Pilifr : ■ f.^ ■:'':^'^'r}^hmm'' 1 iiiiiiiiisi 13 mmu "mm m m -..Mt, lip I i- ■ : lliiifeiiii: km::,- l! H li ilili!. l\0y mm '!•: m ! I ill HISTORY OF ENGLAND; WITH HISTORICAL SKETCHES SCOTLAND, WALES, AND lEELAND. ^xxu0 fax t\t Mu 0f 3t\mlL WITH QUESTIONS FOR THE EXAMINATION OF STUDENTS. BY JOHN RUSSELL, A.M. AUTHOR OF THE HISTOKT OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE HISTORY OF FRANCE. A NEW AND REVISED EDITION, PHILADELPHIA: LINDSAY & BLAKISTON. 1854. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by LINDSAY & BLAKISTON, in the Clerk's Oface of the District Court of the United States for the District of Pennsylvania. P4"^^ ■f\ .mh OF CONGRESS WASHINOTOHJI PREFACE TO NEW AND REVISED EDITION. Next to the history of our own country, that of the British Empire, from which we derive the principal part of ouv population, as well as our civil institutions and our language, forms the most interesting and appropriate study for the rising generation. A general knowledge of it is indeed requisite to the proper understanding of our own annals; and forms a necessary part of a good education, such as every intelligent American deems essential for his children. In preparing the history now offered to the public, the author has endeavoured to present as full and complete a view of the succession of events, as could be comprised in the limited space permitted to a volume intended for the use of schools. In addition to a complete history of England, he has given histories of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, from the earhest period to the times when these countries, originally independent, became integral portionsof the British empire. The information contained in this supplementary part of the volume could not have been given in the body of the work without unpleasantly interrupting the course of the narrative, and disturbing that unity which is so essential to a w^ell- compacted and continuous narrative. But it was deemed of sufficient importance and interest to claim distinct notice; and the author trusts that it will be considered a valuable addition to the history. 1* w PREFACE. In submitting this work to the notice of parents, teachers, and others, interested in the cause of general education, the author cannot but express his gratitude for the favour extended to his former productions, and his hope that the present effort may not be deemed unworthy of the same degree of approbation. CONTENTS. HISTORY OF ENGLAND. CHAPTER I. — ANCIENT BRITONS, SAXONS, DANES. Section 1. The Ancient Britons Page 11 2. Of England under the Saxons 13 3. The Heptarchy 13 4. England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings. — A. D. 827 16 5. Edward, Athelstan, Edmund 21 6. Edward, Ethelred, Edmond, Sweyn 24 7. Canute, Harold, Hardicanute, Edward 25 CHAPTER II. — THE NORMANS; BLOIS. Section 1. William the Conqueror. — A. D. 1086 28 2. WiUiamRufus. — A.D. 1087 30 3. Henryl. — A.D. 1100 34 4. Stephen. — House of Blois.— A.D. 1135 36 CHAPTER III. — PLANT AGENET& Section 1. Henry II. — A. D. 1155 37 2. Henry II., continued 40 3. Richardl. — A.D. 1189 42 4. John. — A.D. 1199 46 5. HenryllL — A.D. 1216 49 6. Edwardl. — A.D. 1272 54 7. Edward II. — A.D. 1307 65 8. Edward III. — A.D. 1327 57 9. Richardll. — A.D. 1377 62 CHAPTER IV. — HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK. Section 1. Henry IV. — A. D. 1399 65 2. Henry v. — A.D. 1413 66 3. Henry VI. — A.D. 1422 68 4. Edward I v. — A.D. 1461 71 5. Edward V. — A. D. 1483 ; Richard III. — A. D. 1483 73 CHAPTER v. — HOUSE OF TUDOR. SeotionI. Henry VII. — A.D. 1485 75 2. Henry VIII. — A.D. 1509 77 3. Henry VIII., continued 80 4. Henry VIII., continued 84 5. Edward VI. — A. D. 1547 87 6. Mary. — A.D. 1553 90 7. Mary, continued 92 8. Elizabeth. — A. D. 1558 93 9. Elizabeth, continued 96 10. Elizabeth, continued 98 11. Elizabeth, continued 103 CHAPTER VL — HOUSE OF STUART. Section 1. James L — A.D. 1603 105 2. James I., continued ^07 3. Charles L — A. D. 1625 109 4. Charles I., continued 112 (7) VIU CONTENTS. Section 5. Charles I., continued Page 114 6. Charles L, continued H*^ . 7. Charles I., continued 120 8. The Commonwealth.— A. D. 1649 124 9. The Commonwealth, continued 126 10. Richard Cromwell 129 11. Charles II.— A. D. 1660 130 12. Charles II., continued 132 13. Charles II., continued 134 14. Charles II., continued 136 15. Charles II., continued 138 16. James II.— A. D. 1685 140 17. James IL, continued 143 18. William III. and Mary.— A. D. 1688 147 19. William and Mary, continued 150 20. Anne.— A. D. 1702 153 21. Anne, continued 156 CHAPTER VII.— HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. Section 1. George I.— A. D. 1714 158 2. George I., continued 161 3. George IL— A. D. 1727 163 4. George IL, continued 165 5. George III.— A. D. 1760 168 6.. George III., continued 171 7. George III., continued 174 8. George III., continued 176 9. George III., continued 181 10. George III., continued 183 11. George III., continued 184 12. George IV.— A. D. 1820 187 13. William IV.— A. D. 1830 189 14. Victoria I.— A. D. 1837 192 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. Chapter 1. Ancient Inhabitants 213 2. David II 215 3. Mary, Queen of Scots, &c 219 4. James VI 221 5. On the Ancient Constitution of the Scottish Government 224 HISTORY OF WALES. Chapter 1. Ancient Britons 225 2. Roderic Moelwynoc 230 3. Jeuav and Jago, Howel Dha 231 4. Trahaearn, Gryflfydh, Owen 233 6. Llewelyn, David .- 235 HISTORY OF IRELAND. Chapter 1. The original Inhabitants 238 2. Evidences of its Antiquity 241 3. Ollamh Fodhla 243 4. Tuathal, Feidlim, Con 245 6. Pelagius, St. Patrick 247 6. Brien Boiroimhe 250 7. Edward I. and IL, Richard II 255 8. Henry IV. and V 257 9. The doctrines in the Irish Church 259 10. Elizabeth, James I., Charles I., &c , 261 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. I PAGE The new Parliament Buildings 2 Alfred in the Neatherd's Hut 19 William I. wounded by his Son 31 Bichard I. in Palestine 43 j Henry III. entering the Armed Parliament 51 Great Naval Engagement oflf Sluys 69 Execution of Anne Bullen 82 Elizabeth haranguing her Troops at Tilbury 100 Execution of Charles 1 122 Landing of the Prince of Orange at Torbay 145 Death of Sir Ralph Abercrombie 179 Hong Kong 200 The Emperor of China 203 Mary, Queen of Scots, embarking for Scotland 218 Caractacus before Claudius 227 Henry 11. departing for Ireland 251 (9) HISTORY OF ENGLAND. CHAPTER 1. SECTION I. Among all the ancient historians, but little light has been shed on Britain, till Julius CsBsar, fifty-five years before Christ, attempted the conquest of it; except that the Britons were of Gaulic or Celtic origin, that they enjoyed a free government, and were remarkable for their ferocity and barbarism. Those of them, however, that inhabited the south-east part of the island, had become acquainted with agriculture ; and the southern coast, opposite Gaul, was frequented by merchants, who traded thither for such commodities as the natives were able to produce. The other inhabitants maintained themselves by pasturage, removing perpetually their seats, and raising temporary huts in their forests and marshes. The Britons, addicted to war, and jealous of their liberty, were divid- ed into small nations, under the government of kings, or rather of chief- tains, who possessed a precarious authority ; but in great and imminent dangers, a commander-in-chief was chosen by common consent, in a general assembly. Of their mode of warfare, Csesar gives a descrip- tion ; and their dexterity in managing their war-chariots he ascribes to constant use and incessant exercise ; thereby intimating that the Britons were perpetually engaged in intestine wars. The priests, whom they called Druids, were the guardians of their religion, and enjoyed the greatest influence in their States. The ascendant they obtained they had procured by the terrors of superstition. Exempted from taxes and from military service, intrusted with the edu- cation of their youth, the judges of all matters, civil or criminal, and respected as oracles, they punished the refractory by terrible penalties. Among their religious tenets they maintained the eternal transmigra- tion of souls, and human sacrifices and other barbarous rites made a part of the religion which they inculcated. That the superstition of the What was the probable origin of the Britons? — What their employment?— What rheir government ? — What their mode of warfare ? — Who the guardians of their religion ? (11) 12 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Druids was of singular force, we may easily conceive, since the Ro- mans employed against it the rigour of penal laws. Impelled by the love of glory, Cassar attempted the invasion of Britain, and obliged the inhabitants to promise submission, which they violated the moment his departure allowed them an opportunity to resume their arms. The next year he returned, with a greater army, and exacted from them new acknowledgements. It was not, however, till the reign of the Roman Emperor Claudius, nearly a century after the first landing of Caesar, that the Romans possessed any real dominion over the Britons. Claudius made an expedition in his own person to Britain, and the brave Caractacus was led captive to Rome. Suetonius Paulinus, under the reign of Nero, gave the Britons a severe blow by attacking Mona, now Anglesey, the principal retreat of the Druids. He destroyed their altars and consecrated groves ; but no sooner was he removed to a distance, than they returned to hostilities under the conduct of Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; a heroine, whom the indignities offered to her person by the Romans, had stimulated to revenge. London, then a considerable colony, she reduced to ashes, and [)ut the Romans there, with all other strangers, to the sword. Suetonius in his turn gained a decisive victory ; and Boadicea, that she might not fall into his hands, put an end to her life by poison. The glory of subduing Britain was reserved for Julius Agricola, of whom Tacitus, his son-in-law, has immortalized the virtues and the talents. This great man governed it during the reigns of Vespasian, Titus, and. Domitian*. Having first subjugated the southern parts of the island, Agricola advanced northward, driving before him the fiercer tribes ; and having chased them into the mountains of Caledonia, he erected a rampart to set bounds to their violent incursions. He intro- duced among them the arts of peace, and reconciled them to more culti- vated manners. Adrian, Antoninus, and Severus added new fortifications to the wall of Agricola, and the country enjoying during a long period an uninterrupted peace, its inhabitants seem to have relinquished the hope, if not the desire, of independence. The Roman empire had at length grown feeble under the weight of its conquests. A deluge of barbarians pouring from the north attacked a power that oppressed the world, and it was necessary to recall the legions who were defending the frontier provinces ; on which the Picts and Scots broke over the wall of separation, and ravaged the fields of their effeminate neighbours. The Britons implored the protection of the Romans, who sent them a single legion. This force was suflacient to disperse the enemy ; but, immediately on its departure, they returned to distress the Britons. But the Romans, in the reign of the Emperor Valentinian, after en- couraging the Britons to defend themselves, and assisting them to rebuild * These emperors reigned between the years a. d. 70 and 96. What their influence ? — What was effected by Julius Caesar ? — By Claudius ? — What did Suetonius effect? — Who was Boadicea? — Who fully subdued the Bri- tons ? — And in whose reigns ? — What occasioned the recal of the Roman legion from Britain ? — What were the last acts of the Romans in Britain ? — What foUoweC their departure ? SAXONS. 13 the wall of Sev'erus, bade them a final adieu, a. d. 448. The pusillani- mous Britons soon became a prey to the rapacity of the Scots and Picts, and by the advice of Vortigern, one of their princes, they despatched an embassy to Germany, and invited over the Saxons, a people that wexe soon to enslave them. SECTION 2. OF ENGLAND UNDER THE SAXONS. The Saxons inhabited the north and north-western parts of Germany They were possessed of great martial ardour, and nothing could be more acceptable to them than the deputation of the Britons. Hengist and Horsa, two brothers, respectable from their birth and authority, arrived with fifteen hundred men and landed on the Isle of Thanet. They were soon followed by five thousand more, and being joined by the British forces, they gained a complete victory in Lincolnshire over the Picts and Scots, a. d. 450. It is related that Hengist derived singular advantage from the charms of his sister, Rowena, who had drawn to her the afiections of Vortigern. Hengist, with the recruits he received from Germany, spread rapidly his conquests. The Britons, in great numbers, fled to Armorica, now Brittany. Afler the death of Vortimer, Ambrosius was promoted to the chief authority, but his courage, and the efforts of his unfortunate coun- trymen, were unable to expel the usurpers. — Hengist founded the king- dom of Kent. His success drew over other adventurers from Germany, and the Britons, after several defeats, took refuge in the inaccessible mountains of Cornwall and Wales. Ella, a Saxon chief, arrived in a. d. 477, and having established him- self on the southern coast, became King of Sussex. Cerdic, another Saxon conqueror, was opposed with more vigour. The famous King Arthur, whose achievements have given occasion to so many fables, and who is celebrated in romances, as the founder of the Round Table, defeated him in several battles. Cerdic, however, assisted by his son Kenric, established the kingdom of Wessex, comprehending the counties of Hants, Dorset, Wilts, Berks, and the Isle of Wight. About the same time were established the kingdom of the East Angles, that of Mercia, and that of Essex. The kingdom of Northumberland was not founded till the year 547. In this manner was the Heptarchy, or the seven Saxon kingdoms, es- tablished in Britain ; andj having subdued their common enemy, the Britons, they soon began to turn their arms against each other. SECTION 3. THE HEPTARCHY. Kent. — The two immediate successors of Hengist chose to enjo his conquests, rather than imitate his example. Ethelbert, his grand- Who were the Saxons ?— Who were their leaders ?— Where did the Britons flee for refuge ? — Who opposed the establishments pf the Saxon chiefs ?— What Saxon kingdoms were finally established ? 2 14 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. son, seems, however, to have inherited his valour and his ambition. The event which particularly distinguished the reign of this prince was the introduction of Christianity into his kingdom ; though this system of faith had, long before this period, been embraced by the Britons. The Saxons had lived in the grofsest idolatry : their principal deity was Woden, whom they consider jd as presiding over war ; and from whom they conceived their ancastors were descended. The hope of being admitted into his hall o' palace, in recompense for their valour, and of drinking ale from the skulls of their enemies, induced them to expose themselves to the p;/eatest dangers. But the example of the Franks, Burgundians, and rather German nations who had been convert- ed to the Christian religirn, had already contributed to produce in them a contempt of pagan superstitions. Gregory, surnamed the Great, sent Augustin on a mission to Britain, but so great was the stupidity of the Saxons, that Ethelbert, afraid lest these foreign priests should employ magic and sorcery against him, received them in the open air, in order to interrupt the force of their enchantments. Augustin explained the truths of the gospel, and obtain- ed permission to preach them publicly. The austerities of his life con- firmed his doctrines. The king allowed himself to be baptized, and a great number of his subjects followed his example. Augustin was after- wards consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury. Northumberland. — This kingdom, which comprehended the north- ern counties of England, was originally divided into two independent governments, the Deiri and the Bernici. Adelfrid, king of the latter, possessed himself of the former. This conquest rendered him formida- ble to the Picts and Scots. The Welsh also were bold enough to attack him near Chester ; and a body of monks from the monastery of Bangor accompanied the army. Adelfrid, perceiving them at some distance from the field of battle, enquired the meaning of so unusual an appear- ance. He was told that a body of priests were come out to pray against him, "Then," said he, "they are as much our enemies as those who fight against us ;" and he sent a detachment to cut in pieces the monkish battalion. The Welsh, seized with consternation, took flight; Chester was taken, and the monastery of Bangor demolished. The young Edwin, whom Adelfrid had dispossessed of the crown of Deiri, afterwards recovered it by the assistance of Redwald, King of the East Angles, who, marching against Adelfrid, defeated and slew him. Edwm, becoming King of Northumberland, distinguished himself by the strict execution of justice. The arguments of Paulinus induced him to renounce idolatry, and both king and people opened their eyes to the light of the gospel. Paulinus was the first Archbishop of York. East Anglia. — This kingdom comprehended the provinces of Cam- bridge, Suffolk, and Norfolk. A long catalogue of obscure and con- temptible princes, who were either expelled or murdered, fills the annals What is said of Ethel bert's reign? — Who was the principal deity among the Saxons ? — Whom did Gregory send on a mission to Britain ? — What was his suc- cess?— How did Adelfrid treat the monks of Bangor? — What followed? — Whom did Paulinus, Archbishop of York, convert to Christianity? — What provinces did East Anglia comprehend ? SAXONS. 15 of this kingdom. The last of these princes, Ethelbert, was assassinated by Offa, King of the Mercians, a. d. 792. Mercia. — This kingdom, the most extensive of the heptarchy, included all the interior counties of England. Offa, the most distinguished of the Mercian princes, ascended the throne in a. d. 755, but the lustre of his victories was tarnished by the murder of Ethelbert, King of East Anglia, who had come to his court to espouse his daughter, and he then possessed himself of his dominions. Remorse for his crime induced him to enrich the cathedral of Hereford, to erect a magnificent mon- astery at Verulam, to undertake a pilgrimage to Rome, with other like acts. Moral excellence in those times was deemed less meritorious than the founding of religious houses and the exterior practices of devotion. This prince died a. d. 794. He was acquainted with Charlemagne. The other Kings of Mercia are not worthy of particular notice. Essex and Sussex were the most inconsiderable kingdoms of the heptarchy. That of Essex, or the East Saxons, was but of small extent ; and that of Sussex, or the South Saxons, contained only the provinces of Sussex and Surrey. The annals of both the one and the other are barren and defective. Wessex. — This kingdom, which lay westward of the principalities of Kent and Sussex, had its name from the people who founded it. Con- tinual wars fostered their military genius, Ceaulm, their third king, oppressed the ancient Britons who had taken shelter in Cornwall, and was ambitious to extend his conquests over the heptarciiy. Becoming odious to his subjects, he was expelled from the throne, and died in exile and in misery. Ina, one of his successors, deserves to be mentioned with honour. He united in his person the civil and military virtues. Having conquer- ed the Britons in Somerset, he treated them with humanity, permitted them to rets in possession of their lands, incorporated them with his sub- jects by intermarriages and equal laws. After a glorious reign of thirty- seven years, he went on a pilgrimage to Rome, and then retired to a cloister ; a species of devotion then very common. The immediate successors of Ina were obscure and undistinguished, and we pass from them to Egbert, after making mention of Brithric, who, with a title inferior to that of Egbert, possessed himself of the throne in 784. He was taken off by poison, which the jealousy of his queen had prepared for another. Egbert was called to the vacant throne. Great objects opened them- selves to his ambition. The royal families, in all the kingdoms of the heptarchy, had become entirely extinguished. Devotion had buried many of them in cloisters, and the rivalship of many princes had led to the extermination of others ; so that Egbert was the sole descendant of those princes who first subdued Britain ; and he enhanced his authority by claiming a pedigree from Woden. What did OfFa to atone for the murder of Ethelbert? — What is worthy of note in Essex, Sussex, and Wessex? — Relate the characters of Ina and his successors.— What prospects opened to Egbert's ambition ? 16 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The Mercians, who at that time possessed great power, attacked hira and were defeated. The kingdoms of Kent, Essex, and East Anglia, had become tributary to him ; and two successful battles put him in possession of Mercia. Then marching towards Northumberland, that people, tired of anarchy, came out to do him homage. Thus the hep- tarchy was consolidated into one kingdom called England, from the name of one of the Saxon tribes who, four hundred years before, had made a settlement in this country. SECTION 4. ENGLAND UNDER THE ANGLO-SAXON KINGS. A. D. 827. Under Egbert, a king powerful and warlike, and the only remaining descendant of the founders of the heptarchy, England seemed likely to be formidable to its neighbours, and to remain undisturbed by foreign incursions. But the North of Europe was ever producing numerous armies of barbarians, whom the desire of settlements, or the hopes of plunder, urged to the invasion of countries more fertile than their own. After having overrun the North of France, they threw themselves upon England. Their first inroads into this country were made as early as the year 787, in the decline of the Saxon Heptarchy; and they renewed their visits in the reign of Egbert. Nor were they discouraged, though defeated by this prince in a great battle. They penetrated into Devon- shire, and were again vanquished. But Egbert died too soon for his people ; leaving the crown to his son, who was but little able to sustain its weight. Ethelwolf, the successor of Egbert, in 838, had the virtues of a monk, not those of a king. He began his reign by dismembering the monarchy, by delivering to his eldest son, Athelstan, the provinces of Essex, Kent, and Sussex. The Danes took advantage of his weakness ; and though they were sometimes defeated by the valour of the English, the kingdom was yet laid waste and ravaged. Their small vessels ran easily up creeks and rivers, and spreading themselves on the coast, they carried off men and cattle and their moveable possessions. They exer- cised their rage against churches, priests, and monks, and hastening to their ships, they immediately disappeared. When chased from one place, they presented themselves in another. Inquietude and terror became general over the whole island ; every season of the year was dangerous. A fleet of 350 sail having brought them a strong reinforce- ment, they advanced from the Isle of Thanet, burnt the cities of Lon- don and Canterbury, and penetrated into Surrey. Ethelwolf 's ineffec- tual opposition, or partial victories, afforded but a short interruption to their devastations. In the midst of these dangers, this weak prince set out on a pilgrim- ge to Rome, and his liberality to the Romish Church was great ; on How was the heptarchy consolidated, and by whom? — What people disturbed the country in the time of Egbert?— Who succeeded hira ? ~ Describe the ravages of the Danes. ALFRED. 