LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
<^ 
 
THE 
 
 SCHOOLMASTER 
 
 NINETEENTH CENTURY, 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN. 
 
 
 
 A FULL GUIDE FOR THE NATURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MENTAL 
 
 POWERS OF CHILDHOOD, ADAPTED TO THE WANTS OF 
 
 AMERICAN CLASSES IN THE PRIMARY DEPARTMENT 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 DANIEL SLOTE & CO., 
 
 119 & 121 WILLIAM STREET. 
 
 isso 
 
 r 
 
s 
 
 Copyright^ 1880, by Daniel Slote df Co. 
 
 ELECTROTYPE D BY 
 
 SMITH & McDOUGAL, 
 82 BeekmanSt., N. Y. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE translator offers no apology for placing this 
 work on pedagogy before the American public, for 
 the reason that in a country that employs an army of two 
 hundred and fifty thousand public school teachers, such 
 a work will be both welcome and useful. The labor of 
 translation has been a labor of love. The author, a dis- 
 ciple of Pestalozzi, was a teacher of rare ability, one of the 
 best that Germany ever produced, combining profundity 
 of thought with simplicity and clearness of expression. 
 The translator well remembers, w^hen he was himself a 
 young and inexperienced teacher, the pleasure he felt 
 when this book first fell into his hands. What a flood of 
 light it threw on professional teachiDg! Previously, 
 his teaching had been hap-hazard, tedious and toilsome. 
 Under the inspiration of a master, it became systematic, 
 easy and pleasant. It is hoped that every American 
 teacher into whose hands this work may fall, will derive 
 from its study a similar profit and pleasure. 
 
 Teaching is a learned profession like law or medicine, 
 and should be thoroughly mastered in all its various 
 details. To accept a position as teacher without the 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 study and training essential to properly perform its 
 functions is simply a crime against the young and help- 
 less ; and no man or woman, with the least particle of 
 conscience, could, except through sheer ignorance, 
 undertake a work for which he or she felt unfit. Indeed, 
 the more ignorant the teacher is, the easier the work of 
 teachmg appears. It is only after the study of such a 
 work as we now offer to the public that all the diffi- 
 culties of professional teaching are fully realized. 
 
 Correct teaching is based on psychology. The mind 
 is placed in relations with the external world through 
 the medium of the special senses. How necessary then, 
 that these senses — ^particularly sight and hearing — should 
 be carefully and correctly cultivated. The seeing eye 
 and hearing ear are far more important than the knowl- 
 edge acquired in training them. The '^Object Lesson" 
 is the best lesson for cultivating perception. True per- 
 ceptions lead to true conceptions, and true conceptions 
 are the very foundations of Truth itself. To state accu- 
 rately and in an orderly manner, the exact form and 
 color, size and proportion of what we see, may appear 
 a very simple thing; but it is far from it, and often 
 taxes the highest order of poetic genius. How much 
 more difficult to exactly describe what we have seen. 
 This training of the perception and conception is simply 
 the training of the pictorial mind, without which no 
 man ever yet excelled in any intellectual employment. 
 
PKEFACE. 5 
 
 We claim for the present work that it inculcates the 
 cultiyation of the mental faculties in their true order, 
 commencing with the observation of the things around 
 the scholar, and passing to the memory of things which 
 he has recently seen ; that it advances by easy stages to 
 the training of the higher faculties; that the instruc- 
 tion is always adapted to the age of the learner ; and 
 that the lessons are systematic and progressive. Fur- 
 thermore, a vast fund of useful knowledge concerning 
 the country, the city, the sea, the atmosphere, the dif- 
 ferent occupations of men, etc., etc., is imparted in the 
 easiest and most simple manner. This information, 
 though subordinate to the cultivation of the mind, 
 unconsciously tends to make the child grow up an 
 orderly and self-respecting citizen. The method pur- 
 sued in this work will greatly increase the scholar's 
 vocabulary, and give him at an early age such a com- 
 mand of language as will enable him to express himself, 
 either orally or in writing, with ease and facility. Gram- 
 mar, too — at least all the grammar that a child need 
 know — is unconsciously taught without ever seeing a 
 text-book on the subject. 
 
 Normal schools are springing up all over the United 
 States. There are now nearly two hundred of them 
 doing a high and useful work. It has been a general 
 complaint that there has been no great work to which 
 teachers could refer as an authority on pedagogy. 
 
6 PEEFACE. 
 
 Perhaps such a book has yet to be written. And yet, 
 the translator is not without hope that the present work 
 contains the germs of that book which will become to 
 teachers what Blackstone's Commentaries has beeu to 
 lawyers — a guide and a monitor. Hoping that the great 
 army of teachers, and particularly of normal teachers, 
 may derive pleasure and profit from this little work, we 
 launch it forth on its merits, and whether it sink or 
 swim, we shall have at least the satisfaction of knowing 
 that we have performed a labor of love. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 FIEST STEP. 
 
 CLA.SSinCATIOlS' OF THE CHILD'S COKCEPTIOJS". 
 
 A»—JVaming and .gi^ouping of objects in regard to 
 their situation, 
 
 LESSON PAGE 
 
 I. — Things in tlie School-Room 15 
 
 II.— (Conceptive.) 16 
 
 III._ (Conceptive.) 17 
 
 IV. — (Conceptive.) The Barn. What it contains, etc. .. . 18 
 
 V. — (Conceptive.) What we see in the Kitchen 18 
 
 VI.— What we find in the Cellar 19 
 
 VII.— What the Stable and Farm- Yard contain 20 
 
 VIII. — What we see in the Garden or Park 20 
 
 IX.— Water 21 
 
 X. — ^What we see in the Country 22 
 
 XL — What we notice in the Sky and Air 22 
 
 XII. — Objects seen in a City or Village 23 
 
 ^. — JVa77ii7ig and enitmeration of objects accordiifg 
 to the 07iaterial of which they co?isist, 2^, 
 
 XIII.— Things made of Wood 24 
 
 XIV. — Things made of Iron or Steel 25 
 
 XV. — Things made of Leather 26 
 
 XVI. — What is made of Stone 26 
 
8 COi^TENTS. 
 
 LESSON PAGE 
 
 XVII.— Things made of Paper 27 
 
 XYIII.— Tilings made of Clay and Clay Pipe— Potters' Clay . . 28 
 
 XIX.— Things made of Cotton 29 
 
 XX. — Things made of Horn or Bone 29 
 
 C»^S)enominaiion atfd e7iiime7^atlo7i of objects in 
 acco7^da7ice 7^lt/i i/ielr uses and appllcatio?i. 33, 
 
 XXI. — Clothing — ror Males and Females 34 
 
 XXII.— Victuals, a. Uncooked 35 
 
 XXIIL— Victuals. &. Cooked 86 
 
 XXIV. — Trades, Professions— Different callings of Man ... 36 
 
 XXV.— Tools 37 
 
 ^. — Co7itemplatlo7i of J\^atit7'e» 39. 
 
 XX VI.— Quadrupeds 89 
 
 XXVII.— Birds 40 
 
 XXVIII. — Fishes, Amphibious Animals, and Worms 41 
 
 XXIX.— Insects 43 
 
 XXX.— Plants, a. Woody ones 43 
 
 XXXI.— Plants with Stalks. 6. Grasses 43 
 
 XXXIL— What is dug out of the Earth 43 
 
 XXXIIL— Natural Phenomena of the Heavens and the Earth 44 
 
 JE. — I^l7idi7ig a7id 7ia77ii7ig the pa7^ts of Objects, /f-7* 
 
 XXXIV.— The Head of Man 49 
 
 XXXV.— The Wagon 50 
 
 XXXVI.— A Horse 51 
 
 XXXVII.— A Knife 51 
 
 XXXVIII.— The Sparrow 53 
 
 XXXIX. — Dealing with the Noun in its second case 53 
 
 XL. — Continuation 55 
 
 XLI.— The parts of the Family 56 
 
 XLII.— Parts of the Coat 57 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 LESSON PAGE 
 
 XLIII. — Clotlies with, tlie names of their owners 58 
 
 XLIV.— The parts of a House 59 
 
 XLV.— Parts of tlie Tree 59 
 
 XLVI. — Denomination of Time 61 
 
 XLVII. — Coins, Measures, and Weights 61 
 
 SECOND STEP. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF IDEAS (TERMS) GAINED BY THE INVES- 
 TIGATION OF THE QUALITIES OF THINGS. 
 
 j4. — Abstract qicalitles or circuTnstances i7idepende7it 
 of time, Adjectives, words of qualities » 65, 
 
 XLVIII.— How a House is 67 
 
 XLIX.— How is a Tree? 69 
 
 L.— How the Dog is 70 
 
 LI.— How the Water is 71 
 
 LII.— How the Child is 73 
 
 LIII. — Dress. (Giving more systematically sub-divisions.) 73 
 LIV. — Domestic Animals, with their principal qualities. 
 
 (Compound relations.) 74 
 
 LV.— The members of the Family, with their character- 
 istics 77 
 
 LVI.— How a Road is 77 
 
 LVII. — What is found by the Roadside (with adjectives). . . 79 
 
 LVIII. — How Man is (may be, should or should not be) 79 
 
 !S. — Qualities of persons or t?ii77gs, with the accessory 
 ideas of ti77ie, actio7ij passiveness, conditio?i, 
 
 {Verbs.) 8/. 
 
 LIX, — What a Child does do (can do, should or should not 
 
 do) 84 
 
 LX. —What the Tradespeople do 85 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 LESSON PAGE 
 
 LXI. — ^What the Merchant does. (More minute definition 
 
 of the verb.) 86 
 
 LXII.— What is done by the Farmer 89 
 
 LXIII. — Work done by Females. (What does a wife do? a 
 
 servant ? ) 90 
 
 LXIV. — Adjectives derived from Verbs. (Verbal Adjectives 
 
 ■with suitable Nouns.) 92 
 
 LXV. — The Verb used as Noun, and its new definition given, 93 
 LXVI. — Oral Exercises on the use of Verbs, a. The three 
 
 Tenses (times) 93 
 
 LXVII.— &. Person in Verbs 95 
 
 LXVIII. — More intimate completion of those Verbs having a 
 
 general or vague meaning 97 
 
 LXIX. — Imperative mode of speaking, (Imperative mood.). 98 
 
 LXX. — Active and Passive form. 99 
 
 THIRD STEP. 
 
 THE PROPER ARRANGEMENT OF IDEAS, OR FORMATION OF 
 JUDGMENTS. CONNECTED SPEECH OR SENTENCES. 
 
 Sepa7^ate se7ite7ices about various objects. 702, 
 
 LXXI. — Sentences about objects found in a Room 104 
 
 LXXII. — Sentences about objects in a Church 106 
 
 LXXIII. — Sentences about Man according to his Occupa- 
 tion 107 
 
 LXXIV.— Sentences about Tools 110 
 
 LXXV. — Sentences about Quadrupeds Ill 
 
 LXXVL— Sentences about Birds 115 
 
 LXX VII, — Sentences about Fishes, Amphibia, etc 117 
 
 LXX VIII.— Sentences about Insects 119 
 
 LXXIX,— Sentences about Minerals 123 
 
 LXXX, — Sentences about Natural Phenomena 124 
 
 LXXXI.— Review 126 
 
 LXXXII. — Brief Development of Abstract Ideas 133 
 
CONTENTS. 11 
 
 LESSON PAGE 
 
 LXXXIII, — Description of the Qualities of Dogs 137 
 
 LXXXIY.— Description of the Qualities of Water 138 
 
 LXXXV.— The Qualities of Clothing 140 
 
 LXXXVI.— Qualities of Roads 142 
 
 LXXXVIL— Qualities of a Child 143 
 
 LXXX VIII.— Sentences about Trees and Shrubs 146 
 
 LXXXIX. — Sentences about Grass Plants 148 
 
 XC— Review 150 
 
 XCI.— The Wheel 151 
 
 XCIL— The Head 153 
 
OBJECT LESSONS 
 
 FIRST STEP. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHILD'S CONCEPTIONS. 
 
 A.—Kaming and gj^ouping of objects in regard 
 to their situation. 
 
 The object of these first exercises is obvious — to 
 awaken the attention, and develop in the mind of the 
 child that sense of order which is inseparably connected 
 with a well-regulated life. There are very many per- 
 sons who go through life thoughtlessly, paying scarcely 
 any attention to the various objects around them, and 
 hence deriving neither pleasure nor instruction from 
 them. These actions are merely habitual and mechani- 
 cal. To reflect on their surroundings — the facts of daily 
 life, or the phenomena of nature — seems to them idle 
 and useless. Why is this ? It is because they have not 
 been properly trained in early life. Their observing 
 faculties have not been cultivated. Hence, instead of 
 advancing in knowledge and virtue they retrograde, 
 having eyes that see not and ears that hear not. 
 
 To illustrate this fact, place one of the following 
 exercises, which may be taught successfully to a child 
 of only four years of age, before a cliild of ten years, 
 
14 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 possessing an average degree of intelligence, but pre- 
 viously untrained, and it will be astonishing to notice 
 how little it has heeded the common objects and daily 
 occurrences of its life, so as to be able to tell its experi- 
 ence, or to describe, with any degree of completeness 
 and accuracy, the things which it sees from day to day, 
 thus showing clearly the need of these varied exercises 
 in early school training ; first, to develop and train the 
 observing faculties, and secondly (simultaneously), to 
 cultivate the power of expression — of accurately repre- 
 senting the conceptions of the mind by words. 
 
 The following are to be considered as model exercises 
 or lessons, designed to illustrate the principle which 
 should guide the teacher in this important work — ele- 
 mentary mental trainiug. They begin with the simplest, 
 the most rudimentary operations of the mind of a child 
 old enough to be placed under school tuition; for it 
 must not be lost sight of that, even previous to this 
 stage of education, the process of mental development 
 has been going on rapidly and successfully, since the 
 child's mind has become the repository of a vast number 
 of ideas, acquired by the unaided powers of nature — the 
 self-activity of the untaught intellect. These ideas, in- 
 deed, constitute the basis of the teacher's work, the main 
 object of which is to stimulate, regulate, and direct the 
 natural activity of the child's mind, so that its sub- 
 sequent growth may be regular and symmetrical. 
 
FIRST STEP. 15 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 THINGS IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 
 
 Teacher. — What have yon come to school for ? 
 
 Pupils. — To learn. 
 
 Teacher. — Then, as yon are to learn from me, I must 
 first teach you how to speak, so that we may fully under- 
 stand each other. IS'ow, I shall only ask you to tell me 
 what you already know, and each of you in turn will 
 name any one thing which you can see in this room. 
 
 Pupil A. — Tlie talle. 
 
 The teacher points to each object as it is named by the 
 pupil. 
 
 Pupil B. — Tlie desks. 
 
 The teacher reminds the children that only one object 
 is to be named, 
 
 Pupil B. — The desh. 
 
 Pupil C.— The chair. 
 
 Teacher. — What three things have been named now ? 
 
 Pupil D. — The table, the desk, the chair. 
 
 The teacher gives the sign to repeat in concert. 
 
 All. — The table, the desk, the chair. 
 
 This will be sufficient to show the teacher in what 
 way the following lessons are to be given, without inter- 
 fering with the individual freedom of the pupils. The 
 teacher will perceive from the lesson itself how the 
 subject is to be treated; consequently, a few observa- 
 tions will be all that is needed in connection with each. 
 The first lesson, in continuation, may comprise the fol- 
 lowing objects and their names : 
 
 The talle, the desk, the chair, the dlackhoard, the stove, 
 
16 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 tlie wood-lox, tlie wood-rack, the floor, the ivall, the ceiling, 
 the lomdoio, the pane, the door, the locJc, the key, the chart, 
 the hook, the slate, the pen, the pencil, the paper, the ink- 
 stand, etc. 
 
 Of course the objects named may be more or less 
 numerous. All faulty pronunciations should be care- 
 fully corrected. 
 
 After the objects have been named in the singular, 
 the names should all be repeated in the plural. 
 
 LESSON ll. — {Concei3twe,) 
 
 Teacher. — Children, have you ever looked at a church, 
 both inside and outside ? All who have may raise their 
 hands, and I will call upon some one to tell me what 
 things he has seen. First, tell me what you have seen 
 in the inside of the church. 
 
 Pupil. — The organ, the pulpit, the peiu, the seat. 
 
 Teacher. — Well, perhaps the next can name more 
 things that he has seen. 
 
 Pupil. — TJie aisle, the pillar, the altar, the wmdoiu, the 
 stove, the door, the lock. 
 
 All the names given should then be repeated in the 
 plural, the pupils being told to name several of each 
 object mentioned; thus, the organs, the pulpits, the pen)S, 
 the seats, etc. 
 
 Many of the words of the first lesson are here repeated. 
 This is well ; and the attention of the children should 
 be drawn to it, as they will then think of the difference 
 between the door of a church (for example) and the door 
 of a room or dwelling-house. 
 
riEST STEP. 17 
 
 The aisle, tJie pillar, the altar, the windoiv, tlie stove, 
 the door, the lock, the gallery, the reading-desk, the 
 cushion, the BiUe, the hymn-hook, the prayer-book, the 
 carpet, the altar-cloth, the organ-pipe (this is really a 
 part of the organ, but is not to be spoken of as snch in 
 this exercise), tlie choir, the hell, the lell-rope, etc. 
 
 If the pupils are at fault, either through want of lan- 
 guage or deficiency of knowledge, their ideas should be 
 drawn out by questions. For example, Where do the 
 people sit lohen in church ? Where does the minister stand 
 while preaching? Where do the singers stand? etc., etc. 
 
 Pupils are now reminded that they haye talked about 
 the inside of a church, and that the next exercise will re- 
 late to the outside of it. This will induce them to observe 
 and reflect, as far as they have opportunity, during the 
 interim. 
 
 LESSON lll.—^Conceptive. 
 
 Teacher. — Now, pupils, you will name what you have 
 seen on the outside of a church. This pupil will begin. 
 
 Pupil. — The steeple, the hell, the clock, the roof, the 
 cross, the door, the railing, the gate, the window, the luall, 
 the stone, the trick, the mortar, the iron, etc. 
 
 These names are now to be repeated, in the plural, the 
 attention of the children being called to the fact that 
 mortar, iron, etc., cannot be so named. 
 
18 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 LESSON lY. — {Concepive.) 
 
 THE BARN. WHAT IT CONTAINS, ETC. 
 
 In instructing young children there should be great 
 yariety in the subjects of the lessons. Hence, we pass 
 from the church to the lai^n. Of course, in cities many 
 of the children will know but little of the barn ; but it 
 will awaken curiosity for them to hear the others speak 
 of it, and describe the objects connected with it. As in 
 previous lessons, the pupils will name. The hay, the straiv, 
 the corn, the rye, the oats, the larley, the wheat, the 
 wagon, the sleigh, the pitch-forh, the sieve, the rake, the 
 floor, the avails, the roof, the door, the holt, the hinge, the 
 loch, the 'plough, etc. 
 
 Teachers and parents who teach only a few children, 
 would do well to give these lessons in the form of a con- 
 yersation ; and, indeed, it is best, in all cases, to use as 
 much as possible conversational methods. 
 
 LESSON Y, — {Conceptwe?) 
 
 WHAT WE SEE IN THE KITCHEN. 
 
 By questions similar to those employed in the preced- 
 ing lessons, we elicit from the pupils such names as the 
 following, each pupil referring to his own conceptions, 
 which, of course, may be somewhat different from those 
 of other pupils. 
 
 The cooTcing-stove, the range, the coal-scuttle, the shovel, 
 the iox, the pail, the wash-basin, the broom, the table, the 
 wood-bench, the sinh, the closet, the boiler, the sauce-pan, the 
 
FIRST STEP. 19 
 
 pot, the frying-pan, the gridiron, the stew-pan, the plate, 
 the mug, the cup, the can, the Icnife, the fork, the spoon, 
 the coal, the ashes, the fire, the light, the lamp, the meat, 
 the 'bread, the flour, etc. 
 
 The children may now be encouraged to give a brief 
 description of some of the objects named; thus, ^'The 
 j!?«i7 is made of wood." "It is round and deep." "The 
 knife is long and pointed." " It is thin and sharp/' etc. 
 Descriptions of this kind will be given very readily by 
 the children ; and will serve as a further exercise in clas- 
 sifying the conceptions and in associating with them the 
 proper words for expression. This will be of far greater 
 value than all mere dictation and repetition ; since the 
 child is made to employ his own acquired knowledge. In 
 these descriptions, the children may be taught to regard 
 the form, material, use, etc., of the objects named. Words 
 which occur frequently, as door, window, tvall, etc., may 
 be excluded, as the number of new words is increased. 
 
 LESSON YI. 
 
 WHAT WE FIND IN THE CELLAR. 
 
 This lesson is necessarily brief, since most children 
 know but little of the objects in a cellar. 
 
 The coal, the wood, the apples (or other fruit), ilie 
 potatoes (and other vegetables), tlie 'butter, the coal-bin, 
 the wine, the beer, the cider, the vinegar, the ax, the 
 shovel, the furnace, etc. 
 
 If one part of a thing is mentioned, the other parts 
 may also be named, if known to the children, as this will 
 be a preparation for subsequent lessons on "Parts of 
 Things." 
 
20 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 LESSON YII. 
 
 WHAT THE STABLE AND FARM- YARD CONTAIN. 
 
 In this lesson, a more logical order is observed, the 
 general names preceding those that are specific and indi- 
 vidualized. This, however, need not be rigidly insisted 
 on at this stage. The following arrangement will afford 
 an illustration : 
 
 The cattle, ox, cow, heifer, calf, horse, ma7^e, colt, sheep, 
 lamb, goat, kid, sioine, hoar, sow, pig. The poultry, cocJc, 
 hen, chickens, goose, goslings, cluck^ drahe, turkey. The 
 feed, hay, corn, oats. The crib, the rack, the rope, the 
 chain, the bell, the yoke, the collar, the reins, the brush, 
 the curry-comb, the blanket, etc., etc. 
 
 Several words of this exercise have been mentioned in 
 preceding lessons, but are here repeated in a difierent con- 
 nection. This is vahiable, and indeed indispensable, for 
 thorough instruction in thinking and conversation. The 
 main object of this lesson is to give a drill on the names 
 of the domestic animals. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 WHAT WE SEE IN THE GARDEN OR PARK. 
 
 In this lesson occasion may be taken to remind the 
 children that it is very rude to do any damage when in a 
 friend's garden, or a public park, by cutting the seats, 
 plucking the flowers, or tearing the branches off the trees. 
 Similar instruction in "Morals and Manners" should be 
 
FIRST STEP. 21 
 
 interspersed in all the lessons as far as may be appropri- 
 ate. The teacher should be critical in regard to the 
 names of objects mentioned. This is especially neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Theflo2ver, rose, violet, tulip, 'pinh, etc. The tree, oah, 
 maple, leech, elm, etc. The grass, the clover, the sod, the 
 ardor, the fence, the vine, the pkmt, the hush, the lird, the 
 nest, the ivorm, the caterpillar, the hutterfly, etc. 
 
 After the objects have been named promiscuously, they 
 maybe arranged in classes; as, 1. Animals; 2. Plants; 
 3. Other things. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 I. Different hinds of ivater. 
 II. What the luater contains. 
 
 III. What im see on its surface. 
 
 IV. What ice see near the neater. 
 
 I. Eain-water, river- water, sea- water, well- water, spring- 
 water. 
 
 II. The frog, the fish, the whale, the sea-weed, the 
 water-snake, the turtle. 
 
 III. The ship, the brig, the sloop, the boat, the steam- 
 boat, the steam-ship. 
 
 IV. The stone, the sand, the shell, the bank, the bridge, 
 the mill, the rock, the pier, the dock, etc. 
 
 In connection with this lesson, instruction may be 
 given as to the use of water, carefulness in bathing, etc. 
 Those children who live near large rivers, seas, or the 
 ocean, may be exercised on the ideas which they have 
 
22 OBJECT LESSOI<rS. 
 
 acquired in relation to trade, commerce, shipping, etc.; 
 and, incidentally, much useful knowledge may be im- 
 parted by the teacher. In some of the subsequent lessons, 
 ample opportunity will be afforded for instruction regard- 
 ing mills, factories, etc. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 WHAT WE SEE IN THE COUNTRY. 
 
 When parts of objects are mentioned, the children 
 should be asked to name the objects to which they be- 
 long. Thus, if Ivancli is mentioned, the question is 
 asked, " Of what is the branch a part ? " Anstver. " The 
 tree. " Of what is the tree a part ? " Ans, " The ivood, 
 forest, grove, or orchard." Other questions will be dic- 
 tated by circumstances as they arise. 
 
 Tlie soil, the meadow, the orchard, the vineyard, the wood, 
 the forest, the grove, the glade, the hill, the dale, the road, the 
 river, the creek, the bridge, the pond, the lake, the farm, the 
 house, the barn, the cattle, the hay-rick, the hay-stack, the 
 grass, the wheat, the corn, etc. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 WHAT WE NOTICE IN THE SKY AND AIR. 
 
 To-day we will not speak of what is on the earth, but 
 what is above it. This exercise offers a number of new 
 words, and therefore an agreeable change. 
 
FIKST STEP. 23 
 
 TJie shy, the air, the tuind (east, south, west, north), 
 the storm (air in motion), the s^nohe, the fog, the moon, 
 the sun, the star, the cloud, the rain, the thunder, the 
 light7iing,. the snow, etc. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 OBJECTS SEEN IN A CITY OR VILLAGE. 
 
 Notice the remarks made in Lesson X. 
 
 The house, city-hall, church, school-house, prison, toiuer, 
 steeple, street, alley, avenue, pavement, gutter, garden, 
 fence, parTc, fountain, ivall, people^ childre7i, school-loy, 
 school-girl, man, luoman, etc. 
 
 These twelve exercises serve, so to speak, as an intro- 
 duction to our intuitive instruction ; however, similar 
 ones should be given for some time yet to children of 
 tender age, or to those whose intellect is not yet suf- 
 ficiently developed. The aim of these lessons is to teach 
 children in general that they are surrounded ly oijects 
 of all sorts, which they should notice and learn to desig- 
 nate correctly ; that is, in accordance with the rules of 
 written language. The teacher must here embrace the 
 opportunity of pointing out the difference between the 
 latter and slang expressions. 
 
24 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 B. — J\^aTYhing and enumeration of objects accord- 
 ing to the material of which they consist. 
 
