Class _^^ Book CopyiightN^. COKORIGHT DEPOSrr. Church of the Resurrection, erected in honor of Alex- ander II, "the Liberator," 17th century Russian style. Mas- sive granite walls, surmounted by nine domes resplendent with mosaic and green, gold and white enamel. RUSSIA IN THE SUMMER OF 1914 WITH DISCUSSION OF HER PRESSING PROBLEMS BY JARED W. SCUDDER ILLI7STRATED BOSTON RICHARD G. BADGER THE GORHAM PRESS COPXUGBT, 1920, BY RiCHASD G, BADGES All Rights Reserved 9. ^UCj ,^3^ JAN 19 1920 Made in the United States of America The Gorham Piess, Boston, U. S. A A56i519 AA^O CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Finland 9 II. Arrival at St. Petersburg ... 18 III. Peter the Great 25 IV. Peter the Great {continued) . . 34 V. Peter the Great {concluded) . . 43 VI. Memorials of Peter the Great — Peterhof 54 VII. Peter's Last Resting Place — ^The Winter Palace 65 VIII. Catherine the Great 72 IX. The Hermitage — Russian Art . . 85 X. Alexander II 91 XI. Cathedral Services 97 XII. General Impressions of St. Peters- burg 108 XIII. Moscow — The Kremlin .... 119 XIV. Moscow {concluded) 131 XV. Impressions of Moscow .... 141 XVI. The Russian Peasant 148 XVII. Riots IN Moscow and St. Petersburg 157 XVIII. Efforts to Escape from St. Peters- burg 166 XIX. Flight from St. Petersburg . . 176 XX. The Revolution — Future of Russia 181 Index 187 5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING FAG£ Church of the Resurrection . Frontispiece Peter the Great 54 Peterhof 60 Catherine the Great 74 The Hermitage 84 Church of the Resurrection {Interior) . . 94 St. Isaac's Cathedral 102 The Droschky .116 The Moscow Kremlin 122 The Ivan Bell Tower 126 The Red Square 132 The Novo Dyevitchi Convent 138 The Church of the Redeemer 140 Moscow 142 A Russian Village 150 Bearded Muzhiks 154 RUSSIA IN THE SUMMER OF 1914 CHAPTER I FINLAND IT was with curiously mingled feelings of ap- prehension and pleasure that we left Stock- holm on the 2 1 St of July, 19 14, en route to Russia. In Denmark, Norway, and Sweden we had felt as unconstrained in speech and action as if we had been at home. But the mere mention of Rus- sia was enough to make one recall all sorts of exciting tales of government espionage, of wild- eyed anarchists and brutal Cossacks, of deporta- tions to Siberia, and thrilling escapes through guards, bears, and wolves to the more hospitable shores of the Black Sea. And yet, linked with this rather fascinating feeling of dread there was keen pleasure in the assurance that at last our oft-deferred visit to Rus- sia was to become a certainty. If we had had the vaguest premonition of the startling experi- 9 10 Russia in the Summer of igi4 ences that were In store for us during this fateful summer of 19 14 — but I am anticipating. Meanwhile our small steamer, the von Dobeln, bore us swiftly eastward between high wooded banks crowned with princely villas, and by night- fall she was threading a tortuous course in and out among the islands of the Baltic Sea, well on her way toward Russia, the goal of our dreams for many a year. Eight o'clock next morning found us on deck, where we were treated to biscuits and a cup of coffee as a preliminary to breakfast. This im- portant meal, we were told, was served at about eleven, but it was long past that hour by our watches before a gong announced to the half- famished passengers that it was ready. The din- ing-room was far forward on the upper deck. Down both sides of it ran a series of small tables, at which the expectant guests speedily seated themselves. The center of the room was occu- pied by a long counter, laden with food of every description. By actual count, there were twenty- nine different varieties of hot and cold meats, besides soup, vegetables, pickles, etc. As soon as the seats were filled, the guests rose en masse, hurried to the counter, foraged for whatever they fancied most, and then returned to the side tables with heaping plates to enjoy their booty at leisure. There were some individuals of the male sex — Finland 1 1 blessed with a good digestion, let us hope — who made two and even three pilgrimages for more provender at the counter. All this, however, proved to be merely an appetizer, for it was fol- lowed by the "regular" breakfast, consisting of fish and meat courses with coffee, served at the side tables. The food was not only abundant, it was well cooked and some of us quite enjoyed the novelty of the "grab-counter" breakfast. This system of serving meals Is similar to that which prevails at the railroad restaurants in Sweden, the only difference between them being that on entering the latter one pays a fixed sum for the meal and waits upon himself throughout. When time Is limited, as it often is, there is apt to be considerable elbowing and confusion, and the novice sometimes fails to get the worth of his money. On one occasion, as I was returning to the train after dining at a Swedish railroad restaurant, I noticed a fellow traveler who had "disgust" written in large lines on his counte- nance. He was savagely munching a roll and kept muttering and ejaculating to himself. "Did you enjoy your dinner?" I asked. "Dinner I Dinner! ! You call that dinner! ! !" "Why, we certainly had plenty to eat there." "Well, I didn't get much of it." "What was the trouble?" asked I soothingly. "Trouble! Trouble enough! I got my plate 12 Russia in the Summer of igi4 filled and went to a side table, but there was noth- ing to eat it with. So I left the plate and went back for a knife and fork, and when I came back the plate was gone I" "Well, that was too bad ! Why didn't you try again?" "I did. But when I got some meat on my plate and had my back turned, looking for some vege- tables, somebody whisked my plate away. And then the bell rang! I tell you, these people are perfect pigs. I have no use for them." And with that he fell to munching his roll again and relapsed into gloomy silence. Late in the afternoon we passed the island of Sveaborg, famous for the valiant defence its Rus- sian garrison made when attacked in 1855 ^7 the English and French fleets combined. One thousand tons of shot and shell were hurled by the English fleet alone upon the island, but the fortress was impregnable and the allied fleets were forced to withdraw without accomplishing their purpose. Thirty minutes later we were docked at Hel- singfors, the capital of Finland. A stop of four hours gave us time to see something of this inter- esting city. We were surprised, first at its evident pros- perity and size — it numbers 150,000 inhabitants — and second at its general appearance, which to Finland 13 our mind was distinctly Swedish, whereas we had supposed it would be Russian. Baedeker's re- mark that in some respects it suggests America rather than Europe must be set down to a slight unfamillarity with American cities. Our cher- ished hope that here we should see typical Finns with "somewhat angular brachycephalic skulls, flat faces and prominent cheek bones" was not realized. However, the architecture of the gov- ernment buildings and of many business houses, the monuments and statues, the strange coinage, and still stranger speech of the people, stamped the city with an individuality all its own. The Finns, once supposed to be of Mongolian origin, but now more generally believed to be Caucasians, invaded this land in prehistoric times and drove the Lapps before them to the north. In the 1 2th century they were conquered by Sweden and converted first to the Roman Cath- olic and later to the Lutheran faith. They suf- fered greatly in repeated wars between Sweden and Russia. Finally in 1809, after a war dis- astrous to the former, Finland was ceded to Rus- sia. She did not, however, lose autonomy. For when the Tsar, Alexander I, assumed the title of Grand Duke of Finland, he made the follow- ing pledge: "Providence having placed us in possession of the Grand Duchy of Finland, we have desired by the present act to confirm and 14 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 ratify the religion and fundamental laws of the land, as well as the privileges and rights, which each class of the said Grand Duchy in particular, and all the inhabitants in general, be their posi- tion high or low, have hitherto enjoyed according to the constitution. We promise to maintain all these benefits and laws, firm and unshaken, in their full force." This solemn pact was kept by Alexander I, and the monument erected to Alexander II, which still stands in the public square of Helsingfors, gives proof that he, too, respected the rights of the people. Under their successors, however, an ominous change took place. The movement to constrain all parts of the vast empire to adopt "one law, one church, one language" slowly gained strength. With the accession of Nicholas II the situation became acute. In 1901 Russian officials and the Russian language were forced on the Finns wherever possible. Two years later General Bobrikov was stationed in Helsingfors with the powers of a dictator. The country was flooded with spies. The houses of the people were forcibly entered and searched. There were numerous illegal arrests and banishments. The newspapers were suppressed. The name of the General became a byword and a hissing. The undaunted Finns resisted these unjust measures with dogged resolution, and in 1905, Finland 15 taking advantage of the Outbreak of the war with Japan, they went on a general strike which event- ually compelled the Russian government to yield and to restore to them their ancient rights. After the war, however, renewed attempts were made to Russify Finland and the friction became intense. It made one's blood boil to hear a recital of these facts and to see with one's own eyes the evi- dences that a despotic government was bullying a helpless people, vastly superior to their oppressors In education and morals. Not that there is any fault to be found with the principle of Russiiica- tion in the abstract. For it is nothing more than a desire to nationalize the entire empire. It is precisely what we endeavor to do with foreign immigrants in the United States. Note, however, the vast difference in point both of condition and method. With us the immigrants come volun- tarily and the process of making them citizens is largely educational. This is the civilized method. On the other hand, Finland became a part of the Russian empire as a result of the exigencies of war, but with a distinct understanding that its con- stitutional rights would be maintained. These rights have been trampled In the dust and force has been applied to nationalize the province. This is rank barbarism I The government offices in Helslngfors are in the Senate House, which together with the City 1 6 Russia in the Summer of 1914 Hall, the University and the Lutheran Church constitute a group of Imposing buildings around Senate Square. In the center of the Square is Runeberg^s bronze statue of Alexander II, to which allusion has been made. Not far to the right — on a rocky peninsula jutting out Into the harbor — rises the huge Russian Cathedral with gilded domes. But by far the most interesting architecture we came across in Helsingfors was found in certain buildings recently erected for business purposes, in which the material used was red Finnish granite streaked with gray. The ex- terior of one of these, a bank, was as solid and severe as an Egyptian pylon, the entrance being through a peculiarly shaped Finnish archway. The interior was low, its celling supported by fat pillars with massive capitals, the wall decoration a running hieroglyphic. Another typical building contained the offices of a large insurance company. The lower structure, made more open than the bank by the Insertion of a series of Finnish arches, supported four stories amply provided with win- dow space. The exterior decoration was unique. For the stone was appropriately carved, not in conventional forms, but in figures of gigantic trolls and fantastic gnomes, such as peopled this land in ages long gone by. The architects deserve to be commended for erecting buildings that are thor- Finland 17 oughly practical and at the same time distinctively national, — a rare combination in these days I Our driver in Helsingfors took us all over the city, through the park, past the governor-generars residence (which he seemed reluctant to point out and only spoke of with bated breath), and finally left us by request at the head of the Esplanade. This is a short but spacious avenue running toward the harbor, marked off by rows of trees, not thin and scraggly like those on the pretentious "Unter den Linden", but vigorous fuU-foliaged trees, — while its center is adorned with beds of brilliant flowers. Here were scores of people promenad- ing as they listened to the music of the bands play- ing in several near-by restaurants. At one of these, known as the Kapellet, we enjoyed an ex- cellent dinner and then returned to the steamer, well pleased with our visit to Helsingfors. It struck half-past ten before we started, and yet twilight was lingering in the west. The sea was still, and as we drew away from the shore, the harbor lights, casting long glittering lines of danc- ing reflections on the water beneath them, slowly converged into the form of a perfect horseshoe, — an omen which the Delphic priestess in our party sagely interpreted as an assurance of **great good luck" for our journey through Russia. CHAPTER II ARRIVAL AT ST. PETERSBURG TOWARDS noon of the following day we were nearing Kronstadt. Russian men-of- war, cruisers, and destroyers appeared in every direction. Among these there were two men-of- war which were pointed out to us as especially worthy of attention. Upon one of them the Tsar of all the Russias was present that day; the other, flying the French flag, had on board President Poincare, who had come to interview the Tsar on an exceedingly delicate diplomatic mission. The island on which Kronstadt is situated has been converted into an impregnable fortress — a veritable Heligoland — for the protection of St. Petersburg. From the water the city itself looked like a gigantic fort, its massive walls pierced at regular intervals with openings for cannon, pointed seaward. It was an impressive sight, and being long since aware of the omnipresence of several Russian army oflicers on board, we deemed it the better part of valor to conceal our cameras or at any rate to use them very surreptitiously. After a stop of a short half hour we went on i8 Arrival at St. Petersburg 19 our way and soon entered the Sea Canal, which extends from this point to the mouth of the river Neva, a distance of seventeen miles. It was lined on both sides with grain elevators, warehouses, and great numbers of dry docks containing ships in every phase of construction. Through this canal we had steamed for more than an hour, when suddenly far ahead our eager eyes caught the gleam of gold, and presently out of the kaleidoscopic view of many-colored roofs there loomed up before us the magnificent gilded dome of St. Isaac's Cathedral and the two slender golden spires of the Admiralty Tower and the Cathedral of St. Peter and St. Paul. It was St. Petersburg! A tedious delay for the inspection of our pass- ports was followed by an unexpectedly lenient custom-house examination, and then at last we were free to proceed to a hotel. Our preference was for the Astoria, partly because it fronted on a large square near St. Isaac's Cathedral, but also because it was a brand new hotel, recently opened under German management, which had been highly recommended to us by friends who had been there the year before. The hotel omnibus, which was in waiting, quickly conveyed us oyer the bridge across the Neva and set us down before the Astoria. Hardly had I entered the room assigned to me 20 Russia in the Summer of 1914 before there was a knock at the door, and a boy, picturesquely dressed in Tartar costume, pre- sented me with a blank to be filled out with vari- ous details as to my age, family, nationality, pro- fession, probable length of stay in Russia, etc., etc. I wrote out the required information and handed it back with the inevitable pourboire. But the boy still lingered, persistently — ^though politely — ^ut- tering a single word. For a time I was non- plussed. At last it dawned upon me. Did he want my passport? "Da I Da !" "Yes, yes,** that was it. I hesitated about parting with that val- uable document and put it into his hands very reluctantly. Later I learned that in Russia all passports must be turned over to the hotel Portier, who has them inspected by the police, and then keeps them in his possession until the guests are on the point of leaving the city. This was the first intimation that we were under strict surveil- lance by the Russian authorities. The passport episode reminded me that we had been strongly advised to secure a reliable guide as soon as we reached St. Petersburg. In the more travelled parts of Europe a Baedeker or a Murray, supplemented with a little knowledge of French or German, enables one to get about satis- factorily, and it is much more interesting to be thrown on one's own resources. Not so in Rus- sia. Ignorance of the language and urifamiliarity Arrival at St. Petersburg 21 with the customs would Inevitably result in being fleeced by droschky drivers and palace guards. Without a guide entree to many of the most val- uable collections might be refused on some flimsy pretext or other. More than that, mutual mis- understandings might give rise, not only to exas- perating delays, but sometimes to actual detention and the humiliating necessity of appealing to a consul for release. With these admonitions In mind I asked for a guide at the hotel office, but found that none was available — "they were already engaged." In- quiry at several other hotels proved equally dls^- appointing. At last at the Hotel de France I hap- pened on a man who spoke English tolerably well and had good credentials. His name plainly indi- cated that he was of English extraction, and when I — perhaps too curiously — asked how it hap- pened that his father preferred Russia to Eng- land, he sententiously remarked, "Ubi bene, ibi patrla." I engaged him on the spot. The search for a guide consumed considerable time and I had no sooner returned to the hotel than dinner was announced. The cuisine at the Astoria differed little from that of any first class hotel In Western Europe. We were warned not to drink the city water, because it was pumped unfiltered from the river Neva without any at- tempt being made to secure that stream from 22 Russia in the Summer of Jgi4 pollution. This is only one instance out of many which go to show that the Russians are still quite heedless of the most ordinary sanitary precau- tions. Rest assured, however, gentle reader, that there is not the slightest difficulty in obtaining in- numerable substitutes for city water in the form of wines and beers, bottled waters, tea and kvass, for which, of course, one has to pay extra. Kvass, a genuine Russian drink, became a prime favorite with us, because it is non-alcoholic, re- freshing and inexpensive. It is made, so we were told, from barley, as its chief ingredient, with an admixture of honey, salt and hot water. This is boiled for twelve hours, strained, and then left to ferment for about a week. In our humble opinion it tastes like lemonade mixed with raspberry juice, but we frankly admit that this analysis is open to debate, no two epicures ever having been known to agree on the ingredients of kvass. Well-to-do Russians, we found, are accustomed to partake of an elaborate appetizer before all heavy meals. This is usually done in a room ad- joining the main dining salon, where liqueurs, sandwiches, caviar, herring, — hors-d'oeuvres of every description — are set forth on a counter in the most tempting fashion. The caviar is notably fresh and delicious, as compared with what is ob- tainable in the United States. After dinner we proceeded to the reading-room Arrival at St, Petersburg 23 and consulted the newspapers which we had not seen since leaving Stockholm. Among these was a St. Petersburg daily published in German, which contained several items decidedly interest- ing to ourselves. In the first place, as a result of the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand, the relations between Austria and Serbia were said to be strained al- most to the breaking point. If war were to be declared between these two nations, our itinerary, carrying us by way of Moscow and Warsaw to Vienna and Budapest, would have to be entirely revised. But our more immediate attention was claimed by the news concerning Russia. Evidences of ex- treme unrest among the people were multiplying on every side. That it was not sporadic was clear from simultaneous outbreaks of mob violence in all the larger cities. Even now in St. Petersburg there was a serious strike involving many hun- dreds of workmen in various large industries. There was no cause for alarm, however, as the government had the situation well in hand. This was not altogether comfortable reading. Newspapers in Russia — as in every land — were probably inclined to startle the public with lurid rumors emanating from the heated imagination of ambitious reporters. But that we were a little 24 Russia in the Summer of igi4 disturbed that evening by the trend of events goes without saying. The news next morning (July 24th) was hardly less disconcerting. The Austro-Hungarian gov- ernment had presented an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding its unqualified acceptance within forty- eight hours. Notwithstanding all the concessions made by Serbia, Austria backed by Germany seemed bent on war. Well, there was nothing for us to do but to hope that this war cloud, like so many others in previous years, might be dissipated, or that, if there were no escape from war, it might at least be confined to the two countries immediately con- cerned. We decided to await further develop- ments, and in the meantime to see all that we could of the great metropolis of Russia. CHAPTER III PETER THE GREAT THE history of St. Petersburg is so closely interwoven with the life of Peter the Great that a brief sketch of his career is indispensable to even a slight acquaintance with the city as well as to an intelligent conception of present condi- tions in the empire. Let us go back for a mo- ment to the beginnings of Russia. The Slavs in goodly numbers were settled in Europe as early as the 4th century of the Chris- tian Era. They then occupied considerable terri- tory near the Carpathian Mountains. Following the movement of successive migrations the North- ern Slavs spread toward the northwest, drove the Finns before them, and took possession of the plains stretching to the Baltic. They were a hardy but peaceful people, given to agriculture rather than to war. In the 9th century they grew weary of the never-ending turmoil of their tribes, and — so says tradition — invited a Norse chieftain to become their king. "Our land is great and fruitful," they said, "but 25 26 Russia in the Summer of igi4 there is no order In it; come and reign and rule over us.'