a similar space above ground and the wood and other materials used in its construction are short lived. The stone, oement or brick walls used ordinarily in cellars are good conductors of heat and among the poorest of materials for the walls of a storage room. A fruit grower provided with a well insulated fruit room will often find it to his advantage to lower its temperature by the use of ice early in the season. Figs. 56 and 57 show a good method of constructing a fruit storage house large enough to hold a few carloads of apples, with provision for the use of ice for reducing th-e temperature. The building is designed to be located on a hillside of such a slope that the first fioor will be on the level of the surface at one end and the second floor a few feet above the surface at the other. The building is 18 by 38 feet, interior measurement, two stories in height and divided into four rooms, two on each floor. On the second floor is the ice-storage room, IS by 21 feet, in which the future supply of ice is stored, and the ice chamber, 15 by 16 feet, in which is held the ice that cools the refrigerating room directly below. A door in the ice chamber communicates with the outside. This is for the unloading of ice and is the only outside entrance into the second story. The refrigerating room is 16 by 18 feet, and is the compartment in which the temperature is to be reduced, and in which perishable products are to be stored. Leading 116 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. into this room is the cooling room, 18 by 21 feet, which is to be used as a general purpose storage c-ellar. A small entrance room protects the doorway into the cooling room. This is the only entrance to the ground floor. The flooring is laid tight in the storage room and provided with a slope towards the center. A gutter catches the drainage and carries it into the gutter from the ice chamber. To prevent 57. — Kansas Cold Storage House, a.— tails of construction Vertical section, b. — De- leakage the floor of the storage room must have a sheet iron cov-ering. The floor of the ice chamber is laid with 2 by 4-inch lumber with 1-inch space between. This provides for air cir- culation and water drainage. A sloping catch floor leads the water into the gutter which carries it down and out through the cooling room. HARVESTING, MARKETING AND STORING FRUIT. 117 Cellars and caves may often be used to advantage for stor- ing apples. Such storage is cheap and easily obtained. They are only useful for this purpose during cold weather. When properly handled apples keep well in them. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VI. 1. Why does so much depend upon the picking of the fruit for the market? 2. What effect does the wide distribution of fruit growing sec- tions have upon ttie market? 3. What is the proper time for picking different fruits? 4. When is local peddling a success? 5. What is the relation of the commissioner to the fruit grower? 6. Of what value are fruit growers associations to the small fruit grower? 7. What is the advisability of using the return package? K y^'\^y is it necessary to have packages for selling the same kind of fruit uniform in size? 9. What are some of the packages prescribed by law? 10. How are small fruits generally marketed? 11. What is the standard marketing package for grapes? 12. How are plums and peaches marketed? 13. What is the popular package for apples, pears and quince? 14. How are ordinary grades packed? The fancy grades? 15. What is the size of the .standard apple barrel? 16. How should a barrel be packed? 17. What is a barrel press? 18. What are the advantages of grading the fruit properly? 19. How should they be designated? 20. What are the Ontario Fruit Growers standards for grading apples and pears? 21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a cold storage plant? 22. How may inexpensive cooling rooms be fitted up? 23. Why are cooling rooms above ground more satisfactory and economical than those in cellars? CHAPTER VII. SOME FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH The roots of plants are made up of several distinct parts. The main central root is termed the tap root when it extends directly downward into the -earth, as in the roots of Bur Oak and Black Walnut. When a plant has several spreading roots it is said to have surface roots, but such roots may sometimes divide and go deep into the ground; for example, the roots of th-e Red Oak and White Pine. Root fibres or rootlets is the term used for the smialler division of roots. The foregoing roots have hard bark and do not feed the plant. They do little more than anchor it in place. The roots feed through what are known as the root hairs, which are soft, fresh, young roots generally white in color. The collar or crown of a plant is that portion where the roots and top unite. It is close to the surface of the ground. This portion of the tree is frequently injur-ed by borers, by ice and in other ways. It is a good plan, especially in the case of young trees, to protect them in winter with, a bank of earth around the collar. The stems of plants may be annual, as in the case of many garden plants; biennial, as in the case of the raspberry and blackberry, and perennial, as in the currants, gooseberries and fruit trees. Runners are creeping stems, as in the case of the strawberry. Suckers are stems springing up from roots or underground stems. Thorns are modified branches and live for indefinite periods while prickles, like those on the gooseberry, are modifications of the bark and live but one year. The bark covers the whole exterior of the trunk, branches and roots and serves as a protection. It is made up of two parts, the outer or corky layer which is dead bark, and the in- ner, or live bark. These vary much in appearance and thickness on different kinds of trees. For instance, on the White Birch the corky layer is pure white, very thin and tough, whil« on our White Pine it is very dark brown and often an inch or Fundamental principles of plant growth. H9 more in thickness and quite brittle. This covering of bark is quite impervious to disease wliere intact, but there are gener- ally many small breaks in its surface through which disease may enter and once inside the bark it is well protected. Cracks in the live bark are most common in early summer when growth is rapid. Diseases may also enter through some wound, and hence the desirability of covering large wounds with some impervious material to keep disease out of the plant. Buds are the portions of plants which always tip new gi'owth. They are often opposite, as in the case of the Maple, or alternate as in the apple, pear, plum or peach. Adventitious buds are those that start- apparently without system. Theoreti- cally, botanists say that any cell may grow into a bud so that buds may appear in almost any place on the trunk, roots, or branches, and in the case of the orange a single seed may grow three plants, one of which is the result of ordi- nary sexual union while the other two may be looked up- on as being adventitious. Buds may produce leaves or flowers. The former are termed leaf buds and the lat- ter flower buds. These are illustrated in' Fig. 58. They vary in shape, time of forma- tion and location in different plants. Flower buds are more liable to winter injury than leaf buds. Plants that are growing fast are quite liable to form only leaf buds and often fail to form flower buds. When growth is rather slow naturally or when checked by artificial means, fruit buds are formed. In the case of some trees that do not come into bear- Fig-. 58. — ^Pruit buds of: a. — Apple, b. — Plum. c. — Peach. The crosses indicate fruit buds. 120 POPULAR FRUIT GROWllSfCJ. ing readily, girdling is sometimes practic-ed in order to throw the plant into hearing. This may be done in a variety of ways but should not be attempted except in the case of trees that seem hopeless otherwise. Girdling may be done successfully as follows: With an ordinary cross-cut saw, cut in a spiral direction 9,round the trunk or branch to be treated and have the cut end just under where it commenced but several inches below. In this way the circulation of sap is only sufficiently impeded to cause flower buds to form. Such wounds seldom cause serious injury to vigorous trees. This work should be done in June if at all, but is seldom a desirable practice. The leaves of plants are made up of loose, op-en tissue enclosed in a thin mem- brane. This membrane has openings in it through which the plant takes in carbonic acid gas, i. e. carbon dioxide from the air, and throws off large quantities of water. It is through these openings, called stomata, that diseases frequently enter the plant. Such openings also occur in the young twigs of some plants. It is in its green por- tions that the plant absorbs and assimilates food, and since this green portion is formed almost exclusively in our fruit plants only in the presence of direct sunlight, the im- portance of lots of sunlight for best develop- ment of these plants is -evident. The flower is the portion of the tree designed for the production of seed. All the parts of our fruit plants in a natural state seem to facilitate this object. Flow- ers are often imperfect, as in the case of some forest trees, but in our com- mon cultivated fruit plants the flowers are generally perfect and only such flowers are referred to here. But flowers that are perfect may be self-sterile, that is, may not be fertile to their own pollen but need to be cross fertilized. Pig. 59.' — Trunk of apple tree two inches in diam- eter one year after girdling with saw. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OP PLANT GROWTH. 121 The parts of the flower and the purpose of each. — The parts of the flower are modified leaves. The outside covering of the flower of our common fruits is termed the calyx. Its purpose is to protect the more tender organs and it is gen-erally green in color. The next row of modified leaves of the flower is called the corolla. This is generally white or of some conspicuous Fig. 60. — Flower of Duchess of Oldenberg apple. color. It serves as a protection and also by its coloring at- tracts insects which assist in pollination. The next row of modified leaves are the stamens. They are of various forms, g-enerally tipped with a small pouch-like vessel in which the male element, known as pollen, is formed. The stem is called the filament and the pouch the anther. The pistils are the fe- male organs made up of ovary or seed pod, sl^Ie or stem, and stigma, which later is the part that receives and holds the pollen which grows through it to the seed. The bright colored por- 122 POPULAH FRUIT GROWma. tions and the nectar attract insects that aid in transferring the pollen from one flower to another. The edible portions of the fruit attract birds and other animals, including man, who aid in distributing the seed. Fruit. — A true fruit as defined by botanists is the ripened seed vessel and its contents. This agrees with the horticul- Fig-. 61. — Diagrammatic drawing showing how pollen grains grow down the pistil of the strawberry and unite with the contents of the ovary in the act of fertilization: At the right, cross section through flower of s.trawberry, showing its parts. turists' definition so far as fruits such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, plums, gooseberries and currants are concerned, but in the case of strawb-erries, blackberries and mulberries, this definition would allow us to claim only the single grains on the sides of the'berries as fruits, while in these fruits, we com- monly consider the fleshy center a part of the fruit. These lat- ter fruits are in structure much like an ear of corn with an . FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OP PLANT GROWTH. 123 edible cob. Tlie word fruit as used by tlie fruit grower liad a certain definite, well understood significance befoi'e the dawn of scientific botany and the botanists should not attempt to change the significance of the word. Pollen. — ^Pollen grains vary in form but are cell-like in structure and have the power of making a root-like growth into the tissues of the pistil to the ovary where the contents of the pollen grain unites with and fertilizes the ovule. Without this process taking place, seed is not produced and it is seldom that fruit is formed at all. Pollen from one distinct kind of fruit will not fertilize the ovule of another of a different, distinct kind but each is restricted to a very close limit. For instance, the pollen of one variety of the apple will fertiliz-e other apples but will not fertilize the plum. When varieties of the same or nearly allied fruits are fertilized with the pollen from one qr another, they are said to be crossed and the operation is termed crossing. The results from this work are seldom well marked in the crossed fruit although the skillful operator may sometimes be able to see it. But the results of the cross will show in the seedlings from the crossed fruit and it must not be expected that the seedlings will partake equally of the nature of each, for we know from much experience that the results of such crosses are uncertain and irregular. Pollination. — Under natural conditions flowers are pollen- ized in various ways, but chiefly by wind, in the case of plants that have inconspicuous flowers such .as corn, pine, spruce and poplar; and by insects in our cultivated fruits and most other plants which have conspicuous flowers. Some flow- ers are probably pollenized in both ways. Hybrids. — Where a cross is made between very unlike forms, as between the sand cherry and the plum, the result is generally termed a hybrid. The difference between crosses and hybrids is only one of degree and of late years there has been a tendency to do away witlj the use of the term, hybi id altogether. There is a very common impression that hybrids are exceedingly rare and of more value than ordinary crosses but such is far from being the case, as they are frequently of little value for any purpose and often fail to form seed and even to set fruit. 124 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fruit Plants from seed. — While our wild plants come nearly true from seed, our cultivated fruits, which have come from them,, will not come true but will show a decided tendency to resemble the wild, inferior forms. Although an occasional seed- ling may be a decided improvement over the cultivated kinds there is not one chance in a thousand of getting better fruits than those we now have by saving seed. This comes from the fact that we do not grow our fruits from seed but by grafting, budding, etc. If they w-ere grown for many generations from Fig. 62. — Showing variation in sizes and shapes of plums grown from the same lot of seed. seed it would undoubtedly be possible to get them to come as true to type as our garden vegetables. It must be noticed that as there are no two plants exactly alike the strongest ten- dency in plants is to be unlike. Some cultivated fruit plants that come nearly true from seed are a few local varieties of the peach, the Wyant plum and such strawberries as the Alpine and St. Anthony de Padua. The yearly round of life in plants consists of a raplcl growth in the spring, during which time the plant is using up FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 125 the store of food accumulated the year before. After this rapid growth has passed comes a period of slower growth in which the wood is said to ripen. That is, it becomes hard by reason of its cells becoming filled with starch or other plant food which is used to start growth in the spring. When this is completed active growth stops, but plant food is probably being stored up so long that the leaves still remain green. When we have warm, moist weather late in autumn, active growth sometimes starts again and some of this plant food is changed to unstable compounds which may result in winter killing. Some varieties are much more liable to start in this way than others. No characteristic of hardiness in plants is more certain than ear- ly maturity of wood. Assimilation. — Plants are made up of various tissues and these are composed of numerous cells. The material of which the cells are composed is largely carbon. This carbon is de- rived from the carbon dioxide of the air which enters the leaves, and, under the action of light, air and water is decom- posed; the oxygen is given off and the carbon is retained and, combining with water obtained from the roots, forms starch, sugar, gum and other plant foods. This process of food mak- ing is called assimilation and can be carried on only in the green parts of the plant and in these, only when exposed to light and air. Hence foliage, air and light are essential elements for plant growth, and the greater the quantity and better the de- velopment of foliage and the more light this foliage has at its disposal for its work the more vigorously will the tree grow. In general, therefore, the growth of the fruit and wood may be reduced either by the removal of foliage, which redupes the working surface, or by shading, wh ich somewhat checks the activity of the foliage by hindering light action. Transpiration. — The flow of sap in trees is not well un- derstood. In a g-eneral way it may be said that the sapwood transmits the water from the roots to the leaves, where a part enters into the assimilated sap and goes to build up the plant, and the remainder, which is by far the greater part, passes off as vapor. The amount thus transpired, varies greatly with the species, age of the tree, amount of foliage at work, amount of 126 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. light at its disposal, climatic conditions and the condition of tree growth. The amount of water transpired is so large In comparison to the amount retained in the tree that while an acre of forest may store in its trees 1000 pounds of carbon, 15 or 20 pounds of mineral substance and 5000 pounds of water Fig. 63. — Abnorxnal flower of strawberry with seven petals; ijot unusual. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PLANT GROWTH. 127 in a year, it may have taken from the soil and given off to the air from 500,000 to 1,500,000 pounds of water or from one- quarter to one-half as much as agricultural crops. It has been es- timated that the leaves of deciduous trees transpire one-sixth to one-third as much water as an equal surface of water. Large deciduous trees undoubtedly give off as much as a barrel of water a day in dry summer weather. Coniferous trees transpire much less water than most deciduous trees, frequently not over one- sixth as much. Mineral substances are taken up by plants in small quanti- ties and consist mostly of lime, magnesia, potash and phos- phorus. They are carried to the leaves where they are used, (perhaps also on their passage through the tree), with a part of the water in food preparation. The main part of the mineral substances taken up remains, as the water transpires in Ih-e lo:aves and young twigs, and is returned to the soil when the leaves are shed. Rest period of plants. — ^With very few exceptions, all plants require an occasional rest period for their best development. Some species get it naturally by being dried and others by be- ing frozen. Even when plants are kept under growng condi- tions the year round, they have periods of rest and of active growth. During the rest period plants undergo very few changes, and yet there is undoubtedly some growth during mild weather in winter, and as evaporation must be going on most of the time from twigs and buds water must be supplied from the roots. Classification of fruits. — The commercial fruits of th but sometimes PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 181 leaf mold or fresh, moist leaves are used for this purpo&e. .Where only small quantities are cared for, boxes are generally- used, which are left out doors in winter; but where large quanti- ties of large seeds like those of the peach and black walnut are used, they are often mixed in pits on the surface of the ground and covered with sod. Apple seed is gener- ally kept dry during the winter and moistened and frozen in the spring befbre sowing, but may be stored over winter by stratification with ex- cellent results. In the case of a few plants the seed will start at once if stratified. In such cases dry the seed and do not sow until spring. However, it is a good plan to mix it with damp sand in the latter part of winter for a few weeks, after which, it may be frozen before being sown. Fig. 64. — Seed stratified In pit and covered with sod. Fig. 65. — Boxes of stratified seeds at the Minnesota Experiment Station in Winter. Propagation by Offsets. (a) The strawberry and red raspberry, American plum, Mo- rello cherry and some other fruits may be grown by taking off sprouts that come up from the roots. Such sprouts are termed "offsets," or suckers. (b) Offsets are best removed in autumn or in the spring. In removing them, it is important to get a portion of the main 132 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. root from which, they grow. In the case of the plum, two or three inches of the main root is sufficient. Propagation by Layers. (a) The easiest and best way of increasing many orna- mental as well as fruit plants is by layering. Spring layers are made by laying down any portion of the plant in the spring. (b) Summer layers are made in the summer, generally in July, from wood of the same season's growth. (c) Mound layering is used for propagating the gooseberry, currant and quince. (d) Layers may be made at any time, al- though roots may not form for a year or more. (e) Layers should be taken up when well root- ed and dormant. This is generally in the autumn of the first year or in the following spring. (f) Layering is adapted to such fruits as the grape, cur- rant, gooseberry and black raspberry. Propagation by Cuttings. (a) Various portions of plants may be used for propagating plants. Cuttings may be made of the ripened wood of the branches in the case of the gooseberry, currant, grape, quince and Kieffer pear. (b) Cuttings may be made of the roots, as in the red raspberry, blackberry and some kinds of the Morello cherries and plumjs. Plants grown in this way from cuttings are gen- erally better than those grown from sprouts, Fig. 66. — Gooseberry that has been mound layered. PROPAGATION OP FRUIT PLANTS. 123 (c) Cuttings may be made of the soft wood of the sum- mer as iu the grape, currant and gooseberry and, in the case of the strawberry, they may be made from the immature offsets. Soft wood cuttings need a frame or greenhouse for best re- sults and should be treated similarly to geranium and coleus cuttings. Size of Cuttings. (a) The size of the cuttings used in propagation varies greatly. All that is absolutely necessary is to hav-e one bud to each cutting and this will produce good results, providing it has the proper conditions of heat and moisture surrounding it. One-bud cuttings are sometimes used for the currant and grape with good results, but must have the best of care. (b) Cuttings are generally made with more than one bud to encourage strong growth and to increase their chance ot living. Conditions Necessary for the Successful Growing of Hard wood Cuttings. (a) The wood for ripe wood (hardwood) cuttings must b« well matured and firm. Such wood, if well matured, has ia it plenty of food to start the cuttings into growth. (b) The wood should preferably be made up into cuttings in autumn or early winter if to go into the open ground. If not planted out at once they should be stored in a cold cellar, cave or pit outdoors. They will often be calloused by spring if thus treated. Cuttings may be of any length, from, one bud, up. It is customary to make cuttings of currant and gooseberry about eight inches long. Planting Cuttings. (a) The soil for cuttings should be rich in plant food, com- pact enough to hold moisture but porous enough at the sur- face to prevent baking. (b) Cuttings should generally be calloused before plant- ing for best results, but set out before they show roots. It is generally b-est to get cuttings into the ground as soon as the spring weather permits, but do not plant out grape cuttings until they are calloused. Currant cuttings may be made up in early autumn or even in the last of August and set out at once, as when thus treated they will often be rooted by winter. lU POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 67. — Cuttings properly planted out. (c) Set cuttings deep so that the upper bud will come just at the surface of the ground. Do not have over one inch of long cuttings above ground. (d) Set the cuttings slanting, i. e., at an angle of 45° or at half-pitch. This is preferred to setting straight, as they re- main firm better when thus planted. (e) In making cuttings, plan to have at least one bud with- in one inch of the top end. The Solar Pit. — There are many trees that will not grow from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little be- fore planting. This is most easily accomplished by what is known as "the solar pit", which owes its success to the fact that cuttings root first at the warmer end. It is made and used as follows: The bundles of cuttings are heeled-in as recom- mended. In the spring they are taken out and --/;':-:'• ■,:;*-l;-?^Mir^ buried close together with 3.— Solar pit with cuttings tied t^i© butt ends uppermost in bundles and buried. jn a warm, sunny spot and covered with about six inches of- soil. A hotbed frame with sash is then put over them to warm the soil. Sometimes, Fis PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 135 instead of using sash, the soil over the cuttings is covered with a foot or more of fermenting manure. In either case the soil is warmed and the formation of roots encouraged. In using the solar pit the rooting process should not be carried so far as to permit th-e roots to show' plainly, as they are then liable to be broken off in planting, but the cuttings should be planted out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the butt end. This healing over process is called callousing, and in many plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots. Graftage. Graftage includes what is commonly called budding and grafting. Working is another term that includes the same. Most trees that graft easily will bud readily. Limits of Graftage. — It is common to hear surprising stories about graftage. Quite recently a prominent grape grower referred to his efforts to graft the red currant on the red maple tree. Even Pliny says "Some apples are so red that they resemble blood, which is caused by their being grafted on a mulberry stock." But budding or grafting are never suc- cessful unless the cion and stock are nearly allied, and the closer the relationship between them, the more certain the suc- cess. Lindley says: "Varieties of the same species unite most freely; then species of the same genus; then genera of the same natural order, beyond which the power does not extend. For instance, pears work freely on pears, very well on quinces and mountain ash; less successfully on apples or thorns, and not at all upon plums or cherries; while the lilac will take on the ash, becaus-e of the near relationship between the two." But there are many exceptions to any rule that could be laid down concerning this matter. Some plants are increased most readily by budding, while others graft more easily than they are budded. The stone fruits are very easily budded and graft- ing them is often a much more uncertain process. (b) Stock is the name applied to the part grafted on, be it large or small. The stock may consist of a cutting, a rooted layer, a tree or a seedling root and it may be worked when either dormant or growing. (c) Cion is the name of the part insei'ted. It may con- 136 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. sist of one (See page 13) or more buds and be cut with or with- out wood. In budding, the term bud-stick is often used to take its place. Budding. — In its broad sense the term graftage includes all th-ere is of budding, which is simply grafting while the tree 21^ Fig. 69. — Budding. 1. — Bud stick with one bud nearly re- moved. Note tliat cut is made from belpw upwards. 2. — Two views of bud after it has been removed. 3. — Stock witli T cut made in bark and flaps loosened to receive bud. 4. — Bud inserted under bark. 5. — Bud tied in place with- raffia. is growing, but, as generally us^ed, budding applies to the pro- cess by which a bud of the season is removed from its parent PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTt^. 13? plant and induced to unite with and grow upon some other plant congenial to it. In the North-ern states it is commonly practiced to propagate plums and other stone fruits, and ap- ples and pears, all of which are readily increased in this way. The varieties of some ornamental trees and plants may be propagated by budding, as, for instance, some varieties of elm, maple, poplar and birch. Most trees that graft readily will bud as readily, while others that will graft with difficulty will bud very easily. Budding is rather a simpler operation than grafting and easier for" the beginner to perform successfully. Stocks for budding are generally grown from seed and the buds are inserted in them when they are but a few years old, and as near the ground as possible. But budding may be done v-ery successfully on any growing branch or stem where the bark is not too hard and still bends easily. It is often used to change the bearing qualities of fruit trees of small or medium size. Bud-stick is the name given to the shoots from which the buds are taken. It is also referred to as the cion, but the cion proper is the piece which is inserted in the stock. Time for Budding. — In a general way, budding may be done at any time when the bark will peel, providing the buds ar-e sufficiently matured on the new growth of the season to insert them. The proper time will be influenced by the kind of stock used, the season, and sometimes by attacks of insects or dis- eases. For instance the native plum is generally budded to best advantage about the last of July, but should the stocks be attacked by some insect or disease that seriously injures the foliage in the middle of July, the growth of the stocks will soon be checked and the work must be performed at once or not at all. A period of severe drouth may check the growth, and in a similar way make early budding necessary. If the stocks are growing very fast, it is often best to delay the operation until the wood has become somewhat hardened, or else its rapid growth may cover up the inserted bud. If considerable pruning of the stocks is necessary to make a place for the bud, it should be done at least two weeks before budding is com- menced, because the heavy pruning of any plant when in ac- lU POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. tive. growth, results in a serious check to its pai'ts. If done just when the buds are inserted, this may prevent the success of the operation. The ordinary season for budding in the North- ern states is from tlie middle of July to the first of September, and the earliness or lateness at which a variety is most suc- cessfully budded depends on the condition of growth. The stock that stops growing early in the season is budded early, and those that grow until autumn are budded late. The condi- tions for success are: 1. The stock and cion must be perfectly healthy and free from insects. If either of them are weak or sickly, unsatis- factory results may be expected. To this end, evei'ything neces- sary shoud be done to keep off insects and disease. 2. The buds should be well developed in the axils of the leaves on the young shoots from which the buds are to be taken. It seldom h a p- pens that they are in this condi- tion until the bud at the end ig formed, but some- times the buds in the center of the twigs will be large enough to grow, while those at the base and at the extreme tip are still quite small. If the buds are thought to be too immature, they may be readily developed by pinching off the Fig. 70. — Showing method of cutting , bud when the bark is to be removed from it. b. — Plum bud in the spring of the year before growth has commenced. c. — A shoot started from an inserted bud and tied to the stub of a stock. The dotted line b shows where the stock should be cut off after the bud is well started. PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 139 tips of the twigs. In ten or twelve days after such pinching, of even a very soft shoot, its buds will be fit for working. 3. The bark must separate easily from the wood on the stocks to be budded. This will take place only when they are growing rapidly. 4. A sharp, thin knife is absolutely necessary. 5. The work must be done rapidly, and the buds firmly and evenly tied into place. No wax is needed. Necessary implements. — A common shoe knife, with the corners rounded off, makes a very cheap, and yet a most excel- lent budding knife. There are many specially designed forms of knives for this purpose and most of them have an ivory point or blade in the base of the handle for lifting the bark, but the rounded corner of the back of the shoe knife is just as good as the best ivory blade for raising the bark. A shoe knife costs not one-fourth as much as an ordinary budding knife and generally holds an edge better. Besides a shoe knife, tying material is necessary. For this purpose basswood bark is perhaps the best, since it is but little affected by moisture, and if put on wet, remains tight and close. This tying material is prepared by soaking sections of the bark of the common basswood in water until the inner layers separate easily. The bark peels from the trees readily in June and July, and it requires about three weeks of soaking in stagnant water to get the fiber into the right condition. Aft- er the layers readily separate the bark should be stripped into pieces about one-fourth of an inch wide. If hard and stiff, it may be softened by rubbing and pounding. Cotton warp, corn husks or woolen yarn answer very well, and a tying material called raffia is now used more widely than any other material for budding. This is a long, grass-like material which is used for baskets and is made from the leaves of a palm known as Raphia peduncula. It should be made into thin, very narrow strips before being applied and should be put on dry. The process of budding will be found illustrated in figs. 69 and 70, showing the successive stages in shield budding, which is the form generally used in this country. When every- thing is ready for the work, prepare a lot of bud-sticks as shown 140 POPULAR FRUIT GROWlNa. in fig. 69, by cutting off all but about one-half inch of the leaf stalks. These sticks should be carefully protected from wilting, and it is customary to carry them in the field wrapped up in moist cloth or oiled paper. If it is necessary to store them after they are cut, they should be kept in a cool, moist place, in moss, sawdust, or cloths, but not in water. They are often kept for a week before using, but are preferably used as soon as possible after they ar-e cut. To insert the bud a smooth place is selected (on small stocks this should be about two inches from the ground) and on the north side if practicable, since buds are less liable to be injured by freezing on that side than on any other. A cross- cut should be made at this point, and from it a cut about 1^/^ inches long, as shown at 3 in fig. 69; at the same time the bark should be raised to loosen it. A bud-stick is then taken and a bud cut off with the bark and a thin piece of the wood extending about one-half inch above and below the bud, as shown at 2 in fig. 6'9. The low«r point of the bud (by which is meant the bark and wood cut off, as well as the bud) is now inserted under the bark at the cross-cut, and is gently pushed down by the leaf stock and knife blade. If the bark of the stock will not raise when the bud is thus pushed down, the stock is not in the best condition for budding and it will be necessary to raise the bark with the back of the knife blade, or with the ivory blade previously referred to, in order to let the bud come into its place. The sides of the bud should come under the bark, but if the wound is not large enough to admit quite all the bud, any small part that may project above the cross-cut should be cut off by again drawing the knife through the cross-cut. The bud must now be securely and firmly tied in place, taking care to draw it down evenly and firmly and to cover all the wounds with tying material as shown at 5 in fig. 69, but do not cover the bud itself. In less severe sections, the ties do not need such careful attention as here in the North- western states, where it is important to tie very carefully.- After the bud is tied, the bands should be watched so that when the growth of the stock becomes so great that the bands are too tight for it — which is generally in about a week — they may PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 141 be loosened. When the bud is well united, the band should be cut off altogether. The buds will generally unite in about two weeks, but sometimes they will require a longer time, and it is often desirable to* leave the ties on for some little time after this period. It is a bad practice to neglect the bands and al- low them to severely cut into the s,tock. The inserted buds should not start at all until the follow- ing spring. If they start into growth the season they are in- serted, they are almost certain to be killed the following win- ter. If the bark of the inserted bud shrivels, or if it remains fresh and the bud falls off, the work is entirely lost, though the stocks that have missed one year may be budded the next, and even while loosening the bands it may not be too late to again bud those that have failed. To make the work more cer- tain, two buds are often inserted in each stock, although only one is allowed to grow. In the spring, the inserted bud will resemble fig. 70. Just as the top buds commence to swell, the budded stocks should be cut off at least one inch above the inserted bud, and some- times seven or eight inches of the old stock is left above the bud to s-erve as a stake to support the shoot starting from the bud (fig. 70). All the shoots that come from the stock should be rubbed off so that all its strength will go into the inserted bud. Late in the season the stock should be cut down to just above the bud, see the dotted line at c in figure. 70. The grow- ing shoot should be trained to a single stem if its stock is a low one, so as to make a straight tree. If the root is strong, the bud will make a growth of two to four feet the first year. Some kinds of trees readily take on an upright form, while others naturally grow very crooked and need special care to induce them to grow straight. On the approach of winter it is a good plan to draw the earth up against the buds as a protection, but this cannot be done when the buds are more than two or three inches from the ground. If the buds are too high up to allow this earthing up from the ground, especially in the case of somewhat tender kinds, some growers put a very thin covering of grafting wax 142 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. around the bud, taking care not to cover the tip of the bud more than a very little. This covering is a protection against ice forming behind the bud and from sudden freezing and thaw- ing in winter. However, with our hardy trees this precaution is unnecessary. June Budding. — Many nurserymen offer what they call Jun-e-budded trees at low prices. These are often small trees that can be easily sent by mail and are made by an operation similar to common budding as described herewith except that the work is done in June and the inserted buds are forced into growth as soon as they adhere to the stock, by cutting off the latter. At the North they make only a small growth the season they ar-e budded. The buds for this purpose may be hastened into maturing by pinching off the ends of the shoots to be used for bud-sticks. For ordinary purposes, nothing is gained by budding in June in the Northern states, for a plant budded there in August will make as large, if not a larger, growth and as straight a tree by the end of the following year than a June-budded tree of the same age will make in its two years of growth. However, at the South, where the growing season is longer, June budding is the favorite way of growing peaches and plums which there make a strong enough growth the first s-eason. If they were treated in the common way as used at the North the trees would be too large for best results in transplanting. The wood is sometimes rempved from the bud after it is cut off. This practice is common in Europe, but in general practice in this country it is left on. However, care should be taken not to cut the bud very thick, or the large amount of wood in it will prevent its binding into place smoothly and evenly. When the wood is to be removed from the bud, the latter is cut off in a little different way from the method de- scribed. This method is illustrated at a figure 70. Two cuts are made and then by a dexterous twist, the bud and bark removed. It is then inserted as previously described. Other forms of budding are used occasionally but in all of them the general principles are the same as those practiced in shield budding. Figure 71 shows a form of budding where- PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 143 in a circle of bark is taken out of the bud-stick and is inserted into a stock or branch of about the same size. These are un- usual forms and only used for some special purpose. In bud- ding on the branches of trees, it is generally best to insert the bud on the upper side, but the place for its insertion should be governed by the form of the tree. Budded trees are no bet- ter than grafted trees, but they may be as good, or perhaps worse, according to the way in which the work is done. If the buds and stocks are perfectly hardy, as, for instance, when our native plum seedlings are budded with similar kinds of improved quality, as with the DeSota plum, or native seedlings, then the tree resulting is as good as if root grafted. But if the hardy kinds of apple are budded on ordinary seedlings which are not hardy, then there is a part of the tender seedling which is above ground and is liable to be killed out by cold. In this case, the resulting tree would be much improved if the seedling root had been grafted below ground instead of being bud- ded above, so as to have the benefit of the protection the ground affords. Oi^ the other hand, where hardy trees are budded on the branches to change the bearing, the work is just as sure as if grafted. It is foolish, then, to pay more money for a budded than a grafted tree. Grafting is distinguished from budding by being performed at a season of the year, generally in the spring, when vegetation is dormant — at least, when the plant operated upon is not in full leaf; but there are many exceptions to such a definition, and it might be better to include the two subjects of budding and grafting under the general head of graftage, as they are closely related. Stock is the term used to indicate the plant grafted on, whether large or small. Cion is the term used to express the part inserted, of whatever size or form it may consist. These should ordinarily be of the new, well ripened growth of the season. If cions are 71.