 Our mental vision now becomes enlarged ; we perceive 
 the objects in accordance with the materials (matter, in- 
 organic substances) which compose them ; and we con- 
 template some real quality in them which, in asking the 
 question "What is this ?" must become evident at once. 
 At the same time, the world thus appears to our children 
 as divided into two parts — ^products of nature and pro- 
 ducts of art. Of the latter we shall speak at first, they 
 being more familiar to, and better known by, the chil- 
 dren than the former, and likewise more easily investi- 
 gated according to their real nature, the children know- 
 ing many objects of this kind already; how and by whom 
 they are made, likewise how they are used. We enter 
 first upon the field of technology, but without naming 
 this science to the children, or even letting them know 
 that we are approaching a science. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF WOOD. 
 
 Children, we will now name the objects according to 
 the matter of which they are made, for many things are 
 made of wood, iron, stone, leather, paper, etc. 
 
 What is a shoe made of? 
 What is a table made of ? 
 'What is a book made of? 
 
FIRST STEP. 25 
 
 What is a chair made of ? 
 
 What is a bridge made of? 
 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Try whether you know many things made of wood. 
 
 The table, bench, chair, blackboard, frame, flooring, door, 
 mantel-piece, sill, pencil-box, moulding, ruler, shutter, 
 drawer, box, case, fiddle, bureau, bedstead, stair-case, wheel, 
 wagon, etc. 
 
 The number of words is so large that all doubtful or 
 equivocal expressions may be omitted. The teacher 
 must, however, be as concise and certain as possible 
 about all circumstances connected with those given. 
 
 LESSON XIY. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF IRON OR STEEL. 
 
 Of those objects made partly of wood and partly of 
 iron the respective parts only are given ; or it is shown 
 that the principal part consists either of wood or of iron. 
 
 Example. — The fork-handle, the knife-blade, the 
 wagon, the knife, the spade, etc. 
 
 The lock, stove, poker, nail, hammer, gimlet, tongue, file, 
 rasp, knife (different kinds of: chaff-, cuttmg-, pen-, 
 pruning-), scissors, reaping-hook, sickle, plough, anvil, clew, 
 tire, box, lever, chain, ring, holt, iron, horse-shoe, etc. 
 
 Why is the chain not made of wood ? Why is an iron 
 box better for a wheel than a wooden one ? Questions 
 of this kind enliven, so to speak, these exercises. They 
 must, however, be of such a nature that their answers 
 are readily found by the children, for otherwise such 
 instruction will become tedious, 
 2 
 
26 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 LESSON XY. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF LEATHER. 
 
 As an introduction to this lesson the different kinds 
 of leather may be named ; as, leather made of cow- 
 hides, sheep-skins, calf-skins, horse-hides, deer-skins, 
 chamois, Eussian leather, sole-leather, leather for uppers, 
 morocco, etc. 
 
 The boot, shoe, slipper, riding-gear, saddle, simps (tail- 
 strap, neck-strap, bell-, knee-, bolster-, belly-), whip, 
 noose, harness, bridle, collar, rein, halter, side-flaps, trunk, 
 satchel, valise, apron, bellows, etc. 
 
 Whether the general word is to be named first or last 
 is of little or no importance ; however, it should be the 
 aim of the teacher to commence now more systematically 
 to accustom the children to some order in giving a com- 
 plete enumeration of the different kinds ; that is, after 
 having stated the kind, to name the sub-parts until 
 everything connected therewith has been stated. 
 
 Example.— After mentioning ''^ harness," state its 
 different parts — that is, everything made of leather in 
 connection with it. 
 
 LESSON XYI. 
 
 WHAT IS MADE OF STONE ? 
 
 What kind of stones are produced either by nature or 
 by art? The principal denomination is stone, which. 
 
FIRST STEP. 27 
 
 however, often combines with other words, so as to de- 
 note the kinds of stone. 
 
 Example. — Sand-stone, brown-stone, free-stone, hme- 
 stone, cobble-stone, grind-stone, whet-stone, brim-stone, 
 etc. 
 
 The flint, rock, granite, plaster-of-paris, diamond, marble, 
 slate, felspar, quartz^ etc. 
 
 The wall, house, church, tower, gutter, curbstone, slate, 
 mantel-piece, hearth, floor, corridor, pillar, column, pave- 
 ment, sidewalk, slab, altar-piece, fountain, well, trough, 
 corner-stone, key-stone, bench, cross, grave-stone, mile-stone, 
 boundary- stone, vault, arch, buttress, fire-place, lime (slaked 
 and unslaked), etc. 
 
 Order (classification) has not been preserved here in 
 too rigid a manner, so as not to bnrden the children too 
 much, nor to awaken the idea as if order had always to 
 be strictly adhered to. The special exigencies must guide 
 the teacher in how far he may advance. As a general 
 rule it is henceforth always advisable to keep together 
 that which belongs together, so as to pave the way for 
 limiting our ideas to the matter before us. 
 
 LESSON XYII. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF PAPER. 
 
 The charm found in learning does not alone consist in 
 a child's first contemplation of something new ; it con- 
 sists principally in the different surprises it meets with, 
 and the beneficial effect of learning is brought about by 
 the persistent consideration of any object prepared for 
 
28 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 the child by the teacher; this is true even if such object 
 be of little intrinsic value in itself. *^What is made of 
 paper ? " This is hardly worth while to ask, many a 
 learned man may think. But children have hardly be- 
 gun their work when a great many words and objects 
 conveying both pleasure and instruction crowd upon 
 them. 
 
 Different kinds of paper boxes — band-box, hat-box, 
 druggist-box, candy-box, etc. 
 
 The hook (different kinds of books : primer, reader, 
 Bible, prayer-book, song-book, pass-book, copy-book, 
 pocket-book, exercise-book, geography, arithmetic, etc.), 
 binding, cover, almanac, measure (tailors' and shoemakers'), 
 leaf, title-page, pattern, manuscript, letter, envelope, drawing, 
 collar^ billj sheet, quire, ream, etc. 
 
 LESSON XYIII. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF CLAY AND CLAY PIPE POT- 
 TERS' CLAY. 
 
 The above are found in great quantities, and therefore 
 not so much esteemed. But the most necessary and use- 
 ful implements and objects are made of clay, which 
 therefore may be compared to iron, and the child thus 
 led to admire the goodness and wisdom of the Creator, 
 and to perceive, at the same rime, the skill and intelH- 
 gence of man. The teacher must, however, here guard 
 against excessive moralizing, or the interest of the chil- 
 dren will be relaxed. 
 
 The tile, brick, pipe, jar, jug, pot, pitcher, plate, dishes, 
 cover, mould, cup, saucei', figure, statue, ornament, mug, 
 bowl, etc. 
 
FIRST STEP. 29 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF COTTON. 
 
 At first it should be remarked that cotton is a yegetable 
 production, how and where grown, gathered, spun, woven 
 (where ? and by whom ?). 
 
 Muslin, calico, sheeting, shirting, tick, cloth, jean, hags, 
 undergarment, dresses, hose, stockings, etc. 
 
 This lesson may be carried to any extent, enumerating 
 first the different kinds of yarn — their uses and color, 
 and then giving a similar lesson on wool, silk, fiax, hemp, 
 hair, etc. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 THINGS MADE OF HORN OR BONE. 
 
 A short conversation about animals and the use of the 
 above unimportant parts of them, will be very pleasing 
 to children. Here, however, no book should be con- 
 sulted, except for preparation or for reference to anything 
 very, important, for that only should be taught which 
 our own observation and experience has taught us. The 
 teacher must now accustom himself to a free, independ- 
 ent, extemporaneous mode of expression, which for this 
 very reason will prove doubly interesting to the children. 
 
 The comb, handle, hilt, spoon, (mustard-spoon, etc.,) salad- 
 fork (not being affected by acid), tooth-brush, tooth-pick, 
 button, ball, pipe, rattles, rings, paper-cutter, etc. 
 
 According to circumstances, the articles made of the 
 
30 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 precious metals may likewise be given, gold, silver, tin, 
 lead, copper, etc. To the multiplying of these intro- 
 ductory exercises there is no objection. Tediousness is 
 never created thereby. In schools, where poverty of 
 language predominates, the children may be required to 
 state what is found in stores and sold (1) by weight, (2) 
 by measure. 
 
 Let us pause here in order to examine critically the 
 results of this method of instruction. 
 
 1. The attention of the children, this primary and 
 indispensable condition of all instruction, which is so 
 frequently wanting in schools, is aroused and sustained, 
 not by expedients irrelevant to the subject or injurious 
 to morality — for example, praise or censure, reward or 
 punishment — but by nature herself; no food is even 
 given to that curiosity which is systematidklly excited by 
 pictures and objects from foreign countries. The chil- 
 dren, by their growing attention, cause the teacher to 
 derive more and more pleasure, while such attention 
 finally becomes a confirmed habit with the children. The 
 child becomes accustomed to think, to observe and to 
 reflect in every direction, and these mental habits hke- 
 wise influence its acts. True, up to this time the eyes 
 only have been called into action, in order to enlarge the 
 experience and increase the power of observation of the 
 children ; but the accuracy of one sense is unconsciously 
 communicated to the remaining senses, and afterwards — 
 especially when searching for the qualities and properties 
 of objects — we can avail ourselves of the opportunity, 
 indeed we are confronted with the necessity, of exercis- 
 ing each one of the remaining senses by itself. 
 
 2. The children's fluency of speech has already im- 
 proved considerably. More than half the words were 
 
FIKST STEP. 31 
 
 formerly pronounced incorrectly by them, all these errors 
 in pronunciation, as far as known to the teacher, were 
 corrected, by which means the children learned to note 
 the correct and incorrect expressions, and naturally 
 retained the former. As a matter of course, facility in 
 speaking is assisted by suitable observations and the 
 mutual confidence existing between teachers and their 
 scholars. 
 
 3. The knowledge of the grammar imparted, not in an 
 arbitrary manner, but as occasion may call for, is found 
 to be sufficient to answer the following questions : 
 
 (a.) What is a noun ? The sign, the name of a thing 
 or object. It is therefore as necessary in a language as 
 the object itself, for example, in the household ; without 
 the names of things we could not talk about them, and 
 consequently we could not tell what is in the room or in 
 the field. Thus scholars will retain the idea of a noun, 
 explained and made plain by a thousand examples, and 
 have it indelibly impressed on their minds, so as to be 
 ever afterward able to distinguish a noun from all other 
 parts of speech. 
 
 (h.) What changes may a noun undergo ? When we 
 speak of one only the word is in the singular ; when we 
 speak of several, it is in the plural. The adding of s or 
 es generally forms the plural. 
 
 (c.) Which words have no plural ? Those whose nature 
 is ever the same, whether in an atom or the largest 
 quantity, such as milk, butter, bread, etc. [NTothing 
 special need be said about those nouns that have no sin- 
 gular, for there are but a few of them and they are easily 
 learned by practice. 
 
 (d,) The technical term "article" must be accepted 
 without explanation. The definite article "the" and 
 
32 OBJECT LESS0i5"S. 
 
 the indefinite ^'sl, an" must now be known, as well as 
 the genders masculine, feminine and neuter. 
 
 At this point I must, however, caution every teacher 
 against the mistake of instructing the children, at this 
 stage at least, at too great length on the cases of declen- 
 sions, with which grammatical instruction usually com- 
 mences. The learning and recitation of dull declensions 
 and conjugations is a main cause of the want of a proper 
 grammatical knowledge among the common people. They 
 will be much more firmly impressed on the minds of the 
 pupils when they are not learned until they become 
 necessary for the construction of words into sentences, 
 for then the way has been paved for them by various 
 appropriate exercises. 
 
 But perhaps just at this point some teachers will miss 
 those exercises for memorizing which they like to provide 
 so as to give the pupils something to learn by heart. My 
 objections to this are twofold : 
 
 1. I claim for object-teaching only one hour or two 
 half hours per day, and do not prevent any teacher from 
 carrying out his other plans. If he will only avoid, in 
 his grammatical instruction, those drawling recitations to 
 •which I have before alluded, I have no objections to his 
 requiring the children to learn daily a few verses or sen- 
 tences, which may seem necessary for their instruction, 
 in morality and good manners. 
 
 2. The universal error, however, that the memory is 
 especially strengthened by learning by heart, must be 
 dispelled in our century. Only that is a true exercise 
 for and strengthening to the memory, which is impressed 
 on the mind when full attention is attracted to it, for 
 only then the understanding comprehends it and reflec- 
 .tion retains it firmly. To be sure,' children will acquire 
 
FIRST STEP. 33 
 
 the knack of learning in a short time a column of words, 
 a song, perhaps even a psalm ; but it is in the nature of 
 things that these exercises cannot be continued for years, 
 because in course of time that which was learned long 
 since, but which has no connection with the ordinary- 
 topics, gradually escapes the memory, and old matter is 
 continually supplanted by new ideas. The experience of 
 every-day life teaches that people who have learned a 
 great deal by heart while at school do not possess any 
 extraordinary memory in old age, and that on an average 
 scarcely one-tenth part of what has been mechanically 
 learned is retained, while very much of it is utterly for- 
 gotten. And why do those, who in their youth learned 
 almost an endless number of rules and words, not pub- 
 licly admit that in memorizing long discourses an insight 
 into the connection of the dissertation is of far greater 
 assistance to them than the mere childish learning of it 
 by heart? Let these exercises be retained for children 
 as a useful occupation, but guard against the error of 
 supposing that by these means an excellent memory can 
 be acquired. 
 
 C. — Denomination and enumeration of objects in 
 accordance with their uses and application. 
 
 In full recognition of the necessity of such exercises 
 in order to properly comprehend and appreciate the uses 
 and applications of different objects, every treatise on 
 instruction treats of them more or less. The first step 
 in doing this consists in naming a certam class of things 
 in accordance with the uses to which they are applied ; 
 
34 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 in doing which, the individual observations of the chil- 
 dren will develop themselves, thus strengthening their 
 mental faculties in such a manner that the mind does 
 not become burdened by extraneous matter, but on the 
 contrary becomes developed from within. In speaking, 
 for example (Lesson XXI), of clothing, the children will 
 readily distinguish the covering pertaining to the head, 
 legs, feet ; that used in summer and winter. In speaking 
 of victuals (Lessons XXII and XXIII), they obtain 
 naturally an idea of intemperance, squandering, and 
 gluttony. If, however, we merely single out the one 
 or the other of these ideas as subject-matter of our own 
 investigation and catechetical development, we do not 
 exhaust them either as to their limitation or substance, 
 and most of these detached pieces will be lost to many, 
 used by but few, and become matured only in those who 
 wish to enter the teaching profession — and this under 
 favorable instruction only, as everybody must acknowl- 
 edge when asking himself this question in an impartial 
 spirit. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 CLOTHING FOR MALES AND FEMALES. 
 
 The division of cloth according to color is generally 
 so accidental that it is not worth mentioning; the 
 division according to material, use, season, the sex of the 
 individual, is more important, but need not be dealt with 
 particularly, it being of less importance, for special 
 exercises will be given on the subject of division (classi- 
 fication of impression and ideas). N'evertheless, when- 
 
FIRST STEP. 35 
 
 ever aptitude and readiness in the determination of tlie 
 above is shown by the children themselves, this should 
 on no account be slighted as being premature. The 
 mentioning of the plural may now be discarded. 
 
 The hat (if desired : straw-, felt-, silk-, etc.), ca20, ton- 
 net, necktie, cloak, coat, jacket, vest, trousers, suspenders, 
 shirt, ribbon, garter, apron, stocking, shoe, boot, gaiter, 
 slipper, legging, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 VICTUALS a. UNCOOKED. 
 
 The teacher will find that the children can name, 
 without much trouble, the objects belonging to the dif- 
 ferent kinds of food in some systematical order, such as 
 the different kinds of fruits, etc. 
 
 Tlie fruit, apple, pear, plum, nut, cherry, apricot, 
 quince, peach, chestnut, fig, lemon, orange, almond, mul- 
 berry, straivberry, blackberry, sugar-cane, turnip, carrot, 
 radish, salad, lettuce, spinach, milk (sweet, sour, curdled), 
 cream, butter, cheese, honey, pepper, salt, ginger, cloves, 
 nutmeg, etc. 
 
 Kemarks about temperance and proper care in making 
 use of food, especially that of a poisonous character, 
 must not be overlooked, and the effect of gluttony and 
 daintiness pointed out. The number and variety of the 
 different products which serve as nutriment for man 
 may likewise be made use of in illustrating the kindness 
 of God. 
 
36 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 VICTUALS — 1). COOKED. 
 
 Every country, every locality having its peculiar dishes, 
 the exercise given below must be varied in accordance 
 therewith. To point out particularly those dishes which 
 are boiled, fried, stewed, baked, roasted, etc., is not 
 required. 
 
 Soup (beef, chicken, tomato, broth, gravy, etc.), vege- 
 tables, peas, leans, corn, porridge, liominy, turnip, rice, 
 asparagus, cahhage, cole, caulifloiuer, meat, roast beef, veal, 
 mutton, porlc, game, venison, preserves, siceetmeat, con- 
 fectionery, calces, etc. 
 
 This lesson should be varied according to the partic- 
 ular circumstances and order of the children. 
 
 LESSON XXIV^. 
 
 TRADES, PROFESSIONS — DIFFERENT CALLINGS OF MAN. 
 
 It being still the sad custom in most schools to teach 
 children reading before they have acquired accuracy in 
 speaking and thinking, these exercises will be given in 
 alphabetical order; however, the teacher may choose 
 names from his very neighborhood, whether in town or 
 country, or pick them out in accordance with the mate- 
 rials used by them. 
 
 Apothecary, architect, author, apprentice. 
 
 Builder, barber, baker, brush-maker, book-binder, 
 butcher, black-smith, brick-maker, brick-layer. 
 
FIRST STEP. 37 
 
 Clerk, carman, carrier, chimney-sweep, currier, cooper, 
 clergyman, colonel, carpenter, cabinet-maker. 
 
 Doctor, driver, dyer. 
 
 Expressman. 
 
 Fisherman, farmer, footman, foreman. 
 
 Gardener, gold-smith, grocer, glue-boiler, general, 
 grinder. 
 
 Host, hotel-keeper, hatter, hunter. 
 
 Innkeeper, journeyman. 
 
 Lawyer. 
 
 Manufacturer, moulder, merchant, mason, miller, mu- 
 sician, mechanic. 
 
 Officer. 
 
 Peddler, potter, piano-maker, policeman, postman, 
 painter, porter, paper-hanger. 
 
 Quack. 
 
 Rag-picker, rope-maker. 
 
 Stationer, soldier, sergeant, shoemaker, saddler, stu- 
 dent, sailor. 
 
 Turner, tanner, teacher, tailor. 
 
 Watchman, watch-maker, wig-maker, waiter, weaver, 
 wagon -builder, wire-worker. 
 
 LESSON XXY 
 
 TOOLS. 
 
 Saiv, gimlet, auger, hammer, hiife, ax, hatchet, cooper- 
 hnife, ruler, compass, cutter, scale, brush, rasp, plane, 
 ^oorTc-lench, lathe, tongs, anvil, pincers, 7nallet, needle, 
 thread, scissors, chisel, ptmch, level, lever, angle, ivheel- 
 larroiv, etc. 
 
38 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 For musicians: Piano, violin, hautloy, clarionet, flute, 
 fife, lute, trumpet, horn, triaiigle, cymlal, organ. 
 
 For soldiers : Musket, sivord, bayonet, charge, ammu- 
 nition-box, poivder, bullet, lead, pistol, gun, rifle, mortar, 
 cannon, etc. 
 
 For pupils: Ink, payer, pen, ink-bottle, pencil-box, slate- 
 pencil, lead-pencil, india-rubber, books, satchel, etc. 
 
 For farmers : Spade, shovel, hoe, rack, fork, toagon, cart, 
 plough, reaping-machine, ploughing -machine, etc. 
 
 This lesson may serve the teacher as a sample to develop 
 the intelligence of his school. Let him, for example, say 
 to his better scholars : Children, write down the tools the 
 different classes of men make use of, and try to do so in 
 orderly manner. But few will show anything worthy of 
 note; some will hardly have seized its import; most will 
 have written everything topsy-turvy. This, however, I 
 need not apprehend with my pupils. In merely twenty- 
 five exercises I have awakened a discrimination for proper 
 division in children only six years of age, and after having 
 instructed them half a year according to this method, and 
 taught them a little reading and writing, most of them 
 will write down such an exercise almost without mistakes. 
 With children of weaker intellects the names of build- 
 mgs, and also of the best known Christian names with 
 their correct spelling may be practised ; and in doing this 
 it will be seen that eagerness and good will are not found 
 wanting in the children. 
 
FIRST STEP. 39 
 
 D.— Contemplation of nature. 
 
 It is disgraceful to teachers, both high and low, to 
 find how backward most of their pupils are in their 
 ideas about nature. Knowledge of nature is want- 
 ing everywhere, and we are so lenient herein that we 
 forgive even the learned for knowing only superficially 
 the different kinds of wood, plants, minerals, etc. ; they 
 go listlessly, blindly, and joylessly through the forest, 
 meadows, and gardens; and, unless accompanied by 
 some writer of the olden school, or a modern poet, or a 
 man of fiction, they experience more annoyance in the 
 temple of nature than in attending a church service 
 in which they have no faith. The common man pos- 
 sesses a few more facts in relation thereto, but not 
 near as much as is requisite for a comprehensive ful- 
 filhuent of his calling, or for the admiration of the 
 grandeur and beauty of these objects ; he remains with- 
 out knowledge of nature, up to his death, the rude, 
 ignorant, and superstitious being he was in his wildest 
 youth. It requires but a very small beginning in order 
 to gain in daily intercourse with nature an elevated 
 position in the scale of learning. 
 
 LESSON XXYI 
 
 QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 We now pass from objects of art to the products of 
 nature. In our first lessons we approached this field, 
 but now we view it more minutely and without any 
 
40 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 book. The children themselves will arrive at the divi- 
 sion of the whole universe into the three natural king- 
 doms — animal, vegetable, and mineral. In these latter 
 the children move about with fresh pleasure, most of 
 what is demanded of them by the teacher being known 
 to them already. AYhether beginning with wild or tame 
 animals, native or foreign, does not matter ; in doubtful 
 cases, however, that which is handiest should be pre- 
 ferred, and, in as far as it can be done, the similar kind 
 should be kept together. Passing remarks about the 
 qualities, uses, noxiousness, abode, nourishment, and 
 tricks of peculiar animals will enliven this instruction, 
 but should on no account obstruct it. 
 
 The horse (filly, foal, stallion, mare), cow, calf, steer, 
 heifer, ox, lull, goat, luch, cat, icolf, dog, poodle, lap- 
 dog, terrier, mastiff, ladger, Uach-and-tan, lulldog, tiger, 
 lion, panther^ leopard, catamount, camel, dromedary, hear, 
 grizzly-hear, p)olar-hear,.seal, fox, hare, pig, hoar, mouse, 
 rat, ass, donlcey, mule, reindeer, hyena, deer, roe, roehuch, 
 monhey, ape, hahoon, mole, elephant, rhinoceros, tapir, 
 zehra, hadger, lynx, sheep, ram, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXYII 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 It is of great advantage, and offers no difficulty, to 
 make the children perceive the distinguishing features 
 of this class, either at the beginning or at the end of this 
 exercise — that is, to tell them that birds have flesh, bones, 
 and blood as the quadrupeds, but to let them guess their 
 
FIEST STEP. 41 
 
 peculiar distinctions of two feet, wings, feathers, and 
 beak. 
 
 TJie storlc, raven, simrrow, goose, duck, lien, fowl, 
 rooster, turhey, peacock, pigeon, canary, swan, oiul, imr- 
 rot, croiD, cuckoo, Uacklird, snipe, partridge, plieasant, 
 lark, thrush, starling, finch, hull finch, linnet, oiight- 
 mgale, swalloiu, mocking -hird, red-breast^ rolin, catUrd, 
 etc. 
 
 Birds of prey: The eagle, the haiuk, the falcon, etc. 
 The better known birds must all be thoroughly given 
 at the end, even if the children have been allowed at the 
 beginning to state the less familiar ones first. According 
 to circumstances, which are domestic birds (poultry), 
 which are carniyorous, and which sing, may be asked. 
 
 LESSON XXYIII. 
 
 FISHES, AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS, AND WORMS. 
 
 These animals live in the water only, or m the water 
 or on the land, or in the soil. Perhaps in some coun- 
 tries the fish alone may constitute an exercise, whereas 
 in others this might not be the case, for we should always 
 be guided by the stock of knowledge the children bring 
 to school with them. The above three classes must, 
 however, never be mixed together, neither verbally nor 
 in writing. We must follow here, as everywhere, the 
 order pointed out by the children themselves. 
 
 The shark, salmon, porpoise, cod, sturgeon, mackerel, 
 eel, dolphin, pike', trout, grampus, gudgeon, 
 
 sardine, etc. 
 
42 OBJECT LESSOI^^S. 
 
 TJiefrog, toad, crocodile, alligator, lizard, turtle, etc. 
 
 Tlie snaTce, hoa-constrictor, viper, otter, etc. 
 
 The rain-ivorm, taije-ivorm, gloiv-worm, leech, snail, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXIX 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 These are animals having six or more legs and gen- 
 erally capable of flying. No teacher should omit to learn 
 from natural history the peculiarities of insects, in order 
 to be able to point out the many wonderful circumstances 
 connected with them, they being of the greatest interest 
 to the children. 
 
 The moth, gnat, fly, lee, hiwiUe-'bee, 'butterfly, ^vasp, 
 grass-hopp)er, locust, cricket, lug, leetle, cockchafer, mud- 
 leetle, lady-lird, flea, ear-worm, ant, spider, maggot, mos- 
 quito, caterpillar, centiped, cral, earth-lug, lorer, chinch- 
 lug, potato-lug, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 PLANTS. WOODY ONES. 
 
 " Whatever grows out of the earth " may, perhaps, for 
 beginners, be the best explanation to recognize plants. 
 We require no scientific explanation for our purpose. 
 The division into those of the wood-kind (trees and 
 bushes), and grass-kind (vegetables and flowers), will be 
 sufficient for our purpose. 
 
FIKST STEP. 43 
 
 The tree, fruit-tree (what kinds of ) : 
 
 a. Apple-tree, pear-tree, plum-tree, apricot-, peacli-, 
 walnut-, almond; cherry-, lemon-, chestnut-, orange-, 
 quince-, etc. 
 
 Forest trees^ (what kinds of) : 
 
 b. Tlie oalc, heech, pine, hirch, spruce, maple, hickory, 
 loilloio, elm., poplar, etc. 
 
 c. Shrubs: Uach-thorn, haiu-thorn, hazel-nut, Uach- 
 herry, currant, etc. 
 
 d. Bushes : rose, hop, hemp, fiax, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXXI. 
 