* This is interpreted by some historians as indi- cating that the Norsemen (whom the Slavs called RuSf whence the name Russian is derived) in- vaded the land and conquered the Slavs, just as they did with the Saxons before the time of Alfred the Great. At any rate, Rurik, a Norseman, be- came sole ruler of the Slavs and established a dynasty which occupied the throne for some seven hundred years. About the middle of the loth century Chris- tianity obtained a footing in the land, and in an incredibly short time the Greek Church was adopted as the State religion. During the next three centuries, in spite of in- numerable civil wars, the kingdom was enlarged and considerable progress was made in civiliza- tion. Indeed, if Russia had been allowed the same opportunities that were granted to the other countries of Europe, she would now be as far advanced as any of them. But an appalling catastrophe overtook her in the 13th century. A horde of Mongols or Tar- tars under the leadership of Genghis Khan swept over the country, ravaging the fields, pillaging the towns and slaughtering the inhabitants with indescribable fury. A second invasion ten years later left the Russians completely crushed. For- Peter the Great 27 tunately the Tartar conquerors had no desire to settle in the country and contented themselves with the exaction of tribute. For nearly three centuries, however, Russia was terrorized by the constant incursions _of Tartar armies. The evil effects of this disastrous setback to civilization are felt in Russia to this day. At length the Mongol power began to wane, and in 1478 Ivan the Great, Prince of Moscow, utterly defeated the Golden Horde in the south and freed the land from Tartar dominion. Dur- ing the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584) the empire was extended to the Ural Mountains and a portion of Siberia was seized by the Cos- sacks. From that time pioneers trekked on east- ward, driving Turks and Tartars before them, until the whole of Siberia was occupied by Rus- sians. The line of Rurik ended with the death of Feodor I in 1598. Then came an interregnum of fifteen years filled with the conspiracies of the False Pretenders, whose claims were supported by the Poles. Finally, in 16 13, Michael Feodoro- witch was elected Tsar by the boyars, as the noble- men were called, and with him began the dynasty of the Romanoffs. His successor, Alexis I, by his first wife had thirteen children, of whom seven died in child- hood, leaving two sons, Feodor and Ivan, and 28 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 four daughters, the eldest being named Sophia. For his second wife Alexis married Natalia Na- ryshkin, a tall, handsome brunette of Tartar de- scent, by whom he had a son Peter and a daughter Natalia. On the death of Alexis in 1676 Feodor ascended the throne. As he was only fourteen years old and in delicate health, the government was administered by his counselors. His brother Ivan was feeble-minded, but his sister Sophia was able, accomplished and ambitious. Shrewdly playing her part, the latter gained an ascendancy over Feodor and became a favorite with many of the boyars. More than that, she ingratiated her- self with the National Guard, the Streltsi, who at this time occupied much the same position at the court as did the Pretorian Guard in the Roman Empire. Meanwhile Peter, who was four years old when his father died, lived with his mother at the Villa Preobrazhenskoye, two miles outside of Moscow. Unlike his half brothers he was a sturdy boy, who soon showed that he possessed a mind as alert and vigorous as his body. After a reign of six years Feodor died, and in spite of Ivan's right to succeed him, Peter was proclaimed Tsar on the loth of May, 1682. This, however, was not at all to the liking of Sophia and her supporters. A rumor was spread that Ivan had been murdered. On the 25th of May the Streltsi, twenty thousand strong, Peter the Great 29 marched Into the Kremlin, surrounded the palace, and standing before the Red Staircase, demanded that the murderer of Ivan be handed over to them. Protestations that Ivan was still alive were of no avail. At length Natalia herself, trembling with fear, appeared on the staircase with both Peter and Ivan. Even this did not appease the Streltsi. For three days the drunken soldiers hunted, knouted, tortured and slew whomsoever they could find of the Naryshkin party, while Natalia and Peter hid In different rooms of the palace, expecting every instant to be dragged forth and slain. The rioting then ceased. Three days later the Streltsi demanded that Ivan and Peter should be proclaimed joint Tsars, threatening an immediate attack upon the Krem- lin if their request was denied. The boyars yielded and announced that the princes should rule with equal authority. Finally on the 5th of June the Streltsi petitioned that in view of the evident inexperience of the young Tsars the princess Sophia be named as Re- gent. Thereupon Sophia was humbly begged to take the reins of government In her hands. The responsibility was indeed great and she hesitated, but at last — though of course very reluctantly — she consented I Sophia had now attained her Im- mediate ambition. During the next seven years she ruled the state as Regent and displayed com- 30 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 mendable firmness and ability in her conduct of the government. After the coronation of the Tsars had taken place, in July, 1682, Peter returned to the Villa Preobrazhenskoye. Here he was put under the instruction of private tutors, whose vigilance he generally succeeded in eluding with marked adroitness. Like any healthy, normal boy he pre- ferred to be out-of-doors rather than studying. His curiosity was insatiable. One day as he was strolling about in company with a Dutch merchant named Timmermann, he discovered rotting in a barn an old English boat, which his friend told him could be sailed against the wind. It did not take Peter long to have it put in shape and launched on the neighboring river. Here he re- ceived his first lessons in navigation. Finding this stream too narrow for good sailing, he went with several Dutch ship-carpenters to the shore of Lake Pleshtcheyevo, and started building two boats. These were finished in the following spring. Thus began Peter's passion for sailing and shipbuilding. But military exercises also claimed a large share of Peter's attention. Nor did he stop with ''play- ing soldier." He recruited two good sized regi- ments, equipped his troops with uniforms, guns, drums and fifes (he himself served as drum major), planned and carried out elaborate cam- Peter the Great 31 paigns, and built a fort from which salutes were fired with real cannon. He was always greatly interested in trades that required manual dexterity. Never content with being an onlooker, he was eager to practice them with his own hands. He is said to have become an expert in fourteen trades, — a trades-union all by himself I Allowing a trifle for exaggeration, there is no doubt that he showed great aptitude in the use of tools, especially in the line of car- pentry, turning, and iron-work. As regards the chosen comrades of his boy- hood, Peter — to say the least — was remarkably democratic. In his pursuit of the handicrafts he was naturally thrown in with many workmen and artizans. That, however, does not account for his deliberate choice of the grooms and cooks on his estates to be his boon companions. In good fellowship with men of this stamp he became coarse and unmannerly and — ^worst of all — he ac- quired the unfortunate habit of drinking to ex- cess. Six years went by in this busy — at times wild — sort of existence, during which Peter had grown into a splendid specimen of young manhood. He was extraordinarily tall — six feet eight and a half inches high — and possessed a powerful frame. His features were regular, he had keen, dark eyes, and a singularly strong and attractive countenance. 32 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 He was self-willed and had a violent temper. When he flew into a passion, his head would jerk convulsively to one side and his face would be- come dreadfully distorted. Monarchs must marry early. Peter had reached the ripe age of seventeen when the de- cree went forth that he should wed. In February, 1689, he married Eudoxia Lapouhin, the daugh- ter of a distinguished boyar. She was three years his senior, a pretty, inoffensive, simple-minded creature, for whom her husband never entertained any sincere affection. In the meantime serious trouble was brewing for the Regent. The Naryshklns, who had been so disastrously overthrown by her scheming in 1682, had now recovered strength and were await- ing an opportunity for a coup d' etat. It came In the summer of 1689. An unfortunate military campaign and Peter's growing popularity encour- aged them to set the stage for the last act of the Sophlan drama. On the 17th of August at midnight Peter was rudely awakened from his slumbers In the Villa Preobrazhenskoye, and Informed that a band of murderous hirelings were already on their way from Moscow with Intent to kill him. Peter did not stop to question the facts, but fled In haste — arrayed only In his nightshirt — and after a long and perilous ride found refuge within the sacred Peter the Great 33 precincts of the Troltzkaya Monastery. Thither Sophia sent conciliatory messages, but in vain. She essayed to go personally, but was stopped on the journey. Her eloquent appeals to the Streltsi were equally unavailing. The last scene was her retirement in the garb of a nun to the Novo Dyevitchi Convent on the outskirts of Moscow. The curtain was rung down. Sophia, subse- quently known as the nun Susanna, remained in her cell till the day of her death, fifteen years afterwards. CHAPTER IV PETER THE GREAT (continued) THE following six years form a transition period in Peter's life. Relegating govern- mental responsibilities to his counselors, he re- turned to his boyish amusements, to fireworks and choir singing, to sham battles on land, to ship- building and sailing. When his fleet outgrew the confines of the lake he transferred his activities to Archangel and the White Sea. It was early in this period that he met Lefort, a most accomplished and attractive foreigner, by birth a Genevan, whose brilliancy, wit and ca- pacity for winebibbing made him a congenial com- panion for the young Tsar. Lefort's house in the foreign suburb became a regular evening re- sort for Peter and a select retinue, and the carou- sals rarely ceased before daybreak. In February, 1694, Natalia died quite sud- denly. For a brief time Peter, who loved his mother tenderly, was overwhelmed with grief, but he soon went back to his sports and merry- making. He was now twenty-two years old. 34 Peter the Great 35 Would he never put away childish things and become a man? War broke out between Russia and the Turks in 1695, and Peter entered into it with heart and soul. An expedition was dispatched from Mos- cow for the purpose of capturing Azov, the key to the Black Sea. That city, however, held out against all the attacks of the Russian forces. Peter returned to his capital thoroughly humil- iated and incensed by the utter failure of his first military campaign. It was the turning point in his career. The self-willed youth was trans- formed into a man of iron. The death of his brother Ivan now made him sole ruler of Rus^ sia, and this too forced him to think of his duty and responsibility to his country. Preparations for the coming campaign were pushed vigorously throughout the winter. A flotilla was built at Voronezh on the river Don. In the spring the siege was renewed, and on the 17th of July Azov was surrendered to the Russians. Peter^s first great project was to build a large fleet on the Black Sea. Shipwrights were pro- cured from Holland, Sweden, Denmark and Venice. Fifty young nobles were sent to various ports in Europe to acquire the art of navigation. Even that did not suflice. Peter determined to go abroad himself. A magnificent embassy was soon en route to Holland. It was the Tsar's wish to 36 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 travel incognito, and to be known only as "Myn Her Peter Mikhailof." In Zaandam Peter dressed as a workman and occupied a humble cottage (it is still preserved and shown to visitors). Finding that he at- tracted altogether too much attention in this little village, he went to Amsterdam, and there worked for four months as a common laborer under the name of "Baas Peter" at the wharves of the East India Company. Another four months were spent in England. In both countries his leisure hours were occupied with endless activities, among which were studying navigation, visiting mills, factories, museums, and hospitals, learning to etch, and taking lessons in dentistry. The last named art he insisted on practicing with some- what painful results on his companions. The next stopping place was Vienna. From there he intended to go to Venice, but news of a rebellion of the Streltsi called him back post haste to Moscow. When he arrived, he found the revolt quelled. Naturally Sophia was sus- pected of being concerned in the conspiracy. An investigation followed under torture of the knout and of fire. Nearly one thousand men were put to death. One hundred and ninety-five were hanged in front of Sophia's cell, and three of the bodies dangled before her window all winter long. Peter is said not only to have witnessed these ex- Peter the Great 37 ecutions, but to have commanded his courtiers to act as headsmen. While he was on his tour, Peter commissioned two of his friends in Moscow to induce Eudoxia to take the veil. On his return he personally re- quested her to enter a nunnery. This she abso- lutely refused to do. Three weeks later she was forcibly conveyed to a convent, where she lived twenty-one years. After Peter's death she was cruelly whipped and cast into a foul dungeon in the fortress of Schliisselburg. The death of her persecutor, Peter's second wife, brought her solace and return to the court. But she was broken in spirit and voluntarily retired to a nunnery for the rest of her life. Peter's tour bore immediate fruit in the institu- tion of several outward reforms: — In the first place all courtiers and officials were required to shave off their beards. Now the orthodox Russian had been taught to regard the beard as a God-given appendage. It was there- fore a sacrilege to trim or remove it. The de- cree went forth, however, that the sacrifice must be made or an annual tax be paid. Some paid the tax, but most persons felt that it was wiser to curry favor with the sovereign and rid themselves of their hirsute growth. Peter's next attack was aimed at the Russian coat. The sleeves which ordinarily extended be- 38 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 low the fingers must not come below the wrist, and the long robe reaching to the ankles must be shortened to the knees. Guards were placed at the city gates, and long-robed citizens were forced to kneel down and have their coats trimmed to the proper length. This was amusing to by- standers, if not to the victims. A third reform was the emancipation of women from their cloistered lives. They were invited to imitate foreign fashions and to mingle with men at social gatherings. Needless to say, they obeyed the behest with commendable alacrity. Peter's presence at banquets must have tended to enliven the proceedings, as he was always on the watch to perpetrate some practical joke on his neighbors. He was especially insistent on their showing a proper appreciation of the foreign deli- cacies that were set before them. On one occasion Admiral Golovin, who was sitting next to him, declined the salad that was being passed and ex- cused his apparent rudeness on the ground that the vinegar made him sick. Peter immediately seized a bottle of vinegar and forced the Admiral, choking and gasping, to swallow its contents to the last drop. A refusal on the part of any guest to indulge in olive oil, cheese, oysters, etc., was the signal for a similar forceful feeding. As has been stated, Peter's chief object in mak- ing his tour was to enable him to build a fleet. Peter the Great 39 Soon after his return, therefore, he proceeded to carry out his ambitious project, and by the spring of 1697 he was the proud possessor of a navy of eighty-six ships. A truce was then arranged with Turkey, and Peter was free at last to devote his attention to his neighbors on the north. The youthfulness of Charles XII, who ascended the Swedish throne in 1697 at the age of fifteen, was too good an opportunity to miss. Peter entered into a coalition against Sweden with Frederick IV, King of Denmark, and Augustus, King of Poland. War was declared by Russia in 1700. But the conspirators reckoned without their host in attacking the ''Glorious Madman of the North." Swooping down upon Copenhagen in August, he forced Frederick to capitulate within two weeks. On the 30th of November with scarce nine thousand troops Charles met and ut- terly routed the Russians — more than forty thou- sand strong — at the battle of Narva. He then turned his attention to Augustus, but here he en- countered many obstacles, and it was not until 1706 that he succeeded in forcing him to abdicate the crown of Poland. Meanwhile Peter had not been idle. In 1702 the Swedish forces were defeated in two battles, and several towns were captured, among which were Noteborg and Marienburg. The siege of Noteborg was conducted with marked ability by 40 Russia in the Summer of JQ14 Gen. Menshikof, one of Peter's former boy com- rades, and from this time on he became Peter's chief confidant, taking the place of Lefort, who had died in 1699. A seemingly trivial occurrence in the siege of Marienburg was destined to play a strange part in Peter's career. In the household of Gliick, the Lutheran minister in that city, there lived a servant girl, named Catherine, who was be- trothed to a Swedish guardsman. Just before the surrender Pastor Gliick managed to escape from the city with his family, but the servant maid was detained in the Russian camp and became Menshi- kof's mistress. Later at Menshikof's house in Moscow Peter saw her, was greatly attracted by her, and soon afterwards took her for himself. Possessed of a cheerful, happy disposition, Cath- erine entered heartily into Peter's rough merry- making, and soon became a most congenial com- panion. She went with him on his campaigns and made light of all the discomfort incident to for- eign expeditions. Her good sense and tactfulness enabled her to control him in his most violent paroxysms. In spite of her illiteracy, these ad- mirable traits, combined with her never wavering love, made her indispensable to Peter. More than that, she secured a hold on his affections that endured to the end of his life. In 1703 Peter captured a fort at the mouth of Peter the Great 41 the Neva. The idea flashed upon him that here was a suitable site for a seaport in northern Rus- sia, and forthwith he set about building a city, which he named St. Petersburg in honor of his patron saint. Early in 1708 Charles XII began the long ex- pected invasion of Russia. Peter withdrew be- fore him, biding his time. The following winter was exceedingly severe, and the Swedish army — - now reduced to twenty thousand men — was in sore straits for food and ammunition. In May Charles laid siege to Poltava in the hope of secur- ing supplies by its capture. A decisive battle took place on the 8th day of July. Peter with a force four times as large as that of Charles easily van- quished his enemy, and within ten days forced the remnant of the Swedish army to surrender. Charles escaped and took refuge among the Turks. During the following year Charles was unceas- ing in his efforts to involve the Sultan in a quarrel with Peter. His diplomacy produced no results, but his ducats proved too strong a temptation, and in December Turkey declared war on Rus- sia. On the 17th of March Peter set out from Moscow with an army of forty-five thousand men. He was accompanied by Catherine, who had re- cently been proclaimed as his wife. The cam- paign was disastrous. In July Peter's forces, 42 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 which were stationed on the river Pnith, were hemmed in on all sides. The Turks numbered five times as many as the Russians. Peter faced either captivity or death. In this desperate situa- tion Catherine urged him repeatedly to open nego- tiations with the enemy. It seemed worse than useless, but finally he followed her advice. Greatly to his surprise, the Grand Vizier offered acceptable terms. A treaty was signed and the Russians withdrew in haste. Peter never ceased to be grateful to Catherine for the diplomatic counsel which enabled him to extricate his army from its uncomfortable position on the Pruth. CHAPTER V PETER THE GREAT (concluded) PETER now devoted his energies to the north. Two summer campaigns in 171 1 and 17 1 2 were barren of results, but the three following effected the conquest of Finland. In 17 16 and 171 7 ill health compelled Peter to resort to the German baths. Then came the blackest year of his life. Alexis, eldest son of Peter and Eudoxia, was born in 1690. Quiet, reflective and pious in tem- perament, he greatly disappointed his father by never developing the slightest taste for military operations or indeed for any of the duties of a sovereign. Naturally all the hopes of orthodox Russians, who stood aghast at Peter's sacrilegious reforms, were centered in this prince. At the age of twenty-one Alexis married Princess Charlotte of Wolfenbiittel. This union, which began most auspiciously, was soon marred by acts of brutality (for Alexis now drank heav- ily) and by an unfortunate attachment for a coarse and ignorant Finnish courtesan, named Afrosinia. 