— Meth- od used in ring budding. 144 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. to be used in the spring they should generally be cut late in the fall, as some kinds are liable to be injured by the winter. However, a spring-cut cion may often be used successfully, but it is not safe to trust them if, when cut open, the heart wood appears dark colored. Cions sliould not be cut when frozen. They should be stored in moist sawdust or sand in a cold cellar, or buried in the ground outdoors during the winter. But this does not apply in the case of plum cions, which generally do best when cut in the spring as needed. Plum cions are stored with difficulty as they quite often lose their buds in storage. Cherry cions are most safely carried through the winter when packed in moist l-eaves. If packed in sand or sawdust, they sometimes become water soaked. Fig-. 72. — Tools used in gTafting and budding: 1. — Budding knife. 2. — Grafting knife. 3. — Grafting chisel. 4.— Club mallet. The principles which underlie grafting are the same as in budding, i. e., the cions and stock must be closely related; the work must be done in such a manner that the inside bark of both cion and stock come closely in contact; and at a season of the year, and under such circumstances that they may unite at once, or as soon as growth starts. The success of the opera- tion largely depends (1) "on having the stock and cion perfectly healthy; (2) in selecting the proper season, which varies some- PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 145 what with the different plants; (3) in getting a perfect union of the inner bark of cion and stock at least on one side; (4) in making all the cuts with a sharp knife, that the parts in contact may have a smooth surface; (5) in doing the work rapidly, so that the surface may not be exposed. Grafting wax is generally used for covering the wounds made in some kinds of grafting. A good grafting wax is one that will not become too soft in summer, so as to melt and run down the stock, or so hard in winter as to crack and split off. A very reliable grafting wax is made by melting together resin, four (4) parts, by weight; beeswax, two (2) parts; tallow, one (1) part. "When well melted, pour into a pail of cold water, grease the hands slightly and pull the wax until it is about the color of pulled molasses candy. Make into balls and store for use. This wax should be warmed when applied. If it is too hard, m,ore tallow and less resin may be used. Some propaga- tors use linseed oil instead of tallow. The linseed oil should be pure. If adulterated with cottonseed oil, the wax becomes very stringy and difficult to handle. Clay is frequently used for covering wounds made by graft- ing, and it gives quite as good results as any of the waxes, if properly applied, but is not so convenient. For this purpose some very tenacious clay should be used, and it is thought to b-e improved when mixed with about one-third fresh cow dung and a little plasterer's hair. The whole mass should be thor- oughly worked over and kneaded before using. Cleft grafting is very common and more universally known and used than any other. It is commonly performed to change the variety of apple, plum and various other trees and plants. It is generally the most practical method to use on branches one or two inches in diameter or larger, but it also works well on small stocks. Cleft grafting is performed as follows: The place selected for the insertion of the cion should be where the grain of the wood is straight. The stock is then cut square off with a sharp saw and is split through its center, with the grafting chisel, to a depth sufficient to allow the cion to be put in place. The cleft is held open by the grafting chisel until the cion 146 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Fig. 73. — The cleft graft. 1. — Side viiew of cion cut for grafting. The opposite side is cut in the same manner, making the lower end wedge shaped. 2. — The stub with the cions inserted in the cleft. 3. — The gra^t waxed. 4. — Cloth wrapped over the wax. 5. — Diagram of cross section of stub with cions inserted. Note that the cion is inserted in such a manner that the cambium layer comes in contact with the cambium layer of the stock. Note also that the cion is cut in such a manner that the side nearest the center of the stub is a little thinner, thus permitting the cleft to pinch down closely onto the cion where the cambium is located. PROPAGATION OP FRUIT PLANTS. 147 is cut and inserted, when it is withdrawn, allowing the stock to close on the cion and so hold it in place. If the stock does not spring back so as to hold the cion firmly, it should be tightly drawn together with a string. The number of cions inserted will depend on the size of the stock. If the stock is not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter, one cion is enough to in- sert, but on larger stocks one may be put in each side of the cleft. All the cut surfaces, including the ends of the cion, should now be covered with wax, as shown in fig. 73. The cion to be inserted in cleft grafting should be cut wedge-shaped lengthwise and its cross section should also be wedge-shaped. Fig. 73 represents a cross-section through a newly made graft, showing cleft in the stock and two cions in place (note how the edges of the wood come together). Fig. 73 also shows the successive stages in cleft grafting. Whip grafting is illustrated in fig. 74. When finished, all the cut surfaces should be covered with grafting wax or waxed paper. In this form of grafting, it is seldom that the in- ner barks come together on more than one side of the cion and stock. It is a method that is very quickly performed by one accustomed to it, but its use is limited to branches or stems under three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but for stocks com- ing within this limit, it is very convenient and reliable. It is much used by nurserymen in root-grafting apple, pear and plum seedlings. It is done to a large extent during the win- ter months, when but little can be accomplished out of doors. Root-grafting. — Seedlings, which are dug in autumn and packed in sawdust or moss in a cold cellar, are taken as need- ed, to a warm room and cions grafted upon them just be- low the collar, i. e., the place where the root and top are joined, where only one graft is made to a root. The kind of graft made is illustrated in fig. 74 which shows the successive stages of the work. A common practice among nurserymen is to use a cion about six inches long and insert it on a root about three inches long, the treatment in every respect being the same as where only one graft is made up from each root. In each case, when completed, the union is wrapped with a strip of paper or cloth about three-fourths of an inch wide which has previously 148 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. been covei'ed with grafting wax. Some prefer waxed string for this covering. The cion should be at least five inches long to allow the graft to be set deep and thus encourage rooting from the cion. When completed, they should be tied in bundles and put away, packed in boxes very firmly in clean sand or Fig-. 74. — Root grafting-, a. — ^Apple root such as is used in root grafting-, b. — Cion. c. — ^Cion and root prepared for putting to- g-ether, d. — Tlie graft made. e. — The graft wrapped with waxed paper. sawdust, in a cold cellar. Early in the , spring they should be planted in the nursery, about six inches apart, in rows three feet apart, setting all but the, upper bud of the cion below the surface of the ground. It is important to plant the cion deep so as to encourage it to throw out roots, as the trees ar^ then PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 149 more hai'dy than when they depend entirely on the seedling root for suppox't. Great care should be taken to have the soil very firm and solid around the base of the root and at the union. This may be secured in several ways. Some nurserymen use a large dibber, having a guard on the side to prevent its go- ing too deep. With this a hole is made sufiiciently wide and deep to permit the insertion of the graft easily so that not more than one or two buds project above the ground. To do this work most expeditiously, the grafts should all be of the same length and free from side branches. Two persons should work together, a man who uses the dibber and a boy who carries the grafts. The man makes a hole with the dibber, the boy puts in a graft, when the man immediately makes another hole by the side of and two inches away from that containing the graft, and, pressing toward the graft, packs the soil firmly around it. After each row is finished in this way, the man should turn back on the row and press firmly by the side of each graft with the ball of the foot. Another method of planting root-grafts and cuttings, which is applicable for planting cuttings on a small scale, is as fol- lows. This is not a fast method but is very excellent for a few grafts: The thoroughly plowed land is smoothed off, a line stretched and walked on where the row is to come and then thrown to one side. With a spade throw out a furrow along the line, leaving the edge straight and smooth and nine inches deep. Against this place the grafts and then with a hoe turned bottom up push a little earth against the lower part of the root of each graft, and afterwards draw three inches of soil into the furrow around the grafts and then press firmly against each graft with the ball of the foot. Fill the trench full and repeat the footing process again. A more expeditious way is to plow out a furrow instead of making it with a spade, and then fill the trench with a plow. In this way the work may be successfully done if the soil is not dry and the season is fa- vorable. But it pays well to do good work, and, where one has only a few hundred or a thousand grafts to plant, the spade method is most certain. In planting in a dry time the great key to success is to have the land firm and solid around the 150 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. root and the union so that thei-e will be no air spaces. This is very Important. In two or three years from the root-graft, the trees will be large enough to be transplanted to the orchard. At that time some of the trees will be well rooted from the cion and others will scarcely show any at all. Others may have lost the stock on which they were grafted and be entire- ly on their own roots. In this latter case the trees will not have made a first class growth, although they may make trees of good size later on. Side-grafting. — Side-grafting is a form of union in which the cion is inserted in a cut made in the side of the plant grafted on Fig. 75. — Crown grafting below the surface of the ground, a. — Inserting cion in root of seedling, b. — ^Waxing the graft. and the stock is not cut off until the cion has started to grow. It is especially applicable to cherry seedlings, on which the union should be made at the crown of the plant, which is the point on the seedling where the root and top join. This form of grafting may be successfully used on plums, ap- ples, and other fruits. If it is done on the branches of a tree there is no necessity of cutting off the part above the graft un- til the cion starts into growth. Grafting below ground. — If grafting is done just below the surface of the ground the work is more certain of being success- PROPAGATION OP FRUIT PLANTS. 151 ful than if above the sui-face, and the resulting tree will be hardier than if the union was above ground, since the weakest point in a tree (the graft) will be protected by the earth. Of course, very frequently it is impracticable to do the work in this manner. The methods adapted for grafting below ground are the same as for above ground, only not so much wax is required. In grafting below ground, it is important to remove the soil until a smooth, straight place in the stem is found of sufficient length to contain the cion. In the case of most fruits this is preferably at the crown, i. e., where root and stem meet. It is important, also, to keep the wounds free from dirt, for however much it may help to have the whole graft covered in this way, any soil on the cut surfaces will prevent that desirable close con- tact of the cells which is necessary for successful work. When grafting is done below ground, suckers will often start from the stock in great numbers. These should all be removed or the graft will be ruined. A little observation soon teaches one to distinguish at a glance the sprouts from the stock and cion. In removing these suckers, they should be pulled away from the stock and not simply cut off. Only one shoot should be permitted to grow from each cion and this should be the thriftiest and generally that starting lowest down. The lowest is saved because, wherever a shoot starts, there is gen- erally a crook formed, and if near the ground it is not unsightly. Night Cap is a term given to signify a paper bag that is sometimes drawn over and tied be- lo'sv a graft made in the op«n as soon as it is completed. It is illustrated in Pig. 76. Its use is to prevent the shriveling of the cion due to exposure of drying winds. It is especially de- sirable in top-grafting trees in dry seasons or in exposed locations. It is a very valuable ad- junct to the grafting outfit and its use should be more g-eneral. Of course the bags should be removed as soon as the cions start and the Fig. 76.— Night- cap. — Graft protected by paper bag. 152 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. rtmit WBiiiiiiH^L same care should be taken in the use of wax around the graft as if the night cap were not used. The following notes on grafting diiferent fruits will perhaps be of interest: Grafting apples. — Top-working and crown-grafting of apples in the open ground should be done about the time the buds are nicely started, but the cions should not have started at all. It is perhaps the easiest of all the fruits to graft, and almost any method may be employed on it. The cions should be from four to six inches long. Top-working. — By top-working is meant the grafting or bud- ding of a tree after it is of some considerable size. The term is used to distinguish such trees from those that are root-grafted. It is here recommended for severe locations and for somewhat tender kinds, such as the Wealthy in Central Minnesota, which, besides being somewhat tender and liable to sun-scald, is weak in the stem and crotches. If this variety is grafted on the branches of the Hibernal, which is a very hardy sort with strong crotches, a tree is form- ed that has much of the hardiness of that variety but at the same time bears Wealthy apples. By this method we may in- crease the hardiness of trees to a considerable degree. Some varieties seem to be better adapted to one stock than to an- other. The Hibernal is a stock that is hardy in every particu- lar and especially desirable for top-working. It grows rapidly, makes a large tree and will keep up in rapidity of growth with any of our larger apples. Most of the larger growing crabs make good stocks for top-working. The Transcendent Crab may be successfully used for this purpose. When it is intended to grow an orchard by this method the stocks should be set in the spring, to be budded the following August or to be grafted the following spring. If to be budded the buds should be inserted in about the same positions in the head of the tree as the grafts. Grafting the Plum. — The plum is most successfully grafted very early in the spring — even before the frost is out of the ground or a bud has commenced to swell. When done at this time the work is generally successful, though not as certain as the apple. It is said that the plum may be grafted very sue- PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 153 cessfuUy later in the spring, even after the buds have com- menced to swell, pi-oviding the buds on the cion are started as much as those on the stock at the time the w^ork is performed. The plum may be quite successfully root-grafted in the house in the w^inter, as recommended for the apple and treated the same way, but it generally takes a year longer to get the tree formed, since in this case the growth from the cion is quite slow the first two years. On account of this slow growth root-grafted plum trees are often crooked and unpromising. This defect, however, may be remedied by cutting away in the early spring of the second year all the growth from the cion except one strong bud at the base. If this work is done very early In the spring it will result in throwing the whole strength of the root into a single bud and the forming of a stem that is straight in place of the former crooked one. A much better and more satisfactory plan than root-grafting is to plant the stocks in the nursery one year before they are intended to be grafted, and then graft them below the surface of the ground very early in the spring. For this purpose cleft or whip-grafting should be used. When the work is done in this way the result is a very strong growth from the cion. If the suckers are pinched off and the whole strength of the root forced into one shoot, the result, on right land and in the case of strong, healthy stock, will be to give a growth often exceeding four feet in height. Some- times the growth in this latter case will be so heavy that the branches are liable to be broken off in the wind, and should be tied to stakes with soft string. The cions should be from four to six inches long. Grafting the Cherry. — The cherry may be root-grafted in- doors in the winter. When this is done, side-grafting is employ- ed and gives results far ahead of any other method. But with the best of care the losses from in-door grafting of this fruit make it very unsatisfactory. Much better results will be achiev- ed by side-grafting them at the crown of the plant on stocks well established in the open ground, as in the plan recommended for propagation of the plum. In regard to this fruit it is also re- ported that, as in the case of the plum, the work may be done after the stocks start into growth a little, providing the dons 154 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. are as far advanced. The cions should be from four to six inches long. Grafting the Peach is occasionally practiced but it seldom gives best results. Its most common use is on stocks on which the buds have failed to grow and it is sometimes very successful. Grafting the Grape is done most safely very early in the spring, even before a sign of growth appears, but it may also be grafted about the time the first leaves are nicely expanded, if the cions are kept dormant until that time. The work should al- wa:ys be done below the surface of the ground. Any form of graft may be used, but that most commonly used is cleft-graft- ing, as described. In making a cleft-graft upon a grape root it is often necessary to saw the cleft in the stock with a fine saw, on account of the crooked, twisted grain of the wood, which does not allow it to split straight. Some growers do not use any wax around the graft but simply cover it with a mound of well packed earth up to the upper bud of the cion. In graft- ing after the leaves are expanded some propagators prefer to use side-grafting, and do not cut the vine severely until it is believed the cion has grown fast to the stock, when the vine is cut entirely away. Whip-grafting is also used for this purpose. The cions should be about six or eight inches long. To change varieties in a vineyard grafting on a cane from the old vine is sometimes practiced. In this case a cane from the old vine long enough to reach nearly midway between the vines is grafted with a cion which should be at least two feet long. When grafted the graft, including the cane and cion, should be buried six inches deep, the end bud of the cion being brought above the ground where the new vine is desired. The following year the old vine may be largely cut away and the growth from the cion will take its place. This method is not so neat as when the vine is cut off and grafted below at the surface of the ground, but it has the merit of being very much more certain of not neces- sitating the destruction of the old vine until a new one is estab- lished. Grafting by approach or inarching is a form of grafting in which the branches of growing plants are brought together. It is sometimes used to change the bearing of vines or trees, or to PROPAGATION OF FRUIT PLANTS. 155 grow two branches or stems together. It is much used iu propa- gating such ornamental trees as cut-leaved and purple birches. It may be done at any time during the growing season and on any flexible gi'owth of whatever age. It is formed by shaving out a piece of bark and wood from the stock and from the cion, of the same size and in such a way that the inner barks of each may be tied together. If this is done even so late as the middle of July they will grow firmly together before winter. It is cus- tomary, when this method is to be used for propagation, to either set a lot of small plants around the one from which the cions are to come, or to grow them in pots and set pots and plants near by. "When the branches have united they are permitted to grow until autumn, then the cions are cut off just below the union and the plants with the cions on them are heeled in for winter or protected in some other way. No wax is needed, as the union is very sure if the parts are closely tied together. This is a very safe and sure method and is easily performed, even by the novice. » QUESTIONS— CHAPTER VIII. 1. For what purposes are plants propagated from seed? 2. What is meant by stratification? 3. What liinds of seed are stratified? 4. M'liat are offsets and how are plants propagated from them? 5. What are layers? Spring layers? Summer layers? Mound layers? 6. What plants are adapted to propagation by layers? 7. When are layers made? 8. How are cuttings made? 9. What are soft wood cuttings? 10. What are hard wood cuttings? 11. What conditions are necessary for successful growing of hard wood cuttings? 12. When should they be made? 13. What soil is best for planting cuttings? 14. How should they be planted and when? 15. What is the solar pit? 16. How is it made and for what purpose? 17. What does graftage include? 18. What are the limits of graftage? 19. What is meant by stock, cion? 20. When is budding practicable? 21. What is the best stock to be budded upon? 22. What is the bud-stick? 23. When is the best time for budding? 24. What conditions are necessary for successful budding? 25. What implements are necessary? 26. What material is used for tying the buds? 156 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 27. How are the buds cut fi'om the bud-stick? 28. When is the barli in the best condition for budding? 29. Describe the process of inserting the bud in tlie stock. 30. What precautions must be taken in budding? 31. Wliat care is necessary in tlie spring and fall, after the buds have started? 32. 33. 34. 35. South? 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. season? 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. results ? 61. 62. 63. 64. How should the buds be protected from winter injury? When and where is June budding practiced? How do June-budded trees differ from other budded trees? How is June budding performed on peaches and plums in the What is shield budding? Flute budding? What is the difference between grafting and budding? What precautions must be taken in budding? What is grafting wax used for? How is it made? What other materials can be used instead of grafting wax? How is cleft-grafting performed? What tools are necessary for cleft-grafting? How should the cion be cut for cleft-grafting? How does whip-grafting differ from cleft-grafting? How and when are root grafts made? How are they planted? On a large scale? On a small scale? What care should be taken when planting the grafts in a dry What is side-grafting? What fruit plants is it best adapted to? What advantage is there in grafting below the ground? How should the work be done? For what purpose is the night cap used? How are apples grafted? How are they budded? What is the result of top- working varieties? Wliat is meant by top-working? How is the plum most successfully grafted? How is the plum root-grafted? What forms of grafting are used on the cherry with best How is the peach grafted? When is the grape grafted? What methods are used? How may the varieties in a vineyard be changed by graft- ins 65. What is "inarching" and when is it used? CHAPTER IX. POME FRUITS. THE APPLE. Origin of tlie Cultivated Apple. Classes of Apples: (a). The true apples have descended from the Pyrus malus of Europe. Characteristics: Woolly twigs, on new growth, calyx and flower stems; fruit, various but always holding its calyx, i. e., the parts of the flower commonly found on the end of the fruit; leaves, thicker and broader and the twigs thicker than those of the crab apples fP. daccataj. The common apple of commerce comes from this species. (b) The crab apples have descended from the Pyrus baccata of Europe and Asia. In Europe the term "crab" is often applied to any small inferior kind of an apple which may be said to be crabby. Characteristics: Growth, smoother and more wiry than that of the true apple; leaves, narrower, thinner and with longer stems; flower clusters and leaves seldom woolly; fruit, small on long, wiry, slender stems; seed, enclosed in hard, close fitting hulls; calyx falls off when the fruit is mature. There are few, if any, of these pure crabs in ciiltivation. Possibly, however, the Yellow and red Siberian crabs are of this parentage. (c) Hybrid erabs are sometimes known to botanists as Py- rus prunifolia. They are undoubtedly the result of crosses be- tween the true crabs and the larger apples. In this group are in- cluded most of the so-called crabs of commerce, such as the Transcendent, Hyslop, Sweet Russett, Excelsior and others. In them are to be found the quality of the P. malus and the P. Mc- cata, mixed in various proportions. (d) Pyrus coronaria, the largest of Western crabs, has a form which has become known as Pyrus ioensis. This is a native of the Mississippi Valley and eastward. Characteristics: Tree, vigorous, especially when young; young growth, woolly; leaves, often deeply indented; fruit, green or later yellowish, arornatic, 158 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. hard, bitter, keeps through the winter; resembles quince in quality and used like the quince for making an excellent jelly. There are but few varieties of this in cultivation, among them are the Sou lard and the Fluke. It does not readily cross with the cultivated apple. Groups of Apples: Among cultivated varieties of apples we often find several that closely resemble one another in fruit, foliage and habit. Some of these groups are as follows: (a) The Fameuse group includes Fameuse, Shiawassee Beauty, Mcintosh and St. Lawrence. (b) The Duchess of Oldenburg group includes Duchess, Borovinka, Gilbert and Charlamoff. (c) The Ben Davis group includes Ben Davis, Gano, Shock- ley and Black Ben Davis. Other groups will suggest themselves to those acquainted with many varieties of apples. For describing apples a certain convenient nomenclature has been adopted. It frequently happens that the color, shape and quality of fruits are changed by soil and location. The character- istic appearance of the wood and foliage, however, is less liable to change; in the identification of fruits it is often necessary to take them into account as well as the fruit, and a good descrip- tion should include the tree as well as the fruit. These terms, as applied to the growth of a tree, are "strong and vigorous," as the Duchess of Oldenburg; "vigorous and slender," as Anisim; "stout and short jointed," as the Yellow Transparent. For the general form of the tree the term "upright spread- ing" would indicate the Duchess; "spreading" the Roxbury Rus- sett; "upright" the Whitney; "round headed" the Red Astrachan. In describing the fruit the word "base" means the part of the apple at the stem end; "apex," the portion at the blossom end; "cavity" is the depression around the stem; "basin," the depression around the flower end; "calyx," the so-called flower in the apex of the apple. The general form is referred to as be- ing "round," "oblate," "conical," and "oblong," which terms are illustrated in fig. 77. As regards size, apples, when under two and a half inches in diameter, are said to be small; when from APPLE. 159 two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter they are termed "medium," and above this, "large." Fig. 77. — Forms of apples. a. — Oblong. b. — Round. c. — Conical, d. — Oblate. Numbers refer as follows: 1. Stem. 2. Cavity. 3. Calyx. 4. Basin. 5. Core. Propagation of Varieties: Apples are commonly propagated (a) By root-grafting in-doors in winter on whole or piece roots. (b) By crown-grafting in the field in spring. (c) By budding. 160 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Various other forms of graftage may be successfully used in growing the apple as it is easily worked in this way. Stocks for the Apple: (a) Seedlings of vigorous, hardy sorts are commonly used as stocks for the apple in the best apple districts and little at- tention is paid to the source of the seed. In the Central and Northwestern states, where the winters are severe and the snowfall often scanty, the apple is liable to winter injury and much care is taken in getting hardy stocks. For this purpose seedlings of the hardiest varieties are sought. (b) Seedlings of hardy hybrid crabs are now much favored fcr severe locations and are giving good results, but are not suT.- ciently tested so that their value can be definitely stated. It seems from present experience that their use should be extended. (c) Seedlings of the pure Pyrus daccata are of great hardi- ness and are now being widely experimented with in severe loca- tions, especially in Minnesota and the Dakotas. Some varieties do well on it when budded or grafted at the crown while other kinds unite poorly with it and there is at least something of a question as to its future usefulness as a stock. (d) Dwarf apples are formed by working them on the Para- dise stock, which is a dwarf apple stock much used in Europe for this purpose but seldom used in America. It makes small trees that are adapted to training in various forms. (e) Top-working or grafting the tops of trees is practiced in some sections to change the bearing of trees and to overcome weaknesses in the trunk of certain kinds, such as the "Wealthy, which is liable to canker in the crotches in Minnesota and the Dakotas. Some varieties are much more productive when top- worked than when merely root-grafted. Location of the apple orchard. — The best location for an apple orchard is on high northern slopes tipping down to the northeast, and the steeper the slope the better, provided it does not interfere with cultivation. The northern slope is preferred because it is least affected by drouth, Sudden changes of temper- ature, and by drying winds, which very uniformly come from the South. However, some excellent orchards in the Northwest are located on southern slopes. It is important to plant apple tree? APPLE. 161 on the highest land available. Even if the elevation is not more than ten feet above the general level of the adjacent country, it is a great advantage in fxirnishing air-drainage and thus equal- izing the temperature and lessening the danger from frost in the blossoming period. The worst location for an orchard is what is called a warm sheltered spot, where the sun iias free access and the winds are entirely shut off. Into such a place the cold air from the sur- rounding higher elevations settles, making it cold at night and the hottest place during the day. Blight and winter killing are apt to be abundant in such a place. In some sections — most generally those protected by water or forests of wooded hills — but little, if any, difference is to be noticed in the growth and productive- ness of trees on the various exposures, while in exposed places this difference is very marked. Windbreaks. — A free circulation of air is very desirable in an orchard, and full exposure is better than shutting it in too closely, yet in a full wind-swept exposure, the best conditions for a successful orchard are not found. It should be surrounded with windbreaks on the exposed sides, sufficient to somewhat break the force of the wind but not heavy enough to prevent a good circulation of air throiigh the orchard at any time. It is much more important to have a windbreak on the south and west sides of an orchard than on the north or east, for it is from the former directions that the most injurious winds come from. The land best adapted to the growth of apples is what might be called a deep, open, clayey loam, that is well drained, either naturally or artificially, and does not suffer severely from drouth or excess of water. However, the apple may be grown success- fully on almost any soil, even on that which is dry and gravelly, providing it has a reasonable amount of plant food; but orchards require more careful management in severe situations than in those which are favorable and of course are not as long lived and productive. The soil for apple orchards must be retentive and rich in plant food, for it is impossible to raise good fruit 6n poor soil. Sufficient moisture can generally be secured by heavy mulching, and the newer soils of the Northern states are generally rich 162 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. enough for apples without manuring; indeed, heavy, black prairie loam is generally so rich in plant food that it stimulates in most varieties of apples a late growth, especially when the autumn is warm and moist, and only the hardiest kinds, such as those that do not maKe a late growth in autumn, should be planted in such locations. Fig. 7S. — Various kinds of roots on apple trees, a. — Cut too short. b. — Stock has died and roots liave been sent out from the cion. c. — Similar to b, but witli more fibrous roots, d. — A good form well dug, in which the stock is still preserved. If the sub-soil is a very hard clay that the roots can scarcely penetrate, very deep plowing should be- resorted to; but as this is not deep engugh to give the roots much of a chance in very hard, dry clays, the holes should be dug very deep. A better way than digging holes into such hardpan is to explode a medium charge of APPLE. 163 dynamite in each hole, which will so loosen the soil that the roots can penetrate it. In some locations, such treatment will make all the difference between success and failure. Trees should be selected that are vigorous and healthy, with plenty of strong roots. It is really of little importance what the size or form of the top of the tree may be, provided it has good roots and is healthy and free from blemishes; for, if vigorous, the form of the top may be readily changed. The best trees are those, not over four years old, that have made moderate but not rapid growth in the nursery. Three-year-old trees, of most va- rieties, are generally the best to set. Two-year-old treeg, do very well and are often as good as any. One-year-old trees are too small to conveniently cultivate around them in the field and are better off in the nursery for another year. Seedlings. — Apple seed grows readily and generally forms plants about twelve inches high, with tap-roots of about the same length, the first season. TTie seed does not reproduce in quality the fruit it was taken from, and probably not one seedling in a thousand is as good as any of the better cultivated kinds. Seedlings, however, are raised in large quantities, to be used in grafting and to increase the named varieties. Apple seed is gen- erally obtained by washing out the pomace from cider mills. The seeds are heavier than the pulp and are readily separated from it by water. It is best not to allow the seed to get very dry after cleaning, and on this account some growers prefer to sow it in the fall shortly after cleaning, while others mix it with sand and keep it buried in the ground until spring. If the seed gets very dry it often fails to start, or does not start for one year, unless scalded or mixed with moist sand and allowed to freeze and thaw a- few times. In a small way the seed may be kept mixed with sand and buried in a box in the ground until spring, when it should be put in a warm place until it starts into growth a little. It should then be sown in drills three inches deep and about three feet apart, in rich, warm soil, sowing about twenty seeds to the foot. Root grafted trees should always be preferred to those that are budded for severe sections, although In the case of hardy trees that have already been root-grafted, budding is as good as 164 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. grafting to change the bearing qualities, where extremely hardy- stocks are used. The objection to budded trees is not in the method of propagation, but in the fact that the buds must be in- serted above or close to the ground in a seedling root which is often of doubtful hardiness and may be quite tender and the bud is partly exposed above ground, where it is liable to fail at any time. Root-grafted trees have the graft below ground and send out roots from above the graft, which increases the hardi- ness of the tree. Quite frequently the roots of a budded or graft- ed tree will be tender and kill out, while the top is healthy and sound, consequently it is desirable to have the roots as hardy as the top. But as this is not always practicable, every effort should be made to get the hardiest roots obtainable. In most favorable locations, budded trees may be just as desirable as those which are root-grafted. The kind of root-graft; whether it is made with whole or piece roots, makes but little difference to the ordinary planter, who should try especially to get good trees and then be careful to plant the graft well below the sur- face of the ground. . Planting. — For planting, the land should be in as good condi- tion as is required for corn. The work of planting will be greatly facilitated if the land is furrowed out both ways with a large plow, and the trees set at the intersections. If the trees must be set in sod, a hole five feet in diameter should be dug for each tree; no grass should be allowed to grow in this space, and it should be heavily mulched.- In setting the trees, the holes should be made large enough to take in all the roots without crowding. If it is necessary to set trees into the subsoil, as it often is, then in digging the holes the top-soil should be kept separate from the sub-soil and be put back in the bottom of the hole so as to be in contact with the roots. TTie roots should be evenly spread out in the hole and the fine top soil carefully worked among them so as not to leave any air spaces between or under them. If the soil is dry it can hardly be made too solid around the roots. If wet, but little pressure should be used. The time to plant. — In the extreme North, fruif trees should never be set in the fall of the year as they are then especially lJaM§ to winter injury, nor should thej be dug from the nursery APPLE. 165 rows in the spring, a« they are very liable to have been weakened by unfavorable winter conditions and will often start poorly. They should be dug in the autumn and buried root and branch — "heeled in" — in dry soil until spring, or else be carried over the winter in a cold cellar. As few cellars are fit for this purpose it is gener- ally safer to bury them outside. As. a rule, it is best for plant- ers to get their trees in the fall, as they are then more certain to get good stock, and there is no delay in waiting for them to •come in the spring. The trees may be set as soon as the soil works easily in the spring, and until the trees break into leaf. Usually moderately early planting gives the best results, but it is bad practice to set trees in wet, sticky soils. In the more favorable sections for apple growing there is very little danger of trees in the nursery being injured in winter and hence it is safe to dig the trees in the spring and set them out. Autumn planting is also successful with apples in very favorable locations but must be done with much care for best results. Autumn planting. — While it is best, as a rule, to plant trees in the spring, yet it is quite practical to plant apples, plums, and most other fruit trees in the autumn, provided that they are afterwards laid on the ground on the approach of winter and covered with earth and a little mulch. This makes considerable additional labor over spring planting. On the other hand, how- ever, it permits of planting in the autumn when the general farm and garden work is not as pressing as in the spring. It really amounts to the "heeling in" of each tree separately. In the spring the trees should be uncovered and straightened up before growth starts, and they are then all ready to go on and grow. "Heeling in" is a term used to designate the temporary bury- ing of the roots of trees or plants in earth or other material. If the trees are to be moved again within a few days, a very light covering will be sufficient; but if they are to remain several weeks much care should be taken to do the work well. To begin with, select a dry, mellow piece of ground; dig a wide ditch, put in the trees — a few at a time — either in an erect or sloping posi- tion, and cover them so deep and firm that they cannot dry out. If apples or some other somewhat tender trees are to remain 166 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. "heeled in" over winter, it will be found best to commence by- digging a trench about two feet deep and three feet wide in dry land, where no water will stand in the trenches; put in a layer of trees, sloping; cover over the roots with a thin layer. of fine, mel- Fig. 79. — ^Heeling-in. Showing methods followed in heeling-in trees of orchard transplanting size. low earth, filling in carefully and solid all the interstices among the stems and roots; continue thus until all the trees are in, when the tops should be bent to the ground and covered with a few inches of earth. Depth to plant. — In the best locations, the trees should be set about four inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. In very dry, light soil, they may be put, perhaps, twelve inches deeper than they naturally grew. On steep hillsides, they must be set much deeper or they will come too near the surface, owing to the slope of the land. One of the most important objects secured by deep planting is the sending out of roots from the cion, for when trees are well rooted from the cion they are generally much im- proved in hardiness. However, in deep, retentive soil deep plant- ing is not desirable. Distance apart to plant. — In favorable locations apples should be set farther apart than where the conditions are very severe. Most varieties do best toward the northern limits of apple growing APPLE. 