 PLANTS WITH STALKS. GRASSES. 
 
 The callage, salad, lettuce, spinach, leeh, garlic, onion, 
 parsley, celery, clover, lean, pea, oat, larley, tuheat, luch- 
 wheat, millet, rye, flower, pink, violet, dandelion, petunia, 
 hyacinth, tuhe-rose, corn-floiver, wild-mustard, turnip, 
 radish, potato, tomato, red-leet, etc. 
 
 With children of towns fruits may be taken in a sepa- 
 rate lesson. 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 WHAT IS DUa OUT OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Here we understand all sorts of minerals, that is 
 metals, stones, different kinds of soil, etc., which, accord- 
 ing to circumstances, may form the subject-matter of 
 several exercises. 
 
44 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 Metal, gold, silver, tin, copper, iron, lead, steel, quich- 
 silver, 2Jlati7ia, stone, flint, sand, whet-stone, lava, pumice, 
 slate, crystal, magnet, mould, clay, lime, gravel, potters- 
 earth, clialk, gypsum, plaster-of-paris, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 NATURAL PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS AND THE 
 EARTH. 
 
 A peculiar subdivision into brilliant, fiery, watery, etc. 
 is quite unnecessary, but simple explanations of natural 
 history, which the teacher must try to master thor- 
 oughly himself, are indispensable; most of these the 
 teacher will readily perceive, if he possesses but a slight 
 knowledge of natural history ; for example, the elements 
 of the ancients : air, fire, water and earth, are known to 
 everybody. The moderns, however, are adding a great 
 many elements thereto without having exhausted the 
 subject even ; some of these are oxj^gen, nitrogen, salt- 
 petre, carbon, electricity, etc. Every educated person 
 must nowadays be more or less acquainted with these 
 prime elements. With regard to the origin of colors 
 nothing definite has as yet been established; though 
 fortunately, in teaching youth, we need not meddle with 
 what is uncertain. 
 
 The rain, snoio, shower, drizzling-rain, wind, storm, 
 steam, vapor, smoke, fog, whirl-ivind, tempest, cloiid, deio, 
 frost, hoarfrost, rain-loiu, solar and lunar eclipse, hail, 
 hail-stones, lightning, thunder, water-spout, northern- 
 
FIRST STEP. 45 
 
 light, eartJi-qiLcthe, volcano, meteor, wisp, day-light, tiui- 
 light, phases of the moon, etc. 
 
 My reply to the question '' Shall we talk in this man- 
 ner all day long with our pupils, or occupy them differ- 
 ently during some part of school hours ? " will, I am 
 sure, displease a great many, for it is : It would cer- 
 tainly be preferable by far to work rather than to read 
 and write with them. 
 
 *^ My child goes to school," means generally : It learns 
 to read, write, and cipher, hears a little about few other 
 subjects of less importance, and masters some stories and 
 yerses. Instead of this, however, it should mean : It 
 learns to think, speak, and work, for from these opera- 
 tions emanate whatever is requisite to civilize, advance, 
 and sustain man throughout his life. 
 
 A book, with its attendant spelling and reading, is so 
 antagonistic to the nature of the avocations pursued by 
 the child so far, that the school enters into complete con- 
 trast to all that has hitherto been familiar to the child. 
 "My child reads," implies — except in some very pre- 
 cocious children, or in those of the learned classes — 
 nothing else than. It has lost its naturalness, it has 
 withdrawn its thoughts from nature and turned them to 
 letters, and is patiently awaiting those years when, the 
 school years over, it can go back to the contemplation 
 of real life. Perhaps its senses may be weakened, its 
 conception stunted, its activity lamed, its youthful years 
 squandered, its interest in the joys of life blunted — this 
 latter more especially if, during school-time, it was more- 
 over pestered with learning one or even more of the dead 
 languages. But what does this matter ? Such has been 
 the current course of instruction ; the world has existed 
 in this way from time immemorial ; and thus it became 
 
46 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 comparatively easy to rule over weak and ignorant beings 
 who were taught, beside, abject subjection to authority. 
 
 There are too many voices clamoring '^^ Whatever has 
 been is just, and must remain intact!" for a contrary 
 voice to be heard plainly. Yet it shall not remain silent, 
 for sooner or later such voice will find a reverberatins: 
 echo. Those truths, which are recognized by the better 
 educated of the nation and intuitively felt by the ma- 
 jority, must penetrate the learned circles, and thus find 
 the way into our schools. Let those who doubt this 
 listen to the voices raised against present abuses; let 
 them become conversant with the real state of the schools 
 in their immediate neighborhood, and the idea will gain 
 ground : such a state of affairs must not continue ; it 
 cannot remain much longer thus in school or at home. 
 
 It may seem like a pious wish at first, that hundreds 
 of writings purporting to be written for our youth should 
 remain unread, and that thousands of teachers should do 
 away with all artificial methods in teaching children 
 how to read; for even if they should become educated 
 thereby, it is done at the expense of naturalness and 
 health. In stunting their intellectual and bodily exer- 
 cises, and overcrowding their mental powers by thoughts 
 and sayings foreign thereto, we pave the road for the en- 
 ervation of the mind, which sooner or later takes place 
 in those lettered or unlettered. The good hitherto 
 effected by skilled and faithful instructors in their re- 
 spective schools is cei,'tainly worthy of our deepest 
 gratitude. It is often surprising to see how much 
 beautiful and useful information has been mastered by 
 tender youth ; but for the masses it is of no avail. Only 
 superior minds procure such results in their daily avoca- 
 tions. But if we permit nature to pursue its even course ; 
 
. FIKST STEP. 47 
 
 if we steadily and slowly follow its precepts ; if we prop- 
 erly teach the child to conceiye and clothe its conceptions 
 in fit language, the desire to acquire the artificial means 
 to unclose the world of letters will awaken of itself in 
 children, and no artifice be required to teach them 
 quickly and easily how to read. 
 
 E. — Finding and naming the parts of objects. 
 
 In our yerbal exercises a beginning only has been 
 made so far, yet more than a thousand nouns have been 
 used in thirty-four of them, their general meaning 
 observed and expressed. We have likewise made a begin- 
 ning in the development of the mental powers; our 
 children know some identification as to classes, genus 
 and order, they can enumerate some of them quite easily ; 
 an important achievement in all conditions of life. 
 
 But even at the very first steps in learning, it behooves 
 us not to rest satisfied with having initiated the children 
 in reviewing the world in a general superficial manner, 
 we must likewise teach them to specialize all objects, to 
 consider their parts; aye, the parts of their parts even. 
 Every appearance of the outer world, every conception is 
 composed of different elements, something in the man- 
 ner of the sum being composed of the different addends, 
 or the product of the different factors, the figure of 
 several lines, the^ pain ting of a number of colors. 
 
 To distinguish the part in connection with, and apart 
 from the whole, to unite in signification what is different 
 in compound — such is the aim of comprehension, of 
 
48 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 knowledge. Every letter, every composition, every essay, 
 every representation in science or art is a conglomera- 
 tion, more or less beautiful, of several parts to a har- 
 monious whole, and is based on the above supposition. 
 It seems almost incredible how such principles could 
 have been known and recognized for ages, and yet, up to 
 Pestalozzi's time, not once to be made use of in impart- 
 ing to children the only instruction of lasting benefit to 
 them. 
 
 Pestalozzi has done this ; he must be called the discov- 
 erer of the true idea of instruction and of its elementary 
 practices. So profound were his views that many of the 
 learned men even do not yet comprehend him ; it is not 
 clearly established whether he fully understood them 
 himself, or whether he but strongly felt them, in a man- 
 ner akin to the strong feelings of many pious beings 
 who are nevertheless unable to impart their feelings to 
 others. Pestalozzi did too mucli for the developing system 
 when he gave in his " Book for Mothers " ten exercises 
 about one- object, instead of giving ten objects in one 
 exercise. Into this very same error most of our greatest 
 pedagogues have fallen — they have carried out the ideas 
 developed in our homes and birth-places to their very 
 extremes; that which requires monthly practice they 
 finish in a week, but only by confounding the concep- 
 tions of grown-up persons with those of children. In 
 this manner Pestalozzi advanced from the eye at once 
 to the sense of seeing, from this agaim te all sorts of 
 views, ideas, etc. ; from the mouth he deducted the fac- 
 ulty of speech, and from this the different styles thereof. 
 
 On the other hand too little was done; the essential 
 point is: to continue the search for the component parts 
 until the children recognize in a part its manifold rela- 
 
FIRST STEP. 49 
 
 tions to the whole. But how can one object alone suffice 
 here ? How can the human body, an object at once so 
 varied and intricate of construction, serve as a primary 
 object ? We avoid these errors in choosing simple objects, 
 and in demanding in the beginning neither a complete 
 nor exact enumeration of the parts thereof. The children 
 will intuitively advance to greater perfection, and after 
 having taken half a dozen exercises, we have effected 
 enough for the present if we succeed in convincing them 
 of the necessity for a subsequent more profound and 
 lucid contemplation. ISTo teacher will ever repent having 
 taken the pains to let his pupils subdivide as many 
 objects as they may find time to do into their principal 
 and secondary parts ; these subdivisions may not be of 
 great intrinsic value, but he will find his pupils improv- 
 ing thereby, not only in their stock of words, but likewise 
 in their greater powers of observation. 
 
 The object which should be taken first, is immaterial ; 
 we choose the head of man, this being for us the one 
 nearest at hand and likewise the most important. 
 
 LESSON XXXIY. 
 
 THE HEAD OF MAN. 
 
 It is not essentially necessary to preserve strict order, 
 yet it may be well to state the principal parts first and 
 then the lesser parts. 
 
 The hair, parting, plait, curl, ear (right and left), lap, 
 drum, tympanum, cranium, face, forehead, lurinTcle, 
 temples, eye, eyelroiu, eyelid (upper and loy^Qv), pupil, le?2S, 
 3 
 
50 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 muscle, eyedud, liolloiv of the eye, eye-hone, cJieeh (right 
 and left), nose, nose-bone, nostrils, mouth, corners (right 
 and left) of the mouth, lips (upper and lower), gums 
 (upper and lower), tongue, teeth (upper and lower, front, 
 back, molar, cutting, eye), tooth-flesh, jaw-bone (upper 
 and lower), chin, iearcl, neck, shin, hack-bone, hone, skull, 
 flesh, blood, vein, arteries, hrain, nerve. 
 
 To avoid repeating the same exercise, we have been more 
 explicit and exhaustive than the capacity and inclination 
 of the children may admit. We advise the teacher to let 
 the children at first enumerate whatever they please, and 
 perhaps after a few lessons to take either part--- such as 
 the eye, the nose, the mouth, etc. — and consider them 
 more minutely in the order given within the brackets. 
 Instead of this, one of the following easier exercises may 
 be taken. However, the head of man may well serve 
 more than once as the subject of consideration. 
 
 LESSON XXXY, 
 
 THE WAGON. 
 
 Care in varying the objects is necessary, partly on 
 account of its greater charm and partly on account of 
 giving the children a better command of language. 
 
 The division and order of objects may be taken ad 
 libitum, either according to the materials : wood, iron — 
 or according to the way we look at them : in front, be- 
 hind — or in accordance with the subdivisions of their 
 parts; the teacher is to follow herein the suggestions 
 given by the pupils. 
 
FIRST STEP. 51 
 
 TJie ivJieel (fore and hind, right and left), wooden-ivorh, 
 iron-iuork, tire, box, springs, bolts, screius, nails, chain, 
 axle, brake, clasp, beam, nave, felloes, axle-tree, sides, 
 boards, shaft, whiffle-tree, spoJces, holes, rope, pin, grease, 
 pegs, horse, ox, steer, coiu, mule, donkey. 
 
 We leave it to the teacher to arrange or complete the 
 above as he may deem fit. 
 
 LESSON XXX Y I. 
 
 A HORSE. 
 
 At first the chief parts are given, and then the whole 
 arranged in accordance therewith ; as, the head, the body, 
 the legs. 
 
 The head, ears, eyes, front, nose, mouth, tongue, teeth, 
 chops, shin, flesh, bone, brain, blood, veins, nerves, hair ; 
 the neck, mane, toindpipe, breast, back, sides (right and 
 left), bowels (intestines, stomach, lungs, heart, kidney), 
 tail, ribs, shoulders, hip, foot, knee, hoof, fetlock, shoe 
 (iron). 
 
 LESSON XXXYII. 
 
 A KNIFE. 
 
 It is hardly credible that an object seemingly so in- 
 significant should oifer so many different and new ideas, 
 all of which will be readily discovered by the children. 
 Principal parts : blade, handle. Materials : iron, wood, 
 
62 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 bone, horn, ivory. Kinds of knives : pocket-knife, pen- 
 knife, table-knife, carving-knife, chopper, razor, drawing- 
 knife, pruniug-knife, meat-knife, etc. 
 
 The edge, lack, point, side (right and left), marlc, name, 
 notch, groove, slit, polish, handle, ivood, hone, ivory, pin, 
 hack, hole, ornament. 
 
 According to the different kinds of knives, the different 
 parts are to be given ; as in the pocket-knife : cork-screw, 
 saw, steel, tooth-pick, etc. 
 
 LESSON XXXYIII. 
 
 THE SPARROW. 
 
 It is pleasing to children to find in so small an object 
 so many marks of note. The arrangement is akin to 
 that followed with regard to the horse. Parts found in 
 great numbers may be given in the plural at once. The 
 leading parts may be given first, and afterward the sub- 
 divisions of these. 
 
 The flesh, the hackhone, hones, feathers (wing-feathers, 
 tail-feathers, breast-feathers, down), skin, head, eyes, 
 nerves, fat, color, ears, front, hrain, skull, heak, nostrils, 
 tongue, neck, hack, ivings, throat (wind-pipe), hody, quills, 
 helly, sides, legs, feet, claios (birds of prey, talons). 
 
FIEST STEP. • 53 
 
 LESSON XXXIX. 
 
 DEALING WITH THE NOUN IN ITS SECOND CASE. 
 
 We must now begin to point out tlie different uses to 
 which the noun may be applied. Any part of the knife 
 may likewise be a part of some other object, no language 
 possessing words enough to give a separate name to the 
 different parts of every object. If now, in speaking 
 about any object, or in the pointing out of any part of 
 it, the latter is named, it is generally necessary to add 
 thereto, for the sake of the better definition of it, the 
 whole object of which it forms part, which latter in this 
 case answers to the question "whose?" and requires 
 the answer to it to be in the same case, viz., the Pos- 
 sessive. This offers a novel and interesting practice 
 for children — nothing being told them, but everything 
 elicited from their answers. For example, I may ask: 
 " The edge — which other implements besides the knife 
 have an edge ? " when without any trouble the answer : 
 " The sickle, the saw, the hatchet, the ax, the scissors, 
 the razor, etc." will be forthcoming. If I then ask, 
 "Whose edges have you named?" they will readily say, 
 "The sickle's, the hatchet's," etc. In a like manner 
 may be asked what else has a point ? back ? etc. 
 
 The back of the horse, of the book, of the camel. 
 
 The point of the dagger, of the hill, of the arrow, of 
 the scissor. 
 
 The side of the leaf, of man, of the garden, of the 
 rive.', of the street. 
 
 The sign of the letter, of the mail, of hotels, of police- 
 men. 
 
64 • OBJECT LESSOIS'S. 
 
 Signs or marks used where ? in books, the fields. 
 
 Signs for coming, going, remaining, stopping. 
 
 Signs or marks with the hand, horn, pencil, knife. 
 
 The more minute definitions of place, intention, tools, 
 etc., may occasionally be begun here, but must be con- 
 tinued throughout the following lessons. 
 
 The advantages ofiered by this exercise to add some- 
 thing in regard to the origin, definition, etc. of words, 
 are very great; not with regard to the declensions, 
 which are, as is well known, learned mechanically in 
 most languages, without any effort to lead those ac- 
 quiring them to think. The mental capacities of the 
 children are taxed proportionally and not too much, 
 as is done in the catechetical process, nor too little, 
 as is the case in learning nothing but empty formulae ; 
 hence interest and pleasure are originated by these 
 exercises. The meaning of words is shown in their dif- 
 ferent relations, and thus a beginning made in the further 
 clevelopment of their ideas, while at the same time the 
 fundamentals are laid for future grammatical tuition and 
 the scientific mastering of the language, letting alone the 
 wonderful increase thus gained by the child in his stock 
 of words. The appropriateness of these exercises is 
 justified by their extraordinary results; teachers and 
 scholars but commonly educated, attam an acuteness in 
 their conceptions hitherto unknown to them and far 
 surpassing their former experience. 
 
FIKST STEP. 55 
 
 LESSON XL. 
 
 ^ CONTINUATION. 
 
 The distinctive marks given with regard to the spar- 
 row become now the leading points in asking the ques- 
 tions, Who? what? Other objects are pointed out in 
 which they are found, either in a direct or indirect 
 manner (as in XXXIX). This second case is called 
 the sign of subordination, in which latter, so to speak, 
 those single objects are placed whose parts serve now 
 as the subject of investigation or of speech. This exer- 
 cise is very like the last: in the former we found the 
 parts of the whole ; in this one we take a part of any- 
 thing, and find other objects in which the same part is 
 found. 
 
 The flesh of the ox, plum, cherry, peach, apricot ; the 
 leg of the dog, chair ; the hone of the horse ; the feather 
 of the goose ; the spring of the lion, watch, wagon ; the 
 skin of the deer, fruit ; the Mood of man ; the veins of 
 animals, wood, metal ; the fat of the hog ; the head of 
 the dog, cabbage ; the eye of the child ; the ear of the 
 cow, corn ; the teak of the bird ; the tongue of the 
 child, scale, buckle ; the neck of the lion, bottle, jar ; 
 the lack of the camel, knife, book, mountain ; the 
 wi7ig of the eagle, window, building, door, army; the 
 keel of the ship ; the tail of the horse, comet ; the lody 
 of the cow, wagon, jug; the harrel of cider, of the gun ; 
 the foot of the deer, mountain, table ; the leg of man, 
 mutton ; the claw of the cat, bird, etc. 
 
 With the examples given a great scope of action is 
 offered the teacher and pupil. It is often unneces- 
 
56 OBJECT LESS02yrS. 
 
 sary to state everything that may suggest itself; the 
 teacher will find that as long as any human being, 
 whether young or old, finds himself capable of doing 
 more than required of him, he will do what is wanted 
 with alacrity and pleasure. Learning by rote may per- 
 haps be carried on for some time ; but as soon as our 
 feeling tells us it is done at the expense of the head, at 
 the loss of our retentive faculties, it Tvdll soon grow 
 odious. The trouble of the teacher in instructing in 
 this manner is certainly not burdensome ; he may either 
 omit without injury whatever may slip his or his pupils' 
 attention, or he may by study advance upon the sub- 
 ject provided him. 
 
 LESSON XLI. 
 
 THE PARTS OF THE FAMILY 
 
 {The 7iames of human heings according to relationship 
 or age,) 
 
 With the more backward children all those dwelling 
 together in one household may be stated indiscriminat- 
 ingly at first and on recapitulation in a more orderly 
 manner. 
 
 TJie father, mother, parents ; the grandfather, grand- 
 mother, grand-parents j the child, toy, girl, son, daughter, 
 grand-child, grand-son, grand-daughter, orphan (father- 
 less, motherless), hr other, sister, husland, loife; Iride- 
 groom, Iride ; parents-in-laiu, father-, mother-, hrother-, 
 sister-; cousins (male and female) ; uncle, aunt / god- 
 father, god-mother, god-child, foster-parents, foster-chil- 
 
FIEST LESSON". 57 
 
 drm, step-parents, step-father, step-mother, step-hr other, 
 step-daughter, step-children ; guardian, ward, male, 
 female. 
 
 According to age : the laiy, child, hoy, girl, pupil, youth, 
 miss, adult, young man, man, old man, looman, lady, old 
 woman. 
 
 According to circumstances the dijfferent kinds of 
 working men and women may be given : laborer, foot- 
 man, servant, cook, butler, laundress, maid, waiter, 
 apprentice, foreman, clerk, assistant, salesman, coach- 
 man, journeyman, etc. 
 
 LESSON XLII. 
 
 PARTS OF THE COAT. 
 
 Should this exercise prove not extensive enough, more 
 words may be added in accordance with the several dis- 
 tinctive features, examples of which will be given here- 
 under. 
 
 1. Materials : cloth, linen, cotton, silk, wool, 
 
 2. Chief parts : body, sleeves, flaps, collar. 
 
 3. Things found in the whole coat : the shape, thread, 
 silk, seam, lining. 
 
 4. Separate parts taken from the top downwards : the 
 collar, padding, upper and lower sleeves, hr east-collar, eTboio, 
 shoulders, trimmings, button-holes, buttons, ba&k, sides 
 (right and left), pochets (right and left), breast-poclcet, 
 flaps, edging, etc. 
 
 5. Given the closer applications : the collar of the cloah, 
 coat ; jacket ; — the button of the coat, shirt ; — the knob of 
 
68 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 tJie door, the lureau; — the Tcnot of the thread, the string; 
 the sides of man, doohs, leaves, etc. 
 
 In asking " where ? " " on what ? " " for what purpose ? " 
 " wherein ? " " at what ? " we obtain a closer definition 
 of place, so necessary in the lucid explanation of many 
 objects, as will be evident from the above examples. 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 CLOTHES WITH THE NAMES OF THEIR OWNERS. 
 
 This exercise is yet needed in order to complete the 
 idea of the second case. In this lesson order should be 
 strictly followed, and what was defective in Exercise 
 XXI be corrected. No word should be used twice. 
 
 TJie hat of the father, the lonnet of the mother, the cap 
 of the scholar, the hood of the girl, the mantle of the rider, 
 the cloah of the grandmother, the jacket of the hoy, the coat 
 of the 7nan, the vest of the youth, the shirt of the child, the 
 pants of the Irother, the socks of the heggar, the stockings 
 of the peddler, the shoes of the traveler, the boots of the 
 sailor, the rihhon of the maid, the sash of the girl, tlie 
 girdle of the lady, the lelt of the woman, the dress of the 
 bride, etc. 
 
 In a similar manner the tools (XXV) may be used in 
 connection with the name of the one using them. 
 
FIRST STEP. 59 
 
 LESSON XLIY. 
 
 THE PARTS OF A HOUSE. 
 
 Children will not find it difficult to preserve the 
 following arrangement, at least not after two or three 
 recapitulations. 
 
 1. The exterior parts: the lualls (front and back), tlie 
 sides (right and left), the stories, the lasement, ground- 
 floor, first floor, second floor, garret, entrance, doors, prin- 
 cipal door, side-door, cellar, opening, steps, shutter, cornice 
 mouldings, ivindoivs, roof (steep, flat or slanting), gutters, 
 down-jnpe, sills, chimney, gaUe, railing. 
 
 2. Interior parts : (a.) the foundation, diuarfiualls, 
 cellar vault; (b.) the diuelling, sitting-roo7n, kitchen, 
 hed-room., dining-room, parlor, drawing-room, pantry, 
 closet, entry, passage, stair, servants'' -room, nursery, 
 reading-room, sitting-room, hall. 
 
 3. Building materials may also be named. 
 
 Wood (pine, oak, maple, walnut), stones (rubble, brick, 
 slate, brown-stone), flags, slats, tiles, sand, gypsum, 
 mortar, nails, cement, heams, planhs, etc. 
 
 The children must be allowed continually to alter and 
 complete the above list according to the houses inhabited 
 by them. This exercise may likewise be repeated on future 
 occasions. 
 
 LESSON XLY. 
 
 PARTS OF THE TREE. 
 
 An easy exercise like the present one may serve as 
 introduction to more complicated objects, it may likewise 
 
60 OBJECT LESSOls'S. 
 
 serve as a recreation to show the children the pleasure 
 denyed from an easy understanding of their lessons. We 
 must often refer back now to the easier lessons gone 
 before, so as to make them perceive the difference between 
 primary and secondary parts, between accidental and 
 essential features, and to enable them to comprehend 
 the necessary explanations thereof, which at first would 
 have been out of place, and which even at the present 
 time must not be given too profusely. 
 
 {a. ) Chief parts : roots, trunk, Iranches, twigs, leaves, 
 
 (p.) Accidental: floiuers, buds, fruit. 
 
 (c.) General parts : toood, fibres, baric, rind, marrow, 
 cells, juice. 
 
 (d.) Parts of the parts ; of the leaf : stalh, ribs, edges, 
 ridges, furroios, upper and loiver sides, veins, notches. — 
 Of the fruit : ste7n, juice, flesh, shin, kernel, stone, seeds, 
 color, etc. 
 
 EXTENDED EXERCISES. 
 
 {a.) Placing the noun in the second case : 
 
 TJie root of the tree, evil, flower ; the trunk of the 
 tree, elei^hant ; the leaf of the bush, book; the blossom of 
 the rose; the stem of the cherry, pipe; the marrow of the 
 elder, bone; the fruit of labor, diligence, perseverance. 
 (These abstract notions are at present no further com- 
 mented upon.) 
 
 (5.) Compound nouns: 
 
 All the known kinds of wood : rose-wood, box-wood, 
 oak-ivood, beech-wood, log-wood, etc. 
 
 All kinds of blossoms: elder-blossom, rose-blossom, 
 cherry-blossom, etc. 
 
 All sorts of leaves : rose-leaf, salad-leaf, oak-leaf, etc. 
 
 These compound nouns must be explained so that the 
 
FIEST STEP. 61 
 
 children fully understand the latter to be the thing itself, 
 and the former only the explanation thereof. 
 
 LESSON XLYI. 
 
 DENOMINATION OF TIME. 
 
 This is likewise finding the parts of an object every 
 successive denomination of which points out a larger or 
 smaller part of finite or infinite time. It is immaterial 
 whether we ascend or descend in our denominations. 
 
 The second, 7noment, minute, hour (quarter, half), day, 
 night, morning (break of day, dawn, sunrise), forenoon, 
 noon, afternoo7i, evening (twilight, sunset), midnight, 
 lueeh (Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, 
 Eriday, Saturday), fortnight, year, leap-year, quarter of 
 a year, half a year, three months. Seasons of the year: 
 Sioring, Summer, Fall (Autumn), Wi^iter. Decade, or 
 ten years ; century, age. Festal times : Christmas, Neio 
 Year, Easter, Pentecost, Fall or harvest-time. Time of 
 life: childhood, youth, manhood, old age. Division of 
 time : present, past, future. 
 
 LESSON XLYII. 
 
 COINS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 A special knowledge of the above is indispensable in 
 life ; it cannot, therefore, be acquired too early ; but at 
 
6^ OBJECT LESSOIfS. 
 
 the same time it is preferable by far to give children not 
 only the names to learn by rote, but to teach them to 
 understand their uses and differences. 
 