17 his »«sturn home, he married the daughter of Charles the Bald. About the same time this prince conferred a donation on the clergy, which has been entailed on posterity. The Jewish law, which had bestowed a tenth of all the produce of the land on the Levites, was universally regarded by the clergy as obligatory on Christians; and they were inclined to extend it to the tenth of all industry, merchandize, wages of labourers, and pay of soldiers. After much resistance from the laity, Ethel wolf granted their request; and the States of the kingdom consented to the establishment of tithes. The king died in 857, two years after this concession, and his will divided the kingdom between his sons, Ethelbald and Ethelbert ; but the reign of these princes was short, and much molested by the irrup- tions of the Danes. They were succeeded by their brother, Ethelred, in 866, who, several times, assisted by his brother Alfred, signalized himself by his valour against these pirates. He died of a wound received in another action with the enemy. Alfred, his successor, was the fifth son of Ethelwolf ; and was born to support the tottering throne, and to establish the felicity of his nation. Alfred, in 872, and when twenty-two years of age, was called to the exercise of royalty. Ethelred left issue, but the vows of the whole nation, and the distresses of the kingdom, required an arm of known prowess to wield the sceptre ; and the order of succession was not nicely observed, in these times, provided the prince was of the royal line. We are assured that in a journey to Rome, whither his father had sent him, he had received the royal unction from the hands of Leo IV. Parental indulgence had suffered him to pass his twelfth year without instruction ; but, the hearing of some Saxon poems read, which recounted the praise of heroes, awaked his genius, and made him emulous to attain to the like fame. The study of the Latin tongue opened to him more abundant sources of improvement, and the early taste he discovered for works which inspired him with heroic sentiments, prognosticated his future greatness. In Alfred's first encounter with the Danes, they were discomfited, and became bound never to return to the kingdom. But oaths could not bind men who had never submitted to laws. They soon renewed their depredations, and Alfred was again under the necessity of opposing their ravages. In one year he fought eight battles against them, and having reduced them to the utmost extremity, he made them an offer of a settlement in England, if they would defend it against the incur- sions of future invaders ; but, while deliberating concerning it, being reinforced by new bodies of their countrymen, they proceeded to exer- cise their usual depredations. The courage of the English sunk under this new misfortune ; and in their distress many abandoned their country, and others submitted to servitude. The king, finding himself without troops and without hope, dismissed his attendants, and in the disguise of a peasant, concealed When and by whom were tithes first established ? — Name the sons and succes- sors of Ethelwolf. — Describe the character of Alfred. — ^The events of his childhood. — What engagement took place between him and the Danes? — What occurred to him, in the disguise of a peasant ? 2* ^8 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. himself in the house of a neatherd, whose wife exacted his assistance in her domestic affairs. Finding an opportunity to collect a number of his partisans, he retired to an inaccessible morass in the county of Somerset, and erected a fortification. From these he made frequent and unexpected sallies upon the barbarians, who felt the vigour of his arm, but knew not from what quarter they received the blow. The news that the Earl of Devonshire had obtained a victory over the enemy, and had even got possession of their enchianted standard, drew this hero from his retreat, and in order to assure himself of the probability of success, he entered the camp of the enemy in the disguise of a harper. He was introduced into the tent of their prince, Guthrum, wliere he remained several days. Observing their negligence and supine security, he returned to his followers with the hopes of a certain victory. Emissaries being despatched, the soldiers flocked to his standard, and the enemy was surprised and routed. The fugitives he besieged in ai fortified town, to which they had retired. The Danes, oppressed by] famine, submitted to the victor. The conditions of Alfred were accept- ed, one of which was that they should embrace the doctrines of Chris- tianity ; and the kingdom was not for many years infested with the rav- ages of the Danes. This interval of tranquillity he employed in restoring order to the State, and in establishing salutary institutions. His prudence suggested to him the most proper expedient for uniting the English and the Danes. He governed them by equal laws, and made no difference between them in the administration of civil or criminal justice. The cities which had been desolated, were repaired ; and that of London in particular, which became the capital of the kingdom. A regular and formidable militia was judiciously stationed throughout the country for the national defence. But of all his establishments, the most useful were his naval preparations. A hundred and thirty vessels of war, stationed along the coast, kept at defiance those fleets of pirates which had before invaded the island without opposition. He instructed his subjects in the art of navigation. Who would have thought that an art at that time so little known in England, was one day to be the foundation of" its power ! These wise expedients, however, could not secure the tranquillity of the kingdom. Hastings, the celebrated Danish pirate, having ravaged a part of France, prepared to invade England, with a fleet of three hun- dred and thirty sail. The terrible outrages they committed served to augment the glory of Alfred. After a great slaughter the rebels were defeated and put to flight, and tranquillity was again restored. He divided the kingdom into counties, subdividing the counties into hundreds, and these again into tithings. In cases of great moment, the hundreds assembled, and twelve freeholders were chosen. This proceed- ing gave rise to juries, calculated for the security of liberty, and the equal administration of justice. Alfred appointed also a sheriff in each In what disguise did Alfred enter the Danish camp ? — What followed ? — To what terras did the Danes submit? — Describe Alfred's government. — What Danish pirate cummitted great outrages? — How did Alfred divide and subdivide the country? ( 19 ) ALFRED. EDWARD. ATHELSTAN. 21 county. He framed a body of laws for the magistracy, and reformed and extended previous institutions. He invited learned men from every part of Europe ; and established schools for the instruction of youth. He either founded, or at least rebuilt the University of Oxford, and endowed it with many privileges. This great prince divided his time into three equal portions ; one he dedicated to study, and the exercises of piety ; another to the despatch of business ; and a third to the refection of his body. He measured his hours by burning tapers of equal length. By such a regular distribution of time, he became one of the most learned men of his age. He trans- lated into the Saxon language the Fables of ^sop, the History of Bede, and other works. He composed parables and short poems, to communi- cate the duties of morality to a people not yet susceptible of speculative instruction. The attention of Alfred was extended to every object interesting to society. He encouraged the mechanic arts, agriculture, navigation, and commerce. The English began to carry their trade into distant countries, and to import the productions of the Indies. A seventh part of the revenue of the Crown was set apart for the repair of ruined cities, castles, palaces, and churches. In short, the admirable institutions he put in execution, during a reign of no great length, cannot be enumerated in the compressed limits of this work ; they are beyond all eulogiums. No king had ever a better title to the surname of Great. Alfred died in the fifty-second year of his age. a. d. 900. SECTION 5. Edward, surnamed the Elder, because he was the first king of England of that name, was the second son of Alfred ; and though he was mferior to his father in mental accomplishments, he equalled him in military skill and conduct. Ethelwald, his cousin-german, disputed with him the succession to the throne, but in a terrible battle fought in Kent he perished. Northumberland, East Anglia, and Mercia sent out bands of robbers, who desolated the kingdom. Edward entered the field against them, and defeated them. During the whole of his reign he was engaged in wars, either with the Danes, who had settled in England, or with those bands whose object was plunder ; and he had the good fortune to subject the former, and to expel the latter. He died in 925. Athelstan, his natural son, succeeded him, (the legitimate offspring of the last king being too young for the cares of government,) his illegitimacy not being in those times a sufficient obstacle to exclude him from the succession. The Danes in Northumberland were constantly in a disposition to revolt, but Athelstan successfully opposed them, and thus gave tranquillity to the kingdom. The valour and the ability of this prince, have procured him the highest encomiums. He encouraged commerce by promulgating a law, " that every merchant who had made How did he divide his time ? — What were his studies ? — What institutions did he estabhsh ? — What was his character? — What was the character of Edward, Alfred's son ? — Describe the character of Athelstan. — Give an account of his reign. 22 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. two long voyages should be advanced to the rank of nobility." The same honour was given " to a ceorle or farmer, who had acquired five hides of land ; and who possessed a chapel, a kitchen, a hall, and a bell." Athelstan died at Gloucester, after a reign of sixteen years, and was succeeded by his brother Edmund, in 941. Edmund, as valiant a prince as his immediate predecessors, had very soon after his accession to oppose the Northumbrians. He made them embrace anew the Christian faith. A tragical death put a period to his expeditions. One day, while celebrating a festival and perceiving that a notorious robber had intruded into his presence, he ordered him to retire. The offender refusing to obey the command, a struggle ensued, and the king received a mortal wound. He was succeeded, in 946, by his brother Edred. Edred, like his predecessors, was engaged in repressing the ravages of the NorthumbrianDanes, and after succeeding in this object, he station- ed garrisons to overawe them. Devotion was the chief feature in the character of Edred ; and Dunstan, the abbot, who was his adviser and director, governed the kingdom. The great object of this minister was to extend the law of celibacy among the ecclesiastics throughout the kingdom. And with such warmth of invective and abuse were their disputes carried on among the different orders, that popular commotion was excited. The death of the king, a. d. 955, in the tenth year of his reign, interrupted awhile these contentions. Edwy, his nephew, succeeded him, Edred's own sons being yet unfit to govern. Edwy was possessed of great personal accomplishments, and a martial disposition. Elgiva, a princess of the royal blood, had made a strong impression on his heart, and he had ventured to marry her, contrary to the advice of the ecclesiastics, though she was related to him in the third or fourth degree. The monks concerted his disgrace, and Dunstan could not confine his resentment within due bounds. On the day of his coronation, while his nobility were at table, Edwy retired into the apartments of Elgiva. Dunstan, and Odo, the archbishop of Canterbury, followed him, and bursting into his presence, carried off by force the object of his affection, and treated her with the grossest violence. Edwy, in revenge, called upon Dunstan to render an account of his administration of the treasury under the preceding reign ; and this minister refusing to comply, was pronounced guilty of malversation in his office, and banished the kingdom. Dunstan's partisans complained loudly of this exertion of the royal authority ; and Odo sent a party of soldiers into the palace, who, seizing Elgiva, disfigured her face with a red-hot iron, and then carried her into Ireland. Some time after, being cured of her wounds, she returned to England, but she was intercepted by the emissaries of the archbishop and put to death. It was no difficult matter to arm a superstitious people against a prince whose aversion to the monks was so generally known. A party declared Relate the tragical death of Edmund. — What was the chief feature in Edred's character ?— Describe his reign.— Edwy.— How was the princess Elgiva treated by the monks?- -And how by Odo and Dunstan's partisans? EDGAH. 23 in favour of his brother Edgar, a boy not thirteen years of age. Dunstan returning from exile, embraced the interest of this prince, and was pro- moted to the sees of Worcester, of London, and of Canterbury, all three of which benefices he enjoyed at the same time. Edwy's power and adherents every day declining, after being obliged to consent to a parti- tion of the kingdom, he died in misfortune and disgrace, a.d. 960. Edgar, on coming tcr the throne, stationed a body of disciplined troops to repel the inroads of the Danes and Scots. He ordered a formi- dable navy, also, from time to time, to make the circuit of his dominions ; and by these and other regulations, conceived with prudence and exe- cuted with vigour, made himself the terror of his enemies. But the favour which he showed to the monks, was the most powerful means he employed to establish the public tranquillity. Edgar's amour with Elfrida, the daughter and heiress of the Duke of Devonshire, cannot be passed over in silence. Though Elfrida had never appeared at court, the reputation of her beauty had filled all England. Edgar had conceived a design of espousing her, but lest her charms should not be equal to her fame, he desired Ethelwald, his favour- ite, to pay a visit under some specious pretence to her father, and bring an account of the beauty of his daughter. The ardent passion which Ethelvyald conceived stifled in his mind the sentiment of duty. He returned to Edgar, represented her as a woman of ordinary beauty, but insinuated, that though she was unworthy of a king, yet her riches would make her a suitable match for a subject ; and therefore entreated permission to pay his addresses to her. This request the king readily complied with, and their nuptials were solemnized. Ethelwald's greatest solicitude was to keep her from court, but Edgar was soon made acquainted with the transaction ; and, dissembling his anger, told Ethelwald that he intended to pay a visit to his castle, and was desirous to be introduced to his wife. The favourite, setting out a few hours before the king, under pretence of making needful prepara- tions, discovered the whole matter to Elfrida, and conjured her to use her utmost ingenuity to conceal her beauty. His request required too much heroism for a woman so circumstanced. Elfrida, ambitious that her beauty should captivate Edgar, or stung with resentment against the man that had deprived her of a crown, studiously displayed all the graces of her person. Love and fury took possession of the insulted monarch. Ethelwald was seduced into a wood, under pretence of hunt- ing, and there assassinated, some say by the king's own hand. Elfrida was soon after invited to court, and their nuptials were performed with the accustomed solemnity. Among the incidents of this reign may be mentioned the extirpation of wolves from England ; they were pursued with so much assiduity, that they were forced to take shelter in the forests and mountains of Wales ; and the king changed the tribute-money imposed upon the Welsh into an annual tribute^'of three hundred heads of wolves. In a little time, their extirpation was effected. What means did Edgar take to establish tranquillity ? — Relate Edgar's amour with Elfrida. — What are the chief incidents of Edgar's reign ? 24 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. Edgar died in the thirty-third year of his age, after a reign of sixteen years, and was succeeded, in 975, by his son Edward. SECTION 6. Edward, surnamed the Martyr, was made king by the favour of the monks. The archbishop persevered in this reign to exercise the author- ity he had acquired in the last. His zeal in extending celibacy, though opposed by many, he maintained and confirmed by pretended miracles. Edward lived but about four years after his accession. Hunting one day near the castle of Elfrida, his mother-in-law, he paid her a visit. After mounting his horse to depart, he desired some liquor to be brought him ; and while in the act of drinking, one of her servants stabbed him in the back. Finding himself wounded, he put spurs to his horse; but fainting through loss of blood, he fell from the saddle, and his foot stick- ing to the stirrup, he was dragged along till he died. Elfrida built monasteries to expiate this murder, but was never able to recover her reputation. Ethelred the Second, the son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded. He was young, and possessed neither genius, capacity, nor courage. Una- ble to govern even in a state of peace, he was totally unqualified to oppose a deluge of barbarians, who assailed his kingdom. Ethelred, on one of these occasions, so far from taking the field in his own defence, purchased their departure at the price of ten thousand pounds. Not long after, Sweyn, King of Denmark, and Olave, King of Norway, headed a descent and defeated the English army. London saved itself by a vigorous resistance. At length a treaty was concluded. The bar- barians received sixteen thousand pounds, and retired. But peace was not of long duration ; several bodies of the Danes had remained in Eng- land, and there formed settlements, and Ethelred conceived a design of making a general massacre of them. The plot was carried on with such secresy, that it was executed in one day. The day in which the Danes usually bathed themselves was chosen, and they were slaughtered without pity and without distinction of age or sex. But this massacre, so perfidious and cruel, was productive of greater calamities. Sweyn, impelled by revenge, renewed his invasion, and desolated the kingdom by the most cruel ravages. An uncertain peace, purchased by the payment of 30,000Z., was followed by new hostilities. The nobility submitted hi length to the Danish monarch, swore alle- giance to him, and delivered him hostages for their good behaviour. Ethelred fled with his family to Normandy. On the death of Sweyn, which happened about six months after, Ethelred was invited by his sub- jects to return, and after an inglorious reign of thirty-five years, he expired. He was succeeded by his son Edmund, who had already given proofs of heroic bravery. Edmund the Second came to the throne in 1016, and he hastened to bring about a decisive battle with the enemy, conducted by Canute, Who was Edgar's successor? — Relate the circumstances of Edward's murder. — Mention Ethelred's incapacity and his cruelties.— How were they revenged by Sweyn, the Danish king ? CANUTE. 25 who succeeded his father as general of the Danish forces. Edric, a traitor to Edmund, had joined himself to Canute, and to his treachery- may be ascribed Edmund's unsuccessful resistance of the Danes, after three successive battles. But both parties being by this time equally fatigued with undecisive war and bloodshed, the nobility obliged their leaders to come to a compromise. Canute reserved to himself North- umberland, Mercia, and East-Anglia ; the southern parts were left to Edmund. The English monarch survived not this treaty above a month, being murdered at Oxford by his two chamberlains, the accomplices of Edric; and Canute succeeded to the kingdom. Thus a terminatio was put to a war with the Danes, which had raged, with little intermis sion, for 200 years. SECTION 7. Canute, afterwards surnamed the Great, assembled the States of the kingdom, and covered his usurpation of the whole kingdom under the appearance of justice. The two sons of Edmund had a title to the throne, and Canute, to prevent their succession, sent them to his ally, the king of Sweden, desiring they should be put to death. The Swede, revolting at so great a crime, sent them to the king of Hungary, who generously educated them in his court. The first care of Canute was to confirm his power. He sacrificed to his interest a great number of English, and rid himself of several of the nobility who continued to express attachment to the ancient blood of their kings. England in general, and London in particular, was loaded with imposts. He had no other means of rewarding his officers and partisans ; and necessity, rather than tyranny, it is said, led him to exer- cise a severity, the remembrance of which he soon defaced by the wis- dom of his administration. Canute confirmed the Saxon laws and institutions, and impartially distri- buted justice, making no distinction between the English and the Danes. The duke of Normandy, who had given protection to Ethelred, with his two sons, was disposed to support the claims of his nephews ; but Can- ute prevented the danger, by espousing Emma, the duke's sister, and the mother of the young princes. The king paid a visit to Denmark, and profiting by the opportunity it afforded him, made a conquest of Norway. The possession of three great kingdoms rendered him the most powerful monarch in Europe, and satisfied with human grandeur, he devoted the latter part of his life to the concerns of religion. The founding of churches and monasteries exercised the piety of Canute. He even undertook a pilgrimage to Rome, and imported reliques, and performed such ceremonies as the custom of the times required to atone for former acts of violeiice and injustice. All historians relate the circqmstance of his ordering his chair to be Who was Canute? — How was the contest between Edmund and Canute decid- ed ?— What became of the two sons of Edmund ? — How did Canute confirm his power ? — Whom did Canute espouse ? — What is said of his power ? — How did Canute manifest his piety ? -- What anecdote is related pf him ? 26 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. placed on the sea-shore while the tide was approaching-, and his com- manding it not to approach, nor wet the feet of its sovereign, in order to impress on his courtiers the insignificance of human power, and to reprove them for their servile adulation. Canute died at Shaftsbury, in the 19th year of his reign, a. d. 1036, leaving behind him three sons, Swein, Harold, and Hardicanute. Swein was King of Norway. To Hardicanute was given Denmark, and Har old succeeded to the English throne. Harold. — Canute had a son by Emma, called Hardicanute, or Canute II., who, according to the treaty with Richard, Duke of Normandy, should have succeeded to the crown of England ; but he had appointed by will that it should devolve on Harold, his son by a former marriage. The English declared for Hardicanute ; and to prevent a civil war, a compromise was made, and all the provinces north of the Thames were assigned to Harold. But he reigned only four years. Hardicanute, or Canute II. succeeded in 1039, and his title was readily acknowledged by the whole kingdom ; and on his arrival from the continent, he was received with such extravagant demonstrations of joy as his future conduct proved him unworthy of; for his violence and inhumanity lost him, in the beginning of his reign, the affections of the English, and the exaction of heavy imposts increased their discontents. The populace, in Worcester, rose and put to death two of the collectors ; and the enraged monarch ordered the city to be pillaged and burned to the ground. Happily for England, two years put a period to his reign, in consequence of excess at the marriage of a Danish lord, which was celebrated at Lambeth. Edward, surnamed the Confessor, the only prince of the Saxon line, was raised to the throne in a. d. 1041 ; and the English, who had so long been subject to a foreign yoke, were rejoiced at finding the line of their ancient monarchs restored. He had been educated in Normandy, and had formed many strong attachments to that country. Hence his court was filled with Normans ; and the French language, customs, and laws, became fashionable in England. The principal dignities of the church were given to strangers. Edward had no legitimate issue ; and, after much deliberation aliout a successor, he turned his thoughts towards William, Duke of Normandy, and secretly communicated to him his design, but died without naming his successor, a. d. 1065. Harold, the son of a popular nobleman, who was the son-in-law of Canute, and whose daughter, Editha, was Edward the Confessor's con- sort, ascended the throne without opposition. Harold had previously attempted to draw to him the affections of the English, by a conduct which was popular and prudent ; and the glory he had acquired by the subjection of the Welsh, who had constantly been molesting the king- dom with their incursions, increased the reputation of his valour. Cer- tain of the suffrages of the people, and possessed of great influence in the State, he openly aspired to the succession. His pretensions were opposed by Duke William, who insisted that Who succeeded Canute on the English throne ? — Describe the character of Har- dicanute. — His cruelties. — Relate the reign of Edward the Confessor. — Who next aspired to the succession ? — By whom were his pretensions opposed ? HAROLD. 