107 when not over thirty feet apart. In favorable apple districts in the Eastern states apple trees are generally set 35 to 40 feet apart, while in some of the Pacific Coast fruit sections, where the trees seldom become large, they are set out 25 to 30 feet apart. Apple trees should be set so as to "break joints" north and south — that is, the trees in one row should be set opposite the vacan- cies in the next. If the rows run northeast and southwest the trees will shade one another on the southwest side, which is the side most liable to injury from the sun. Cultivation. — Young orchards should be cultivated in some hoed crop which does not necessitate the working of the soil in autumn, but will keep the land well cultivated early in the sum- mer. For this purpose corn, early potatoes or squash are good crops. Do not sow the ordinary small grains in orchards. Buck- wheat, however, seems to be an exception to the rule, and on account of its dense shade is a very good crop for this purpose. After the trees begin to bear it is often a good plan to seed the land to clover, which should be broken up occasionally. The trees, however, should be well mulched with stable litter and, if they do not make a satisfactory growth, should be manured. When an orchard becomes "sod bound" nothing will do it more good than a drove of hogs, sufficient to root up all the sod, but they must not be allowed to gnaw the trees. Besides breaking up the sod the hogs are very beneficial in destroying many kinds of insects. Forming the tree. — Whatever the shape of the tree when it is received from the nursery, it will need careful attention in the orchard. The question whether to grow trees with a long or short trunk is a much disputed one; but it may be laid down as a general rule that in favorable locations the trunks of the hardier kinds should be free from branches for fully three feet from the ground, but in such cases they may need some protec- tion from sunscald. In very severe and exposed locations, or in the case of somewhat tender varieties, it will be better to have the trees branch near the ground. When formed in this way, they are hardier and less exposed to the wind than if they have tall trunks. There is a constant tendency for trees to incline to the northeast, and this should be prevented as far as possible. To do this, the growth should be encouraged on the southwest 1^8 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. side by light summer pruning on the north side. Also, in set- ting the trees, they should be slightly inclined to the southwest and an effort made to keep them in that direction. Sprouting from the roots. — In the case of young thrifty trees, such as the Wealthy and some other kinds, even with trees up to six inches in diameter, vigorous sprouts will often be pro- Fij . — Apple trees of various forms showing method of pruning for planting. duced from the trunk when the top is badly injured and such sprouts will make profitable trees. This has been the experience in Minnesota where trees have been killed back in severe win- ters. Mulching. — The advantage of a mulch around trees in ap- ple orchards is not generally appreciated. It checks evaporation and prevents the running off of water and allows it to soak into the groun-d. It helps to equalize the moisture in the soil through- out the growing season, and prevents root-killing in winter. It is of the greatest assistance in rather dry locations, where its use makes success possible with many varieties that otherwise AJ>PLE. 1^9 would be complete failures. In almost any soil of the North- west the chances of trees living and doing well would be in- creased by the use of a mulch around them, but this is especially true of trees on sandy land and in southern exposures. It is generally best to cultivate the land around trees when they are small; but if they are set on sod land, or after they begin to bear, or if they suffer from drouth, they should be heavily mulched at once, and this should be renewed as often as nec- essary to keep a covering five or six inches in depth on the ground at all times extending at least four feet on all sides of the tree, and, in the case of larger trees, extending out as far as the branches. Trees that are mulched should for best results have the mulch removed and the soil spaded up around them each spring. Mulch, however, encourages the presence of mice which are liable to gnaw the bark from the stems which must be protected against them. The varieties of the apple differ greatly in their resistance to severe climatic conditions. Some varieties have wonderful hardiness and recuperative qualities and are adapted to a wide range as, for instance the Oldenburg, Baldwin, Ben Davis and Tolman Sweet, while others are adapted only to a limited range, like the Newtown Pippin. There are a large number of differ- ent kinds, although but few of them are cultivated in a large way commercially. The varieties of the first degree of hardiness are recommended by the Minnesota State Horticultural Society and may be taken as illustrating the kinds that should be tried in the most severe northern sections. They are Hibernal, Duchess of Oldenburg, Oharlamoffi, Patten's Greening and Okabena. This list illustrates the way in which we are developing an American pomology of our own, for of this list the first three are of northern European origin and the last two are American seedlings; one. Patten's Greening, originated in northern Iowa; the other, Okabena, originated in southwestern Minnesota. The principal varieties of apples cultivated in the large commercial orchards of the chief apple-growing regions include the Baldwin, Ben Davis, Gano, Winesap, Greening, Grimes Gold- en, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Northern Spy, Oldenburg, Tol- man Sweet and Wealthy. 1?0 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. The insects and diseases commonly attaVjking the apple are the codlin moth, flat headed apple tree borer, tent caterpillar, apple curculio, apple leaf lice, and among the common diseases are scab and fire blight. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases. Pear. Pear growing has been an important matter in the North- eastern states since the early settlement of the country, and has attained great commercial importance in parts of California of late years. In the interior states the pear has been subject to fire blight and its cultivation has made little progress. In the Gulf states the sand pear hybrids only are grown. The pear is probably nearly as hardy as the apple against climatic trou- bles. Origin. — The commonly cultivated pear of America and Europe has been developed from the wild pear fPyrus com- munis) of Europe and Asia. In its native state the fruit is hard and inferior. Pliny said of the pears in his time that they all had to be cooked to be eaten. The greatest improvement in pears was made by "Von Mons in Belgium early in the nine- teenth century. He originated many of the best kinds now grown. The Chinese Sand Pear (Pyrus sinensis) was in- troduced into this country about the middle of the last century and was for many years cultivated mostly as a curiosity and for ornament. It is a vigorous tree, with broad, shin- ing, very resist- Fig-. 81. — Forms of Pears. A. — 'Solid line shows , f ■,- „ „ j obtuse pyriform. Dotted line, round. B. — ^^^ I0liat,e ana Solid line shows oblong obovate. Dotted consnicuous fruit line, acute pyriform. ^ PEAR. 171 so gritty, hard and acid as to be valueless for des- sert purposes but useful like the quince when cooked. It readily crosses with the ordinary pear (P. communis) of gardens and a large number of more or less mixed seedlings has been the result. Among these are two that have become commercially valuable. These are the Kieffer and the Le Conte. The Le Conte was for a long time thought to be entirely resistant to fire blight and especially adapted to the Southern States, but of late years it has been badly affected with this disease and now fhe Kieffer is regarded as the most reliable even in the South, although it is not entirely resistant to the fire blight. At the North, and over a wide range of territory, the Kieffer has prov- en a profitable sort on account of its fine appearance and keep- ing qualities, although of inferior quality. It is also less liable to attacks of the San Jose scale, at least in some locations, than varieties of P. communis. The flowers of the pear are perfect and yet there are many varieties that are most certain only when grown mixed in the orchard with other kinds and it is now a customary practice to mix the varieties in the orchard. This weakness of pears does not seem to be constant but varies possibly according to soil and location. Standard pears. — ^What are known as Standard pears are worked on seedlings of the small wild crabby pears which are common in Europe, botanically the Pyrus nivalis, or on seedlings of the Oriental pears. These have lots of plump seed and are vigorous and thrifty, aiost of the stocks used in this coun- try are imported from Europe. The seedlings are not easily grown as they are liable to leaf blight when young. Dwarf pears. — When the pear is worked on what is known as quince stocks, the resultant trees are dwarf in size and bear fruit very young. Some varieties of the pear bear best and the fruit is of improved quality when worked on this stock. The stocks for this purpose are generally grown by layering the vigorous Angers quince. The layers are then planted out in nursery rows and when growing thriftily are budded or grafted in spring with the pear. The pear does not make a good union on the Japanese quince and all attempts to use it for this purpose have failed. 172 POPULAR PRUIT GROWING. If dwarf pears are planted deep, they throw out roots above the graft and then become Standards, but quince stock must be below ground for protection. An observant person can easily dis- tinguish the dwarf pear trees that have roots from the cion by their greater vigor and, if desired, these pear roots may be cut off and the strong growth checked. Dwarf pears have the merit of fruiting very young and heavily, often when only three years from the bud. They are especially fitted for the small garden and of little importance Fig. 82. — Some of the peculiar ways in which pear trees are com- monly pruned in French gardens. otherwise. Dwarf pears need to have their new wood shortened each year if they are to be kept in compact form, otherwise they get too rangy. About twelve feet is the proper distance between them. The Duchess pear is the most popular sort for growing on quince roots. PEAR. 173 Thorns, (Crataegus), Mountain Ash and even Shad Bush (Amalanchier canadensis) have been used as pear stocks with fair results. The Mountain Ash is occasionally used for this purpose in Sweden, where ordinary pear stocks are tender. The Kieffer pear is sometimes grown from cuttings in the South and used as a stock for the pear. Propagation. — The pear is grown in practically the sume .ways as the apple, that is, (a) by crown-grafting in the fields, (b) by root-grafting in the house in' winter on whole roots — in this case the growth is generally quite slow the first year, (c) by budding in summer. Soil and cultivation. — The pear needs a rich, retentive soil but thrives on a variety of soils and especially likes a rather hard sub-soil clay. It is short lived on soils of a loose, open texture. Fire blight is especially troublesome on soils where the trees make a very rapid growth and it is the practice of some growers to keep the land in sod to prevent too rapid growth of wood. Yet the pear orchard must not be allowed to become so firmly bound in sod that the trees are prevented from making a reasonable growth. Nitrogenous manures and the use of nitrogenous cover crops should generally be avoided in the pear orchard and most attention given to the use of potash and phosphoric acid. Trees and planting. — Young, thrifty trees, about two years from the bud or three years from the root graft, are best for planting. Standard pears are generally planted 16x16 or 20x20 feet apart, according to the form and size of thie varieties. Pears generally bear paying crops younger than apples. This quality, however, varies with the different kinds. Pruning. — Pears need more pruning than apples when young. During the first few years after planting, the few central shoots that often seem to occupy all the attention of the tree when young should be pinched or shortened except the strongest cen- tral shoot, which should be preserved through the life of the tree. Proper attention to this when the trees are young will develop a head that will need but little training after the trees commence to bear. Fruit. — Pears vary greatly in size, quality, color and form, and also in season of ripening, froni early summer to late winter. 174 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Some are valuable only for cooking, others are of finest dessert quality. The fruit should be protected by spraying and should be picked when full grown, even if very hard, as they are im- proved by being ripened under cover. Some varieties that water core badly on the tree are exempt from it when the fruit is ripened under cover. Fruit allowed to hang long on the trees in autumn does not keep well. The fruit is marketed as fresh fruit, dried, canned and used for making pear cider known as "perry." Insects and diseases commonly attacking the pear are much the same as those attacking the apple. The pear is, if anything, more liable to fire blight than the apple. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter rv, Diseases. The varieties of the pear that ai-e most popular include the Bartlett, Kieffer, Clairgeau, Anjou, Howell, Sheldon, Seckel and Nelis. The Duchess is the most popular dwarf kind. By the proper selection of varieties the season for the pear may be extended from early summer to late winter, but the very early, and especially the very late, pears are not of the best quality and are generally supplanted by the apple which is more easily grown. Quince. Origin. — The quince fCydonia vulgaris) is a fruit of com- paratively little importance. It is a native of Asia and South- ' eastern Europe. There are not many varieties of it and few of these are much known. The plant is a shallow rooted shrub, seldom over twelve feet high, and is sometimes trained to the tree form. It is chiefly grown in New York, New England and on the Pacific coast. It prefers a cool, rather moist climate and is uncertain elsewhere. There is a demand for it in most of the markets of the Northern states. Flowers. — The flowers of the quince much resemble those of the apple but are larger and more open, are white, shaded to pink, are produced singly at the ends of the twigs and are very ornamental. They are supposed to be' self-fertile. Propagation. — The quince is easily propagated. TTie most common ways are as follows: (a) Cuttings of the new wood planted in autumn (com- mon) and from cuttings of the surface roots (uncommon). QUINCE. 175 (b) Mound layering, i. e., by piling the soil up among the stems which causes them to root, after which they are sepa- rated and set out. (c) Budding or grafting the cultivated kinds on the free growing Angers Quince (uncommon). (d) By grafting long quince cions on pieces of apple roots, perhaps one or two inches long, which are broken off in one year and the plants then obtained on their own roots. This method is generally successful and especially desirable with some kinds that do not grow easily from cuttings. It is customary to use the short pieces of apple root commonly wasted in root-grafting the apple, for this purpose. (e) The quince grows well from seed which starts readily. The fruit of seedlings may be either pear or apple shaped. Soil and planting. — Rich, retentive, not moist soil is be^st. Sandy soils are not so desirable as clay soils. The bushes should be planted out about twelve feet apart each way. Avoid cultivation of the soil as much as possible, especially in late sum- mer, and avoid stable manure, as these have a tendency to en- courage fire blight. Nitrogenous fertilizers and nitrogenous cover crops should be avoided. Fertilizers containing potash and phosphoric acid are best. Pruning. — Little pruning is required, except to keep the suckers off from the roots and trunks. The trees should branch close to the ground. Picking. — The fruit should be picked when it begins to turn yellow and it must be handled with great care, a,s it bruises easily. If stored in a cool place the fruit will keep a month or more. It is used only for cooking when it has a peculiar and delicious quality quite its own. Most of it is pre- sei'ved in the form of jelly or marmalade but when baked it makes a desirable dessert. Insects and diseases. — The quince is attacked by nearly the same insects and diseases that affect the apple and pear and is especially liable to leaf rust, fire blight and leaf blight. See Chapter III, Insects, and Chapter IV, Diseases. The varieties of the quince commonly grown are the Orange, Champion, Rea and I\Ieech. 176 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER IX. Apples. 1. Into what classes may apples be divided? 2. Characterize each. 3. Into what groups of varieties may apples be divided? 4. What terms are applied in descriptions of apples? 5. How are apples propagated? 6. What stocks are used in different localities? 7. How are dwarf apples formed? 8. What is meant by "top-working?" 9. What is the best location for an apple orchard? 10. What is a poor location for an apple orchard? 11. Of what advantage is a windbreak to an orchard? 12. What soil is best adapted to apple growing? 13. With what kind of trees should the orchard be started? 14. How are seedlings grown and for what purpose? 15. How is apple" seed obtained? 16. How is it cared for and planted? 17. What are the merits of root-grafted trees? 18. What are the merits of budded trees? 19. How should apple trees be set out? 20. WTiat care should be taken in planting? 21. When is the best time to plant trees? 22. When should autumn planting be practiced? 23. What is meant by "heeling in?" 24. How are plants heeled in? 25. What depths should trees be set? 26. How far apart should trees be planted? 27. What cultivation do orchards require? 28. What pruning should be done? 29. In what case should sprouting from the roots be encouraged? 30. What are the advantages of a mulch in the orchard? 31. When and how should a mulch be .applied? 32. What varieties are best adapted to the North? To the South? 33. What varieties are most grown for commercial use? Pear. 34. In what sections of the country is the pear grown? 35. Of what country is the pear a native? 36. What are the characteristics of the Chinese sand pear? 37. What is the origin of the Le Conte and Kieffer pears? 38. W^hat are Standard pears? 39. WTiat. are dwarf pears used for? 40. What are their characteristics? 41. What trees are used as stock for the pears? 42. How is the pear propagated? 43. What cultivation and" soil is best for the pear? 44. How should young trees be planted out? 45. What pruning do the trees need? 46. What are the qualities of the fruit? 47. How is the fruit marketed? 48. What insects and diseases are injurious to the pear? 49. Wliat are some of the common varieties of the pear? 50. How are pears packed for market? Quince. 31. Of what country is the quince a native? 52. What are the characteristics of the quince? 53. In what Avays may the quince be propagated? 54. What soil and cultivation is best for the quince? 55. What pruning does the tree reiiulre? 56. When should the fruit be picked? 57. For what is it used? 58. What are the common varieties of the quince? CHAPTER X. THE STONE FRUITS. Under the head of stone fruits we include peaches, plums, cherries, almonds, nectarines, and apricots, all of which are classified under the genus Prunus. This is one of the most im- portant groups to horticulturists and contains some very valu- able fruits and ornamental plants. The almond is an impor- tant fruit that belongs under this head, but its cultivation is not referred to in this chapter as it is included under the head of nuts. The Plum. There are more species of the plum cultivated in a large way in this country than any other of our common fruits. In the Northeastern states and on the Pacific coast the European or Domestica plums are much at home and commonly grown. In many of the Central states the Japanese plums are widely grown and are increasing in popularity. Even as far north as southern Minnesota, they are grown successfully in the best plum localities. In the great Mississippi Valley, extending from far north to the south, the most popular varieties of plums are those that have sprung from the native sorts. These have been developed within less than half a century. The different species. — There are several species from which the cultivated sorts have come. They are as follows: (a) European or Domestica plum group (Prunus domes- tica). This plum is a native of Europe and Western Asia and includes most of the finest plums of commerce. Its most com- mon color is red or purple, but it is also found with yellow or green skin. In Europe it is cultivated far into the north, but the same varieties that are successfully grown in the cold north there have failed in the northern part of the Mississippi Valley. Popular varieties in this cla*3s are Lombard, German Prune, Vic- toria and Bradshaw. (b) The Myrobalan or Cherry plum group (Prunus cerasife- ra). This plum is native to southeastern Europe. It is a favor- 178 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ite stock on which to bud varieties of the P. domestica. The De Caradeuc and Mariana plums, which are supposed to have sprung from species native to this country, are probably close- ly related to this species. (c) Japan plum group (Prunus trifloraj. This plum comes to us from Japan, whence it was introduced about thirty years ago. It is probably a native of various parts of Asia and is closely allied to our American plum. The fruit is of large size and brilliantly colored in red, yellow and purple. It does es- pecially well in good plum sections and has a wider range than the Domestica class of plums. Many varieties flower so early in the spring that their crops are uncertain. It seems quite probable that crosses with it and some of the native kinds will give rise to very valuable varieties adapted to a wide range of conditions. Examples of this class are Kelsey, Burbank and Abundance. (d) American plum group (Prunus amcricana). This is the common wild plum of the Northern states and Canada, ex- tending from the Rocky Mountains eastward across the continent and well to the south. It is admirably adapted to the severe conditions of the northern Mississippi Valley and the plains, and from it have come a large number of varieties, including such well known kinds as De Soto, Wyant, Wolf, Weaver and Rollingstone. A form of this, sometimes known botanically as Prunus nigra and having some quite evident characteristics of its own, is found somewhat north of the range of the typical Prunus Americana. Good examples of this are the Cheney and Aitkin, both of v/hich flower early and mature their fruit ear- ly. Plums of this class seem to do best in northern Minnesota, northern North Dakota and Manitoba. (e) The Wild Goose group (Prunus JiortulanaJ, represents a group of plums that seem especially adapted to southern Iowa, Missouri, southern Illinois and adjacent sections. Among these are such well known popular varieties as Wild Goose and Way- land. (f) The Chickasaw group (Prunus angustifolia or P. chica- sa) are native to the Southern states and include such varieties as Newman, Pottawatomie and Lone Star. PLUM. 179 Bailey classifies the various varieties of the Prunus domes- tica substantially as follows: Prunes. — These are known by their sweet, firm flesh,' which contains enough sugar to permit of their being dried and made a commercial product. As a rule a good prune should contain not less than 12 per cent of sugar. Many plums that are grown "as prunes on the Pacific coast and elsewhere are cultivated in the Eastern states as plums. The Damsons represent a small class of plums having very firm flesh, the fruit of which is borne in clusters and the foliage is small. These are commonly seen along fences and in various wild places in many of the Eastern states. They are generally grown from seed and not grafted. The fruit is valuable prin- cipally for cooking. Gages. — In addition to ,these there is a class known as Green Gages, which are round and generally of good table quality. The variety known as Green Gage is typical of this group, liarge, yellow plums, such as Coe's Golden Drop, may be used to represent another group. Large purple and blue plums repre- sent another section, and some of the most important under this class are Lombard, Bradshaw and Quackenboss. Propagation. — TTie plum is propagated in a variety of ways. The American sorts are sometimes grown from root cuttings. In this case the trees used are on their own roots. Cuttings for this purpose consist of pieces of the smaller surface roots that are cut up in autumn, about four inches long. They are then mixed with sand in boxes or nail kegs and stored in a cold cellar until spring, by which time they will be calloused and very likely will have started buds. These cuttings are general- ly sown thickly in drills about three feet apart and covered about three inches deep. Growing plums from suckers. — The American plums are also grown from suckers which are encouraged by cutting the surface roots about trees that are growing on their own roots. This method is a favorite one for many small growers and amateurs. Some horticulturists consider trees grown on their own roots much superior to those that are grown in the usual way. 180 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. The European, Japan and American plums are mostly grown by budding or grafting on seedling plums. Crown-grafting in spring on well established seedlings, is a common practice. Root-grafting on whole roots in winter is practiced the same as root-grafting the apple, and is successful but not as reliable as crown grafting in early spring, and the plants start slowly when grown in this way. Stocks for the plum. — The Myrobalan plum is in common use as a stock for the plum. The Mariana, a nearly allied stock, is also used and both make good stocks for the plum in the milder sections. For the colder sections, as in Minnesota, the Dakotas, northern Iowa, Wisconsin and adjacent states, seed- lings of the native Prunus americana are much to be pre- ferred. Seedlings of the Wild Goose type of plums, as well as those of Prunus americana, make excellent stocks for southern Iowa, Missouri and Kansas. Peach seedlings are largely and successfully used as stocks for the plum in mild- er plum-growing sections, while for the colder states they are to be avoided. The apricot has been tried as a stock for the American varieties of the plum but fails to make a per- manent union with it. The soil for the plum should preferably be one that is thor- oughly well drained and rea- sonably retentive of moisture, but it will succeed in any good agricultural soil. The trees hold on well, even on quite gravelly ridges, but in such situations in dry years the fruit is exceedingly small and the trees make but little growth and are short lived. Trees and planting. — It is best to set only young trees, that Fig. S3. — Sprout of the plum root taken off with a piece of a parent root; the best way. PLUM. 181 is, those under three years. Plums that have made a strong growth may be set at one year old. Most planters prefer them at this age as they are cheaper and easier to plant out than Older trees. Plums are generally planted from 16 to 20 feet apart each way and for some dwarf varieties the smaller dis- tance may be sufficient, but for the stronger growing kinds twen- ty feet is little enough between them. As a rule a better plan than planting equi-distant apart each way is to plant the trees Fig. 84. — Old plum tree pruned in order to renew the top. 16 to 20 feet apart in rows forty or fifty feet apart and grow some other crop between. Mixing Varieties. — There is some uncertainty as to the flowers of the plum. Some varieties are generally, if not al- ways, self-fertile, while others are commonly, if not always self- sterile. These qualities seem to vary more or less, according to location and soil. Much disappointment has arisen from the 182 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. planting of self-sterile kinds singly, as, notably, the Wild Goose. It can be laid down as a general rule, and it will apply espe- cially to the native kinds, that vai'ieties of the same time of flowering should be mixed in orchards. Picking. — The European plums should be picked with the stem on; the American plums naturally become detached from the stem at maturity. The fruit may be either a free stone or a cling stone and examples of each are found among the differ- ent classes of the plum. (The word "prune" is applied to a class of plums having firm flesh and a larger per cent of sugar than the ordinary plum, which dries readily.) Some of the best plum growers practice thinning the fruit. The time when the different varieties come into bearing depends much on the peculiarities of each sort. The different classes of plums usual- ly bear fruit in three years. Insects. — The Insects most injurious to the plum are the Curculio, Peach Borer, Tent Caterpillar and Leaf Lice, which see in chapter on Insects. The diseases especially injurious to the plum are Brown Rot, Plum Pocket and Leaf Curl. Plum Knot and Shot Hole fun- gus are discussed under the head of diseases. The varieties of the plum are many -and various. In the great plum growing sections of the Pacific Coast the principal kinds grown are Burbank, Climax, Clyman, Satsuma, Wick- son, Yellow Egg, Grand Duke, Washington, Blue Damson. In the Northeastern states the principal varieties grown are Lombard, Abundance, Wildgoose, Burbank. The varieties best adapted to Minnesota and the surround- ing states are Wyant, De Soto, Wolf, Stoddard, Surprise, Cherry and Forest Garden. Peach. The peach is one of the most uncertain of our cultivated fruits. It is highly esteemed and is used almost entirely as a luxury by the greater part of our people. It is nowhere adapted to great areas, although widely grown in a small way. It is grown in a large commercial way in a few favorable sections, among which may be mentioned: 1. The section along the south shore of the Great Lakes, including portions of southern Michi- PEACH. xH'i gan. New York, Ohio and southern Canada; 2. Long Island and portions of Connecticut, southern New York, New Jersey, Dela- ware and Maryland ; 3. Further south there is a great peach section in the highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, etc.; 4. Southern Illinois, Missouri, and portions of Kansas, Iowa and Nebraska; 5. Parts of Texas; 6. Parts of eastern Colorado; 7. A large part of California. TTie northern limits of successful peach growing in New England is perhaps central Massachusetts, and even in southern New Hampshire peaches are raised in favorable years. In the Mississippi Valley peaches are raised as far north as southern Iowa. However, as the northern limits of peach raising are reached, tLie crop becomes uncertain, owing chiefly to the kill- ing of the fruit buds in winter, which will gener- ally stand a temperature of over 25 degrees below zero if the wood is well ripened in autumn. The flower buds are much more ' tender than the leaf buds and are often killed with- out injuring the growth of the trees. On rich soils, especially on those that are liable to be moist, the peach grows .too late in autumn and the flower buds will kill in such loca- tions even when uninjured on higher, drier, and perhaps poorer, soils. In central Iowa the planting of the hardiest kind of peaches has been attended with some success. Laying the peach trees down in winter. — In northern Iowa and southern Minnesota a few peaches are grown each year by Fig-. 85. — Protecting- peach tree. Peacli tree tied up, ready for pruning. (After Whitten.) 184 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. bending the trees to the ground in winter and covering the tops witli corn stalliS, marsh liay or similar material. The wood of the peach is exceedingly brittle but the roots are very tough and the trees are bent in the roots by digging a hole at the side of the tree deep enough to reach the pliable portion of the root. Forked roots are preferred on peach trees that are des- tined to be treated in this way, as their roots are smaller, and hence do not get stiff as quickly as these grown to one central shoot. Origin. — The peach is native of Asia, but was introduced into America at a very early date, and in th©-last century was spontaneous over a large area of country in the mountainous section of the Southern states. While there are many forms of the peach, they are all classed as coming from the same spe- cies, Prunus persica. Pro- fessor R. H. Price, in the report of the American Pomological Society for 1903, classifies the various kinds of peaches under five heads, although he says that some varieties cannot be placed in either, and that the practical ap- plication of this classifica- tion lies in the fact that the grower should not be concerned so much about what varieties he has as about having the varieties he plants of the proper group for his location. The Fig-. 86.— Protecting peach trees. Peach following classification is mit'ten!r'^ ^"^ """^ ^*^'^^' ^^*^'" ta^en from this article: PEACH. 185 (a) Peen-to group. This is distinguished by its vigorous willow-like branches. Flowers appear very early; fruit flattened and much like an oblate apple; stone flattened in an opposite way from that of the ordinary peach; leaves narrow and long and hang on in winter. They are adapted especially for the Southern states and near the coast. Angel and Waldo are varie- ties of this group. (b) South China group. The parent of this race is the variety Honey, which is supposed to have come from South China. The tree is smaller than the Peen-to. Valuable seed- lings of this group are Climax and Coleman. ■ 6 7 Fig^. 87. — Leaves and pits of the different types of peaches. 1. — Per- sian. 2.— North China. 3.— Spanish. 4.— South China. 5.— Peen- to. Pits numbers 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10 are of the same type as the leaves over them. (After Price.) 186 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. (c) Spanish group. The tree is the largest of all supposed to have been introduced by the Spaniards; leaves small, flat, and hang on late in autumn; fruit ripens late and nearly always downy; tinged with yellow; nearly always acid and of low quality. This variety bears heavily in the district to which it is adapted, which includes the Southern and South Central states. Among the varieties belonging to this group are Gal- veston, Guadaloupe, Onderdong and Victoria. (d) North China group. The parent of this group is the Chinese Cling which is supposed to have originated in North China. The tree is of medium growth; flowers large; fruit large and white with a red blash. Such varieties as Elberta, Mamie Ross and Carmen belong to this group. These are raised in enormous quantities on the high lands of the Southern states. (e) Persian group; of unknown parentage, but is supposed to have come from the high altitudes of Persia. Tree is medium in size; flowers varied in size; foliage nearly al- ways crimped, trough shaped and fall off the ti'ee early in au- tumn. This tree needs a long period of rest. Well known varieties of this group are Crawford, Alexander, Mountain Rose, Old Nixon Free and Old Nixon Cling. This group includes most of the varieties that are successful in the North. Propagation. — The peach is sometimes grown from seed. Some varieties come so nearly true from seed that they are /propagated in this way, but it is an uncommon method with commercial varieties. Budding is the common and almost ex- clusive method used in growing the peach although success often attends grafting, which is of convenient use for working over in the spring those budded plants on which the buds failed to take. In the South the peach stocks are commonly budded in June and make large, full sized trees by the end of the first autumn. In the North the peach is usually budded the first year in August when the seedlings will be about two feet high, and the stocks are cut back the following spring. June budding at the North is not popular, as the resultant plants are too small. The seed must be stratified over winter and then cracked in the spring, if not already open, and the kernels planted. Va- cancies in the nursery row may be filled from the seed bed Peach. 1S7 when the seedlings are very young. Seedlings from natural fruit are preferred for stocks from sections where the peach is healthy and free from yellows. A favorite place for ob- taining peach seed is from Tennessee an^ Kentucky whei'e the peach grows in thickets. Plum stocks ai'e sometimes preferred for the peach where it is grown in heavy, moist soil but are seldom used in commercial peach growing. Planting. — The trees for planting out should be one year old from budding, small but not weak. They should be trimmed to a straight shoot one to three feet high and all side branches removed at planting, making them appear as a mere whip stick. This facilitates forming the head. It saves freight and packing if they are to be shipped long distances, to have this done before they are shipped. Trees more than one year old are not desirable for orchard planting. At the North peach trees should be set out in the spring. The distance apart will Fig. 88. — Pruning peach trees, a. — Before pruning, b. — After pruning. 188 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. vary with the locality, soil and variety. In a general way it will be found that 15x15 feet apart is about right. Some grow- ers put out twice as many trees as can grow well to maturity. In such cases they must be thinned out when they commence to crowd one another. Pruning. — On inferior soils, such as those of parts of the peach region of Michigan and the Maryland peninsula, it is customary to do but little pruning and the trees are allowed to branch close to the ground and form rangy heads. On better soils it is quite customary to cut back the new wood severely after the tree is formed, cutting off from one-third to one-fourth of the new growth and the weak wood out of the interior of the tree. This thins the fruit by removing many fruit buds and keeps the tree in compact form. When the trees are injured I / . 89. — Pruning peach trees. ■ Showing severe pruning desirable for peach trees injured in winter. a. — Before pruning. b. — After pruning. PEACH, 189 ill the winter, they recover most quickly, if at all, by being cut back severely. Location and soil. — The peach grows well even in quite poor soil. In very rich soil it is liable to grow late in autumn and the buds kill in winter. Some of the best orchards are on very poor soil. It does best on high ridges, especially in loca- tions exposed to the north and west. Southern slopes are liable to start the buds too early. Where late spring and early au- tumn frosts are prevented by proximity to water, as in Michi- gan, the peach does well at the north, but as the northern limits of peach growing are reached, extra skill is required to grow it. Thinning the fruit. — If the close pruning referred to is fol- lowed, many fruit buds will be cut off and thus the crop is thin- ned, but in addition to this, special thinning is most important with the peach. If it sets fruit at all it generally sets too much, and if all is allowed to grow the tree is weakened and the fruit becomes small and poor. Trees that are thinned generally yield as much fruit in quantity and that of much better quality than trees not thinned. In thinning, take out all curculio-stung and imperfect fruit as they are of no value. Thinning should be done as soon as the imperfect fruit can be determined and after the natural fall of small fruit has taken place. Thin to from four to six inches apart on the branches. It often requires much will power to do this, as such thinning will seem excessive at the time it is done. Peach trees bear young, not infrequently at two years old. The fruit of the peach is used fresh, for canning, evaporating and as a kind of cider which yields brandy by distillation. Insects and diseases. — The trunk of the peach tree is fre- quently injured by the Peach Borer, and the fruit by the Cur- culio. The diseases of the peach are as follows: Brown Rot, Leaf Curl, Scab, Postular Spot, Yellows, Rosette, Little Peach. Varieties. — There are many varieties of the peach. Grow- ers must study the conditions' in their own localities and the adaptation of varieties to them. The most important varieties in the North are Elberta, New Prolific, Kalamazoo, Smock and Triumph. Those most important in the South are Alexander, Carmen, Elberta, Greensboro, Mountain Rose and Sneed, 190 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Nectarine. The nectarine is a smooth-skinned peach. It is interest- ing to know that peaches have been grown from the seed of nectarines and nectarines from the seed of peaches. The fruit is usually inferior to that of the peach in size, quality and ap- pearance. It is grown the same as the peach but not nearly as successfully, and is liable to the same insects and diseases. It seems to do best in the Pacific Coast states. Apricot. The apricot is a fruit somewhat intermediate between the peach and the plum. The bark resembles the peach but the leaves are very broad and almost circular. Origin. — The apricot commonly cultivated in Eastern and European gardens is a native of Asia. Botanically, it is known as Prunus armeniaca. The Russian apricot is a hardy form of this species having small fruit. There are a few varieties cultivated that belong to other species but they are of . poor quality and of little importance, except the so-called Chinese apricot plum (Prunus si7)toni) of Asia which is referred to un- der the head of plums. The apricot is as hardy as the peach and thrives under the same soil and climatic conditions but pre- fers a rather heavier, although well drained soil. The apricot is grown in Europe and in a large way in the Pacific Coast states. In the Eastern and Central states it has not been much planted because its early period of fiowering makes it sus- ceptible to injury from frost and the liability of its being in- jured by Curculio has made the crop so uncertain that the peach has taken its place. Stocks. — ^TTie apricot may be grown on seedlings of the European plums and on the peach. It is said that apricot stocks are not as good as either of these, especially on land that is liable to be very wet in the spring. Some experience seems to show that the apricot does not work well on the Prunus armeni- aca. Planting and pruning. — The apricot requires about the same care in planting and pruning as the peach. However, it does not need quite such close pruning but only enough to keep it in good form. APRICOT. 