 The cent piece, tivo-cent piece, three cents, five cents or 
 half a dime, ten cents or dime, tiventy-five ce?its or a 
 quarter, fifty cents or half a dollar, hundred cents or one 
 dollar, tivo dollars and a half or a quarter-eagle, five dol- 
 lars or half -eagle, ten dollars or eagle, twenty dollars, 
 fifty dollars. 
 
 Coins of different countries should only then be intro- 
 duced if children happen to have some previous knowl- 
 edge of them. 
 
 Measures of liquids : gill, pint, quart, gallon, harrel, 
 hogshead, pipe, tun. 
 
 Long measure : line, inch, foot, yard, furlong, mile, 
 league, degree. 
 
 Weights : drachm, ounce, pound, stone, quarter,, hun- 
 dredweight, cental, ton. 
 
 Dry measure : pint, quart, peek, hushel, quarter, 
 load. 
 
 This exercise may be extended by giving the specific 
 tables of the different kinds of weights, etc. 
 
 If the last twelve exercises should not be found suf- 
 ficient to make the more backward children readily 
 understand the division of objects into their component 
 parts, others may be added at the discretion of the 
 teacher. Anything striking our senses may be taken for 
 more exercises — the parts of the book, of the hand, arm, 
 field, etc. The former lessons can also be carried out at 
 greater length. 
 
 Let us here come to another pause and cast a retro- 
 spective view over the w'ork of the first two months, to 
 
FIRST STEP. 63 
 
 do which would be out of the question when teaching 
 according to the ordinary method. We will now perceive 
 that, in addition to the improvement pointed out on page 
 30, we derive from the first twenty exercises the follow- 
 ing advantages : 
 
 1. The attention of the children has already begun to 
 change into observation and contemplation, which is 
 sought for in vain in the little book-worms of other 
 schools, and which in country-school children has long 
 ago been extinguished by the rote method in force there. 
 Our scholars not only demand, in connection with every 
 object, " What is it ? " " What purpose does it serve ? " 
 but they likewise try to find out the separate parts of it 
 in their relation to number, color, position, and harmony 
 with the whole.* In this manner the sense of the use- 
 
 * Nobody need wonder tliat our scholars liave already concep- 
 tions as to color, number, position, etc. of objects, the headings 
 of the exercises containing nothing thereof. We must guard 
 against making those points the leading ones which are only of 
 secondary importance, and change in this manner the course of 
 our general instruction into one of class teaching. Lessons about 
 the Divisions, Number, Form, and Magnitude of objects are often 
 given without any consideration that these are the introductory 
 steps to the art of ciphering, of measuring. That the table has 
 four legs, the room four walls, will not remain hidden from 
 him who casts his eyes upon them ; nor will it be any more diffi- 
 cult for him to perceive, in looking at a tree, that its roots are in 
 the ground, the branches in the air ; no teacher can fail to make 
 such remarks in connection with the objects ; he would not be 
 deserving of the name of teacher could he fail in this and not enliven 
 his subjects by numerous suggestions, however foreign they may 
 be to the import of this work. But is it necessary to take exer- 
 cises relating to the slates, to the scholars, etc., in order to obtain 
 a correct view of the school-room ? This is not even necessary for 
 the formation of language — the chief aim of object-teaching. We 
 
64 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 ful and beautiful— to which hitherto so little attention 
 has been paid, to the great detriment of humanity — is 
 awakened, and by the time we begin to teach these more 
 specially, we find them already acting on the mind in- 
 tuitively and strongly. The influence these feelings, 
 called into play by a love of the beautiful, exercise in 
 life has long been acknowledged. This plan of instruc- 
 tion develops the moral and sesthetical emotions, and 
 tends to make children grow up able and useful citizens. 
 2. Knowledge of speech, with regard to the noun in 
 the singular, plural, and partly in its declension, meaning 
 of the article, etc., is now firmly rooted and enlarged 
 by the teaching of the second case, explained as the one 
 expressive of peculiar relationship to the noun, and as 
 being the answer to the question "whose? and where ?" 
 
 must avoid too minute attention to trifles if we wish, to obtain 
 general results and avoid that dullness which most teachers do 
 not succeed in guarding against. 
 
SECOND STEP. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF IDEAS (TERMS) GAINED BY THE 
 INVESTIGATION OF THE QUALITIES OF THINGS 
 
 A.— Abstract qualities or circumstances indepen- 
 dent of time. Adjectives, words of qualities. 
 
 Ii^ finding the qualities or circumstances incidental to 
 the different objects, we throw light on what was dark 
 so far, and pave the road for the ultimate thorough 
 understanding of future class teaching. At the same 
 time we learn a new class of words, the words of quality 
 or adjectives. Some teachers arrive at this point in 
 starting from the opposite way, taking at first the ideas 
 developed by their immediate surroundings in all their 
 most minute relations, and continuing in this manner 
 with the more remote ones. But experience teaches us 
 that such is not the path pursued by nature ; that in this 
 manner too much of art is imparted to the mind of the 
 child; besides, it requires cultivated intellects to carry on 
 such a course of instruction. Pedagogy, looked upon as 
 a science, can only then claim to have achieved real pro- 
 gress when it lays such foundations that even the weaker 
 minds can be developed by its system. This is our task 
 at present. The starting point in the above method is 
 certainly well chosen : enumeration of the different 
 objects found in the school-room ; but the child must 
 have thoroughly practised as many more other examples 
 
66 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 as may have been already given, in order to qualify it 
 for stating all the various parts belonging to the whole 
 object before adding thereto new combinations. This 
 granted, it is a mistake to commence at once to divide 
 the school utensils into movable, immovable, simple and 
 compound, into those found in quantities or singly, into 
 materials essential and incidental. Some let their pupils 
 count so many children and the number of fingers pos- 
 sessed by them in the second week, others teach the 
 *^ description of the separate parts according to color, 
 form, sub-parts, and composition of parts." Descriptions 
 should only be given in the third step, perhaps in the 
 eighth month, but are even then not to be forced upon 
 the child, nor recited by it, but taught in such a manner 
 that it must contribute its share m what is given. In 
 following the above method the same result may be 
 gained ultimately, but this method renders it difficult 
 for the weaker minds to grasp the subjects in detail; 
 whereas, in following the course herein prescribed, even 
 the child of weak intellect will, without fail, obtain such 
 results after going through the exercises given. 
 
 Let our aim in this second step be well considered. It 
 seems to be nothing else than amusement, a voluntary 
 playful occupation of the children, a practising of their 
 senses and attention; these are, however, only its first 
 though most important advantages — the chief aim of 
 this second step is to elevate the mental powers of the 
 child by a more lucid comprehension of ideas already 
 become their own, to sift their conceptions and to teach 
 them the combinations of the nouns with the adjective 
 and verb, which latter joins thereto only the idea of time. 
 This we teach more correctly and safely than could be 
 done by learning rules and formulae for years. In the 
 
SECOND STEP. 67 
 
 acquisition of knowledge much is gained, because we 
 find everywhere quiet self-composure and no over- 
 crowding. 
 
 In as far as the children possess already some vague 
 conceptions as to adjectives, they may use them in com- 
 binations with nouns, and this will be a second practice 
 in definition. The first was commenced in Lesson XL, 
 and will be referred to again hereafter. 
 
 LESSON XLYIII. 
 
 HOW A HOUSE IS. 
 
 More minute definition of the noun by means of the 
 adjective. 
 
 We look at a house — let us direct our thoughts to the 
 school-house. You know already that the house is a 
 building serving for the habitation of man ; but you can- 
 not as yet tell me how it aj^pears to us. In wishing to 
 do this we need different Tvords from nouns, we require 
 , words pointing out qualities or incidental circumstances, 
 which are called adjectives. 
 
 High, loiu, long, short, ivMte (brown, yellow, green, 
 blue, gray), hroad, narroiu, old, neiu, leauiiful, dirty, 
 clean, ugly, hig, small, round, square (of one story, two, 
 etc.), pointed, solid, rickety, duraUe, wide, roomy, 
 ivooden, stony, dilapidated, plastered, iminted, repaired, 
 costly, cheap. 
 
 The children say at first : a high house, a red house, 
 etc., or the house is high, etc. Nothing must ever be 
 
68 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 told them ; the teacher has only to correct the wrong 
 pronunciation, misapplications of words, and lead them 
 by his questioning to find the right expressions them- 
 selves. 
 
 Example. — What do you call a house built long ago ? 
 — if but lately built ? — if its inmates have not room 
 enough in it ? — if they have more room than they need? 
 (which house is roomy ? comfortable ?) All these are 
 questions requiring only a slight hint to suggest innu- 
 merable others to the teacher. 
 
 This application of the adjective to the noun is then 
 carried to other objects. If you call the house high- 
 could you tell me something else high also ? The tower, 
 the mountain, etc. You can now define a noun by an 
 adjective in a similar manner to what you did in Lesson 
 XL, by the addition of another noun. Thus : 
 
 TJie high mountain, the low bench, the long rope, the short 
 way, the white chalk, the brown horse, the yellow sunflower, 
 the red ink, the green leaf, the blue coat, the gray mantle, the 
 broad ribbon, the narrow stripe, the old church, the new dress, 
 the beautiful hat, the dirty boot, the big cow, the little mouse, 
 the one-story house, the sharp knife, the pointed needle, the 
 solid ivall, the roomy hall, the wide vest, the wooden bridge, 
 the painted picture, etc. 
 
 The difference between exercises furnished and ex- 
 plained by the children themselves and similar exercises 
 given to beginners in Latin schools, is in the same rela- 
 tion to the strengthening of the mental powers of child- 
 hood as the effect of travel on foot or by rail is in re- 
 freshing our body. The latter way is only chosen from 
 economical considerations or for the saving of time ; it 
 remains to be seen whether our teachers have similar 
 reasons for traveling thus in their trips to the Greeks 
 
SECOi^D STEP. 69 
 
 and Romans. No wonder tliey generally show, after six 
 to eight years of instruction, empty and exhausted 
 heads. 
 
 LESSON XLIX. 
 
 HOW IS A TREE ? 
 
 We ask — 1. What qualities has a tree ? It is young, 
 old, big, high, low, thick, thin, slender, fruitful, unfruitful, 
 crooked, straight, tapering, green ^ blooming, dry, full, useful 
 (for what? in what manner?), sound, sickly, etc, 
 
 2. How is its bark ? Bough, smooth, thin, thick, torn, 
 old, young, hard, tough, tender, brittle, even, uneven, etc. 
 
 3. How is the trunk ? High, thick, thin, slender, rough, 
 smooth, hollow, solid, crooked, straight, juicy, dry, whole, 
 split, etc. 
 
 4. How are the branches? Small, large, thick, thin, 
 crooked, bent, straight, long, short, bushy, upright, slanting, 
 spread, shady, etc. 
 
 5. How are the leaves ? Thin, thick, smooth, rough, 
 hairy, indented, notchy, bitter, acrid, sharp, mealy, green, 
 dry, brown, yellow, black, red, light, dark, juicy, pointed, etc. 
 
 6. How is the fruit ? Sweet, sour, ripe, unripe, hard, 
 soft, juicy, mellow, fresh, fine, rough, palatable, etc. 
 
 7. How are the blossoms? Beautiful, splendid, lovely, 
 odorous, red, white, etc. 
 
 8. To be taken later. What may a tree do or suffer ? 
 Stand, lie, grow, fall, burn, crack, decay, wither, bud, bloom, 
 bear fruit, give shade, etc. 
 
 9. What can man do to a tree ? Plant, set, tie, fasten, 
 cut down, scrape, clean, trim, daub, manure, water, fell. 
 
70 OBJECT LESSOI?"S. 
 
 heiu, saw, split, carry, load, drag, unload, hum, char, shake, 
 peel, rub, turn, bend it, etc. 
 
 10. We can climb, sit, mount, lie, stand upon the tree ; 
 we can sit, lie, and stand under it ; we can fall from the 
 tree ; we can walk, jump, and dance around the tree, etc. 
 
 LESSON L. 
 
 HOW THE DOG IS, 
 
 "We may here introduce other objects, but should 
 always try to vary them so as to bring in as many dif- 
 ferent adjectives as possible. The former lessons must 
 also be used again, that the children may learn to find 
 the qualities of all the nouns they have learned so far. 
 The dog is — 
 
 Faithful, watchful, long, short, little, big, fat, lean, strong, 
 old, young, spotted, quick, slow, snarly, good-natured, timid, 
 bold, fawning, obedient, clever, fine, ugly, tame, wild, smooth- 
 skinned, rough-skinned, hairy, gluttonous, nimble, stiff, use- 
 ful, ornamental, etc. 
 
 From the above follow again the qualities of the sepa- 
 rate parts : The ears are long, lapping, cut, etc. ; the teeth 
 are sharp, pointed, ichite, sound, etc. 
 
 At last other nouns possessing the same qualities may 
 also be looked for. 
 
 The faithfiU servant, the watchful guard, the long day, 
 (when?) the short night, (when the opposite?) the fat jng, 
 the big cow, the strong ox, the lean cat, the young soldier, the 
 spotted chin, the quick (swift) deer, the slow donkey, the snarly 
 
SECOKD STEP. 71 
 
 ape, the good-natured child, the timid hare, the hold warrior, 
 the obedient son, the flattering speech, the clever scholar, the 
 fine needle, the ugly face, the rugged hear, the tame dove, 
 the wild beast, the hairy leaf, the stiff paper, the useful tool, 
 etc. 
 
 LESSON LI. 
 
 HOW THE WATER IS 
 
 ChaDging of the adjective into a noun and application 
 of the latter. 
 
 The adjectives are given as completely as possible, then 
 in the order they are written down changed into nonns, 
 and these latter again defined by other nouns, as in 
 Lesson XL. 
 
 Cold, frozen, luTceiuarm, loarm, hot, fioioing, siueet, sour, 
 titter, salt, Irachish, clear, hright, dull, rapid, standing, 
 fresh, old, healthy, unhealthy, refreshing, cooling, deep, 
 long, hroad, luide, shalloio, hard, soft, fertile, heautiful, 
 transparent, tasty, acid, etc. 
 
 Those qualities of which the children have as yet no 
 idea, or which would be difficult of explanation at the 
 present stage may be omitted. By being changed into 
 nouns they appear as independent to the child, something 
 in the manner of the parts of objects; the children will, 
 however, without any further help, change them into 
 their abstract nouns. Those words not readily forming 
 their abstract are to be left out. 
 
 Coldness (cold), frost, luhetvarmness, warmth, heat, 
 flood, fluidity, bitterness, salt, sioeetness, clearness, fresh- 
 
72 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 ness, oldness (age), liealth (healthiness), length, breadth, 
 width, shallowness, hardness, softness, beauty, transpar- 
 ency, taste, acidity, etc. 
 
 In a similar manner the foregoing adjectives should 
 be treated before advancing. The closer definition of 
 these abstract nouns by other nouns ofiers no difficulty 
 to the children, nevertheless I will give a few to serve as 
 examples. 
 
 The coldness (cold) of luinter, of day, night, air ; the 
 luarmth of the stmj the heat of stwimer ; the fluidity of 
 oil; the hitterness of sorrow ; tlie acidity of vinegar ; the 
 dullness of the times; the rapidity of lightning; the fresh- 
 ness of the air ; the health of man, etc. 
 
 Picking out one or more words as the most suitable 
 from among a given number leads to most interesting 
 and instructive explanations. The minutiae and details 
 on which the whole life of man is dependent cannot be 
 taught in a more agreeable manner. 
 
 LESSON LII. 
 
 HOW THE CHILD IS. 
 
 This lesson is of peculiar importance, because with it 
 begins our entrance into the moral ivorld. In doing this 
 we feel no anxiety to do so without grand preparations — 
 children being from tlieir first infancy susceptible to 
 morals and manners, and well acquainted with all the 
 ideas and expressions pertaining thereto. It is no doubt 
 often a queer mixture of physical and mental, exterior 
 and interior, essential and incidental, good and bad 
 
SECOND STEP. 73 
 
 qualities, which the children give utterance to; yet allow 
 them free scope of action and of arrangement while re- 
 peating all that is necessar}^ without anger and without 
 wounding the feehngs of the children, and they will soon 
 be found to give a correct picture of themselves. But 
 nothing should be forced. 
 
 Big, little, strong, weak, fat, lean, sich, healthy, luicked, 
 Irave, good, sloiv, attentive, eager, quiet, tvell-heliaved, 
 modest, ])eacedble, attentive, oledient, diso'bedient , diligent, 
 lazy, negligent, pious, faithful, respectful, pitying, honest, 
 industrious, righteous, just, franh, truthful. 
 
 As long as the child continues to furnish words, or as 
 long as the teacher can elicit easy answers he may keep 
 on as above. 
 
 To give proper nouns, to change the adjectives into 
 nouns, and to define these by other nouns, should not be 
 omitted. The different articles should be alternately 
 prefixed. They are only here given at the beginning of 
 every exercise. 
 
 (a.) A big sto7ie,a little hut, a strong arm,a weah tody, etc, 
 
 (b.) Bigness (size), littleness, strength, tueahness, health, 
 etc. 
 
 (c.) The size of the elephant, the littleness of the insect, 
 the strength of the lion, the health of the laborer, etc. 
 
 LESSON LIII. 
 
 DRESS. 
 
 (giving more systematically sub-divisions.) 
 
 The children have now been occupied in stating the 
 qualities of things long enough ; only from time to time 
 4 
 
74 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 hints have been thrown out leading them to some sort of 
 order; now our aim is to teach a more exact and sys- 
 tematic arrangement of objects, in doing which, in this 
 instance, we let them consider the dress with regard to 
 its material, shape, use, etc. 
 
 (a.) According to its material : Linen (flaxen), hempen, 
 woollen, cotton, silken, etc. 
 
 {b.) Shape : Fitting, not fitting, tight, loose, wide, long, 
 short, embroidered, trimmed, etc. 
 
 (c.) Use and treatment: Torn, dirty, clean, brushed, 
 dusty, dusted, rough, washed, ugly, wasted, mended, worn, 
 used, etc. 
 
 (d.) General qualities : Beautiful, old, new, costly, dear, 
 cheap, common, fine, noble, elegant, dyed, striped, black, 
 white, colored, plain, bad, shining, strong, lined, comfort- 
 able, etc. 
 
 LESSON LIV 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS, WITH THEIR PRINCIPAL 
 QUALITIES. 
 
 (compound relations.) 
 
 A difficulty not yet treated of, but easily overcome by 
 the advanced pupils, is the naming at the same time of 
 the above animals, and one or more of their leading 
 characteristics. In teaching language we have made 
 this progress : We have shown the child that, when- 
 ever two nouns of similar signification are used to- 
 gether, they form a compound — about which I shall 
 
SECOND STEP. 75 
 
 give an explanation to the teacher which I trust will 
 be duly regarded. As for the child, it will be sufl&cieut 
 if he knows the subject without its reasoning. 
 
 The objects of this world — their parts and qualities — 
 exist either independently beside each other, as dresses, 
 books, utensils, etc., in a household ; mammalia, fishes, 
 birds, etc., in the animal kingdom ; trees, shrubs, grasses, 
 and flowers, in the vegetable kingdom — of which the 
 separate units form the limit, and the different parts 
 and qualities, similarly related, the abstract purport of 
 these ideas (compare Lesson IV).; or these objects are 
 dependent on each other, as the son is on the father, 
 the servant on the master — a part or a quality of the 
 single thing to which it is related. In the technical 
 language of logic these are called co-ordinate or sub- 
 ordinate, in accordance with the relation they bear to 
 another or to our ideas. 
 
 Example. — Animals, plants, and minerals are co- 
 ordinate ideas in as far as they exist beside each other, 
 but sub-ordinate if considered as pertaining to the 
 natural kingdom. 
 
 Example. — Mammalia, birds, fishes are sub-ordinate 
 to the higher idea of animal, but to one another they 
 are co-ordinate. 
 
 Let this be tried by treating several nouns in this 
 way. 
 
 In speech, the first case (the Nominative) which 
 answers to the question Who ? or What ? is the sign of 
 independence, and several independent objects and names 
 may he used in conjunction, so as to form one idea or 
 expression. 
 
 Example. — The hat, coat, and vest are clothes. The 
 dog, cat, sheep, and cow are domestic animals. 
 
76 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 But parts, likewise, may be used thus, for example: 
 The root, trunk, and branches of the tree ; or this 
 may be done with qualities : The high, long, and 
 broad house; the height, length, and breadth of the 
 house. 
 
 The sign of dependence is the possessive case, an- 
 swering to the question " Whose ? " Thus if, as in the 
 above examples, we are speaking of the thing not as a 
 whole, but only of one or more parts of it, in which 
 case the former signification disappears — being of sec- 
 ondary importance only — to make room for the second 
 case. (See Lesson XL. ) 
 
 Even these intimate definitions may again he combined, 
 for in the realm of experience certain objects or parts 
 are in common proportion and relation to one an- 
 other. 
 
 Example. — The height of the church, the mountain ; 
 the branch of the tree, of the family ; the necessity, not 
 only of nourishment, but likewise of dwelling-house 
 and clothing. 
 
 This should be read over more than once, and rendered 
 thoroughly clear by numerous examples; for in the 
 whole scope of logic and language, much depends upon 
 the ideas of co-ordination and sub-ordination, they being 
 prevalent everywhere. For children, it is enough to 
 perceive this intuitively; the better knowledge thereof 
 is left to specific instruction in language, to which 
 at present we can only slightly refer from time to 
 time. 
 
 The faith fid and imtchful dog; the sly and thievish cat, 
 the gnaiving mouse; the indispensable coiv; the strong and 
 ^dthal tame ox; the quich and yet safe horse; the patient 
 hut lively lamh; the stupid hut still usefid goose; the dull 
 
SECOND STEP. 77 
 
 yet contented ass; the clean and shy pigeon; the fat hut 
 dirty pig ; the old and tame goat, etc. 
 
 Although the conjunction " and " points out a com- 
 bination only, nevertheless a contrast is self-evident. 
 
 LESSON LY. 
 
 THE MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY WITH THEIR 
 CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 The difficulty and the advantage of this exercise con- 
 sist in the similitude of the objects whose distinguish- 
 ing characteristics are looked for ; it is at the same time 
 a great step in judging of man and acquiring a knowl- 
 edge of humanity. 
 
 The -strict hut amiable father ; the hind mother, the 
 pious daughter, the ohedient child, the attentive hoy, the 
 tvild brother, the ujjright sister, the diligent servant, the 
 industrious (and honest) laborer, the venerable grand- 
 father, the careful grandmother, the hind brother-in-law, 
 the friendly sister-in-laiu, the angry cousin, the interesting 
 uncle, the liberal aunt, the clever assistant, etc. 
 
 LESSON LYI 
 
 HOW A ROAD IS. 
 
 We now go back to the stating of pure adjectives, it 
 being so very important, in speaking and thinking, to 
 be able to find and name the qualities of things. We 
 
78 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 practice, however, this time their transposition into 
 nouns and their definitions, and wherever opportunity- 
 is offered for making combinations they should be 
 made. 
 
 Broad, narrow, long, sliort, croohed, straight, even, 
 uneven, rough, smooth, steep, ascending, descending, wide, 
 wet, moist, siuampy, dirty, clayey, dry, stony, dusty, firm, 
 soft, hard, sandy, elevated, deep, frozen, slippery, icy, 
 tedious, rubUe, macadamized, paved, grassy, lordered, 
 clean, interesting, disagreeaUe, safe, unsafe, dangerous. 
 
 The enumeration of many words of similar meaning 
 must here be practised, even if their difference as such 
 should not be well understood. This is effected by our 
 system itself in due time changing into abstract nouns 
 such words as length,, breadth, etc.; then giving their 
 definitions and combination. 
 
 The breadth of the road, river, table, house; the length of 
 time^ stories, boards; the shortness of the coat ; the narrow- 
 ness of the place, the crookedness of the river ; the frankness 
 of the soldier, of the upright man ; the roughness of the 
 uneducated man ; the smoothness of the youthful face ; etc. 
 
 I conclude that every teacher by this time will be able 
 to go through these exercises, accommodating himself 
 to the intelligence of the children; he who is not yet 
 able to do so and tarries to inform himself by seeking 
 personal instruction from without, does not merit the 
 name of teacher. The use of the words pointing out 
 the relation of objects to one another (prepositions) is 
 acquired, without any extra explanations, by daily 
 practice. 
 
 It is of more importance to understand these relations 
 and circumstances themselves, as those of place answering 
 to "where?" those of the whole to its parts, answering 
 
SECOiq"D STEP. 79 
 
 to " whose ? " those of time, " when ? " of cause, ^' why ? " 
 of origin, " whence ? ^' of means '^ which, what ? " of the 
 aim, " for what ? " 
 
 LESSON LYII. 
 
 WHAT IS FOUND BY THE ROADSIDE. 
 
 (with adjectives.) 
 
 TJie pointed grass, the fruitful trees, the hard stones, the 
 muddy ground, the deep ditches, the beautiful fields, the 
 flowing brook, the oppressive dust, the solid milestones, the 
 useful guidepost, the clear spring, the prickly thorns, the 
 old fences, the tottering walls, the new bridges, etc. 
 
 In the same manner we may ask them what is in a 
 book or on the outside of it; or should this be too 
 difficult, we may begin again with the first lesson, add- 
 ing a suitable adjective to every noun used. 
 
 LESSON LYIII. 
 HOW man' is (may be, should or should 
 
 NOT be). 
 
 The qualities of body and mind may be distinguished 
 as good and bad; but before enumerating the virtues 
 and vices more systematically, alphabetically, or in any 
 other manner, in order to introduce moral subjects we 
 need this exercise, and the answers are here given at ran- 
 dom, as they actually occur. 
 
80 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 Big, little, old, young, fat, lean, lueaJc, ugly, heautiful, 
 clean, lieaWiy, sick, pious, upright, just, righteous, hrave, 
 good, polite, grateful, diligent, honest, honorable, ohedient, 
 humlle, faithful, true, pitying, attentive, charitahle, rev- 
 erential, saving, gentle, truthful^ veracious, impious, god- 
 less, lazy, indolent, idle, dishonest, quarrelsome, imssion- 
 ate, angry, torathful, greedy, intemperate, revengeful, 
 rude, coarse, rough, impolite, false, deceitful, bad, wicked, 
 lying, etc. 
 