43 44 Russia in the Summer of igi4 In 17 15 death brought longed-for release to the sorrowing, despairing princess. Peter had used every means in his power to stimulate his weak-kneed son, but in vain. He now sent him a peremptory letter, threatening him with disinheritance, if he did not take an interest in the government. Alexis replied that he real- ized his unfitness for the throne, and renounced the succession in favor of the recently bom son of Catherine, his step-mother. Another angry letter from Peter resulted in Alexis' begging per- mission to become a monk. Peter gave him six months to think it over. In September, 17 16, he demanded a final reply. Alexis now pretended that he was starting out to join his father, but fled instead to Vienna, and begged Emperor Charles VII for protection. Accompanied by Afrosinia, dressed as a page, he lay concealed for some time in the castle of Ehrenberg and St. Elmo. Event- ually Peter's agents discovered his hiding place, obtained access to him, and demanded his return, showing him a letter in which his father promised him absolute pardon if he came back. Alexis yielded on condition that he might return to his villa and be married to his mistress. On the 14th of February a solemn assembly was convoked in the great audience chamber of the Kremlin for the trial of Alexis. On entering he fell weeping at his father's feet and plead for Peter the Great 45 forgiveness. Peter stated the charges against him and then assured him of pardon, but demanded that he should name the accomplices of his flight. His confession was followed by a series of hor- rible executions. Soon afterwards Afrosinia arrived in Moscow and was examined. Her statements were made a pretext for a second trial. Alexis was now charged with having failed to make a full con- fession. The Tsar sought to place the responsi- bility of his son's sentence upon the bishops and high clergy, but they shrewdly evaded it. A High Court of Justice, — ministers, senators. Officers of the Guard, one hundred and twenty-seven in all, — was assembled. Before this court Alexis, having been tortured and knouted, admitted that he feared his father, that he desired his death, and that he might even have been induced to take part in a revolt against him. Again he was tor- tured and knouted and examined, but no further confession could be extorted from him. On the 5th of July the court adjudged him a traitor and sentenced him to death. Nevertheless, two days later Alexis was tortured and interrogated once more in the presence of the Tsar and the court. Complete exhaustion followed. At six o*clock that evening Alexis was dead. Official announcement was made that he was stricken with a malady similar to apoplexy, but 46 Hussia in the Summer of IQI^ ugly rumors were rife concerning his death. It was variously stated that he was beaten by the Tsar until he died, that he was poisoned, that his veins were opened, that he was beheaded. The truth may never be known, but there is no question that he was cruelly hounded to death by his infuriated and merciless father. After an adventurous existence for five years among the Turks, Charles XII started homeward in 1 7 14. Disguised as a merchant he made his way on horseback to Vienna and thence through Germany to Stralsund, a city which was still in the possession of the Swedes. Despite the most heroic resistance Stralsund was captured next year, but Charles escaped in a small boat to Swe- den. Here he collected a force of twenty thou- sand men and held his enemies off till 17 18. In the autumn of that year he made an expedition to Norway, and while besieging Fredrikshall was shot and killed. Peace negotiations after his death dragged on through three years. At last on the loth of September, 1721, the treaty of Nystad was signed. Finland was ceded to Swe- den, but Russia secured the Baltic provinces, and Peter returning in triumph to St. Petersburg was proclaimed "Emperor of all the Russias." Peter never knew what it was to rest. In 1722 he invaded Persia and by September of the fol- lowing year a treaty was made, by which several Peter the Great 47 provinces on the west and south of the Caspian Sea were ceded to Russia. As has already been said, Peter did not come to any realization of his responsibilities until after the disastrous campaign at Azov. It was then that he resolved to change the existing order of things in Russia. This idea of reform, vague at first, crystallized during his stay in Holland and England. The task he then undertook was colos- sal. To Europeanize a backward, inert, stub- born people, Asiatic in thought and manners. In- volved him in a life-long struggle. In certain lines he overleaped seemingly insuperable ob- stacles, in others he stumbled and fell. But he never lost courage, never grew weary. We have already spoken of his violent reforms In dress and social customs. This was merely applying a thin veneer to the manners of the coarse-grained Muscovites. Of his more sweep- ing reforms we can mention only a few of the most important. He created a Senate in 171 1, but found It dila- tory in action to the last degree, whenever he was absent from the capital. To counteract this tendency and definitely fix responsibility, he Insti- tuted nine Administrative Colleges or Depart- ments, and subsequently extended the system to the provinces. Peter's efforts to codify the laws were practi- 48 Russia in the Summer of igi4 cally a failure. In 17 14 he changed the law of inheritance, which provided for the equal division of landed property among the children, by re- quiring the father to leave it to some one of his sons. This measure led to countless family quar- rels, and became so unpopular that it was repealed shortly after Peter's death. Official corruption during the latter part of his reign became a public scandal. The Tsar ordered an investigation, which resulted in the condemna- tion of many men in high position. They were fined, knouted, exiled, or put to death. A few were actually pardoned. Peter rid himself of the Streltsi, as we have seen, and organized a large and well-disciplined army. He also created and maintained a credit- able navy. But such constant warfare as he waged required money. Hence his subjects — and particularly the serfs^ — staggered under a heavy burden of taxes. He instituted a poll-tax, but it brought about but little relief. The industries of the country — generally speak- ing — ^were in a state of stagnation throughout his reign, and were badly hampered by the constant changes of regulation he insisted on making. He was successful, however, in organizing the mining industry, and started the operation of many iron, copper and silver mines. Commerce was necessarily restricted by long Peter the Great 49 wars during his rule. Nor was the forced diver- sion of trade from Archangel to St. Petersburg beneficial, until long after his time. But the ac- quisition of the Baltic provinces, including the seaports of Libau, Riga and Reval, stimulated trade in the north, and the addition of the Cas- pian provinces started a brisk trade with the east. A beginning was also made in the important canal system, which eventually connected the Volga with the Neva and the Dvina and opened communica- tion all the way from the Caspian to the Baltic and White Seas. In the matter of education Peter began at the wrong end. He founded several Academies, li- braries and museums, but neglected the common school. Consequently the masses remained alto- gether illiterate. Liberal in his own views of religion, Peter sought to free the people from superstition and fanaticism. He tried to improve the clergy, urg- ing them to inculcate morality rather than belief in forms and ceremonies. Here he only aroused bitter opposition. However, he subordinated the Church to the State by abolishing the Patriarchate and investing an Ecclesiastical College (after- wards the Holy Synod) with the supreme con- trol of the Church. These and countless other projects of reform were pressed by Peter with untiring energy. For 50 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 several years towards the last he was subject to attacks of fever resulting from stone in the kid- ney. On the 1 8th of May, 1724, Peter finally dis- posed of the succession to the throne by the coro- nation of Catherine in the Cathedral of the As- sumption at Moscow. For Catherine it was the consummation of a most extraordinary career. Step by step this woman, possessed of neither talents nor education (she could barely sign her name) had advanced from a disreputable enslave- ment to the most exalted station in the land. The ignorant serving maid of Marienburg, who be- came first Menshikof's and then Peter's mistress, had been acknowledged and proclaimed by the Tsar as his lawful wife, and now she was crowned with fitting ceremony as the Tsarina of Russia ! Where can one find a paralled to this in all his- tory? Peter did well to settle the question of a suc- cessor at this time. In November of the same year, while on his way to inspect some iron works, he saw a boat full of soldiers aground and went at once to their rescue. For hours he worked up to his waist in the water and finally saved most of the men. This exposure aggravated his malady. He died February 8th, 1725. No proper appraisement of Peter the Great can be made without taking into consideration: Peter the Great 51 (i) his ancestry; (2) his subjects; and (3) his times. (i) "Scratch a Russian and you will find a Tartar,** said Napoleon, and Tartar blood flowed in Peter's veins, through his mother's progenitors. True, his father was the mild-mannered Alexis I. Nevertheless, his grandfather was the kinsman of Feodor I, the son of Ivan the Terrible. Peter's worst traits may have been due to atavism. (2) The Russians were a barbarous people, long accustomed to the knout and to torture, to public executions, to the sight of wretches hang- ing on the gallows and ghastly heads nailed to palace portals. (3) Despite the notable advance In civiliza- tion that had been made in other European coun- tries through the influence of the Crusades and the Renaissance, even among them the age of Peter the Great was characterized by religious persecutions attended with frightful atrocities. The nobles were dissipated and shamelessly im- moral. The lower classes were ignorant, de- graded and drunken. With such an ancestry and environment — ^both remote and near — it is small wonder that a youth of Peter's choleric temperament developed seri- ous faults of character. He was coarse, sometimes brutal; passionate, often violent. He habitually drank to excess ; he 52 Russia in the Summer of JQ14 was indescribably immoral in his relations to women. Always naively boyish in manner, he lacked dignity and poise. His exuberant spirits and grotesque sense of humor led him to engage in all sorts of practical jokes and coarse buffoonery. Overflowing with the vital energy of a dozen ordinary men, Peter found pleasure and recrea- tion in labor, in action. His mind was quick, clear and versatile, though lack of education rendered it superficial. He was impulsive and changeable in regard to details, but he never swerved from his main plans and purposes. Singularly free from superstition, he despised religious ceremony and treated dissenters with respect. He was sincerely desirous of improving his peo- ple. His reforms, though only partially success- ful, evinced genuine constructive ability. For a monarch he set an unusual example to his subjects by his willingness to work with his hands, by his refusal to accept a large income, by insisting on serving in subordinate positions, and by brave acts of self-sacrifice even at the peril of his life. Peter was not a military genius. Yet he in- spired his officers and men with persistence and energy. He added considerable territory to his dominion and opened access to two seas. More than all else he roused his people from their lethargy and forced them into contact with Peter the Great 53 neighboring nations. In the short space of thirty years, through the resistless energy of this super- man, isolated, uninfluential Russia took her proud place among the Great Powers of Europe. It was a glorious achievement, for which he unquestion- ably deserves to be called "Peter the Great." CHAPTER VI MEMORIALS OF PETER THE GREAT PETERHOF ST. PETERSBURG was the creation of Peter the Great. This remarkable genius saw how essential it was that land-locked Russia should have a seaport in the north, and selected the boggy site on the banks of the river Neva for a city, "a window" it has been called, by which his semi-barbarous people might look out into civil- ized Europe. Here in 1703, upon land ''destined by nature for the abode of bears and wolves," he began by laying the foundation of the Fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul. Toiling with titanic energy, he pressed the work on indefatigably in spite of attacks by his enemy the Swedes, and within nine years had the satisfaction of moving the seat of government from Moscow to his new capital. Among the splendid monuments of the city by far the most impressive is Falconet's equestrian statue in bronze of the great emperor. It is sit- uated in a small park adjoining the river, — an ad- mirable setting for a monument which requires untrammeled space and a broad outlook in order 54 Peter the Great, a monument daring in design, superb in execution From the summit of a rugged mountain, repre- senting his colossal difficulties, the emperor at last in triumph is viewing the city he created. Memorials of Peter the Great — Peterhof 55 to carry out the highly original conception of its sculptor. The pedestal is an enormous block of rough- hewn granite sixteen feet high, In shape a moun- tain, hollowed out in front and topped by a solid base with perpendicular sides except in the rear, where it slopes at first gradually and then more rapidly to the ground. Up this rocky slope the emperor has urged his way and Is represented in the act of reining In his rearing horse as he gains the summit. The monarch's face Is turned toward the Neva, his outstretched hand pointing to the city he has built. Trampled beneath the hoofs of his horse is a serpent, emblematic of the tortuous difficulties surmounted by the iron will of his mas- ter. It is a monument of rare merit, daring in design and superb In execution, one that deserves to be ranked among the most powerful and im- pressive in all Europe. Across the river Neva beyond the Fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul is the little cottage of Peter the Great. It Is a low wooden building (now encased In stone), containing but three rooms, — a simple dwelling suited to the man who, though an emperor, knew by personal experience what It was to toll as a common laborer. The room to the right contains a chair and other wooden fur- niture, evidences of Peter's skill in carpentry. In 56 Russia in the Summer of 19 14 the back room is the boat In which Peter went to the rescue of some fishermen in a storm. But the small room to the left proved to be the most interesting in this cottage. Originally Peter's bedroom, it is now a chapel, held in great reverence because it contains the picture of the Saviour which Peter always carried with him in his wars. As we approached it, our guide cau- tioned us against talking. At the altar stood a priest and several attendants, chanting prayers, while the space back of them was crowded with worshippers, some standing, others kneeling, but all fervently praying and crossing themselves. On the floor we noticed two large baskets filled with paper. As we left the cottage the guide accounted for the scene in the chapel somewhat as follows: — Russians from all parts of the empire, nobles and peasants alike, flock to this shrine every day. They come praying that they themselves or some one dear to them may be cured of disease which the doctors have pronounced incurable. And they come believing, for the picture of the Saviour is known to have worked many miracles. To strengthen their own humble prayers, however, the priest must offer their petitions with proper ceremony before the sacred picture. To this end they write out their petitions on paper and hand them to the priest, who recites them with appro- Memorials of Peter the Great — Peterhof 57 priate prayers and consigns them to the basket. Then the petitioners return rejoicing to their homes with absolute faith in the miraculous heal- ing power of the picture. Our first impressions on hearing this explana- tion were — well, we must confess that they were a little — bewildering. But on further reflection, it did not seem so very different from certain remarkable stories of faith cure and absent treat- ment which are circulated in our own enlightened land. After all, human nature is pretty much the same the world around! We had always imagined that even in summer we should go about St. Petersburg shivering with cold. The highest meteorological authorities assert that the mean temperature for the month of July is 64 degrees Fahrenheit. As we had no reason to doubt the truth of this statement, we had put on heavy underclothing, and furthermore were provided with overcoats and fur cloaks to guard against the intense cold. Imagine our emo- tions, therefore, when towards noon of Friday the 24th of July, in this same city of St. Peters- burg, we found that the mercury was scaling toward the nineties I There was but one phrase in the aforesaid statement that we could vouch for, and that was that — "the temperature was mean I'* It was insufferably hot I When, therefore, our guide suggested a trip to 58 Russia in the Summer of igi4 Peterhof for the afternoon, it was welcomed with vociferous unanimity. "But we would have to hurry." Snatching a hasty lunch at the hotel, we secured an automobile and immediately started for the station at a perfectly furious rate. Was there no speed limit enforced in St. Petersburg? Or had our guide secured a doctor's license? We held our breath as the car shot through the streets like a meteor, missing obstacles, both vehicles and human beings, by the narrowest margin. Rap- ping on the front windows and calling to the chauffeur and the guide proved as ineffective as if those worthies had turned into stone. Utterly helpless, we cowered in our places, wondering whether the next moment would launch us into eternity. After ten minutes, which seemed as many hours, the wild ride came to an end, as the guide flung open the door and triumphantly an- nounced that we were in time. For the moment we were too weak to offer any remonstrance, and speechlessly making our way through the station, we sank into our seats in the train, grateful in- deed that we were alive. By rail the distance from St. Petersburg to I Peterhof — about twenty miles — takes a little more ' than an hour. It was our first experience in a Russian train, and when we were sufficiently re- covered from the effects of the auto ride, we looked about with considerable curiosity. The Memorials of Peter the Great — Peterhof 59 second class compartment we occupied was very comfortable, in furnishings and upholstery much like those in other parts of Europe. Thinking this might be a good opportunity to study the pro- letariat close at hand, we entered a third class car. But the tobacco smoke was thick, the floor was littered with cigarette stubs and fragments of food, and the odor of onions and cheese was nauseating. We decided to put off our socialistic investigations until we were in a fitter physical condition, and beat a hasty retreat to our own compartment. At Peterhof station we, or rather our guide (I do not know what we could have done without him), secured a comfortable carriage drawn by a pair of handsome bays, which bore us rapidly along a well-shaded road that ran past several picturesque ponds toward the "Great Palace.'