191 Picking and marketing is much the same with the apricot as with the peach. However, it is generally looked upon as a dessert fruit and is generally marketed in small packages. Insects and diseases affecting the apricot are practically the same as those that attack the peach but it is more liable to injuries from the Curculio, which must be carefully held in check by jarring and clean cultivation. Arsenical sprays can- not be recommended as the foliage is too susceptible to injury from them. Varieties. — The most popular varieties of the larger apricots are Moorpark and Royal. Of the Russian apricots the best are the Gibb, Budd and Alexander, but they are little grown. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER X. Stone Fruits. 1. What fruits are included under the head of stone fruits? 2. What is the distribution of plum growing in the United States? 3. What is the origin and distribution of the Domestica plum? 4. Wliat varieties belong to tlie class and what are their char- acteristics? 5. What is the origin of the Myrobalan plum? 6. What varieties belong to this class? 7. What is the origin and distribution of the Japan plum and what varieties belong to the class? 8. What is the origin and distribution of the American plum? 9. What varieties belong to the class? 10. What is the origin and distribution of the Wild Goose clas.s of plums and what varieties belong to the class? 11. What is the origin of the Chicasaw group of plums? 12. What varieties belong to this class? 13. Into what groups does Bailey classify the' plums? 14. What are the characteristics of each? 15. In what ways may the plum be propagated? 16. What is the common way of propagating the American sorts? The European? The Japanese? 17. What stocks are tised for grafting the varieties? 18. What kind of soil is best for the plum? 19. How should the trees be set out? 20; Why should varieties be mixed in an orchard? 21. How and when should plums be picked? 22. What insects are injurious to the plum? 23. What varieties are grown in the Pacific Coast states? In the Northeastern states? 24. Wliat varieties are best adapted to Minnesota? 25. In what sections of the United States is the peach grown commercially? 26. How fE^r north is the peach grown successfully? 27. What is the effect of good soil for peach growing in the North? 28. How are peaches protected in winter? 192 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 29. What are the characteristics of peach wood? Of peach rooti 30. What is the origin of the peach? 31. Into what groups may peaches be divided? 32. What is the origin and characteristics of each class? 33. How is the peach propagated in the North? In the South? 34. How and when is the peach budded? 35. How are peaches set out in the orchard? 36. What pruning of peach trees is necessary? On poor soil? On good soil? 37. What location and soil is best adapted to peach growing? 38. How should the fruit be thinned? 39. For what purpose is the fruit used? 40. What insects and diseases are injurious to the peach? 41. What are the important varieties grown in the North? In the South? 42. From what did the nectarine originate? 43. How is it grown? 44. Where did the apricot originate? 45. Over what territory is it distributed? 46. What are its characteristics? 47. Wliat trees are used as stocks for the apricot? 48. How are apricots planted? 49. What pruning do apricots require? 50. How is the fruit picked and marketed? 51. For what is it used? 52. What insects and diseases are injurious to the apricot? 53. What are the most popular varieties? CHAPTER XI. The Grape. Origin. — There are about twenty species of wild gi-apes in America and but few of them have been fully tested under cultivation. No part of habitable North America is found with- out some native species and in many sections these are im- portant fruits, in their wild state. The grapes commonly cul- tivated in this country east of the Rocky Mountains are of native origin but in the Pacific Coast states the best European . grapes are grown in great perfection. They are also grown under glass. The species commonly grown in vineyards in this country are as follows: (1) Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labruscaj, the species from which almost all of our popular varieties have sprung. Ex- amples of these are Concord, Worden, Moore's Early and Lady. As found in its native state, it has a large purple fruit, thick skin, and very pulpy meat surrounding the large seeds. The flowers are either perfect or staminate; the leaves are large, with whitish down on the underside. It is found occasionally in the southeastern part of Minnesota, and very abundantly in states farther east and south and in parts of Canada. The Con- cord grape resulted from the selection of seed from a wild vine which had been cultivated for two generations by Ephraim Bull of Concord, Massachusetts. Seedling Labrusca grapes are fre- quently white or greenish in color. The cultivated grapes of this class have perfect flowers with well developed stamens. They also cross readily with the European wine grape, the River Bank and several other native grapes. (2) River Bank or Frost grape (Yitis riparia), the com- mon wild grape found far north in Canada and in the northern United States, is as yet scarcely cultivated, but it is probable that* some of its hybrids will prove valuable for cold locations. This grape has thin, smooth foliage, green on both sides; short jointed wood and perfect or staminate flowers. The vines bear- ing the staminate flowers generally make an extremely rapid 194 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. growth and produce a great number of delightfully fragrant flowers but no fruit. This species, when crossed with the Y. labrusca, has given us Beta and Janesville, two varieties of great hardiness. From this source will probably come the hardy grapes for the colder portions of the United States and Canada. European Wine grape (Vitis viniferaj. — To this species belong most of the cultivated grapes of Europe and Asia. Its flowers are either perfect or staminate. It has been cultivated since the remote past and has given rise to a large number of kinds having widely varying characteristics, but none of these have been successfully cultivated in the open air in the portion of North America lying east of the Rocky Mountains, although they have been grown successfully in California and some adjacent states. The reason for this is undoubtedly the susceptibility of the roots of this species to attacks of the grape vine root louse (Phylloxera) which is abundant over a large part of eastern North America, but to the attacks of which the American vines are largely immune. This pest has of recent years been introduced into both California and Europe, so that many vineyards in these sections have been of necessity graft- ed on American roots to stem its ravages. Hybrid American grapes. — Tlie poor success attending the introduction of varieties of European grapes led to early at- tempts at crossing them V'^-lth native Fox grape (V. labrus- ca). Among the first and most successful of these were the crosses made by E. S. Rogers of Salem, Mass., who originated and distributed a large number of varieties, some of which still remain in cultivation. These are known as Rogers' hybrids and include such well known and productive sorts as Lindley, Aga- wam, Aminia, Herbert, Barry and Salem. These have been largely replaced by the pure labrusca sorts of more recent in- troduction which are nearly, or quite as good, in quality and less liable to disease in ordinary locations. Prof. T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas, has paid special at- tention to the development of varieties of grapes adapted to the Southern and Southwestern states and has sent out a laTge number of good varieties. Among them are the following: Car- man, Headlight, Brilliant and others. In his work he has used GRAPE. las a large number o£ little known species in addition to those men- tioned. Among them are the following: V. rupestris, V. solonis, V. doaniana, Y. Champini, V. candicans, V. bouquiniana, V. lincecumii, V. aestivalis, V. berandieriana and V. rotundifolia. Flowers of the grape. — In the wild state some species of grapes produce some plants that have perfect flowers and others that have staminate flowers. Our cultivated kinds, that are not the result of crossing distinct species quite uniformly, have perfect flowers and no crossing is needed to make them produc- tive. The sorts that have originated from the crossing of two or more species, such as Brighton and Lindley, often have flow- ers in which the stamens are reflexed. Such stamens seldom if ever produce germinable pollen and hence must be supplied with pollen from other vines. When this is not supplied the flowers generally fail to set fruit, or if they set fruit at all it is very small and seedless. Fig. 90. — Flowers of the grape, a. — Flower just opening, with cap pushed off. b. — Perfect flower, c. Staminate flower, d. — Flower with reflex stamens. . Propagation. — The grape is increased from cuttings and lay- ers and, to a very limited extent in this country, by grafting. In California it is considered good practice to graft the Eu- ropean kinds on American roots to avoid the phylloxera. By seed. — Propagation by seed is used for growing stocks and to obtain new varieties. If vines are to be grown in this way the seed should be at once sown in boxes of rich soil, or in a fine seed-bed. (The seed should be saved from ripe ber- ries). Cover it half an inch deep and protect by a mulch in winter. The plants will make a growth of one or two feet 196 POPULAR FRUIT GRQWING. the first season and will show blossoms about the fourth year. Some will have perfect and some staminate flowers, while others will have flowers with reflexed stamens; not one seedling in a thousand will be worth anything for fruit. The chances for obtaining good kinds will be much increased if careful, intelli- gent hybridization is resorted to. By cuttings. — Grape cuttings are of three kinds — long and short, hard-wood cuttings and soft-wood cuttings. The pro- cesses by which they are rooted vary greatly in details but the general principles are the. same in. every case. Long hard-wood cuttings. — These should be made in the fall from the hard, well-ripened new wood of the season. It is best to make them about eight inches long, if wood is abun- dant. The length will necessarily depend somewhat on the distance between the buds on the canes, and when three-bud cuttings are made of some varieties they may be ten inches long. They are often made six inches or less in length, but as short as this they are more liable to fail from drying out than if longer. They will send out roots best if cut just below a bud, but this is not necessary. These cuttings should be put up in bundles of about one hundred each. Bury them in some well- drained place with the tops down, and cover with about six inches of soil and a foot or two of mulch. Be sure the soil is packed firmly around and between the bundles, so that they cannot dry out in winter. In the spring, when the ground is dry, take all but about three inches of the soil from over the cut- tings and replace it M'ith about one foot of hot stable manure, to induce the cuttings to callous. This is very necessary to insure their rooting, and they should never be planted out until ^yell calloused. The same object may be secured by covering the cuttings with a box and sash, which will confine the sun's rays and so warm the roots that they \Yill start a callous. When the soil is settled and warm they should be planted out six inches apart, in rows two or three feet apart, putting the cuttings down to the top bud. They should be put at least seven inches deep in most locations. Tiie land for cuttings. — The land selected for growing grape cuttings should be warm, light and rich. Its condition will be GRAPE. 197 greatly improved if it is warmed by being plowed several times and has a coat of fine, warm manure turned in before planting. When planting on a large scale the land may be marked off with a line, and a sub-soil plow run eight inches deep m the mark to loosen the soil, after which cuttings can easily be pushed into place by hand. The after-cultivation consists in continually working the top soil and keeping it loose and open. In the fall, if the plants are weak, they may be covered with earth and left where they are for another season's growth; but if strong, they may be dug and used for vineyard planting the following spring. It is customary to dig all the vines late in the fall, carefully sort them and heel them in outdoors for win- ter, or else put them in a cold cellar. In the spring the strong vines may be used in the vineyard and the weaker ones be set out in the nursery to grow another year. (See pp. on growing cuttings in chapter on Propagation). One-eye cuttings. — The wood for these should be cut in the fall and wintered over in a cold cellar buried in moss, sand, sawdust, or other similar material, or it may be buried outdoors. In the spring, generally in Feb- ruary or early in March, these canes should be cut up into pieces having one inch of wood below and half an inch above the bud. Boxes about the size of an ordinary soap box, but only four inches deep and having holes for drain- age, should be prepared by putting in one and a half inches of rich soil and then about the same amount of clean sand on top of it. The cuttings should be set deep enough in the sand to just cover the bud, putting th-em two inches apart each way. The boxes Fig. 91. — One year old grape vine from one-bud cutting. 198- POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. may now be put in a gentle hot-bed, or on a greenhouse bench, and kept moist. They should be rooted in about six weeks. When they have made a good root growth they should be plant- edj after the soil is warm, in rich soil outdoors. The time for this will be as late as the latter part of May in this section. "Very nice plants may be grown in this way, but they do not make as strong a growth the first year as plants from long cut- tings, and often need a second year in the nursery before they are large enough for transplanting to the vineyard. Soft-wood cuttings. — These are made from the green wood taken off while, the plant is growing. They are rooted in sand in much the same way that florists root cuttings of geraniums, fuchsias, etc. It is a method used only where wood is very valu- able, and as a means of increasing new varieties. Plants grown this way are apt to start slowly and to be weak until well start- ed, and should not be used when those grown from hard-wood can be obtained. Layering. — This is the simplest, surest and easiest method of increasing the grape, and is the best way to grow it where but few vines are wanted. There are two kinds of layers, called spring and summer layers from the season in which they are made. Summer layers are made in the summer, generally the last of July, from a branch of the same season's growth. They are likely to be weak for several years, and do not make as good plants as spring layers. In making them the wood should be slit for an inch or so near the buds that are covered. Bury about one foot of the cane four inches deep in the ground and it will be rooted by late autumn, when it may be treated as recommended for weak year- ling vines grown from hard- wood cuttings. Spring Layers. — These may be made by laying down any cane early in the spring. It ^^^'f;^"^^^^^''" will root in one season and by fall will have made a good Fig. 92. — Ordinary layer of a grape .. - . ■. -x vine. growth of roots, when it may GRAPE. 199 be cut from the main cane, and if strong enough may be divided into two plants. By a little different treatment of the spring lay- er, a vine may be grown fi'om each bud on the layered cane. For this purpose some thrifty cane should be selected in autumn, pruned of its laterals and buried. In the spring it should be uncovered and only one shoot permitted to grow from each joint. After the new growth has started about six inches from each bud, the whole cane should be layered about four inches deep, handling it carefully bo as not to break the new growth. Fig. 94 shows such a layer after it has rooted. It is a good plan to cover it not more than three inches at first and to fill up the trench as soon as the shoots grow. It covered four inches deep at once, the young growth will sometimes rot, though this seldom happens, and some skillful growers fill the trench full at once. In the autumn roots will be found growing from each joint and these may be cut apart and treated as recommended for weak vines grown from cuttings. If this method of propagation is to be used to some consider- able extent, vines should be grown especially for the purpose. It is not a good plan to use fruiting vines for layering to any great extent, though it may be safely done in a small way. For directions as to grafting the grape see chapter on Propaga- tion. Fig. 93. cut apart plants. Ordinary layer of grape and made into two Fig. 94. — Layering f rapes. Showing how to get a plant from each bud of the cane layered. 200 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Location of the vineyard. — Some of the hardy, early ripen- ing but inferior grapes will mature in almost any situation, but the better kinds need a warm exposure and free circulation of the air about them to insure their ripening each year. High southern slopes generally offer the best locations; in such places there is the greatest amount of heat in summer, very general immunity from the late frosts of spring or the early frosts of autumn, and a movement of the air at all times; all of which are important matters -in growing grapes. Other slopes, and even level land, may be successfully used for this purpose, but on northern exposures, the fruit will be later in ripening than if in situations where the plants receive the direct rays of the sun. However, excellent fruit may often be grown on a northern slope if it is near some large body of water, which will help maintain an equal temperature, and especially to keep off the early frosts of autumn. In a vineyard closely shut in so that the foliage of the vines does not dry off quickly after summer showers, it will be found very difficult to grow many of our better kinds of grapes on account of the prevalence of fungus diseases in such places. The cutting away of a belt of trees surrounding a vineyard, so as to allow a free move- ment of air through the vines at all times, has often been the means of making the difference between failure and success in growing grapes. Soil. — ^The best soil for a vineyard is a rich gravelly or sandy loam, with an open clay sub-soil; but a somewhat clayey loam will do very well if sufficiently drained to remove excess of moisture. Before planting, the land should be thoroughly prepared by plowing and harrowing until in the best condition. Where there is not good surface drainage, as on some prairie farms, it will be found a good plan to plant the vines on ridges made by turning six furrows back to back. In other locations the land should be kept smooth. A limestone soil or loess loam is almost ideal for the grape. The best vines for planting are strong one-year or thrifty two-year-old plants from layers or cuttings, and only those hav- ing a good root system should be used. Plants more than three years old are not desirable, as young, thrifty plants soon out- GRAPE. 201 grow those that ai'e old and large when transplanted. It mat- ters little about the direction of the rows; they should be laid out so as to prevent erosion as much as possible. The proper distance between the plants will depend some- what on the vigor of the kinds planted, the manner of pruning, and the soil; but the strong growing varieties, which are most desirable, should generally be set ten by ten feet apart each way, or in some cases eight feet apart in rows ten feet apart, to al- low for the growth of roots and a good circulation of air be- tween the vines. When the vineyard is much shut in it will be found advantageous to increase this distance, but when lo- cated in an airy position and on retentive soil the plants may be set eight by eight feet. Planting. — The most rapid way of planting grape vines is to furrow out the land one way and mark the other, putting the vines at the intersection of the furrows. Before planting, the tops of the vines should be cut off so as to leave only two or three buds, and if the roots are very long it will facilitate plant- ing to cut them back to twelve inches in length; shortening the roots to this extent does not seem to injure the growth of the plant. On light soil and on hillsides it is exceedingly important to get the roots down deep in the land, and the holes should be made large enough to allow the lower roots to come about fifteen inches below the surface. The top loam should be put around the roots, but the plants should not be covered at once more than two inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. The soil should be gradually worked in around the vines as they grow until the holes are full. On heavy soils, especially those quite moist, it is not safe to plant deep, and eight inches will probably be found about the -right depth in most locations. In planting vines to be pruned on the one-cane system, it is best to incline them somewhat in the direction in which they are to be trained on the trellises. This should be in the direction of the prevailing summer winds. Cultivation. — Soon after planting, the vines should be well cultivated, and some hoed crop that will not shade them may be grown between the rows for the first two years. After this the vines will need all the land. Cultivation should consist of 202 POPIJLAR FRUIT GROWlNa. a shallow plowing early each, spring and during the summer. The top soil should be kept loose and light by shallow cultiva- tion. Deep cultivation or much cultivation late in summer is not desirable in a vineyard, and it may cause serious injury by encouraging a late growth. If the land is lightly plowed each spring no large surface-roots will have time to form; but if this is neglected for several years large surface-roots will get started, and then plowing may seriously injure the vines. Pruning and training are the great bugbears to amateurs in grape growing, and the attempt to follow some peculiar meth- od has done more than anything else to discourage the growing of this fruit by farmers. As a matter of fact, vines will grow and bear fruit without any pruning whatever. Pruning is done simply to get the most good fruit from the least amount of vine, and for practical purpose s it is a very simple matter. There are, however, many systems described in books, and occasionally used in practice, that are quite complicated and difficult for a beginner to understand and even for the experienced to carry out in practice. The practical points to have in mind in pruning grapes are: (1) That the old wood which has borne fruit once never bears again. (2) That the wood that is formed one season produces the bearing wood for the next season. (3) If all the new wood is left on the vine it will bear ten times more clusters than it can properly develop, and they will be small and imper- fect. (4) If nine-tenths of the new wood is cut away, leaving only from thirty to fifty good buds to each vine, the yield of good grapes will be much increased. (5) It is desirable in severe climates to train the vine so that it can ^pruned and^ cov- ^^ ^^^^ down on the ground with but lii- ered for winter at tie resistance, for in such locations it is the end of first year. With extra necessary to protect it each winter. 'formftio^ii^of the ^^ t^^^se points are borne in mind vines is started it matters not so very much what sys- the first year. . . , . tern IS pursued m pruning. However, it will be found most convenient to adhere somewhat clearly to some simple system of pruning. But whatever plan for after- GRAPE. 20£ training is adopted, the care of the vine for the first two years should be about the same. The first year no support or pruning is needed. The vines will ripen their wood as well on the surface of the ground as if tied to stakes, but it will be more convenient about cultivat- ing if they are staked. Late in the autumn of this year, all of the vines should be cut away except three or four buds as shown in fig. 98, unless! the wool is exceedingly firm and ripe, in which case it may be practical to start forming the vine the first year. The vine should be covered with a mound of earth four or five inches deep. Later on, before severe weather sets in, it is a good plan in the more, northern states to apply a covering of mulch two or three inches in depth, of straw or litter of some sort. This mulching is absolutely necessary to insure the winter- ing of newly transplanted vines. Trellis. — The following spring, a trellis should be built un- less stakes were set the first year, when they may be used again and the work of putting up a trel- lis be deferred until the opening of the third year. The most desirable kinds to use will depend upon the method of training fol- lowed. Spur is a term used to indicate the short stubs of the lateral canes that re- main on the main cane after pruning, from which enerally desirable to keep the Fig. 96. — Spur of a Grape Vine. the new growth starts. It spurs as short as possible. Systems of Training and Pruning the Grape. There are two fundamental systems used in training the grape, which underlie all methods in common use. In one sys- tem the shoots are trained upward from the cane. This is call- ed the upright system and embraces a large number of methods. In the other, or drooping system, the shoots are allowed to hang 204 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. naturally from the cane from which they grow. The upright methods have been more widely used than the drooping meth- ods although they are more expensive in practice, since they gen- erally require a more elaborate trellis and the labor of pruning and training is much greater. Further, some of our strong grow- ing vines produce more fruit when trained on the drooping than on the upright system, but there is still quite a difference of opinion among commercial growers as to the relative merits of each, so it is certain that good results are obtained by both of them. The single post method is the simplest method of pruning the grape on the upright system. In this, generally two canes Fig. 97. — Pruning grape vines. Vine treated on high renewal system at end of the season. are selected and wound about the post, each in opposite direc- tions and tied in place. In pruning in after years these canes are preserved and the canes that grow from them are shortened back to two or three buds. The advantage of this method con- sists in the fact that it permits cultivation of the vineyard both ways and in the cheapness of the support. Its disadvantages GRAPE. 205 are that probably the vines are too crowded and the foliage and fruit do not have the best chance to develop. This crowding also encourages disease. High renewal method of training is a form of the upright system that is extensively and successfully employed on a large scale. It starts the branching of the vine at about twenty-four inches from the ground, which is the height of the lower wire of the trellis. A single stem is carried up to the. wire where it branches and its two arms are trained in opposite directions along the wire. In this style of training, the end of the second season will find the vine with two well developed canes extended on the lower wire of the trellis. These should be cut back at pruning time to firm, strong wood. At the beginning of the third season, the buds on this wood will start and form canes that should be trained upward and be tied to the second wire. The third wire is generally put up during the second season, although it is very likely that it will not be needed until the following year. Some of the upright shoots will bear a little fruit the third season but unless the growth is very strong, this should not be permitted. At the end of the third season, all the vine is cut away except two strong canes nearest the center of the vine, which are merely cut back to firm wood and extended along the lower wire. It is from these canes that the vine starts the next year. The subsequent training of the vine i s a continued suc- cession of preserving the two best central shoots and the cutting away of all the rest of the vine. If the two central shoots arc not strong enough, the nearest strong shoots are preserved. 9S. — Vine in Figure 97 after pruning. 200 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. In the case of strong growing varieties of grapes like the Concord and Worden, it is customary to leave more than two canes in pruning; often four and occasionally six are left. When four are left, two are often tied together along the bottom wire. If six are used, the two extra cane^s are tied along the second wire in the same manner. The amount of wood that should be left on a vine after prun- ing will depend upon the vigor of the variety grown. In the car,e of the weak growing sorts, like the Delaware, from twenty to thirty buds should be left on the vine after pruning. This means that all the buds left on the new wood shall not be more than this number on the whole vine and these shall be on two or more canes. In the case of strong growing kinds like the Concord, as many as ten or twelve buds may be carried on each cane and four canes may be left. In other words, such vines may safely carry from forty to fifty buds each year. In any case, a weak vine should have fewer buds left than a strong vine. As the vine acquires age, the spurs at the top of the trunk get weak. It is customary then to encourage a shoot from near the ground and treat it much the same as if it were a new young vine and from it form a new top. The second year after it is well started, i. e., when it is in good bearing condition, the old cane may be cut away and the young vine allowed to take its place. A top will retain its vigor six or eight years under ordi- nary treatment but seldom much longer, although the roots will still be vigorous and will form several successive tops. The high renewal method requires much more tying than any of the forms of the drooping system of training. In doing this, the vine should be firmly tied to the trellis and the new growth, as it reaches it, should be tied to the second wire and later to the third wire. It will be necessary to go over the vineyard sev- eral times each season to accomplish this. All shoots do not start with the same vigor, but after they have reached the up- per wire and are well tied they are allowed to hang down and need no further pruning or tying. In the case of the drooping method of training the only tying that is ordinarily practiced is that of tying the main cane very strongly to the wire. In this method, the vines are trained un- GRAPE. 207 til the canes reach the upper wire, after which no further train- ing is given and the summer shoots are allowed to hang from the upper wire. In tying the canes, and especially in tying the main arms, allowance should be made for their growth or they may be gir- dled. They should be tied loosely and for this purpose it is cus- tomary to use roping, cotton warp, green Kentucky Blue grass or even willow twigs. The One-Cane Spur Renewal Method. The one-cane spur renewal method of pruning is a form of the upright system that is adapted to sections where vines must Fi£ 99. — Method of forming vine trained on one cane spur renewal system. be laid down in winter, although some of the Labrusca sorts seem to fruit better when they are not pruned so close as is necessary in adhering to this system. Its chief advantage is that the vine is trained close to the ground where it may be easily laid down and covered with earth in winter. Trellis. — A form of trellis well adapted to the upright and fan methods may be made by 'setting posts sixteen feet apart in the row, and using four wires of No. 12 galvanized iron, putting the lowest one about eighteen inches from the ground, and those 208 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. above ten inches apart. The wires should be securely fastened to one end post passing through the other end and through sta- ples driven in the inside posts, so as to allow the, wires free play through them. This method allows loosening of the wires in autumn and tightening of them in summer. The form of trellis best adapted to the Kniffen and Munson methods will be found described under those heads. The second year after planting and as isoon as the weather is settled the vine should be uncovered, using a garden fork, which is the best tool for this purpose. Permit only one cane to grow, and that the strongest which starts. Rub off all the other buds that show while they are small. Tie the cane, as it grows, to stakes or wires and if it grows rapidly, pinch off the top once when it reaches the upper wire. The pruning in the fall of the second year should consist in cutting off all the laterals — in other words, in cutting off all the Fii 100— Prunins jrape vines. Old vine trained on one cane spur renewal system. GRAPE. 209 side branches close to the main cane. In pruning the main cane, leave about two-thirds of the growth it has made but not more than four feet long. The vine should then be buried as directed for the previous year, and it will be found convenient to bend it as low as possible. To do this to the best advantage, take away a little soil from near the vine, to permit part of the bend to come near the ground. As the vine gets older and stiffer, it will bend most easily and safely below ground. Third season. — The third spring the cane should be tied along the lower wire (fig. 100). If it has wintered well two shoots will start at nearly every joint. As soon as these are three or four inches long the weakest should be broken off and only the strong- est ones, that come about ten inches apart, be allowed to grow. In selecting these shoots preference should always be given to those coming out on the upper side of the main cane. As these shoots push upwards they should be carefully tied to the wires, and when they have reached the top of the trellis each of them should be pinched off at the end. This pruning will check the growth a little and result in the fruit buds being formed nearer the main cane than they would if not checked. Further pinch- ing is sometimes practiced when the finest bunches of fruit are wanted, but for practical purposes one pinching is enough, and some large, successful growers do not pinch at all, though it is probably a mistake not to pinch once, if this system of pruning is followed. If the vine is thrifty it will bear several pounds of fruit this year. As soon as convenient after gathering the ripe fruit the vines may be pruned. It is not necessary to wait for a frost to kill the leaves, and it will not do any harm to bury with some of the leaves on the vine. Where one has but few vines it is best to "wait until there is danger of the ground freezing hard before laying them down, but in large vineyards it is not practicable to wait so late, and the work must commence earlier. In pruning the third fall, first select a cane near the extremity of the main cane and cut it off at a length sufficient to reach the next vine on the trellis. This cane must be tied to the lower wire the following (or fourth) spring, and will complete the permanent main cane, fig. 102. The rest of the pruning this fall will con- 210 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. sist of cutting away all but from three to six buds of the other shoots that have grown from the main cane. In pruning do not cut nearer than within one inch of any bud, to avoid winter kill- ing. Bury as directed. The following spring each of the buds left will start shoots; two vigorous ones should be selected from those nearest the main cane and the others rubbed off. The pruning in after years will be a repetition of this cutting of the canes back to several buds in autumn and allowing two shoots to start from each spur each spring. The Kniffen Method of Training. The Kniffen method of training the grape is a form of the drooping system. This is a method of training which originated in the Hudson valley, perhaps fifty years ago, and which is now widely used since it gives good results and requires less expense, in the items of support and tying, than any others. It is especial- ly adapted to strong growing varieties of grapes and to those of drooping habits. In this method a trellis with two wires is com- monly used and these are respectively 3i/^ and 5^^ feet from the ground. It is especially important to have the end posts set sol- id in the ground and well braced. The intermediate posts are generally driven and they usua:ily stand about twenty feet apart, which allows for a post between every other vine, if they are set ten feet apart — the common distance between them. Vine- yardists often grow their vines two years on stakes before put- ting up the trellis when following this method. Four-cane Kniffen system. — In this method a single cane is carried up the trellis to the top wire and two canes are trained outward from side spurs at each wire. T"he vine has then four horizontal canes tied to two wires. These are far enough from the ground so that the drooping new growth is pretty well out of the way in cultivation. The pruning of vines on the Kniffen system is much the same as in the case of the High Renewal system. Each year all the tops are cut away except the four best canes nearest to the trunk and these are cut back to sound, firm wood, extended on the wires and tied the following spring. In case the canes nearest the trunk are not strong enough for main canes, these may be cut back to one or two buds (i. e., to GRAPE. Sll spurs), and the nearest strong cane used to form the vine. The following season the shoots growing from these spurs will prob- a.bly be strong enough to be used to renew the vines. As the vines become well established, it is customary to leave the upper renewal canes longer than the lower. Under this method a Fig. 101. — One form of the Kniffen system of training the grape. strong growing variety, like Concord, should be allowed ten buds for each of the canes on the upper and five buds each for those on the lower wire or a total of fifty buds for each vine, while such varieties as Delaware should not bear more than thirty buds. There is no summer pruning practiced in the Kniffen method although the young, superfluous, summer shoots should be broken out when they start, as is necessary for best results in any system. Two-cane Kniffen system. — Since the greater part of the fruit under the four-cane Kniffen system is borne on the upper canes, a modification of this system, in which the lower canes are dispensed with and the upper canes left longer, has come into practice in some sections. In this case the lower trunk is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing ten to fifteen buds, are left on the upper wire. Sometimes the lower wire is not used at all. 212 POPULAR FRUIT GROWINa The Munson Method of Training. The i^unson trellis is referred to by its author, Professor T. V. Munson, as the Three-Wire Canopy Trellis and is a form of the Kniffen system of pruning. It is described by its author as follows: "The. posts should be of some durable, strong wood. The end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate posts, which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in the ground, with twenty-four foot spaces between posts, which will take three vines eight feet apart or two vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are set a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored though each, four feet from the surface of the ground in the direction in which the rowis run, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole. These holes are to admit the middle, lower wire of the trellis. For each end post prepare a cross arm of 2x4 hard pine or oak, two feet long; at one inch from either end, and one inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit hole to pass the lateral wires through, and in the middle of the lower side saw a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate post prepare a board of similar wood and likewise bore and notch." "Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, fasten at one end, tighten at the other end with a wire stretcher and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when the young vines are trained up a string tied from the vine to the wire and along it. "The arms and the two lateral wires which they bear need not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. "Each end cross arm is placed inside the post, and against it, on top of the wire with notch side downward, straddling the wire to keep it from sliding. T"hen take a piece of the ^same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the bit hole in one end of arm and fasten the cross arm thoroughly in place. The wire will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the arm as do nails or bolts, and will be longer lasting. GRAPM. 