27 iCthvard the Confessor had bequeathed to him the crown. William was tlie natural son of Robert, Duke of Normandy ; he owed part of his greatness to his birth, but yet more to his own personal merit. His heroism had triumphed over the efforts of France and its vassals; and he drew into Normandy the most celebrated warriors of Europe, and seized with ardour every opportunity of signalizing his valour. When the fame of his intended expedition had spread, multitudes crowded to his standard. The Emperor Henry IV. declared in his fa- vour ; Pope Alexander II. sent him a consecrated banner, and pronounced Harold an usurper. The States of Normandy, however, were reluctant- ly brought to grant to William the great sums he required. At length he found himself at the head of sixty thousand men, which he embarked on board a fleet of three hundred sail ; and after some small opposition from the weather, landed at Pevensey, on the coast of Sussex, without opposition. The duke happening to stumble and fall as he leaped on shore, cried aloud, " that he had taken possession of the country ;" and this circumstance his army considered as a favourable omen. The least unexpected event strikes superstitious minds with joy or with horror. Harold, since his accession, had been called to oppose the Norwegians, who had spread alarm over the kingdom. He was now returning, after obtaining a decisive victory. He lost, however, many of his bravest officers and soldiers in the action ; and upon receiving false intelligence that William, discouraged by contrary winds, had abandoned the enter- prise, Harold dismissed his fleet, which he had collected to oppose the Normans, and by this means facilitated their invasion. Had Harold followed the advice of his brother, Gurth, he might have saved the kingdom. He thought that the enemy, if harassed by frequent skirmishes, and straitened for provisions, would be compelled to yield to the rigours of winter ; whereas, in a situation where they must conquer or die, they would fight with an irresistible courage. Harold was pre- cipitate, though deserted by many of his old soldiers. William proposed to him, by some monks, that he should fight him by single combat, or that they should submit their cause to the arbitration of the Pope. Harold replied, that " The God of battles should be the arbiter of their differences." The night preceding this important decision was passed by the Nor- mans in prayer, and by the English in riot. On the morning, William made a speech to his soldiers, in which he did not fail to urge the Pope's anathema against Harold, and the consecrated banner he had himself received. Harold led on his army on foot, William fought on horseback ; the Norman forces were mostly cavalry, while the English forces were nearly all infantry. The Normans, in this battle, used both the long bow and the cross bow ; which missive weapons did, at a distance, great execution. The English had neither ; but as soon as they came to close fight, with their bills they hewed down their adversaries with great slaughter. The victory remained undecided from nine in the morning till the close of the day. William, perceiving that the English remain- What crowned heads declared in William's favour ? — What happened as Willianc landed? — What weakened Harold's powers of resistance ? — What was Gurth' judicious advice ? — What did WiUiarn ofier ? — Was it accepted ? 28 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ed impenetrable, ordered his troops to make a hasty retreat ; and the English pursuing with an irregular impetuosity, which threw them into disorder, the Normans faced about, and repulsed them with great slaugh- ter. King Harold and his two brothers perished in the action. William had three horses killed under him, and obtained not the victory but with the loss of fifteen thousand of his men. This event put a period to the dominion of the Anglo-Saxons, which had continued for more than six hundred years. CHAPTER II.— THE NORMANS. SECTION 1. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. A. D. 1066. Though the English had lost much of their independent spirit, in con- sequence of their submitting to the Danes, and though the prosperous reign of Canute had familiarized them to the dominion of strangers, they, notwithstanding, made some efforts in favour of Edgar Atheling, the only remaining prince of the Saxon line. The Archbishop of Can- terbury declared him king, and endeavoured to excite the people in his favour; but the activity of William increased the consternation which his victory had occasioned. He made himself master of Dover ; and immediately advanced to London, which was full of confusion. The more dignified ecclesiastics, who were Frenchmen or Normans, began to declare in favour of an enterprise consecrated by papal authority. The primate at length, the nobility, and even Edgar himself, went out to his camp, requesting him to accept the crown. The coronation was performed in Westminster Abbey, by the Arch- bishop of York; and William took the oaths usual in the times of the Saxon and Danish kings ; namely, to protect the church, to observe the laws of the realm, and to govern with impartiality. The first acts of his government were wise and politic, calculated to engage the affec- tions of the conquered, and to prevent the dangers incident to sudden revolutions. The ecclesiastics who had favoured his cause he did not neglect to reward ; his own army, in particular, he softened by affability and presents. He confirmed to London and other places the privileges they enjoyed. Edgar and the chief nobility he affected to treat with kindness, and the people flattered themselves with the prospect of peace, and a wise and equal administration. William, however, was more attentive to his own interest than to the happiness of his new subjects. He distributed estates among his officers ; he erected fortresses to keep the kingdom in subjection, and made use of the sword to uphold his power. Having provided for the security of Describe the battle fought between Harold and William. — What was done in behalf of Edgar Atheling ? — What prevented his success ? — What methods did William take to establish himself? — What were the first acts of his government? — How did he keep the English in a state of subjection ? WILLIAM THE CONQUEKOR. 29 nis conquests, he resolved to revisit Normandy. The English nobility who accompanied him displayed a magnificence which did him honour, and struck foreigners with astonishment. But the absence of William produced in England the most violent agitations. It was impossible to restrain the insolence of the Normans, who, proud from the victory they had gained, greedy of plunder, and despising a people who could be so easily subdued, were induced to com- mit the greatest disorders. The spirit of the English was exasperated, and mutual jealousies and animosities between them and the Normans rose to the greatest height The inhabitants in several counties had recourse to arms, and appeared in open rebellion. The English had entered into a conspiracy to cut off the Normans; and Ash- Wednesday, during divine service, was fixed upon for the mas- sacre, when all the Normans would be unarmed, as penitents, according to the custom of the Romish Church ; but William's return disconcerted their schemes, and from that time forward he began to lose all confidence in his English subjects, and to treat them as a conquered nation. He established the tax on Dane-gelt^ which had been abolished by Edward the Confessor, and exercised the most severe and arbitrary measures. So mercilessly did he treat the people whom he had con- quered, that on the Northumbrians having revolted in 1070, he laid waste their fine fertile lands for the extent of sixty miles. Flourishing towns, fine villages, and noble seats, were burned down, the implements of husbandry destroyed, and their cattle driven away. The most ancient and opulent families in the state were reduced to indigence. He adopt- ed the institutions of the feudal policy, already established in France. He therefore portioned the kingdom into baronies which he bestowed on his partisans ; into which rank no Englishman was admitted. Stigand, Archbishop of Canterbury, who had given offence to the king, was deposed, sent to prison, and his estates were confiscated ; and all the English prelates, except one, were at the same time removed from their preferments. After robbing the English of their wealth, he attempted to abolish their language. He ordered French to be the language in all the schools ; and to be employed in all acts, contracts, deeds, and courts of jus- tice. Hence arose the peculiar mixed character of the English language. No station, however elevated, is secure against misfortune ; and Wil- liam found in his own family a source of inquietude. He had three sons, Robert, William, and Henry, besides several daughters ; and he had settled the succession of Normandy on Robert, his eldest son, who, impatient of all restraint, demanded immediate possession of his herit- age, and on his father's refusal, Robert withdrew to Normandy, and broke out into open rebellion. After several years of animosity had passed, the king transported an English army into Normandy, to bring his son back to his allegiance. The interposition of the queen, and the submis- sion of Robert, produced, at length, a reconciliation. What was the behaviour of the Normans in William's absence ? — Relate the conspiracy of the EngUsh to cut them off. — To what severe and arbitrary measures did William resort? — What attempts were made to abolish the English language? — What son rebelled against his father ? 3* 30 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. In one of the battles between the forces of William and his son Rob- ert, the latter happened to engage the king, whose face was concealea by his helmet, and both of them being valiant, a fierce combat ensued, till the young prince wounded his father in the arm, and unhorsed him. On his calling out for assistance, his voice discovered him to his son, who, struck with remorse, threw himself at his father's feet, and craved pardon for his offence ; but William, who was highly exasperated, gave him his malediction. He was however, afterwards, reconciled to him, and on his return to England, Robert was successfully employed in retaliating an invasion of Malcolm, king of Scotland. An event of more importance happened soon after, and served to shorten the days of William. In consequence of an insurrection in Normandy, and the incursions of the French barons, William had gone over to the continent. A misunderstanding also had broken out between him and Philip I. of France, and his displeasure was increased by the account he received of some railleries which that monarch had thrown out against him. William, who had become corpulent, had been detain- ed in bed sometime by sickness ; upon which Philip was heard to utter a coarse sarcasm on William's corpulence. This so provoked the Eng- lish monarch, that he sent him word, he would soon be up, and would celebrate his recovery at Notre Dame, with ten thousand lances instead of lights. In fulfilment of his promise, he marched into France, and laid every thing waste by fire and sword. The town of Mante he reduced to ashes ; but there his progress was arrested by an accident which put a period to his life. His horse, happening to place his foot on some hot ashes, plunged violently ; the rider was thrown forward and bruised on the pommel of the saddle, to such a degree, that he suffered a relapse, of which he died shortly after, near Rouen, in the sixty-third year of his age. A.D. 1087. In this reign Justices of the Peace were first appointed in England, and the Curfew (or cover-fire bell) was established, at eight o'clock in the evening, by which he obliged all the inhabitants of the kingdom to extinguish their fires, and to put out their lights. A general register of all the lands, &c., called Doomsday Book, was also made, and the Tow- er of London in part erected in this reign. SECTION 2. WILLIAM RUFUS. A. D. 1087. William II. was surnamed Rufus from the colour of his hair. His claim to the succession was founded on a letter which the late king wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury. William hastened to secure a ^ throne which ought to have descended to Robert, his eldest brother. He made himself master of his father's treasure, and of the most import- ant fortresses ; and obtained the sanction of the archbishop, who brought What happened in one of the engagements between the forces of the king and his son ?— Who passed a jest on William, and what was his reply ? —What was the fatal result of the monarch's jest ? — What new laws were passed in this reign ? - Who succeeded him ? ( 3X ) WILLIAM RUFUS. 33 about his coronation. But many of the barons, who possessed estates in both kingdoms, beheld with regret the disjunction of England and Nor- mandy ; and to William they were averse, on account of his violent and tyrannical spirit. A powerful confederacy was therefore formed against him, and the bishop of Bayeux put himself at the head. Wil- liam, when informed of this confederacy, endeavoured to gain the affec- tions of the native English ; he raised troops, marched suddenly against the rebels ; and having dispersed and vanquished them, he confiscated their estates. Robert, whom the Norman barons would have placed upon the throne of England, was destitute of policy and firmness. His administration was loose and negligent, and Normandy was torn with the violence of civil wars. An accommodation however was negotiated between the two brothers ; in which it was stipulated, that on the demise of either without issue, the survivor should inherit all his dominions. Although Duke Robert had ceded some towns to William, he could neither regard William as a friend, nor as a faithful ally. The British monarch made a second invasion of Robert's dominions: in order to exact money, he ordered an army of twenty thousand men to be levied in England. From these troops, when about to embark, he demanded 10*. a head, in lieu of their services, and then dismissed them. This money he so employed that it rendered him better service than he could have expected from the army. But the incursions of the Welsh caused him to return to England sooner than he expected. He repulsed these invaders, who retreated, as usual, to their mountains. While all Europe was disturbed with the disorders of the feudal gov- ernment, vassals making war against their sovereigns, and sovereigns against their vassals, the madness of the Crusades, a. d. 1097, spread everywhere, with amazing rapidity. Peter the Hermit, who had made a visit to the Hc-ly Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and beheld the cruel manner in which the Christians were treated by the infidels, proposed to Urban II., the then pope, a project of leading armies into Asia, and conquering the Holy Land. A council was summoned at Placencia, and another at Clermont ; and on hearing the exhortations of the pope and the hermit, the whole assembly cried out, "/f is the will of GodT and each cham- pion devoted himself to the holy war by affixing a cross to his right shoulder. The kingdom of heaven was promised to all who fell in the war against the infidels; the acquisition of earthly kingdoms in Asia, of whose wealth and fertility they had heard so much, was to crown suc- cess ; and all sins were forgiven to the crossed. Among their chief leaders were Robert, Duke of Normandy ; Hugh, brother to the King of France ; Raymond, Count of Toulouse ; Godfrey of Bouillon, &c. ; and an immense number of all ranks and ages crowded to the sacred stand- ard. Three hundred thousand, under the guidance of Peter the Hermit, Did not William find his claim difficult to establish ?— What was Robert's general character ? — What transactions occurred between the brothers ? — By whom was the crusade preached over Europe ?— What were the rewards offered to the adven \urers ? 34 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Walter the Moneyless, and others, straggled on before. The great army followed, ready to precipitate themselves upon Asia. Robert, in order to raise a supply of money to appear in a manner suitable to his rank at the head of his vassals, offered to mortgage his dukedom in Normandy to his brother Rufus, for ten thousand marks. This sum William raised by contribution on his subjects. Not long after, the Earl of Poictiers and Duke of Guyenne, inflamed with the glory of the enterprise, and wanting money to forward his preparations, had recourse to Rufus, and offered to mortgage all his dominions. The king accepted the offer, and was preparing for his departure, in order to take possession of the provinces. But taking the diversion of the chase in the New Forest, he was shot by an arrow that Sir Walter Tyrrel discharged at a deer, which, glancing from a tree,* struck the king to the heart. William was in the fortieth year of his age, and had reigned thirteen. The monuments which remain of him are the ramparts which surround the Tower of London, Westminster Hall, and London Bridge. His character has been transmitted to posterity, in most odious colours, by the clergy, who were his enemies ; but though their representations are exaggerated, there is undoubted evidence of his licentiousness, his per- fidy, his rapaciousness, and his tyranny. SECTION 3. HENRY I. A.D. 1100. As William Rufus had never been married, the crown of England belonged of right to Duke Robert, in consequence of the treaty he had concluded with the late king. Robert had acquired great reputation in the East, and on his return had espoused a princess of Italy, and was enjoying in that delicious climate the sweets of repose, when the crown of England became vacant. Prince Henry, his younger brother, was hunting with Rufus in the New Forest, when that prince was killed. He immediately hastened to London, secured the royal treasure, gained over to him the nobility and the bishops, and was advanced to the royal dignity. His first care was to colour his usurpation with the appearance of justice. He passed a charter by which he restrained himself from seizing the revenues of abbeys and bishoprics ; and became bound to admit the heirs of barons to the possession of their estates without the usual exorbitant exactions. But Henry, notwithstanding, kept the see of Durham vacant five years, and retained possession of its revenues. Henry drew to him the affections of the English by espousing Matilda, the daughter of the King of Scotland, and the mother of Edgar Atheling. The English were extremely attached to this princess, who was descend- * This tree is still standing, though in the last stage of decay. Who mortgaged their dominions to raise money ? — Where was the king shot, and by whom? — What is the character of William Rufus? — Who had a right to the crown ? — And who succeeded ? — What were Henry's first conciliatory measures ? — Whom did Henry espouse ? HENRY 1. 35 ed from their ancient kings. She had worn the veil, though she had not taken upon her the vows. It had been questioned whether it was law- ful for her to marry, but a convocation of the clergy pronounced a deci- sion conformable to the desires of the king and the people. Duke Robert, supported by several Anglo-Norman barons, soon arrived in England to recover the crown of which he had been unjustly deprived ; and the armies of the two brothers were on the point of coming to an engagement, when an accommodation was entered into between the two princes. Robert was to receive annually a pension of three thousand marks. No treaty could have been more advantageous to Henry. They mutually agreed to grant pardon to their adherents, and to assist each other against their enemies. But Henry was the first to violate these engagements, in confiscating the rich possessions of the barons ; and Robert had the imprudence to come to England to remonstrate against this severity. Perceiving his danger, he purchased his escape by resign- ing his pension. This prince was candid and brave, but incapable of governing his dominions. Abandoned alternately to devotion and to dissolute pleasures, he neglected his affairs : his servants pillaged him with impunity.. Nor- mandy, notwithstanding his mild disposition, became a scene of outrage and depredation ; and his example furnishes a proof, that a prince with good-nature and affability, but wanting wisdom and discernment, is inca- pable of acting for the happiness of his people. The discontented Nor- mans applied to the King of England to use his authority for the sup- pression of these disorders. He passed the sea, and in a great battle took the Duke of Normandy prisoner, made himself master of the whole duchy, and returned triumphant to England. Robert was detained in prison till his death. Henry's usurpation of Normandy involved him in frequent wars. William, the son of Duke Robert, a prince of great hope, had excited the compassion of many princes, who resolved to reinstate him in his dominions, in which even Louis the Gross, King of France, united. But Henry gained a manifest superiority over them. But a domestic calamity, about this time, threw a cloud over Henry's prosperity. His only son, William, who had been recognized as his suc- cessor to the English throne, he had carried over to Normandy, to receive the homage of the States. On his return to England, the vessel in which Henry had embarked was soon carried, by a fair wind, out of sight of land. The prince was detained by some accident, and the sail- ors, having spent the interval in drinking, were unable to manage the vessel, and she foundered upon a rock. The prince, in this extremity, had recourse to the long boat, and had got clear of the ship, when, hear- ing the cries of the Countess of Perche, his natural sister, he ordered the seamen to row back and take her in. Numbers crowded into the boat, and the whole went down. A hundred and forty young noblemen of the principal families in England and Normandy, perished on this occasion. The king was inconsolable for the loss of his son ; and being What accommodation did duke Robert and Henry enter into ? — What character is given of duke Robert ? — What was the result of Henry's usurpation ? — What domestic calamity clouded Henry's days ? 