* On the way we watched In vain for a possible glimpse of some royal party. But we were not altogether disappointed In our quest for some- thing novel, for It was here that we first saw Cos- sack cavalrymen with tall hats and long coats, and guns slung across their backs, riding with such superb ease and grace that we Imagined they were trotting slowly until they shot by and left us behind as though we were standing stock still. The palace was built as a summer residence for Peter the Great and was supposed to resemble 6o Russia in the Summer of IQI^ the palace at Versailles, though it can hardly be called a successful imitation of its great French original. The exterior, walls colored red and white surmounted by gilded domes, is somewhat bizarre in effect. On the other hand, the interior decoration displays unusual refinement and taste, and we instinctively concluded that no mere man, not even the versatile Peter, could have been responsible for such a contrast with the outside. Each apartment revealed a different color scheme, the walls artistically decorated in red, blue, yel- low, white and gilt designs, harmonizing perfectly with luxurious furniture, upholstered in the same shades. One wing of the palace contained a suite of a dozen exquisitely furnished rooms, which appealed especially to the ladies in the party. Here at length the puzzle was solved. The palace had indeed been built for Peter, but it was after- wards reconstructed for the Empress Elizabeth. As for that special suite of rooms, it had been occupied by the daughter of Nicholas I as late as 1892. The palace stands on a natural terrace facing the Gulf of Finland about a quarter of a mile distant. As we left the palace, a dazzlingly beau- tiful scene opened before us. Down the terrace over steep flights of marble steps raced two mag- nificent cascades to a huge basin below. In the center of the basin was a gilded group represent- c '. o ts 4-1 c *G H (U T3 ja c 03 CO CO 'T3 C^ C ^ 3 b£^ _C M !-C .S CO 'S, "0. > .3 c4 <->-• -M t^ ■ 4-1 C a, 3 HH CO a (U > (Xi "^ bi) CO C M N &H_-2 N PS = -a rt Ix CJ Memorials of Peter the Great — Peterhof 6i ing Samson forcing apart the jaws of a lion, out of which a jet of water darted to a stupendous height. Gilded Naiads and Tritons vied with each other in spouting a perfect maze of streams into the basin from every side. Out from this turmoil of waters there stretched toward the shore a quiet ganal, flanked by fountains "leaping high into the tops of the trees," while In the distance beyond one caught a glimpse of the dark blue sea. The brilliancy of the scene was enhanced by the golden sunlight painting rainbows here and there in the spray flung from the gushing fountains. We lingered here a long time, moving about from point to point in order to view the spectacle from different angles. At last we tore ourselves away, convinced that the guide was en- tirely right in declaring that there was nothing of the kind that could compare with it elsewhere in Europe. Then followed a most delightful drive through the park. Water still claimed a large share of our attention. Every now and then we came across a fountain or cascade, displaying great originality and variety in design. At one spot the guide halted the carriage and led us to a tree, which suddenly burst into a full fledged fountain with jets of water springing from every leaf and twig. A little farther along we were invited to rest a while ^on a bench covered with a high 62 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 wooden canopy. No sooner were we seated than a copious waterfall descended from the canopy on all sides of us, effectually imprisoning us until the guide saw fit to exercise his mercy. This, we were told, was an unending source of amuse- ment to the Empress Elizabeth, whose sense of humor in thus entertaining her guests, particularly the ladies, needed no further evidence. Another stop was made near a pond to wit- ness a truly remarkable sight, A bell was rung, whereupon the water became fairly alive with fish crowding to the bank. Here, however, we were a little doubtful as to whether it was the sound of the bell or the simultaneous act of scat- tering food on the water that attracted the fish. This led to a brief but heated discussion on the point "Do fish have ears?" — a question which we leave to our learned reader to settle for him- self. At no time of the drive did we escape from the ubiquitous Peter. Near the beach was a pretty Dutch villa that he built. Here we were shown his bed and nightcap. Again, there was a house called Marly, which contained, among other ob- jects of no interest, a table that he made with his own hands, also his bed and dressing gown. Last of all we came to the Hermitage, *'built by Peter the Great." But we had reached our limit I Much as we had learned to admire that extraordi- Memorials of Peter the Great — Peterhof 63 nary man, we absolutely refused to see any more of his beds or bedroom apparel. It grieved the guide to the soul, but he insisted that at any rate we must visit the dining room in this cottage. To this we consented, and were really repaid for the effort. For the dining table was unique in that each guest by pressing a spring could cause his plate to descend to the kitchen below, there to be replenished and sent back! This clever device obviously did away with the presence of waiters who might report what was said at the banquet. It struck us as strange that with all our inventive genius some such scheme had not been put in op- eration in the banquet halls of clubs and hotels at home. It would be economical, novel and se- cretive. We offer it as a gratuitous tip for Tam- many! The afternoon was now well nigh spent, and we reluctantly drove back to the railroad station. On the return journey to St. Petersburg one of us asked the guide how the strike was progress- ing. "Well," said he, "it hasn't stopped yet by any means. Yesterday the Cossacks fired four vol- leys point blank at the strikers." "With what result?" "Oh, about two hundred of the strikers were killed or wounded." 64 Russia in the Summer of igi4 "But there was no mention of any such incident In the morning papers/' He shrugged his shoulders. *'This is Russia I The government censor takes good care that items of that sort shall not appear in the newspapers.'* CHAPTER VII Peter's last resting place, the winter PALACE AFTER our numerous encounters with Peter during the day, it was no wonder that even in our dreams several of our party were haunted by his ghostly presence in thrilling nightmares. The recital of these at the breakfast table next morning convinced us that it would conduce to our peace of mind if we were to "lay his shade** by visiting his tomb at the earliest opportunity. We therefore requested the guide as a special favor to take us that day to see the Fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul. To reach it we crossed the Neva by the Troitzki Bridge, and without much delay were admitted within the Fortress. The only building we were permitted to visit was the cathedral. It is of vast dimensions, domed (as are most Russian churches), and conspicuous for a slender gilded spire rising to the height of four hundred feet above the ground. The spacious well-lighted in- terior is decorated with many flags and banners captured in war, which gives it a certain military 65 66 Russia in the Summer of 19 14 appearance. In this cathedral are buried all the Romanoff emperors (save one) beginning with Peter the Great, and with them the empresses and the imperial Grand Dukes and Duchesses. The tombs of the great Tsars and Tsarinas may be seen far up the aisle near the iconostasis, those of the Tsars being pure white marble sarcophagi without any ornamentation except gilded eagles at the corners, — a pleasing contrast to the elab- orate over-ornamented tombs one sees in the im- perial vaults of many European countries. Leaving the Fortress, one may drive around back of the island on which it is built, through Alexander Park and the Zoological Garden to a branch of the river called the Malaya or Small Neva, which here forms a Y with the Bolshaya or Great Neva. Cross the former by a bridge and you come upon a series of rather imposing buildings which line the two arms of the Y. These include the Custom House, Exchange, Zoological Museum, and the University. The Exchange, which occupies the middle point of the Y, is classi- cal in style, and in order to heighten the effect, two huge columns with projecting ship prows in imitation of the famous Roman columnae rostratae are planted before it. Such pseudo- classical structures, of which there are unfortu- nately quite a number in St. Petersburg, seem strangely out of place in a Russian city. Peter's Last Resting Place — Winter Palace 6^ The open space on the point near the Exchange commands an unusually fine view. Directly in front are the blue waters of the Neva, rushing impetuously in its course from Lake Ladoga toward the Gulf of Finland. To the left is the Fortress we have just visited, to the right across the river appear in succession the great red Winter Palace, the Admiralty with its gilded spire, and dominating the whole scene, the mighty dome of St. Isaac's Cathedral. Recrossing the river, we make a small circuit and approach the Winter Palace on the side op- posite to that we have just seen. A short passage from the main street ends in an archway leading into the great Palace Square. In the center of the Square is the Alexander Column, erected in honor of Alexander I. It is a magnificent monolith of red Finnish granite, nearly one hundred feet high. On a huge ball surmounting it is a bronze angel, holding a cross in his left hand, while he points with his right heavenward. The palace, the Tsar's residence in winter, is on the north side of the square. It is Rve hundred feet long and ninety-two feet high, and is said to contain one thousand and seven rooms. The ex- terior is very plain, its color, a reddish brown, if anything accentuating its plainness. The mode of obtaining admission is typically 68 Russia in the Summer of igi4 Russian, and is worth describing. Entering an archway guarded by soldiers, the party is detained below, while one of their number and the guide follow a guard up a staircase and through a nar- row passage to a closed door. Here there is a halt of several minutes, after which the door is opened, revealing a prison-like chamber with two officials in uniform seated at a rough table. The party's passports are presented or vouched for by the guide, an entry of each individual name is made in a record book, and finally a pass card is filled out and handed to the guide, who must not fail to present a suitable fee to the officials. Thereupon the guide and the visitor take up their march again behind the guard and in due time return to the party. Needless to say, visitors do not see all of the one thousand and seven rooms in the palace. In- deed, the tour of the small portion that may be inspected takes over two hours and leaves one almost exhausted physically. Yet it is a palace of absorbing interest, both by reason of its bewilder: ing splendor and its historical associations. We shall confine ourselves to a very brief description of the more important apartments, — ^those that linger longest in the memory and flash before the mind the moment the Winter Palace is mentioned to one who has visited it. A most magnificent room, one hundred and fifty Peter's Last Resting Place — Winter Palace 69 feet In length and sixty-five in width, is St. George's Saloon, adorned with white marble pil- lars and elegant chandeliers. At one end is the Tsar's throne, behind It the imperial insignia worked In gold on a red velvet background. Here St. George's Festival is celebrated annually on the 26th of November. From this great hall we pass Into the adjoining rooms whose walls are decorated by beautiful salvers, which in accordance with an ancient Rus- sian custom are presented with bread and salt to the emperor, when he visits the towns of the prov- inces; and then on into the Throne Room of Peter the Great, brilliant with red velvet hangings em- broidered with imperial eagles in gold, its chande- liers and tables of solid silver. The Nicholas Saloon is the largest of all the halls, being one-third longer than St. George's, and is admirably jfitted for holding the court balls. The dining room — done in white — with many marble statues scattered about, and the Golden Saloon, decorated In rich Byzantine colors, are artistic as well as spacious. The rooms for imperial guests, like those in most European palaces. Impress one as extremely cold and uninviting. Many of the smaller rooms and corridors are hung with paintings of the Romanoff family, of distinguished courtiers and generals, and of famous battles, affording an ex- 70 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 cellent opportunity to study Russian history pic- torially, if only one had the time. But to us the most fascinating rooms histori- cally were the apartments of Alexander II. Here we saw his library, study, and reception room, left precisely as they were on the day of his death. They were small and furnished with extreme sim- plicity, everything about them betokening the quarters of a plain soldier rather than the apart- ments of a king. In the study was the iron bed on which he died after his cruel assassination. Special permission is required for admission to the Crown Jewel Room, which is filled with glass cases containing crowns, sceptres, and jewelry of fabulous value. Among these is the sceptre adorned by the famous Orlov diamond, the largest in the world, weighing one hundred and eighty-five carats, whose history reads like a fairy tale. It Is said to have been originally the eye of an Indian idol, from which it was stolen by a sepoy. After many wanderings, it came into the possession of an Armenian, who brought It to Amsterdam, where it was bought by Count Orlov and finally presented by him to Catherine the Great. While we were in the palace, a sudden burst of music from below drew us to a window over- looking the square. It was the change of guard, which as at other capitals takes place at the noon Peter* s Last Resting Place — Winter Palace 71 hour. Of this we saw little, but that chance view from the window led to our hearing from the guide the story of Red Sunday. In 1905, the scandals and disasters of the Japanese war had aroused great discontent throughout the Russian Empire. Peasant uprisings, strikes and violence in the towns and cities broke out on every side. At length the citizens of St. Petersburg sent a pe- tition to the Tsar, in which they expressed their distrust of the officials and begged him in person to hear their requests. Following this petition, on the morning of Sunday, January 22nd, an enor- mous crowd of men, women and children, entirely unarmed, gathered on the streets and filled the whole square in front of the palace. The "Little Father" did not see fit to appear! Instead, the Cossacks were let loose to shoot the people like dogs on the streets, while quick firing guns mowed them down by hundreds in the square ! A little later, I asked the guide privately, whether in his opinion the present unrest was likely to develop any frightful massacre like that of Red Sunday. "God forbid I" he cried. "The strike is abat-* Ing, as the threat of war grows more menacing. I believe the Tsar would welcome war in order that the people might forget internal troubles and devote all their energy to battling with a foreign enemy." CHAPTER VIII CATHERINE THE GREAT ADJOINING the Winter Palace is the Her- mitage, a museum of art, which, though founded by Peter the Great, was enlarged and made famous chiefly by Catherine II. These two names are inseparably linked together in the his- tory of St. Petersburg and Russia, and as we have already considered the character and achievements of Peter, we may pause here for a moment to become acquainted with the more romantic career of Catherine the Great. In the year 1743 a German princess by the name of Sophia Augusta Frederica was living quietly at the home of her parents in the unimpor- tant little state of Anhalt-Zerbst. She was four- teen years old, a healthy, vigorous, quick-witted girl, who in accordance with the custom of the German nobility in those days had been taught chiefly by French governesses and tutors. It chanced that at this particular time the Empress Elizabeth was in search of a suitable consort for her nephew Peter, Grand Duke of Holstein-Got- torp, the heir-apparent to the Russian throne. By 72 Catherine the Great 73 a strange turn in the negotiations that went on the Empress was finally induced to make choice of the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. The offer of marriage was acceptable, and in response to a formal invitation from the Tsarina the princess, accompanied by her mother, left home early in 1744 and after a tedious overland journey of six weeks arrived in Moscow. From the very first mention of marriage, the princess had made up her mind to fit herself in every possible way for the exalted position she was to occupy, and she now began her task by promptly taking up the study of the difficult Rus- sian language. Such was her girlish enthusiasm that she would rise at night and pace barefooted to and fro in her room, conning the words and phrases she was bound to master. This procedure unfortunately resulted in a severe attack of pneu- monia. Her mother, as was natural, urged upon her the attendance of a Lutheran minister (for she had been brought up in that faith), but she firmly declined and insisted upon having an ortho- dox Russian priest instead. Not long afterward, having recovered her health, she was rechristened into the Greek Church as Catherine Alexeyevna. In this incident of her first experience at the imperial court of Russia one may find fore- shadowed the chief characteristics of Catherine the Great. For it is proof that, girl as she was. 74 Russia in the Summer of 19 14 she was quick to adapt herself to circumstances, ambitious, courageous, determined, irreligious, and above all absolutely loyal to her adopted country. In August of the same year she was married and took up her residence in St. Petersburg. Her husband was singularly unattractive. Tall and thin, with a pale, pock-marked face and squeaky voice, he was possessed of no more mentality than a child. By disposition mean and stubborn, he de- tested his countrymen and doted on everything German. His ambition was to become a second Frederick the Great, but he never got beyond be- ing a tin soldier 1 He made no secret of his rela- tions with a mistress and thereby caused his wife unending humiliation. It was inevitable that she should turn from him in disgust. Unfortunately the loose moral atmosphere of the court and Cath- erine's lack of religious sense resulted in her be- coming equally notorious on account of her inti- macy with one after another of the dashing young officers and princes that swarmed about her like flies around honey. In 1754 Catherine gave birth to a son Paul, of uncertain fatherhood, who was at once appropri- ated by the Empress Elizabeth as her especial charge. Catherine now became a great reader, devoting her time particularly to French literature and philosophy. Catherine the Great. The empress, clad in ermine, in majestic pose. Round the pedestal are the figures of a few of her favorites at the court. Catherine the Great 75 In the course of the ten years that had elapsed since she first came to Russia, she had developed into a strikingly handsome woman. Lustrous brown hair crowned a broad intellectual forehead. Her eyes were blue with long dark eyelashes., She had a Grecian nose, a well shaped mouth with good teeth, a dazzlingly white skin, and consider- able color. Well proportioned and graceful in figure, she carried herself with queenly dignity. Her pleasant voice, merry laugh, charming man- ner and magnetic personality made her a social favorite. Eight years passed by. In January, 1762, the Empress Elizabeth died and Peter was crowned Tsar of Russia. He began his reign auspiciously with several reform measures but speedily nulli- fied the popularity thus gained by a series of most arbitrary changes in governmental policy. In the first place, casting. aside the old-time alliance with France, he concluded a treaty of peace with his good friend, Frederick II, by which all the terri- tory that had been won by Russia during the last five years was most generously restored to Prus- sia I He then rid himself of the Preobrazhensky Guards and installed a Holstein Cuirassier regi- ment in their place, thus alienating the army. Lastly he exasperated the clergy by expressing an utter contempt for the priests and ceremonies of the Orthodox Church. 