212 quicker, cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no dam- age. "Likewise place the cross arms on the intermediate posts, leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening. Then fasten a piece of wire about twenty-four feet long to each end of the cross arm at either end of the row and draw both tightly around the next post from the end near the ground and fasten so as to hold the arm at right angles to the middle wire. Then fasten the lateral wires firmly with the above mentioned six inches of wire left after fastening the in- termediate posts, as may be seen in fig. 102. This will prevent the arms from slipping out of position. "Pruning and training on this trellis is very simple and easy, with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned for example. The first season the vine is allowed to grow up on the middle wire by a string about which it is coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine iiS upon the wire, after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. By getting on to the trellis the first year one strong shoot, and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop may be had the second year with- out damage. On all weak growers, like the Delaware, this should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first regular pruning, (all pruning should be done in November, after leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire. "If the vines are strong growers, cut back to six or eight Lnd Post ^'"'-^ *■' /"-^^ bta.ri.na i(re, tour drms eacA, pruned and tied- Fig. 102. — The Munson method of pruning; a modification of th« Kniffen system. 214 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. buds each on two arms, one going each way along the lower wire, from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower, wire, along which it is gently coiled. These two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the arms push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging thereto with their tendrils and hang over like a beautiful green drapery, shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural habit. Buds that push on the body of the vine are rub- bed off as they appear, and after blooming the tips of all the bearing shoots are clipped off with a quick stroke of a sharp knife. This causes the growth to concentrate in the fruit, great- ly increasing the size of the berries. The four or five ♦shoots pushing nearest the crotch of the vine should not be tipped, but the flower clusters, if any, on them picked of£ and the shoots allowed to gi-ow in freedom along the trellis above the bearing shoots, to better shade the fruit and develop themselves ready for cropping the next year. This is known as the 'long arm re- newal system,' in contradiction to the spur system of pruning and gives much better results. "At the second year's pruning and others following, the old arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the new arm and the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with fruit and mature well. In this, critical judgment and knowledge of capabilities of different varieties are more required in the pruner than in any other part of the training work. Some vari- eties, such as Delaware, cannot carry more than three to four arms, while Herbemont can more easily carry four arms, each eight feet long. Hence the Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while Herbemont and most of the Post Oak hybrids should be twelve to sixteen feet apart. In other words, each variety should be set far enough apart so that it will fill the trellis with fruit from end to end and mature it well so sis to better economize space and not be crowded. "By the third year, the vines should come to full bearing and be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along the lower wire of the trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should be of about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn, GRAPE. 215 near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need — that is, two ties to each vine — the least required by any trellis system, and the pruning is also simplest and the results every way the best. "Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, its simplicity, bringing the work up breast high so that pruning, harvesting, tying, and spraying can be done in an erect position, saving back strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air to foliage, fruit and soil, yet protecting body of vine and fruit from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and easy pas- sage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready pas- sage from row to row, without going around, thus getting larger and better crops at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and the pleasure of taking care of it." Training vines against buildings or walls is a good plan, and such treatment will hasten the period of ripening and protect from early and late frosts. Of course, the southern exposure is always preferable. The trellis for this purpose should be about one foot away from the wall or building. In such locations it is possible to mature good varieties of grapes where otherwise they would be a failure. It is doubtful if -there is a habitable section of northern United States where fairly good grapes will not ripen nearly every year in such positions, and almost every farm offers several favorable opportunities of this sort. The soil close to buildings may not be such as is desired, but it can easily be improved, or entirely removed and a better kind sub- stituted. And sometimes what would be a very poor soil for many other crops is just what is needed for the grape. There are many cases where in such locations single vines have borne several hundred pounds of grapes in one season. Pruning neglected vines. — When vines have been neglected for several years it is often a difficult matter for the beginner to bring them under any system of pruning, and they are on this account allowed to go unpruned and unproductive. Some- times such vines may best be brought into shape by cutting away nine-tenths of the wood and then carefully thinning out and pinching the young growth that may start. At other times, 216 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. again, it may be best to cut the whole vine off at the surface of the ground. If this is done at the proper season for pruning sever- al sprouts will start from near the root, but only one, or at most two, should be saved. These sprouts should be trained the same as a newly planted vine, except that in one season they will make a vine large enough to bear a good crop of fruit the following, year. By either method only one fruiting year is lcv3t, but as a rule the greatest success attends the latter method. Time of pruning. — The best time to prune the grape is late in the fall or early in the spring. If the vines are to be laid on the ground in winter of course they should be pruned in au- tumn, as doing it then will greatly facilitate the laying down process. If for any reason the vines have not been pruned until the bud.s have started, it is far better to do it then than not at all. The so-called "bleeding" of vines does not appear to serious- ly injure them, though pruning when the sap will run from the cut surfaces is a bad plan and generally causes the bleeding wood to die back. Spring pruning of the grape should consist only in pulling out the extra shoots that start from each spur that have been left to produce bearing wood. No matter what training method is followed, the vme is liable to produce a number of weak shoots that are of no help to it and should be removed if not needed to carry out the plan of training. Removing foliage. — Under no circumstances should any con- siderable foliage be taken from the vine while it is growing. The notion that ripening fruit needs the sunlight is very much at fault. Grapes ripen best where the fruit is in the shade and the leaves in the bright sunlight. The leaves are, so to speak, both lungts and stomach to the plant and anything that injures them prevents the ripening of the fruit. The tying material commonly used in tying vines consists of raffia which can be purchased from the dealers in garden and florist supplies. Many vineyards are tied with green rye or even with green bluegrass. Thinning the fruit. — Under almost any system of pruning, some varieti6,s will set more fruit than they can properly mature. Where this is the case, the poorest bunches should be cnt away GRAPR 217 as soon as the berries are well formed. As a rule, the improved appearance of the remaining fruit is so great, as the result of this thinning process, as to make the operation a paying one. Manures. — Ordinarily new soils contain an abundance of plant food. Grapes do not require much manure, and the best kinds for them are those which have but a small amount of or- ganic matter, such as; wood ashes, or acid phosphate and potash. Yet on gravelly or sandy lands, they may be much benefitted by the liberal use of stable manure. Never apply manure as long as the vines are making a satisfactory growth without it. A very rapid, long, growth is not nearly as desirable as that which is firm, well matured and moderate in quantity. Bagging grapes. — In sections of the country where black rot of the fruit is abundant it may be profitable to put all the grapes in bags, but in sections where this disease is only occa- sionally destructive it will seldom be a paying operation. But in growing fruit for home use, or where something very nice is wanted, it will often be worth undertaking, as the expense for labor and material need not exceed a half cent per pound. The bagged grapes have a little thinner skin than those not bagged, are free from dust and spiders' webs, and are not so liable to be caught by the first autumn frost. Some varieties seem to ripen more evenly when bagged. Bagging should be done when the berries are about the size of small peas, and if there is danger from rot, even earlier. For this purpose ordinary one-pound manilla paper bags should be used, such as may be obtained from any grocery store. They should be cut down about two inches on each side, and a small hole made in each bag, generally by cutting off the lower corners, to let out any water that might collect in them. They are then ready for use. A bag is brought up over the bunch, above the branch, and securely fastened with a pin. The bags should be left on until picking time, when the bag and bunch may be taken off together. If the fruit is to be stored it will be found that it will keep longer in the bags than without them. Gener- ally the bags remain on the whole season without trouble, and some growers use the same bags for two seasons. Cloth bags made especially for this purpose will last about four years. In France a wire bag is used to some extent for this purpose. 21S POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Keeping grapes. — The keeping quality of grapes varies much with the different kinds; some varieties will hardly keep a week after being gathered, while others are easily kept for two or three months by using only ordinary care. A moist, cold cellar is a very good place to keep them. The bunches should first be relieved of any cracked or injured berries, and then laid one tier deep on shallow trays or shelves, so that the air may cir- culate freely among them. The fruit should be perfectly dry when put in the cellar. If the cellar is not cool when needed for use some ice may be put in it in a tub and the windows kept shut in the day time and opened at night. If the grapes are packed in dry saw dust or cork bark they will keep even better than on trays. Where cold storage is accessible they may be packed in baskets before being stored, but in any case great care ishould be taken to remove any injured berries, or they will rot and spoil those near them. Girdling the grape to advance the period of ripening is prac- ticed to a limited extent, but there is quite a difference of opin- ion regarding the ultimate effect of the operation on the health and vigor of the vine. It seems, however, to be pretty generally conced- ed that it can be done to a limited extent without seri- ous, if any, injury; that it generally advances the peri- od of rinening from seven to ten days, and that the fruit from girdled vines is considerably larger than from vines not girdled and ■ of just as good quality. The operation consists in taking Fig. 103.— Girdling the grape. French , . . c r. i girdling tool which removes a OUt a rmg of bark one- section of bark about one-fourth fourth inch or more in width inch wide. Branch of grape vine . showing where girdling can be at any time durmg the l^TLnT^^.t'^lritnllTlll/' ■ Showing season but gener- GRAPE. 219 ally soon after the berries are well set. For this purpose a spe- cial tool is often used wliicli makes two cuts and takes out the bark with one movement. If the whole vine is girdled at the surface of the ground, it will soon show great weakness, so when practiced at all it should be confined to girdling the lateral canes that are to be cut away entirely when the vine is pruned. In sec- tions where early autumn frosts are common, it is frequently de- sirable to try this method of advancing the period of ripening. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XI. The Grape. 1. Where did the grape originate? 2. Describe the Northern Fox Grape. 3. Describe the River Bank Grape. 4. Describe the European Wine Grape. 5. Describe the flowers of the grape. 6. How is the grape propagated? 7. What are long hard wood cuttings of the grape? 8. How should they be cared for? 9. How should the land be prepared before planting the cuttings? 10. What are one eye cuttings? 11. How are they planted? 12. What are soft-wood cuttings? 13. How are they grown? 14. What is layering? 15. How are summer layers made? 16. How are spring layers made? 17. What is the best location for a vineyard? 18. What soil is best for a vineyard? 19. How should grapes be planted? 20. Wliat cultivation do they need? 21. What points should be remembered when pruning the grape? 22. What pruning is needed the first year? 23. What is meant by a "spur?" 24. Explain the two "systems" of training. 25. What is the single post method? The high renewal method? The Kniffen method? One-cane spur renewal method? 26. What pruning is needed the second year? 27. What pruning is needed the third year? 28. Explain the Munson method of training? 29. What pruning is required the first year, second year and third year in this system? 30. Describe a method of pruning. 31. What effect does training vines against buildings or walls produce? 32. How should neglected vines be pruned.' 33. When should grape vines be pruned? 34. What material is commonly used in tying vines? 35. To what extent should the foliage and fruit be thinned out? 36. What fertilizers do grapes require? 37. What is meant bv "girdling?" How should it be done? CHAPTER XII. THE SMALL FRUITS. The strawberry is the most important of small fruits. It is found growing from tlie far Nortli to the hot South and around the world. Is is easily grown, stands transportation moderately well and is almost universally admired. Origin. — The cultivated varieties of strawberries have come from the following species: Chilian strawberry (Fragaria chilo- ensisj. This South American sipecies evidently enters most largely into the parentage of our cultivated kinds, although this fact was not generally acknowledged, and until recent years it was thought that the native North American strawberry was the parent of nearly all our cultivated kinds. American strawberry (Fragaria virginiana). — This ispecies enters in a small way into some of our cultivated kinds. It was formerly believed to form the large^st part of the parentage of the best American kinds, but this has been shown to be a mis- take. Alpine strawberry (Fragaria vescaj. — This is a native of Europe and of the northern parts of this country and Canada. From it have come some of the ever-bearing varieties whose praises are so often talked of. It will not readily hybridize with either of the two kinds previously mentioned. This species is not sufficiently productive to v/arrant its being largely culti- vated. The ever-bearing or perpetual varieties are not desirable since they produce a few berries all through the season, but do not produce enough at any one time to make their cultivation an object of importance. This class of strawberries is generally grown from seed but may be increased by runners. Propagation. — ^The strawberry is increased by seed, runners and plant divisions. The plants of the commercial kinds do not "come true" from seed, but seedlings vary very much in their value for cultivation. Probably not one plant in five thousand seedlings that may be raised will be as good as any of the best half dozen varieties now in cultivation, but there will be a good STRAWBERRY. 221 many plants out of such a number that will be fairly productive of good fruit. It is this variability that gives us an opportunity of originating new kinds that are better than those now grown. To raise strawberries from seed the ripened berries should 'be crushed in a small amount of dry sand or loam as soon as they are "dead ripe." The seed and sand should then be sown at once in a somewhat shaded bed of rich soil, when the seed will con^^e up in a few weeks if well cared for. The plants should be trans])Ianted four inches apart in another bed as soon as lari-'e enough to handle. By winter, if carefully attended to, they will be of good size and may be moved to the fruiting bed in the spring, where they will fruit the following year; that is, in two years from the time the seed was sown. It is a very sim- ple process and may be carried on by any careful person. The raising of seedlings is not often profitable, but is a very fa^scinat- ing line of experimental work on account of the possibility that one may develop a variety of more than ordinary value. For practical purposes, strawberries are increased only from runners, which most desirable kinds produce in great abundance when growing in rich soil. These runners are attached to the old plant only one season, the connection dying the first win- ter if not before. It is common to separate them into old plants and young plants. By old plants is meant the plants that have once borne fruit. TTiey can be distinguished by their black roots, and should never be used for starting new beds except in an emergency, as they often fail to grow. The young runners are what should be set out. They have never fruited, have white roots, and were formed the season just preceding the spring they are set. Strawberries should never be grown from divisions, un- le>ss it is necessary to save the stock of a valuable kind. Location and soil. — A northern slope is most to be desired for strawberries as there they are not exposed to drying souther- ly winds, which occasionally in expo-sed locations so dry out the land that the crop is seriously lessened; also, as the plants start latest on north slopes the blossoms are not as liable to be in- jured by the late spring frc-ots which sometimes cause serious injury to plants that start early. Some growers, however, are very successful in growing them on southerly slopes or on level 222 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. land. In a general way, any land or location that is good enough for a crop of corn will do admirably for strawberries, but straw- berries should never be planted on sod-land on account of the liability of its being infe-iSted with cut-worms, or with white grubs which feed on the roots of the plants. Manure and preparation of the land. — The strawberry is a gross feeder and needs plenty of plant food in the soil. The best fertilizer is barn-yard manure, but it should not be plowed in very deep because the plant feeds mainly in the surface soil. It is generally best to plow the land in autumn, turning in the manure about six inches deep if it is coarse, but if partially rot- ted, four inches is deep enough to cover it. The land ghould be thoroughly dragged and smoothed in the spring when it is ready for the plants. When so prepared the land has a loose surface bed in which to set the plants, while underneath it the •soil is so firm as to retain the moisture and yet it is open enough so that the young roots can push into it. Time of planting. — Practically there is only one time to plant and that is in the spring. It is occasionally recommended to plant in August. It may be all right to do so in case there is no strawberry bed in the home garden and there is considerable moisture in the ground so the plants will live without too much care; but in ordinary seasons the results from setting the plants at this time are very uncertain and do not warrant the planting of them on a large scale. If it is decided to set a bed for the home garden in August, the plants may be well-rooted layers from some bed near by, or if^obtained from a distance they should have been potted and be well rooted in the pots. The potted plants cost more but are more certain to grow than layers. The growers of strawberries for profit nearly always plant in the spring. The earlier the plants can be set the longer the season for them to grow, and the cool, moist weather of early spring seems to favor the formation of roots. But they may be set as late as the first of June with fair prospect of success. However, if the land is very dry at planting time, it is best not to plant until after a rain, even if- waiting for it delays the planting con- siderably. It is poor practice to set out strawberry plants in dry soil and try to keep them growing by watering, a^ so much STRAWBERRY. 223 water and attention is required that the operation will be found a losing one — except where good facilities of irrigation are at hand. It is occasionally practiced in northern states to set straw- berry plants in autumn, when the plants should be covered with soil and mulched on approach of winter. At the South, straw- berry plants are set in late autumn and in winter. If plants are received when the land is very dry, it is the custom of the best 'n,t(T'-vl growers to open the bundles, shake out the plants and dip the roots into a clay-loam mud and "heel them in" close together, putting a little soil between the plants. When thus treated, they may be easily watered, and will commence to grow and be ready to set out in the field or garden as soon as a favorable time offers. If the space where the plants are heeled in is surround-ed by a board fence or other windbreak, a few feet high, it will aid much in retarding the drying action of the wind. Plants that have been some time in transit are very apt to look white and weak when received, and are almost sure to die if at once set in the full sunshine. They should be "heeled in" and partially shaded until they a,ssume their normal color before planting. Plants for setting out may occasionally be found to have the fleshy part of the interior of their stems discolored by the win- ter. If not moved, they will frequently grow and overcome this injury, but if transplanted they often die. The loss from this Fig. 104. — strawberry roots pruned for planting out. 224 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. cause may be greatly lessened if the plants are not set out until late in the spring, after they have partly recovered from the trouble. Cases have occurred where all the plants set early have died from this cause, while those from the same bed set out late have done well. Methods of planting. — There are several methods of planting strawberries. Two ways are mentioned here, and they may be modified as the good judgment of the planter suggests. The hill system. — This system is especially adapted to the home garden. By it the fruit is grown to a larger size than in the matted rows, but not so much is produced. It consists in setting the plants at about one foot distance in rows two and one- half or three feet apart, and keeping all the runners cut off. Managed on this plan, the plants become very large, have many crowns, look neat and pretty, and produce a good amount of ex- tra choice fruit. The objection to it is that it takes three or four times as many plants' to ,set out as are needed where the matted row system is followed, and the crop is not so large. For these reasons this system is seldom followed by commercial growers. Matted-row system. — All large strawberry growers pursue very nearly the following plan: After the land is prepared in the spring it is marked out with a corn-marker, four feet one way and two feet the other, and the plants are set at the inter- sections. The horse cultivator is run both ways until the plants commence to make runners rapidly (about the middle of July), when it is run only in the four-foot intervals. The runners are then pushed together by the cultivator, thus forming a bed or matted row, which by autumn will be eighteen inches wide. The ground between the rows should be worked as often as once in ten days, and after each rain, throughout the growing season up to the last of September, after which cultivation should cease for the year. Keep the soil loose and be sure the bed is free from weeds on the approach of winter. For some varieties two feet apart in the row may leave larger gaps than the runners can fill, but almost any of our commercial kinds will easily fill up even larger vacancies. Such varieties as the Dunlap will easily fill up intervals of three feet in rich soil. The runners should stand about six inches apart in the bed by the first of September, after this number is secured all others should be destroyed as weeds. STRAWBERRY. 225 Trimming and setting the plants. — The plants, when dug, should have all the dead leaves, pieces of runners and blossoms trimmed off, and if there is a considerable growth of leaves part of them should be cut off. All flowers that appear the first year should be taken off. If the roots are large, they are not readily planted, and it is customary to shorten them to about three inch- es. The old roots then quickly start a lot of fresh feeding roots. Fig'. 105. — Strawberries. Cultivating the new bed about midsummer. If a great mop of roots is planted in a bunch, a part of them is very apt to rot. Perhaps a^ good a way as any to set the plants is with a spade. This requires two persons, generally a man and a boy, to do the work rapidly. After the land is marked out, the man places the spade with the back side away from him, presses it about ^six inches into the moist earth, moves it from him and lifts it out. TTie boy takes up a plant, separates the roots, and puts them in the hole. The man puts the spade in the ground about, four inches nearer him than he had it before and pressels the soil against the plant. The boy finishes the op- eration by firming the plant in the soil with his hands. As soon as the planting is done, the cultivator should be started to loosen up the soil between the plants. Great care .should be taken to keep the plants from getting dry when planting them out. 226 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Some large growers have used a transplanting machine such as is commonly used for tobacco for setting strawberry plants, but the ordinary transplanter requireis much care to prevent its setting the plants too deep and burying the crowns. Do not set the plants deeper than they grew in the bed from which they were moved. Winter protection. — Under whatever system the strawberry may be grown, it is benefitted by being protected in winter by a mulch of sufficient thickneas to prevent frequent freezing and thawing, which is very injurious to the plants. Of course a cov- ering of snow will answer the purpose, but it is not safe to trust it. The mulch should consi.st of marsh hay, corn stalks, straw, boughs, or any litter that does not lie too close and is free from weed seeds. It should ordinarily be put on about three inches deep over the whole of the strawberry bed. This should be ap- plied in late autumn or early winter, after the ground is frozen, but some good growers think that a part of the covering at least ought to be put on before any severe freezing sets in, while others wait until the ground is frozen hard enough to bear up a team before covering. In spring the mulch should be taken off and put in the intervals between the plants where it will help to preserve the moisture during dry weather and to keep the fruit clean. In winter,s when there is not much snow fall but severely cold weather, it is important to cover strawberry plants much deeper than is customary in the Eastern and Central states. Eight inches of settled straw is generally none too much where the winters are cold and dry with little snow-fall; and where straw is very abundant, as is the case where grain growing is largely practiced, it is a good plan to use as much as this every year. This is especially true in western Minnesota, the Dakotas and Wyoming where a heavy covering will often make all the difference between success and failure. However, where a heavy covering is used, it is important to set the plants in rows at least six feet apart, so that there will be room between the rows for the straw when the plants are uncovered. It is then very convenient for replacing over the plants if a very cold spell comes when the flowers are open. The use of straw as here STRAWBERRY. 227 recommended has been known to save the crop for several years In succession in some of the most severe locations in Minnesota and the Dakotas. How to continue beds in bearing. — Some growers prefer to fruit their strawberry beds but one season. It is probably best to fruit the beds at least two seasons, provided they are in good condition when the fir-st crop is gathered. If properly renewed it will often happen that the second crop on a strawberry bed will be better than the first, but generally it is not quite as good. Renewing strawberry beds. — There are several ways of re- newing an old strawberry bed, but perhaps the following plan is as good as any: As soon as may be after the crop is gathered the bed i.s closely mowed and all the weeds and strawberry leaves are burned. A plow is then run on either side of the matted rows and all but about one foot in width of it is turned under. The furrow thus made is filled with fine rotted manure and the cul- tivator set going. The plants remaining are then thinned out with a hoe and special pains are taken to cut out all weeds and old or weak plants. This leaves the old bed clean and with plenty of manure close by, in which the old plants can make new roots. The plants soon send up new leaves which are much healthier than they would be were the old foliage allowed to remain, and if we have an ordinary season an abundance of runners will be sent out, and by winter the old bed will look nearly as vigorous as a new one. This method of renewing the old bed has the merit of de- stroying all the diseased foliage, and to some extent, also, in- jurious insects. It is very important that the renewed bed be kept healthy by frequent cultivation and the destruction of any insects that may appear, in order to have it do its best in fruit- ing the following season. In renewing old beds a common two- horso corn cultivator will be found a very satisfactory implement. A disc harrow with the inner sections removed is also good. Either of these implements will do the work better in hard soil than the one-horse plow. Burning over the strawberry bed is very important where old beds are to be fruited again, but it is absolutely necessary for best success that the burning shall be done quickly; that is, 228 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. the trash should be thoroughly dry, so that it will "go like a flash." If the trash is somewhat moist, so that it will burn but slowly, the roots and crowns of the plants will almost certainly be killed. Sometimes it may be impracticable to get the traes rubrum of north- ern Europe and northern America, Examples of this species are to be found in the varieties known as Red Dutch and White Grape, which have red and white fruit respectively. (b) The black currant of the garden has come from Ribes nigrum of Europe. Plants and fruit of this species have a pe- culiar chinch-bug-like odor which to many people is unpleasant. There is no great demand for the fruit, but in some markets it is much sought after and brings a high price. Examples are Black Naples and Lee's Prolific. (c) The Crandall currant has come from Ribes aureum of western America. The fruit is purplish black, shining, often large, two to several in a cluster. The variety known as Cran- dall is practically the only cultivated form, but it varies greatly when grown from seed. It seems to be little if any improvement over the best wild forms. The well known Missouri, currant of the gardens is a form of this which seldom produces much fruit. Propagation. — The currant does not come true from seed. The named varieties are grown from layers, cuttings, or divisions. Seedlings are easily raised if treated the same as recommend- ed for raspberry seedlings, but rather more care must be tak- en with its seed than with that of the, raspberry as it germinates very quickly in the spring, and if moved after growth has start- ed it often fails to grow. . On this account the seed should be sown in the fall where it is to grow the following year. Or if sown in boxes they should be frozen until February or March, CURRANT. 233 when they may be put in a greenhouse or hotbed. But very te\( seedlings are of any value, and the growing of them is seldom attempted. Cuttings are very easily rooted and varieties ar^e almost universally grown from them. They may be taken off at almost any time while the plant is dormant, and wood of almost any age or size will root if carefully handled, but the following meth- od is generally very certain to bring good results: As soon as the leaves have fallen — which may be in the latter part of August or first of September — the young wood (growth of the current season) is cut into pieces about seven inches long. • They are then at once set out in rich, well drain-ed soil four inches apart, in rows three feet apart. Only about one inch of the cutting should be above ground, and great care should be taken to very firmly pack the earth around the bottom of the cuttings. When thus treated they will have calloused and made some small roots before the ground freezes, and will start vigorously the following spring. The cuttings should remain as planted for at least one, or perhaps two years. If the land is in good condition they will be ready to set out when one year old, but can remain where planted for several seasons if well cultivated. If wood is scarce the cuttings may be shorter than recommended, but in such a case more care will be required to ensure that they do not dry out in the soil. Sometimes the cut- tings may consist of a single bud each, and may be sown like beans in a furrow, but much experience is required to be suc- cessful with them when made so very small. Layers may be made at any time during the growing sea- son, but preferably in the spring or early summer, as they will then be well rooted by autumn. They consist simply of branches which have been covered with earth and have become rooted. After becQjning well rooted they are separated from the old plant. The branches are rather surer to root if the bark and wood is cut or broken a little, but most varieties root very easily without this trouble. Soil and planting. — The currant will grow in almost any kind of land, and on that which will raise a fair corn crop it gives good returns, but the soil cannot be too rich or the cul- 234 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. tivation too constant for the best crops of fruit. Plants may be set out in the fall or spring with good results. If set in the fall each plant should be banked up with about two spadesful of soil. They should be put five or six feet apart each way, and for the strong varieties most generally grown six is better than five feet. One plant is enough for a hill, and those that are young and thrifty are better than older ones. Where practicable, they should be planted so as to allow for cultivation both ways. They should not ordinarily be set along a fence or border, as they are diflacult to cultivate in such places aij-d are often neglected. The land should be plowed lightly with a one-horse plow early in the spring, and the cultivator started soon afterward. While the plants are in fruit, cultivation will have to be suspended, as the weight of the berries will bend the branches so that they will be in the way and liable to injury. As soon as the crop is gathered the working of the land should be again commenced and continue until the middle of August, after which there is no need of it. Mulching. — Good crops of currants may be grown without cultivation provided the land is heavily mulched, and in some- what dry locations they are more surely grown on this plan than on any other. The mulch may consist of straw litter, coal ashes, hard-wood sawdust, or similar material. If ashes or sawdust is used it should not be mixed with the soil but kept on the surface. It is often a good plan to mulch near the plants and cultivate In the center of the rows. Ashes or sawdust used for this pur- pose will keep down the weeds near the plants and do away with the necessity of hand cultivating. Pine sawdust is not as good for this purpose as that from the hard woods, but may be safely used if kept on the surface of the land and not mixed with it. Partially rotted sawdust is much to be preferred to that which is fresh. Pruning. — The currant is improved by some pruning each year. This may be done at almost any season, but preferably in August. To do this work properly" it should be understood that very little fruit is borne on the wood of the preceding sea- son's growth, and that the buds which produce the greatest amount of fruit are on wood in its third season of growth or older. The fruit buds are formed late in summer and open early CURRANT. 235 in the foUoAving growing season. In pruning, tlie old wood wliich is weakened by age should be cut out close to the ground and enough new sprouts from the roots should be encouraged to take its place. Not more than from four to six shoots from the roots should be allowed to remain. If all are allowed to grow, too much bearing wood will be produced and the fruit will conse- quently be very small. The wood which is infested by borers should also be cut away. Tree currants are frequently advertised as being very desir- able and are often sold at a high price. They are, in fact, merely our common currants pruned so as to make them take on a tree- like form. They appear very pretty while growing, but having only one stem the first borer that attacks it destroys the plant. To make plants take on this tree-form, all but one upper bud is rubbed off the cuttings when they are set out. The remaining bud pushes up a straight shoot, which is allowed to branch at about a foot from the ground and to make a miniature tree. Siich plants seldom send up sprouts, so the stem cannot be re- newed. The common red currant is sometimes grafted on the strong growing Ribes aureum, but such plants are open to the same objections as other tree currants and are only valuable as curiosities. Winter protection. — The Red Dutch and a few other very excellent varieties are perfectly hardy in almost any soil or situ- ation, but some of the kinds producing the largest fruit are oc- casionally injured in severe locations in winter. They may, how- ever, be protected by covering them with earth, but if so treated they will need to be mulched or to have some support to keep the fruit off the ground, as the canes will not straighten up well in the spring after being bent down all winter. Another way of giving some protection is to tie the stems together in autumn with string or willow withes. This is very desirable where the snow drifts over the plants, as it prevents their being broken by it when it settles in the spring. More protection is afforded by this treatment than is generally supposed. Marketing.— It is customary to market the currant in bas- kets holding about six or eight pounds, but sometimes quart boxes and other packages are used for this purpose. One must 236 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. study the local market to learn wliicli package is the best to use. This fruit is generally sold by the pound. Unlike raspberries and strawberries, it will remain in good condition on the plants for some little time after getting ripe, but it does not ship as well if very ripe as when it is a little green. The fruit makes the firmest jelly before it gets fully ripe, and on this account it is m JM ^2 ^1 ^9 m P9 m W i 1 HmP'~ "■*,^)^^^j ^^bb H^^^BBHp^^ " t^J^'^^ 1 ^^ wKZ- ' iSSTi^ 1^5 W-^ -^^RM i^.i#C'7-^ Fig. 108. — Currant bushes tied up for winter to prevent snow from breaking them down. sometimes most profitable to market the crop when the berries at the end of the bunches are still quite green. Varieties. — There are not so many varieties of the currant offered in the nursery catalogues as of most other cultivated fruits, but still there is much difference in the size and quality of the different kinds, as well as in the hardiness and vigor of the plants. For the home garden, about one dozen plants well cared for will give an abundance of fruit. The Gooseberry. The gooseberry is closely related to the currant and is fully as productive. The fruit, however, is not so highly es- teemed in this country as in northern Europe where a differ- GOOSEBERRY. 