36 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. at this time a widower, and having no legitimate male issue, he was induced to marry, in the hope of having a successor. But Adelais, hit second queen, brought him no children. His legal heir was his daughte" Matilda, the widow of the emperor Henry V,, who afterwards was mar ried to Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, by whom she had several children. The last years of Henry's reign were distinguished by a profound tranquillity. In preparing to return from Normandy, whither he had gone to visit his daughter Matilda, he was seized with a violent illness ; and finding it necessary to make his will, he named Matilda heiress to all his dominions. England lost this brave and able monarch in the sixty-seventh year of his age, and after a reign of thirty-four years, a. d. 1135. If his con- duct towards his brother and his nephew throws a stain upon his memory, he might be said in some degree to have atoned for it by the vigour and wisdom of his administration. Henry was fond of literature ; on this account he acquired the name of Beau Clerc, or the Scholar. During his reign, London obtained a charter which is considered as the founda- tion of its privileges. SECTION 4. STEPHEN. A.D. 1135. The succession of Henry ought legally to have devolved to Matilda, but Stephen, son of Adela, the king's sister, and the Count of Blois, was ambitious to secure to himself the possession. He hastened to England, from Normandy, and was elected king by the lower orders of the peo- ple. His brother, the Bishop of Winchester, exerted all his influence with the primate, that he should be crowned. The primate, who, as well as the bishops, had sworn fealty to Matilda, refused to perform this ceremony, till Hugh Bigod, steward of the household, made oath that the late king, on his death-bed, had expressec? his intention of leaving Stephen his dominions. To secure his tottering throne, Stephen passed a charter — permitting the nobility to hunt in their forests, — and conceding to the people, that the tax of Danegelt should be remitted, and the laws of Edward restored. These acts were but the artifices of his ambition. He seized the royal treasure at Winchester, amounting to a hundred thousand pounds ; and part of it he employed in gaining partisans, hiring merce- nary troops, extending his power, and having his title ratified by the pope. Matilda, however, did not long delay to assert her claim to the crown. She landed upon the coast of Sussex, assisted by Robert, Earl of Glouces- ter, natural son to the late king, and took possession of Arundel cas- tle ; and her partisans grew every day more numerous. After much destructive hostility and many fruitless negotiations, the army of Ste- Whom did Henry appoint as his heir? — What was his age? — How long did he reign? — From whom was Stephen descended ? — What did he, to secure his totter mg throne ? — Who asserted her claim ? STEPHEN. HENRY II. 37 phen was defeated by Gloucester, and Stephen himself taken prisoner Matilda was crowned at Winchester. The imperious spirit of the queen soon disgusted her turbulent sub- jects. The Londoners entered into conspiracy to seize her person, — she fled to Winchester, where she was besieged and reduced to great extremities. She, however, found means to escape, bat the Earl of Gloucester fell into the hands of the enemy. He was exchanged for Stephen, who had continued a captive. The death of this brave noble- man, which happened soon after, gave a mortal wound to the interests of his party ; and Stephen was again placed on the throne. But not- withstanding the war in which he was engaged, he had the imprudence to involve himself in a quarrel with the pope, and the pontiff took re- venge by laying his party under an interdict. By this sentence, which was now first known in England, divine service was prohibited, and all the functions of religion ceased. To remove these restraints, it was necessary to make concessions to the pope. But an enemy, the most formidable, perhaps, of all those with whom Stephen had yet engaged, soon entered the lists against him. This was Prince Henry, the eldest son of Matilda, who had reached his sixteenth year, and was destined to become one of the most illustrious princes of Europe. For his early feats of chivalry he had received the honours of knighthood. His conduct gave the most flattering presages of his future merit ; and Henry, informed of the dispositions of the people in his favour, made an invasion on England, and a decisive battle was every day expected. To prevent the prospect of farther bloodshed, the great men on both sides interposed between the rival princes. It was stipulated between them that Stephen should possess the crown during his life, and that Henry should succeed him. This afforded joy to the whole nation. Stephen's reign was short ; he died the year after the treaty. CHAPTER III.— PLANTAGENET RACE. SECTION 1. HENRY II, A.D. 1155. The house of Plantagenet, when established on the throne, became a power formidable to the other states of Europe, both on account of its extent of territory, and the superior abilities of Henry. He possessed above a third of the whole French monarchy. The first acts of his reign justified the idea that had been conceived of him. The merce- nary soldiers of Stephen were dismissed, the laws were armed with And with what success ? — In what difficulties was the queen involved ? — Upon whose party did the pope lay an interdict ? — Who was Stephen's rival ? — And how w^as the contest decided? — What acts gave a presage of Henry's wisdom? 4 38 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. authority, the fortresses were demolished, and the discontented barons reduced to obedience. The expeditions which Henry took against the inhabitants of Wales, made his power known. Of the fortress of Gisors, he possessed him- self by a stratagem ; and the King of France so resented the act, that had it not been for the mediation of Pope Alexander III., a war would have ensued. This pontiff (who a year before had been chased from Rome by the Anti-Pope, Victor IV.) had retired to France ; and it is remarkable that the two kings, meeting him at the castle of Torci, on the Loire, they dismounted to receive him ; and each of them holding one of the reins of his bridle, walked on foot by his side ; and conducted him in this manner into the castle. This circumstance may give us some idea of the authority possessed by the Roman pontiff during those ages. But Henry began to think of confining the ecclesiastical jurisdiction within proper bounds, and of repressing the licentiousness of the clergy, who had arrogated to themselves privileges which were totally subver- sive of the peace of society. In executing this design, he thouglit he could command the assistance of his chancellor, but was thwarted by a pertinacious opposition on his part. Thomas a Becket was of English pedigree. He was endowed with singular capacity ; he had studied the civil and canon law at Bologna. Henry conferred upon him distinctions and honours , and while chancel- lor, Becket distinguished himself not more by his talents than by the extraordinary splendour and gaiety with which he lived. Henry, full of confidence in a minister apparently so devoted, promoted him to be- Arch- bishop of Canterbury, not doubting that, as primate of the kingdom, he would as effectually support his measures as he had done while chan- cellor. From this moment Becket totally altered his conduct. He retired from the court, resigned his commission of chancellor, and renounced all secular concerns. By the austerities and mortifications to which he submitted, and by a lavish generosity to the poor and the monasteries, he drew to him the veneration of the people. He was now a saint, and not a minister; and set up for being a defender of the privileges of the clergy. It was not long before he thought to overawe the king by the boldness of his measures. He summoned the Earl of Clare to surren- der to him certain lands which had formerly belonged to the see of Can terbury ; he disposed of a living without regard to the rights of a patron , a murder, also, which a clergyman had committed, Becket refused to have tried or punished by the civil magistrate, insisting on the immuni- ties of the church. To determine these matters, the king summoned a general council of the nobility and clergy, at Clarendon, by whose concurrence might be ascertained the proper limits of the civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions. And it was there enacted, that ecclesiastics accused of any crime should Relate the interview of the two kings with the pope. — What attempts did Henry make to restrain the influence of the clergy ? — What was the character of Becket, while chancellor ?— What when raised to the archbishopric of Canterbury ? HENRY II. 39 oe tried in the civil courts ; that no appeals from sentences pronounced m England should be made to the pope ; that all matters regarding the revenues of the church should be decided by the king's judges, &c. These enactments got the name, from the place where they were formed, of the Constitutions of Clarendon. These, with others, to the number of sixteen, were subscribed to by all the bishops present ; and Becket himself, after a vigorous resistance, set his seal to the number. But Pope Alexander III., to whom they were sent, condemned and annulled them, as incompatible with the rights of the church. After the abrogation of the pope, Becket expressed the deepest sor- row for having given the laws his sanction. This inflamed the haughty and violent disposition of Henry 11. to an unjustifiable extremity. He ordered Becket to be tried on a frivolous pretence, and then confiscated his wealth. The archbishop, pushed to extremity, exerted the vigour of an inflexible mind. He presented himself at court, with the cross in his hands and arrayed in his sacred vestments, in order to intimidate the king ; and he appealed to the supreme pontiff against the sentence pronounced against him. He soon after found means to leave the king- dom. Unfortunately, the obstinacy of Becket was equal to the stateliness of Henry. A compromise was at last suggested, which the king hoped would secure a lasting peace; but he deceived himself; for Becket had scarcely set foot in England, when he issued new censures against the Archbishop of York, who had crowned Henry's son in his absence ; and he excommunicated the Bishops of London and Salisbury, besides com- mitting other acts equally arbitrary. The king was informed of these violent measures, at Bayeux, in Normandy. " What ! " cried he, " will no one rid me of this ungrate- ful and imperious prelate V This passionate exclamation was a suffi cient hint for his courtiers. Four gentlemen secretly withdrew from court, and proceeded to Canterbury. During the time of vespers, as soon as the primate reached the altar, they fell on him. Becket thus became a victim to his intrepid and inflexible spirit, in a cause in which he was guided by the most destructive prejudices. On receiving the news of this catastrophe, the king was seized with despair, and refused all nourishment for three days. He despatched eight persons to Rome, to clear him of all suspicion of concern in it, and to avert from him the thunders of the Vatican. The assassinated archbishop passed for a saint and a martyr ; pilgrimages were under- taken to his tomb from all parts, and miracles were supposed to be per- formed by his relics. In this critical juncture of affairs, Henry undertook an expedition to Ireland, the conquest of which had long excited his ambition. How- ever true may be the accounts which boast of the learning, the arts, the piety, and polished manners of Ireland in earlier times, there were but few traces left at the period we are now speaking of. They appeared What enactments were termed the Constitutions of Clarendon ? — How did Becket appear at court ? — What censures did he utter ? — What was the fatal result — What effect had Becket's death on the king and the people ? 40 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. destitute of laws, of manners, and of arts. They were even unac- quainted with agriculture, and were divided into small principalities, which exercised perpetual violence and hostility against each other. SECTION 2. Adrian III., an Englishman by birth, was at this time pontiff; and he, (according to the system of the papacy, which aspired to the confer- ring of empires,) as early as the year 1156 had made a grant of Ireland to Henry ; and an occasion for asserting it now presented itself. One of the chiefs of Ireland, being expelled from his dominions by a neigh- bouring prince, whose wife he had carried off) implored the protection of the English monarch. Henry empowered the chief to levy troops in England for the recovery of his principality. Several adventurers en- gaged to give him assistance, and with a small body of soldiers he was enabled to overthrow the numerous forces of the native Irish. Henry himself went in person to attack Ireland, but he had little more to do than to receive the submissions of a vanquished people ; and the country has ever since been united to England. But the conquest was of little use till the reign of James I., to whom the Irish were in- debted for the security and advantages of order and laws. Meanwhile, Pope Alexander III. had sent two legates into Normandy, >o examine into the king's conduct with regard to the death of Becket; «.Md historians ascribe great dexterity to Henry, in extricating himself 'o easily from so difficult a situation. Henry is said to have been of a very amorous disposition ; and his- torians mention two of his natural sons, by Rosamond, the fair daughter 5)f Lord Clifford — namely, Richard, called Longsword, who married the heiress of Salisbury ; and Geoffrey, first bishop of Lincoln, and afterward Archbishop of York. The other circumstances told of that lady seem to be fabulous, though adopted by many historical writers — namely, of her concealment in a labyrinth in Woodstock Park, and of the queen being guided to her retreat by a clue of silk, holding a dag- ger to her breast, and obliging her to swallow poison. Of one thing we are sure, that the personal charms of Fair Rosamond, as the most beau- tiful woman in England, were celebrated in the ballads and romances of the time. This monarch seemed to have reached the pinnacle of human gran- deur, to be thrown from it into the abyss of misfortunes. He had proved superior to his enemies; he was happy in his political government ; and in his domestic situation he was surrounded with children from whom e expected satisfaction and comfort. But his family proved to him a source of severe inquietude. His eldest son, Henry, on the very day ot his consecration, discovered the arrogance of his temper. The king, in order to give the greater dignity to the ceremony, submitted to officiate What circumstances opened Henry's prospects of conquering Ireland ? — Did he not go thither to receive their submission ? — What is related of Henry and Fair Rosamond ?— What inquietude did Henry experience from his family ? HENRY ir. 41 at table, as one of the retinue ; and observed to his son, tliat never mon- arch was more royally served. " It is nothing astonishing," said the young prince, to one of his courtiers, " that the son of a count should serve the son of a king." The young prince soon after going over to Normandy, Louis, the King of France, persuaded him that in consequence of the ceremony, he was entitled to an immediate possession of part of the kingdoms of his father. The queen favoured his pretensions, and persuaded his bro- thers, Geoffrey and Richard, to assert their titles to the territories assign- ed them. Not only the King of France, but many of his barons, and William, King of Scotland, openly declared their intentions to support the cause of young Henry ; but the English monarch, by his expeditions on the continent, weakened the hopes of those combined against him ; and conferences were held to terminate differences and to establish peace. The invasion of the Scots, in 1174, occasioned fresh alarms, and Henry hastened from Normandy, and sent his generals to oppose them. Know- ing the influence of superstition over the minds of the people, and in .order to gain their affections, (for to no other motive can we ascribe his condescension,) he submitted to an act of humiliation, which all the power and authority of the church could not impose upon him. He set out for Canterbury, advanced barefoot towards the church, prostrated himself before the tomb of Becket, remained in prayer during a whole day, watched all night the holy relics, and in the morning, assembling a chapter of the monks, he disrobed himself, and presented his shoulders to their discipline. Next day he received absolution. True devotion is more decent, and less ostentatious. He soon after received intelligence of a victory over the Sc(jts. This success was attributed to the protec- tion of the saint ; and this opinion spreading through the kingdom, con- tributed to soften the spirit of discontent. Henry now passed over into Normandy ; the revolting barons made submission : his three reb^lious sons submitted to him, and tranquillity was restored to his government. Young Henry, however, at length began to renew his pretensions and revolts; but while preparing for hostilities, he fell ill of a fever at Martel, and being seized with remorse, he sent a messenger to his father, entreating the favour of a visit, that he might die with the satisfaction of having received his forgiveness. The father, suspecting deceit, re- fused to entrust himself to his son. But soon after, receiving intelligence of his death, he was affected with the deepest sorrow ; he thrice fainted away, and was inconsolable for having refused his dying request. Young Henry leaving no issue, Richard became heir to the throne, and he soon discovered the same solicitude for dominion that had misled his brother ; and the king of England was obliged to defend his conti- nental dominions by arms. At last, however, a treaty was concluded, in which he was obliged to submit to many mortifying concessions ; and when he demanded a list of those barons to whom he was to grant a pardon, he found his favourite son John among the number. Who favoured young Henry's pretensions ? — To what act of humiUation did Henry submit ? — Mention Young Henry's compunction before his death. — Did no* Richard and John rebel against their father ? 4* 42 HISTOEY OF ENGLAND. These afflictions were too powerful for him to bear ; he cursed the day of his birth, and his undutiful children. The agitation of his spirits threw him into a slow fever, of which he expired, after a reign of thir- ty-four years, and in the fifty-eighth year of his age. a. d. 1189. This prince possessed great virtues, not without the alloy of some vices. He was ambitious, passionate, and vindictive ; but brave, gene- rous, and politic. He holds the first rank among the kings of England. So high an opinion was entertained of his wisdom and justice, that the kings of Castile and Navarre submitted their differences to his decision ; and the sentence he pronounced was respected by both parties. He is said to have been the author of the establishment of the circuit courts. SECTION 3. RICHARD I. A.D. 1189. When Richard came to view the dead body of his father, he was struck with remorse for his undutiful behaviour ; and the compunction he felt had an influence in directing his future conduct. Those who had countenanced his rebellion were discarded from his friendship; while he gave his confidence to those ministers who had distinguished themselves by their zeal and fidelity to Henry. Richard, impelled with military glory, was impatient to signalize his courage in. Palestine. He was more a soldier than a devotee; of this we may judge from his reply to Fulk, a zealous preacher of the crusade. This missionary advised him, one day, to rid himself of his vices, par- ticularly his pride, avarice, and voluptuousness, which he called the king's three favourite daughters. " You counsel well," said Richard, " 1 give my pride to the templars, — my avarice I bestow upon the monks, — and ij^y voluptuousness I resign to my prelates." To gratify his passion for the crusade, he sacrificed the interests of his crown and of his people. He exacted rigorous imposts, borrowed immense sums, put to sale the manors of the crown, and said that he would sell London itself if he could find a purchaser. In fine, he sold to the king of Scotland, for ten thousand marks, his right of supe- riority over that kingdom ; and then set out for the Holy Land, whither he was impelled by repeated messages from the kmg of France, who waited for him at Vezelay on the borders of Burgundy. Here they re- newed their promises of friendship and of mutual fidelity during their crusade. As they conducted their forces to the Holy Land by sea, dis-' tress of weather obliged them to put into Sicily. On their arrival at Palestine, the emulation between these rival princes produced extraor- dinary deeds of valour; for the particulars of which the reader is referred to the History of the Turks. Philip, from the bad state of his health, returned to France, leaving Richard ten thousand of his troops, and he being left conducter of the war, augmented his reputation by singular What is the character usually given of Henry II. ? — What effect had his father's death upon Richard ? — What reply did he make to Fiilk's advice? — What sacrifices did he make to gratify his desire to join the crusade? ( 43 ) RICHARD 1. 45 acts of personal prowess. He even gained a great victory over Saladin, with whom a truce of three years was concluded. The expedition being terminated, the king of England, in returning home, was shipwrecked at Aquilia, and taking the route of Germany, in the disguise of a pilgrim, he was arrested by the Duke of Austria, who sent him loaded with shackles to the emperor, Henry VI. Richard in this situation, suffered every indignity. He was;a.ccused before the diet of the empire of several crimes. The pope, at length, began to declare loudly in his favour, and the emperor entered into negotiations with him for his ransom, and for which he demanded no less a sum than 150,000 marks ; of which 100,000 were to be paid before he was released from prison. The English, with great promptitude, levied the sum requisite to procure his liberty. Richard made his entry into London in triumph ; and was soon after crowned anew at Winchester. During Richard's absence, his brother John proved himself a most unnatural brother and a perfidious subject. He stipulated to deliver into Philip's hands a great part of Normandy, and received in return the investiture of all Richard's transmarine possessions. Richard, on his return, convoked a general council, at which he confiscated all his brother John's possessions. However, by the intercession of Queen Eleanor, he pardoned him soon after. " I forgive him," said Richard, " and I hope to forget his injuries as easily as he will my clemency," Richard's death was occasioned by the following incident. To recov- er a treasure that had been found, and that was retained by his vassal, Vidomar, Viscount of Limoges, he laid siege to the castle of Chains. The garrison offered to surrender, but he replied, that since he had ta- ken the trouble to come in person, he would enter by force and hang them upon its walls. The same day he received a wound from an arrow ; he gave orders, notwithstanding, for the assault, took the castle, and hanged all the garrison, except Jourdan, the person who had wounded him, for whom was reserved a more cruel death. The wound became mortal, and Jourdan was called before him. " Wretch," said the monarch, " what have I done to you, that you have sought my life ]" The archer replied, " You killed with your own hands my father and my two brothers, and you intended to hang me ; I am now in your power, I shall willingly submit to all the tortures you can inflict, since I have rid the world of a tyrant." Richard pardoned him, and ordered him to be set at liberty, but Marcade, the general, caused him to be flayed alive, and then hanged. This prince left no legitimate issue, and died in the forty -second year of his age, and the tenth year of his reign, a.d. 1199. He obtained the appellation of Cozur de Lion, or lion-hearted, for his heroic valour; a quality less to be admired than dreaded, when associated with the vices of a tyrant. His reign was a continued series of oppression and misfortunes. In the ninth year of his government he levied five shil- lings on each hide of land in the kingdom. He merits no encomium, What fate awaited his return through Germany? — How did John conduct him- self in his brother's absence ? — What incident was the cause of Richard's death 1 — Relate the reply of the archer that shot him. — Describe his character, and the nature of his government. 