76 Russia in the Summer of igi4 Meanwhile the relations between the Tsar and Tsarina were growing more and more strained. On one occasion at a banquet he publicly insulted her by repeatedly shouting across the table that she was "a fool" 1 Finally he threatened to di- vorce her, declare her son Paul illegitimate, and marry his mistress. Following the illustrious ex- ample of his grandsire in dealing with Eudoxia, he sought to force the Tsarina into a nunnery. But Catherine was not a woman of the meek, submissive type. While Peter was estranging all classes of his subjects from himself, she had been growing steadily in popularity. As yet there were no suspicions of a plot, for she was cau- tious and prudent in speech and conduct. But her lover, Gregory Orlov, and his four broth- ers worked insidiously for her among the Rus- sian regiments with which they were connected as officers. Early in the summer Peter was at Oranien- baum, twenty-five miles from the capital, making ready to lead his forces, then in Pomerania, against the Danes. The sudden arrest of one of their number alarmed the conspirators and hastened the denouement of the plot. Catherine, who was at Peterhof, rushed to St. Petersburg, received the oath of allegiance from four regi- ments, and was immediately proclaimed Empress of Russia. Later in the same day she made her Catherine the Great 77 appearance, mounted on a spirited gray horse and attired in the uniform of the Preobrazhensky Guards, her long hair floating out from beneath her cap on the wind, and was soon advancing at the head of an army of fourteen thousand men toward Peterhof. Peter made a feeble attempt to get possession of Kronstadt, but found that he had already been forestalled. He then offered to share his throne with Catherine. To this she did not even deign to reply. Finally he abdicated, and was sent under a strong guard to his own chateau at Rop- sha, where he spent the time drinking, smok- ing, and solacing himself with his monkey and his violin. One week later, July i8th, Catherine was informed that he was dead. Alexis Orlov, with several companions, had gone secretly to the chateau and had either poisoned or strangled him. There is no evidence, nor is it at all prob- able, that Catherine was cognizant of this mur- derous plot, but that she was relieved to be thus rid of her husband can hardly be doubted. The Tsarina soon proved herself a resolute and forceful ruler. In 1764 a conspiracy was formed against her in the interest of Ivan VI, great grandson of Ivan, the half brother of Peter the Great. He was the baby Tsar who had been deposed in 1741 on the accession of Elizabeth to the throne, and had been confined ever since 78 Russia in the Summer of 19 14 in the fortress of Schliisselburg. The plot was abortive, however, as the prince was slain by his guards in the very first attempt to escape from his prison. A much more critical period for Catherine be- gan in 1 77 1, when Pougatchef, a Cossack outlaw, proclaimed himself the champion of the down- trodden peasantry throughout the empire. Tak- ing his cue from the False Pretenders of the In- terregnum, he sought to increase his prestige by claiming that Peter III had not been slain after all; the corpse, which had been so ostentatiously exhibited in public, was a fake ; lo ! he was the noble emperor himself, destined by Fate's decree to wrest the throne from his perfidious consort and to restore the line of the Romanoffs ! Four years elapsed before this impudent masquerader was finally conquered and taken prisoner. He was transported like a wild beast in a cage to Moscow, where he was publicly beheaded and quartered. Thereafter no attempt was -made to unseat Catherine from her throne. During the first decade of her reign her ad- ministration of internal affairs was remarkably wise and beneficent. Under her direction an as- sembly of representatives from all the provinces recodified the laws of the nation. She constructed canals and encouraged immigration, established schools and hospitals, built the great Foundling Catherine the Great 79 Asylum in Moscow, instituted military and naval colleges, fostered literature and art. She also endeavored to improve sanitary conditions, and set an example to her subjects by being among the first to be inoculated for small-pox. In her conduct of foreign affairs Catherine was far-sighted and shrewd, though sometimes un- scrupulous. When she first ascended the throne, Poland was in a condition of chaos and anarchy. Seizing this opportunity, she succeeded in obtain- ing the election of her lover, Stanislaus Poniatow- ski, as sovereign of that country. But Austria and Prussia kept pressing their claims insatiably, and ultimately she was forced to change her pol- icy and consent to a division of the spoils. She managed, however, to secure the largest slice of unhappy Poland in the ruthless partitions that took place in 1771, 1793 and 1795. As the sinister designs of the three conspira- tors against Poland began to unfold, Turkey be- came alarmed at the possibility of losing a buffer state and in 1768 declared war upon Russia. In several campaigns that followed she was dis- astrously defeated on both land and sea. At the end of six years she was compelled to sue for peace and in pursuance of the terms was forced to cede the Crimea to the victorious Russians. For a time Catherine entertained a visionary scheme of re-establishing the Byzantine Empire 8o Russia in the Summer of igi4 with a prince of Russia upon the throne, but In this she had to yield finally to the opposition of the Great Powers. She did not, however, aban- don the idea of driving the Turks out of Europe. War with them broke out for the second time in 1787 and lasted until 1792. The Russian armies again showed marked superiority over the Turk- ish forces in a series of brilliant victories. Cath- erine did not accomplish all she had hoped for, but was successful in adding largely to her do- minion. During the American Revolution she protested strongly against the unjust treatment of neutral vessels by the British Admiralty. In 1780 she joined Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Prussia and Portugal, in announcing the principle of "armed neutrality,'* according to which the ships of neu- tral nations were to be allowed freedom of navi- gation along the coasts of belligerent powers, to- gether with the right to carry cargoes of any de- scription except contraband, the latter being limit- ed to arms and munitions. Although Catherine saw fit to pursue her hus- band's foreign policy of joining in alliance with Austria and Prussia, she was an enthusiastic ad- mirer of French philosophy, literature and art. She corresponded with Voltaire, entertained Diderot at her court, and reorganized the laws of Russia in keeping with the principles of Mon- Catherine the Great 8 1 tesquleu. Nor was she content with merely being a patron of literature. She wrote two books for her grandsons, and composed several dramas, which were acted upon the stage in her private theater at the Hermitage. The outbreak of the French Revolution, however, dampened her en- thusiasm for French models. So incensed did she become at the course of events in France that she finally forbade the publication of any French works in Russia. The close of her reign was marked by increased extravagance and immorality in her court. She died by a stroke of apoplexy on the loth of No- vember, 1796. As is generally the case with persons of san- guine temperament, Catherine's character reveals some rather curious inconsistencies. Usually good-natured, she was also quick-tempered. She was kind to her servants (who adored her), and yet on occasion she did not scruple to order the knout to be used upon refractory citizens. She was a fond grandmother, but she treated her son Paul harshly and was utterly indifferent to the family she left in Germany. Without the slight- est tinge of hypocrisy in her nature, she loved to stage the scene for a spectacular appearance be- fore her admiring subjects. The strength of her character lay in an indomi- 82 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 table will, unwavering courage, and absolute im- perturbability. Her greatest weakness, manifest- ing itself in a series of openly acknowledged lovers that lasted till the very end of her life, may be accounted for in the first instance by her being mated with a loathsome husband in the midst of an immoral court, and subsequently by her unreligious nature and her frank acceptance of Voltaire's philosophy. Catherine was endowed by nature with unusual intellectual power. In no sense profound, she was nevertheless a keen student of history and philosophy. It was her constant practice to spend at least one hour every day in reading her favorite authors. As a writer she was neither creative nor original, but she displayed a lively wit and humor in her satirical attacks on the foibles of her time. A vivid imagination together with the rare gift of expressing her ideas epigrammatical- ly and pungently made her a most brilliant conver- sationalist. Her own appreciation of literature naturally made her sincerely desirous of instituting a gen- eral system of public education in all parts of her realm. But in this she failed, partly because of the inertness of her people and partly because she was too deeply engrossed with ambitious political schemes. Credit must be given her, however, for being the first great European sovereign to Catherine the Great 83 become Interested in female education, as is evi- denced by the still existing School for Girls, which she founded in the Smolni Convent at St. Peters- burg in 1764. Catherine was a munificent patroness of art, not because she had any real appreciation of it, but because she was bound to increase the splen- dor of her capital in every possible direction. But it is as a sovereign and a ruler that Cath- erine displayed true greatness. Grant — as we must — that "the eternal feminine^' was all too evi- dent in the choice of her lovers as her ministers. Nevertheless her own profound knowledge of human nature, her sagacity in dealing with men, and her innate skill in diplomacy made her easily the superior of all the monarchs of her age. In masterful energy she proved a worthy successor of Peter the Great by extending the frontier of her kingdom as far east as the Dniester. Her home policies were vigorous and stimulating to her people. Throughout her reign she subordi- nated everything else to her "ruling passion,'' which was to develop the resources of Russia and to transform it into a powerful and splendid state. That this unimportant German princess, who possessed no hereditary claim to the throne and at first was regarded as a rank usurper, should have succeeded in winning the intense loyalty of 84 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 her adopted subjects as well as the respect and admiration of foreign nations, is ample proof that she deserves to share with Peter the Great the distinction and honor of making backward Russia one of the Great Powers of modern Eu- rope. 'T3 C 3 o (U o o a, .S ^ w O < S-T3 Oil O) w OJ CHAPTER IX THE HERMITAGE RUSSIAN ART IT IS to Catherine the Great that the Hermitage largely owes its fame. From her apartments in the Winter Palace she could cross over direct- ly to the Hermitage by means of a connecting bridge, and there, as its name indicates, she often sought seclusion from the burdensome cares of government. It is well worth a visit. In the portico at the entrance we note the classic figures of several granite Atlantes, and in this instance must admit their appropriateness to a building containing so much pertaining to antiquity. We shall not lin- ger, however, in the many rooms illustrative of the more ancient Asiatic civilization, nor have we time to inspect the Greek and Roman sculptures, which are not to be compared with those in Greece and Italy. But we must at least glance at the Kertch Col- lection, an exceedingly valuable display of ar- ticles (excavated in the Kertch district of the Crimea) , which date back to the 5th century B. C, when that peninsula was occupied by the Greeks. 85 86 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 Here we see exquisitely wrought ornaments in gold and silver, necklaces, bracelets, rings, brooches, jewelry of all kinds, drinking horns and cups of silver repousse work, besides many ob- jects in bronze, ivory and terra cotta, — all at- testing the marvelous skill and artistic taste pos- sessed by the ancient Greeks. It is a collection valuable alike to the archsologist, the historian, and the student of art. We now leave the ground floor and ascend a fine marble staircase. On the landing at the top are many admirable works of sculpture by Ca- nova. Falconet, Rauch and Houdon, the most notable being "The Three Graces" by Canova, executed in that artist's charming though effemi- nate style, and Houdon's realistic portrayal of the ugly but expressive features of the philosopher Voltaire. Passing from the landing through an interven- ing room, we entered the picture galleries of the Hermitage. From what we had read and heard of the collection we had acquired a rather vague impression that it was well worth seeing, but a casual inspection of the paintings in the very first salon opened our eyes to their importance, and as we went through room after room our ad- miration and wonder increased. Here is an as- .semblage of two thousand pictures, illustrative of the most flourishing periods In the various The Hermitage — Russian Art 87 Schools of Painting in Europe. The fact that they were hastily gathered by paid agents of Catherine II and her successors might lead one to the natural inference that, though numerous, they could hardly rise above mediocrity. Not so. On the other hand, it is no exaggeration to state that this collection abounds in the finest examples of the art of the Great Masters, particularly those of the 17th and i8th centuries. It is in- deed open to the criticism, that it contains but few pictures dating back to the early periods of any of the Schools, and that therefore it cannot but be disappointing to students of the history of art. This, however, does not alter the fact that the gallery is rich in paintings of rare merit. It has been declared weak in the Italian School. Yet a painting by Botticelli, two by Leonardo da Vinci, two by Perugino, four by Raphael, four by Sebastian del Piombo, ten by Titian, four by Luini, besides one or more each by such masters as Tintoretto, Correggio, Guido Reni, Guercino, Domenichino, Paolo Veronese, and others of less importance — more than three hundred in all — show that this school is by no means insignifi- cantly represented. Next to Madrid the Hermitage is possessed of the finest Spanish collection in the; world, in- cluding a score of wonderful canvases by Murillo and half a dozen by Velasquez. The French 88 Russia in the Summer of igi4 School with numerous examples of the work of Claude Lorraine, Nicholas Poussin, Chardin, Vernet, Watteau, and others is excelled only by the Louvre, while the Flemish School boasts of sixty brilliant paintings by Rubens, thirty by Van Dyck, forty by Teniers, and fourteen by Jor- daens. But it is in the Dutch School that the Hermi- tage excels all other galleries. Rembrandt is pre- eminent, admirably exemplified by forty paint- ings. There are portraits by Bol and Fr. Hals, miniatures by Gerard Dou, cattle by Cuyp, water- falls by Ruysdael, animals by Paul Potter, white horses by Wouverman, tavern scenes by Jan Steen, genre pictures by Van Ostade, Terburg and other Dutch artists. Enough has been said to show that the Hermi- tage is worthy of respect, even when compared with the galleries of Dresden, Paris, London, or Florence. Add to this the fact that the paintings are magnificently housed in spacious well-lighted rooms, elegantly furnished and adorned with tables and candelabra of malachite, lapis lazuli, and many-colored marbles, — and the reader will not wonder at our enthusiasm for this splendid gallery. Our visit to the Hermitage, as may be sup- posed, was immediately suggestive of a number of questions concerning Russian art. Here was a The Hermitage — Russian Art 89 large collection of remarkable paintings, gathered not merely to enhance the splendors of the me- tropolis and the munificence of its rulers, but un- doubtedly to establish a standard of art for their semi-barbarous empire. Did these rulers and their successors take any steps to foster the growth of art among the people ? Have the Rus- sians developed a truly national art of their own in painting, as they have in literature and music? Has the fact that they are in a sense untutored and therefore unhampered by too great power of reasoning and analysis, engendered by years of schooling, produced any dynamic geniuses in paint- ing? The first question was answered for us in the affirmative. Peter the Great sent young men to study in the art centers of Europe, and ever since his time the imperial government has offered am- bitious students the incentive of scholarships, en- abling them to live comfortably while pursuing their studies in foreign cities. For answer to the other questions, we were taken to the Museum of Alexander III, which is devoted exclusively to Russian art. Here we were greatly disappointed in our expectations. Slavish imitations of the classic style, inferior in drawing and color to their originals, character- ized the 1 8th century pictures. Then followed gigantic canvases — some being Scripture scenes, 90 Russia in the Summer of igi4 others harking back to antiquity — ambitious in design, occasionally forceful in composition, but either lurid or crude in coloring. An exception, however, must be made in favor of the marine painting of Aivasovski. In his ^'Storm at Sea," for example, this artist displays the highest tal- ent in picturing the irresistible energy and power of the wild waves, while his coloring of the trans- parent green water below and the dark clouds above evinces an unusual mastery of marine ef- fects. But we sought in vain for good examples of a genuine national art. Russian history and Rus- sian peasant life, which — as it seemed to us — might afford the most inspirational field for art, were represented only by a few works of ex- ceeding mediocrity. When, however, we ex- pressed disappointment concerning this, we were told to suspend judgment until we had visited the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow. There we should see that Russian artists had indeed developed a national art that does not suffer in comparison with that of their confreres in other lands. CHAPTER X ALEXANDER II CATHERINE II was succeeded by her son, Paul I, a weakling who reversed his moth- er's liberal policy. In 1799 he fought against Napoleon, but in the following year he espoused that general's cause so ardently as to challenge any sovereign siding with England to personal combat with himself I He reigned five years and was duly assassinated by the nobles. His son Alexander I was cast in a stronger mold. For a time he devoted his energies to the welfare of his people. He engaged in war against Napoleon, was signally defeated, and then in turn became his ally. Subsequently he became alarmed at Napoleon's ambition and formed a coalition with Sweden and England, which brought about the war that was made mem- orable by Napoleon's disastrous retreat from Moscow. The later years of his reign were un- fortunately marred by unjust and arbitrary deal- ings with his subjects. On his death in 1825 he was succeeded by his brother Nicholas I, who consistently followed a 91 92 Russia in the Summer of igi4 policy of intolerance and repression in the treat- ment of his people. Under his vigorous conduct of foreign affairs, however, Russia became a de- cided menace to the rest of Europe. His atti- tude toward Turkey brought about the Crimean War, in the course of which he died disappointed and humiliated by reason of disasters to the Rus- sian arms. The eldest son of Nicholas, Alexander II, as- cended the throne in 1855. Of all the Romanoff rulers he is the most revered, distinguished alike for his nobility of character, wisdom and lib- erality. Speedily settling the Crimean War as best he could, he instituted a series of reforms in the empire, which challenged the admiration of the civilized world. His first and most radical measure was the emancipation of forty-six million serfs. For this he has been justly called "The Liberator." It is interesting to Americans to note that this oc- curred in 1 861, the year in which the Civil War began, and two years before the Emancipation Proclamation was issued by President Lincoln. The liberation of the Russian serfs was fol- lowed by the redistribution of land, the establish- ment of representative assemblies, trial by jury, freedom of the press, and kindlier treatment of the Jews. Plans were made for the education of the peasants in village schools and for the Alexander II 93 extension of the privileges of university students. The railway system was developed and restric- tions on trade were abolished. These sweeping reforms wrought wonders in much-oppressed Russia. In the course of ten years there was considerable gain in revenues from the revival of industry and commerce. But the most beneficent change was produced in the progressive spirit that was aroused, particularly in the cities. Unfortunately, as was natural where there was but little education to build upon, there developed a strong tendency to extreme socialism. Radical- ism became rampant and