237 ent species is grown and where it is a favorite fruit. There are several species of the gooseberry that enter into our culti- vated kinds. The color of the cultivated gooseberries varies from a pale green to a deep red when ripe. Origin: (a) The American gooseberry has come from the Rihes oxyacanthoides of America. Examples • are the Houghton and the Smith. There are several other species of native American gooseberries which are used locally in a wild state. The great- est objection to this class is the large number of sharp prickles. Some of the new varieties are a great improvement in this re- spect. (b) The European gooseberry is Rvbes grossularia. Exam- ples are the Industry and the Lancastershire Lad. They are not much grown in America as they are especially subject to mildew in this country. Crosses. — There are a number of crosses between the Eu- ropean and American gooseberries. The Triumph and the Downing iare each supposed to be crosses of this kind. The directions given for growing the currant apply with equal force to the gooseberry, except in a few particulars, which are included under the following heads: Propagation. — Most varieties of the gooseberry do not grow as readily from cuttings as the currant, and many kinds with small, slender wood it is almost impossible to root in this way. For this reason layering is a most common method of propaga- tion. If the branches are carefully covered with soil in June, after the new growth is six or more inches long, each twig will be found slightly rooted by autumn. They should then be taken up and cut apart with a piece of the rooted main branch with each twig. These little layers should be set out at once in the spring and treated the same as recommended for currant cut- tings. Some varieties need to have the bark slightly broken when they are laid down, but most kinds root readily without this trouble. Planting. — ^Autumn is the time usually preferred for set- ting the gooseberry. The sprouts start into growth so very early in the spring that any delay at that time causes them a 238 , POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. set-back from whicli they may not readily recover. But plants may be very successfully set in the spring if planted early. Gooseberries are grown in practically the same way as currants. Pruning should consist in taking out any superfluous or weak stems, as recommended for currants. Besides this, the size and appearance of the fruit of the common kinds will be greatly improved if from one-third to one-half of the new growth is cut off annually. However, some of the newer kinds pro- ducing the large fruit, may perhaps, need this recommendation somewhat modified. Large fruit is picked and sold most readily and the quantity produced from a trimmed bush is, as a rule, fully as much as from one not trimmed. This is especially true of our native kinds which are inclined to overbear. Prun- ing thins out the bushes so that picking can be more easily done. Marketing. — Gooseberries are most in demand when per- fectly green but are also used when fully ripe. They are gen- erally marketed in quart boxes. Insects. — The insects that commonly injure currants and gooseberries are the Currant Worm, Currant Borer, Leaf Lice and Berry Moth. See Chapter III. Diseases. — The more common diseases of the currant and gooseberry are Leaf Spot and Mildew. See Chapter IV. The Raspberry. (a) The European raspberry (Ruhus ideus). Varieties of this class were the only kinds grown in this country for many years and they proved to be poorly adapted to general cultiva- tion here although in a few sections, as, for instance, near the Hudson River, they were a success. .Among the varieties of this class that have been grown here are the Herstine, Hud- son River, Red Antwerp and Superlative. In this class are yel- low as well as red kinds. (b) The American raspberries are the foundation of com- mercial raspberry growing in America on a large scale. They embrace the red raspberry (Ru-'bus strigostis) and the black cap varieties (Rubus occidentalis). Examples of the red rasp- berry are the Cuthbert, King and Turner and of the black caps, Gregg, Older and Kansas are examples. Among the varieties of each of these species are red and yellow varieties, RASPBERRY. 239 (c) Hybrids between the red and black cap raspberries are common. They were formerly considered a separate species and known as Ruhus neglectus. Examples are the Columbian, Schaeffer and Philadelphia. Classes of raspberries. — All raspberries in cultivation may be divided into two classes, the suckering class and the tip rooting class, according as to whether they increase by suckers or by tip layers. This is a convenient, rather than a botanical classification. Propagation. — The methods of propagation vary greatly with the different species of raspberries. They consist of propa- tion by seed, by suckers, by root cuttings, by tip layers and by division of the stools. Raspberries from seed. — ^All the cultivated kinds may be grown from seed, but plants from seed are not "true," i. e., are not like the plants from which they came, and it is only an occasional seedling that is nearly as good as any of the varie- ties commonly cultivated. To raise seedlings, the "dead" ripe fruit should be crushed in a small amount of dry sand, and the whole sown at once in a light, moist soil, somewhat shaded. The seed will seldom germinate until the following spring when, after the plants are large enough to handle, they may, if too thick in the seed beds, be set out in another bed to grow the first season, or if not crowded be left to grow where they are. The plants should be taken up in the fall, "heeled in," and plant- ed again the following spring, when they will bear fruit the following (the third) year. Another way is to sow the seed as soon as obtained in small boxes, and cover them lightly with leaves or litter. In February bring the boxes into a green- house, transplant to other boxes as soon as the seedlings have their third leaves formed, and plant permanently outdoors as soon as large enough and the weather will permit; by this sys- tem some fruit is generally obtained the second year after plant- ing out. By root cuttings. — Most of the varieties of raspberries com- ing under the first three species mentioned produce suckers from the roots and these are generally used to stai't new planta- tions, but when, there is a shortage for this purpose it is cus- 240 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. tomary to grow plants of the suckering kinds from root cut- tings, which may be made as follows: In the autumn, after the plants have stopped growing, the roots are taken up, cut into pieces two or three inches long and put in boxes with alternate layers of sand oi loam. The boxes are then buried in some well-drain- ed spot until the land is fit to work in the spring, when the roots should show a callous on the cut ends. The roots are then planted two or three inches apart in the furrows and covered about two inches deep in rich soil. By the end of the season they will have made plants large Fig. 109.^Raspberry Plants. A. — ■ Dormant plant ready for trans- planting. B. — Growth started too milch to transplant. enough to set out permanently. This plan of growing plants from root cuttings may be greatly changed in detail, but the general plan is the same. It is always best to make up the root cuttings in the fall, but cut- tings from strong growing kinds do nearly as well made up in the spring. The cuttings are generally made with a sharp knife or a pair of pruning shears, but nearly equally good re- sults may be had by cutting the roots in a hay cutter and this is a common practice where large quantities are grown. By layers. — The black-caps and some other species grow most readily from layers. The tips of the new growth reach the ground about the latter part of August or first of Septem- ber and readily make new plants if held in place. These tips should be covered with a spadeful of soil, or better, be inserted three or four inches straight down into a hole made by push- ing a spade in the ground. They will be well rooted in a week or two. These rooted layers will be found to winter over most safely if allowed to remain undisturbed until spring, but should have a light mulch over them during winter. They may also RASPBERRY. 241 be wintered over if dug and very carefully heeled in, or kept in a cold cellar, but the plan recommended should be followed when practicable. It is not considered good policy to plant the layers in the fall as they are very liable to winter injury when disturbed in autumn. In digging the layers about ten inches of the cane should be cut off with the roots to facilitate handling. It is generally believed that unprotected plants are much hardier when the layers remain attached to the plant dur- ing winter than they are if the canes are cut loose in the fall. Location and soil. — The common varieties of the raspberry succeed admirably in any good soil, but the suckering class, which includes chiefly the red varieties, produce rather moje abundantly than the black-caps in moist, heavy loam, and the latter do best in a sandy loam. A northern slope is generally better than a southerly one as it is less liable to injury from drouth, which frequently shortens the fruiting season in bad situations; but it is well known that some varieties withstand dry weather and other climatic troubles far better than others of the same species. . Manure and preparation of land. — ^AU varieties need high cultivation. The land should be heavily manured, if of inferior quality, and thoroughly plowed and brought into the best con- dition for corn or other gross feeding crop. The best fertilizer is well rotted barnyard manure. Raspberries, especially the black cap kinds, will produce very well even on quite poor soil, but rich land and thorough cultivation is necessary for the best success with any variety. Time of planting. — The suckering kinds may be planted in autumn or spring with safety. AVlien the work is done in the autumn great care should be taken to firm the soil around the roots, and a forkful of mulch over each hill is a great protec- tion against winter injury. Many growers prefer to set in au- tumn, since at that season they can give the work more careful attention than in the spring. Then, again, the new sprouts from sets (suckers) start very early, and if the work is delayed in the spring the new growth is often broken off or injured in the work of planting. Black caps and other tip-rooting kinds should never be set in the fall, as they are very liable to be winter- 242 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. killed if moved at that season. They ^should always be set in the spring. Selection of plants. — Since the canes are biennial there, is no such thing as two or three-year-old plants, as with trees when we refer to the stems; but the roots may be of any age, as they are perennial. Plants of one season's growth are best to begin with. Sucker plants are largely used in the case of varieties increasing in that way; but plants from root cuttings are generally considered fully as good, or even better, when well grown. The old stools from raspberry plantations may be broken up and the parts planted, but such sets have few fibrous roots and often fail. With the tip-rooting kinds plants obtained by breaking up the old stools are not so good as those from the suckering kinds obtained in the same way and should not be used, as they are very apt to fail even with the best of care. It is important to use only vigorous sets taken from perfectly healthy stock. Old plantations of raspberries fre- quently become diseased and plants from them are often worth- less, consequently much care should be exercised in buying plants. Care should also be taken to avoid using sets that are affected with root galls. Planting. — After the land is thoroughly prepared the plants should be set out in rows seven feet apart and at three-foot intervals in the rows, putting two plants at a place. The dis- tance between the rows may be lessened to five feet if more space is not available and the weaker growing kinds are plant- ed, but the greater distance admits of cultivation even when the bushes are loaded with fruit. It allows sunlight to readily reach the plants and is most satisfactory every way, and for profit they should never be set any nearer; while for some of the strongest growing varieties the hills should not be nearer than five feet in the row. At the time of planting the canes should be cut off close to the ground and no fruit allowed to form the first season. A good way to plant is to mark out the land the three-foot way and then furrow out where the rows are to come. Set the plants in the furrows, covering them temporarily with the feet, and afterwards more carefully with a hoe, firming them in with RASPBERRY. 243 the feet at the same time. The rows should preferably run north and south, for planted in this way ^he fruit is shaded by the new growth during the hottest part of the day during the period of ripening. Some garden crop may be grown between the rows the first year. Depth to plant. — Black cap raspberry plants should be set about the same depth in the soil as they, naturally grew. The roots should be carefully spread and the soil well firmed over them. The suckering kinds should be planted a little deeper than they naturally grew and be well firmed in. Cultivation. — The soil should be kept loose with a horse cul- tivator and the rows free from weeds. If the land gets hard the one-horse plow may be used but the land should be kept flat and as free from ridges as possible. Frequent shallow cultivation, especially in a dry time, is important. Pruning and thinning. — Not more than two shoots should be permitted to grow from each root the first year. The second and succeeding years the suckering kinds will produce a lot of sprouts all around the hill; four or five of those nearest the hill should be allowed to grow and the rest treated as weeds. If a great lot of these suckers are allowed to remain, but little fruit will be produced. Black cap raspberries will this year send up a half dozen or so of sprouts at the base of the old plants, and enough of these should be removed to allow the re- mainder to properly develop. All these sprouts should be pinched once when from twelve to eighteen inches high, if they are to be grown without a trellis. As soon as the fruit has been gathered the old canes which have borne fruit the current year should be cut out and destroyed. In the spring the suckering kinds need no pruning, but the lateral canes of the black cap varieties should be shortened back to twelve or fifteen inches, and the main cane shortened perhaps one-third its length. This is very important, as the branches of this kind are so slender that they will bend to the ground and break under the weight of fruit unless severely pruned, or they may set more fruit than they can mature and the whole be lost. When pruned in this manner the fruit will be much larger and the plant will yield fully as much fruit as if all the canes were left their whole length. 244 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Mulching. — The first year no mulching is needed; but the second season, as .early as the middle of June, the rows should be mulched for two feet on each side with hay, straw or litter, or with what is better still, green clover cut when in blossom and put on two inches deep. The latter is especially desirable because It lies close, and as it rots in one season and is very rich in plant food it makes a good manure. This material keeps the land moist, the berries . clean, and kills out weeds. After putting on the mulch as recommended there will still be a space two and a half feet wide between the rows where the cultivator should be run to keep the soil loose. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the importance of mulching this fruit. It frequently makes a difference between a good profit and a big loss. Support. — It is desirable in severe climates to have the canes supported in some manner. In milder sections, where winter protection is not necessary, the bushes may be so fre- quently pinched as to make them form little trees that support themselves; but this kind of treatment is not desirable where the plants have to be covered in winter, as it makes them so very stocky they cannot be easily laid down. A very good sup- port for raspberries and blackberries is made by running a No." 12 galvanized iron wire on each side of the bushes, attached to a good solid post at each end of the row and tied together at frequent intervals. This wire should rest on nails driven in stakes set twenty-five feet apart. Such a support permits the plants to move gently in the wind but not sufficiently to break them by its violence. It keeps the fruit off the ground and Is cheap and convenient. Winter protection. — "Winter protection of some sort may be necessary for raspberries that are growing in severe loca- tions. A good windbreak may be sufficient to make the differ- ence between success and failure in growing this crop on our western prairies, but in many places in the extreme Northern • states and in many parts of Colorado it is necessary to bury the canes to protect them from winter injury. This is espe- cially true when tender kinds "are grown. To do this, the bushes should be covered late in autumn before the ground tlASPBBRRY. ^45 freezes hard and should not be handled when there is any frost In the canes. The best covering is fresh earth. In laying them down commence at the north end of the row, remove thef soil from the north side of the hill, about four inches deep, with a garden fork; gather the branches together with a two-tined fork, press gently to the north, at the same time place the foot firmly on the base of the hill and press hard, bending the bush Fig. 110. — Laying down raspberries. in the root as much as possible and as little as may be in the canes, until nearly flat, on the ground and hold it there until the second man covers with soil sufficient to hold it down. The top of each succeeding hill will lie at the base of its predeces- sor, making a continuous covering. It will be found that a lit- tle mulch put on the canes first after laying them down will hold the soil put on, and much less soil will be required than if no mulch is used. After laying them all down turn a furrow against each side of the rows, covering as much as possible, and draw a little over any canes that may be left exposed. It is only necessary to use enough to barely cover the canes. There are some of the strong growing varieties, such as the Gregg, that on rich land are very diflacult to cover. With them it will do very well to bend as nearly to the ground as is safe and cover the tops only with enough soil to hold them in place. 246 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. While it would be better to cover them all if it were practicable, yet treated in this way enough snow will generally lodge in the %anes to cover them, and if this is supplemented with a light covering of coarse litter or straw so much the better. If mice are numerous they must be poisoned or they will eat the canes under the mulch. A machine has been originated in Minnesota that covers raspberries and blackberries quite successfully and it is there used on a large scale. It requires four horses to operate it. However, it often breaks many canes in operating and some growers prefer to take their chances of winter injury to cover- ing with it. Lifting canes in the spring. — The canes should be raised in the spring soon after the land is dry and well settled. To do this use a round-tined fork and after carefully removing some of the earth raise the plants slightly to a slanting posi- tion. It is found that left in this position the fruiting canes are shaded by the new growth and are not so crowded as when raised up straight. The fruit. — The fruit is found in red or yellow colors in the red raspberry class and in black, yellow and purple in the cap class. The varieties vary in size, fruitfulness and vigor as well as in color. The red kinds are most popular but the black caps are much used. The purple and yellow varieties do not sell well in most markets but are often very satisfactory in the home garden and for drying. All kinds are used for drying in years when prices are low. Picking and marketing. — Avoid picking when fruit is wet, if possible, and pick fruit clean. Do not leave any overripe fruit on the plants. Keep picked fruit in a cool, shady place; transport small fruit in a good spring wagon. Red raspberries are generally marketed in pint boxes, (24 pints in a case), and black cap raspberries in one quart boxes, but some growers find the pint box best for all kinds of rasp berries. In the west the gift package only is used, but in the Eastern states the return package is generally preferred. This subject should receive the most careful attention of growers. For further notes on picking, marketing, diseases and in- BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY. 247 sects affecting raspberries see special chapters on these sub- jects. The Blackberries. The cultivated blackberries may be grouped under five heads as follows: (a) The high bush of the clearings and fence rows of the Northern states, with long clusters — as those of the Ancient Briton. (b) The type with lower growth and short clusters such as those of the Snyder and Badger. Both of these groups are probably forms of the Ruius villosus. (c) The trailing dewberries such as the Lucretia and the Austin, known botanically as Rubus canadensis. (d) The forms that are intermediate between these species are probably hybrids between the two species above mentioned. Among these are varieties such as the Wilson and the Rath- burn. (e) The cut-leaved or evergreen blackberry (Rubus lacinia- tus) is probably a form of the European blackberry (Rubus fruticosus). This kind is cultivated on the Pacific Coast where it remains green all winter and is very prolific and highly es- teemed. Propagation: (a) The high bush blackberry is propagated by suckers and root cuttings in the same way as the suckering raspberries. (b) The dewberry is propagated by layering the growing canes, which root readily about midsummer. Varieties of this group are not generally cultivated with success, but in some locations they fruit abundantly. Soils: (a) The best soil for the high bush blackberry is a heavy clay loam, but it grows on a wide range of soils. (b) The dewberry does best in a warm, sandy or gravelly soil, but is not nearly as reliable as the blackberry. Planting, Cultivation and Pruning: (a) Plant and cultivate the same as the suckering rasp- berry. (b) It is considered important by many growers to pinch 248 POPULAR FRUlT GROWING. the high bush blackberry canes at least once when two feet high, as this encourages the low setting of the fruit buds. (c) Spring pruning should not be done until the blackberry canes are in flower and the amount and location of bloom is seen, otherwise too many fruiting canes may be removed and thus no fruit left. As a rule, about one-half of the bloom should be cut off in the pruning. (d) It is desirable to have a trellis for blackberries and dewberries. Dwarf Juneberry. Dwarf Juneberry {Amelanchier canadensis, variety ohlong- ifoliaj. — This is also called shad bush service berry and suscu- tan berry, native of the Northern states and far into western- Canada where in thickets it reaches the height of 16 feet and produces heavy crops of large fruit that is much prized by the settlers and Indians. There are several so-called varieties of it found in the Northern states, one of which makes a small tree, but it is bet- ter known in its dwarf form, which is so very distinct from the tree form as to seem quite worthy of being made a separate species. This latter form is quite abundant and occasionally very productive. It is the selected kinds of it that are cultivat- ed for fruit. It generally grows from four to six feet high; is covered with a profusion of white flowers early in the spring, and ripens its fruit in July with the raspberries. The berry is of a purplish red color, often nearly one-half inch in diameter. Figure 112 shows its size and form. Like the blueberries, the quality of the fruit is sweet though rather tame, but by the ad- dition of a little lemon juice it makes an excellent pie or sauce. It is readily cultivated and yields regular and abundant crops. However, when grown in a small way the fruit must be protect- ed from the birds or they will take it as fast as it ripens. Mos- quito netting, or the coarse wire netting — such as is used for chicken yards,' is useful for this purpose. When grown on a large scale, the depredation of the birds is not so apparent. The plants are extremely hardy, seldom if ever being injured by our most severe winters, and are healthy and free from Insect pests. On account of its many good qualities, it should DWARF JUNEBERRY. 249 find a place in the home garden, and it could often be cultivated for the near market at a profit. Propagation and cultivation. — The plants are readily in- creased from suckers, which are produced rather sparingly around the old plants unless they are cut back. These should be set out at about four- foot intervals in rows five feet apart, on rich upland. They com- mence to bear in two years, but will not pro- duce a full crop until the fourth year. They need clean cultivation, and in dry situations should be mulched to protect from drouth. They require but little pruning, though the suckers should be thin- ned out if they become abundant. Varieties. — T here are but few varieties of this fruit offered by nursery- men, and these are the result of selections made from plants growing in the wild state. They are, however, much superior in size of fruit and in productiveness to the plants commonly found in the fields, although these latter are greatly improved by cultivation. It is very probable that by growing seedlings, new varieties much superior to those now known will be originated. The kinds now grown require several weeks in which to ripen their fruit. The only variety of importance Is known as Success and probably originated in Kansas. It is pro- , ductive of large purple fruit of good quality; rather spreading in habit, with pendulous fruit clusters; earlier than the others Fi£ 111. — Dwarf Juneberry. ers. Flow- 250 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. mentioned, ripening with the early currants. Probably as good as any if not the best for general cultivation. Aside from its fruit-producing qualities the Dwarf June- berries make nice lawn shrubs, being clean in habit and very pretty when covered with their profusion of graceful white flow- ers, which appear early in the spring. Sand Cherry. Sand Cherry (Prunus pumilaj. — This fruit plant is found In northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas, and elsewhere. It frequently fruits prodigiously on dry, gravelly Fig. 112. — ^Dwarf Juneberry. Foliage and fruit. embankments where scarcely any other plant can find exist- ence. In fact, it seems-to be better adapted to a very dry rather than to a moist location. Plants on rich, moist land will often flower profusely but fail to set much fruit. It seems quite prob- SAND CHERRY. 251 able that where the rainfall is light this plant will do well ou rich soil, but where the precipitation is abundant it is best adapted to sandy, or gravelly land. Thus it fruits abundantly on the sandy land of northern Minnesota and on the dry, rich land of the Dakotas. Description. — Some plants will reach a height of four feet and spread five feet on the ground, while others attain only half that size. The fruit resembles the cultivated cherry, but varies considerably in form, size and color on different plants. It is generally of a reddish — almost black — color when ripe. Fig. 113. — Sand Cherry. Foliage and fruit. The ripe fruit varies from the size of a large green pea to five- eighths of an inch or more in diameter. In some, the pit is small, while in others it is very large. TTie quality is generally too as- tringent to be relished uncooked, but this quality varies greatly in the different plants. When cooked, its astringency disap- pears and it makes a most excellent sauce. Where it grows abundantly it is used for sauce and for a sort of wine, which 252 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. is said to be very palatable. It is not only a productive , fruit plant, but a clean, strong growing shrub, and w^ell adapted to severe locations on the lawn. The fruit ripens in the latter part of July and first of August. It seems to be much more like a plum than a cherry, and perhaps the name sand plum would be more appropriate for it. Propagation. — It grows freely from seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe and not be allowed to get dry. Seedlings vary much, and selected plants should be grown in other ways. They fruit in about three years from seed. In many sections the wild plants may be dug and transplanted to the garden. Plants may be increased by layers, suckers and root cuttings, and by budding and grafting on the sand cherry or the native plum. The easiest way to increase them is by cutting the roots around the plants about eight inches away from the main stem sometime when the plant is dormant, and all the cut surfaces will sprout and form new plants. If the roots are cut into pieces about six inches long and these treated like willow cut- tings, they will grow nearly as readily. When budded on the plum, peculiar-looking, interesting trees are formed, which are quite fruitful. TTie plum may also be worked on the sand cher- ry and it forms a good union, but the roots are so flexible that the trees are liable to blow over unless the union is set very deep. The common cherry does not take freely on it. At present only seedlings are offered by nurserymen, there having been no naili- ed kinds introducd. A form of this, called the Dwarf Rocky Mountain cherry, has recently been sent out from Colorado, but has not been sufii- ciently tried to warrant conclusions as to its value here. It is, however, ex- „. , _ "^ tremely doubtful whether Fig. 114. — Buffalo berry. Flowers. ... , . . ., a.— Pistillate, b.— Staminate. it IS any better than BUFFALO BERRY. 253 115. — Buffalo Be^TJ^ Foliage and fruit. a. — Fruit, natural size. the best of our native kinds." The Utah hybrid cherry some- what resembles this but has a, more erect habit. A quite limit- ed experience seems to show it is much inferior to our best na- tive kinds. Bullberry, or Buffalo Berry. Bullberry, or Buffalo-berry fSheplierdia argentea). — This plant is found abundantly along the river banks and coulees of the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming and Idaho, though but sparing- ly, if at all, in Minnesota or the more eastern and central states, yet it grows freely and fruits abundantly in all the northern states. Description. — ^A small tree or shrub with light colored foli- age, young growth and opposite leaves. The flowers and fruit are clustered near the base of the small branchlets on spurs on very short stems. The plants are dioecious, i. e., one has pistil- late and the other staminate flowers, so that it is necessary to have both kinds near together in order to get fruit. The flow- ers appear very early in the spring before the leaves and are small and inconspicuous. The fruit is produced in great abun- dance — often so thickly as to conceal the branches on which it grows — and when ripe gives a scarlet appearance to the 254 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. whole plant. Occasional plants have yellow fruit. It is about the size of red currants, and contains one oval, quite large seed. The quality is much like that of rather sour red currants. It makes a fine jelly, but on account of the large seeds it is not so desirable for a sauce as red currants, and it is doubtful whether it will ever be popular for fruit where the red currant Is productive and reliable, but it is of use as an ornamental shrub, and it will probably be used to quite an extent for this purpose. Propagation. — This plant suckers readily if the roots are cut, but it is generally grown from seed, which germinate readi- ly if not allowed to dry and are winter covered with earth and sown in the spring. An easy way to winter it is to cover the seed on the surface of the ground with an inverted sod. Mulberries. The mulberry is seldom grown in this country and then is generally limited to two or three trees. This is probably on account of its lack of keeping qualities and its peculiar flavor which is not generally highly esteemed. It is classfied by Prof, L. H. Bailey as follows: 1. The White Muloerry group (Morus alba). a. Russian Mulberry (Morus var. tartarica). b. Nervosa Mulberry (Mortis var. venosaj. 2. The Multicaulis group (Morus latifolia). 3. The Japanese group (Morus japonicaj. 4. The Black Mulberry group (Morus nigra). 5. The Red or Native Mulberry group (Morus rubra). a., Lampasas Mulberry (Morus var. tomentosa). The best variety of the mulberry for growing in the north Central states is known as the New American but it is not hardy in the more northern states where the Russian Mul- berry takes its place. This later is known as Morus alba var. tartarica and is described in Amateur Fruit Growing as follows: "The Russian mulberry was introduced from Russia and Is very hardy over much of the Northwest. The Menonites of Nebraska were among the first to introduce it into this coun- try and they grew it from imported seed. It makes a small tree but is much better adapted to being grown in the form of a MULBERRY. 255 hedge or windbreak. lu this form, it will often attain the hei^t of twenty feet and becomes very close and pretty if given an oc- casional pruning. It is of a rapid growth and very hardy in southern Minnesota and southern Dakota, Nebraska and Kan- sas, and even north to the latitude of St. Paul, it stands fairly well. Occasionally in very severe winters, it will lose a part of its new growth but it quickly outgrows this injury and is less liable to winter killing when old than when young." Its fruit. — With few exceptions, all trees of this species now growing in this country have been propagated from seed, and as with most other fruits, not one seedling in five hundred produces fruit of much value. Most seedlings have very small fruit, while others are staminate and have no fruit at all. Quite frequently some trees will bear fruit as large as a medium-sized blackberry, and occasionally considerably larger. The quality of the fruit varies nearly as much as the size of the berries; some being insipid and even unpleasant, v/hile others are sweet and agreeable, but Ijke all mulberries, they lack high quality. They are quite soft when ripe and quickly fall to the ground, which should be kept smooth so that they may be readily gath- ered. It is at its best Just as it falls from the tree and generally commences to ripen just before the first currant's, and con- tinues ripening for a week or more. It re« sembles the blackberry In appearance, but the fruit of some seedlings is nearly white in color, though the latter are sel- dom, if ever, as good eat- t:,- ii» -d • T,T IT, T-i ,• ing as the blackberry. The Fig. 116. — Russian Mulberry. Foh- ° •' age and fruit, age at which plants com- 256 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. mence to produce fruit varies greatly, but when five or six years old, they may be expected to commence fruiting, and as they grow older their fruitfulness increases. As a market fruit it probably has no value, but a few trees should be in every garden. Children generally relish the fruit, and the birds let other fruit alone to feed on it. It is also used for sauce and pies, but for this purpose something should be added to it for flavor. Propagation. — The seed grows readily if sown as soon as ripe. For this purpose, the berries may be crushed in dry sand and sown with it in a rather moist, somewhat shady situation. In two years the seedlings may be transplanted to the perma- ment location, but seedlings vary in their productiveness, and while for a windbreak they may answer as well as any, yet when plants are wanted for fruit, they should be grown from cuttings or layers of the best kinds, or by grafting on seedling stocks. , For this purpose, the cuttings should be made in the fall, about twelve inches long of the old wood, and be deeply planted in rich land, with not more than two buds above the surface. The branches root easily when layered, and if the earth is drawn up around the sprouts until they root they make good plants. Varieties. — There are no named kinds offered by nursery- men, and it is necessary to depend on chance seedlings. How- ever, if any large windbreak is looked over in the fruiting sea- son one or more trees can generally be picked out that bear fruit of exceptional value, and such may readily be increased. The flowers are of two kinds; sometimes both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) are on one tree, and sometimes a single tree is limited to one sex. On this account some care is neces- sary in selecting a variety to get one with both kinds of flowers, or else plant the pistillate kind near a tree having staminate flowers. The Cranberry. Cranberry fVaccinhim macrocarponj . — This isi the low trail- ing cranberry of the swamps of many of the northern states. The form and habit are well illustrated in Fig. 117. The so-called — -^^ high bush cranberry fViTnirnum opulus) is a tall shrub and much more widely distributed than the trailing cranberry. The CRANBERRY. 25*; latter has one flat seed in each fruit, while the former is a many seeded berry. This plant is not adapted to general cul- tivation, and seldom, if ever, does well on the prairies of the West. It may be laid down as a general rule that it cannot be successfully cultivated except on the granitic soils of the north- ern states, and that it will be a failure on the limestone drift soils, such as are common to the prairies of Minnesota, Iowa and the Dakotas. In Wisconsin and eastern and northern Min- nesota it is often very productive, either wild or cultivated, and Is an article of much importance in the markets of those sec- tions each year. Where this fruit can be cultivated it is often the most paying crop that can be grown. Best location for cranberry beds. — In a wild state this plant is found at its best on moist land where the water level is within eighteen inches of the surface. It seems to be rather indifferent about the soil, some- times growing on sand and then on peat mud or moss. As a rule the best locations are low meadow lands sloping down to ponds, or watered by brooks or creeks, somewhat sheltered but shaded. On uplands, it has been successfully cultivated, but in such situations in is gen- erally unprofitable and fre- quently an entire failure. It may be laid down as a rule that the soil in which this plant is to thrive must be liberally supplied with water, and yet the land must be so drained that the water can be drawn off to at least ten inches be- 117.— Common cranberry. Foli- low the surface. The best ige and fruit; about one-half cranberry bogs are so ar- size. Fig. 258 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. ranged that both the flowage and drainage can be controlled at will. Land that has been covered with stagna,nt water for a long time, as the bottom of ponds, is not fit for the growth of this plant until it has been cultivated and exposed to the air for a year or more. Soil adapted to it. — Wherever the cranberry is growing nat- urally one may be sure that the land near by is adapted to its culture. If no wild plants are growing near the supposed prop- er location, it is a safe and good plan to plant a few rods of the most favorable portion of it as an experiment before spend- ing much time or money on improvements which may prove to be futile. With a bog adapted to the growing of this plant, with control of the drainage and flowage, a good crop of fruit is assured for almost every year, if the work of preparation is properly done, let there are many wild and cultivated bogs that have yielded very profitable crops for many years where the flowage has not been controlled, and hence if that factor cannot be directed at will, it is not necessarily a sufficient rea- son why an attempt should not be made to plant suitable land, providing the work can be done at small cost. The returns from natural cranberry bogs may often be greatly increased by a little judicious expenditure. Preparation of tlie land. — The first steps should be directed to destroying the vegetation growing on the land. The proper method of doing this will vary according to the location and condition of the land. It can sometimes be done by fiooding the land for one year and then clearing it, or by summer fallow- ing, and it may occasionally pay to cut off the whole surface of the bog, with spade or turf ax, and remove it by hand. But in some way the surface of the land must be cleaned of its growth and made level, and fine and perfect as a garden. If it is to be fiowed, it should be made perfectly level, as it will then take much less water for fiowage than if uneven. This matter is especially important where the water supply is limited. Supplying sand. — It is of great advantage to have the sur- face of the land covered with about four inches of clean sand, and this should be done even if at considerable expense. The sand used should preferably be rather coarse, but it must be free from clay or loam, as anything that encourages the baking CRANBERRY. 259 of the surface of the bed is injurious. This sand offers a good place for the plants to root, is easily cultivated, and experience shows that it is conducive to fruitfulness. Yet there are many very fruitful peat beds that have never been sanded. If a peat bed is to be used without sand, the surface should be exposed to frost one year before planting or it will be likely to bake hard, but after one season's frost it becomes loose and fine. Drainage and flowage. — The method of securing these con- ditions will depend much on the situation of the land. The drainage is generally best accomplished by digging an open Fig. 118.