 Good ideas may be formed and instructive answers 
 elicited by such questions as these : How should we be- 
 have toward our benefactors ? toward those we oblige ? 
 those we ask favors from ? in joy? in sorrow? in asso- 
 ciating with others ? in misfortune ? in fortune ? in 
 health ? in sickness ? How should the rich behave ? 
 the poor ? the father ? the servant ? the friend ? the 
 neighbor ? the teacher ? the scholar ? etc. 
 
 If the intelligence of the children be far enough ad- 
 vanced, they may be led to define more thoroughly these 
 new nouns and their definitions. 
 
 Example. — The extraordinary size (bigness) of the 
 sagacious elephant, the prodigious strength of the angry 
 lion, the sound health of the traveling father, etc. 
 
 One lesson will be sufficient to teach the comparison 
 of adjectives : Old, older, oldest ; big, bigger, biggest ; 
 dry, drier, driest ; diligent, more diligent, most diligent ; 
 etc. Adjectives may also be used in sentences with " is." 
 The brother is old; the sister is older; the mother is 
 the oldest. The reason for comparing them (to note 
 increase or decrease in the qualities of different objects) 
 need not be pointed out; the children will ask for it 
 themselves soon enough. 
 
SECOI^D STEP. 81 
 
 B,— Qualities of persons or things, with the ac- 
 cessory ideas of tirne, action, passiveness, con- 
 dition, ( Verbs.) 
 
 Change is the chief state of this world ; deeds, suffer- 
 ings, passions, joys, conditions, etc., flit past the observer 
 in endless yariety, and are lost in the current of time. 
 This being the case, no wonder that man sought to 
 express this incessant changing of time by a change of 
 words, and that he invented a peculiar kind of words to 
 denote being, doing, and suffering in all their different 
 relations to time. 
 
 That these words are called Verbs (or words of affirma- 
 tion) is all that the child need know at present. The 
 child will soon make its own explanations. It has 
 learned, up to Lesson XLVIII, to distinguish the dif- 
 ferent objects, their kinds and their parts ; then, from 
 XLVIII to LVIII, to distinguish their qualities, as 
 essential or simply accidental ones ; it will soon distin- 
 guish, likewise, actions, sufferings, and states of exist- 
 ence, with all the attendant modifications of time. 
 We should neither hurry too hastily over the more im- 
 portant phenomena and characteristics of language, nor 
 dwell too long on matters and forms which become 
 familiar to the uninformed from the practice of daily 
 life, if we wish to obtain good results. The reasons that 
 induce us to oppose the many abuses in the present 
 method of teaching verbs, though these abuses have be- 
 come almost sanctified by constant use, are as follows : 
 
 The very acquisition of the formula of the conjuga- 
 tions, I learn, thou learnest, etc., etc., with which the so- 
 called special education in grammar is begun, is the most 
 
82 OBJECT LESSOiq"S. 
 
 pernicious occupation that could be giyen to the average 
 child — that is, to the child not peculiarly gifted with in- 
 telligence. That reality, in the midst of which aU those 
 exist who grow up independent of schools, is taken away 
 from the child, which receives as a substitute the empty 
 form; instead of real truth (actual appearances and ob- 
 servations) empty show (the conjugations as practised 
 in all grammars) is given ; the attention is withdrawn 
 from that which alone can charm, please, nourish, and 
 strengthen it, from personal experience, from considering 
 individual objects, and instead it is led to logical abstrac- 
 tions which only become of importance much later. In 
 this manner men are produced who, after having spent 
 their regular years in school, do not know where to begin 
 when called upon to act or speak ; the tradesman forgets 
 what he was taught in school, and the professional for- 
 gets what life is ; in short, the tradesman ceases to be a 
 learned man — that is, a man well-instructed in all the 
 branches of his avocations, and the scholar ceases to be 
 a useful member of society, to which his aversion is 
 increased by the very effort of continuing his scholastic 
 studies. 
 
 In making this assertion, we would ask all scholars of 
 medium intelligence: whether they could not point out 
 the exact time when, after having left school for real 
 life, for want of further food for their minds, they were 
 forced to look for other sources, and felt compelled to 
 make these latter aid their ideas by practices quite dif- 
 ferent from those savoring of schools ? Take the case of 
 the Greeks and Eomans, who, growing up in the realm 
 of experience (with nature, history and their false gods) 
 still surpass the nations of other ages, but who, had they 
 been instructed in conformity with our text-books, would 
 
SECOND STEP. 83 
 
 have lagged behind like ourselves. Only by such a 
 method of teaching was it possible for the world to enter 
 the labyrinth of confusion out of which it is striving to 
 extricate itself, where it was possible for princes to rule 
 without any respect for law, where the officials lorded it 
 over the commons, where the average christian led a 
 heathenish life, and the learned were ignorant of the 
 most needful elements ; aye, where they could be both 
 unintelligible and foolish. All this will cease with the 
 abolition of the above injurious method of instruction, 
 though we know of no better means for fanatics and 
 tyrants to further their dark aims — depression of intelli- 
 gence and justice — than to further the tenets of those 
 schools in which the mental capacities of the scholars 
 are stunted and the latter transformed into objects 
 unable to think for themselves, with no will of their 
 own, and devoid of all individuality. Fortunately their 
 days are numbered. When their sun has set, a new era 
 will arise, and the past will be used only to serve as a 
 warning example for future ages. 
 
 In teaching the verb, let us proceed as in everything 
 else ; try to fix the observations of real life, in this way 
 answering the impulses of their (the children's) own 
 nature, and enabling them to catch at first the separate 
 idea (being), and then, as it were playingly, to under- 
 stand the general form thereof. Begin by explaining 
 such words as a riding, hopping, jumping boy, in contra- 
 distinction to the sick, poor, fat, healthy boy, and you 
 will never find any difficulty in making the pupils per- 
 ceive the inherent active life of the former, in opposition 
 to the quiet state denoted by the latter; and the transition 
 from hopping, riding, jumping to "hop, ride and jump " 
 will be much more readily understood than the general 
 
84 OBJECT LESSOiq^S. 
 
 quality of being sick, etc.; that is, in following up a defi- 
 nite denomination of action its real meaning will be 
 seized by the mind without any further trouble, by 
 intuition. Eor, if the idea of " dihgent " can only be 
 thoroughly mastered by the contemplation of different 
 states of activity, our thoughts will assimilate most 
 readily the idea of action when joined to the questions : 
 What (is done)? How (is it done)? With what (is it 
 done)? When? What is written? learned? etc. The 
 secret of this system of education will thus show itself 
 by developing the mind, not alone by leading it to 
 observe objects and their qualities, but also to perceive 
 the different actions in their attendant circumstances 
 and relations ; when this has been done, the grammatical 
 form is evolved — already possessed, but as yet not prop- 
 erly understood. 
 
 LESSON LIX. 
 
 WHAT A CHILD DOES DO. 
 (CAK DO, SHOULD OE SHOULD NOT DO.) 
 
 If the children can arrange their statement in some 
 order I feel pleased and try at all times to procure 
 this result, and trust that such may be done by every 
 teacher without his usiug undue mental straining; yet 
 it is quite optional in which order the following be 
 taken : 
 
 What does a child do in school ? Reads, writes, reck- 
 ons, sings, plays, spells, asJcs, replies, answers, shows. 
 
SECOKD STEP. 85 
 
 draios, learns, luorries, chats, talks, screams, sits, stands, 
 walhs, lueeps, eats, listens, recites, tliinks, considers, 
 laughs, grins, smiles, obeys, studies. 
 
 At home? Eats, drinks, lies, sleeps, arises, works, 
 knits, fetches (wood, etc.), learns, jumps, plays, hops, 
 daoices, rides, drives, kicks, draios, runs (on errands). 
 
 It need not trouble us whether the children under- 
 stand all the terms giyen or not. Their own ideas are 
 sufficiently clear about the word given, even if their 
 mode of stating this be not so clear ; there is no wrong 
 conception, and our subsequent lessons will clear up 
 whatever may as yet be obscure. 
 
 That the above are words of action (verbs) cannot be 
 too often repeated, and their difference from the nouns 
 and adjectives pointed out. Gradually the idea of Per- 
 son and Time (present, past, and future) may be briefly 
 introduced. 
 
 LESSON LX. 
 
 WHAT THE TRADESPEOPLE DO. 
 
 Though it be important to know the different avoca- 
 tions of trade, it is even more important to practice, in 
 as many instances as possible, this new part of speech 
 (verb), so as to enable the children to express every 
 activity which they may behold. If the pupils are 
 very intelligent, or the teacher finds occasion for it, 
 short exercises illustrating the leading tenses may be 
 given, prefixing I, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they. 
 
 In wood : chop, split, saw, plane, cut, rub doivn (sand- 
 paper), polish, varnish, bore, nail, turn, glue, beat, stamj), 
 
86 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 clean, scrape, setj lohittle, press, compress, draw, paint, 
 slit, hreah, dovetail, U^ie, rule, liew, etc. 
 
 In leather, linen, yarns : spin, tiuist, lueave, measure, 
 cut, sev3, irofi, beat, press, ruh, pull, hem, flatten, wash, 
 rip, bleach, dry, etc. 
 
 It is unnecessary to give so many words at this time ; 
 the teacher will find the children stocked with a super- 
 abundance of them, when once the mind has been stimu- 
 lated. Eepetitions may occur at first, but such verbs as 
 are in constant use, as eat, drink, sit, stand, etc., may 
 soon be discarded, in order to give the mind a com- 
 mand over synonymous and more suitable expressions. 
 
 LESSON LXI. 
 
 WHAT THE MERCHANT DOES. 
 
 (more mikute defii^itioi^ of the verb.) 
 
 These exercises are so quickly comprehended by the 
 children (even with the use of the conjugations) that 
 no more need be added were it not desirable to shov/ 
 them how to complete and define the verbs more min- 
 utely. They are now led to inquire for the object, the 
 means, or the tool used, and to understand the manifold 
 relations of verbs to circumstances, place, time, motive, 
 etc., inquiries which are already familiar to them from 
 daily practice, so that nothing remains to be done but 
 to impress on their mind the importance and influence 
 of these things, in order to enable them to express their 
 thoughts correctly. For every human being tries to ren- 
 
SECOND STEP. 87 
 
 der an account to himself of all the peculiar relations of 
 objects and phenomena connected with all his natural 
 desires and abilities, and requires only a little guidance 
 to be able to do so in a proper manner, to express them 
 in correct language. This want we must try to sup- 
 ply- 
 
 We thus continue to find more and more verbs until 
 
 the children have become thoroughly acquainted with 
 them. What is done by the merchant, farmer, teacher, 
 host, traveler, soldier, official, patient, servant (female 
 Vv'ork) ; what is done in the market, at fairs, at other 
 places and on other occasions, at funerals, at church, etc., 
 all of which the children will promptly answer. They 
 may also be allowed, or better, trained to inquire for the 
 object and attendant circumstances of the respective 
 actions. 
 
 The merchant can — must be able to : write, read, 
 reckon, tuy, sell, jnirchase, facie, wrap up, unpacTc, pay, 
 receive (money), distribute, expend, note, enter, erase, 
 speak, talk, deal, trade, measure, cut, tear, clean, hrusli, 
 dust, sweep, weigh, empty ^ load, unload, fill, pour out, 
 arrange, fold, sTiow, coax, explain, etc. 
 
 Following this statement of the various actions, the 
 questions may be given more or less briefly : 
 
 1. What does the merchant write (object of the action)? 
 Letters, dills, orders, invoices, receipts, notes, etc. 
 
 2. What does he use in writing (tools, means) ? Pencil, 
 ink, clialk, paper, etc. 
 
 3. How must he be able to write (manner, quality of 
 action)? Nicely, quickly, correctly, legiUy, etc. 
 
 4. To whom must he write (secondary object, indirect 
 objective case) '^ To a friend, to a wJiolesale dealer, to a 
 manufacturer, to a customer, to a tanker, etc. 
 
88 OBJECT LESSON'S. 
 
 5. When must he write (time) ? In the morning, in the 
 evening, in the day-time, at all times, when at leisure, etc. 
 
 6. Where (place)? Li the office, in the store, in the room, 
 on the counter, table, desk, etc. 
 
 7. AYliy (cause, aim) ? To carry on his business, to order 
 goods, to gain an advantage, to verify payment, to notify 
 his custotners, to enter his purchases and sales, etc. 
 
 These questions must be continued as long as requisite 
 to enable the child to reply promptly and intelligently, 
 in fact until the teacher is sure that it has well mas- 
 tered the subject. This easy and agreeable occupation is 
 of the utmost importance in training the mind to grasp, 
 arrange and express quickly and correctly the different 
 points presented. Here a few more examples follow to 
 elicit answers in accordance with the above questions: 
 
 1. What does the merchant read? TJie letter, news, 
 invoice, his entries ; 
 
 2. How does he read ? Well, distinctly, correctly, loud, 
 eagerly, etc. 
 
 3. When does he read ? Often, alioays, when time alloivs 
 it, ivhen letters have arrived, etc. 
 
 (The questions 2, 4, 6 may be left out, as we shall often 
 have occasion to recur to them, but 7 should be asked.) 
 
 7. Why must he read ? To gain information, to learn 
 the 'prices, etc* 
 
 BUY. 
 
 1. What does the merchant buy? Goods, hardware, dry 
 
 goods, groceries, corn, cloth, etc. 
 
 2. How does he buy? Cheaiily, honestly, usefully, 
 cleverly, etc. 
 
 f). When does he buy? At the propter time, ivhen 
 required, in the season, etc. 
 
SECOKD STEP. 89 
 
 6. Where, from whom ? From the manufacturer, from 
 the luholesale dealer, at the mavTcet, etc. 
 
 That children often reply in complete sentences does 
 not matter, though it might be said that sentences have 
 as yet not begun being introduced. Children talk in 
 sentences all day long; only their sentences are neither 
 special ones nor ma^e with purpose. 
 
 LESSON LXII. 
 
 WHAT IS DONE BT THE FARMER. 
 
 While the last lesson is more applicable to city-children, 
 this one is better suited to country-children. It is requi- 
 site, however, that both lessons should be learned by all 
 children, whether residing m city or country. 
 
 Cultivate, jolough, till, harroiu, r alee, feed, tvater, yasture, 
 harness, saddle, ride, drive, clean, groom, load, unload, 
 heat, luhip, craclc, unharness, lead, guide, hoe, thresh, 
 weed, SOU), cut, tie, hind, reap, split, carry, mow, dry, 
 chop, plant, prune, graft, trim, fence in, etc, 
 
 PLOUGH. 
 
 1, the acre, the field; 2, with the plough, horses, oxen, 
 cattle; 3, diligently, deep, properly, with care, luith 
 trouhle; 5, in spring, in summer, fall, whenever it is 
 necessary; 7, to clear the field of lueeds, etc, 
 
 FEED. 
 
 1, the cattle, the horses ; 2, with hag, grass, oats, corn ; 3, 
 carefully, diligently, sufficiently ; 4, mornings, evenings, at 
 
90 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 the proper time ; 6, in the stable, ham, house, shed ; 7, to 
 sustain, strengthen and fatten them,- that he may derive 
 advantage (flesh, milk, butter, etc.)/ro7n them, let them 
 work, sell them at a good price, etc, 
 
 CLEAN. 
 
 1, the cattle, harness, dresses ; 2, with the brush, curry- 
 comb, water, rag ; 3, nicely, properly, carefully ; 7, for the 
 sake of cleanliness, to keep them in health, beauty, etc. 
 
 LOAD. 
 
 1, sheaves, hay, manure, dung, stones, straw, casks, 
 barrels, wood, sacks, corn ; 2, by hand, with a fork, shovel, 
 pitchfork; 3, cleverly, properly, slowly, industriously; 5, 
 at harvest-time, at hay-time, at fall-time, early, late, at all 
 times ; 6, i7i the field, meadow, ditch, furrow, trench, street, 
 road, yard, barn, house. 
 
 In this manner the children acquire a sound imder- 
 standing of the (first and second) object of the verb, the 
 motive, tool, circumstance (time and place), likewise the 
 use of prepositions (words of relation), this without 
 trouble or further explanation, though should they 
 inquire as to the latter, appropriate explanation must 
 be given. 
 
 LESSON LXIII. 
 
 WORK DONE BY FEMALES. 
 (what DOES A WIFE DO? A SEKVANT ? ) 
 
 Children already possessed of language should be per- 
 mitted to reply in sentences, but they must be taught to 
 
SEC02^D STEP. 91 
 
 treat of but one person, one object, one period of time, 
 so long as anything may yet be said of it. As a general 
 rule, the child should combine with the idea of the 
 action the idea of one or more complements, in this 
 manner impressing these new words upon its mind. 
 
 S2nn, knit, sew, wash, cooh, scour, feed, millc, lumish, 
 sweep, dust, brush, kindle afire, etc. 
 
 SPIK. 
 
 1, flax, hemp, ivool, cotton ; 2, with hand and spindle, 
 wheel or distaff; 3, finely, coarsely, well, diligently; 6, 
 from morning until night, as often as they have time ; 
 6, in the room, in the kitchen, out doors. 8. What must 
 be done in spinning ? Fasten (the stuff), draiv it out, 
 pull, jerk, ivet it, turn, wind it uj), spool it. 
 
 KITIT. 
 
 What? Stockings, socks, caps, mittens, suspenders, 
 purses, bonnets, nets, etc. 
 The other questions are of less importance here. 
 
 SEW. 
 
 1, linen, garments, dresses, clothing, sacks, bags, etc.; 
 2, thread, cotton, silk ; 3, well, evenly, quick^ly, durably, 
 negligently, badly. 8. What must be done in sewing? 
 Thread the needle, fold the material, measure. 
 
 In a similar manner we may treat the other verbs. 
 For the sake of variety children are allowed to ask ques- 
 tions themselves, in order to understand them from all 
 points. 
 
92 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 LESSON LXIY. 
 
 ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS. 
 
 (verbal adjectives with suitable nouns.) 
 
 Partly to remind the pupil of the nature of adjectives, 
 but principally to make him acquainted with the active 
 and passive signification of many verbs, the derivation 
 of the word intermediate between the two — the parti- 
 ciple — is shown. We make use of the verbs contained 
 in our first exercise (Lesson LIX), and leave it to 
 the teacher to work them out properly. He need only 
 explain that whatever is done or suffered by man or 
 any other object, may also be looked upon as a con- 
 dition or peculiarity of them, and that it may be repre- 
 sented as such. 
 
 The ivriting teacJier, the written account ; the reading 
 toy, the paper read ; the rechoning merchant, the recTc- 
 oned sum; the singi7ig child, the tune sung; the p)raying 
 father, the spelling pupil, the ashing leggar, the replying 
 ivitness, the ansicering scholar, the drawing architect, the 
 counting cleric, the telling actor. 
 
 Those actions which have no objects cannot denote 
 sufiering ; hence we are at this stage led to understand 
 naturally the active (transitive) and the neuter (intran- 
 sitive) verbs, though these will be treated here no further 
 than simply to point them out in an easy manner, as 
 done above, giving in explanation a few of the reverse 
 examples ; as, the crying child, the cried child (?) ; the 
 sleeping man, the slept man (?), etc. 
 
SECOND STEP. 93 
 
 LESSON LXV. 
 
 THE VERB 
 USED AS KOUK, AKD ITS KEW DEFINITION GIVEN. 
 
 That the scope of the noun may be thoroughly under- 
 stood, it is useful to point out the verbal nouns, in order 
 to show the children that an action may be spoken of as 
 thoroughly independent of its doer or of time. They 
 will easily perceive the difference between " the writing 
 teacher " and the " writing of the teacher," " the crying 
 child" and '^the crying of the child" — the teacher's 
 writing, the child's crying. They will readily compre- 
 hend that every verb gives rise to a verbal noun (sub- 
 stantive form). 
 
 Tlie clwjoping with the knife; the splitting with the 
 ax ; the ivriting ivith the pen ; the smooth planing, the 
 fine sewing, the clever working ; the turning of the ivheel, 
 the ringing of the hells, the ivild knocking at the door, etc. 
 
 LESSON LXYI. 
 
 ORAL EXERCISES ON THE USE OF VERBS. 
 a. THE THREE TENSES (TIMES). 
 
 In so far as these exercises in language aid us in our 
 purpose, though they may seemingly forestall the more 
 specific instruction in grammar, they are entitled to 
 a place here. Our ideas of the mechanical teach- 
 ing of empty forms have been given before. But there 
 
94 OBJECT LESSOi^S. 
 
 are simple lessons so congenial to the development of the 
 mind, and at the same time so likely to show the tech- 
 nical forms of language in their chief points, that they 
 may consistently be introduced wherever this can be 
 done in furtherance of our object. To have an exact 
 knowledge of the formulae is not necessary in an intro- 
 duction to grammar, for there are many persons pos- 
 sessed of a tolerably good style who never studied gram- 
 mar, or who, having once learned it, have completely 
 forgotten it, and only again acquired the grammatical 
 technicalities by practice. 
 
 The verbs which denote a condition of time must be 
 practised so that the present, past and future can be 
 easily pointed out by the pupils. Tell me something 
 that you are doing at the present time, and I am cer- 
 tain you are all doing something ? Asking in this way, 
 the children will not hesitate to reply either : 
 
 / sit, stand, see, breathe, think, listen, learn, study, freeze, 
 perspire, etc. 
 
 Every one of you has now spoken in the present time 
 or tense. Now let each of you tell me what you did 
 yesterday, or before that time even, all of which took 
 place m past time. 
 
 I sewed (I have sewed), I spun (I have sipun), I learned 
 (I did learn, have learned), / played, wrote, read, jumped, 
 hopped, drank, etc. 
 
 Even should they say : I have been sick ; I have been 
 beaten, etc. , no further explanation is necessary than to 
 point out to them the verbs already acquired, when they 
 will naturally perceive the difference between the active 
 and passive verbs. If occasion demand it they may yet 
 be told that, under certain circumstances, which, how- 
 ever, must be pointed out, past time may also be denoted 
 by "I had learned, I had written," etc. 
 
SECOND STEP. 95 
 
 Now tell me what you are likely to do to-morrow or iu 
 the future, for that is called the future time or tense. 
 You may likewise add as many complements and com- 
 binations as you like. 
 
 I shall (or will) go to market (to-morrow). Next Sunday 
 I will hear a sermon ; to-night I shall eat supper, say my 
 prayer and go to bed ; I shall get up early to-morrow morn- 
 ing, wash and dress myself, breakfast, and then go to school, 
 etc. 
 
 This is more than enough for one lesson. The differ- 
 ent definitions of time (Lesson LXVI) to which the 
 adverbs of time, "now, at present, presently, to-day, 
 yesterday, etc., lately, formerly, once, soon, to-morrow, 
 in future, etc.," may be added in illustration, will be 
 readily understood, and the teacher will also find tlie 
 pupils possessed of good ideas about actions, conditions 
 and sufferings, and quite eager to express them. 
 
 LESSON LXYII 
 
 h. PERSON IN VERBS. 
 
 Yesterday you only spoke of yourselves; you con- 
 tinually said I, I, I ; but you also speak of others, and to 
 others, and with others, and this gives rise to person in 
 verbs. There are three : I, thou, he (she, it), and when- 
 ever there are more persons : we, you, they. Now change 
 the yerbs : learn, write, cipher, etc., according to these 
 persons. I learn, he (she, it) learns; we, you, they learn, 
 etc. 
 
 For practice let each one of you tell me something in 
 the present time in relation to water, what he may do 
 with, by, or in the water. 
 
96 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 Singular : 1st. / drink the water. 
 
 2d. Thou (you) carriest the water, 
 3d. He {she, it) fetches the wate7\ 
 Plural : 1st. We wash with water. 
 
 2d. You bathe in the water, 
 3d. They swim in the water. 
 
 In the third person, that is, when speaking of any 
 person or thing, their names may be used instead of he, 
 she, it, they. 
 
 Example. — The servant carries the water; the fish 
 swim in the water. Repetition of the same sentences 
 (similar ones) is not allowed. 
 
 Of what use is the water ? It (water) quenches thirst, 
 propels millSy waters the meadows, bleaches the linen, cleans 
 the clothes. Upon the water the shijjs, rafts, all kinds of wood, 
 oil, etc., float. Stones and metals smJc in the water, fishes 
 live in the vjater, etc. 
 
 In a similar manner teach the past and future tense 
 with or without complements. With less advanced chil- 
 dren only one noun should be taken, and shorter or 
 longer complements added, though number and person 
 should be introduced as above, but in a more playful 
 manner. 
 
 Example. — Present time : I have an apple, he has a 
 book, we have clothes, you have friends, they have gar- 
 dens. Past tense : I had an apple, she had a pear, we 
 had cherries, etc. Future time : I shall buy a horse, you 
 will buy a bird, etc. 
 
 Without definition of time and person the verb is used 
 in a general way. (Infinitive mood.) 
 
 Example. — What can a horse do ? Carry, pull, Icicle, 
 trot, jump, eat, siveat, neigh, etc. 
 
SECOND STEP. 97 
 
 LESSON LXYIII. 
 
 MORE INTIMATE COMPLETION OF THOSE VERBS 
 HAVING A GENERAL OR VAGUE MEANING. 
 
 The infinitive present generally follows the auxiliary 
 verbs may, can, must, will, shall, do, ought. When these 
 verbs are used without the principal verb, which is, 
 however, always understood, we can obtain the latter by 
 asking "What ? " The practice of thus completing these 
 verbs is of great advantage to the mind, and helps to 
 development of moral sentiment, generally so much 
 neglected. 
 
 Tense, person, infinitive, are the three technical terms 
 that should be noticed here. Now let every one of you 
 tell me something which you can, may, shall or will do, 
 making use of the three persons of speech : 
 
 / can speah, thou canst eat, lie can draiu, I may learn, 
 you may irnlh, he may write, I shall worlc, thou shalt not 
 steal, he shall come home, etc. 
 
 According to circumstances a few exercises may be 
 given to find subjects who may, can, must, etc., do some- 
 thing peculiar. 
 
 The nightingale can sing heautifully ; the donkey can 
 carry heavy burdens; the servant must ivorh from mor7i- 
 ing until night ; horses and oxen must draio the luagon ; 
 the criminal must suffer imnishment. 
 
 The master may command, buy, ride, drive, eat, drinJc, 
 ichatever he wants; the ivoman must he sensible. The 
 laborer may rest when his work is over; the child must 
 not ahvays eat luhat it wants, or luhen it ivishes, but lohen 
 tlie proper time has come. 
 5 
 
98 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 With a little careful thinking on the, part of teacher 
 and pupils, numerous examples of this kind will be found, 
 and we know from experience, that after six months' 
 instruction, the teacher will not only perceive a great 
 improvement in the formation and expression of thought 
 in the children, but likewise in himself. If at times 
 longer sentences are brought out, it must not be con- 
 sidered as going ahead too rapidly, for they appear now 
 without any trouble as a natural sequence of the more 
 extended scope of thinking. They must, however, not 
 be elicited on purpose. 
 