alarmed the govern- ment. When therefore in 1870 the popular move- ment culminated in an appeal for the limitation of the absolute power of the Tsar, Alexander was convinced by his advisers that matters had gone too far. Not only was the petition refused, but the police were everywhere instructed to stamp out the radical societies by breaking up their meetings and arresting their members. This only fed the fire already started and induced a spirit of fanaticism. The Socialists, finding that their peaceful efforts were blocked by the police and the Cossacks, resolved to advance their sacred cause by blood, and became Social Revolutionists. Some in their fiery zeal vowed that all govern- ment — good or bad — should cease, and thus Ni- 94 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 hilism was born. Princes, premiers and high gov- ernment officials were marked for death, and many were the victims of these secret societies. Four different attempts were made to assassi- nate the Tsar himself. Such appeals to brute force are apt to increase a monarch's stubborn- ness. But Alexander's patience and magnanimity stood the test. By the 12th of March, 188 1, a constitution had been formulated and simply awaited his signature. On the very next day it happened that the Tsar went to make a call upon his cousin and at two o'clock in the afternoon was returning in his carriage to the Palace. Following his car- riage were two sleighs containing his Cossack Guards. Suddenly a noise like a clap of thunder echoed along the street. A cloud of snow flew up behind the imperial carriage. A bomb had hit so close that it shattered the back and smashed in the windows. The coachmen wanted to drive on, but the Emperor, who was unhurt, learning that one of his Cossacks and a boy who was pass- ing along the street were wounded, insisted on getting out and going personally to see them. Then he turned to rebuke the assassin who had been captured. Meanwhile a crowd had gath- ered. His faithful Cossacks implored him to pro- ceed to the Palace. But he lingered to inquire further into the matter. At length with saddened Church of the Resurrection (interior). The wa'ls and piers are adorned with mosaics. To the left is the canopy over the spot where the emperor was assassinated, March 13, 1881. Alexander II 95 countenance he was approaching his carriage, when a man in the crowd threw a bomb which landed at the very feet of the Emperor. A flash, and it exploded! When the snow cleared away, the Emperor was seen in a sitting posture, his uniform torn, the lower part of his body a mass of mangled flesh and shattered bones. "Quick," he cried, *'home, take me to the Palace, that I may die there." And to the Palace he was carried, marking the way along the street with his blood. An hour later he expired. The Church of the Resurrection in St. Peters- burg was erected to commemorate the assassina- tion of Alexander II. Its nine domes are resplen- dent with enamel, — green, gold and white pre- dominating. The interior is gorgeous with mosaics, the walls and pillars are adorned with gilded banners and priceless icons. But there is one spot in the church that renders it more precious to the Russian people than all its splen- did adornments. It is near the entrance and is marked by a simple canopy borne on four jasper columns. Within this enclosure one sees what ap- pears to be a section of the pavement of a street. It is the identical spot where the great and good Emperor stood when he was felled by the an- archist bomb. In the Museum of Imperial Car- riages near by one may see the very carriage — its back still shattered, in which he rode on the 96 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 day of his death. It Is with good reason that the people "rise up and call his name blessed I" Friday and Saturday had passed in seeing the sights that have been described. Nothing was now heard of the strike. But on Saturday the air was surcharged with subdued excitement. Crowds gathered In front of the newspaper of- fices to read the latest telegrams from Vienna, Berlin, Paris and London. Regiments of sol- diers marched through the streets and were re- viewed in the squares. One regiment, we were told, was being mobilized to the German fron- tier. CHAPTER XI CATHEDRAL SERVICES ON Sunday morning we attended service at St. Isaac's Cathedral. As has been men- tioned, the cathedral stands in the square on which our hotel fronted, and we had already become familiar with its exterior. It has one great ad- vantage over such edifices as St. Paul's in Lon- don or the Cathedral of Cologne, viz., that it is not crowded by adjacent structures. It is built in the form of a Greek Cross and is therefore compact in comparison with those that conform to the Latin Cross. Almost foursquare, it presents the same general appearance from whichever side it is viewed. Rising from a solid substructure, sixteen mono- lith columns of polished granite fifty-five feet high are surmounted by a pediment containing bronze reliefs. On the main roof back of the portico stand two graceful domed belfries. The corners of the roof are marked by angels with outspread wings, holding candelabra. In the space between the bell towers rises the central dome resting on a columnar drum. The dome is gilded, and is 97 98 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 crowned by a lantern with a cross above it. The exterior of the cathedral is therefore classic in style, wholly conventional and un-Russian, but it is most impressive by reason of its stateliness, its noble proportions, its symmetry, and the re- strained harmony of its coloring. We mounted the steps to the portico and were greeted by a long line of licensed beggars with arms outstretched, who expressed their gratitude most volubly for the copecks we handed them. The bronze doors at the entrance are evident imitations of the famous doors of the Baptistery in Florence. Some of the scenes depicted have to do with the life of St. Isaac of Dalmatia, in whose honor the cathedral was erected. He was the patron saint of Peter the Great, who was born on the feast day dedicated to the saint. Other scenes are descriptive of religious tradi- tions pertaining to primitive Russian history, the most notable being an extraordinarily vigorous baptism of the heathen Slavs at the time of their enforced conversion to Christianity. Beyond the entrance we were confronted by another line of beggars, but this time they were nuns wearing peaked hoods, which gave them a witch-like ap- pearance. These asked alms for their sisterhood. Near by we noticed a brisk sale going on of tapers and of holy bread shaped like a roll. Advancing into the interior of the church, we Cathedral Services 99 found an enormous congregation, men, women and children, all standing, the men predominating. There was no distinction between rich and poor. Well-groomed gentlemen stood shoulder to shoul- der with peasants clothed In sheepskins. None of them paid the slightest attention to strangers like ourselves. Apparently all the worshipers were most sincere In their devotions. As the priests read the prayers, the people crossed them- selves from time to time. Some were kneeling. I watched a man accompanied by two boys, who were near me. All three knelt on the hard stone floor, praying for at least five minutes. A Mag- dalene with tears streaming down her cheeks knelt and In agony knocked her head against the floor again and again. Some even prostrated them- selves at full length on their faces. Each one had a taper, which was lighted at the proper time and placed before the picture of some patron saint. These pictures are called Icons. Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Greek Church absolutely forbids all statues or Images of saints (for that would be a violation of the second commandment, "Thou shalt not make unto thee any graven Image"), but it does sanc- tion sacred pictures. These are usually encased in metal, silver or gold, only the faces and hands of the saints being exposed. The metal of the more celebrated icons is literally covered with 100 Russia in the Summer of 1914 precious jewels, diamonds, pearls, rubies, sap- phires and emeralds, some of them worth hun- dreds of thousands of rubles. Such icons are en- closed in glass, on which every devout worshiper imprints a kiss, even the children being raised by their parents to perform this act of devotion, — a practice which cannot but spread the dreadful plague of cholera, so common in Russia. "But," they say, "better the cholera than to cease kissing the sacred icon I'* We moved up gradually among the people, until we found ourselves standing under the cen- tral dome. Some distance in front of us a num- ber of steps led to a narrow platform, on which two choirs of men and boys were assembled, the clergy between them. The officiating priest in gorgeous robes read the prayers, while the choir chanted antiphonally. There was no organ, no instrument whatever. And no instrument was needed I Never had we heard such marvelous rendering of church music! The bass in particu- lar produced tones as sustained and powerful as the pipes of a great organ. The tenor was unusually rich and high, and blended perfectly with the sweet voices of the boys. The music was composed largely on minor keys, which accounts in part for the strain of sadness — I might almost add of sternness — ^that characterizes Russian church music. As we stood Cathedral Services lOi beneath the overarching dome, wave upon wave of exquisite harmony floated out toward us, now rising in grand crescendoes, now falling to the faintest pianissimo. Nothing short of years of training under the most skilful choir-masters could produce such absolute pitch, such variety of expression, such delicate nuances. Critics may claim that there is an absence of the grand choral effects one hears in Lutheran Churches or of the operatic brilliancy of Italian choirs. But it can- not be denied that Russian church music excels all others In creating an atmosphere of true re- ligious aspiration. Back of the choir Is the marble iconostasis, a closed screen, completely cutting off the Holy of Holies from the observation of the congrega- tion. It Is gilded and adorned with mosaics of saints. In it there are three doors, the middle one opening into the Inner sanctuary, the other two Into adjacent chapels. At Intervals on either side of the central door are beautiful columns of blue lapis lazuli and green malachite, with in- tervening paintings of the Virgin, St. Isaac, and the Evangelists. The Mass was celebrated with even more pomp and ceremony than In the Roman Catholic Church. Toward the close a hush fell over the whole as- sembly. A priest of unusual stature began to In- tone a prayer In a rather low key. As he went 102 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 on, his voice rose slowly in half tones of increas- ing volume. At the close of each phrase of the prayer he gathered himself for a still higher and louder appeal for a blessing from the Almighty. The effect of the last tone was tremendous, filling the whole temple, echoing and reverberating over- head in the dome like the sound of mighty wa- ters. It was a prayer, so we were told, for the royal family, each tone representing a different member of it, the last being, as was befitting, for the "Little Father" himself. Presently an answering voice was heard in the Holy of Holies. The "holy door" swung slowly open, revealing a wondrously illuminated picture of the Saviour with hand uplifted in blessing. Then the Archbishop appeared. As he advanced, clouds of incense rose before him from the swing- ing censers. In his hands he carried two lighted candlesticks, each shaped like a pair of tongs, — one with three branches to represent the Trin- ity, the other with only two, to typify the dual nature of Christ. The congregation bowed and made the sign of the cross. The Bishop blessed the people and retired into the Inner Sanctuary, — and with this the service was brought to a close. Immediately afterwards we noticed that little children, many of them babes in the arms of their parents, were taken to the platform before the iconostasis. There priests were waiting to ad- -d c 3 O o a* 3 o IX C . TS u, >,•-• Q ^_) Oi p£ p 4-) ■-5 w o C3*!:: o U) o o OS *^ -M 1-1 . +-' « CO C -(^ O t>0 < w « <; ^ S 3 C o a> SO Cathedral Services 103 minister bread and wine mixed in a teaspoon to the little ones. This was in keeping with the custom of the Greek Church, which regards the rite of infant baptism as an admittance to all of its privileges, even that of Holy Communion. When the congregation had departed, we were at liberty to examine the details of the interior more closely. Women, however, are not permit- ted to cross the threshold of the Holy of Holies, — a restriction which was by no means appre- ciated by the ladies of our party. As they stood at the entrance door, the over-zealous guide signed to them that they might just peep in, but even that was prevented by a stern rebuke from one of the priests, who happened to be hovering near. For a moment the fate of the men them- selves hung in the balance, but finally the priest was mollified and he allowed them to enter. Within the Sanctuary were the Altar and a beau- tiful silver-gilt model of the cathedral, the latter being the sacred Tabernacle. Not far from St. Isaac's Cathedral, on the Nevski Prospekt, stands another famous church, the Cathedral of St. Kasan. The exterior is a weak imitation of St. Peter's in Rome. Struc- turally, the interior too is a bit disappointing, for one naturally compares it with the magnificent proportions of the cathedral just seen. Its chief interest lies in the fact that it was erected by 104 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 the citizens of St. Petersburg, as a token of their gratitude for the defeat of Napoleon. When his army set out from Moscow, it was laden with plunder, pilfered from that city, all of which was subsequently abandoned along the line of its flight. Much of this the Cossacks recovered, and in commemoration of the glorious victory they presented the cathedral with a beautiful iconostasis of solid silver. The church's connec- tion with war, as suggested by its origin and the gift of the Cossacks, is further shown by the ex- hibition of army flags and the keys of many cap- tured cities. Near the iconostasis hangs the miracle-working Icon of the Virgin, which was brought hither from Kasan. It is covered with pearls and gems. A curious story is told concerning it. For many years it was left open that the people might kiss the sacred picture. A Russian noble who had squandered his wealth was tempted by the sight of a most valuable stone that projected from the surface of the icon, and conceived of a novel idea to get it into his possession. Day after day he devoutly kissed the Virgin picture, each time man- aging by the pressure of his lips to loosen the stone a little more from its setting. At last the day came when he put his lips to the jewel, con- fident that on this occasion he would bear it away with him in his mouth. But his extraordinary Vathedral Services lOJ devotion had awakened the suspicions of an at- tendant and he was arrested in the very act of removing the stone. From that day the icon has been protected from the possibility of such viola- tion by a glass frame. The guide, however, would not vouch for the truth of this strange tale. It was in this cathedral that some of us who happened to wander to the far end of it were fortunate to witness a Russian baptism. Prepa- ration had already been made for the rite when we arrived on the scene. Seven infants were to be baptized, and they with their parents and spon- sors were gathered about the font. A scribe was seated at a table, busied in registering their names. Now the priest with his attendants appeared and began the service by offering prayers. Then a baby, stripped entirely of its clothes, was put into his arms. An attendant handed him what looked like an artist's paintbrush, which he dipped into sacred oil. With this he anointed the child, touch- ing it lightly on its forehead, eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and parts of its body down to its feet. Then with one hand tightly grasping its nose and mouth, while the other held its body, he immersed it entirely in the holy water three successive times. Thereafter, receiving a prettily embroidered shirt from the mother (or was it one of the spon- sors?) he with his own hands drew it over the baby, — an awkward task considering the struggles io6 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 and cries of the child, which naturally had been badly frightened by the ordeal through which it had passed. Finally it was handed back to the mother, who proceeded to dress it, while another poor victim took its turn with similar ceremonies. In the afternoon we visited the Alexander I Nevski Monastery, one of the four most cele- ^ brated convents in Russia. The grounds, which are extensive, border on the Neva, at the spot where in the year 1241 Prince Alexander is said to have defeated the Swedes in a decisive battle. In 1724 Peter the Great moved the relics of the saint from their resting place in Vladimir to a church he built here in the hope that it might rival the famous Troitzkaya Monastery near Moscow, which for centuries had been the goal for thou- sands of Russian pilgrims. The grounds are en- \ closed by a wall and moat, rendering the mon- ] astery a veritable stronghold, — a much needed ^' place of refuge in troublous times. J Of the dozen or more churches that stand with- * in the walls we saw only two. In the first, which we were given to understand was the monastery proper. Vespers had already commenced. Black- robed monks with tall cylindrical hats, likewise black, were seated in a semi-circle, while one of their number read from a book placed on a stand in their center. We noticed that the monks' faces were unusually refined, and on comment- Cathedral Services 107 ing upon this fact were Informed that these were all from the families of Russian nobles. Their chanting and singing in the service were admira- ble. The bass was almost as strong as that which we had heard at St. Isaac's, but the tenors, though sweet, occasionally flatted or forced their tones on the high notes. After listening to them for some time we pro- ^ ceeded to the church that contained the bones of \ St. Alexander. They were in a reliquary be- I neath a small canopy supported by silver columns, j Everything here was of solid silver exquisitely wrought and depicting in high relief many scenes \ from the life of the saint. Next we were conducted through several ceme- teries which interested us greatly. They were I even more crowded than the Pere Lachaise in^ Paris, so that it was actually difficult to thread \ one's way through the graves. The monuments were simple, oftentimes inartistic. Some of them were enclosed in iron lattice work, and within the enclosure chairs were placed for the con- venience of relatives who might wish to commune with the dead. The tombstones of many distinguished Rus-j sians were pointed out to us, those that impressed j us most being the grave of the writer Dostoyev-| ski and of the composers Glinka, Tchaikovski and^ Rubinstein. CHAPTER XII GENERAL IMPRESSIONS OF ST. PETERSBURG FORMAL sight-seeing came to an end for us on Sunday. Monday was occupied with whatever each individual elected to do. During the Rve days of our stay we not only became fairly well acquainted with the city by driving through it in every direction, but we made special effort to mix with the people by shopping in the stores and markets and by taking long walks in the twi- light, which lasted accommodatingly until ten o'clock in the evening. What were some of the impressions we gained of the great metropolis of the North? First of all, we were impressed by the immense extent of the city, the vastness of its squares, the length and breadth of its principal streets. Its population of over two millions is distributed over an area of thirty-five square miles on a perfectly level plain. Like Washington, it was laid out on a prearranged plan and is therefore un- marred by narrow tortuous streets, such as are common in the more ancient capitals of Europe. The principal thoroughfare is Nevski Prospekt, io8 General Impressions of St. Petersburg 109 a magnificent avenue one hundred and fifteen feet wide and three miles long. Several islands in the delta of the Neva con- stitute the city park, which, though ill-kept, has fine roads for driving, plenty of water for boat- ing and sailing, and a glorious view of the Gulf of Finland from the outermost "Point.'