46 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. except for having established one weight and measure throughout the kingdom. But this useful institution was of short continuance. Lon- don had no regular police ; robberies and murders were committed in it in open day ; and there were societies of banditti and malefactors, whom no force could control. Richard bequeathed the kingdom, with all its treasure, to his brother John ; except a fourth part, to be distributed among his servants. SECTION IV. JOHN. A.D. 1199. This prince, surnamed Sans Terre, or Lack-land, would have had a powerful competitor to the throne in his nephew, Arthur, duke of Brit- tany, the son of Geoffrey, if the rights of succession had been duly ob- served in that age. But John was of maturer age than his competitor, and Richard had made a testament in his favour. The English readily acknowledged him as their sovereign ; but in the transmarine domin- ions, the pretensions of Arthur were considered as the more just. John called an assembly of his vassals to suppress an insurrection in Poic- tiers and Normandy ; and young Arthur, who was now in his sixteenth year, joined himself to Philip, king of France, and received from him the investiture of Anjou and Maine. Everything was giving way to the French army, when unhappily Arthur fell into the hands of his uncle John. Soon after, accounts were received of his death, and no one doubted that he perished by assassination. Philip was desirous of expelling the English from France, nor could a more favourable opportunity present itself. He carried his victorious arms into Normandy. John affected to express his gaiety on the suc- cess of Philip. " Let him go on," said he, " I shall retake in a day what has cost him years to acquire." But he made not good his boast. The inhabitants of Rouen and other cities capitulated. Thus was Nor- mandy annexed to the crown of France, three centuries after it had been disunited from it by Charles the Simple. John retreated into Eng- land, and was loaded with disgrace and infamy, in an age when valour was esteemed above every other accomplishment. To complete his ruin, he involved himself by his imprudence in a quarrel with the church. In consequence of the death of the arch- bishop of Canterbury, in 120-5, the monks chose a successor to the va- cant dignity; John objected to the choice, and proposed to them the bishop of Norwich, and twelve of their number were dispatched to Rome, to justify this measure to the pope ; who, far from confirming the new election, ordered them to advance Stephen Langton to the see of Canterbury. With, a view to soften the resentment of John on this occasion, the pope sent him a present of four gold rings ; but nothing could appease the rage of John. He expelled all the monks from the cathedral of By what testament did John substantiate his claim? — Was not Normandy lost to England in this reign ? — What involved John in a quarrel with the church? JOHN. 47 Canterbury, and seized upon their revenues. The menaces of Innocent, and the entreaties of the bishops, who conjured him to avert the thun- ders of the Vatican, served only the more to inflame him. He threat- ened that if the pope should put the kingdom under an mterdict, he would put out the eyes, and cut off the noses, of all the Romans m his dominions. The pontifl?", knowing the king's unpopularity with his sub- iects, issued the sentence of interdict. The altars were stripped of their ornaments; the images, the statues, and the relics were laid on the ground; divine service was suppressed; the churches were shut ao-ainst the laity; communion was refused, except to the dying; the dead were not interred in consecrated ground ; melancholy penances were commanded ; and the commerce and intercourse of life were in- terrupted The king opposed it with an ill-timed inflexibility ; all who submitted to the orders of the pope he punished rigorously. An exer- tion of prudent vigour might have dissipated the tempest; but John, listening only to his passions, ran headlong to a precipice. During several years that these quarrels subsisted, he attempted to recover his honour, by engaging in expeditions against Ireland, Scot- land, and Wales ; but there was little glory to be gained against feeble enemies, and his natural propensity to tyranny was increased by the danger to which his government was exposed. Cardinal Langton being still withheld from the see of Canterbury, the pope commanded the English bishops to give the last blow to their monarch, by fulminating against him the sentence of excommunication ; and though a few of them only obeyed, it effected its purpose. The barons entered into cabals against him ; his fury softened into fear ; he demanded an inter- view with Langton, oflfered to acknowledge him as primate, to submit to pope Innocent, and to pay a fine of compensation. An excommunicated prince was, in those days, nearly in the same situation as one that is dethroned. A bull from Rome was now only wanting to deprive John of his crown. The pope made an offer of it to Philip, who collected a great army, and a fleet of seventeen hundred sail, to put in execution the orders of Rome. The excommunication of John had rendered him an object of horror and detestation to his people; and his ruin now had been inevitable, had not the power that oppressed him found it his interest to preserve him. The pope made use of Philip s power to intimidate his refractory son, not to destroy him. The legate, Pandolf, desired an interview with John, at Dover ; and so strongly re- presented to him his lost state, that, he submitted to all the conditions required of him. He consented to reac knowledge Langton as primate, resign his two kingdoms to the holy see, and acknowledge himself the vassal of the pope. This disgraceful treaty was followed by the humi- liating ceremony of homage. The king, unarmed and on his knees, ap- peared before Pandolf, who was seated on a throne, and swore fealty to the pope; and promised to pay the tribute of 100,000 marks, or, as some say, of a thousand marks yearly. Thus, by this most disgraceful con- cession, he received his crown, and averted the threatened blow. Relate the result of the pope's interdict.— What effect had the pope's excomma nication on John ?— By what concessions did John retain his crown ? 48 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Pandolf, on returning to the court of France, found it no easy matter to appease Philip, who had reckoned upon the conquest of England. The legate represented to him that, by John's submission, England had become a fief to the church ; and, consequently, that no enterprise could be taken against it without being guilty of impiety, and subject to ex- communication. Philip declared he would not submit to be the dupe of such perfidy. He assembled his vassals, and roused them to revenge. His attempts, however, were soon frustrated ; the earl of Salisbury, John's natural brother, came by surprise on the French fleet, and took and destroyed the greater part. But new storms were gathering in his dominions. The charter passed by Henry I., and confirmed by Stephen, had flattered the people, but had long remained unexecuted. The barons, under the influence of the primate, Langton, insisted on the re- newal and observance of it. When they read over the articles, John burst into a furious passion, and asked, " Why they did not also demand from him his crown 1" He swore he would not grant it to them. The malcontent barons then entered into a confederacy, and chose Robert Fitz waiter for their general, under the title of " The Marischal of the army of Godj and of the holy church." They issued a proclamation, requiring the other nobles to join them, and advanced towards London, which they entered without opposition. Abandoned by his subjects, John found himself constrained to submit at discretion. A conference was accordingly appointed. The ground where this most important treaty took place, was at Runnimede, be- tween Staines and Windsor ; where John was compelled to sign the famous bulwark of English liberty, the magna charta. This deed either granted or secured freedom and numerous privileges to the higher orders ; but as for the lower classes, they had very little participation of legal protection. The better to insure the execution of this charter, the barons elected twenty-five of their own number, who, under the title of conservatives, were invested with great authority. Provided his person was in safety, John could bear the most humiliating indigni- ties; but he secretly waited for an opportunity to violate all his en- gagements. He retired to the Isle of Wight, where he meditated the most fatal vengeance against his enemies. The pope, too, issued a bull, condemning and annulling the charter, as derogatory to the dignity of the apostolic see. The king now venturing to take off" the mask, re- voked all the liberties he had granted, and carried fire and devastation from one end of the kingdom to the other. The barons, in the urgency of despair, had recourse to France for assistance. Thus England saw nothing but the prospect of being either way undone; when John's unexpected death dissipated the threatened storm. Passing from Lynn to Lincolnshire, the king's road lay along the sea shore, which was overflowed at high water ; and not being ap- prised of this, or being ignorant of the tide of the place, he lost, by the influx, all his treasure and baggage, and escaped with difficulty with his troops. His grief for the loss he sustained, threw him into a fever. How did Pandolf appease Philip of France ? — Where was John compelled to sign the Magna Charta ? — What circumstance was the occasion of his death 1 HENRY III. 49 which soon appeared to be fatal. He died in the fifty-first year of his age, and the eighteenth of his reign, a. d. 1216. There is scarcely any species of infamy, or of crime, with which the memory of this prince has not been loaded. SECTION 5. HENRY III. A.D. 1216 Henry was but eight years old when he came to the throne. The earl of Pembroke, a nobleman of great fidelity, prudence, and courage, supported the interest of the young prince, and ordered him to be crowned at Gloucester, in presence of the legate ; and there he swore fealty to the pope. A general council of the barons nominated Pembroke pro- tector of the kingdom ; a charter of liberties was granted, differing in some particulars from that of John, and more adapted to the present views of the people. For the barons perceived that no exactions, un- less they were evidently reasonable, could be levied on men determined to repel any act of oppression. The earl of Pembroke had produced a general pacification by the wisdom of his conduct, but he survived it only a short time. He was succeeded in the government by Hubert de Burgh and the bishop of Winchester. The councils of the former were at first chiefly followed, and they were every way worthy of the trust reposed in him, had he possessed equal authority with Pembroke ; but he was unable to repress the licentiousness of the barons. The character of Henry, unfolding with his years, gave the expecta- tion of a feeble and disturbed administration. He was naturally of a mild disposition, and possessed no vigour of mind, and no political dis- cernment. His resentments were violent and transitory, and excited no apprehensions; his attachments were sudden, and never consolidated into friendship. The disgrace of Hubert de Burgh, who was a faithful and intelligent minister, is a strong proof of his inconstancy. The bishop of Winchester, Peter des Roches, a Poictevin by birth, who had been the chief instrument of the disgrace of Hubert, gained the supreme authority, and employed it to the worst of purposes. The tyranny of his temper, and his prepossession in favour of the Poictevins, could not accord with an equitable administration. The court was filled with these strangers, and every ofiice of the crown conferred on them. The jealousy of the English was alarmed, and the insolence of the Poicte- vins caused it to break out into acts of violence. The barons presented themselves in parliament clad in armour. The primate, attended by many of the prelates, threatened Henry with excommunication, if he refused to gratify the wishes of the people and the church. The dread of this censure produced the effect they desired. The bishop of Win- chester was degraded, and the Poictevins were banished. What was Henry's age on coming to the throne ?— Who were the conductors of the government during the minority ?— How did Henry's character unfold itself with his years ? 5 50 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Henry's conduct soon convinced them that a similar result may be produced by different means. He had married Eleanor, the daughter of the count of Provence, and he now lavished all his favours on the Pro- ^ en^als and Savoyards who were attached to that princess. The dis- contented barons again threatened to rise in open rebellion ; and he was forced at length to ratify the great charter, and the ceremony was per- formed with much religious ostentation. About the year 1258, Simon de Montford, a foreigner, was created earl of Leicester ; and taking advantage of the situation of the times, formed a dangerous conspiracy against the crown. The king had given him his sister in marriage. His address and intrigues conciliated to him not only the affections of the people, but the friendship of the pre- lates and the nobility. He engaged the barons to unite with him, in the pretence of reforming the government ; but in reality for the pur- pose of usurping the supreme authority. In the parliament, the barons appeared in arms. The king upon his entry demanded to know their intentions, to which they submissively replied, to make him their sove- reign by confirming his power, and to have their grievances redressed. An accommodation speedily followed. They promised to grant Henry supplies, provided he would remedy the public disorders, by giving authority for that purpose to men of trust and capacity. He acquiesced, and a parliament was called at Oxford, to digest the new plan of go- vernment. A council of twenty-four was constituted, invested with unlimited powers, to reform the state ; and Leicester, at the head of the council, governed the kingdom with supreme sway. Their first regulations were favourable for the public, but the subsidies which the king expected were postponed. They required that every individual in the nation should take an oath to obey them. They banish- ed several of the queen's relatives from the kingdom ; even the offices of the king's household were filled by persons interested with the coun- cil. They established a committee of twelve persons, who, in the inter- val of the sessions, should exercise the authority of parliament ; and by these and other regulations, they totally annihilated the feeble remains of the royal power. The people complained loudly of their tyranny ; and the knights of the shires invited prince Edward to take upon him the defence of the public liberties, and the rights of the crown. Henry perceiving that the dispositions of the people had taken a turn to his advantage, and hoping to re-establish his authority, applied to pope Alexander IV., who threatened the king's enemies with excom- munication. Henry, upon this, issued a proclamation, and resumed the government of the kingdom. But the ambitious Leicester, renewing his intrigues, soon found himself at the head of a formidable party ; and the king being obliged to confirm anew the statutes of Oxford, was again deprived of his rights. Hostilities were again commenced, and prince Edward found it needful to undertake the defence of the crown. The torch of civil discord being again kindled, it burned with more fury than ever. London declared for Leicester ; and both parties being What caused him to ratify the great charter ? — Who aspired, artfully, to the supreme authority ? — How were the remains of the royal power annihilated ? — What induced Henry to issue his proclamation ? ( 51 ) HENRY III. 53 prepared for a contest, their armies encountered at Lewes, in Sussex. In the beginning of the engagement, princg Edward put to rout the Londoners ; but pursuing them too far, Leicester made himself master of the person of the king. He was soon after exchanged for prince Edward, who was to remain a hostage, to ensure the observance of the statutes of Oxford. Nothing but the ceremony of coronation was wanting to make Leicester king of England ; and, that he might secure his popularity, he ordered returns to be made of two knights for every shire, and of depu- ties from the boroughs. This period is commonly esteemed as the epoch of the first outline of the House of Commons in England, a. d. 1265. Leicester, finding he could not longer oppose the wishes of the na- tion, set prince Edward at liberty, but gave his emissaries a charge to keep a guard upon him. Edward, pretending to take the air with some of Leicester's retinue, made matches between the horses ; after he had tired them, he mounted a horse of extraordinary swiftness, bade his attendants adieu, and effected his escape. Finding himself soon at the head of an army, he took the field against Leicester, at Evesham, in Worcestershire. Leicester's army, which had been much weakened by living in the mountains of Wales, made but a feeble resistance. The Welsh fled in the utmost disorder, and Leicester himself fell in the action. He had all the qualities of a hero, and the sagacity of a statesman ; but was carried beyond his sphere by his insatiable ambition. The activity and valour of Edward easily subdued the remains of the rebel army. This revolution was attended with the most salutary consequences. The king respected the charter of liberties; and his clemency allowed him to shed no blood on the scaftbld. Those who had borne arms against him he punished by pecuniary confiscations ; and these he exacted with great moderation. Edward, after having rendered these important services to the king and the crown, being excited by the solicitations of St. Louis, undertook a crusade. He sailed from England to meet the French king on the coast of Africa, but when arrived at that monarch's camp, he found him dead. Edward continued however his voyage to the Holy Land, and while he struck terror into the infidels, and revived the glory of the English name, Henry was experiencing the oppressions of the barons, and the disorders of anarchy. He therefore recalled a son without whose assistance he was unable to support the regal dignity. At last, being overcome with the cares of government and the infirmities of age, he expired, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, and the fifty-sixth of his reign, a. d. 1272. No king was naturally more averse from ty- ranny, but his want of firmness produced, at times, all the evils of des- potism. Name the epoch of the first outline of the house of commons. — Where was the first encounter between the king and Leicester? — Where did Leicester fall, and what was his character ? — With what moderation did the king punish the refrac- tory? — Relate Edward's crusade, and the death of King Henry. 5* 54 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. SECTION 6. EDWARD I. A. D. 1272. The absence of this prince, at such a juncture, would doubtless have given occasion to convulsions and civil wars, if the highest opinion had not been entertained of his wisdom and valour. The council, in his absence, proclaimed him king ; the estates of the . kingdom promised allegiance to him, and the crown was transferred with the greatest tranquillity. When he appeared in England, he was received by the people with joyful acclamations. His administration soon taught his subjects, that the happiness and glory of a state are the consequence of the wisdom and capacity of the sovereign. The charter of liberties he made the rule of his conduct, with regard to the barons ; and he obliged them to observe its provisions in relation to their own vassals. He was attentive to appoint judges who were able to maintain the execution of the laws. The prejudices entertained against the Jews were at this time so violent, that the laws of humanity were not thought to extend to them ; and multitudes were either hanged, or ruined by the confiscation of their property ; and in the year 1290, fifteen thousand were banished from England. Having established order in his own country, Edward thought it a favourable opportunity of uniting Wales with England. The Welsh had been deeply engaged with the Montford faction in the late reign ; and Llewellyn refusing to come to England, to do homage for his prin- cipality, which Henry III. had subjected to that crown, the king pene- trated into his dominions, ascended the mountains, which had hitherto been deemed inaccessible to English troops, and Llewellyn, reduced by famine, submitted at discretion. The Welsh, harassed by the oppres- sive exactions of the English, soon after revolted ; and Edward availed himself of the opportunity of making an entire conquest of the princi- pality. Llewellyn perished in the action; and David his brother, chased from mountain to mountain, was at last treacherously delivered up to Edward ; and such was still the ferocity of the times, that David was ordered to be hanged as a traitor. The bards, or Welsh poets, were also devoted to death ; and with them expired the independence of the Welsh nation, a. d. 1332. The principality, now annexed to the crown, became the title of the eldest sons of the kings of England. Edward afterwards passed over to the continent, to accommodate a difference which had happened between Philip le Bel and Alphonso of Arragon, about the kingdom of Sicily. He continued abroad above three years ; and the laws, unprotected by his authority, lost their force. His judges had become entirely corrupted ; he brought most of them to trial ; and the amount of their fines, above one hundred thousand marks, was a strong proof of their guilt. He made the new judges take an oath that they should receive no bribes or presents. In the absence of ihe king, how did the council act ? — What was the nattire of his administration ? — Relate his conquest of the Welsh nation. — Duruig Ls absence, how did the judges act ? EDWARD I. EDWARD II. 55 The dispute which arose about the succession to the Scottish throne, opened a field to the ambition of Edward, and, as will be seen detailed under the head of Scotland, terminated in Baliol being carried a pri- soner to London. The Scots, in the absence of Edward, made an effort under the celebrated William Wallace, to recover their liberty, and a battle was fought at Falkirk in which Edward gained a complete vic- tory. Wallace was at length betrayed into the king's hands, who put him to death. Bruce, who had been long kept prisoner in London, effected his escape, and presenting himself in Scotland before a meet- ing of the Scottish nobles, exhorted them to break the chains of their servitude. He was soon after crowned king, and chased the English out of the kingdom. Edward dispatched a considerable body of troops against him, and ob- tamed a victory ; and he was preparing to enter Scotland himself, when he sickened and died at Carlisle ; charging his son, with his dyiAg breath, to prosecute the enterprise. He expired in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his reign, a. d. 1307. Edward has been called " the English Justinian." His activity, his courage, his policy, and his prudence, procured the most lasting advantages to his kingdom. SECTION 7. EDWARD ir. A. D. 1307. Edward, surnamed Caernarvon, was in the twenty-third year of his age when he succeeded his father, and known only by the mildness of his disposition. He was soon found to be weak, indolent, and without capacity or virtues ; born to obey minions and favourites, not to govern a great kingdom. Robert Bruce, having collected his followers, appeared again in the field. Edward, in compliance with the wishes of the late king, marched against him, but he returned with precipitation, dreading the fatigues of victory. He soon abandoned the care of public affairs for the company of favourites ; one of whom was Piers Gaveston, a gen- tleman of Guienne, possessed of a handsome person, an engaging ad- dress, insinuation, and wit, well calculated to attract the notice of Ed- ward and abuse his confidence. The late king had banished him the kingdom, but the son now recalled him, created him earl of Cornwall, gave him his niece in marriage, and invested him in a measure with the governmeiit of England. Gaveston became haughty and overbearing towards the English, who in return formed a conspiracy against him, at the head of which was the young Queen Isabella, and the earl of Lancaster, the first prince of the blood. They demanded of Edward that he should be banished ; and engaged the bishops to threaten him with excommunication if he should remain longer in the kingdom. Edward banished his favourite by ap- pointing him lord-lieutenant of Ireland ; but he recalled him some time Relate what occurred in Scotland to Baliol, &c. — Where did Edward die ? What was his age ? — How long his reign ? — What was Edward's character? — Who was his favourite ? — What offence did Piers Gaveston give the barons ? 56 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. after, and the arrogance of Gaveston excited anew their indignation. The feebleness of the English government could not resist a confederacy of powerful and turbulent barons. They gave the law to their prince compelling him to surrender his authority into the hands of twelve per- sons, whose ordinances were to have the force of statutes. This coun- cil exercised the supreme power during a twelve-month, reformed abuses, and banished evil counsellors, particularly Gaveston. The king removed himself to York, and sheltered the object of his regard in the castle of Scarborough. The offended barons flew to arms, and their monarch having recourse to flight, they pursued him. The earl of Pembroke besieged the castle of Scarborough, and Gaveston submitted, stipulating that if a general accommodation should not take place within two months, the castle should be restored to him. Pem- broke conducted him to the castle of Dedington, near Bambury. It be- ing left with a feeble guard, the earl of Warwick attacked the castle, and carried off" Gaveston. The earls of Lancaster, Warwick, Hereford, and Arundel, in violation of the laws, ordered him to be beheaded. England's attention was now turned to Scotland. Robert Bruce, by his late achievements there, had proved himself to be no less a politician than a hero. Edward, at the head of his army, marched against hira. Bruce was encamped at Bannockburn, near Stirling, and his stratagems were no less useful to him than his valour. The deep pits which he caused to be dug, and which were carefully covered over with turt^ broke the career of the English cavalry. He obtained a complete vic- tory, and fixed himself on the throne of Scotland. Edward escaped with difiiculty. The king now attached himself to a new favourite — Hugh de Spen- ser, a young man of a noble English family and some accomplishments. Hugh had prevailed on the weak monarch to confer on him a barony, which it was pretended had reverted to the crown. This created an insurrection in the kingdom. Lancaster and several of the barons had recourse to arms, and they sent a message to Edward, requiring him to banish his favourite the kingdom, and even the elder De Spenser, his father, a person respectable by his wisdom and integrity. Upon the king's refusal, they presented to the Parliament an accusation against them, and procured a sentence of perpetual exile. The king declared the sentence illegal, recalled the exiles, pursued the conspirators, and possessed himself of the person of Lancaster. A court-martial, not a jury of his peers, pronounced the sentence of death against him, and he was beheaded near Pomfret. A rebellion, thus crushed, increased the haughtiness and rapacity of young De Spenser, who was guilty of many acts of rapine and injustice. The Queen Isabella, a cruel, haughty woman, who had gone over to France, and who had secretly formed a criminal connexion with a no- bleman of the name of Mortimer, refused to return while De Spenser remained in England. The king's brother, the Archbishop of Canter- Where was Gaveston taken ?