 LESSON LXIX 
 
 imperative mode of speaking. (imperative 
 
 mood). 
 
 By the aid of verbs you can also express commands, 
 requests and wishes, and in this case they are used in the 
 imperative mood. 
 
 1, COMMANDS. 
 
 What does the mother tell her children daily? the 
 teacher his pupils ? 
 
 Take care! Do not fall! Keep your clothes clean ! Lay 
 them down properly, hang them up ! Do not eat too much ! 
 Do not drink so quickly ! Walk slowly ! Do not break the 
 glass! Stand up! Sit down! Put your books in order! 
 Write! Sing! Read! March! Come! etc. 
 
 The teacher may here point out to the children that 
 some of the former sentences are addressed to but one 
 
SECOND STEP. 99 
 
 person, others to more, and thus keep alive their ideas 
 of person and number. 
 
 2, BEQUESTS. 
 
 What the children ask of their mother? of their 
 teacher ? 
 
 G^ive me some bread ! Dress me ! Let me go out ! Give- 
 me some soup! (If babies say: Mama, arm! Bed! Eat! 
 Drink! what does it mean? Take me in your arms! 
 Put me to bed! etc.) Please allow me to go out! Be so 
 kind and hand me my pen ! Please tell me how this word 
 is smiled ! Let me see it too ! etc. 
 
 3, WISHES, ADMONITIONS, ENCOURAGEMENT. 
 
 Make some sentences with : Let us ! How do children 
 encourage each other ?— teachers their pupils? — parents 
 their children ? It is evident that all these questions are 
 not asked at once. 
 
 Co7ne, let us hathe, play, jump ! Let us sit doimi and 
 tell stories ! Let us learn verses ! Let us gather daisies 
 and violets ! Let us all si7ig a song ! Bad boys say to 
 one another : Come, let us go and find Mrds^ nests and 
 talce out the young ones ! Let us go and steal apples, 
 pears, etc. 
 
 LESSON LXX. 
 
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE FORM. 
 
 Those verbs which may be accompanied by an object 
 acted upon, and which are hence called active (transitive) 
 verbs, may likewise denote suffering (passive form). Let 
 us not tell our pupils this in order to get them to 
 
100 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 learn the conjugations in the ordinary form; our ob- 
 ject is — 
 
 1. To give them two ways of expressing the same idea ; 
 
 2. To enable them to distinguish the independent, 
 self-acting subject from the objective (object acted 
 upon) ; and 
 
 3. To teach them how to recognize the moods in 
 their different forms — in short, "to teach them prac- 
 tically what they could not as yet understand theo- 
 retically." 
 
 The acquisition of the various forms no longer offers 
 any difficulties, and every teacher will know best how 
 to teach them without requiring further hints on the 
 subject. We shall only give such hints now and then, 
 leaving it to each teacher to extend or limit them ac- 
 cording to his peculiar sun'oundings. He has already 
 been materially aided in the definition of the verbs by 
 the examples given in Lesson LXII. Distinguish prop- 
 erly between the doer (subject) and the object of the 
 action, for one is directly the opposite of the other. We 
 may, however, invert the sentence in such a manner that 
 the object of the action becomes the subject of what we 
 are speaking about ; in doing this we change the verb 
 from the active to the passive form ; thus : The mer- 
 chant writes the letter — A\ill write the letter, may be 
 changed into : The letter is written — will be written by 
 the merchant, which is the passive form. The person 
 acting is then generally found by asking " By whom ? " 
 We may at first take the verb "to write" : 
 Tlie merchant ivrites letters ; the letters are luritten hy 
 the merchant. The scholars 2vill write their lessons ; the 
 lessons loill le written ly the scholars^ etc. 
 
SECOND STEP. 101 
 
 Imperative mode : TJie hoy must lurite his copy slowly; 
 the copy must he written hy the hoy slowly, etc. 
 
 This practice may be done as in Lesson X. 
 
 The acre is ploughed; the meadow is moiued ; fJie hair 
 is cut; the apples are gathered ; with any other com- 
 plements. 
 
 In a similar manner and with the same facility, but 
 with more variation, all l^inds of active and passive verbs 
 may be used in connection with Lessons XXIV and 
 XXV. 
 
 The physician visited the siclc man ; the sich man was 
 visited hy the i^hysician. 
 
 TJie hoolchinder has hound my hooh well; my hoolc has 
 heen hound tvell by the hoolchinder. 
 
 The messenger will carry your message ; your message 
 will he carried hy the messenger. 
 
 We have now arrived at the threshold of connected 
 speech, and will enter a higher branch of our instruction. 
 
THIRD STEP. 
 
 THE PROPER ARRANGEMENT OF IDEAS, OR FORMATION 
 
 OF JUDGMENTS. CONNECTED SPEECH 
 
 OR SENTENCES. 
 
 A.— Separate sentences about various objects. 
 
 It will be found that in the same proportion as chil- 
 dren are possessed of a stock of words sufficient to name 
 all sorts of objects, their parts, qualities, etc., in a similar 
 way they are already possessed of sufficient ability to 
 form complete judgments and sentences, they having 
 from their very infancy been m the daily habit of using 
 them ; we have therefore nothing new to offer them, but 
 only to develop, properly arrange and correct what is 
 already their own. They are rather devoid of thoughts 
 than of speech, a failing which accompanies many people 
 through life, and which forms the chief cause of the 
 ignorance and the increasing weakness in their mental 
 powers during their advanced years. This evil is not 
 mitigated by grammatical formulas, as is sought for by 
 our present instruction; this is not achieved by capa- 
 bility in analyzing a sentence (constructing it grammati- 
 cally), for the mind receives nothing thereby ; it is the 
 practice of inventing new sentences to which the rules 
 of speech will naturally accommodate themselves, little 
 
THIRD STEP. 103 
 
 by little — ^wliich feeds and strengthens our intelligence, 
 as has often been exemplified by untaught people, even 
 by untaught nations, which surpassed the learned in this 
 respect. 
 
 Our care should always be to direct the thoughts and 
 the attention of the children not only to the observation 
 of the various phenomena around them in a general man- 
 ner, but likewise to lead them to inquire into their causes, 
 circumstances, consequences, effects, objects, etc.; when 
 the natural desire to properly arrange and express their 
 thoughts will form itself into a firm habit, even become 
 a positive necessity. The question asked here must be : 
 " What is it? How is it ? Whence comes it? For what 
 does it serve ? What are its effects ? " 
 
 We thus restrict the logical speech and consecutive 
 thinking of our pupils to those objects and qualities that 
 have already become familiar to them from previous 
 lessons, excluding as yet everything foreign thereto, 
 taking care to guard them against empty talk and all 
 errors, but leading them imperceptibly to distinguisli and 
 give what is right, suitable and important. At first it 
 will be enough to form one sentence about each subject. 
 We may likewise add thoughts to words, and amuse and 
 instruct the children by letting them state the various 
 services performed by the individual members of our 
 body, and then guide them to define these by sentences 
 of their own. We shall furnish a sufficient number of 
 examples, and return now to our first lesson. 
 
104 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 LESSON LXXI. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT OBJECTS FOUND IN A ROOM. 
 
 The first step in thinking, speaking and writing coher- 
 ently is therefore : to form separate sentences about dif- 
 ferent objects, somewhat in the order given below. 
 
 The greatest care should be exercised to draw the 
 attention to the object as much as possible and to re- 
 fer only to the essential qualities of the subject (of 
 speech). 
 
 The treatment of this first exercise has already been 
 alluded to in our instruction, so that we need only give 
 what is still wanting. The leading questions must 
 always be: ^^What is the object (Example, the table) 
 according to its leing and parts ? What is it used for 9 
 Whence does it come? How is it made?" Often but 
 one of these questions can consistently be asked. It is 
 sufficient if only one or the other of the following sen- 
 tences is actually given by the children : 
 
 The table consists of the top, box and legs. The cabiiiet- 
 malcer mahes the table (it) of tvood. We may comfortably 
 sit, tvrite, read, seiu near it. 
 
 Should a child say: The table serves for eating, or, is 
 used for eating, the false expression (not the thought) 
 must be corrected. That which is eaten is used for 
 eating, for example, fruit, meat, vegetables, etc. ; you 
 must therefore say : The table is used to eat from — or, at. 
 Such corrections must on no account be omitted. 
 
 The chair consists of the bach, seat and legs, and serves 
 as a resting-place. Some chairs are bolstered, and upon 
 
THIRD STEP. 105 
 
 such lue sit more comfortally than upon those of wood or 
 cane. 
 
 Glass IS transparent. We drinh out of it (water-glass, 
 tumbler, beer- and wine-glass). The pane of glass is part 
 of a luindow. The loohi^ig-glass reflects images. 
 
 On the floor we stand and walk. Little children sit 
 and lie upon it. It is covered (floored) with hoards 
 (wood) so as to le smooth and dry. To understand the 
 reasons why the floors are not covered with cement or 
 stone requires more power of thought, yet many children 
 already possess this faculty and may be allowed to state 
 their reasons. 
 
 The room has four walls ^ the front, hach, and two side- 
 walls. Tlie walls are either white-icashed, papered or 
 painted. Some rooms have a high ceiling. 
 
 The ceiling of the room is, as it were, its upper floor. 
 
 The nails are made of iron, the dolts of wood or iron, 
 
 TJie needle is used to sew with, especially ly tailors and 
 seamstresses. 
 
 Thread is yarn tioisted douUy or tretly (that it may 
 be strong enough). Thread is white. Mack, bleached, 
 gray, etc. 
 
 The coat is made of cloth. Children generally wear 
 jackets. (Why ? Because they are more comfortable 
 and cheap.) 
 
 The overcoat is necessary to the traveller (to protect 
 him against the wind, cold or rain). 
 
 1 he hook was hound hy the hookhinder. We use it for 
 readi^ig, studying, praying, etc. In our copyhooks we 
 write. 
 
106 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 LESSON LXXII. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT OBJECTS IN A CHURCH. 
 
 We experience some difficulty at preseot iu deter- 
 mining how much further we shall proceed in giving 
 similar exercises; they must be continued some time 
 longer, at least a month ; but to give every exercise m 
 extenso, would be tedious here and objectionable to the 
 sensible teacher. We shall therefore only give a few, yet 
 we warn every teacher not to prooceed too hastily. No 
 teacher can be in want of words or of hints to use them, 
 for certainly more than half of all the words learned 
 as yet can be used by the good teachers. Those who 
 consider this exercise too difficult (Lessons II, III), may 
 alter its order and take the fourth, fifth, or any other 
 one ; those taken from the natural kingdoms (Lessons 
 XXVI-XXXIII) will be found very appropriate. The 
 rules of grammar (syntax) in their relation to subject 
 and predicate, must be kept in view, also in connection 
 with longer sentences. The most difficult part^ is the 
 proper combination of the subordinate sentence with 
 the main one by means of the conjugations; this, how- 
 ever, remains for special instruction in language and 
 composition. Nevertheless many of the younger pupils 
 acquire a wonderful facility even in the formation of 
 these. 
 
 Tlie organ is composed of (tin and wooden) pipes. 
 These latter produce various (musical) sounds. To pilay 
 the organ is an art. 
 
 The pulpit is elevated, so that the clergyman may he 
 better heard. 
 
THIRD STEP. 107 
 
 There are seats (benches, chairs) in church, thai people 
 may remain seated during the sermon. During prayer they 
 remain standing. 
 
 The clergyman remains in the vestry until he ascends the 
 pulpit. 
 
 The aisles of the church must be broad (why ?), that the 
 people may be able to enter their seats comfortably. 
 
 At the altar people receive communion. 
 
 The pillars are high and round and support the ceiling. 
 
 The pictures serve as ornaments and memorials. 
 
 For the sake of durability churches are built entirely of 
 stone. In the baptismal urn children are christened. 
 
 The doors are locked against thieves and naughty children. 
 
 The cross is a sign to remind Christians that Christ suf- 
 fered death by crucifixion. 
 
 The organ pipes have a deeper or higher sound. 
 
 The galleries are raised along the walls of the church that 
 the latter may seat more people. 
 
 The floor rests on very strong beams, in order that it may 
 neither shake nor break through. 
 
 The floor is often covered with flagging for the sake of 
 durability. 
 
 Flag-stones are better than red bricks. 
 
 The staircase must be broad that many people may ascend 
 and descend at the same time. 
 
 LESSON LXXIII. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT MAN ACCORDING TO HIS 
 OCCUPATION. 
 
 In the above manner the teacher must treat the 
 remaining exercises. He must himself weigh every 
 
108 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 word, and if necessary, commit his thoughts to paper 
 before beginning a subject with his children; for no 
 object is so insignificant as not to merit the attention of 
 every one, and especially of children. All force and 
 affectation, however, should be carefully avoided; where 
 we do not possess sufficient information, we remain silent; 
 there is, without touching upon any doubtful theme, 
 matter in endless variety at our disposal. A thousand 
 words given the child will call forth a thousand indi- 
 vidual sentences on its part, in forming which it will 
 instinctively accustom itself to observe every object care- 
 fully, to consider its nature and relations, and in this 
 manner it learns to arrange and express its thoughts 
 correctly. 
 
 We shall now advance to Lesson LXXIV, without, 
 however, wishing to prevent the teacher from taking a 
 previous one. The selection of words to be explained by 
 the child must likewise be left to the teacher, as much 
 depends on the home circumstances of his pupils. 
 
 The apothecary (druggist, chemist) compounds medicines. 
 
 The architect erects grand buildings. 
 
 The barber shaves the face with his razor. His knife 
 must be remarkably sharp and fine. (Hair-cutter.) 
 
 The baker bakes all kinds of bread, ivhite and brown ; like- 
 wise all sorts of cakes. 
 
 The brushmaker makes brushes, dusters and brooms. 
 
 The butcher slaughters animals and sells their flesh.. 
 
 The belt-maker cuts all sorts of straps f'-om leather ; braces, 
 belts, girdles, buckle-straps, etc. 
 
 The blacksmith shoes horses, binds wheels, makes the iron- 
 work of wagons, etc. 
 
 The cooper makes tubs, barrels, casks, etc., and uses oak, 
 pine, etc., for staves. 
 
THIED STEP. 109 
 
 The chimney-sweep cleans the chimney of soot. 
 
 The dyer dyes cloth and linen and gives them different colors. 
 
 The driver harnesses and unharnesses horses, and trans- 
 ports (conveys) loads to and fro. 
 
 The farmer cultivates the soil. 
 
 The fisherman catches fish with the hooJc and line, in 
 baskets or in nets. 
 
 The gardener raises vegetables, salad, fruit, flowers, etc., 
 and sells them. Many gardeners also possess hot- (green-) 
 houses where they can cultivate foreign (exotic) plants. 
 
 The goldsmith, or worker in gold, manufactures a great 
 many neat and costly things from gold or silver: rings, 
 spoons, bracelets, brooches, chains, pins, etc. 
 
 The grocer deals in small wares (retail). 
 
 The Justice of Peace hears complaints about debts, thefts, 
 etc., and decides disputes. 
 
 The journeyman (hand) works in the service of a trades- 
 man (Ms master). 
 
 The innkeeper (host) feeds and lodges strangers for profit. 
 
 The manufacturer has many workmen in his service. He 
 generally possesses many machines. 
 
 The merchant sells in small (retail) and large (wholesale) 
 quantities. 
 
 The mason builds walls, bridges, trims stones, etc. 
 
 The miller grinds corn, wheat, etc., into flour. 
 
 The night-watchman takes care of property at night. 
 
 The physician cures the (sick) child. 
 
 The potter forms and bakes all sorts of crockery ware from 
 clay : pots, plates, dishes, jugs, mugs, etc. 
 
 The ptainter paints pictures (portraits). 
 
 The ranger or hunter goes with his gun into the forest 
 and shoots all sorts of game. 
 
 The sculptor chisels statues from stone, wood and marble. 
 
110 OBJECT LESSOl^S. 
 
 The tanner prepares leather from hides : sole-leathery calf- 
 skins, chamois, etc. 
 
 The turner works in wood, hone or ivory, and makes 
 many neat objects out of them. 
 
 We need continue no longer; every teacher will readily 
 make the right selection from the vast variety of words 
 and thoughts placed at his disposal. 
 
 LESSON LXXIY. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT TOOLS. (lESSON XXV.) 
 
 This is one of the easiest exercises, every child already 
 possesses a knowledge of some trade and the tools 
 used by those engaged in it. The most common ideas, 
 as:. With the saw we saw wood, (what kind of wood?) 
 trees, timber, lumber, rafters, beams, poles, etc., are of 
 great importance in teaching the mind to observe min- 
 utely, thus leading it imperceptibly to expressive and 
 lucid utterance. Children here learn to grasp an idea in 
 its entirety and its details; they learn not only the use 
 of objects and tools, but moreover the changes effected 
 in the former; this again opens a broader vision upon 
 which the teacher as yet need not enter specifically. The 
 use of the noun "saw "as a verb (we saw), this being 
 also the same word as the imperfect of "see," I saw, is of 
 interest and importance; of interest as directing their 
 attention to ever so many words used in the same form 
 as noun or verb ; of importance, as teaching them how 
 the same word may possess an entirely different mean- 
 ing. We may also point out the various uses to which 
 
THIRD STEP. Ill 
 
 the different workmen put. the same tool, as far as chil- 
 dren are capable of understanding it. 
 
 Example. — Who uses a saw? All workers in wood 
 use saws ; the lumberman to saw down the tree, to cut the 
 trunk into pieces ; the wood-cutter to saw the pieces into 
 small lengths; the joiner to saw boards into all shapes and 
 ways ; the carpenter to cut up timber into rafters, joists, 
 lintels, jambs, planks, boards; the turner to saw blocks; 
 the butcher uses a saw to cut bones. 
 
 The gimlet is used to bore holes into wood previous to 
 driving in the nail; this is done to prevent the board 
 from splitting (cracking, ripping). Of the knife, and 
 its different varieties, still more may be said, though the 
 teacher must content himself with simple sentences, if 
 more connected ones do not readily suggest themselves 
 to the children. 
 
 LESSON LXXY. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 It is utterly impossible to have an idea, still less 
 a conception of any object, unless we remember in 
 connection with it some essential or incidental circum- 
 stances, whether in relation to kind, genus, quality or 
 time, and it was only the incredible mistake, into which 
 the older pedagogues had fallen — of believing that judg- 
 ments about objects of daily occurrence either formed 
 themselves, or were formed by reading from books — 
 which led the teaching fraternity to neglect this im- 
 portant point entirely. If we assist the mind from 
 
112 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 the very beginning, we naturally correct and extend its 
 judgments, and every man, even the dullest, gains this 
 object and becomes able to inform himself. Whoso- 
 ever has learned to observe and speak about the saw, will 
 likewise pay attention to other objects and phenomena 
 in so far as they are within his scope of vision ; he who 
 has learned to describe the ox, eow, horse, will after- 
 wards all the more quickly understand the description of 
 the elephant, and grow more and more eager for some- 
 thing new to interest him. 
 
 Where could a child possessed of its five senses be 
 found who had not learned the animal kingdom in 
 ever so many relations, and who would not be willing, 
 even eager, to render an account of it to a kind 
 teacher? Let no teacher fear that some children 
 know too little for this lesson. They will have no 
 trouble in eliciting from them answers like the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 The horse is used for pulling and riding. It pulls 
 (draws) the luagon^ car, cart, plough, etc.; it carries the 
 rider and Irings him quicMy to a distant place. TJie 
 horse eats oats, hay, grass, clover, chaff ; even straw, hut 
 then it gets weak and thin. (The teacher may here ask 
 also : When does it likewise become lean ?) It also gets 
 lean wlien overloaded or overworked. Is it not very 
 uncharitable to force such a useful animal to overwork 
 itself, by whipping it ? 
 
 We have given above the clue as to what children may 
 be led to answer without forgetting our object : to let 
 them form single sentences from separate words. For 
 though we are satisfied with the most simple sentences, 
 we will find the more gifted pupils ready and eager 
 to answer as denoted, and we should not neglect this 
 
THIRD STEP. 113 
 
 means of stimulating the duller ones into greater 
 exertions. 
 
 Hie cow gives milk (dijfferent uses of milk). The calf 
 is a young cow. In the second year it gets horns and is then 
 called heifer. The steer is a young ox. The ox is stronger than 
 the cow, often stronger than the horse. The goat is much 
 smaller than the cow, it has long hair and emits a dis- 
 agreeable odor ; but its milk is very rich. The cat catches 
 rats and mice, its skin is soft. Its flesh is not eaten. The 
 wolf howls and kills sheep. (He often becomes dan- 
 gerous to man, and therefore lie is killed whenever 
 this can be done.) The dog guards the house and flock. 
 The poodle has long curly hair ; the pug-dog has a head 
 nearly round; the mastiff has a broad, large head; the shep- 
 herd's dog has long, shaggy hair ; the terrier has short legs 
 bent outward ; he is very active, watchful, and the best catcher 
 of rats; the greyhound has long legs and a thin slender body; 
 the bull-dog has a short snout and a slit nose. 
 
 The tiger belongs to the cat tribe, hut is much larger than 
 the cat; he is nearly as high as the table, and very cruel and 
 bold; he attacks other animals, not even fearing man. 
 
 The camel can carry a heavy load a great distance, sixty 
 miles a day, and can drink water enough to sustain life from 
 eight to ten days. 
 
 All children will listen with the greatest attention to 
 similar descriptions, and the teacher will find their power 
 of attention very active. We would, however, advise him 
 not to speak of foreign animals to very young or ignorant 
 children, so as not to divert their thoughts from what 
 is more familiar to them. For if the development and 
 formation of their minds is to take place in a proper 
 manner, care should be taken at all times to have the 
 more immediate surroundings understood before enter- 
 ing upon more remote ones. - 
 
114 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 The hear has long hair, likes honey, and learns to dance to 
 the tune of a fife. 
 
 The fox has a long, sharp snout, red hair, and is the most 
 cunning of all animals. 
 
 The hare is very timid and can run away very quickly. 
 It is said to sleep with opeji eyes. (Why ? ) 
 
 The hog loves swampy places and pools. It is covered 
 with bristles. From the hog we get (what ?) bacon, ham, etc. 
 
 The wild boar has long projecting teeth. 
 
 The mouse gnaws everything it finds in the way. So does 
 the rat. The rat is bigger than the mouse and very strong 
 for its size. It often bites off its own leg to escape (when 
 caught in a trap). 
 
 The donkey can live 07i the poorest of food, thistles, chaff, 
 leaves ; but nevertheless carries heavy loads. He walks very 
 slowly. 
 
 The mule is bigger than the ass, but smaller than the 
 horse ; it is used for riding and driving. 
 
 The reindeer lives only in very cold countries (Lapland), 
 feeds on the most simple things (hchens, mosses, etc.), but 
 pulls the sledges of the Laplanders very swiftly. 
 
 The hyena is one of the wildest of animals, and feasts on 
 carrion. 
 
 The roe is smaller than the deer and very timid. Its flesh 
 and skin are esteemed. 
 
 The monkey resembles man in form, and is very shrewd 
 and cunning. 
 
 The mole digs furrows in gardens and meadows. It 
 catches mice and vermin, and is therefore not an injurious, 
 but a useful animal. 
 
 The elephant is the largest and most sensible of all 
 land animals. He is easily tamed and performs many 
 useful labors. He can carry heavy burdens. He lives 
 
THIRD STEP. 115 
 
 only in very hot (tropical) countries and likes rice, twigs, 
 leaves, etc. 
 
 The panther has a beautiful striped shin. It is a very 
 wild animal. 
 
 The badger makes furrows under the ground and gets 
 very fat in summer ; in the winter it gets thin again. 
 
 The lynx has very sharp eyes. 
 
 The sheep feeds on the poorest of pasture, and is very 
 docile and useful (why ? ) on account of its wool, milk, dung, 
 etc. 
 
 The lamb is the young of the sheep. Its flesh is excellent. 
 The ram is the male, the ewe the female sheep. 
 
 LESSON LXXYI. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT BIRDS. 
 
 The stork has long legs and a long beak. It devours 
 frogs and small reptiles. In autumn storks migrate to 
 warmer countries, but return again in the spring. They 
 build their nests (where ? ) upon high houses or churches. 
 
 The raven has black feathers only (plumage) and feeds 
 on carrion ; in winter it often suffers from want of food. 
 
 The hawk has strong talons and a bent beak for seizing 
 prey. It will remain stationary in the air, and suddenly 
 with the speed of an arrow, pounce upon its prey. 
 
 The sparrow is a very lively bird. It prefers insects to 
 grain. In winter-time it eats almost anything. 
 
 The eagle is very large and strong ; it lives on the most 
 elevated crags, and flies higher than any other bird. It has 
 been known to carry children and lambs to its nest. 
 
116 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 The falcon is also a bird of prey, hut it can he tamed and 
 is then used hy hunters to decoy and catch other birds. 
 
 The goose is a large bird, which lays eggs of considerable 
 size; its flesh is palatable and its feathers are used for writing, 
 and for stuffing beds. 
 
 TJie duck lives near rivers and brooks; it catches little 
 fishes and worms; its principal food is grain. 
 
 The hen lays eggs and is fond of grain ; it is used as 
 food, but its feathers are not so valuable as those of the 
 goose; they are entangled too easily. 
 
 The chicken runs under the wings of the hen whenever 
 danger threatens ; they know that this is the case when the 
 mother-hen clucks. 
 
 The canary has generally a yellowish plumage ; it is kept 
 in a cage, siiigs beautifully, and is very tame. 
 
 The swan is bigger than the goose. 
 
 The vulture is a very large bird of prey ; it carries off 
 hares and lambs. 
 
 The owl flies out by night only ; in the daytime it hides 
 itself. 
 
 The parrot imitates the human voice. 
 
 The cuckoo sings out its own name. It lays its eggs in 
 other birds' nests so as not to be obliged to hatch them. Hie 
 young cuckoos often throw the other young nestlings out of 
 the nest. 
 
 The pigeon branches off into very many varieties, the dove, 
 the tumbler, the fan-tail, the nun, the carrier-pigeon, etc. 
 
 Tlie warbling lark rises high in the air. 
 
 The nightingale is first among singing birds. It sings 
 most sweetly in the spring. 
 
 The swallow builds its nest under our eaves and windows. 
 It catches all sorts of insects. It flies very fast. 
 
THIKD STEP. 117 
 
 LESSON LXXYII. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT FISHES, AMPHIBIA, ETC. 
 