* An unusual feature of these island parks is the great number of handsome villas and palaces on the grounds, the summer residences of rich burghers and nobles. As we drove through this park, we were entertained, if not startled, at one spot by witnessing a fierce fight between two bands of wild muzhiks armed with heavy sticks and clubs, but this we hoped was likewise "an unusual fea- ture." St. Petersburg impresses the visitor as the crea- tion of a truly imperial mind. Massive palaces, royal monuments, stately cathedrals, immense public buildings, — all betoken unbounded wealth lavished almost recklessly upon it by its munificent rulers during the two centuries of its develop- ment. It is In no sense, however, a characteristically Russian city. The Nevski Prospekt, flanked by splendid church edifices, modern bank buildings, dignified shops, and blocks of arcaded bazaars, presents nothing that reminds one of an Oriental city. It may rather be called cosmopolitan. Its no Russia in the Summer of IQ14 architecture, as we have seen, is largely pseudo- . classical. Here and there one does catch sight i of typically Russian onion-shaped domes, but even I these tower above walls that are classical or Re- j naissance in design. Only in point of color do the I buildings exhibit any genuine Russian style. Close I at hand the colors are decidedly garish, — yellows, ; blues, greens and reds staring at each other in hopeless incongruity. The red in particular, j which to the Russian is synonymous with "beauti- \ ful," has a dirty brownish tinge that renders even j stately buildings like the Winter Palace positively ' unsightly. When, however, one views St. Petersburg from a great height like the cupola of St. Isaac's Ca- thedral, the coloring as a whole is distinctively Russian. The erstwhile discordant tones now blend with one another in pleasing harmony. Glit- tering domes and flashing spires of gold illumi- nate the groundwork of rich colors with daz- zling radiance. The Neva, a long line of dark blue flecked with white, shades off with impercepti- ble gradations into the paler blue of the sea, and this in turn carries the eye on to the sweep of the bright blue sky overarching the whole scene. It is a picture rich in colorings that are never seen in such brilliance in the West. An especial feature of St. Petersburg, or at any rate so it seemed to us, was the unusual num- General Impressions of St, Petersburg ill ber of uniformed men one saw at every turn. Most conspicuous among these were the Officers of the Guard In long gray cloaks and capes, their breasts ablaze with military decorations, their swords clanking as they strode along. They con- stitute the Tsar's personal guard. Besides these there were many officers of the army and navy. Then there were the soldiers of several regi- ments. Indeed, we came to the conclusion that military men were more in evidence here than in Berlin. This may have been due in part to the mobilization of troops that was going on under extraordinary conditions. But, further, there were countless government officials who appeared in uniform. Theirs differed from that of the military officers in that they wore a long close- fitting coat with a belt and that they had dark capes. Add to these the policemen, the con- cierges, and an army of liveried employees and servants darting about the streets, and it is no wonder that strangers are led to think that fully one-fourth of the men in the city are in uniform. Of the army officers we chanced to meet wc can only speak in the highest praise. They were men of fine manners, who, so far as we could ob- serve, displayed no trace of that domineering haughtiness which is so offensive in Prussia. There is no question, however, that they are trained to look upon the lower classes with con- 112 Russia in the Summer of igi4 tempt, and that they do not hesitate to shoot them down without mercy in case of a workmen's strike or a popular uprising. Government officials have a unique standing in Russia. Peter the Great deprived the old nobility of all important hereditary privileges, but a new nobility has sprung up in the bureaucracy, as the family of every Russian official who attains the rank of Privy Councillor or Colonel, by reason of that fact, is regarded as noble and therefore pos- sessed of hereditary rights in relation to the gov- ernment. With the higher class of government officials we did not come in contact at all. The minor officials that came undfer our observation had two unfortunate characteristics, viz., they were arbi- trary and at the same time venal, brusque often brutal in manner, but always ready to yield if a sufficient bribe were slipped into the hand held ready behind their back. The latter fault, we were informed, is found in the bureaucracy throughout the empire from top to bottom. In- deed, it may be said to prevail in every walk in Russia. Even the army officers are not above ac- cepting a bribe. It is a well known fact that dur- ing the Japanese war money from the treasury that was apportioned for munitions and for the equipment of the soldiers was diverted into the pockets of some of the highest officers in the army. General Impressions of St. Petersburg 113 Worse than that, funds that had been provided for hospitals and Red Cross supplies never reached their destination. Such disloyal pilfering became a public scandal, but Russians do not seem to have gotten beyond the point where they merely shrug their shoulders and regard bribery as a necessary evil of officialdom. To go back for a moment, let me cite an ex- ample of official arbitrariness, for the truth of which I can vouch. An American manager of for- eign tours requested the agent of the International Sleeping Car Company in New York to provide two special sleepers for the transportation of a party of tourists from St. Petersburg via Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod to Warsaw. The order was transmitted to the company^s agent in St. Petersburg. Later, when several members of the party found it impossible to go on the trip, the order was cancelled and the Russian agent was duly instructed to secure berths for the party in the regular sleeping cars of the company. In due time the party arrived at St. Petersburg and the director proceeded to the offices of the Sleep- ing Car Company, in order to make sure that the last named arrangement would be carried out. Here he was passed from one clerk to another with many tedious delays, but finally he was con- ducted to the anteroom of the general agent and told to wait until he could be seen. After the 114 Russia in the Summer of igi4 lapse of an hour he was called Into the main office and "granted audience" before the agent. The usual polite preliminaries were spoken on both sides and then the following conversation en- sued: "You have no doubt received communication from New York to the effect that our original order for two sleepers was cancelled and another substituted." "I receive no orders from New York whatso- ever. This is the main office of the International Sleeping Car Company in Russia, and — I do not take orders from — I give orders to the Com- pany's New York agent in all matters pertaining to this country." "Granting that, may I ask whether you have reserved places for the party on the regular sleep- ers?" "I have not. Do you Imagine that we conduct business here as you do in the United States? This is Russia. On receipt of your order I ap- plied for two special sleepers, and after going through much red tape in the various departments I was at last advised that the government had ac- ceded to my request. Within a month I am calmly informed that your manager wishes to have his order cancelled! It cannot be done. The trans- action is complete. The government has issued an order for the special cars. They will make General Impressions of St. Petersburg 115 the trip indicated if they have to go empty, and you will pay for them.'* It is impossible to tell whether or not a per- sonal gift would have been acceptable in this case. For the American, fearing "international" com- plications, submitted to what he now deemed in- evitable, and pleased the party, if not the man- ager, by conveying them through Russia in sleep- ers "deluxe"! To come back to men in uniform, the police whose service we chanced to employ were in- variably courteous and helpful to us. Indeed, the feeling of being under surveillance with which we began our stay in St. Petersburg was largely dis- pelled in the course of five days. No restriction was placed on us in our sight-seeing. That, it may be claimed, was because we were accom- panied by an accredited guide. But even when we went without him, and toward the last we did not hesitate to do so, in the shops, on the trolley cars, everywhere, we were treated with politeness and oftentimes with genuine cordiality. In our walks, which were not confined to the main avenues alone, we did not attract the slightest attention from the people. This was perhaps because, as has been sug- gested, St. Petersburg is a cosmopolitan city. It has grown enormously of late years, and num- bers thousands of Germans, French and English Ii6 Russia in the Summer of igi4 in Its population. All three languages are spoken in the larger shops, while in the smaller stores and in the bazaars we found that German was best understood. As a natural result of the large influx of foreigners the purely Russian citizens have become accustomed to their presence and pay little attention to them as they mingle with them on the streets. Another thing that impressed us in St. Peters- burg was the outward devotion to religion that the Russian displayed whenever occasion was of- fered. Mention has already been made of his attitude in church worship. Still more interest- ing were the scenes we witnessed at the wayside shrines. These were numerous, and we never passed one without seeing men, women and chil- dren flocking in to pray, and place their lighted tapers before the icon of their patron saint. On the Nicholas Bridge, by which we crossed the Neva repeatedly, there was an unusually beauti- ful shrine, which was crowded with worshipers at all times of the day and night, and we noticed that even the occupants of carriages or wagons made the sign of the cross as they drove by. Icons we observed everywhere, — in the private rooms of the hotel, in ofiices and shops, in pub- lic buildings and even railroad stations. Before these, too, one often sees devout Russians bow their heads. A charming feature of all these acts n - >! 4-1 JJ " G ^ o N *-> -C > S^ H "i u. Ui O 4J tlJ > Ui — > ID c^ o r js-n ^-' ■M (U a ^_, OJ - 3 O. a; --^ r. C O •- (U w C OJ (U^ o > at -r, » •a- I) O-C 1- 3 O ^ O M S *^ <" O-f; (Si Q o c ^-^ H a a. General Impressions of St. Petersburg 117 of worship Is the childlike unconsciousness with which they are performed. Apparently there is never a thought of any one being present besides themselves. The people of St. Petersburg did not Impress us as particularly energetic from a business stand- point. Nowhere did we see the brisk walking or lively hustling that are characteristic of Ameri- can cities. What walking there was seemed con- fined to the working classes. There were no subways, no elevated railroads. The electric trol- ley cars were well patronized and sometimes over- crowded with persons standing In the aisles and on both platforms. By far the most popular mode of conveyance, however, was the droschky, which Is certainly a unique vehicle. It Is a light four-wheeled carriage with a back seat that Is uncomfortably small for two ordinary sized persons and a front seat for the driver. The step by which one enters It from either side Is made by a bend in the black leather mud-rail running over the hinder and front wheel. The shafts are fastened directly to the axles of the small front wheels and are attached without traces to the horse by the saddle and collar. The leather harness Is as simple and as light as pos- sible. The horse wears no blinds. From his collar a light wooden frame rounded like a horse- Ii8 Russia in the Summer of igi4 shoe rises to the height of a foot or more above his neck. The driver is a bearded man, wearing a long blue gown girt about the middle and a military cap of like color. At first sight these drivers appear to be very fat. Soon one notices that they are fatter than their faces warrant and won- ders whether they have stuffed their gowns fore and aft with pillows I The fact is that they make a practice of padding themselves in order to look prosperous! The finer the equipage, the fatter must be the driver ! The fare for a drive of fifteen minutes or less was twenty copecks (ten cents), but failure to fix the price beforehand generally resulted in an ex- orbitant demand, which in some cases could only be settled by an appeal to a policeman. For the most part the horses are brown or black, of medium height, with slender bodies, small ankles, long manes and tails, bearing all the marks of thoroughbreds. They are gentle and when approached give evidence of having been treated kindly. Many of their masters address them by pet names as they drive along. They are trained to trot very fast and when urged go like the wind. Countless droschkies darting to and fro, not infrequently indulging in short races with one another, give an animated aspect to the main avenues, especially the Nevski Prospekt. CHAPTER XIII MOSCOW — THE KREMLIN IT had been our original intention to leave St. Petersburg for Moscow on Monday, the 27th of July. As may be surmised, during the last five days we had scanned the papers anxiously for news on the international situation. On Mon- day negotiations were still going on between the various governments whose interests were most concerned. We were very much perplexed. Was the result to be peace or war? It was impossi- ble to forecast the future with any certainty, but after a long discussion we concluded to adhere to our itinerary. We started accordingly from St. Petersburg by the night express, which traverses the distance to Moscow, about four hundred miles, in eleven hours. Arriving at ten in the morning, we took up our quarters at the Metropole, a commodious and well-appointed hotel, centrally located in The- ater Place, the largest open square in the city. We were fortunate to secure as our guide Bethel Grundy, an Englishman who had lived many years in Moscow and was unusually well qualified for 119 120 Russia in the Summer of igi4 his office. Under his efficient guidance we began sight-seeing at once.* Passing the Historical Museum, a massive red brick building at the far end of Theater Square, we turned sharply to the left and advanced on ris- ing ground toward a gate with two archways sur- mounted by pointed towers. Between the arch- ways was a chapel containing a miracle-working picture of the Virgin of the Iberian Monastery on Mount Athos. Occasionally by special request supplemented by the application of "the holy ruble," this sacred picture is conveyed in a blue coach drawn by six horses to the house of some sick person, for whose healing its miraculous in- tervention is invoked. This chapel is crowded, especially by women, day and night. The Iberian gate led up to the Red Square, an immense open space half a mile long and one hundred and seventy-five yards wide. On the right it is flanked throughout its entire length by a crenelated wall sixty-five feet high, the top line of which is broken at intervals by small towers and by gateways, — the latter being marked by taller and more massive towers. Nearest to us was the Nicholas gate, so called from the mosaic portrait of St. Nicholas fastened above the arch- * For the purpose of preserving, so far as possible, an historical sequence, the order of sight-seeing, as here given, differs somewhat from that which we observed. Moscow — The Kremlin 121 way, which, thus runs the Inscription, was mar- velously preserved intact in 18 12 in spite of the ruthless attempts of the French soldiers to de- stroy it. Through this gate we entered the Kremlin, the ancient citadel of Moscow. It is in the form of a triangle, one side of which, as we have seen, runs along the Red Square, the side opposite skirts the Alexander Garden, while the base follows the bank of the river Moskva. In the 14th century it was surrounded only by a wooden palisade, af- fording slight protection against the attacks of the marauding Tartars. The present brick wall was built by Ivan III (1462-1505). Within the Kremlin are grouped three cathedrals, seven churches, a monastery, a convent, a palace, a treas- ury, and artillery barracks, — a typically Russian conglomeration of church, state and army I On entering the Kremlin by the Nicholas gate the visitor passes — ^between the Arsenal on the right and the Court of Justice on the left — toward the Barracks, in front of which are assembled some dangerous looking cannon, with pyramids of cannon balls close by, as though ready for imme- diate use. In reality, these field-pieces were cast three centuries ago and are as harmless as pop- guns I Nevertheless, to a layman at least, they present a very menacing appearance. Particular- ly is this the case with the largest of them, the 122 Russia in the Summer of IQ14 Tsar Cannon, whose yawning mouth is more than three feet in diameter. Once past these martial buildings and the ar- tillery, however, one is likely to forget that the Kremlin is a fortress, for he finds himself sur- rounded by churchly edifices. Passing by the red buildings of the Chudov Monastery on the left, let us proceed at once to the Cathedral of the Assumption in the center of the Kremlin. It is a plain massive structure with five domes. The interior is unattractive. The walls, once gilded, have lost their pristine brilliancy. The pillars are bedaubed with pictures of saints and angels, monks and knights, in inextricable confusion. The dome paintings are very dim. The general effect of faded grandeur is unfortunately height- ened by the bright red coloring of the iconostasis. It is in this cathedral that the coronation of the Tsars took place. It also has the distinction of being the burial place of the Patriarchs, the supreme rulers of the Russian Church before Peter the Great^ abolished their high office. Among the relics is a picture of the Virgin, painted by St. Luke. We examined this with great interest, but could not distinguish a single feature. For aught we could see, it might as well have been a painting of Eve by Adam! A little beyond the Cathedral of the Assump- tion is the Archangel Cathedral, in which are r\ 0) a; ■M -b^ (A rt c • ^ ij o -!-> _c H M V p u, A-> (/I ^ en < O CXj O u< ^^ q; o rt ^ ai o '~.^m *"! -M U 4_) C/1 rt ^ _u rt i-l CU o f— C Cfl H 3 C c c O S5 <% ' , , )_j o > •5 o W o •* ;-■ •M B ^2 CJ u, rt r^ o ^-> CO <1) - TS 4-1 Cl ^ M 2? ■J^ CI, o S >> ^— TO (U D, C C 4-. = OJ (U — ^ >> 5 (/I 1^ ?« < a r- oi 5 ^ • ^ - ^"^ Q -a 3 i- tw u o ^ Moscow — The Kremlin 133 harski marched to Moscow, routed the Poles, and drove them back into their own borders. The side of the Red Square opposite the Krem- lin is occupied by several blocks of shops, hand- some three storied buildings with glass-roofed arcades running through them. These are not, like our great department stores, managed by one company, but are the shops of separate individuals or firms selling goods of every kind. As they were not far from our hotel, we often visited them in our leisure moments, especially the art stores, jewelers, and antiquarian shops. The antiques, photographs, icons, and beautiful enameled ware proved very attractive to us. At first we were somewhat overawed by the dignity of the shop- keepers and could not conceive of their bargaining with customers. We soon learned, however, to begin by offering one-half what they asked and seldom failed to effect a reduction of at least one- third off the original price. The house of the Boyar Romanov, not far from St. Basil, is well worth seeing from cellar to attic. It is the restoration of a typical i6th century noble's dwelling and presents a fairly dis- tinct picture of the domestic life of that time. The servants lived below on the same floor as the kitchen. The stairs are narrow and steep, the fur- niture is scanty, there is no bath room, and heat- ing facilities are sadly inadequate. The sight of 134 Russia in the Summer of igJ4 the children's crude toys and primers makes one wonder how the older members of the family em- ployed their leisure time without books or pianos, or even Victrolas. To be sure, there is a chapel at hand, but then there are limits to devotional exercises! A few costumed models would add greatly to the interest and instructiveness of this house. Farther along on the bank of the Moskva is the great white Foundling Asylum, which — it will be recalled — was built by Catherine the Great. It is a state institution supported largely by a tax on playing cards. Babies are sent to it from all parts of European Russia. There is room for twenty-five hundred at a time. As many as fif- teen thousand are admitted annually. In some cases the mothers themselves act as nurses of their children in the hospital. Nearly one-half of the babies die ! At the end of four weeks the survivors are sent with their foster-mothers to board in adjacent farm-houses and villages. When they reach a proper age, they return to the Asylum and receive a very elementary education at the state's expense. Americans visiting this building are apt to raise the question whether such an institution improves the morals of the people. The answer given by Russians is char- acteristic, **Better looseness of morals than in- fanticide." Moscow — The Kremlin 135 Across the Moskva from the Kremlin stands the Tretyakov Gallery. On this, after our disap- pointment in the Alexander III Museum at St. Petersburg, we had set our hopes of finding ex- amples of a true national art. The architectural treatment of the faqade was distinctly Russian, which seemed to us an auspicious beginning. We entered and were not long in perceiving that here the atmosphere was, not classic, but genuinely Rus- sian. The landscapes, the historical paintings, the genre scenes, were all truly national. When did this