— By whom tried ? — What was the result of the battle of Bannockburn ?— How did the nation receive the king's new favourite ? —Who joined the cause of Queen Isabella? EDWARD II. EDWARD III. 57 bury, with other prelates, and several of the most potent barons, ap- proved her measures. At length, having- received a military force, she landed in Suffolk, where she was joined by the princes of the blood, and the other factious nobles. London revolted from Edward, and the provinces soon followed the example. The king, disappointed with regard to the loyalty of his subjects, took to flight. The elder De Spenser was delivered up to the enemy by the garrison of Bristol, which he commanded, and was hanged as a malefactor. The young De Spenser perished by a similar fate. Edward endeavoured to conceal himself in the mountains of Wales, but he was discovered and taken prisoner. Queen Isabel]^ convoked a parliament, which was to dethrone him. He was accused, not of crimes, but of incapacity, of weakness, indolence, and love of pleasure ; and a message was sent him to resign his crown to his son. Menaces and terror soon extorted from him his resignation. He was sent to Berkeley castle, and consigned to the care of lords Berkeley, Montravers, and Gournay, who were to guard him month about ; and by the two latter persons he was treated with every indignity, and then they accelerated his death by the most cruel sufferings. This prince expired in the forty- third year of his age, and the twentieth of his reign, a. d. 1327. SECTION 8. EDWARD III. A. D. 1327. The young king, who had been thus prematurely advanced to the throne of his father, possessed those qualities which announce a glorious reign, and the prosperity of a state. The council of regency, composed of twelve persons, six prelates, and six lay peers, governed, as yet, the kingdom ; but the prince, burning with a passion for military fame, put himself at the head of the armies. The Scots had made incursions into the kingdom, and Edward marched twenty thousand men against them ; but the Scotch leaders, the earl of Murray and lord Douglas, encamped with so much judgment that Edward found it unsafe to attack them ; and in the darkness of the night, Douglas penetrated into the English camp, and had nearly carried off the king, who made a vigorous resist- ance. The Scots' army soon after decamped, and arrived, without re- ceiving any check, in their own country. The blame of the ill success of this expedition fell on Mortimer, who had usurped the chief authority of the government. Edward was now in his eighteenth year, and determined to rid him- self of this insolent minister. He surprised him in the castle of Not- tingham, where he had shut himself up with Queen Isabella. The parliament called for his trial. He was sentenced to be hanged. The queen was afterwards confined in the castle of Risings, where her son paid her the compliment of a visit once or twice a year. The ardour of youth and ambition excited Edward to make an irrup- In what castle was Edward II. confined? — What was his fate ? — Who succeed ed him ? — Of whom was the council of regency composed ? — How were Mortimer and the queen disposed of ? 58 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. tion into Scotland, to encourage the pretensions of Baliol, who, after several battles, was crowned king ; but the Scots chased him from the kingdom. The English monarch, after obtaining a great victory over them, replaced him on the throne. About 1339, Edward turned his arms against France. The first pre- paration for this campaign led to nothing decisive. The year following the naval engagement off Sluys was disastrous to France. Philip's fleet, which was composed of 400 sail, and manned with 40,000 men, was stationed there with a view of intercepting the king of England. The English fleet was much inferior in the number of ships, but they conquered. ,The French had thirty thousand of their seamen and two of their admirals slain ; and more than half of their ships of war were taken. Edward thus opened to himself a way into France, with a hundred thousand men, where he first laid siege to Tournay ; and he sent a herald to Philip, challenging him to single combat. Philip wisely declined the contest. The Countess of Hainault, their common relation, though she had taken the vows in a convent, yet left her retreat to inspire them with pacific sentiments. Her zeal produced a cessation of hostilities. This truce the pope in vain endeavoured to convert into a peace. Intestine commotions which had taken place in Brittany, induced Ed- ward to recommence hostilities against France. He made a descent into Normandy, (1346,) took several towns, and carried his ravages to the gates of Paris. Pressed by Philip, who had collected a great army, Edward was desirous of retiring to Flanders, but the bridges of the Somme were either broken down or strongly guarded. In this condi- tion a peasant saved him and his army, by pointing out to him a ford. He gained an eminence near the village of Crecy, ranged his army in order of battle, and prepared for an action which he could not avoid. Philip, with an army four times more numerous than that of Edward, was impatient to take revenge of the English. He gave orders to mar- shal his troops, but the vivacity of the French nobility rendered it im- practicable : one division drove upon another, without order, thinking itself secure of victory while rushing to certain destruction. Edward communicated to his troops the courage with which he him- self was inspired. Fifteen thousand crossbowmen, the vanguard of the French army, yielded on the first charge of the English archers. Their rout threw the French cavalry into confusion. The Prince of Wales* attacked these, and sustained, with prodigious valour, a hot and furious engagement; nothing was seen among the French troops but hurry, terror, and dismay. There was no longer any equality in the action. The count Alen9on, the French king's brother, the Kings of Bohemia and Majorca, an immense number of princes and great barons, 1,200 knights, 4,000 men-at-arms, besides about 30,000 men of inferior rank, * Commonly known by the appellation of the Black Prince. Mention the naval engagement that took place with France ? — Who attempted to reconcile the kings of France and England ? — Where did Edward prepare for battle ? — Describe the result of the battle of Crecy. ( 59 ) EDWARD III. 61 perished in the field of battle ; while the English lost only one squire, three knights, and a few inferior combatants. Edward now invested Calais, with a view in future to secure an easy entrance into France. The siege lasted nearly a twelvemonth. At length the necessities of the garrison induced the governor to capitulate The patriotism of Eustace de St. Pierre and five other burgesses of Ca- lais, on this occasion, merits the highest encomiums. The inhabitants were expelled, the town was peopled with English, and a truce between Edward and Philip was concluded. In the year 1346, the Scots, headed by David Bruce, their king, in vaded the frontiers ; and as Edward was then on the continent, Philippa, his queen, prepared to repulse the enemy in person ; and having made Lord Percy general, met the Scots at Nevil's Cross, near Durham. Bruce and his army were routed, 15,000 of his men cut to pieces, and himself and many of his nobles and knights taken prisoners and carried in triumph to London. The year following, (a. d. 1347,) the Black Prince, with an army of 12,000 men, extended his ravages as far as Berry ; when, on his return, he was met near Poictiers by King John, with 60,000 men. It seemed impossible that the English could escape ; and the Prince of Wales offered to abandon his conquest, and to sign a truce for seven years ; but John would not comply with the request, insisting on his surrendering himself a prisoner. His reply td(P)hn was that of a hero. The English prepared for an engagement. The impatience of the French, and their blind confidence of success, precipitated them into danger. Their first line was thrown into confusion by a body of English archers ; and the Prince of Wales, following up these advantages, attacked and dis- comfited it. The sudden flight of the Dauphin added to the confusion and terror of the French army. John found himself suddenly sur- rounded with the enemy, and was forced to surrender himself a prisoner. The generosity of the Black Prince to his captive has been much eulo- gized. A two years' truce was concluded with France, and the captive Idng being conducted to England, Edward received him with the same courtesy as if he had been a neighbouring potentate come to pay him a firiendly visit. It was in this reign (a. d. 1349) that the Order of the Garter was in- stituted. It is said to have owed its origin to the love which Edward bore to the Countess of Salisbury. At a court ball, this lady happening to drop her garter, the king took it up ; and observing some of the cour- tiers smile, he presented it to her with these words, " Honi soit qui mal y pense,''^ "Evil be to him that evil thinks." Thesp words became the device of the order. The order was to consist of twenty-four persons besides the king. In a little time the zeal and valour of the French in general produced an important revolution ; and of the many provinces that the English possessed, they retained only Bourdeaux, Bayonne, and Calais, when the Relate the particulars of the siege of Calais. — Did not Edward's queen, Phi- lippa, oppose the Septs? — Relate the victory obtained by the Black Prince ^t Poictiers. — What is said to have given rise to the Order of the Garter ? 6 62 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. necessities of Edward obliged him to conclude a truce. Prosperity had impaired his prudence ; and the Prince of Wales was languishing un- der a mortal disease, which terminated in hia death, in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving behind him a character unblemished. This event cast a gloom over the latter part of this splendid reign. The king was most sensibly affected by the loss, and tried every means to allay his un- easiness. He died about a year after the prince, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and the fifty-first of his reign, 1377. His reign was the noon of chivalry, of which himself and his son, the Black Prince, were the mirrors. Edward left three sons; the Dukes of Lancaster, York, and Glouces- ter. Richard, the son of the Prince of Wales, succeeded to the throne. SECTION a RICHARD II. A.D. 1377. Richard II. was but eleven years old when he came to the throne. The parliament established a council of regency ; but the power of the king's three uncles moved, for some years, the system of government. In the present situation of affairs, war was unavoidable. Robert Stuart, successor to David Bruce, had entered into alliance with France against England. France was attaclgd by Calverly, the Governor of Calais, and by the Dukes of Lancaster and Gloucester ; but they pro- duced no events of great lustre or renown. The expensive armaments and a want of economy had exhausted the treasury ; and a new tax, called a poll-tax, of three groats, upon every person above fifteen, was granted by parliament. A tax so unequitable excited the most violent commotions. A turbulent preacher at this time inculcated on his audience the maxim of equal right to all the goods of nature, and declared that all artificial distinction was tyranny. His tenets were greedily received by the multitude, and the inhumanity of the tax-gatherers served to scatter still farther the seeds of sedition. One of these, by his brutal insolence, so much incensed a blacksmith, Wat Tyler, in Essex, that he knocked out his brains with a hammer. The by-standers applauded the action and flew to arms, and the whole neighbourhood joined in the rebellion. The insurgents soon amounted to 100,000 men, bent upon levelling all inequalities of rank, and com- mitting the most horrible excesses : they burnt the Duke of Lancaster's palace ; massacred the primate, the chancellor, and a great number of the most distinguished personages. The young king, who had taken refuge in the Tower, had the courage to go out and meet the rioters in Smithfield, headed by Wat Tyler. The mayor of London, William Walworth, who accompanied him, offended with Tyler's insolence, struck him to the ground with his mace, while one of the king's knights riding up dispatched him with his sword. This was a moment of ex- treme peril ; the mutineers, seeing their leader fall, were preparing for Whose death affected the health of the king? — What wars did the council of legency carry on? — What commotions resulted from the new tax ? RICHARD II. 63 revenge, when Richard, with admirable presence of mind, rode up to the rebels, and cried out, " What, my people, is the meaning of this disorder! I am your king, and will be your leader. Follow me into the field, and I will grant you what you desire." They implicitly fol- io v/ed him, and the charter which they demanded, he granted them ; but he soon after revoked it by parliament. This behaviour of Richard, who was now only a youth of sixteen, discovered so much presence of mind and address, that high expecta- tions were formed of his future conduct. But the presages of early youth are often deceitful. As this prince advanced in years, his conduct discovered want of capacity and judgment. The Scots having made incursions into England, Richard marched an army and occasioned great devastation, but returned with precipitation, before he had effected any- thing important or decisive, to enjoy his pleasures and amusements. The passion of Richard for favourites became a source of division and discord. Unwilling to be governed by his uncles, he delivered him- self over to the direction of Robert de Vere, Earl of Oxford, a young nobleman of an agreeable figure, but of dissolute manners. The king knew no bounds to his affection, and created him Duke of Ireland ; in- deed, the whole authority of government was gradually conferred upon him. The princes of the blood and the chief nobility entered into a formidable league against him, and prepared to control the royal au- thority. The exercise of sovereign power was entrusted to commis- sioners, whose jurisdiction was limited to a twelvemonth. The monarch was obliged not only to sign this commission, but to take an oath never to infringe it. Richard entered a protest against this violence, in which he was supported by a council of his judges and lawyers. The Duke of Gloucester and his partisans accused the king's ministers and coun- cillors, as enemies to the state. Force became the only rule of law, when the passions of the great seemed to have annihilated every idea of justice. At length civil order established itself; and the king, now in his twenty-third year, a. d. 1389, declared his intention to exercise his right of sovereignty. He proceeded to change all the officers of the crown ; passed a general amnesty, and remitted some subsidies ; and by these and other moderate measures, he drew to him the affections of the people. From this period the kingdom enjoyed a long tranquillity, and Rich- ard, who was now a widower, was affianced to the daughter of Charles VI., though that princess was only seven years of age. This alliance gave great offence to the English. In 1397, the Duke of Gloucester renewed his intrigues, which made a deep impression on a people dis- posed at all times to revolt. To prevent the machinations of Gloucester, the king ordered liim to retire to Calais, where he was carried off sud- denly, either by apoplexy or by assassination. That party w^as scarcely suppressed, when there arose another, which Did not Richard's behaviour then raise high expectations ? — What distinctions did the king heap on his favourite ? — What steps did the king take in his 23d year ? — Which of the king's uncles was removed to Calais ? (i4 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. proved fatal to Richard. Henry, Duke of Hereford, son to the Duke of Lancaster, accused, in parliament, the Duke of Norfolk of having spoken slanderous words of the king-. Norfolk gave him the lie, and offered to prove his innocence by duel. This defiance, which was then authorized by law, was accepted, and the time and place appointed. The champions were on the point of engaging, when Richard inter- posed and ordered both to leave the kingdom. Hereford's exile was limited to ten years, and he was presented with letters patent, insuring to him any inheritance which should fall to him during his absence ; but upon the death of the Duke of Lancaster, his father, Richard retained the estates for his own use. a. d. 1398. Hereford had been the idol of the nation. His reputation and his valour had made him regarded as almost the only English prince worthy of the public confidence and esteem. His misfortunes were lamented, and the injustice which he suffered was the subject of general complaint. In this critical period the king embarked for Ireland, to revenge the death of his cousin, Roger, Earl of Marche. The new Duke of Lan- caster hastened to return to England, pretending no other design than to recover the duchy of Lancaster. In a few days he was at the head of a great army. The Duke of York joined himself to the party. Richard returned on the first intelligence, and landed in Wales, but was abandoned by his soldiers, betrayed and arrested by the Earl of Northumberland, and conducted to London, where he was accused be- fore the Parliament. His accusation turned chiefly on arbitrary acts, of which his reign furnished many strong instances ; and the barons, though guilty themselves of so many illegal violences, unanimously deposed their sovereign and placed Lancaster on the throne, by the title of Henry IV. Richard had been compelled to sign a deed, by which he renounced his crown, as being unqualified for governing the kingdom; and upon this resignation Henry founded his principal claim. The unfortunate Richard, whose sufferings exceeded his offences, was sent to Pomfret Castle, and perished soon after by a violent death. He left behind him no posterity. It was in this reign that Wickliffe, a secular priest, educated at Ox- ford, and distinguished by learning and integrity of character, put forth his English Bible ; and inculcated tenets that have paved the way for the present reformation in religion. The old Duke of Lancaster was favourable to the doctrines of Wickliffe. The proselytes of this reformer were called Lollards. What judgment did the king pronounce on the dukes of Hereford and Norfolk? — How fell the king into Hereford's power? — Upon what deed did Hereford found his claim ? — Did rot Wickliffe put out his bible in this reign ? HENRY IV. 65 CHAPTER IV.— HOUSE OF LANCASTER. SECTION 1. HENRY IV. A. D. 1399. , Henry of Lancaster had courage, capacity, and discernment, and was placed on the throne hy the unanimous voice of lords and commons ; but the right of the Earl of Marche appeared so clear, that the com- mencement of this reign could not but be attended with faction and dis- order. A conspiracy was entered into by the nobility, which was ter- minated by many illegal executions. In order to give security to his throne, the new king sacrificed the Lollards to the resentment of the clergy ; and the parliament passed a law by which heretics were to be committed to the flames. This is the first example in England of penal laws enacted against heresy. Henry IV. was, notwithstanding, sus- pected of having strongly imbibed all the principles of his father, the Duke of Lancaster, in favour of the Lollards. But policy and faith are often at variance. Glendour, a descendant of the ancient princes of Wales, took advan- tage of the disorders of the kingdom to make incursions into it. The Earl of Marche was taken prisoner by him ; and the king allowed him to remain in captivity, and refused permission to the Earl of Northum^ berland, who was nearly allied to that nobleman, to treat for his ransom with Glendour. The earl, highly incensed at the refiisal, was induced to revolt and join himself to the Scots and Welsh ; a scheme being laid to unite their forces, and elevate young Mortimer, Earl of Marche, a boy of but seven years of age, as the true heir to the crown. When all things were prepared for the intended insurrection, the earl was sud- denly taken ill at Berwick, and his son Percy, surnamed Hotspur, was placed at the head of his troops, and advanced as far as Shropshire to join Glendour. The king, upon the first intelligence, hastened down to Shrewsbury to give them battle. The two armies were nearly equal, each consisting of about twelve thousand men ; and the contest was per- haps the most furious that had happened during the civil wars of England. Hotspur fell in the action, and the fortune of Henry prevailed. While this transaction was going forward, Northumberland was so far recovered as to be able to advance with a body of troops to reinforce his party ; but hearing, by the way, of his son's misfortune, he at first attempted to find safety by flight, but afterwards threw himself on the king's mercy and received a pardon. A fresh revolt, excited two years after, was suppressed with less diffi- culty, when the Archbishop of York, one of the heads of the insurrec- tion, was put to death. Henry having thus prevailed over his domestic enemies, secured himself against the enterprises of the Scots, by retain- ing in custody Prince James, the heir of Robert III,, who had fallen into his hands. Mention the first example of penal laws against heresy. — Relate the engage- ment in which Hotspur fell. — What revolt was next suppressed? — and what prince detained ? 