 "We must use this opportunity to show the teacher how 
 to make a proper selection from the objects given in 
 Lesson XXVIII and those following. We should not 
 speak indiscriminately about things that do not call 
 for special notice, or of which we possess no particular 
 information, as otherwise the pupils will contract the 
 habit of chatting thoughtlessly about anything. Our 
 object is not to spoil speech, but to improve it. Chil- 
 dren should not only know many names, they should 
 likewise know somethmg essential in connection with 
 these names. They must, however, only be taught to 
 give what they can really understand. Let them state 
 one familiar circumstance in words of their own, and 
 then enlarge upon this when their knowledge of the 
 objects becomes more intimate and extended. Objects 
 not within the children's comprehension, or perhaps not 
 even within our own, we should pass over in silence 
 rather than state something uncertain or perhaps even 
 wrong. What should or should not be taken as subjects 
 for our discourse can only be known by him who feels at 
 home in the midst of his children. Of foreign animals 
 only the best known should be dealt with. 
 
 The luliale is the largest of all living animals, often a 
 hundred feet or more in length. From the lohale we get 
 oil and the ichalehone. The throat of the ivhale is so small 
 (narrow) that it can swallow nothing larger than a her- 
 ring. 
 
118 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 The sliarh has such a luide mouth and throat that it 
 can swalloiu a man alive. 
 
 TJie trout is one of the finest fishes for eating ; it lives 
 only in lakes and in very clear hroolcs and ponds. 
 
 Tlie codfish is one of the most useful and prolific of all 
 fishes. It is caught in immense numbers on the New- 
 foundland BanTcs and sent all over the ivorld, dried or 
 pichled. 
 
 The smelt is a delicate little fish. It is caught in nets 
 in great quantities. 
 
 The herring is one of the test Tcnoiun of all fishes. It is 
 caught m immense quantities, and at regular seasons, 
 on the coast of Scotla^id, Nonoay and Holland. No country 
 exists to ivhich herrings are not sent. Tliose cured in 
 Holland are the best and most expensive. 
 
 The eel reseinlles a snahe. It is fatter and less 
 digestible than the herring. It is caught in ponds and 
 p)Ools. 
 
 Tlie wliitefish has more bones than any other fish. 
 
 Tfiefrog lives In pools and swamps. In some countries 
 their legs are eaten. 
 
 The leapfrog has a green body ; it is kept in a glass to 
 predict a change in the lueather ; it foretells rainy 
 weather when it descends, and dry iveather when it comes 
 to the surface of the loater on a little ladder placed in the 
 glass for its accommodation. 
 
 Tlie crocodile is the largest of all lizards. It is of enor- 
 mous size and eats ma7i and beast. 
 
 The toad is thichcr and uglier than a frog. It dwells 
 in cellars and clarh holes. 
 
 The tui'tle is covered by a hard shell (plate) luhich it 
 can 02)671 or shut at j^leasicre. 
 
 Snakes are ofte?i very large, and mostly poisonous. 
 
SECOND STEP. . 119 
 
 The rattle-snake is heard from afar hy the Jioise made 
 hy its rattles ; hence its name. 
 
 Tlie sloiu-worm resembles a snahe, lut it is not poison- 
 ous. The viper is venomous. 
 
 TJie earth-icmm is red and lives in the ground, 
 
 Tlie tape-iuorm is often of great le^igth. People fre- 
 quently suffer from it through drinhing stagnant ivater ; 
 hence children should never drinh any other than clear 
 fresh luater, and rather suffer thirst lohen out in the 
 fields than he enticed to drinh from a pool or pond. 
 
 The leech sucJcs Uood and sticJcs to one part until it 
 has emptied all the Uood out of it. It is on this account 
 very useful for Iruises, etc. It is found i7i pools. 
 
 The snail carries its oiun house (shell) on its hacTc. 
 The red snails are generally found hy the road side. TJie 
 snail is the symbol of tardiness. Hence tve say: he luorhs, 
 ivalks, eats, etc., like a snail — snaiVs pace. 
 
 LESSON LXXYIII. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT INSECTS. 
 
 We shall here show how sentences may be obtained 
 from children about the smallest animals. 
 
 When are gnats most numerous ? What do we expe- 
 rience when they swarm about us in great numbers? 
 When do we make special efforts to ward them off? 
 
 Where are the most gadflies ? Whom do they plague 
 principally? 
 
 Do bees live solitary like the spider? AVhere ? What 
 do they do? Who keeps them together and in order? 
 By what is the queen distinguished ? What about the 
 
120 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 young swarm? With whom does it go? Whither? 
 How is it kept ? Where put ? etc. 
 
 What do you know that is pecuhar about the butter- 
 fly ? in flying ? in color ? in shape ? (How is it 
 produced ? ) 
 
 Which insects more especially resemble bees ? How 
 do they live? In what respect are they exactly like bees? 
 
 What is still larger than the bee or wasp ? 
 
 What is it that hops so nimbly over the grass ? How 
 does it look? 
 
 What do we hear on the ground in summer evenings ? 
 (chirp.) How does the cricket produce that sound? 
 Why is it called monotonous? 
 
 State the peculiarities of -beetles — of the cock-chafer, 
 etc. 
 
 These questions are so easy that every one can easily 
 form them himself. 
 
 Gnats or flies are most troublesome in summ,er, ichen they 
 become so very numerous. Some sting and suck blood. 
 (Mosquitoes, hornets.) 
 
 Gadflies infest brooks and bushes, and plague horses and 
 cattle ; frequently those ivho bathe are annoyed by them. 
 
 Bees divell together in large numbers and gather wax and 
 honey. They have a queen that is much larger than the rest. 
 If a young swarm has been hatched it must migrate. Bees 
 have a sting. Butterflies fly from flower to flower ; they 
 have beautiful colors and some are splendidly marked. 
 (Spotted, striped.) 
 
 Wasps rob bees of their honey. They have a venomous 
 stmg. 
 
 The cricket makes a noise with its wings which is termed 
 chirping. It is called monotonous because the noise is always 
 the same. 
 
THIRD STEP. 121 
 
 The beetle has two wings to fly with, and over these two 
 other hard ones for protection. 
 
 The cock-chafer eats the blossoms of trees in the month of 
 May. 
 
 The stag-beetle has horns projecting from its head, and 
 from these its name is derived. 
 
 The louse, flea and bed-bug are found about unclean people; 
 the louse creeps, the flea hops, the bug smells badly. 
 
 Ants dtvell together in MllocTcs of earth; they are very 
 diligent and store up food for winter use. 
 
 Spiders spin their ieautiful nets to catch gnats and 
 flies. 
 
 Caterpillars devour the tender leaves and blossoms of 
 trees, and then wrap themselves up in cocoons, whence they 
 come forth as iutterflies. 
 
 The silk-worm spins fine silky threads of which costly 
 fabrics are made. 
 
 Crabs have sharp shears with which they pinch; they 
 can also walk backivards. 
 
 Maggots are found in cheese, old books and flour. 
 
 Whether these sentences or others, whether shorter or 
 longer ones are given, is immaterial, so long as they con- 
 tain something to the point. This is especially the case 
 with regard to the following sentences about minerals 
 and natural phenomena, about which more ignorance 
 and superstition are prevalent than most people are 
 aware. 
 
122 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 LESSON LXXIX. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT MINERALS. 
 
 Metals dissolye or melt in fire, in doing which the 
 earthy matters (called dross, scum, slack) surrounding 
 them become separated, leaving the metal pure, for metals 
 are very rarely found in a pure state naturally. Some 
 melt easily, for instance lead, others only after having 
 been exposed to the most intense heat for hours, like 
 copper. 
 
 Gold is the most precious and one of the heaviest of 
 metals ; it does not corrode (rust) and is very ductile. 
 
 Silver has a beautful white lustre and is also very 
 ductile. (It may, perhaps, be necessary to explain this 
 word, but it must on no account be passed over.) 
 
 Tin is whiter than lead and nearly as soft ; it is often 
 mixed with lead; spoons, plates, dishes, buttons, etc., are 
 made of this mixture. It is called pewter. 
 
 Copper is of a reddish color ; its rust is called verdigris, 
 and is a strong poison. 
 
 Iron is found almost everywhere, and in the greatest 
 abundance. It is the most useful metal. Locks, hoops, 
 chains, tires, nails, bolts, stoves, etc., are made of it. 
 
 Steel is harder than iron ; knives, scissors, swords, etc., 
 are made of it. 
 
 Quicksilver is very white and is a liquid; it gathers in 
 little globules. 
 
 Platina is white like silver; it is very valuable. 
 
 Stones do not melt in fire, nor can they be hammered out ; 
 they are brittle. 
 
 The sandstone is quite soft, and may be both fine or coarse 
 in grain. 
 
THIRD STEP. 123 
 
 Pebbles are small stones which have been rolled about for 
 some time by the water ; this has made them nicely round 
 and smooth. 
 
 WJien steel is struck smartly against flint, sparks fly forth 
 from the latter. Before matches were invented, tinder was 
 put on the flint and catching fire from the sparks, served to 
 kindle the fire in the stove or on the hearth. 
 
 The grindstone is used to sharpen knives, axes, tools, etc. 
 
 Slate is of a bluish color ; it is found in regular layers 
 (foliated) and retains marks made upon it. On account of 
 this quality it is framed and used for writing purposes. It 
 is also used for covering houses, no water getting through it 
 (imperyious) ; for slabs, for mantels, etc. 
 
 Lava is thrown up by volcanoes; it is quite soft at first, but 
 becomes harder and harder as it cools. 
 
 Pumice-stone is very porous and soft, it is used for 
 smoothing the surface of other stones (sand-stones), of 
 wood, leather, etc. 
 
 The loadstone (magnet) attracts iron and imparts this 
 power of attraction to the latter, when frequently rubbed 
 over it. 
 
 There are a great many different kinds of earth. 
 
 Clay is used by the brickmaker, potter, etc. (For what ?) 
 
 After the limestone is subjected to strong heat it dissolves 
 in ivater and becomes slacked lime; if sand is mixed tcith 
 this, mortar is produced, loMch is so very necessary for 
 luilding houses. (Why?) 
 
 Porcelain earth is the finest kind of clay. (China.) 
 
 Chalk serves for writing and cleaning metals ; it is 
 generally ivhite. 
 
 Gypsum is still ivhiter and purer than lime. 
 
 Marble may he polished very beautifully. 
 
124 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 LESSON LXXX. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT NATURAL PHENOMENA. 
 
 Rain consists of drops that fall from the clouds. If 
 these drops are very fine, toe call it a sprinkling rain; if 
 they are large and fall down in quick succession, we call 
 it a shower. Frozen rain-drops are called sleet, and when 
 many of them fall together^ hail, 8noiu is formed hy the 
 watery vapors freezing m the air and falliiig down in 
 flakes. 
 
 Wind is air in motion ; a very strong wind is called a 
 storm ; it often tears trees out of the ground. Winds, 
 hotvever, have many uses. (Which ? ) 
 
 Steam or vapor rises from hot or toiling water, likewise 
 from rivers when the weather is very cold. But vapor 
 (eyaporation) rises from the earth at all times, though 
 generally invisible to us ; this is caused hy the heat of the 
 sun. 
 
 Smoke rises from the fire, especially lohen it does not 
 hum hrightly. This forms the soot in chimneys. 
 
 The whirlwind is occasioned hy two winds coming 
 together from different directions. 
 
 Fog consists of the watery vapors that collect near the 
 surface of the earth ; it is often so thick that nothing can 
 he seen through it. (Do you know any places particu- 
 larly noted for fogs ? ) 
 
 Clouds are the collections of the evaporated particles 
 resting high up in the atmosphere ; they come principally 
 from the ocean. 
 
 The dew is occasioned by the sudden cold following 
 the warmth of the setting sun. The particles just evap- 
 
THIKD STEP. 125 
 
 orated which are attracted by objects that have suddenly 
 become cold, as plants, drop doiun upon them in the form 
 of deiu-drops. When these freeze it is called hoar-frost. 
 
 The rainloiv is seen in its leautiful colors lohen it 
 rains ivhile the sun shines. (Nothing else need be men- 
 tioned, except perhaps the different colors.) 
 
 A thunder-storm is acco^npanied hy thick, Uach or 
 gray clouds, thunder, lightnijig, rain, wind, sleet and 
 hail. 
 
 An earthquake is occasioned hy the wavy motion of 
 the earth. This is often so "powerful that whole towns 
 have heen reduced to ruins and thousands of their inhab- 
 itants have perished almost instantly. 
 
 The volcano throws out (ejects) iurnifig lava, which 
 hardens on exposure to the air. 
 
 The dawn of day appears iefore sunrise; and the twi- 
 light before and after sunset. 
 
 Other exercises may be taken by adding adjectiyes to 
 the nouns of former lessons. 
 
 The long rope is used to hoist up different objects — to 
 dry wet clothes on. 
 
 A person having one of his legs shorter than the other, 
 limps in walking. 
 
 The teacher writes on the blackboard with white chalk. 
 
 Brown horses are found most frequently. 
 
 The yelloio dandelions groiu almost everywhere like 
 iveeds, and possess a disagreeable smell. 
 
 Red ink is used in correcting loritten lessons. 
 
 Green leaves become yellow in autumn, fall down, wither 
 and enrich the ground. 
 
 Gray clothes shoio the dust and dirt less than others. 
 
 Broad ribbons are dearer than narroio ones. 
 
 We wear our new clothes only on Sundays and holidays. 
 
126 OBJECT LESSOisS. 
 
 A fine cliild is the joy of its parents, 
 
 A naughty hoy dirties himself and others* 
 
 A Ug coiu often yields less milk than a small one. 
 
 The low hat belongs to the son, the high one to the 
 father. 
 
 A sharp knife is more dangerous to the child than a 
 hlunt one. 
 
 A solid luall should protect the road in steep places. 
 
 A rickety ivall must he repaired lest the ivhole fall down. 
 
 In narr 010 passages tiuo vehicles must not meet, for they 
 cannot 2)ass each other. 
 
 A large room is more commodious and healthy than a 
 small one. 
 
 Wide pantaloons do not tear so quickly as tight ones ; 
 besides they are more comfortable. 
 
 A stone bridge is more costly, but also stronger and 
 more durable than a wooden one. 
 
 Dear goods are generally much better than cheap ones. 
 
 LESSON LXXXI 
 
 From the preceding lessons every one must perceive 
 that there is no want of material to form the conceptive 
 faculties of the mind, and that the weakest teacher, pro- 
 vided he is imbued with a proper sense of the just and 
 beautiful, cannot fail to acquire aptitude in practising sim- 
 ilar exercises in accordance with the wants of his pupils. 
 
 Nevertheless, a more extensive development of the 
 mental powers of children is necessary to make them 
 thoroughly understand their most immediate surround- 
 
THIRD STEP. 127 
 
 ings, and most teachers will perceive a desire for this in 
 the majority of their scholars. Thus far we have only 
 intended to awaken their attention, to form their power 
 of languaue, and to prepare them for the extension of 
 their ideas. These aims have now been attained, and 
 the desire to observe and state everything correctly is 
 inherent in them; they have ceased to stare stupidly at 
 objects or to speak thoughtlessly of them. In order to 
 meet and satisfy the growing desire for obtaining wis- 
 dom, we should now amend and extend these special 
 channels into which the wealth of experience that 
 the child has acquired must be led, if we wish to see 
 such wealth continuously and advantageously enlarged. 
 Our next aim must be therefore : to investigate the 
 parts and subordinate parts of objects with all their 
 attendant circumstances, in such a manner that the 
 reasons for their division seem to come to the mind 
 intuitively, and this must be effected by minutely obser^ 
 ing familiar objects. 
 
 We shall here especially select two objects, the human 
 body according to Pestalozzi, and the clothing of man. 
 We must, however, mention that these very exercises, 
 destined to sharpen the mental faculties, must serve for 
 the more backward children, who have as yet not 
 thoroughly grasped the connection between the different 
 lessons ; they will serve as starting points for a recapitu- 
 lation of the subject-matter taught. 
 
 THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 We shall again begin with a general sketch of the 
 whole object. 
 
 The human body extends from the sole of the foot to 
 
128 OBJECT LESSON'S. 
 
 the top of the head. The chief parts are : the head, the 
 trunk and the limbs. Every one of these parts is again 
 subdivided, as the face, skull, abdomen, chest, upper 
 limbs, lower limbs; external and internal parts of the 
 body. The body consists of flesh, bone, blood, muscle, 
 sinews and nerves. The bones are held together by 
 muscles and keep the body in an upright position. The 
 whole body is covered by the skin. 
 
 1. THE HEAD. 
 
 The principal parts of the head are : theface^ the occiput 
 (back part of the head) the skull, both sides of the head. 
 On the skull is found the crown of the head. Farts of the 
 face are : the forehead, the temples, etc. 
 
 Everything is named in succession down to the chin ; 
 the component parts are then named in their proper 
 order; thus the parts of the eye are: the pupil of the eye 
 (eye-ball), eyelashes, eyelids, eyebrows, corners of the eye. 
 The apple of the eye consists of the white of the eye, the ring 
 of the eye, the iris. The distinguishing and naming of the 
 separate parts and subordinate parts must be practised 
 until they can be perfectly and accurately expressed; as 
 the upper, lower, right, left eyelids ; the right upper one, the 
 left upper one, etc. 
 
 In like manner we can proceed with the other parts, 
 until we feel sure that the children have thoroughly 
 mastered them. Explanations and definitions are like- 
 wise given or allowed to be given, as the case may be ; 
 for instance. What are the eyelids ? The skins covering 
 the eyes. What are the eyelashes ? The hair bordering 
 the eyelids, etc. 
 
 The parts of the nose are : the bridge of the nose, the ridge, 
 the point (tip), the outside, the nostrils, the coating. 
 
THIRD STEP. 129 
 
 The external parts of the mouth are : the lips (upper and 
 lower), the corners of the mouth (right and left.) 
 
 The inner parts of the mouth are : the upper jawbone ivith 
 the upper teeth, the lower > jawbone with the lower teeth, the 
 gums, the tongue, the opening of the throat. 
 
 Teeth are composed of the root and the crown ; they are 
 divided into : 1, incisors or cutting teeth ; 2, eyeteeth (can- 
 ines), upper and lower, those of the right side, and those of 
 the left side ; 3, molar teeth, etc. 
 
 The tip of the tongue, the back of the tongue, the root of 
 the tongue. 
 
 The top and back of the head are covered with hair ; 
 under the skull is the brain. 
 
 We now begin to devote more attention to the subject 
 than merely giving names, that is, we try to investigate 
 an object in all of its parts in the most minute manner, 
 without being in the least particular as to the combina- 
 tion of the parts. The above arrangement may therefore 
 be deviated from, changed or completed to suit the ideas 
 of the teacher. 
 
 0)1 the sides of the head are found the ears and the 
 temples; the ear is composed of the external ear, the drum 
 of the ear, and the internal ear. TJie head rests on the 
 neck ; front part, hack p)art ; sides of the neck ; the hack 
 of the neck (nape); the 7nusclesj luithin the neck are the 
 gullet and wind-pipe. 
 
 2. THE TEUNK OF THE BODY. 
 
 Chief parts: 1, the front part, the chest and the abdomen; 
 2, the back ; 3, the sides. Or : the upper part and the lower 
 part of the body separated by the midriff or diaphragm. At 
 the sides of the chest are the shoulders ; ivithin, the heart, the 
 
130 OBJECT LESSOl^S. 
 
 lungs (the right and left) ; in the abdomen are the intes- 
 tines (bowels), the liver, the kidneys, the stomach. In the 
 hack is found the hack-hone with its cartilages, and the 
 shoulder-hlades. At both sides a7*e the rihs and loins. 
 (Thighs.) 
 
 3. THE LIMBS 
 
 Jre divided into upper and lower, arms and legs. 
 
 1. The upper limbs or the arms consist of the shoulders, 
 upper arms, elbows, forearm, hands. All these parts are 
 connected by joints, the shoulder-Joints, those of the elbows, 
 hands, the right, left, etc. The hand is constructed very 
 ingeniously. The principal parts are: the knuckles, the wrist, 
 the hack, the palm, the hollow of the hand, the fingers. The 
 fim fingers are all different from each other, and each has a 
 particidar name: the thumb, index-finger, middlefinger, 
 ring-finger, little finger. On each finger we notice : three 
 joints, a nail and the tip of the finger. The teacher may 
 then ask for them in or out of order. 
 
 2. The lower limbs or the legs are divided into : upper leg 
 and lower leg, foot. On the upper leg (thigh) are found 
 the hip and hip joint ; the knee, the joint of the knee, and the 
 knee-pan. Below the knee the shin is found in front and the 
 calf behind ; below this the joints of the foot ; the joints of 
 the right foot, etc. To the foot belong : the heel, the sole of 
 the foot, the instep, the toes with their joints and nails, the 
 big toe, the little toe ; the little toe of the right foot, etc. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 This subject might be considered as insignificant ; but 
 when we consider the many subdivisions, and the nu- 
 merous incorrect expressions heard in daily conversation 
 about this subject, we shall find that it is necessary that 
 
THIRD STEP. 131 
 
 such mistakes should be rectified. In order to make 
 complete sentences on this subject, every teacher will 
 have to consult the peculiar circumstances of his field of 
 action, so that no one should consider the following 
 exercise to be sufficient. Its purpose is merely to serve 
 as a guide for the teacher. No explanation of dresses 
 unknown to children must be given, for they should draw 
 everything from their own experience. 
 
 1. COYERIKG OF THE HEAD OF MALES. 
 
 1. The Cap. — a. According to the material of which 
 caps are made : the leather cap (fireman's cap), cloth cap, 
 linen cap, cotton, fur, silk, paper, straw, felt and fool's cap. 
 
 b. According to the shape : sailor's cap, cornered cap, 
 rimmed cap (turned up, turned down), cap, with shield. 
 
 c. According to their use : the summer-cap, winter-cap, 
 sleeping-cap, house-cap, smoJcing-cap, soldier' s-cap, Sunday 
 (best) cap, every-day cap. 
 
 d. How made : sewed, embroidered, woven, knit, pressed, 
 wired. 
 
 2. The Hat (varieties as with the cap). — a. Material: 
 the felt hat, straw hat, oiled hat, hat luith feathers, silk 
 hat, Panama hat. 
 
 h. Shape : the round, the cornered, turned up, turned 
 doiun, high, loto, and peaked hat. 
 
 c. Use : summer, lointer, rain, Sunday, every day, 
 common, on special occasions* 
 
 2. COYERIITG FOR THE FEMALE HEAD. 
 
 1. The Cap (hood, coif). — a. Material : lace, gauze, rih' 
 boned, velvet, silk, muslin, linen, woolen, cotton. 
 
132 OBJECT LESSORS 
 
 J). Use : for mourning, sleeping, home, winter, summer, 
 wancing,full dress. 
 
 2. The Bonnet. — Especially in female schools, in the 
 same order as in I. 2. 
 
 3. Ornaments of the head. — The feather , jloicers, coml 
 (horn, ivory, tortoise-shell, silver, plated, gold, gilt, etc.), 
 ribbons (state colors and shape), the plait, the curls, the 
 coiffure, the pearls, the wreath, etc. 
 
 8. COYERIJ^G FOR THE NECK. 
 
 1. Male : the nech-tie, nech-cloth, according to its mate- 
 rial, shape and color ; the cravat, the collar, the cape (of 
 clergymen), the riff, the bucMe, the stock, the slip, etc. 
 
 2. Female : the nech-cMh (material), the ivoolen, silk, 
 cotton, muslin, merino, linen, velvet, etc. 
 
 How made: the embroidered, Jcnit, woven, crochet, 
 worked by hand, etc. 
 
 Tlie bow, ribbon, chain, ruffles, laces, 
 
 4. COVERIKG OF THE BODY. 
 
 The division is already known to children and so 
 familiar to them that they can enumerate everything 
 without omitting a single part. 
 
 Tlie shirt, over shirt, undershirt, nightgoivn (chief parts: 
 collar, sleeves, hody ; ornaments : stitching, embroidery, 
 cuffs, etc.) Tlie vest, the jacket, etc. The coat, the dress, 
 the frock, the goivn. 
 
 1. Materials : cloth, wool, cotton, silk, linen, tivill, mus- 
 lin, fur, beaver, skin. 
 
 2, Use : sleeping-gown, night-goion, summer, winter, 
 wrapper, overskirt, underskirt, petticoats. The cloak, the 
 ivaterproof, etc. 
 
THIED STEP. 133 
 
 5. COVERING OF THE HAKDS AKD FEET. 
 
 The Glove. — Various kinds, according to material and 
 use. 
 
 Ornaments on the finger : the ring {gold, silver, 'pearl, 
 diamond), etc. 
 
 The pa7italoons, drawers, overalls, riding-paiits, etc. 
 
 TJie stocMng, sock, garter, luchle, legging, etc. 
 
 TJie hoot, shoe, gaiter, cloth-shoe, woolen, felt, tvooden; 
 the slipper, ladies^ hoots, gentlemen's, farmers'^, drivers^ 
 l)utchers\ sailors', summer and winter hoots. 
 
 Where it may seem necessary the material of one or the 
 other of the above objects may likewise be investigated. 
 
 LESSON LXXXII. 
 
 BRIEF DEVELOPMENT OF ABSTRACT IDEAS. 
 
 A prolific source of the most suitable instruction that 
 may be pursued at this step of our system has as yet not 
 been entered upon, but we are now prepared for it. We 
 refer to the explanation and development of the simple 
 ideas contained in the adverbs and verbs which, owing 
 to their daily recurrence, have now become thoroughly 
 familiar to even the more backward children. It stands 
 to reason that such simple ideas as color, size, etc., must 
 be passed over ; but if only one quarter of all the words 
 and meanings can be developed, the advantage derived 
 in thinking and speaking is very great. 
 