change in the trend of Russian art take place? For answer one must go back to the reign of Alexander II. Through his liberal policy, it will be remembered, the empire was awakened to a larger life. It was then that litera- ture burst the bonds of alien models and ventured, clumsily at first but with ever-growing confidence, to trudge along a wholly independent path. Then it was that art also felt the quickening impulse of the Spirit of Progress and began to give ex- pression to a new self-consciousness. It took root at last in a distinctly national soil. Forthwith there sprang up a cluster of artists who looked solely to Russia for their inspiration. Naturally they developed rapidly along the lines marked out by the radical literature of the time. The fruitage of this movement is seen in a series of paintings, inferior perhaps in drawing and 136 Russia in the Summer of igi4 technique, but powerful in their bitter arraign- ment of official oppression and social corruption. Of this School, which is well represented in the Tretyakov Gallery, Peroff is by far the strong- est. His pictures contain the most stinging at- tacks on the brutality of city police, and the drunk- enness of rural priests, such as one would hardly believe would be tolerated by the authorities of Russia. He was followed by Verestschagin, who. sought to be an Apostle of Peace by depicting the horrors of war. And in this he certainly suc- ceeded. Room after room in the Gallery is filled with his ghastly scenes of "Pyramids of Skulls," and corpses, and mangled soldiers writhing in agony on battlefields deserted by all else but wait- ing crows and ravens. Last of all came another group of artists known as "the Wanderers," who displayed barbaric originality and at the same time were not lacking in knowledge of technique. Of these, Repin is the most realistic. His "Ivan the Terrible," rep- resenting that savage monarch grovelling on the floor as he clasps the bleeding body of his son whom he has slain in a paroxysm of fury, is a picture that haunts one for days and weeks. One other painting by Repin is worth describ- ing as a true picture of Russian life. A room large and well-lighted. On its walls are hung a few photographs, some chromos, and a map. In Moscow — The Kremlin 137 a corner to the right a piano, upon which a young woman is playing. At a table close by a boy and a girl are studying their lessons. In the fore- ground the mother is resting in an armchair. Suddenly the door at the back of the room is thrown open by a servant and a tall gaunt figure steals silently in. Now comes the moment de- picted by the artist. The young woman ceases to play, turns, and fixes her startled gaze upon the man. The girl looks up angrily at the intruder. The boy is sim- ply curious. The mother has risen from her chair and, bending forward, is searching the stranger's face. Can this, — can this be he for whom she has been yearning through the long, long years? The man stands there, thin, pale, worn with ex- posure and suffering, staring vacantly before him with hollow, set eyes. It is *'The Return of the Exile from Siberia," a typical portrayal of the patient, stolid melancholy that characterizes the Russian peasant. There is nothing conventional, nothing banal, in the pictures that hang in the Tretyakov Gal- lery. We left it convinced that Russian art, though still crude and undeveloped, is destined to display an individuality and forcefulness that is rarely exhibited in the art of other lands. From the Tretyakov Gallery, one ought to go forthwith to the Rumyantzov Museum, not to see 138 Russia in the Summer of 1914 the pictures (which are mediocre), but to deepen the impression received in the Gallery by inspect- ing the collection of national costumes In the Mu- seum. Here are figures, representing the inhabi- tants from every province of the empire, and the wide disparities they display In stature, features, and dress are well calculated to emphasize the vastness of its territory and the racial differences of its heterogeneous population. A long drive southwestward from the Museum brings us to the Novo Dyevitchi Convent. One does not readily associate a convent with battle- mented walls and fortified towers, but this nun- nery is amply equipped with both and was evi- dently constructed to sustain. If need be, a regular siege. And well it might, for it was the scene of bloody conflicts between the Poles and the army of MInin and Pozsharski. It was here that the ambitious Sophia was confined by her brother Peter, who — it will be remembered — hanged three hundred of the rebellious Streltsi in front of her window. This was also the convent in which Eudoxia, his first wife, was immured for more than twenty years. A mile farther on we cross the Moskva and climb the Sparrow Hills, commanding an exten- sive view of the winding river with the walls and towers of the city beyond. From these hilltops in 18 12 the French soldiers, catching sight of the goal toward which they had been wearily w S o Moscow — The Kremlin 139 marching, shouted "Moscow! Moscow I" and Napoleon cried, "All this is yours I" But they little knew the temper of the Russian people. They marched into the city only to find it deso- late, deserted by its inhabitants. Napoleon made the Kremlin his headquarters, sleeping in one of the rooms in the Terem. Next morning he climbed the narrow stairway to reach a point from which he could look out upon the city. Moscow was wrapped in flames I One month later the dis- astrous retreat set in. Between the winter storms and the ceaseless attacks of the Cossack horse- men the splendid French army was almost an- nihilated and the Muscovites had their revenge ! In honor of their glorious victory over Na- poleon the citizens erected in Moscow a magnifi- cent cathedral, whose white marble walls and gilded domes are plainly visible from the Spar- row Hills. The Church of the Redeemer, as it is called, at once invites comparison with St. Isaac's Cathedral. They are alike in being constructed on the lines of the Greek cross, in their noble proportions, in the relation of the gilded central dome to the four belfries, and in the use of re- liefs and as decoration for the faqades. Here, how- ever, the resemblance ceases. St. Isaac's is pseudo- classical in style, the Church of the Redeemer is Russian. The material of the one is largely gran- ite, its color dark, while the material of the other is white marble. The one is entered by Greek 140 Russia in the Summer of igi4 porticoes, the other by round-arched portals. There are no statues of saints or angels on the Redeemer Church. Indeed, the only un-Russian feature about It is that the domes do not swell out in the orthodox bulbous shape, which to our mind does not constitute an improvement. The interior, though in reality somewhat smaller than St. Isaac's, appears to be much larger. In fact, aside from the mosque of St. Sophia In Constantinople, I know of no other church edifice that conveys so strong an Impression of spaciousness. This is perhaps due to the abun- dance of light that streams in through the windows and to the effect of the decoration in marble and gold. The victory of 1 8 1 2 Is commemorated by a series of tablets bearing the names of the officers that fell In the campaign. Moscow cannot boast of having many places reserved for out-of-door recreation. The only one of consequence is Petrovski Park in a suburb to the northwest. Its chief attractions consist of a small pond, a theater, and a number of cheap restaurants. The Petrovski Palace In the park is a curious red and white brick building, surrounded by a battlemented wall with towers, presenting an altogether fantastic appearance. In the neighbor- hood there Is a race course, which may account for the absence of any crowd in the park while we were there in the afternoon. O CJ 1/3 M o_o 3d +^ ■M •*-< C O •- s c« S o c ^ ■" o c *^ !>. CO _C -t-j • CO w ^ CO w >; w o • 1- > 00 <^ . y i^ t— I o CHAPTER XV IMPRESSIONS OF MOSCOW ONE cannot but be impressed by the contrast Moscow presents to St. Petersburg. It is not cosmopolitan, nor even European; it is dis- tinctly Asiatic. Nor is this impression confined, as might be supposed, to the ancient Kremlin. The city abounds in narrow, tortuous streets with outrageous cobblestone pavement, over which the droschkies dash at break-neck speed to the evident discomfort of their occupants, not to speak of dan- ger to passing pedestrians. Now and again one is suddenly confronted by a high white wall, through which an arched passageway offers a nar- row but picturesque exit. The hieroglyphic shop signs along the main ave- nues are bound to rouse the keenest curiosity in a foreigner. He longs to decipher these strange in- scriptions, containing characters which recall the Greek alphabet he once studied in school, inter- spersed by cabalistic letters that are suggestive of the signs on Egyptian obelisks. The Russian al- phabet has been aptly styled an A B C in spasms I Its origin is interesting. 141 142 Rus'sia in the Summer of igi4 In the year 863 two brothers, Cyril and Metho- dius, monks of Constantinople, went as mission- aries to the Slavonic tribes of Moravia. These people had no written language, and in order that they might have the Scriptures and the Liturgy in their native tongue, Cyril invented an alphabet for which he used the Greek letters, adding other characters when the Greek was insufficient to con- vey peculiar Slavonic sounds. Thus constituted, the Slavonic alphabet contained forty-eight char- acters, a number that was reduced by Peter the Great's decree to thirty-five. In honor of its in- ventor, it is now called the Cyrillian alphabet. The shop signs in the poorer sections of the city, however, are even more curious than those just mentioned. They are, or at least are designed to be, works of art, — paintings representing the particular line of goods on sale in each shop. For example, the ambitious grocer displays a brilliant picture of bread, butter, cheese, eggs, vegetables and fruits. The butcher-signs portray a pleasing variety of bulls, calves, pigs, poultry, ham, sau- sage, liver, caviar, and herring. Think of the possibilities here for an artist making a specialty of ^'still life" I The necessity for signs of this, sort is obviously due to the fact that the cus- tomers for the most part are unable to read. Ac- cording to the Russian Year Book for 19 16, out of every thousand inhabitants in European Rus- -^ 2 13 ^ > U CO 6S o ; 13 -*-> C C3 c Impressions of Moscow 143 sia only twenty-three can read and write. More- over, the literate males are more than twice as many as the females, — and it is the latter that do the family shopping. Hence the picture signs! Another feature of Moscow that gives it an oriental aspect is the long lines of open air bazaars crowded with people bargaining for meats and vegetables and fruits, for bedding and clothing, for furniture and hardware, for concertinas and balalaikas, for toys and flashy jewelry, for icons and candles, and what not. At one point we came across a "thieves' market" in which only stolen articles are placed on sale ! In wandering about these markets and bazaars one sees many picturesque costumes. Tartar ven- ders of old clothes, Kalmuck and Circassian haw- kers, red-fezzed Greeks, long-robed Turks, mer- chants from Persia and China and Korea. Every- where conspicuous on the streets are the Orthodox priests, long-haired, full-bearded men wearing close-fitting cloaks with wide sleeves. A church procession I chanced to see was one long line of dazzling colors. First in the column appeared a host of sacred banners, on which were pictured scenes from the lives of Russian saints and mar- tyrs. Each banner was carried by three men, who at times fairly staggered in their efforts to keep it erect in the strong wind that was blowing. Next came the high clergy with curious crown-shaped 144 Russia in the Summer of 19 14 hats and brilliantly embroidered chasubles on which Greek crosses, large and small, were plainly discernible. These were followed by the lower dignitaries, and they in turn by a legion of priests and choristers. It was an impressive sight, one that was viewed by the bystanders with that out- ward reverence which is always accorded to things religious by the Russians. And yet in spite of the brilliant coloring of Moscow's walls and shrines and costumes, close contact with its inhabitants produces a depressing effect upon the thoughtful traveler. This we thought was due to the evidences of poverty on every side. The crowds of sad-eyed, half-starved men, women and children that swarmed out of the factories at the end of the day's work was anything but a cheerful sight. It was not so much their shabby clothing, — it was the lack of alertness and intelligence, the look of settled gloom and often of patient suffering written deep in their fea- tures. Even the children were stolid and showed no signs of playfulness or gaiety. The evil effects of vodka drinking on the poorer classes were to be seen constantly. In a walk of little more than an hour I counted as many as thirty-four men who were under its influence. As far as our observations went there were two stages in the process of getting drunk. The first might be called "the amorous stage." Men who Impressions of Moscow 145 have swallowed a pint of vodka begin to embrace and kiss each other in a very silly fashion. But soon the poison gets in its real work. Then comes complete and sudden collapse and the victims fall unconscious to the ground. Nobody appeared to be concerned about these poor wretches. The idea seems to be that they might as well remain where they fall until they have slept off the effects. The non-existence of the so-called bourgeois class is very noticeable in Moscow. There are the well-to-do, who ride in droschkies and dine and wine at luxurious restaurants. And there are the proletarians, who work and walk, and who gather by the hundreds In the smoke-filled cafes to eat bread and sausages and to drink kvass, beer and vodka. But the great gulf between these two is not bridged, as in other countries, by the middle class, who live comfortably on moderate incomes and by their thrift and ijijustry become owners of a little property. This was precisely the situation in France before the Revolution. The inevitable struggle between the two classes is fraught with the same frightful possibilities. Accompanied by a friend, I went one evening to the Hermitage. It is a concert garden on an ex- tensive scale with scenic railways, movies, and side-shows of every description, resembling Coney Island, or the Tivoli in Copenhagen. Seeing a nice-appearing colored man, and supposing that 14^ Russia in the Summer of igi4 he was an employee, we stopped to make some inquiries about the evening entertainment. When he found that we were struck with the excellent management of the place, he became quite com- municative and at length modestly admitted that he was the proprietor! He had worked his way up from being a common waiter to the head- waitership, and on the death of the previous man- ager had assumed his place. It was evidently a genuine pleasure to him to converse with Ameri- cans, and he ended by giving us free passes to the entertainment and Instructing an usher to show us to the best seats. The performance took place in a covered struc- ture open at the sides with a stage at one end. The vaudeville acts were excellent, though of course we missed the point of the jokes that greatly amused the crowd. But our turn was to come I One of the performers was a lean and lanky individual, whose stunt was to increase his stature by eight inches visibly before the audience. He was evidently unacquainted with the Russian language, and was compelled to stand for some time, while an attendant eloquently made an- nouncement of his extraordinary task. Then he took matters In his own hands, and to our Infinite surprise and amusement accompanied his wrig- gling upward with a running commentary in Eng- lish! His ejaculations, his slang expressions, and Impressions of Moscow 147 his humorous remarks about persons in the audi- ence were characteristically droll, and we had no difficulty In identifying him as an American. Needless to say, he rose to the emergency and proved himself a star performer I Our colored friend had told us that all this was only a preliminary, and had urged us to remain for the main performance, which began at mid- night. That, he said, was the regular time for the commencement of all real Russian amuse- ments. We took his advice. The later perform- ance was held In a separate building completely covered. This was also provided with a stage, but the audience room was filled, not with seats, but with small tables at which meals were served. The entertainment consisted chiefly of ballet dancing, in which we could detect no marked su- periority over similar dancing In the United States. We stayed until two o'clock, at which time there were as yet no signs of a near end to the festivi- ties. Greatly to our disgust, when we went out we found that there were no droschkles that were disengaged and we were forced to walk back to the hotel. As we approached it, having gone a little out of our way, we passed the Iberian Chapel, and noticed that even at that late hour the platform outside the door was filled with women muffled in shawls, prostrating themselves before the sacred shrine. CHAPTER XVI THE RUSSIAN PEASANT NO one with the instinct of a true traveler is content to limit his explorations to cities. He is equally interested to learn something of country life. This is especially desirable in Rus- sia where the peasants constitute fully eighty per cent, of the population. I was very anxious to visit a Russian village and to corroborate or dis- prove with my own eyes what I had read concern- ing the Russian peasantry. I urged Grundy to take me out in the country, but he was altogether obdurate. "What do you want to see a village for?" he said. "There is nothing there but filth and squalor." However, I was determined to go, and finally decided to venture alone. With my passport and my Baedeker I set out one morning and took the train for the Troitz- kaya Monastery, about forty miles distant from Moscow. Arriving at the station, I astonished the droschky drivers by declining their services and started on foot toward the buildings, which were not more than half a mile away. The monastery was founded by the Abbot Ser- 148 The Russian Peasant 149 gius in the year 1340. Not long after his death in 1392 it was attacked and destroyed by a horde of Tartars, but the body of St. Sergius was found uninjured in the smoking ruins of the convent. This miracle led to the annual pilgrimage of thou- sands to the saint's shrine. In the i6th century the monastery, which had grown enormously wealthy through the gifts of the pilgrims, was fortified by a strong wall, enabling it to withstand the fiercest attacks of the Poles in the time of the False Pretenders. It was to this monastery that Peter fled so ignominiously on hearing that the Streltsi were planning to murder him in his bed. The view as I approached the Troitzkaya Laura was one to delight the soul of an artist. A battlemented white wall pierced in the center by a low arch, from which rose a tower ending in a gilded dome and cross. To the right and left of the arch low wooden booths. Farther to the right a second archway, some droschkies, and then a row of trees. A monk was standing near the cen- ter gate conversing with a stranger. Here and there a pilgrim trading at the booths. In the back- ground, looming up behind the wall, white and gilded domes and in the distance a tall belfry. Entering the grounds through "the holy gate," one finds a variety of buildings : a dozen churches, the oflicials' residences, the monks' cells, a refec- tory, a bakery, a hospital, an almshouse, a treas- 150 Russia in the Summer of igi4 ury, a library, and a theological academy. Sev- eral of the buildings were curiously decorated out- side with facets and the shell-shaped arch. Most of them were garishly painted. The Trinity Ca- thedral contains a rich silver shrine, where the relics of St. Sergius rest. In the center of the grounds are a holy fountain and an obelisk. The treasury and the library were closed for the time being to visitors and my efforts to obtain special permission to enter were unavailing. Outside the wall there were several large hotels for the enter- tainment of pilgrims, who still come In great num- bers to visit the famous Laura. "But," says some one, ''you started out to see a village and visited a monastery instead!" Pa- tience, gentle reader. Such a deep laid scheme as mine must have time to unfold itself. I returned to the station and was again quickly surrounded by clamorous droschky drivers. I ex- perimented on them with choice guide-book phrases in half a dozen languages but did not evoke an intelligent reply. Among the stolid faces — growing more and more stupid as a result of my polyglot attacks — I noticed a youth with a comparatively alert ex- pression, whose eyes twinkled with an evident sense of humor at the situation. Opening my Baedeker, I pointed out and read to him a pas- sage stating that an Izvostschik (droschky) from it 4%^ >. 3 O 4-1 c TJ -1 Cj-i s O O Ul aj > (U rt H -C OS 00 w o; OJ -1 J= o 4-1 j:: \-t 0) OJ Tl -C n H OJ > w o ^ , OJ c 'A < n :3 "f:l'i;"' i ^ ' M'v .'.;■< ft, 1 4.)-,;, I . : I '( ■ r 'If: IP