6* 66 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. The parliamentary proceedings under the administration of Henry claim more particularly our notice. The commons had now attained such importance, that it became an object of policy to direct their elec- tions ; and Henry, being obliged to court popularity, allowed the com- mons to assume new powers, and they advanced greatly in importance and influence. In a. d. 1406, when they voted him supplies, they ap- pointed treasurers to attend to its disbursement, and ordered them to deliver in their accounts to the house ; they proposed regulations for the government, which were agreed to ; and tliey obliged all the mem- bers of council, and all the judges, to swear to the observance of them. While the king, by his firm, vigorous, yet conciliatory mode of go- vernment, was acquiring popularity, his son Henry plunged himself into all the extravagances of debauchery, so that the distrust of his father had removed him from all share in public business, and from all com- mand in the armies. One of his dissolute companions having been brought to trial before Sir William Gascoigne, Chief Justice of the King's Bench, tor some misdemeanor, the prince became exasperated, and struck the judge in open court. The magistrate behaved with a dignity that became his office, and ordered the prince to be committed to prison. When the king was informed of the transaction, he expressed himself happy in having a magistrate endowed with such firmness in the execution of the laws, and a son willing to submit to such a chastisement. The king died of a malady that made him subject to fits, in the forty-sixth year of his age, and the fourteenth of his reign. He left four sons, and was succeeded by the eldest. SECTION 2. HENRY V. A. D. 1413. Henry was scarcely seated on the throne, when his vices were ex- changed for virtues. He called together his associates, and exhorted them to follow his example ; but prohibited them, at the same time, from appearing any more in his presence if they continued their licen- tious conduct. Gascoigne, who dreaded lest he should be disgraced, was rewarded with honours and distinctions. The Earl of Marche he treated with so much attention and respect, that he forgot the rights to which he was entitled by his birth ; the family of Percy he restored to its fortune and honours; and the nation conceived the most flattering hopes from his administration. Meanwhile the Lollards were increasing in the kingdom, and ap- peared even dangerous to the church and formidable to the civil autho- rity. Sir John Oldcastle, Baron of Cobham, was at the head of this sect. Henry was inclined to support the hierarchy and the established faith, without having recourse to persecution. The primate, notwith- standing, indicted this nobleman, and he was condemned, as a heretic, to be burnt alive. Having, however, made his escape from the Tower, he entered into open rebellion against the king ; but failing in his enter- What new powers did the commons now assume ? — For what conduct was the prince sent to prison ? — When did Henry IV. die ? — Who was his successor ? — How did Henry V. address his former associates ? — Who now suffered for the cause of Lollardism ? HENRY V. 67 prise, he again saved himself* by flight. It was not till four years after that he was brought to justice, and hanged as a traitor. So great an impression had the system of the Lollards, even on those that detested their heresy, that the clergy ceded a great number of benefices to the king. The kingdom of France was at this time in the utmost confusion, and Henry took advantage of it. It was the dying injunction of the late king, not to allow the English to remain long in peace, which was apt to breed intestine commotions. This advice, joined to that of the pri- mate, determined him on hostilities. He assembled a fleet and army at Southampton, and disembarked at Harfleur, in Normandy, at the head of six thousand men-at-arms, and twenty-four thousand foot, mostly archers, and immediately began the siege of the place, which he took by assault, after having lost a considerable part of his forces. Fatigue and sickness had contributed also to waste the English army ; and Henry found himself enclosed in an enemy's country, like Edward III., without knowing how to escape. Having discovered a ford near St. Quentin, he passed the Somme and marched towards Calais, watched by a French army, four times, or, as some say, ten times more numerous than his own. Having now no resource but in courage and prudence, he seized an advantageous ground, between two woods, in the plains of Agincourt. The constable D'Albert was for waiting till the enemy, who were in want of provisions, should abandon their post ; but the temerity and im- prudence of the French army renewed the disasters of Crecy and Poictiers. They attacked the English, notwithstanding the advantages of their situation ; and some rain having fallen, the ground was so moist that the French cavalry were unable to act effectually. The English archers, defended by palisadoes, plied the enemy with showers of ar- rows, which nothing could resist, and having broken their ranks, rushed upon them with their battle-axes, and hewed them in pieces without re- sistance. The whole French army was a scene of confusion, terror, and dismay. The constable, several princes of the blood, and above nine thousand knights or gentlemen, lay dead on the field, and many of the nobility were taken prisoners. Of the English, only about forty perished, and among these the person of most note was the Duke of York. Henry immediately marched his army to Calais, where he con- cluded a truce with France. Want of funds prevented Henry, like his predecessors, from taking advantage of this victory. During this truce, the animosities of different parties in France raged with the greatest violence. Henry collected an army of twenty-five thousand men, and landed in Normandy: several towns surrendered. The north of France submitted to him, and he advanced to the gates of Paris. In the midst of his successes, his enemies, instead of combining against him, abandoned to him the kingdom. He presented himself at Troyes, to conclude that famous treaty, by which a weak monarch, a furious queen, and a prince of the blood enraged against his country, acknowledofed him as the heir of the crown of France, and entrusted Describe the preparations for a war with France. — Relate the memorable battle of Agincourt — What events followed ? — What treaty was made ? 68 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. him with the administration of the government, under the title of re- gent. This treaty was followed by his marriage with Catharine, the daughter of Charles VL, and the estates of the kingdom swore obedi- ence to him. But Henry was soon obliged to pass over to England and apply for subsidies, and his parliament granted him only a small supply, notwith- standing the exultation which the people discovered on account of his victories. During his absence, the dauphin, seconded by a body of seven thousand Scots, discomfited the Duke of Clarence at feauge, in Anjou. Henry hastened with a considerable army to repair this loss. A son, who was born at this time to Henry, seemed to be a pledge of his future success ; but the glory of this prince had now arrived at its height, and his death put a period to his mighty projects. He died of a fistula, in the thirty-fourth year of his age, after having named his eldest brother, the Duke of Bedford, Regent of France, and his youngest brother, the Duke of Gloucester, Regent of England. Catharine of France, his widow, espoused soon after his death a Welsh gentleman. Sir Owen Tudor, who was supposed to be descended from the ancient princes of Wales. We shall soon see this family, in consequence of this alliance, ascending the throne of England. The ordinary revenues of the crown, during this reign, amounted only to £55,714 sterling ; and the ordinary expenses of government are stated at £52,507 ; so that the king, in order to support the expenses of his wars, was often obliged to pawn his jewels, and even the crown itself None of the Lancastrian princes ventured to impose laws with- out the consent of parliament. The rights of the people, with regard to this circumstance, were then ascertained, and could not be violated. SECTION 3. HENRY VL A.D. 1422. The long minority which the English had now in prospect, seemed to threaten them with intestine commotions. The parliament changed the name of regent into that of protector. To this dignity they ad- vanced the Duke of Bedford, and, during his absence, permitted the Duke of Gloucester to discharge its duties, and they appointed a coun- cil, without whose advice no measure of importance could be deter- mined. The care of the infant king they entrusted to the Bishop of Winchester. Charles VI. of France died a few weeks after his son-in-law. The auphin was crowned at Poictiers, under the name of Charles VIL, and ttached to his cause a great number of partisans, for the purpose of throw- ing off the English dominion. Bedford foresaw a revolution, and the celerity and vigour of his measures were hardly able to prevent it. He What resulted from Henry's becoming regent of France ? — Of what disease did he die? — Whom did his queen marry? — What were then the ordinary revenues of the crown? — To whom was the care of the infant king entrusted? — What changes took place in France ? HENRY VI. 69 prevailed on the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany, and his brother, the Count of Richmond, to enter into an alliance with him ; and he per- suaded the English council to give liberty to James IT. of Scotland, who had been detained in captivity from his infancy ; and thereby to deliver the kingdom from the danger of incursions from Scotland. After these precautions, Bedford renewed hostilities. The French army of fourteen thousand men, under the command of the Earl of Buchan, took Verneuil, in Normandy, (a. d. 1424,) and might have retired in safety, but he thought it dishonourable to turn his back on the English ; and the experience of former battles could not restrain the impetuosity of the French. The Viscount Narbonne, in his hurry to charge the English, broke his ranks, and drew after him the first line. The English archers signalized themselves with their usual dexterity and courage. The Duke of Bedford, meanwhile, at the head of the men-at-arms, rendered the victory complete and decisive. Many of the nobility, and above four thousand private men, perished in the action. The French seemed, by a kind of fatality, to sacrifice themselves to the fortune and glory of the English. The Duke now found the city of Orleans the chief barrier to the con- quest of France, and he determined to besiege it. The besiegers and the besieged performed acts of astonishing heroism. The city was at length reduced to the utmost extremity, and Charles meditated an in- glorious retreat ; when a country girl appeared at this critical period, delivered him from the danger that threatened him, and re-established the throne of France.* A secret horror thrilled the English soldiers, which their officers either shared or could not remove ; defeat attended them everywhere ; the provinces and towns of France returned joy- fully to their allegiance, and the English were in a few years driven out of every part of France but Calais. Thus, happily for both coun- tries, ended all the magnificent projects of the conquest of France. Foreign war being now extinguished, the incapacity of Henry seemed to encourage the seditious spirit of his subjects. After the death of the Duke of Bedford, the Duke of Gloucester and the Bishop of Winches- ter, now a cardinal, contended for the direction of the king's councils. The cardinal was victorious, and married him to Margaret Anjou, daughter of Regnier, titular King of Naples, a princess of masculine spirit, great ability, and address. The Duke of Gloucester was afterwards thrown into prison and mur- dered. This prince had cultivated letters with success; was much above the credulity and weakness of the age ; and his popularity and the lustre of his birth and superior qualities were so great, that his ene- mies did not think themselves safe while he lived. The Cardinal of Winchester did not survive him above six months. A claimant to the crown nov; appeared. Richard, Duke of York, was son to the Earl of Cambridge, by Anne, sister of the late Earl of * For a particular account of the Maid of Orleans, the reader is referred to the au- thor's History of France, published by Hogan & Thompson, Philadelphia. Relate the victory achieved by the English. — What occurred to defeat the siege of Orleans? — Who, after the death of the Duke of Bedford, directed the councils? 70 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Marche, in whom ended the males of the house of Mortimer ; the rights of that family, therefore, centred in the Duke of York, who was thus descended by his mother from the only daughter of the Duke of Cla- rence, second son of Edward III. ; whereas, the king was descended from the Duke of Lancaster, third son of that monarch. A large body of the nobility, and the commons in general, sided with the Duke of York, and recourse was had to arms. The battle of St. Albans, gained by the Yorkists, was the commencement of a struggle which lasted thirty years, and in which were fought twelve pitched battles. The battle of Bloreheath, on the borders of Staffordshire, 1459, was gained by the York party. Affairs, however, did not immediately pro- ceed to extremities. The vigour of the queen, Margaret of Anjou, sup- ported in some measure the tottering throne. The parliament renewed to the Duke of York the dignity of protector, and he renewed to the king his oath of fidelity. In 1460, however, he presented to the peers his pretensions to the crown, submitting them to their judgment. The peers called to their aid the principal members of the house of com- mons, and after several days passed in deliberation, they declared his title to the crown certain and indefeasible ; but as Henry had enjoyed the crown without dispute for thirty-eight years, they determined that he should possess the title and dignity during his life, and that the Duke of York, meanwhile, should be acknowledged his heir, and should govern the kingdom. Margaret, a woman whom no dangers could intimidate, had taken refuge in Scotland. Intelligence was soon received that she was ad- vancing at the head of twenty thousand men. The Duke of York, with only five thousand, imprudently marched out to oppose her at Wake- field, where he was defeated and slain. The head of the duke was fixed on the gates of York ; his son, the Duke of Rutland, was mur- dered in cold blood ; the Earl of Salisbury and other noblemen were beheaded by martial law. The claims of the duke descended to his son Edward, who gained the battle of Mortimer's Cross, but the queen repaired the loss by a second victory at St. Alban's gained over the Yorkists. The army of young Edward, however, was soon superior to that of the queen ; she therefore, with Henry, retreated to the North, while Edward entered London amidst the acclamations of the people. Edward now assumed the crown, by a somewhat irregular popular election, and was proclaimed king by the title of Edward IV. A law was enacted in this reign to limit the number of electors for members of Parliament, to persons possessed of forty shillings a-year in land ; a sum equivalent to nearly twenty pounds a-year of the present money of Great Britain. What new claimant appeared for the crown? — Whose title to the crown was declared indefeasible? — In what battle did the Duke of York meet his death? — To whom did the duke's claims descend ? — What events followed ? EDWARD IV. 71 SECTION 4.— HOUSE OF YORK. EDWARD IV. A.D. 1461. The two implacable factions, the houses of York and Lancaster, de- luged England with blood. Queen Margaret had assembled in the North an army of 60,000 men, -and the new king, aided by the Earl of Warwick, hastened to check her progress. The two armies met at Towton, in the county of York, and a most desperate engagement en- sued. The queen, though superior in numbers, was put to the rout; and Edward issued orders to give no quarter. Thirty-six thousand men are said to have perished on this occasion. Edward sought to establish by blood, a throne which he had procured by violence. An act of for- feiture and attainder was passed against Henry, Queen Margaret, their infant son prince Edward, and their principal partisans. Margaret escaped out of the kingdom, and took refuge with her father in Flan- ders. She obtained from Louis XL of France a body of 2000 men-at- arms, and with these and a numerous band of adventurers from Scot- land, she was enabled again to take the field. Henry concealed him- self for a twelvemonth in the county of Lancaster, but he was at length taken and thrown into the Tower. His imbecility was so great, that no attempts were made against his life. Edward, in the quiet possession of his throne, delivered himsetf over to the indulgence of his passions, and while the Earl of Warwick had a commission to negociate for him, an alliance with Bona of Savoy, sis- ter to the Queen of France, he happened to form an unconquerable attachment to Elizabeth Woodville, and he offered to share with her his crown. Their marriage was celebrated privately. Warwick, on receiv- ing the intelligence, was filled with indignation, and soon formed such a combination against Edward, that he was, in his turn, obliged to fly the kingdom. Louis XL finding that Warwick had broken with Ed- ward, attempted to reconcile the Earl with Queen Margaret, and never did policy connect two persons of greater animosity. They united, not- withstanding, for the purpose of dethroning Edward, and re-establishing Henry VI. Edward's vain confidence in his own prowess, allowed him not to see the danger that threatened him. Warwick's popularity drew to him, soon after his landing, an army of sixty thousand men. The two armies met near Nottingham. Edward's quarters were attacked in the night time, his troops were thrown into confusion, and he escaped with difiiculty. Warwick, in eleven days after his landing, was left entire master of t]ie kingdom. He delivered Henry VI. from the Tower, proclaimed him king, and a parliament was called which confirmed the title. But Edward's party though repressed was not destroyed, and after an absence of nine months in Holland, he set sail for England, and landed his troops at Ravenspur in Yorkshire, declaring that he came not to kindle anew the flame of civil discord, but to possess himself of the What factions now deluged England with blood? — ^^What occasioned a quarrel between Edward and Warwick ? — What resulted from the battle of Nottingham 72 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. county of York, the estate of his family. He avoided encountering Warwick, and hastened to present himself before the gates of London, where he found the inhabitants favourable to his restoration. Queen Margaret was every day expected with her forces to unite with War- v\rick. But he, perhaps ambitious of having all the glory of the victory, waited not for her reinforcement. The battle was fought at Barnet. Edward was victorious, and Warwick was slain. The same day Mar- garet arrived with her son, prince Edward. Though at first over- whelmed at the tidings of the defeat and death of Warwick, she resumed her wonted spirit, collected an army, and marched to Tewkesbury. Here fortune proved once more adverse; the Lancastrian army was totally routed, the queen and prince taken, and the latter murdered, almost in the presence of Edward. Shortly after, Henry VI. expired in the Tower, murdered, as was said, by the Duke of Gloucester ; and the hopes of the Lancastrians now seemed extinct. Of all those that were taken, none were suffered to survive but Margaret herself After so many scenes of barbarity and outrage, the king devoted him- self to pleasure and amusements rather than to remedy the complaints and grievances of his subjects. His gay and familiar manners rendered him, notwithstanding, extremely popular. But the prospect of a French war roused him from his voluptuous pursuits. His parliament granted him a large subsidy, and he entered into a league with Charles, Duke of Burgundy, in order to dismember the French monarchy. Louis XL, however, disdained military glory, and a treaty was entered into between the two princes at Pecquigni, near Amiens. It was also stipulated, that Louis should pay 50,000 crowns for the ransom of Margaret. This ex- traordinary woman, after having sustained the cause of her husband in twelve battles, after having astonished the world by her courage and resolution, passed the remainder of her days in France, in privacy and retirement, till the year 1482, when she died. Edward, during the course of his reign, appears to have been cruel and voluptuous ; his treatment of his brother, the Duke of Clarence, is remarkable. The king hunting one day in the park of Thomas Burdet, killed a white buck, a great favourite of its owner, and Burdet, trans- ported with rage, wished the horns of the deer in the belly of the per- son who advised the king to shoot it. For this expression he was pub- licly beheaded at Tyburn. Clarence remonstrated against the injustice of the sentence, and the king ordered him to be arrested. The peers proceeded to his trial, and some rash expressions were the ground of his condemnation. The king left to him the choice of his death, and he desired that he might be drowned in a butt of Malmsey, in the Tower. Edward had four daughters, and though yet in their infancy, he had afHanced them to great princes. The dauphin, who had been engaged to espouse the eldest, married a daughter of the Emperor Maximilian, and Edward was impatient to revenge the insult. Louis XI. had the address to arm against him the king of Scotland. Gloucester made an invasion of that kingdom, took Berwick, and obliged the Scots to accept Where was the last battle fought between York and Lancaster ? — What events occurred between Edward and Louis? — What was the king's treatment of the Duke of Clarence ? — How came Berwick to be attached to England ? EDWARD V. 73 i a peace, by which they resigned that fortress to England. Elevated with this success, Edward prepared to invade France ; but being seized with a mortal distemper, he expired in the forty-second year of his age ; and left a throne polluted with blood to his son, the young Prince of Wales, whose reign lasted not two months. Among the number of Edward's mistresses was the wife of one Shore, a merchant in the city, a woman of exquisite beauty, who sur- vived the king many years, and was reduced to extreme indigence. SECTION 5. EDWARD V. A. D. 1483 The Duke of Gloucester, a prince cruel, ambitious, and capable of every crime, who covered his dark purposes under the mask of pro- found dissimulation and policy, was made regent of the kingdom. The Earl of Rivers, a man of remarkable merit, was entrusted with the pro- tection and education of the young king, his nephew, who resided with him at the castle of Ludlow on the borders of Wales. The Queen was desirous that this nobleman should levy a body of troops to escort the young king to London. But Gloucester objected to it, as quite unneces- sary, and liable to prove dangerous. Rivers was received by him with much apparent affection, but he was arrested the next day by Glouces- ter's orders. He ordered the Earl of Rivers and Richard Gray, one of the sons of the queen by a former marriage, to be executed, and he easily gained the consent of Buckingham to this extraordinary measure ; but finding himself unable to gain over Lord Hastings, he meditated his destruction. Having summoned a council in the Tower, he asked them what pun- ishment those deserved who had plotted against the life of a protector ; upon which he laid bare his arm all shrivelled and decayed, but the counsellors knew that this infirmity had attended him from his birth; and he accused Jane Shore and her accomplices of having produced this deformity by their sorceries. " Certainly, my lord," said Hastings, " if they be guilty of these crimes they deserve punishment." — " If," said the protector, " do you reply to me with ifs 1 — You are the chief abettor of that witch Shore, and I swear by St. Paul, I will not dine before your head be brought to me." He then struck the table with his hand, and the room was filled with armed men. Hastings was instantly carried ofi" and beheaded. Jane Shore was next seized and summoned to answer before the council for sorcery and enchantment, but no proofs were found against her. She was therefore ordered to be tried in the spiritual courts for adultery, and she did penance in a white sheet at St. Paul's, before thousands of spectators. This woman had been seduced by Edward, and though she had greatly recommended herself by many acts of be- neficence and humanity, she found no friends in her adversity, and died in indigence and misery. What is said of Jane Shore ? — Who was made regent of the kingdom ? — ^Whose destruction did he meditate ? — How was it effected ? 7 74 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Gloucester at length took off the mask and aspired openly to the crown ; havmg propagated doubts with regard to the validity of Edward's marriage, and tliat both Edward and the Duke of Clarence were illegiti- mate. These assertions were promulgated from the pulpit ; Dr. Shaw having been appointed to preach at St. Paul's, selected a text, from which he attempted to discredit the birth of these princes, and he eulogized the protector, whom he represented as the legal heir to the crown. He even called out " God save King Richard," but the audi- ence kept a profound silence. The bad success of this stratagem abashed the protector and his panegyrist. The Duke of Buckingham, also, a man of talents and influence, was induced to favour Richard's claim. He addressed the populace and citizens at St. Paul's Cross, in which he was joined by the lord mayor. He asked them whether they would have the duke for their king. They discovered their sentiments by their silence. At length some ap- prentices, incited by Buckingham's servants, raised a feeble cry of " God save King Richard," and he hastened to inform the duke that he was called upon to assume the government. Richard appeared before the people, and consented, with seeming reluctance, to accept the crown. Edward V. and the Duke of York were soon after, by the order of Richard, assassinated in the Tower. RICHARD III. A. D. 1483. The short reign of this prince is stained with atrocious and execrable deeds. He had promised rewards to the Duke of Buckingham for his services, but not receiving any, the duke meditated revenge, and invited over the earl of Richmond, who was heir by the female line to the house of Somerset, and grandson to Owen Tudor, who had married Catharine of France, the widow of Henry V. Richmond had retired to Brittany, in the reign of Edward IV., who regarded him as a dangerous rival. These intrigues escaped not the vigilance of Richard, and he hastened to put the kingdom in a posture of defence. Buckingham levied troops in Wales, to co-operate with Richmond when he should arrive, but the heavy and incessant rains at that time prevented his crossing with his army into England, and the Welsh, moved by superstition at this extraordinary event, or distressed by fa- mine, abandoned his camp. In this extremity he put on a disguise, and took shelter with an old servant of his family, where being discovered, he was brought to the king, and executed without any form of trial. The fleet of the earl of Richmond having been shattered by a tempest, he was obliged to return to the coast of Brittany ; but afterwards, having received some troops from Charles VIII., he set out from Harfleur with a retinue of two thousand men ; and having disembarked on the coast of Wales, he was there joined by a considerable number of both Welsh and English, and advancing with about six thousand towards Leicester, By what means did he attempt to obtain the throne ? — What became of Edward V. and the Duke of York ? — By whom was the Earl of Richmond invited over ?