 But before proceeding to our subject-matter, the selec- 
 tion of which will be comparatively easy to the sensible 
 
134 OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 teacher, let us again remind him how easy, pleasant and 
 important it is to make separate sentences about indi- 
 vidual parts, especially if such are particular parts of a 
 principal object, as is shown from Lesson XXXIV, and 
 the following. It is much easier for a child to converse 
 about a part (as of the body, etc.) than about the whole, 
 in the same manner as it can more readily draw the 
 point, the line, the angle, the triangle, the square, than 
 the octagon, or an irregular figure ; it is easier to behold 
 and comprehend the nature, shape, color, use and em- 
 ployment of the part than of the whole, as will readily be 
 perceived from the next and followmg examples: 
 
 The hair grows on the head of man, it covers the tody 
 of quadriqoeds almost entirely ; some animals are covered 
 hy feathers, some are naked; the croivn of the head is the 
 uppermost part of the skull; queue is the name given to 
 the hair lohen plaited ; the ears are at loth sides of the 
 head (for what purpose ?) m order to intercept the sounds 
 floating in the air, for they are the organs of, etc, 
 omitting here everything uncertain or difficult. The 
 great charm of such exercises consists in the fact that 
 the child finds itself, with the utmost ease, capable of 
 speaking fluently about the different parts; that it derives 
 pleasure in so doing, and hence is but too eager to en- 
 gage m this practice (the child may become confused on 
 the other hand if required to speak of the whole). The 
 importance of thus describing the parts will strike the 
 teacher when he notices how the child is in this manner 
 imperceptibly drawn towards comprehending the whole. 
 For all these conceptions ultimately flow into one chan- 
 nel, thus giving the pupil a mastery over the whole which 
 hitherto has hardly ever been possessed by the great 
 mass of people, and but rarely even by the learned. 
 
THIRD STEP. 135 
 
 These exercises are at the same time interesting to 
 even the dullest children, and assist their mental faculties 
 and powers of expression in a manner hitherto unthought 
 of. We therefore most earnestly ask every teacher to 
 again take the exercises from Lesson XXXIV to Lesson 
 XXXVIII, and treat as shown above, when he will find 
 himself richly repaid for his trouble. As an example, 
 let us choose one of the simplest ones, Lesson XXXVII. 
 
 PAETS OF THE KNIFE. 
 
 The edge of the knife mud he sharp, hence it must he 
 ground (whetted, sharpened) when it has hecome hlunt 
 (dull). The hack must he thicker (stronger) so that the 
 knife may not hreak easily. The point is used to penetrate 
 into objects ; for children this is the most dangerous part of 
 the knife. 
 
 The blades are smooth, so that in cutting they will pass 
 through easily. 
 
 Notches and breaks are occasioned by cutting hard things, 
 or by handling the knife aiukwardly. 
 
 The groove, polish, and marks serve as ornaments. The 
 handle, sheath, is made of bone, wood, ivory, horn or metal. 
 The pins serve to hold the parts together: handle, plates, 
 blades, tongues ; they are fitted into little holes drilled from 
 side to side, and are then rivetted. The spring serves to pre- 
 vent the blade from opening too readily. Little plates of 
 metal, etc., are often inlaid to ornament the handle, etc. 
 
 It is impossible to exercise the thoughts and speech 
 of children in a more suitable manner. It is equally use- 
 ful and interesting to form sentences of the nouns 
 already defined, in the following manner: the back of the 
 fat horse is broad ; the hack of the mountain is covered by 
 
136 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 trees; the camel is hunch-backed, it has two humps, the 
 dromedary has only one. The enemy is stabbed with the point 
 of the dagger. 
 
 Still more important are the definitions of qualities, 
 actions, passions and conditions, such as are given in the 
 form of adjectives in Lessons XL VIII to LVIII, and as 
 verbs from LIX to LXIII. We introduce a number of 
 these, leaving it to the teacher to divide them into les- 
 sons, and begin with Lesson XLVIII. 
 
 High is applied to everything which ascends far into the 
 air (towards the sky). 
 
 Long is applied to whatever extends a great distance either 
 forward or backward. 
 
 Broad is applied to whatever extends from side to side. 
 
 Old is applied to what has been alive a long time, or a long 
 time in existence. (The latter of things, the former of 
 animal bodies.) 
 
 Large (big) is applied to whatsoever extends some distance 
 on all sides. 
 
 Square is applied to everything bounded by four straight 
 sides of equal length. (Everything that is as long as it 
 is broad or deep.) 
 
 Hound is applied to everything whose surface is every- 
 where the same distance from one certain point within, called 
 the centre. 
 
 Firm is applied to what cannot be easily (according to 
 its kind) pressed together, or moved from place to place. 
 
 Pointed is applied to any object whose surface lines taper 
 to one point. 
 
 Durable is applied to whatever has been well made and of 
 good material. 
 
 Narrow is applied to everything having but little distance 
 from side to side. 
 
THIRD STEP. 137 
 
 Roomy is applied to whatever is spacious and wide. 
 
 Rocky is applied to whatever is found covered with rocks. 
 
 Fainted is applied to whatever is covei-ed by colored 
 matter. 
 
 Spoiled is applied to whatever has been soiled so as to be 
 unfit for use. 
 
 Frescoed is applied to whatever is handsomely painted on 
 walls or ceilings. 
 
 Repaired is applied to whatever has been freed from a 
 defect, and restored to its primitive state. 
 
 Of these sentences as many as possible may be taken. 
 AYe only add here, that : the idea of extension is given 
 by looking at the object itself; the definitions will be 
 found very easily by all children who have the least idea 
 of form, and should they be wanting in such, this is 
 easily supplied so as to meet their w^ants. 
 
 The proportions, bearing in mind that these are dif- 
 ferent in different objects, will be quickly understood by 
 the children, as: The house is big — as compared with 
 other houses; the elephant is big— as compared with 
 other animals; a pear is big — as compared with other 
 pears. 
 
 These ideas and definitions are difficult to most people 
 because they have never received instruction in speaking 
 and thinking. 
 
 LESSON LXXXIII. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE QUALITIES OF DOGS. 
 
 Among the qualities of the dog, there are not only its 
 own attributes, but likewise those which can be taken in 
 
138 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 a moral sense. This is an introduction which is very 
 desirable in paving the way for lessons in moral 
 development ; we need not fear, in beginning the latter, 
 that they will grow tedious to our pupils, for every suit- 
 able occupation, that is, any occupation not too difficult, 
 is attractive to the mind, so much so, that ultimately 
 even difficult tasks become a positive want to it. We 
 must, however, bear in mind that all qualities too diffi- 
 cult for the youthful intelligence should be passed over. 
 
 Faithful is applied to him who keeps his promises and 
 punctually fulfills his duties. (Friend, servant, God.) 
 
 Watchful is applied to him who is always careful and does 
 not allow himself to he overcome by sleep or indolence. (The 
 dog jumps up at once when he notices a stranger or 
 hears a noise.) 
 
 Short is applied to that which has brief length, as : ths 
 road which is quickly passed over ; the time quickly passed. 
 
 Strong is applied to what possesses much strength. (Horse, 
 man, wood, wine, machine, etc.) 
 
 Fat is applied to whatever possesses much softfiesli. 
 
 Old is applied to what has been alive a long time, or what 
 has been a long time in existence. (Man, house, dress.) 
 
 LESSON LXXXIV. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE QUALITIES OF WATER. 
 (CoMPAHE Lesson LI.) 
 
 Cold is applied to what possesses but little warmth ; frozen, 
 to what is crystallized through cold; lukewarm, to vjhat 
 possesses the heat of the body ; hot, to what possesses warmth 
 in such a degree as to scald the skin. 
 
SECOND STEP. 139 
 
 Warmth cannot be described as : possessing warmth, 
 because we should not use similar words in giving 
 explanations ; this rule cannot be too strictly enjoined. 
 The idea of warm is looked upon as being well known to 
 all, and capable of easy illustration in our own body. 
 
 Fluid is applied to a body tvhose particles move easily 
 amongst themselves, (Air, water, molten metal.) 
 
 Siueet is applied to ivliatever contai7is much saccharine 
 matter. 
 
 Clear is applied to water which contains no earthy, 
 vegetalle or animal particles. The bright, clear water is 
 likeiuise transparent, that is, it admits of the passing of 
 rays of light. 
 
 By the combination of synonymous words, as bright, 
 clear, pure, transparent, fluency of speech is greatly pro- 
 moted. In describing or explaining, no superfluous or 
 unnecessary terms should be used. 
 
 Rapid is applied to that lohich goes very quichly and 
 with much force. 
 
 Still (without motion) is applied to water that has no 
 floiv, no current. 
 
 Water becomes stagnant when exposed too long to the 
 air. It is hnoion to be in this condition by its taste and 
 smell. (Pools, ponds, water-holes.) 
 
 Water is fresh when but recently talcen from the spring, 
 well or brooh ; we generally Icnow fresh ivater by its cool- 
 ness. 
 
 Water is old (stale, the opposite of fresh) tvhich has 
 stood in vessels for some time. 
 
 Quiet is applied to the ivater when not in motio?i and 
 mahing no noise. 
 
 Water is refreshing to tired laborers or to travellers, 
 especially in the heat of summer. 
 
140 OBJECT LESSOI^S. 
 
 Water is cooling on a hot summer^ s day ; yet we sliould 
 he careful in drinking or hathing in it. 
 
 Deep is apiilied to ivhatever extends far doiunward, 
 either into the hoiuels of the earth, or down into high ves- 
 sels ; as the water in the sea, i7i tanks, etc. 
 
 Heavy is ivhatever is strongly attracted toward the 
 centre of the earth. 
 
 Good and palataUe water is colorless and tasteless. 
 
 In the same manner we may use the abstract nouns of 
 these adjectives in separate sentences in order to give 
 still better explanations in illustrating the meaning of 
 the whole ; as : Cold is often so intense that trees freeze 
 and crack. The cold of winter is very hard for poor 
 people, ivho at that time often suffer for want of proper 
 nourishment, clotJiing, hedding and fuel. 
 
 LESSON LXXXy. 
 
 THE QUALITIES OF CLOTHING. 
 (Compare Lesson L.) 
 
 Linen, tvoolen, are applied to clothing whose material 
 has been spun, tvoven or tvorked from flax, tvool, etc. 
 
 Fitting is applied to clothi^ig when it throws no folds 
 and is adapted to the proportions of the body. 
 
 Wide is applied to ivhatever offers room enough for the 
 particular purpose. 
 
 Long is applied to clothing which reaches far down the 
 body. 
 
 Embroidered is applied to anything into ivhich artifi- 
 cial figures have been worked. 
 
THIRD STEP. 141 
 
 Trimmed is applied to dress when one material is seived 
 around the edges of another. 
 
 Torn is applied to clothing when full of rents (holes). 
 
 Dirty (soiled) is applied to everything if dust, filth, 
 grease, etc., are found upon it. 
 
 Clean is applied to any article of dress when all dust, 
 impurities, etc., have teen removed from it. 
 
 Washed is applied to ivhatever has heen cleaned hy leing 
 ruhhed in water. 
 
 Mended is applied to that which has heen restored after 
 having leen torn. 
 
 Worn is applied to whatever has grown the ivorse hy 
 long use. 
 
 Beautiful is applied to clothing when all parts unite 
 harmoniously as to color, shape, material, etc. 
 
 Modest may he applied to clothing which befits the sta- 
 tion of the loearer. 
 
 Elegant is applied to articles of dress which please 
 through their nicety, symmetry, heauty and purity. 
 
 Lined is used when one material is sewed heneath 
 another. 
 
 Old is applied to whatever has teen loorn a long time. 
 
 Costly is applied to ivhatever possesses great value. 
 
 Dear is applied to anything for ivhich much money has 
 teen paid. 
 
 Common is applied to that which is not worth much* 
 
142 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 LESSON LXXXYI. 
 
 QUALITIES OF ROADS. 
 (CoMPABE Lesson LVI.) 
 
 Broad is applied to a road extending to some distance 
 on either side. 
 
 Long, if it extends to some distance in one direction. 
 
 Narrow, when limited in extent from side to side. 
 
 Crooked, luhen changing its direction. 
 
 Steep, lohen ascending an elevated hill or mountain. 
 
 Abrwpt, tvhen descending from some height. 
 
 Moist, if generally luet. 
 
 Swampy, if always full of mud. 
 
 Firm or solid, if made of stone. 
 
 Hard, if luell trodden down hy walking, riding and 
 driving. 
 
 Frozen, if hardened ly extreme cold. 
 
 Slippery, ivhen one easily loses his foothold. 
 
 Icy, when the water on its surface is frozen. 
 
 Macadamized, when pehhles or small Iroken stones have 
 teen spread upon it and ivell smoothened down ly heavy 
 rollers passing over them. 
 
 Paved, when small Uochs of stone are set side ly side. 
 
 Agreeable, ivhen pleasing objects are found along its 
 sides. 
 
 Safe, ivhen it offers no danger to travel. 
 
 When a road is lined on both sides by trees it is called 
 an avenue. 
 
THIRD STEP. 143 
 
 LESSON LXXXYII. 
 
 QUALITIES OF A CHILD. 
 (Compare Lesson LII.) 
 
 Those words which have already been used in the 
 above exercises are omitted here in order to save space ; 
 they may, however, always be repeated in the class 
 exercises. 
 
 Big is applied to a child ivliicli has groion consideradly 
 for its age. 
 
 Stroiig, when it possesses much hodily poiver. 
 
 Healthy, ivhen its hody and mind are in sound, vigorous 
 condition; wholesome is applied to food ichich is nourish- 
 ing to man. 
 
 Naughty is applied to a child that does not folloio good 
 advice. 
 
 Eager to learn, if desirous of extending its hnoivledge. 
 A child should he quick to hear, hut slow to speak. 
 
 Attentive is applied to a child whose thoughts are occu- 
 pied ivith the matter i7i hand. 
 
 Quiet, to one loho makes no noise. 
 
 Good (well-behaved), to one that tries to render itself 
 agreeaUe. 
 
 Modest, to one that has no undue pretensions. 
 
 Peaceable, to one that avoids quarrels and disputes. 
 
 Self-willed (wanton), to one that practices naughty tricks. 
 
 Inattentive (careless), to one whose mind is not occupied 
 with the question before it. 
 
 Diligent is he who zealously and properly does his loork. 
 
 Enoious is applied to a child that is vexed at the goods 
 possessed by others. 
 
144 OBJECT LESSOifS. 
 
 Malicious, to one who is pleased at others' misfortunes. 
 
 Be&pectful, to one who shows proper respect to old and 
 superior persons. 
 
 Pitying^ to one who is touched by the misfortunes of 
 others, 
 
 Monest, to one who does not pilfer y rob, or lie. 
 
 Quick, to one who passes in a short time from one place to 
 another. 
 
 Good natured, to one who does not get angry easily. 
 
 Timid, to one who always scents danger and runs away 
 from it. 
 
 Courageous, to one who stands firm in danger. 
 
 Bold, to one who seeks danger. 
 
 Obedient, to one who willingly executes the commands of 
 his superiors. 
 
 Clever, to one who knows where to begin and how to finish 
 anything. 
 
 Willing, to one who likes to be instructed. 
 
 Hungry, to one who feels a strong desire to eat. 
 
 If the teacher desires a change, and wishes to treat the 
 nonns and adjectives in Lesson L, in independent sen- 
 tences, he will find it a yery useful and instructive diver- 
 sion ; for example : the master loses the faithful servant 
 very unwillingly, but discharges the negligent one at 
 once. The watchful guardian scares the thieves, the 
 sleepy one helps to rob his master. The day is long and 
 the night is short in summer, because the sun rises earlier 
 and sets later than in winter, etc. 
 
THIED STEP. 145 
 
 B .—Descriptive sentences about separate objects. 
 
 It now becomes our duty to make several sentences 
 about one object^ though under certain circumstances 
 we may content ourselves with simpler ones, provided 
 they are terse and to the point. Objects in which not 
 even the teacher can find anything worthy of note should 
 be passed over at once, even though he might be accused 
 of negligence, haste, or worse still, of ignorance. Our 
 chief rule is: whatever the children know of the object 
 they should give as complete as possible, without being 
 overparticular as to the combinations. The latter do 
 not come into consideration until the children begin 
 composition, because at present the faculties of observa- 
 tion would be restricted in their action by so doing, and 
 the pupil's freedom of expression be changed to confu- 
 sion and uncertainty. If we can intuitively and without 
 overtasking the children effect something in the way of 
 leading them to a comprehensive statement of all the 
 circumstances or facts, if we can teach them to beautify 
 their style and form correct judgments, to do which has 
 been our object, we shall be satisfied ; these introductory 
 exercises being looked upon as the very key to real com- 
 position. 
 
146 OBJECT LESSOJSrS. 
 
 LESSON LXXX\riII. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT TREES AND SHRUBS. 
 (CoMPAHE Lesson XXX.) 
 
 The tree lias three priyicipal parts : roots, trunk, croiun 
 or tranches. The roots are in the earth and draw from 
 it (by means of tender fibres) the nourishment (juices) 
 necessary for the groiuth and life of the tree. The trunk 
 rises upright from the soil. The branches shoot forth i?i 
 all directions, eitlier ve7idcally, as in the poplar, loillow, etc., 
 or horizontally, as in the pine, oak, etc.; they tear tiuigs, 
 leaves, blossoms a7id fruit. Tlie ivhole tree is surrounded 
 by bark and ultimately furnishes either wood for fuel, or 
 serves for building or numerous other purposes. TJie trees 
 are in full blossom in spring ; in the summer they bring 
 forth fruit, which ripens in autumn and pleases the eye 
 by its beautiful colors, and the palate by its lovely taste. 
 After the fruit has been gathered the leaves ivither,fall 
 off, and during the ivinter the tree stands bare, often 
 covered luith snoio or frost, yet gathering strength for the 
 coming year. 
 
 TJie apple-tree does not groio as high as the pea7'-treej 
 nor do its roots descend so far into the ground. It has a 
 siyiooth bark, thaj of the pear-tree being rough.. 
 
 The plum-tree does no{ grotu as high as either of th^ 
 former, but it thrives almost everywhere, and after a few 
 years bears fruit which is often dried. 
 
 The apricot-tree blooms very early in spiring, but is 
 easily injured by frost. 
 
 The nut-tree has larger leaves than most other trees, 
 and its leaves have a pecidiar odor. The wood is used for 
 
THIRD STEP. 147 
 
 making furniture, Tlie hernels of nuts make a fine 
 oil. 
 
 The oak groius very sloivly and is found in the forest. 
 There are oaks a thousand years old. Its fruit is the 
 acorn, luhich furnishes a capital food for animals, espe- 
 cially hogs. The ivood of the oak is very hard and durable. 
 The dark is stripped off in the month of May, dried, 
 ground into tan and used hy the tanner to make leather. 
 
 The leech-tree becomes very large. It bears the so-called 
 beech-nuts, from which an excellent oil is made. Its wood 
 is the best for fuel, as it gives forth a great deal of heat 
 and makes good charcoal. Its bark is whitish and smooth, 
 that of the oak is rough and dark. 
 
 The pine-tree grows very fast, very high and straight. It 
 has no leaves, but green needles like thorns. From its wood 
 ure made : joists, rafters, beams, boards, battens, laths, posts, 
 flooring, pails, tubs, barrels, etc. In spring a sticky sub- 
 stance is obtained from the pine (by tapping it) called resv% 
 from which pitch is made. 
 
 The willow grows in a moist soil, in swamps and by the side 
 <f brooks. Its twigs are called osiers ; they are very plitMe 
 Und are used in making wicker ware (baskets). 
 
 The poplar is one of the finest of trees ; it grows veryfcmt, 
 very straight and high, and all its branches grow upward. 
 
 The shrub is lower than the tree and much thinner. Most 
 shrubs branch out from the very base. Some bear fruits, as : 
 currants, gooseberries, etc. Such are planted in gardens; 
 others are prickly and are used for enclosures (hedges). 
 
 From hops a bitter juice is obtained which is used in brew- 
 ing beer. The hop is a creeping plant and climbs up and 
 twists itself around high poles. 
 
 Hemp and flax are raised for the manufacture of linen. 
 They are first steeped in water, in order that the woody par- 
 
148 OBJECT LESSORS. 
 
 tides may become soaked and may thus be easily separated 
 from the fibres ; they are then dried, combed and spun ; then 
 the linen is woven and bleached. 
 
 The above sentences are only given as a few examples 
 for the teacher ; other sentences may also be made about 
 these same words and others. It is to be expected that 
 the teacher will try from day to day to find something 
 new and interesting. 
 
 The train of thought to be followed is : To name the 
 principal parts of the tree and to describe them, to give 
 the several component parts and describe them, and 
 ultimately to describe particular trees, shrubs, etc. 
 
 LESSON LXXXIX. 
 
 SENTENCES ABOUT GRASS PLANTS. 
 (CoiiPAEE Lesson XXXI.) 
 
 It is of course understood that we do not pretend to 
 teach natural history, which can scarcely be said to belong 
 to the scope of primary schools. The children, however, 
 are now accustomed to form ideas about every visible 
 object, and we may therefore consistently make a few 
 primary observations about scientific subjects, but only 
 so far as the children may be able to go with the guid- 
 ance of their teacher. 
 
 Grass grows in meadows, which shoidd be manured annu- 
 ally, and, whenever possible, also watered. Its color is green, 
 but in most meadows all sorts of flowers are intermixed with 
 the grass and give such a pleasing appearance to them ; the 
 flowers are blue, yellow, red and white. A very beautiful 
 
THIRD STEP. 149 
 
 sight is a green valley consisting of sloping meadows. In 
 the month of June the grass is first cut and dried. This is 
 hay, and is used for feeding cattle and horses. In September 
 the grass is cut the second time and then yields the so-called 
 late hay (second crop). This is still more tender than the 
 first, and is generally used as fodder for the milch-cows. If 
 the hay, both the early and late, is not thoroughly dried when 
 piled up in the barn, it becomes mildewed, and is unfit for 
 use, and often ignites, whence many fires have arisen. 
 
 The cabbage, which class of plants embraces many varieties, 
 ayid among others the cauliflower, grows best in the open 
 field. Early in spring the seed is sown in rich garden-soil 
 (more frequently m hot-beds), and when the little plants 
 are large enough (as high as a hand) to bear transplanting, 
 they are planted in well-manured fields, where they remain 
 until fall. The outer leaves are then given as food to the 
 cattle ; the heads are cooked, or finely cut and pickled to 
 make sour-krout, which is a healthy dish in winter. There 
 are also many plants possessing medicinal qualities. (Could 
 you name some of them ? ) 
 
 Salad is found in several varieties, all of which are culti- 
 vated in gardens. The different kinds of cresses are likewise 
 prepared as salad, with vinegar and oil. 
 
 The flowers are the ornaments of the fields, but especially 
 of gardens. How beautiful and manifold are their colors ! 
 How lovely their odor! Hoiv artistic their construction! 
 The snow-drops grow beneath the snow and show their beau- 
 tiful bells as soon as the covering has disappeared. Then 
 the lovely violets are found in warm spots and sought for by 
 good children to bring to their parents, teachers and friends, 
 so that the latter may enjoy their fragrance and admire their 
 colors. (In a similar manner other flowers well known 
 to the children may be treated.) 
 
150 OBJECT LESSOiq-S. 
 
 LESSON XC. 
 
 The above exercises should be continued as shown 
 heretofore, the teacher selecting the subject from among 
 the former exercises ; while doing so he should pay par- 
 ticular attention to the minerals and natural phenomena 
 as found in Lessons XXXII and XXXIII. The teacher 
 should striye to inform himself by his own observations 
 and from books; he will also derive aid from these 
 exercises. The parts of the' human body he may pass 
 over lightly, they forming a distinct branch of study ; but 
 with other objects he may proceed to a greater length. 
 A few examples here follow. We only take the first 
 word of some of the above exercises. 
 
 THE HAIR. 
 
 The liair covers tlie crown and hach of the head of man, 
 hut with quadrupeds it covers nearly the ivhole hody ; the 
 hog has Iristles instead of hair, and the porcupine quills. 
 Birds are covered ivith feathers, fishes with scales, sheep 
 tvith wool, while wor^ns are quite hare (naked). Some 
 caterpillars have very short hair. The long hair of chil- 
 dren is hr aided or cut short for the sahe of cleanliness and 
 to save time, for they must he cleaned and comhed every day. 
 Hair is of different colors : hrown, hlonde, hlach, flaxen, 
 white, red, auiurn, chestnut, gray ; the hair of very old 
 men hecomes as white as silver.^ Many people lose their 
 hair when they hecome old ; they then hecome hald-headed, 
 ichich often induces them to wear luigs (false hair). In 
 many dangerous diseases the hair is lost hy the patient, 
 hut in younger persons it frequently groivs again. Hair 
 of many colors on one 2^erso7i ivould looJc cjmer, hence the 
 
THIRD STEP. 151 
 
 hair of the same individual is of one color. Tlie fine hair 
 of some animals is spun, as that of rahhits, Angora-goats, 
 and the luool of the sheep. Horse-hair is very strong, and 
 many Muds of clothes are made of it, also cordage, etc. 
 
 The questions to be asked here would be : What is the 
 use of. hair to man? to animals? What is the covering 
 of the hog ? porcupine ? fish ? sheep ? What is done to 
 children who haye long hair ? What are the different 
 colors of the hair? What about its getting lost ? What 
 is the consequence of such loss? How made good? 
 What kind of hair is spun? For what purpose and into 
 what? 
 
 LESSON XCI. 
 
 THE WHEEL. 
 
 The wheel turns around its axle if the wagon is moved. 
 For the sake of lightness it is made of wood, but for strength 
 it is bound with iron (tire). In the middle is the nave (hub) 
 into which the spokes are fitted. These are again fitted at 
 their outer and wider end into felloes, which go around the 
 whole, and round which the iron tire is fastened with very 
 strong spikes and screivs. The axle must be kept well 
 greased so that the wheels may turn easily. Water-mills 
 have a very large wheel fastened around a large axletree, 
 which drives the mill. Into this large axletree (large beam) 
 strong arms are inserted in a radiating form ; and on the 
 outer ends of these, strong planks are screwed on or other- 
 wise fastened; against these the water falls (presses) and 
 forces the whole io turn by its weight. In mills, machines^ 
 
152 OBJECT LESSOKS. 
 
 clocks, watches, etc., where one wheel has to turn another, 
 they are all provided with teeth fitting each into the other, in 
 this manner putting the whole in motion. 
 
 LESSON XCII 
 
 THE HEAD. 
 
 The head is the noblest part of animals; in it are found 
 the organs of the senses, the eyes, the ears, the nose and the 
 mouth. In the skull is the brain, on which as well as on the 
 heart, our life is dependent. Man, of all animals, has the 
 finest head. Horses are trained to hold their heads in a 
 noble manner. Tired and sick horses let their heads hang 
 down, as a sign of sickness and fatigue. This is also the 
 case with most animals, and even with man. The head of 
 cattle is provided with horns, which serve as means of 
 defence. The antlers of the deer are branching and pointed. 
 In the vegetable kingdom heads are also found : cabbage- 
 heads, poppy-heads. With man there are different kinds of 
 heads: bald-head, deprived of hair ; block-head, one who 
 does not care to learn. A good or a clear head we say is 
 possessed by any one loho learns easily and eagerly. With 
 proper exercise, a dull head may in time become a good one. 
 

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