- -Cranberry bog newly planted, showing ditch and dike; also portion of bed not yet covered with sand. ditch four or more feet wide through the center of the land. A smaller ditch should completely enclose the land, which should be divided into beds by lateral ditches about five rods apart. Where springs are met with they must be connected with a ditch. Importance of water. — The flowage may sometimes be con- trolled from a pond above the bog, or by a brook or creek run- ning through it. Every reasonable effort should be made to secure and control water for flowage for the following reasons: (1) Without a good water supply bogs often get very dry in periods of protracted drouth, to the great injury of the plants, and occasionally peat or moss bogs get on fire and burn up, destroying all the work done. A bog once on fire can seldom be saved except by flooding. (2) The water kept over the 260 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. plants in the spring will serve to retard the blossoming until danger of frost is past, and will protect the fruit from early frosts in autumn. (3) Beds that are kept under water until late in the spring are seldom seriously injured by insects, (4) Beds do best when protected by a water covering in winter. If not thus protected they may be seriously injured. When there is considerable fall in the bed it is customary to finish it at several grades and to put in as many dams, but where there is not more than two or three feet of fall one dam is quite sufRcient. Dams should be made strong' and have sluiceways large enough to let off all the water liable to drain through them. About flowing. — All that is required in flowing a bog is sufficient water to cover the vines. They should be covered about the first of November, and as deep as they are to remain covered during the winter. The freezing of the vines in the ice does not hurt them, but raising the level of the water in the bed after they are frozen, and thus raising the ice and tearing the vines out of the ground, is where the great dan- Fig. 119. — Cranber- g^j. |jgg rp^ avoid this, the sluice- ry plants, one, two and three ways should be kept sufficiently open ye^rs after set- ^^ allow any surplus water to pass The first two seasons the water should be kept on the vines until the last of April, but after that, or when the bog is in con- dition to bear, the water should be kept on until the last of May or first of June. The object of keeping it on so late is to prevent injury from late frosts, and to destroy the fruit worm and fire worm which are the worst foes of the ctanberry. If the fruit is covered with water in warm weather, it is very liable to be I'uined, but the vines are uninjured by such flowage. Throughout the growing season the water should be about twelve inches below the surface of the bed. CRANBERRY. 261 Plants and planting. — In selecting plants great care should be used to get them from fruitful beds, as some are almost barren. There are very many named kinds, and they vary great- ly in size, growth, time of ripening and productiveness, but it is doubtful if any of the named kinds, the most of which ori- ginated in the Bast, are adapted to the climate of this section, and it is probably better for the present to depend on getting plants from the most fruitful wild cultivated beds near at hand. The kind most esteemed in the East is called the Early Black. It is very early and productive, though nota vigorous grower. Propagation. — The cranberry plant grows very readily from cuttings, and on this account some growers cut the plants in a hay cutter, sow the pieces broadcast and harrow them in with a disc harrow, but that method of planting is not advisable. The most common way is to make cuttings of the younger parts of the vines about ten inches long, and plant one in a place, but sometimes longer cut- tings are Used which are doubled when planted. The cuttings may be car- ried over a whole season with good success if they are kept covered with running water, but in stag- nant water they would be likely to spoil. On this account they may be set at almost any season of the y-ear if the flowage is con trolled, but the spring of the year is generally pre- ferred, and if there is no chance to flow at will it is by far the surest time to plant. Before planting is commenced, the bed should be marked off each way at about eighteen inch intervals. In planting, a Fig. 120. — The two kinds of cran- berry rakes in common use. 262 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. wooden dibber is used having an incurved or reversed wedge- shaped point, witla which the cuttings are crowded through the sand down into contact with the bog beneath at one operation, without first ymaking a hole as is customary in the ordinary use of a dibber. After the cuttings are planted the water should be raised in the trenches sufficiently to keep the surface land a little moist to encourage the rooting of the cuttings. The after- cultivation consists in keeping the soil moist and giving clean cultivation. Some of the best cranberry growers apply each year a coat of about one inch of sand to their bogs and find that it is profitable to do so as it acts much like a fertilizer. Picking. — If the berries are allowed to fully ripen on the vine they will keep much better than if picked earlier, but where there is danger of frost before they are ripe the berries should be picked as soon as they commence to color, though when picked so early, they will seldom keep well after the mid- dle of January. If severely frozen the berries are ruined, but they are not injured by a "white frost." Picking is generally done by hand, though some few growers "rake" them off the vines. The berries keep well in a dry, cool place, and are more easily kept if- covered with water. The Persimmon. There are two distinct forms of the persimmon in cultiva- tion, which are commonly known as the Native or American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) and the Asiatic specias (Diospyros kaki) which has been chiefly developed under cul- tivation in Japan, and is known commonly in America as the Japanese persimmon. The wood of most of the species of this tree is hard, close-grained and takes a light polish. Some of the tropical species give us the ebony of commerce. The native persimmon is found growing wild in the South- ern states and as far north as latitude 38, that is, to central Indiana. The tree, when grown in the forest, is sometimes 75 feet high but usually 20 to 30 feet high. It will ripen its fruit as far north as northern Indiana. Its use Is largely local, al- though it is occasionally offered in the larger markets. The wild fruit varies in size from one-half to two inches in diameter, depending largely upon the number of seeds it contains. Seed- PERSIMMON. 263 less varieties an inch in diameter are known. Tlie fruit is very astringent until ripe and some seedlings never lose this quali- ty. There is a general impression that frost is necessary to sweeten this fruit but this is a mistake, as some varieties are sweet without being touched with frost and others are made more edible. It ripens from August 1st to December in the Cen- tral states. It is easily propagated by seeds which should be stratified over winter and planted in spring the same as the peach pits. The seedlings do not come true from seed. This is especially so with the selected kinds, which are propagated by budding and grafting when two or three years old at the collar in the spring, as soon as the bark will peel easily. This tree is very difficult to transplant and if its tap root is cut off, it is liable to die. The top should be severely pruned when the tree is transplanted. The persimmon will grow in any good agiicultural soil, but thrives best on a good, rich, warm soil. As yet, little attention has been paid to originating good named varieties of this native fruit but some of those produced are of fine quality and destined to be widely grown in favorable localities. The Japanese persimmons were introduced into America in the early history and have proven well adapted to the more southern states and parts of California, and are regularly to be seen in our markets and are growing in popularity. There is quite a difference in the hardiness of different varieties. Few of them can stand a temperature of zero and, as a rule, do best south of the 32nd degree of latitude. It is considered by the Japanese as their best pomological product. The trees of the different varieties attain a height of ten feet while others are compact and dwarf in habit and do not grow more than 5 or 6 feet high. This latter class bears young, often a good crop at three years old. The fruit is very pretty, usially bright orange red or vermilion, and round or oblong in shape. They color up when far from being ripe and should not be gathered until just before the frost or when they be- C( me soft, as in the case of the early kinds. The round varie- ties ripen first and the oblong ripen later. Tlie latter, if picked before being ripe, should be allowed to ripen in the house to remove the slight astringency. 264 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Seedlings of the Japanese persimmon have a tendency to produce male flowers only during the first three years of flow- ering. After that, a few female flowers appear but they are few in comparison with the male flowers. A large proportion of the seedlings produce fruit that is small and too astringent to eat. There are a number of varieties offered by the nursery trade. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XII. SMALL FRUITS. Strawberry. 1. From what species of strawberry have our cultivated vari- eties originated? 2. How may the strawberry be propagated? 3. What location and soil is best for strawberries? 4. How should the land be prepared? 5. When should strawberries be set out? 6. Explain the Hill system- — the matted Row system. 7. How should the plants be trimmed and set? 8. What protection should be given strawberries In winter? 9. How may old strawberry beds be renewed? 10. Into what two classes may strawberries be divided? 11. What are nubbins? 12. How should strawberries be picked and marketed? 13. How may they be protected from frosts? Currant. 1. What is the origin of the red currant? Of the black cur- rant? Of Crandall's currant? Of the Missouri currant? 2. What soil is best adapted for currant growing? 3. How should they be planted? 4. How often and in what way should they be cultivated? 5. When do currants need mulching? 6. What is a good mulch for currants? 7. How often should currants be pruned? 8. What pruning is necessary? 9. Wliat are "tree currants?" 10. How are they formed? 11. Of what value are they? 12. In what ways may currants be protected from winter injury? 13. How is the fruit marketed? 14. For what is it used? 15. What varieties are best for the home garden? Gooseberry. 1. What is the origin of the American gooseberry? Of the European gooseberry? 2. What are the crosses of the two varieties? 3. How is the gooseberry propagated? 4. When is the best time to plant gooseberries? 5. What pruning is necessary? 6. How are gooseberries marketed? 7. What insects and diseases are injurious to the gooseberry? Raspberry. 1. What varieties belong to the European raspberries? 2. Wliat varieties belong to the American raspberries? 3. Into what two classes are raspberries divided? PERSIMMON. 2(;:. 4. How are they propagated? 5. How are raspberries raised from seed? From root cuttings? From layers? 6. What location and soil is best adapted to each class of rasp- berries? 7. How should the land be prepared for the raspberry? 8. When should they be planted? 9. How should the plants be selected? 10. How far apart should the plants be set? 11. How deep should raspberries be set? 12. Wliat cultivation is necessary for the raspberry? 13. How much pruning and thinning is necessary the first year? The second year, etc.? 14. What mulching is best for the raspberry? 15. How and when should it be applied? 16. How can a good support be made for the canes? 17. In what ways may the canes be winter protected? 18. How are the canes laid down and covered? 19. How are they taken up in the spring? 20. What are the characteristics of the berries of. the two classes? 21. How are they picked and marketed? Blackberry and Dewberry. 1. Into what groups may the blackberries be divided? 2. What are the characteristics of each? 3. How is the blackberry propagated? 4. How is the dewberry propagated? 5. What soils are best adapted to each? 6. How is the blackberry planted and cultivated? 7. What pruning does the blackberry require? The Cranberry. 1. What are the characteristics of the high and low bush cran- berries? 2. How is the trailing cranberry cultivated? 3. What is the best location for a cranberry bed? 4. What soil is best adapted for the growing of cranberries? 6. How should the land be prepared? 6. Why is sand important in the cranberry bog? 7. By what means can the bog be drained? 8. Why should the drainage and flowage be controlled? 9. How should the flowage be controlled in the fall? 10. What harm comes from freezing the plants .in the ice? 11. How long should the water be kept in the bog in the spring? 12. What care is necessary in selecting the plants? 13. How are they propagated? 14. When should the plants be set? Why? 15. How should the beds be made? 16. What cultivation is necessary? 17. How are cranberries picked? Juneberry, Buffalo Berry, Sand Cherry and Mulberry. 1. Where is the Dwarf Juneben-y found most commonly? 2. What are its characteristics? 3. How are they propagated? 4. What cultivation do they need? 5. What are the characteristics of the varieties most common- ly cultivated? 6. What is the distribution of the Sand Cherry? 7. What location and soil is best adapted to them? 8. What are the characteristics of the Sand Cherry? 9. How are they propagated? 10. How are they used in grafting? 11. What is the Dwarf Rocky Mt. Cherry? 266 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. 12. Where is the Buffalo Berry commonly found? 13. What are the characteristics of the plant? 14. For what is the fruit used? 15. How is the plant propagated? 16. Into what classes may the Mulberry be divided? 17. What variety is best for the Northern states? 18. What are its characteristics? 19. What are the characteristics of the fruit? 20. How is the Mulberry propagated? 21. What care should be taken in selecting plants? Persimmon. 1. Where Is the American persimmon found native and what la Its value for domestic use? 2. Of what country is the Japanese persimmon native and what Is Its value as a commercial, fruit? CHAPTER XIII, THE NUTS. Comparatively little attention has been paid to the growing of any of the nut trees in this country, with the exception of the English walnut. Most of the American nuts, except the English walnut, that reach our markets are the chance productions of the wild groves. It is undoubtedly true that there is a large sec- tion of this country where nuts of some kind might be grown to advantage. This is especially true of rough land in some of the Middle and Southern states. Nearly all of the cultivation of nuts in this country up to the present time has been done by the growing of seedling trees, and little attention has been paid to grafting, which for many years was regarded as a very diflBcult matter with all nuts. Now that successful grafting methods have been discovered, there is less excuse for planting seedlings. The leading nurserymen now offer named varieties of the principal nut trees, or else of trees grown from selected seed. The Pecan. The pecan (Hicoria pecan) is an important native nut that is used largely and gaining in popularity. It is a near relative of the hickories, several of which produce edible nuts. In its native habitat, the tree grows to a large size and the wood is highly esteemed for the same purposes as the hickory. It is native to a large part of the Mississippi Valley, Eastern and Central Texas and a portion of Mexico. It is cultivated through- out most of this section south of Central Illinois and also in the Southern states south of the Potomac river. Further north it is occasionally grown, but not profitably, and Central Iowa may be regarded as its northernmost limit. The fruit of the pecan is borne on the new growth. The male flowers are at the base of the shoot and the female flowrers near the end. The flowers appear with the leaves and are seldom injured by spring frosts. Trees from seed generally bear when 268 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. about ten years old, and at full bearing age they have been known to yield over twenty bushels to a tree. Soil requirements. — ^The pecan does best on the open, porous clay loams of river bottoms and especially on those that are likely to overflow at high water. It is also grown successfully on the sandy soils of southern Georgia and northern Florida, and even on rich up-lands it frequently produces well. The most successful growers plant the trees from 40 to 50 feet apart. If the trees are grown from seed, it would be an advantage to put them nearer together and then remove the unprofitable ones. In transplanting the pecan it is desirable to save as much of the tap root as is possible, but it may be shortened somewhat with- out seriously interfering with its growth. The root is often very long and it will be found a great convenience in transplanting to have it somewhat shortened. Very often a one-year-old tree will have a root far longer than the stem. The soil should have the best of cultivation, as the trees are gross feeders and should be kept growing rapidly, especially when young and not fully es- tablished. Harvesting and marketing. — It is common to harvest the nuts after they have fallen to the ground. When they are raked together the leaves are shaken out and the nuts dried off before being stored. The highly polished surface of nuts which are seen in our markets is attained by polishing them in revolving barrels where they are polished by rubbing against one another. The great demand today is for larger, thinner-shelled nuts, and there seems to be an almost unlimited market for them. Those who have pecan trees in good locations find them very profitable. Comparatively few of the best nuts are sold at present, as they are in demand by nurserymen for planting. Insects. — ^There are a number of insects that injure the pecan trees. Perhaps the most serious of these is known as the shuck worm, which penetrates the hull and causes the young fruit to drop prematurely. The remedy is to gather and burn the infested nuts. A web worm is occasionally injurious to the foliage, but this may be destroyed in the same manner as rec- ommended for the common web worm. The twig girdler sometimes girdles the twigs of the pecan, CHESTNUT. 269 causing them to be blown off. The worm will be found in the part that falls. If these twigs are raked together promptly and burned soon after falling, this enemy is easily held in check. Grafting the pecan. — The most successful method of grafting ■ the pecan seems to be crown grafting of the seedlings, when they are only an inch or less in diameter, early in the spring with terminal bud cions and without wax. The stalks should be cut off smoothly, close to the surface of the ground, and a side cleft graft or whip graft used. When this is done, the earth should be drawn up to the top bud of the cion to prevent it drying out. In order to grow seedlings, the nuts are generally planted in autumn in well drained soil, which is sufficiently loose so that it does not bake badly; or, where mice and squir- rels are abundant, a much better plan is to stratify them in the same manner as recommended for peach pits and plant out in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked, putting them about eight inches apart in rows four feet apart and covering three inches deep. Rich, deep garden soil should be used for the seedlings. The Chestnut. The chestnut is one of the most popular of our native nuts and is widely sought after. In some sections in Europe, where the nuts are especially abundant, they are ground into flour and used for bread making. The American chestnut (Castanea aviericanaj forms a large tree as far north as southern Vermont, and west into Indiana. North and west of this range, it is very uncertain. It has, how- ever, been fruited in southeastern Minnesota and occasionally it is grown successfully in Illinois and Iowa. The wood of this tree is very durable in contact with the soil and of rapid growth, hence is in demand for railroad ties and telephone poles. It is one of the most promising trees for use in new timber plantings within its range. There are few varieties. Its nuts are the best in quality of all known species. The other species of chest- nut graft readily upon it. The European chestnut (Castenea sativa) is a native of the cooler portions of central and southern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa. The foliage of this tree is thicker and more 270 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. abruptly pointed than that of the American chestnut. Its burrs are very large and its nuts are larger but not so sweet as the Ameri- can chestnut. The skin enclosing the nut is bitter and tough. This species is variously known as European, Spanish, French, Italian and Sweet Chestnut. Among the best of the European varieties are Numbo and Paragon. The latter is most widely planted and the most successful of all cultivated introduced chestnuts. It is sometimes classed as a hybrid. Both of these nuts originated in the United States and are of good quality. Japan chestnut (Castanea crenata). — This tree is said to reach a height of fifty feet in Japan but the varieties that are grown for fruit are dwarfish in form and slender, with a close head. Its leaves are much smaller than those of the American or European chestnuts and the burrs are small with a thin, pa- pery lining and short spines. The nuts are large and glossy, but inferior to the other chestnuts in quality as a rule, though good when cooked. A few varieties are of good quality when fresh. Among the best of the Japanese chestnuts are Parry and Reliance, both of which are of fair quality. Chinquapin (Castanea pumilaj, (G. alnifoliaj. — The Chinqua- pins are dwarf chestnuts, extending, in their native range, from Massachusetts south to Florida and Texas. The fruit of the Chinquapins is edible and used in a local way throughout their range. Propagation. — The different species of the chestnut are usu- ally propagated from seed, which may be sown as soon as gathered in autumn, or stratified and sown in the spring in rich, porous soil. They may be whip-grafted in the nursery when one year old. This should be done by using dormant cions after the buds have swollen and covering with wax in the or- dinary way. Top-working of large trees has not been successful except where it has been practiced on the young sprouts. Great care should be taken to secure a good union, and if possible the cion should unite with the stock on both sides. The flowers of the chestnut open in early summer and the long, conspicuous, light colored, male catkins are quite ornamen- tal. The pistillate flowers are inconspicuous and grow from CHINQUAPIN. 271 the axils of the leaves on the new growth. Some growers think it necessary to have the pollen of different trees intermingle in order to get the best results. This idea is borne out by the fact that solitary trees often fail to set fruit. Planting and care. — Ordinary seedlings of the American chestnut commence to bear when from eight to fifteen years old, while those that are grafted will frequently bear inside of five years. On account of this, some growers follow the practice of grafting all of their seedlings. It is probable that seedlings would bear as quickly as grafted trees if they were girdled as recom- mended for the grape. Where natural groves are used for grow- ing nuts, the- reproduction will often come from sprouts. If de- sired, these may be grafted and cared for the same as seedlings. In any case, however, the sprouts should be thinned out so that the trees can take on their natural form. Where the ground is ov-ergrown with brush, it will be found a good plan, when the trees are once fairly started, and out of reach of stock, to pas- ture the land with sheep. This will destroy much of the brush and the lower leaves on the chestnut trees, giving them a healthy pruning. It will also have a tendency to prevent the spread of fire, as the sheep mix the fallen leaves with the soil and thus pre- vent the collection of large masses of leaves about the stems of the trees. If the trees are to be planted out, the American spe- cies should be set from 40 to 50 feet apart each way. The for- eign kinds do not grow so large and they may be planted nearer. The nuts are prepared for market by putting them in a suit- able vessel and then pouring scalding hot water over them as soon as gathered. By this means the eggs and larvae of the in- sects in them are destroyed. The nuts should be gathered promptly after falling and the scalding done at once, otherwise the eggs of the weevil in the nuts will have a chance to de- velop and will injure their sale. The nuts should stand in the hot water for about fifteen minutes, after which they should be taken out and carefully dried. There are several insects and diseases that affect the chest- nut. The most harmful is probably the weevil, whose eggs are laid in the nut, but no satisfactory remedy has been found for it. The leaf diseases are subject to control by Bordeaux mixture. 272 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. English Walnut. The English walnut fJuglans regiaj is cultivated to some ex- tent in the Eastern states south of Connecticut and west into Texas, but in the section east of the Rocky Mountains, it has not attained commercial importance. In southern California, however, it is grown very successfully within a short distance of the coast where the water table is near the surface of the soil. Back from the coast, it may also be grown in favorable locations, but the shucks do not separate from the nuts so well and hence the product is not nearly so valuable as the product from sections where the climate is somewhat humid. The flowers of the walnuts are monoecious, the male flow- ers being produced in catkins and the pistillate flowers at the ends of the short branches appearing with the leaves. Propagation. — Most of the trees in the Eastern states are grown from seed; the same is true of a large portion of the or- chards in southern California, although in the last few years there has been a large number of grafted trees planted. When grown from seed, it is customary to select the largest, thinnest shelled nuts from trees that are hardy and productive, and that start late in the spring. These are stratified over winter in the same manner as peach pits. They are generally allowed to sprout in the spring before planting, when they are set about one foot apart in rows four feet apart. For this purpose rich, open, porous soil should be used. They are generally large enough for budding the first season. If they are to be planted in an orchard without budding, it is customary to Jeave them for two or three years in the nursery. The trees are generally bud- ded by the shield or ring method. Cleft-grafting and whip-graft- ing have also been successfully used. Harvesting and marketing. — In the best localities for the English Walnut, the shucks open on the trees and the nuts fall to the ground, where they are easily gathered once or twice a week, and taken to the drying house. Sometimes it is necessary to jar the trees in order to get the nuts in season. It is not de- sirable to beat the trees with poles, as it frequently destroys many of the fruit buds. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun or by artificial heat. ALMOND. 273 Japan walnut. — The Japan walnut (Juglans sieholdiana) is now cultivated in an experimental way and is much hardier than the English Walnut which it somewhat resembles, although not so hardy as the Black Walnut or Butternut. This tree gives promise of being productive even as far north as central Minne- Bota. The nuts are small and more like the Black Walnut than the English Walnut, and probably of little importance commer- cially. The Black Walnut and Butternut ai-e prized for their timber and shade as well as for their nuts. These are frequently gather- ed and marketed in considerable quantities and there is generally a good demand for them. The shucks should be removed and the nuts dried before they are marketed. Black Walnuts have been planted in considerable quantities in Minnesota and Iowa for fence posts and for their nuts. The Almond. The Almond (Prunus amygdalus) resembles the peach in habit of growth, flowering, etc. The nut is really a peach in which the flesh portion is obliterated. It is divided into two classes, the bitter and sweet almond. The sweet class is di- vided into the hard and soft shell types. The hard shell type is scarcely grown,, but the soft shell type produces the edible al- monds of commerce. The bitter almond has a hard shell and its chief use is as a stock for the cultivated kinds. It is also grown in the Mediterranean district for the bitter kernel, which is used in the manufacture of flavoring extracts and prussic acid. The Almond is cultivated, in a very limited area conflned mostly to a few small districts in California, Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. The tree is nearly as hardy as the peach, but on account of the flowers opening so very early, they are almost always destroyed by frost, except in a few favored districts. The tree comes into bear- ing from two to four years after budding, and is generally at its best when from six to nine years of age. Five pounds of hulled al- monds per tree is reported as a good average crop in California orchards. The nuts begin to ripen about the middle of August. It is desirable to have varieties mixed in order to secure good pollination. Much disappointment has been occasioned by plant- ing the almond in situations not suited for it, or possibly by the planting of only one variety in a large area. 274 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Soil and planting. — The soil for almonds should be light, warm and well drained. The trees, like the peach, will stand much drought but will yield good crops only on rich, productive soil. It is, however, impatient of too much water in the soil. The trees are generally planted about 24 feet apart each way. It is customary to do considerable pruning to the tree in order to get it in good form while it is young, after which little pruning is done. Propagation. — The almond is grown almost entirely by bud- ding on seedlings of the sweet or bitter almond, though it is sometimes worked upon peach stocks. The seedlings are han- dled in very much the same way as those of the peach and the trees are planted in an orchard when one year old from the bud. The peach and the prune D'Argen are also successfully grown on the almond. Marketing. — Where the summer air is very dry, the hulls, open readily and the unstained nuts are in good condition for marketing and require no further care. In some sections, how- ever, the nuts are more or less stained by rains and then recourse is had by bleaching them with sulfur fumes. As the sulfur fumes do not penetrate to the kernel, the nuts are not injured by this treatment. The only advantage is that it gives them a little better appearance. If the hulls do not separate readily from the nuts it is customary to use what is known as an almond nuller, by means of which the hulls are pulled off. Nuts tnat are so badly stained that they cannot be made marketable are generally sold for confectioner's use. Th© Hazel. The European hazels are known botahically as Corylus arel- lana, G. pontica and G. maxima, and in Europe, are cultivated on an extensive scale and yield the most filberts of commerce. The species ordinarily grown in Europe have shown themselves quite liable to disease in this country and have not been successfully cultivated here. Our two native species have a wide range and are quite variable, some plants bearing fruit of very good size and quality. The American hazels are known botanically as Corylus amer- icana, G. rastrato and C. California. They are of dwarf form and can perhaps be cultivated to advantage on open, loose soils of HAZEL. 275 moderate or poor fertility, in rows eight feet apart, although this has not proven encouraging in the few experiments tried. Some of the foreign species are quite large and grow to the height of 12 or 14 feet. The plants are generally propagated by seed lay- ers and sometimes budding is practiced. The flowers. — The flowers are monoecious and form on the new wood. The male flowers are grouped in the form of small catkins that may be seen on the bushes all winter. In the spring, these elongate and the pollen is distributed by the wind. The female flowers are inconspicuous and form a star-like tuft of crimson stigmas that push out from the rather large buds at the time the male flowers elongate. These flowers open early in the spring. QUESTIONS— CHAPTER XIII. Nuts. 1. Of what country is the pecan a native? 2. What soil is best for pecan growing? 3. How should they be planted and cultivated? 4. How are pecans harvested and marketed? 5. What insects are injurious to the pecan? 6. How are pecans grafted? 7. How are they propagated from seed? 8. What are the characteristics and distribution of the American ihestnut? Of the European chestnut? Of the Japanese chestnut? 9. To what extent are they grown? 10. What are the Chinquapins? 11. How are chestnuts propagated? 12. How should chestnuts be planted and cared for? 13. How should chestnuts be cared for before marketing? 14. Wliat insects and diseases injure the chestnut? 15. Over what territory is the English walnut distributed? 16. How are they propagated? 17. How are the walnuts harvested? 18. How are they marketed? 19. What are the characteristics of the Japanese walnut? 20. What are the characteristics of the almond? 21. What soil is best adapted to it? 22. How should the almond be planted? 23. How is the almond propagated? 24. How is it harvested and marketed? 25. How is the hazel grown in Europe? 26. How is it propagated? 27. What are the characteristics of the Hazel flower? APPENDIX. SPRAYING CALENDAR. This spraying calendar is taken almost entirely from Bul- letin 89 of the Iowa Experiment Station, by Prof. S. A. Beach and E. E. Little. The changes made from the original are noted. General Treatment For The Apple. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1. When the green tips of the first leaves burst tlie buds. May be omitted if insects and scab are not abundant. Bordeaux mixture for scab, canker and leaf spot diseases with Paris Green or other arsenical poison for bud moths, case bearers, tent caterpillars, canker worms and other leaf-eating insects. 2. Just before the blos- soms open. Bordeaux mixture for diseases men- tioned under 1. Paris Green or other ar- senical poison for curculio and the in- sects mentioned under 1. The most Im- portant single treatment against the scab! 3. Just after the blos- soms fall. Bordeaux mixture for diseases mention- ed under 1. Paris Green or other arseni- cal poison for codlin moth, curculio and leaf eating insects. The most important treatment in fighting codlin moth! 4. Ten to twenty days after 3. Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot and other diseases. Paris Green or other arsenical poison for codlin moth curculio and leaf- eating insects. 5. Late July or early Bordeaux mixture for scab, bitter rot, August. fly speck, sooty blotch and other diseases. Paris Green or other poison for second brood of codlin moth. Important! Special treatment early spring before buds break. Lime-sulfur wash for oyster scale and other scale insects. shell APPENDIX. 277 General When to Spray. 1. Just before the blos- soms open. 2. Just after the blos- soms fall. 3. Ten to fifteen days later than 2. 4. Just after fruit is picked. 5. From 2 to 3 weelcs after 4. 6. When cherry slugs are first seen on leaves. Treatment For Cherries. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. Ammoniacal copper carbonate for fruit rot and leaf spot. Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 4. Dust or spray with Paris Green or other poison. General When to Spray. 1. About ten days- be- fore growth starts. 2. Just before the blos- soms open. 3. Just after the blos- soms fall. 4. About 15 days after the blossoms fall. 5. Soon after the mid- dle of June. 6. Late July or early August. 7. On first appearance of Insects. Treatment For Plums. What to Spray With and What For. Copper sulfate solution (2 lbs. to 50 gallons of water) for Plum Pocket. (S. B. G.) Arsenate of lead for curculio. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot on blossoms. Bordeaux mixture for fruit rot and leaf- spot. Arsenate of lead for curculio. (Dilute the Bordeaux about one-half for Japanese varieties.) Repeat 2. Repeat 2. Ammoniacal copper carbonate soap or eau celeste soap for fruit rot and leaf spot. Arsenate of lead for web worms and other leaf-eating insects. General Treatment For Peaches. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. 1. Before the buds swell; surely before April first. Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulfur wash (or copper sulphate solution, S. B. G.) for leaf curl and fruit rot. 278 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. General Treatment For Pears. When to Spray. Same as for the apple. When twig blight first appears, and during the dormant season when the leaves are off. What to Spray With and What For. . Treat same as for apple scab, leaf spot and insects. Cut affected branches back to sound wood and burn them. Keep tools disin- fected by wiping with cloth saturated with kerosene or other disinfectant after each branch is cut. Before buds open in spring spray with lime-sulfur wash. General When to Spray. 1. Just before growth starts. 2. When the leaves are one-third grown. 3. Just before the blos- soms open. 4. Just after the fruit sets. 5. 10 to 20 days after 4. 6. 10 to 20 days after Treatment For Grapes. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture or sulfate of cop- per solution (1 pound to 25 gallons of wa- ter) for grape rot. (S. B G.) Bordeaux mixture for mildews and black rot. IMPORTANT: Repeat 2. Repeat 2. IMPORTANT! Repeat 2. Repeat 2. Genera! Treatment For Currant and Gooseberry. Wlien to Spray. 1. When worms first 2. When fruit is about half grown. ed. 3. After fruit is pick- 4. About 2 weeks aft- er 3. What to Spray With and What For. Paris Green or other arsenical poison for the "worms." Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 1. Bordeaux mixture for leaf spot. Repeat 3. Genera! Treatment For Strawberry. When to Spray. When growth begins and later as often as necessary. Aftei' picking the fruit. At first appearance of the leaf roller. "V^Tiat to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture for "rust" or leaf spot. Cut and burn foliage on windy day. Arsenical poison every week If neces- sary, but not after fruit Is half grown. APPENDIX. 279 General Treatment For Raspberry, Blackberry and Dewberry. When to Spray. "Wlien orange rust ap- pears. Note. — This dis- ease Is easily recognized by the bright orange col- or on the under side of the leaf. The whole cane looks sickly. When anthracnose and other cane ■ diseases are doing serious damage. What to Spray With and What For. Dig plants at once and burn. After leaves drop in fall or In early spring, cut and burn over the whole af- fected patch. General Treatment For Potato. When to Spray. Begin when plants are about 8 inches high or when beetles first appear and spray at intervals of from 10 to 15 Cvys till growth stops. Spray more freq^'ently in hot, damp weather and less often in dry weather. Soak seed potatoes two hours. What to Spray With and What For. Bordeaux mixture combined with Pari* Green or other poison for early blight and late blight and rot, also for flea beetles, blister beetles, and Colorado po- tato beetles. Make strong Bordeaux mix- ture, using at least one pound of cop- per sulfate to make 3 gallons of the mixture. To prevent potato scab, use commercial formalin (40 per cent solution) 1 pint to 39 gallons of water. This, is enough for 'twenty biishels of seed. General Treatment For Cucumbers, Squasdes and Melons. When to Spray. When young plants come through the ground; repeat trequently. About 1 month after planting. Repeat at in- tervals of 10 days. What to Spray With and Wliat For. Tobacco dust for striped beetle. Spray with Bordeaux mixture for blight, flea beetles and striped beetles. General Treatment For Cabbage and Cauliflower. When to Spray. What to Spray With and What For. When "worms" appear. ^Repeat when necessary. liice or aphis. Paris Green or other arsenical poison in dust, or in resin-lime mixture. Do not apply poison after heading begins. Bury the affected plants. 280 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. General Treatment For All Kinds of Plants. When to Spray. Wha.t to Spray With and What For. . . All leaf-eating insects, Paris Green or other arsenical poisons such as slugs, caterpillars, when insects first appear, beetles, etc. Sucking insects, such as Tobacco dust or tobacco infusion with plant lice and true bugs. whale-oil soap or kerosene emulsion. Small plants or ends of twigs are best treated by dipping. Scale insects, such as Spray with the lime-sulfur wash in oyster shell scale, scurfy spring before the buds open, bark louse and San Jose scale. Bordeaux Dont's. Don't use iron or tin vessels for mixing; don't use air-slaked lime; don't pour in the coarser particles of lime; don't make more than can be used in one day — it should be mixed fresh every day. Sprays are preventive and not curative and therefore must be ap- plied before the injury becomes apparent. After a fungus has gained entrance to the fruit or foliage it cannot tie reached, but the' infection may be prevented by coating the parts with a fungicide such as Bor- deaux Mixture, which prevents the germination of the spores of the fungus. FUNGICIDES AND INSECTICIDES. Fungicides. Bordeaux iVIixture: Copper sulfate (blue vitriol) 5 pounds. Quicklime (not slaked), not less than SVz pounds or more than 5 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulfate and dilute to from 25 to 35 gallons. Slake the lime and add enough water to it to complete the required 50 gallons; then pour the two solutions together. Lastly, add any arseni- cal poisons which are to be combined with the Bordeaux mixture. This is a general fungicide for all fruit plants. Eau Celeste and Soap: Copper sulfate, 1 pound. Ammonia, strong (26° Baume), 3 pints. Soap, 1 pound. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water. In a separate vessel, not iron or tin, dissolve the copper sulfate in 40 gallons of water and add the ammonia; stir well and add the soap. This Is a good fungicide to use in place of Bordeaux mixture when the fruit is full grown. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate and Soap: Copper carbonate, 6 ounces. Ammonia, strong, 3 pints. Soap, 1 pound. Water, 50 gallons. Dilute the ammonia with water and use as much of It as Is necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate; a.dd water to make 40 gallons. Dissolve the soap in 10 gallons of water and pour into the copper carbonate solution. The dissolved copper carbonate loses strength when left exposed to the air, but it may be kept all right In APPENDIX. 281 stopped bottles or jugs. This is used when the fruit is nearly ripe because it shows less than the Boi-deaux mixture. Potassium Sulfide or Liver of Sulfur: Potassium sulfide, 3 ounces. Water, 6 gallons. Dissolve the potassium sulfide in the water. Apply at once. This mixture deteriorates rapidly and should not be prepared un- til ready for application. This is an effective spray for mildew on gooseberries. Lime-Sulfur Wash: Lime, 15 pounds. Sulfur, 15 pounds. "Water, 50 gallons. Place the lime in a kettle and slake it with hot water so that it forms an even white paste, then add water until it makes a thin whitewash. Blend the sulfur with water into a thin paste and add to the whitewash and mix thoroughly. Boil one hour, stirring frequent- ly to keep from caking on the sides of the vessel, and adding water from time to time to replace that which has boiled away. Dilute to 50 gallons and bring to the boiling point again. Strain it boiling hot into the spray tank through wire screen and apply as hot as possible. It should be boiled until it is a brick red color and until the sediment, when it has settled, is brownish or yellowish green. Salt is recom- mended to be added to the sulfur pound for pound, but it may be omitted with no material disadvantage. Use good fresh stone lime which slakes free from grit and dirt. Either flowers of sulfur or light or heavy flour of sulfur may be used. The flowers of sulfur goes into solution most readily. In orchard practice this wash is mostly used against insects which are found on the trees when they are dormant. It has proved very effective against the San Jose Scale, oyster shell scale, the scurfy scale, the case bearers and other insects which pass the winter on the trees. It was formerly customary to add salt to this wash in order to make the wash more adhesive, but later experience seems to show that Is not effective. Copper Sulfate Solution: Copper sulfate at the rate of one pound to twenty-five ga;llons of water is used for the prevention of grape rot, plum pocket and peach leaf curl. Some experiments seem to show that good results will fol- low from an application of this kind on apples, cherries, and some other trees and plants. This solution should only be applied to dor- mant plants, and it is probably best to apply it early in the spring, at least two weeks before there is any sign of vegetation. If applied after the plants have started, injury will result. Its object is to de- stroy the spores of injurious diseases that may be on the plants. Insecticides. Paris Green: Dry Paris Green — ^Plour, 20 pounds. Paris Green, 1 pound. Mix the two and dust the plants when they are moist from dew or rain. Wet Paris Green — Paris Green, 1 pound. Bordeaux mixture or water, 50-300 gallons. For apples or pears use 1 pound to 150 gallons of Bordeaux mix- ture or water. If water is used add 2 pounds of fresh slaked lime to prevent injury to the foliage. For cherries or plums use 1 pound Paris Green to 300 gallons of Bordeaux mixture or water. For potatoes use 1 pound Paris Green to 75 gallons of Bordeaux mixture or water. 282 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. For cabbages and cauliflowers use 1 pound Paris Green to 80 gal- lons resin lime mixture after the plants begin to head. Arsenite of Soda: White Arsenic, 1 pound. Sal Soda, 4 pounds. Water, 1 gallon. Mix and boil about 15 minutes or until the arsenic is all dissolved. Add just enough water to make up for that lost in boiling, then put in jugs or bottles until needed. Two quarts of this solution may be used in the place of 1 pound of Paris Green by adding about 4 pounds of fresh slaked lime or by combining with Bordeaux mixture in which there is an excess of lime. This spray forms a cheap substitute for Paris Green, but is liable to burn the foliage of tender plants. Arsenate of Lead: Lead acetate (sugar of lead), 22 ounces. Sodium arsenate, 8 ounces. Water or Bordeaux mixture, 10ft gallons Dissolve each separately; then mix the two together and pour this mixture into the required amount of water, or if it is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture, pour it into the lime wash before that Is mixed with the copper sulfate solution. The sodium arsenate dissolves in water quite readily. Dissolve it in about a gallon of water. Into It pour the dissolved lead acetate to the required amount and let it settle. Then take a small quantity of the liquid in a cup to test it. This is done by adding to it a little more of the lead acetate solution. If a white substance then forms, it signifies that not enough of the lead has been used to combine with all of the arsenic, and therefore more lead acetate should be added to the mixture. Then pour this mixture into the lime wash if It is to be used with the Bordeaux mixture. While arsenate of lead may be made at home by the. above form- ula, yet it is commonly purchased in a paste form in sealed packages. The home made article is more finely divided and stays in suspension longer than the commercial form; yet the difficulty of getting re- liable materials with which to make it oft-times prevents its being a success. Arsenate of lead has the merit of adhering well to and being harmless to the foliage. As a rule, about three pounds of arsenate of lead are required for fifty gallons of water, while of Paris Green, its most popular competitor, about one-third to one-half pound would be required. This would make the arsenate of lead cost for spraying purposes from two to two and one-half times as much as Paris Green. On the other hand, the arsenate of lead adheres so tenaciously to the foliage that less applications of it are usually necessary. This is es- pecially true in rainy weather. This featiire of it, together with its harmlessness to the foliage, makes it a very desirable insecticide. It is especially effective against the codlin moth and the curculio. Soap: Whale Oil Soap, 1 poimd. Water, 6 gallons. Whale oil soap or other cheap soap Is used for plant lice and other soft bodied insects. When the leaves are off the trees it may be used as strong as 2 pounds to the gallon of water. It is sometimes used In treating scale insects. Hellebore: Hellebore, 1 pound. Water, 25 gallons. Hellebore may be mixed with three or four parts of flour and dusted on the insects, or it may be mixed with water and used as a spray. It is especially useful In combating worms on currants and APPENDIX. 283 gooseberries while the fruit is ripening, because it may be used with- out serious danger of poisoning the fruit. Pyrethrum: Pyrethrum powder, 1 ounce. Water, 3 gallons. For dry applications, mix thoroughly one part by weight of In- sect powder with four of cheap flour and keep in a closed vessel for twenty-four hours before dusting over the plants. Pyrethrum, If fresh and pure, can be made to do very effectual work. It should be kept in tightly sealed cans. If the best pyrethrum cannot be obtained It would be better to use some other insecticide. Resin Lime IVlixture: Pulverized resin, 5 pounds. Concentrated lye, 1 pound. Fish oil or any cheap oil except tallow, 1 pint. Water, 5 gallons. Place oil, resin and a gallon of water in a kettle and heat until resin is softened; add lye solution made as for hard soap. Stir thor- oughly, add remainder of water and boil for about two hours until the mixture will unite with cold water making a clear amber colored fluid. Replace the water which has boiled away by adding boiling water to make the 5 gallons. This gives a stock solution which may be kept until needed. In using it, add to the 5 gallons, 80 gal- lons of water, 15 gallons of thin whitewash, and 1 pound of Paris Green or its equivalent. Resin Lime mixture is used in spraying smooth leaved plants, like cabbage and cauliflower, to which other mixtures do not stick well. Kerosene Emulsion:. Kerosene (coal oil), 2 gallons. Rain water, 1 gallon. Soap, y^ pound. Dissolve the .soap in water by boiling. Take from the fire and while hot, turn in kerosene and churn briskly for five minutes. It can be easily churned by pumping. Dilute before using with 6 to 9 parts of water. For scale insects and all sucking insects. Lime: Dry slaked lime is often used In combating Insects having soft, sticky bodies, such as those of the rose slug, cherry slug and asparagus beetle. Tobacco Dust: Tobacco dust may be obtained from large manufacturers at a comparatively small cost. In addition to its value as an insecticide, it has the advantage of acting as a fertilizer. It is useful in fight- ing striped beetles which infest cucumbers, squashes and melons, and in keeping plant lice and other insects from the garden plants. It is also used against root lice, particularly the woolly aphis. For this purpose, it should be worked into the ground in liberal quantities. Tobacco and Soap: Tobacco (waste stems), 1 pound. Boiling water, 4 gallons. Add the hot water to the tobacco and let It stand until cold. Strain and add 1 pound of whale oil soap or 2 pounds of soft soap to each 50 gallons of infusion. Used for plant lice. WAXES FOR GRAFTING AND FOR WOUNDS. The following recipes for waxes are taken from the Horticultur- ist's Rule Book: 1. Common Resin and Beeswax Waxes: a. Reliable wax. — Resin, 4 parts by weight; beeswax, 2 -parts; tallow, 1 part. Melt together and pour into a pail of cold 284 POPULAR PRUIT aROWlNG. water. Then grease the hands and pull the wax until it is nearly white. One of the best waxes, either for indoor or out- door work. b. Resin, 4 pounds; beeswax, 1 pound; tallow, 1 pound. c. Resin, 6 pounds; beeswax, 2 pounds; linseed oil, 1 pint. d. 6 pounds resin, 1 pound beeswax and 1 pint linseea oil; apply hot with a brusn, one-eighth of an incn thicK over aii tne jomcs 2. Alcohohc Waxes: LiCfort's J_,iquid Grafting-Wax, or Alcoholic Plastic. — Best white resin, 1 pound; beef taliow, 1 ounce; remove irom the hre and add 8 ounces of alcohol. Keep in closed bottles or cans. 3. Waxed String and other Bandages: Waxed atring for Root-Gramng. — Into a kettle of melted wax place balls of No. 18 knitting- coiton. Turn the balls tretiuently, and in five minutes they will be thoroughly saturated, when they are dried and put away for future use. This material is strong enough, and at the same time breaks so easily as not to injure the hanus. Any of tne resin and beeswaxes may be used. When the string is used it should be warm enough to stick without tying. Waxed Cloth. — old calico or thin muslin is rolled on a stick and placed in melted wax. When saturated it is allowed to cool by being unrolled on a bench. It is then cut in strips to suit. Waxed Paper is used to a large extent in some nurseries tor covering root grafts. It is made by painting tough paper with hot wax, which is then hung up to dry. LISTS OF FRUITS ESPECIALLY ADAPTED TO CERTAIN TYPICAL STATES. The list of fruits given for different states must be looked upon as only directive. The states given are selected because they represent certain typical areas adapted to fruit growing. Lists of this kind, however, are often misleading to the beginner, and the inexperienced should be cautious how they follow such lists for the reason that soil and climate may change in some sec- tions of the country within very short distances; for instance, parts of California are well adapted for orange raising, and with- in a short distance, on a considerably higher elevation, the country may be well adapted to the growing of apples. Those who are intending to begin planting in any section should aim to get in touch with the Experiment Stations and obtain from them a list of fruits especially adapted to their location. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting In Alabama. By R. S. Mackintosh, Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, Agri- cultural College, Auburn, Ala. North, half of state. Apples — Red June, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Family, Wine- sap, Tellow Transparent, Horse, Yates, Terry. Apples, Crab — Not planted to any considerable extent. Apricots — ^Not planted. Blackberries — Dallas, Early Harvest. APPENDIX. 285 Cherries — Not planted. Currants — Not planted. Gooseberries — Not planted. Grapes — Bunch: Delaware, Niagara, Concord. Muscatine type: Eden, Memory and Scuppernong. Peaches — Greensboro,. Carman, Hllej', Family Favorite, Belle. El- berta, Solway, White Heath. Pecans — Stuayt, Van Deman, Pabst. Pears — Kieffer. Plums — Red June. Burbank, Abundance. Raspberries — Northern part of state: Gault, Springfield, Cuthbert, Cardinal. Strawberries — Lady Thompson, Klondike, Hoffman, Gandy, Dunlap. Figs — Celestial. Brown Turkey. Oranges — Coast region only: Satsuma. Japanese Persimmons- — Hachiya, Okame, Hyakume, Tane-Nashi. Pomegranates — Sweet, Acid. Varieties Recommended for Planting in California. By E. J. Wickson, Dean of College of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. There is practically no differentiation as yet between varie- ties for amateurs and commercial varieties. The leading varieties used commercially are selected by amateurs so far as their char- acters agree with individual desires. The following list of varieties is especially recommended for the coast region of California: Apples — Newton. Pippin, Belle Fleur, Gravenstein, R. I. Greening, E. Spitzenberg, Mo. Pippin, W. Astracan. Red June. Grapes — ^Muscat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson. Emperor, Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Sweet Water, Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, Alicante. Sultina. Peaches — Muir, Phillips, Solway. Lovell. Early Crawford, Tuskena, Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susquehanna, Nich- ols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary's Choice, Hale, Alexander, Heath. Pears — Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, Du Comice, Doyenne D'Ete, Clapp's Favorite. Glout Morceau, Barry, Comet. Plums — Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Tellow Egg, Tragedy, Wash- ington, Satsuma, Bui'bank, Jefferson, Climax. Grand Duke, Clyman. Blackberries— Crandalls, Mammoth, Lawton, Kittatinny. Currants — Cherry. Gooseberries — Berkelej', Houghton. Quince — Apple, Orange, Paragon. Raspberries-^Logan berry. Phenomenal (Hybrids) Black — None grown. Red— Cuthbert. Strawberries — ^Dallas, Arizona, Melinda, Thompson, Brandywine. Gandy. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Colorado. By W. Paddock, Professor of Hortif^ulture, Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado. Apples — Jonathan, Gano, Staj^man, Winesap, Grimes, Colo. Orange, Wealthy, Duchess and Haas for early. For Arkansas Valley. Apples, Crab — Whitney. Blackberries — Early Harvest, Lawton, Snyder. Cherries — Montmorency, Morello, Richmond. Currants — Cherry, Fay, Red Cross. Gooseberries — Smith, Downing, Houghton. Grapes — Concord, Niagara, Moore's Early, 286 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Peaches — Only grown by laying down in winter; Crawford, Blberta. Pears — Not much grown. Bartlett, Kieffer, Seckel. Plums — Wyant, Cheney, Pfeffer, Premium, Moore's Arctic In the north. Lombard, Bradshaw, Italian Prune in Arkansas Valley. Quince — Not grown. Raspberries — Black — Kansas. Red — Marlboro. ^ Strawberries — Capt. Jack, Jocunda, Bederwood. ^ Varieties Recommended for Planting in Iowa By C. E. Beach, Professor of Horticulture, Iowa Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Ames, Iowa. Apples — In selacting stocks upon which to top-work less hardy va- rieties, much yet needs to be learned. In the light of our present knowledge of this subject. Hibernal and its kin appear to be suit- able for the most northern parts of the state, while in southern Iowa, Plumb Cider and Haas appear to be especially desirable for this purpose. Northern Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberry), Charlamoff, Oldenburg, Duchess, Patten Greening, Wealthy, Ani- sim, Longfield, Hutchin's Red, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Delicious, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Central Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland (Lowland Raspberi'y). Charlamoff, Oldenburg (Duchess), Wealthy, Anisim, Longfield, Fall Orange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Roman Stem, Northwestern (Greening), Salome, Black Annette, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Tolman Sweet, Allen Choice, Stayman, Ralls Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Southern Iowa — Yellow Transparent, Lowland- (Lowland Raspberry) , Red June, Oldenburg, (Duchess), Dyer, Wealthy, Benoni, Pall Or- ange, Ramsdell Sweet, Hutchins Red, Grimes Golden, Jonathan, Roman Stem, Iowa Blush, Windsor, Allen Choice. Stayman, Ralls Genet, Delicious, Nelson Sweet, Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Black Ben Davis or Gano. Pears-^On account of the prevalence and great destructiveness of pear blight in Iowa, pear culture is precarious in all parts- of the state. The varieties named below have shown a good degree of hardiness and resistance to blight in some localities in Iowa: Fluke, Bloodgood, Warner, Seckel, Flemish Beauty, Bezi de la Motte, Longworth, Kieffer, Anjou. Peaches — Because of their lack of hardiness peaches are seldom fruited north of central Iowa and only the hardier varieties can be recommended for planting in any portion of the state. The varieties named below are among the best of those which have been fruited successfully in different portions of central and souths em Iowa: Sneed, Greensboro, Champion, Lone Tree, Russell, Hill Chili, Crosby. Plums — Northern Iowa — Forest Garden. Ocheeda, De Soto. Cheney, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkey e, Stoddard, Brittlewood (?), Hammer (?), Miner. Central Iowa — ^Forest Garden, Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. Southern Iowa — ^Forest Garden. Ocheeda (?), De Soto, Wolf, Wyant, Hawkeye, Stoddard, Brittlewood, Hammer, Miner. Varieties Recommended for Planting In Michigan. By Prof. L. R. Taft, East Lansing, Mich., Superintendent of Farm- ers' Institute. Apples— Red Astrachan, Duchess, Wealthy, Baldwin, Maiden Blush, Jonathan, Hubbardston, Grimes, Wagener, Red Canada, Golden Russet. APPENDIX. 287 Apples, Crab — Transcendent, Hyslop, Martha, Whitney. Blackberries — King-, Wilson, Snyder, Eldorado, Taylor. Cherries — Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello, Gov. Wood, Black Tartarian. Currants — Victoria, Red Dutch. Loudon, White Dutch, Perfection. Gooseberries — Downing, Smith Improved, Keepsake. Industry. Grapes — Moore, Worden, Concord, Delaware, Niagara, Diamond, Brighton. Peaches — Triumph, Dewey, Engle, Elberta, Kalamazoo, or New Pro- lific. Pears — Clapps, Bartlett, Howell, Seckel, Anjou, Kieffer, Lawrence. Plums — ^Abundance, Burbank, Bradshaw, Lombard, Grand Duke, Mon- arch. Quince — Orange, Rea and Champion. Raspberries — ■ Black — Kansas, Gregg, Cumberland. Red — Miller, Marlboro, Eaton, Cuthbert. Strawberries — Excelsior, Haverland, Clyde, Sample, Dunlap, Aroma, Pride of Michigan, Dornan, Brandywine. Varieties of Fruits Recommended for Planting in IVIinnesota. By Minnesota State Horticultural Society. Apples — First degree of hardiness — Duchess,. Hibernal, Charlamoff, Patten's Greening, Okabena. Second degree of hardiness — Wealthy, Tetofsky, Malinda, Peerless, Anisim. Most profitable for commer- cial planting in Minnesota — ^Wealthy, Duchess, Patten's Greening, Okabena, Anisim. "Varieties for trial — Salome, Eastman, Yellow Sweet, Brett, Milwaukee, TTniversity, Lowland Raspberry, Iowa Beauty, Jewell's Winter, Gilbert. Valuable in some locations — Wolf River, McMahon, Yellow Transparent, Longfield, Northwest- ern Greening. Crabs and Hybrids — For general cultivation — Florence, Whitney, Ear- ly Strawberry, Minnesota, Sweet Russet, Virginia, Transcendent. Varieties for trial — Lyman's Prolific, Faribault. Shields. Plums — ^For general cultivation — DeSoto, Surprise, Forest Garden, Wolf (Freestone), Wyant, Stoddard. Most promising for trial — New Ulm, Brittlewood, Compass Cherry, Terry. Grapes — First degree of hardiness — Beta, Janesville. Second degree of hardiness — JMoore's Early, Brighton, Delaware, Worden, Aga- wam. Concord, Moore's Diamond. Raspberries — Red Varieties — King, Turner, Marlboro-, Miller, Brandy- wine, Loudon. Black and purple varieties — Palmer, Nemaha, Gregg, Older, Columbian, Kansas. Blackberries — Ancient Britain and Snyder. Currants — Red Dutch, White Grape, Victoria, Long Bunch, Holland, North Star, Pomona, Red Cross, Perfection, London Market. Gooseberries — Houghton, Downing, Champion, Pearl. Strawberries — Perfect varieties — Bederwood, Enhance, Lovett, Splendid, Glen Mary, Clyde, Senator Dunlap. Imperfect varieties — Crescent. Warfield, Haverland. Native Fruits — Valuable for trial — Dwarf Juneberrj', Sand Cherry, Buffaloberry, High Bush Cranberry. Varieties recommended for Planting in Missouri. By J. C. Wliitten, Professor of Horticulture, Columbia, Mo. Apples — Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, Grimes, York, Winesap, Ingram, Rome Beauty, Maiden's Blush, Wealthy, Early Harvest. Apples, Crab — Florence, Whitney, Hyslop. Apricots — Alexander and Budd (Even these do not thrive, and I know of none that are well adapted). Blackberries— Snyder, Taylor, Lawton, Early Harvest. 288 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Cherries — Early Richmond, English Morello, Montmorency. Currants — Red Dutch, White Dutch, Red Cherry. Gooseberries — ^Downing, Smith, Houghton. Grapes — Moore's Early, Worden, Concord, Woodruff Red, Wyoming Red. For wine — Cynthiana, Elvira. Peaches — Champion, Carman, Family Favorite, Elberta, Crosby, Salway. Pears — Kieffer, Garber, Dwarf Duchess, Anjou, Keull. Plums — Wild Goose, Wayland, Gold, Dawson, Chabot, Burbank. Quince — Missouri Mammoth, Orange. Raspberries — • Black — Evans, Kansas, Hopkins, Gregg. Red — Turner, Cardinal, Loudon. Strawberries — ^Aroma, Excelsior, Warfield, Bubach, Haverland, Gandy. Varieties Recommended for New York. By S. D. Willard, Geneva, N. Y., leading nurseryman and fruit grower. Apples — Garden Royal, Gravenstein, Oldenburg, Mcintosh, Bsopus, Spitzenburg, Northern Spy, Boiken. Apricots — ^Acme, Montgamet. Blackberries — Early Bagnard. Eldorado. Cherries — Sour: Richmond, Morello, Montmorency. Sweet: Rockport, Windsor, Schmidt. Currants — White Imperial, Wilder. Gooseberries — Downing, Columbus. Pears — ^Bartlett, Anjou, Lawrence, Washington. Plums — Reine Claude, Burbank, German Prune. The varieties espe- cially valuable for home use are very few. Raspberries — Black — Diamond, Gregg, Cumberland. Red — Cuthbert, Loudon, Golden Queen. , List of Fruits for Northern New England. By W. M. Munson, Professor of Horticulture, Agricultural College, Orono, Me. Apples — Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Baldwin, Spy, Hubbardston, Stark, Tolman, Fameuse. For home use, add — Astrachan, Williams, Mother, Paradise, Winter Sweet, Mackintosh. For extreme northern parts of Maine and Vermont, except Grand Isle Count5^ hardier sorts are required; for example — Wealthy, Dudley, Oldenburg, Alexander, Rolfe, Arctic and some local varieties, like Stowe and Hayford. Apples, Crab — Hyslop, Martha, Transcendent. Blackberries — Agawam and Snyder. Cherries — Richmond. Windsor, English Morello. Currants— Fay, Wilder, White Imperial. Grape — Moore's Early, Campbell's Early, Green Mountain, Worden, and possibly. King. Gooseberries — Downing. Peaches — Not commercially grown. Pears — ^Angouleme, Anjou, Bartlett, Bosc, Clapp, Diel, Lawrence, Sheldon, Vermont Beauty. PJum — Bavay, Burbank, Bradshaw, Grand Duke, Imperial, Gage, Moore's Arctic. Quince — Not commercially grown. Raspberries — Black — Cumberland, Gregg. Red — Cuthbert, Loudon. Purple — Shaffer. Strawberries — Dorpan, Dunlap, Glen Mary, Warfield. APPENDIX. 289 List of Fruits Recommended for New Jersey. j35^ "M. a. Blake, Horticulturist, Experiment Station, New Bruns- wick, N. J. Apples — I would suggest Early Harvest, Early Ripe, Red Astrachan, William's, Stan-, Summer Rambo, Wealthy, Maiden's Blush, Fall Pippin, Jonathan, Stayman's Winesap, Winesap, York Imperial and Rome Beauty. These varieties are recommended for south Jersey. North Jersey has practically the same conditions for fruit growing as New York State, and such varieties as Northern Spy, R. I. Greening, Baldwin and Mackintosh can be included in the list. All varieties that are adapted to New York state can be grown in -northern Jersey. Such varieties as Baldwin and R. I. Greening are practically fall apples in southern Jersey. Crab Apples — Hyslop and Transcendent. Apricots — Harris Hardy and Moorpark. Blackberries — Ward. Cherries — ■Sweet — Governor Wood, Yellow Spanish, Black Tartarian, Windsor. Sour — Early Richmond and May Duke. Currants — Wilder, Fay and Cherry. Gooseberries — Downing, Columbus and Red Jacket. Grapes — Commercial varieties for south Jersey — Concord and Ives. Some grapes are sold from south Jersey for eating purposes, but the larger quantity is now made into grape juice. The two va- rieties named are the ones almost exclusively grown. Green Moun- tain, Niagara, Brighton, Worden, Moore's Diamond, Delaware and others can be grown for dessert and home use, however. Peaches — Greensboro, Hiley, Carman, Waddell, Mountain Rose, Ear- ly Crawford, Niagara, Reeve's Favorite, Elberta, Late Cravford, Belle of Georgia, Old Mixon, Steven's Rareripe, Salway. Pears — Kieffer and La Conte for market. Bartlett, Clairgeau and such varieties can be recommended for the home orchard, but are likely to be severely attacked by blight. Clapp's Favorite is es- pecially susceptible. Plums (European) — Lombard and Fellentaurg. (Japanese) — Red June. Quinces — Champion and Orange. Raspberries — ■ Black — Cumberland and Kansas. Red — Herbert and Cuthbert. Hybrids — Columbian and Haymaker. Strawberries — Gandy, Tennessee Prolific, Nettie, Glen Mai-y, William Belt, Success. The conditions for fruit growing in northern Jersey are about the same as those of New York and New England. Some of the soils there are well adapted to apples. Some of the high quality varieties of pears could be recommended for this section in addition to those given. Pear blight is very severe in south Jersey, however, and Kieffer and La Conte are becoming the varieties most grown. Southern New Jersey has much the same conditions for fruit grow- ing as Delaware and parts of Maryland. Varieties Recommended for Planting in North Carolina. By W. N. Hutt, Horticulturist, Agricultural College, West Raleigh, N. C. Apples — In Mountains — Red June, York, dayman, Winesap, Grimes and Bonum. In Cotton Belt — Horses, Winesap, Stayman, Shock- ley, Ben Davis. Apricots — None grown. Blackberries — Dewbeiries In sandy region only Lucretia. Cherries — Little grown. Sour type grown in mountains. Currants — In Mountains, Red Dutch and Fay. 2m POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. Gooseberries — ^Downing and Houghton. Grapes — Niagara, Concord and Delaware. Scuppemong and .lames on coast. Peaclies — Greensboro, Carman, Salway. Pears— Kiefter, I^a Conte, Seckel, Early Harvest. Plums — Abundance. ■ Red June, Burbank, Wild Goose. (Quince — In mountains, Mftech. , Raspberries — Black— In mountains — Gregg. Red— In mountains — Loudon, Guthbert and Miller. Strawberries — Lady Thompson, Heflin, Gandy, Bubacli, Cleiida. Figs— In coast and lower Piedmont- — Brown Tui-key, Celestial. Pecans — In coast and lower Piedmont — Stewart, Van iDemari, Frbt- schen, Schley. Mulberries— White English, Black English, New American. Varieties Recommended fop Planting in Ohio. By W. J. Green, Professor of Horticulture of Experinient Statidh, Wooster, O. Apples — Yellow Transparent,. Oldenburg, Sweet Bough, Maiden '.sj Blush, Grimes . Golden, Jonathan, Hubbardston, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, Northern Spy. Apples, Crab — Transcendent. Blackberries— Early Harvest, E. King, Eldorado, Snyder.; Cherries — Dydhouse, Early Richmond. Montmorency, English Morelfo Currants— Victoria, Wilder, White Dutch. Gooseberries — Downing, Pearl, Portage, Josselyn. Grapes — Worden, Green Mountain, Niagara, Brighton- . i. Peaches^Mountatn Rose, Greensboro, Champion, Elberta, Smock. Pears — Wilder, Bartlett, Ango.uleme, SecTcel. Plums — Bradshaw, Field, Reine Claude. Lombard, Grand Duke. Quince — Orange. Raspberries — Black— Cumberland, Munger, Conrath. Red — Cuthbert, King, Loudon. Strawberries — Fairfield, Dunlap, Haverland, Bubach, Latest. Varieties Recommended for Planting in Oregon. IJy C. J. Lewis, Professor of General Hortfctilture, Agricultural Col-. lege, Coryallis, (j're. Apples — E. Spitzenburg, Yellow New^town, Jonathan. Baldwin, Ben Davis, Gano, Yeirow Imperial, Gravenstein. Apples, Crab — Martha, Transcendent. Apricots — Blenheim, Moore Park, Royal. Blackberries — ^Lawton, Kittatinny. Cherries — Royal Anne, Lambert, Bing, Black Republican. Currants — ^Fay, Cherry, White Grape. Gooseberries — Champion, Downing, Industry. Grapes — Concord, Niagara, Tokay. Malaga, Muscat. Peaches^Alexander, Crawfords, Foster, Muir, Salway. Hale's Early, L. Cliny. .Pears — Bartlett, Anjou, Bosc. Howell, W. Nelis, Cornice, E. Beurre Plums — Italian, Petite. Quince — Champion, Apple or Orange, Rea's Mammoth. Raspberries — Black — Gregg, Cumberland, Kansas, Mammoth Cluster. Red — Cuthbert, Marlboro, Loudon. , Strawberries — Clark's Seedling. Niagara, Warfleld. Clyde. Hopkins, Oregon Everbearing, Excelsior, , Dunlap. APPENDIX. 291 Varieties Recommended for Planting in Saskatchewan. By Angus Mackay, Superintendent Experimental Farm, Indian Head, Sasltatcliewan. Apples, Crab — Siberian Crab (P. baccata) and crosses on this variety. Cherries — Prunus tomentosa. Currants — Bed — Fay's Prolific, Victoria, Red Dutch. White — White Grape, White Imperial. Black — Lee's Prolific, Black Naples. Gooseberries — Smith's Improved, Houghton. Plums — Manitoba Native, Aitken, Weaver. Raspberries — ■ Black— Older Black and Hilborn Black. Red — Dr. Reider, Marlboro, Turner, Herbert. Yellow — Caroline. . Strawberries — South Dakota No. 1 (Seedling of Jessie fertilized with pollen from Manitoba Wild Strawberry). RULES FOR NAMING FRUITS. In the naming and describing of new sorts, there is chance for mnch confusion by duplication of names and in other way?.. , In order to simplify this matter, rules have been adopted by the Am-r erioan Pomological Society as follows: Rule I. No two varieties of the same kind of fruit shall bear the same name. The name first published for a variety shall be the accepted and recognized name, except in cases where it has been applied in violation of this code. (a) The term "kind" as herein used shall be understood to apT ply to those general classes of fruits that are grouped together in oommon usage without regard to their exact botanical relationship; as. apple, cherry, grape, peach, plum, raspberry, etc. (b) The paramount right of the originator, discoverer or in- troducer of a new variety to name it, within the limitations of this code, is recognized and emphasized. (c) Where a variety name, through long usage, has become thoroughly established in American Pomological literature for two or more varieties, it should riot be displaced nor radically modified for either sort, except in cases wliej-e. a well-known synonym can be advanced to the position of leading name. The several va- rieties bearing identical names should be distinguished by adding the name of the author who first described each sort, or by adding some other suitable distinguishing term that will' insure their identi- ty in catalogues or discussions. (d) Existing American names of varieties, which conflict with earlier published foreign names of the same, or other varieties, but which have become thoroughly established through long usage, shall not be displaced. Rule II. The name of a variety of fruit shall consist of a single word. (a) No variety shall be named unless distinctly superior to ex- isting varieties in some important characteristic nor until it has been determined to perpetuate it by bud propagation. (b) In selecting names for varieties, the following points should be emphasized: distinctiveness, simplicity, ease of pronunciation, and spelling, indication of origin or parentage, (c) The spelling and pronunciation of a varietal name derived from a personal or geographical name should be govei'ned by the rules that control the spelling and pronunciation of the name from which it was derived. (d) A variety imported from a foreign country shouM retain Its 292 POPULAR FRUIT GROWING. foreign name- subject, only to such modiflcation as is; necessary to conform to this code or to render it intelligible in English. (e) The name of a person should not be applied to a variety dur- ing his life without his expressed consent. The name of a deceased horticulturist should not be so applied except through formal action by some competent horticultural body, preferably that with which he was most closely connected. (f) The use of such general terms as seedling, hybrid, pippin, pearmain, beurre, rare-ripe, damson, etc., is not admissible. (g) The use of a possessive noun as a name is not admissible, (h) The use of a number, either singly or attached to a word, should be considered only as temporary expedient while the variety is undergoing preliminary test. (i) In applying the various provisions of this rule to an existing varietal name that has, through long usage, become firmly imbedded in American Pomological literature, no change shall be made, which will involve loss of identity. Rule III. In the full and formal citation of a variety nam6, the name of the author who first published it shall be given. Publication. Rule IV. Publication consists (1) in the distribution of a printed description of the variety named, giving the distinguishing charac- ters- of fruit, tree, etc., or (2) in the publication of a new name for a variety that is properly described elsewhere; such publication to be made In any book, bulletin, report, trade catalogue or periodical, providing the issue bears the date of its publication and is generally distributed among nurserymen, fruit growers and horticulturists; or (3) in certain cases, the general recognition of a name for a prop- agated variety in a community for a number of years shall consti- tute publication of that name. (a) In determining the name of a variety to which two or more names have been given in the same publication, that which stands first shall have precedence. Revision. Rule V. No properly published variety name shall be changed for any reason, except conflict with this code, nor shall another va- riety be substituted for that originally described thereunder. Usual Distances Apart for Planting Frufts. Apples 25 to 40 feet each way Apples, Dwarf 10 to 15 " " Pears 20 to 30 " " " Pears, Uwarf 10 to 15 " " " Plums...:. 16 -to 20 " ■' Peaches 16 to 20 Cherries .... — 16 to 25 Apricots 16 to 20 " " " Nectarines 16 to 20 Quinces 8 to 14 Mulberries.-. 25 to 30 " : '• , .Japanese Persinnnons -.20 to 25 " : " Pecans _» 35 to 40 Grapes 8 to 12 Currants ......;...- ; 4x5" Grooseberries 4 x 5. " Raspberries, - Black .- 3 x. 7 Piaspberries, Red .^ .3 x 7 " .-Blackberries .^ 4x7 to 6x8 feet Cranberries 1 or 2 feet apart each way rSlrawberriea .- . . . ...^.y: . ..._...... ...1 to .3.;x 3 .to;.4 feet Oranges and Lemons . . • , 25 to 30 feet each way APPENDIX. 293 Number of Plants Required to Set an Acre of Ground at Given Distances. 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 12 ft. 12 ft. 12 ft. ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X ft. X 1 ft 43,560 12 ft. X 2 ft 21,780 12 f* .t 4 ft 10,890 12 ft. X 6 ft 7,260 12 ft. X 7 ft 6,223 15 ft. X 2 ft 10,890 15 ft. X 3 ft 7,260 15 ft. X 4 ft 5,445 18 ft. X 6 ft 3,630 18 ft. X 3 ft 4,840 20 ft. X 6 ft 2,420 20 ft. X 4 ft 2,722 20 ft. X 5 ft 2.178 20 ft. X 6 ft 1,185 30 ft. X 8 ft 1.361 30 ft. X 6 ft 1,452 30 ft. X 8 ft 1,089 40 ft. X 12 ft 302 40 ft. X 15 ft 242 50 ft. X 13 ft 201 100 ft. X 20 ft 181 24 ft 151 30 ft 121 36 ft 86 15 ft 193 20 ft 145 24 ft .....121 20 ft 121 24 ft 100 20 ft ..108 24 ft 90 30 ff 72 42 ft 51 30 ft 48 36 ft 40 42 ft 34 40 ft 27 50 ft 21 50 ft 17 100 ft 4 INDEX. A Age of trees for planting. . 27 Alcoholic waxes 284 Almond 273 Altitude and frosts 161 Analysi.s — . soil 18 fruit 20 Anthracnose 84 Aphis 53, 63, 70 Apple ' 75, 157 diseases 170 insects 49, 170 scab 77 tree borer 54 blight 75 packing Ill picking 101 species of 157 mulching 16S grading 113 Apricot 190 Arsenate of lead 282 Arsenite of soda 282 Assimilation 125 Associations 104 Agitation in sprayers 93 B Bark 118 Barrel press 112 Blackberry 247 diseases 88 insects 70 propagation 247 Black Knot 81 Black Rot 76, 80, 85 Bitter Rot 75 Bordeaux mixture 74,280 Brown Rot 82 Buds 119 Budding 136 June 142 forms of 142 Budstick 137 Buffalo Berry 253 distribution 253 propagation 254 Buffalo Tree Hopper 55 Buildings for storage 113, 114, 113 Butternut 273 Buying trees ..27, 142, 143,163 Biishel box ^ .108 C Callousing 133 Cane rust 89 Cedar apples 76 Chart of frost 41 Cherry — diseases 84 insects 65 grafting 153 Chestnut 269 Chinese Sand Pear 170 Chinquapin 270 Classification of fruits 127 Codlin moth 49 Collar 118 Cleft Grafting 145 Crown 118 C'ion 147 Cold Storage 114 Copper sulfate solution ....281 Cranberry 256 location of beds 257 drainage . 259 soil 258 planting 261 picking 262 Cover crops 15 Cropping the orchard 17 Crossing 123 INDEX. 29ri Crown gall 82, 83, 8S Cultivation 12, 167 Currant 231 diseases SS* insects 67 propagation 2S2 currant borer G9 currant worm 67 cuttings ., 233 Curculio 51 Cut worm 54 Cuttings 132, 133 1) Dewberry 247,248 Diseases 74 Distances for planting ....292 Downy mildew 85 Dust spraying 92 Eau Celeste 280 English Walnut .' 272 F Fall web worm 53 Flat headed apple tree borer 54 Flower 120 Fillers 18 Fire blight 75 Fruit 122 propagation 124 classification 127 adaptation 23 analysis 20 lists ....284 packages 104 laws 116 grades 112 rules for naming 291 Frost — protection 41 killing 38 foretelling 39 Fungicides 280, 74 Fruit scald 78 G Grading of fruit 112 Gift package 230 Girdling of grape 120 Grafting 143 cleft 145 whip 147 side 150 root 147 inarching . . r 154 Grafting wax formula 145 Gooseberry 236 insects 67 diseases 83 Grain in orchards 17 Grape 193 insects 65 diseases -84 grafting 154 training 202 propagation 195 Grape phylloxera 66 Grape vine leaf hopper .... 65 u Harvesting 101 Hazel 274 Heeling in 165 Hellebore 282 Hogs in orchards 50 Holes for trees 164, 28 Humus 13 Hybrids 123 I Insecticides 281 Insects — sucking 47 chewing 46 predaceous 4i< parasitic 48 Inspection laws 46 Injuries 34 frost ; %^ 296 JNt)EX. J' Juneberry 248 propagation 249 cultivation 249 varieties 249 June budding 142 K Kerosene emulsion formula 283 L, I^ayers 132 Leaf blight .-..79 Leaf curl 80, 83, 8.8 Leaf lice 53 Leaf roller 71 Leaf rust 76, 87 Leaf spot 90 Leaf slug ,■■••• 59 Leaves • • • • • .120 Liquid spraying •••• 9^^ Lime 283 Lime-sulfur wash 281 Limestone soil 8 Loess loam > 8 Loam 8j 9 Ladders for picking ..102, 10'3 Location for fruit growing T, 11 Lice 70 M Manures 21, 18 application of 22, 19 Marketing 101 Mildew 78 Moisture loss 125 Mountain Ash as stock ....173 Mulberry .". .. .254 groups . .254 djsti ibution 255 propagation .............. .-256 varieties .256 Mulching 14 Nectarines 190 Nozzles 96 Number plants to acre ....293 Nursery inspection 46 Nursery selection 26 Nursery stock ; 27 Nut fruits 26T o Offsets ; 131 Orange rust 89 Orchard protection 31 Orchard cultivation 12 Oyster shell bark louse . . . . 56 Outlook for fruit growing . . 10 P Packages .105, 106, 110, 111 Packing ................... 104 Parasites 49 Paris green 281 Peach 182 diseases 82 insects . •• . . ............ .59, .61 borer . .59, 60 propagation . . .186 distribution ..182, 183 grafting .154 groups ....184, 185, 186 planting .187 pruning .188 rosette 84 location and soil .........189 . varieties . . . 189 Pecan 267 Pear ...170 diseases 79 insects .;. . 58 tree slug 5S psylla 59 Peddling ■.. . . ...104 Persimmon ; .2.52 Piiylloxera r^9 INDEX. 297 Plant food 18, 21 Plant growth 118 Planting ...25, 28,164 Picking 101, 102, 182 Plum 177 diseases 80 insects 61 pocket 80 curculio i 61 gouger ; . . . 62 leaf aphis . 63 propagation 179 classification ■ . . . 179 Pollen .123 Pollination '...... 24, 123 Potassium- sulfide 281 Powdery mildew 78, 86 Propagation . .,130 Protection 31,38 Pruning 2.S Psychrometer 40 Pyrethrum 283 Quince 174 diseases 70 insects '. 175 as stock 171 R Raspberry 238 diseases 88 insects 70 propagation 239 cultivation 243 flat headed borer 70 pruning 243 thinning '. . . ,243 mulching 244 soil 241 protection 244 support 244 packing 246 marketing 246 Raffia 139 Red orange rust 8ft Resin lime mixture 283 Root grafting 147 Root cuttings 132 Root gall 76 Rose chafer 67 Runn-ers 131 Rust 87 S Sand Cherry 250 distribution 250 propagation 251 San Jose scale 56 Scab 82, 77, 84 Scurfy bark louse 50' Seed 130 Seedlings 124, 163 Smudger 43 Soap, Whale oil 282 Solar pit 134 Soil 7, 8, 9 Side grafting 150 Shot hole fungus 82 Sprayers 93; 98 Spraying 92 Spraying calendar 276 Snowy tree cricket 71 Stems '. 118 Storing 101, 113 Storage building 113 Strawberry 220 diseases 87 insects 71 rust 87 planting 222, 224 cultivation 227 Stratification 130 Stock 135, ISO, 160 Sunscald 30 Suckers 168 Sorting table 110 Sterile varieties 24 298 INDEX. T Tent caterpillar 51. Thorns 173 Thermometer 40 Topography 9 Tobacco dust 283 Tobacco soap 283 Transpiration 125 Tree currants 235 Top working- 146 Twig- borer 55 V Varieties 22, 12S Varieties for various states 284 W Walnut : .273 Waxed string bandage ....284 Whip grafting 147 White grub 72 Wet and dry bulb 41 Windbreaks '. . 161 Winter killing 35 Winter protection 205 Woolly aphis 57 Woolly apple louse 57 Y Yellows of peach S4 MY 24 1809