^ What was tlie fate of Buckingham? — Give an account of Richmond's operations f HENRY vir. 75 he encountered the army of Richard in Bosworth Field, and obtained over it a decisive victory ; for which he was chiefly indebted to Stanley, who deserted to.him with seven thousand of the Royalists. Richard fell in the action, and Richmond was saluted king, by the title of Henry VII. CHAPTER v.— HOUSE OF TUDOR. SECTION 1. HENRY VII. A.D. 1485. ' The earl of Richmond's title to the crown was by no means free from objections. The title of the house of York was the most valid, and Henry's intended marriage with Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Ed- ward IV., was the only proper method to overcome the difficulty ; as by this means the rights of the two houses would be united. His jealousy against the family of York induced him to commit to the Tower the Earl of Warwick, the son of the duke of Clarence ; and his animosity, or policy, induced him to engage the parliament to pass an act of attain- der against Richard III., and the principal partisans of the house of York ; even the princess Elizabeth, whom he espoused, a woman equally amiable and virtuous, felt the influence of the prejudices he had con- ceived against her family. This unpopular conduct somewhat disturbed the tranquillity of the government, but the wars of the Roses had so greatly thinned the English nobility, that they were weary of civil con- flict, and quietly submitted to the arbitrary rule of Henry. The duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., raised up two im- postors against him, each pretending to be Richard, Duke of York, who had escaped from the Tower. Richard Simon, a priest of Oxford, in- duced one Simnel, a youth of fifteen years of age, to personate the Duke of York. The first scene of the imposture was opened in Ire- land, Simnel was received as a true Plantagenet, and some persons of high rank had entered into the conspiracy. Simnel then intended to invade England, and disembarked in Lancashire. Henry was impatient to give him battle. The two armies encountered at Stoke, in the county of Nottingham, and the rebels were defeated. Simnel and his tutor Simon were taken prisoners ; the latter was condemned to close custody, and the former pardoned, as too contemptible to excite farther appre- hension. He was made a scullion in the king's kitchen, and afterwards rose to the dignity of a falconer. Henry, established on the throne, respected by his subjects, and for- midable to neighbouring kingdoms, turned his attention to the affairs of Europe. Those of Brittany in particular were interesting to England. The king of France was for annexing it to his crown. Henry, seeing Who was victorious, and who fell, in Bosworth field ? — Was the Earl of Rich- mond's title valid ?— What impostors did the Duchess of Burgundy raise ?— How was a war between England and France averted ? 76 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. the importance of such a union, was desirous to oppose it. A war with France was always agreeable to the English, and Henry hastened to raise supplies. He assembled a parliament, harangued it in person, spoke of the victories of Crecy, Poictiers, and Agincourt; by this means he procured a considerable subsidy. The English flattered them- selves with the triumphs they were to acquire, and many sold their estates, that they might appear in this enterprise with the greater lustre. They embarked in October, 1492, and arrived at Calais. " It is of little consequence," said Henry, " at what season the invasion is begun, as one summer will not be sufficient for the conquest of France." Mean- while he was privately negotiating a treaty of peace, and the conditions of the treaty were soon adjusted. Henry wanted nothing but money ; and the French king, who was impatient to undertake the conquest of Naples, was easily disposed to give him forty-five thousand crowns, with an annual pension of twenty-five thousand crowns to himself and his heirs. Thus, as Bacon has observed, peace and war contributed equally to fill his coffers ; the first giving him the money of his subjects, and the latter that of his enemies. Meanwhile the duchess of Burgundy meditated another imposture, in the person of a young Jew, born in London, of the name of Peter, or Per- kin Warbeck. The comeliness of his person, his insinuating manners, and the versatility of his genius, suited well with the part he was to act, to counterfeit the young Duke of York, who had been assassinated in the Tower by Richard III. Perkin made his first appearance in Ireland, under the name of Richard Plantagenet. Charles VIII. of France in- vited him to his court, and from thence after visiting the duchess of Bur- gundy, he appeared on the coast of Kent, with six hundred men ; but the people were not now disposed to favour him. A hundred and fifty persons, however, were taken, tried, and executed. He next, by the recommendation of the king of France, visited James IV. of Scotland, who gave him one of his kinswomen in marriage. Perkin, after retir- ing to Ireland, was advised to try the affections of the Cornish men, who possessed the spirit of discontent and sedition. The king marched to oppose his progress, and the moment he appeared he disarmed the rebels. Perkin took refuge in a church, but was prevailed upon to sur- render himself to Henry, who promised him his life. The lady Catha- rine Gordon, his wife, fell into the conqueror's hands, and was treated with generosity. This rebel was conducted to London in a species of mock triumph, and was forced to make a public recital of his adventures, and thrown into prison. Having made his escape, he was retaken, and sent to the Tower ; and on account of carrying on there some intrigues, he was condemned and executed. The king arrested almost at the same instant a number of distinguished individuals, who were arraigned, convicted, and condemned for high treason ; a few were executed, the rest received a pardon. The king's eldest son, Arthur, espoused Catharine of Arragon, but died soon after, and without having consummated the marriage. The Relate the adventures of Perkin, the impostor. — ^To whom was Catharine of Arragon affianced ? — To whom was she afterwards married ? HENRY VII. HENRY VIII. 77 young prince of Wales, afterwards Henry VIIL, now in his thirteenth year, was forced by the king to espouse the widow of his brother; and a dispensation for this purpose was procured from the pope. Every thing yielded to the views of the English monarch, and Europe admired his political discernment. Ferdinand of Spain was connected with him from interest. The archduke Philip, Ferdinand*s son-in-law, paid court to him. Pope Alexander VI. cultivated his friendship. Hav- ing no enemy to fear, Henry gave himself up to his reigning passion. His avarice made him unjust and cruel, and led him to oppress his sub- jects. Arbitrary judgments, fines, compositions, and taxes augmented his treasure to £2,750,000. His rigid economy added to it from day to day, and the more he advanced in years the more detestable was he by his avarice. His activity and firmness, his prudence, his love of peace, and his courage in war, cannot wipe away the stain. On the approach of death, he thought to expiate his injustice by acts of charity. But such measures are more efficacious in lulling the consciences of the unjust than in satisfying the Deity. He expired in the fifty-second year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign, a. d. 1509. No monarch, from the concession of the great charter, had reigned in England with so much authority as Henry VII. One great object of his policy was to humble the nobility, and hold them in subjection. He gave liberty to the nobles to dispose of their estates ; a circumstance which added to the riches of the people, and diminished that of the barons. The arts, commerce, and industry were advancing in their progress, and many wise laws were passed for the execution of justice. The discovery of the New World in 1492 by Columbus, and the pas- sage discovered by the Portuguese to the East Indies round the Cape of Good Hope, were followed by the revival of literature in Europe. The art of printing was invented ; artillery and engineering were brought to greater perfection ; and these events announced the approach of great revolutions. SECTION 2. HENRY VIIL A. D. 1509. The English, dissatisfied with the severe government of Henry VIL, beheld with pleasure the elevation of a prince of sixteen years of age, agreeable from his figure and his manners, and from the candour and gaiety of his temper. It was not immediately seen that his passions would make him a tyrant. The first steps of his administration were answerable to the public expectation. He promoted those to be his ministers who had served him with the greatest zeal during his father's reign. The king consummated at length his marriage with Catharine of Arragon, a princess of great virtue and sweetness of disposition. Henry loved pleasure and entertainments, and his expense was in pro- portion to the treasure left by the late king. Music and literature were in the number of his pursuits. Mention Henry the Seventh's influence in Europe, hivS avarice, his decease. - - What were the great objects of his policy ?— What great discoveries ajid arts now appeared ? — What were the first occurrences of Henry the Eighth's reigh ? 7* 78 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Thomas Wolsey, who had recommended himself by his address to Henry VIL, and who had been employed by him in some difficult com missions, was now prosecuting with vigour the intentions of Henry ■Vlll., and rising to a height of grandeur. Wolsey's insinuating man- ners, his taste for pleasure, and his love of letters, rendered him most acceptable to the king. A vast career opened to his ambition, and Henry, having made him a member of the council, constituted him his sole and absolute minister. But an excessive haughtiness, an insatiable rapacity, and an insolent parade of expense, raised him more enemies than he could conciliate friends by his generosity and his policy. As Henry was ardent for war, Wolsey gave it all his attention. An English squadron presented itself before Brest, but was obliged to retire. A French fleet that attempted a descent on the coast of Sussex, had no better success. The English penetrated into France, by the way of Calais. The emperor Maximilian joined the English forces in the Low Countries with some German and Flemish soldiers, and he blushed not, in return for his services, to take a hundred crowns a day. At the battle of Guinegat the French, who had behaved with so much courage in many encounters, were seized with an unaccountable panic, and took to flight ; and this action is commonly called the battle of the spurs, the French making more use of them than of their swords. The king of Scotland, James IV., ravaged Northumberland, at the head of fifty thousand men : but the English gave him battle at Flod- den, where that monarch and the flower of the Scotch nobility perished. Henry enjoyed his victory with moderation, and entered into a treaty of peace with the queen of Scotland, who now acted as regent. The princess Mary, Henry's sister, was married to Lewis XII. king of France. Mary was in her twentieth year, and Lewis in his fifty- fourth. England enjoyed at this time (a. d. 1515) a tranquillity which it had long required ; and Wolsey, while he affected to follow the incli- nations of Henry, and to enter into all his views, governed with the more authority. He seemed to be only the companion of his pleasures, but was in reality the absolute master of his kingdom. Church prefer- ments were presented to him with the most profuse liberality. To these honours and possessions he joined the dignity of cardinal. The desires of Wolsey increased with his power ; at length the complaints of the people against the minister, reached the ears of the sovereign ; he dis- covered his dissatisfaction, and Wolsey set bounds to his authority. Charles V., emperor of Germany and king of Spain, arrived at Dover to pay a visit to Henry, and on his return to the continent Henry went over to Calais, with the queen and his whole court. Francis, the French king, similarly attended, had come to Ardres. The two monarchs vied in displays of magnificence, and in bestowing mutual marks of their respect and confidence. They visited each other without guards or attendants ; and passed their time in tilts and tournaments, in which What the elevation and the demeanour of Wolsey ? — Relate what warfare oc- curred at this time. — What was the result of the battle of Flodden ? — Whom did the King of France marry? — Who ruled the King? — What interview had the monarchs of England, France, &c. ? HENRY VIII. 79 they respectively distinguished themselves. Henry soon after paid a visit to the emperor Charles, at Gravelines. For some time past, Europe had been agitated with those religious disputes which were to produce the reformation. Leo X., who was a great prince but a bad pope, having exhausted his treasury, had recourse to an expedient. He circulated indulgences, under pretence of a war against the Turks, and for subduing schismatics. These were sold pub- licly in Germany by the Dominicans. The Augustin friars were jeal- ous of them on this account, and Martin Luther, a theologian of their order, declaimed against the church of Rome. He was keen and in- flexible. Many vain and superstitious ceremonies had been introduced into the exercise of religion ; theology was corrupted with subtleties ; religion had become a cloak for the most sordid rapacity, and the most unpardonable ambition. An incessant cry of reformation resounded from all quarters. Luther took advantage of it. After railing against abuses in the sale of indulgences, he attacked indulgences themselves, the dogmas of the church, and the power of the pope. His writings spread over Europe. The elector of Saxony, and other German princes, were favourable to the reformer. England had also many Lollards, who inculcated nearly the same tenets. The English monarch, who had been educated in the doctrines of the Romish church, and had contracted an aversion to Luther, wrote a book against him ; and received from Leo on this account the title of " De- fender of the Faith," an appellation which was long after retained by the kings of England. Lutheranism, notwithstanding, made not the less progress ; persecution brings its proselytes. As the vast treasure amassed by his father had been for some time dissipated, Henry had recourse for supplies to arbitrary exactions and imposts ; and in place of a subsidy which he demanded, the commons could be prevailed upon only to grant a moiety. The more illegal the imposts he levied, the more the people were enraged. The time now approached when the passions of Henry were to pro- duce cruel and fatal scenes. Catharine of Arragon, who was six years older than the king, had lost his affections. He pretended to entertain doubts of the validity of his marriage, notwithstanding the dispensation of pope Julius. But Anna Bull en, the daughter of Sir Thomas Bullen, had acquired an ascendant over his affections, and not being able to in- duce her to comply with his desires, he removed the obstacle by making her his wife. But it was necessary that the bull of Julius should be an- nulled at Rome ; a circumstance to which it was not probable that any pope would submit. The pope, however, granted a commission, in which Cardinal Campeggio was joined with Wolsey, for the trial of the king's marriage. The trial was industriously prolonged ; Campeggio, by the pope's order, prorogued the court, and the cause was evoked to Rome. What resulted from the indulgences of Pope Leo X. ? — What title did the king receive for opposing Luther ? — What change took place in the king's affections ? — How did he endeavour to annul his marriage with queen Catharine of Arragon ? — How was he foiled in this design? 80 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. SECTION 3. Henry was mortified with this cruel disappointment. In the height of his rage he suspected Wolsey of treachery ; and Anna Bullen being prepossessed against this minister, his fall approached. The great seal was taken from him, and entrusted to Sir Thomas More. The palace in which Wolsey resided in London, was seized by an order from the court, and became afterwards the residence of the kings of England, under the title of Whitehall. A cupboard of massy gold, a thousand pieces of holland, and all his sumptuous furniture, were appropriated by Henry. The house of lords presented against him an accusation of for- ty-four articles. Thomas Cromwell, formerly one of his domestics, de- fended him there with a force and courage which, instead of injuring his fortune, laid the foundation of that favour which he afterwards en- joyed with the king. Wolsey had retired to his see of York, where he was arrested for high treason, in order to take his trial in London. Du- ring his journey he stayed a fortnight at the Earl of Shrewsbury's, where one day at dinner he was taken ill, not without suspicions of having poisoned himself. Being conveyed onward, he reached Leicester abbey, where the monks coming out to meet him, he said, " Father Ab- bot, I am come to lay my bones among you." He was seized with a dysentery, and after having expressed his regret that he had been less careful to serve his God than his king, he expired. Henry regretted his death, and spoke of him in terms of the highest praise. The policy of Clement VII. deprived Henry of every hope of accomplishing his divorce ; and Dr. Cranmer suggested an expedient, which was, to consult all the universities of Europe concerning the controverted point, and if they declared the marriage with Catharine illegitimate, the Pope could not easily refuse a divorce. The court was delighted with this proposal, and it is certain that the universities of France, those of England, and those of Italy, pronounced a decision conformable to his wishes, and the judgment of the universities he con- sidered as decisive. These measures could not fail of diminishing the authority of the church; and although Henry shuddered at the thoughts of heresy, he had more than once determined to break with the court of Rome. He required a confession from the clergy, " That the king was the protector and supreme head of the Church of England, so far as is permitted by the law of Christ." The year following, the parliament went still further ; they made an act against levying the annates, or first fruits, a tax which was paid to the pope ; and it was even voted that all censures from Rome should be totally disregarded. The chancellor. Sir Thomas More, foreseeing that these measures tended to a schism with Rome, begged permission to resign the seals. Unable to prevail with the queen to consent to his marriage with Relate the splendour and the fall of Wolsey ? — By whom was Catharine's mar- nage deemed illegitimate ? — What steps were taken by the clergy and the parlia- ment ? — What was the effect of these measures ? ( 82 ) HENEV VIIJ- 83 Anna Bullen, Henry privately espoused that lady, and soon after, he ac- knowledged her as queen. Cranmer pronounced against Catharine the sentence of divorce, a. d. 1533 ; the ceremony of the coronation of the new queen was celebrated, and the birth of Elizabeth was an additional source of satisfaction to Henry. The pope, Clement, fulminated his excommunication against Henry but it added to the general ferment, and advanced the reformation. It had already been maintained that the pope was only a bishop, that the bounds of his authority extended no further than those of his diocese. The people and the parliament received these doctrines, and the clergy conformed to them. The clergy declared that the Bishop of Rome had no authority in England, and the king was, at length, by a public act, constituted head of the church. Though Henry entertained an aversion to the reformers, all ranks of men throughout England were disposed to embrace their opinions. His principal enemies were the monks, and it is probable that Henry re- garded with an envious eye the riches of the Catholic clergy. As su- preme head of the church, he granted a power to his secretary, Crom- well, and to other commissioners, to visit the different monasteries of the kingdom, and to make a scrutiny into the lives of the friars. This inquiry furnished occasion for their dissolution. The grossest abuses were said to have been discovered ; whole convents of men and wo- men abandoned to frauds, idleness, and licentiousness. The report was published, and the horror and detestation of the people were excited. All the lesser monasteries, amounting to three hundred and seventy-six, were suppressed by the parliament, and their revenues, which devolved to the king, amounted to thirty-two thousand pounds a-year. This paved the way for the dissolution of the greater monas- teries. The convocation or assembly of the clergy held this season, passed an act which the Protestants highly extolled ; which was, to publish a version of the Scriptures in the mother tongue. Three years were em- ployed in this undertaking, and it contributed greatly to advance the progress of the reformation. The decline of the Romish religion in England may be traced from the passion of Henry VIII. for Anna Bullen. His violent love for this lady, which six years of opposition could not stifle, suddenly subsided when it had no longer any opposition to contend with. The king turned his affections upon Jane Seymour, one of the maids of honour to' the queen, and he sacrificed his wife to a mistress. The king allowed him- self to be persuaded of the infidelity of his queen, and laid hold on the slightest circumstances to her prejudice. She strongly protested her innocence. Her trial was conducted with the utmost precipitation, and she submitted with intrepidity to the stroke of the axe. Henry married Jane Seymour, the day after Anna's execution. Whom did the king privately espouse? — What doctrines were avowed against the pope's authority ? — Relate the abuses that occurred in the monasteries. — By what convocation was a version of the scriptures pubhshed in the mother tongue * — Upon whom did the king next fix his affections ? — What followed ? 84 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. To the new parliament which was now called, new oaths were ad- ministered against the power of the Pope, and every door to a recon- ciliation with the church was closed. The convocation of the clerg-y, which sat at the same time, complied in every respect with the will of Henry, whose violence could not brook the smallest contradiction, Cromwell, as vicar-general, exercised absolute power. He suppressed many of the ancient holidays, prohibited pilgrimages and other supersti- tions. This was the source of the murmurs of the secular priests. In- surrections were raised in the counties of Durham, York, and Lancaster, which were suppressed. Henry's power was too firmly established to be shaken by petty insurrections. SECTION 4. Henry regarded the monks as irreconcilable enemies, and he. was now inclined to suppress the greater monasteries, that he might enrich himself with their spoils. He had recourse to his former expedient, and a visitation of the monasteries was first appointed. Time, and the bad passions, had doubtless introduced corruptions into the cloisters; but the accusations of the visitors confounded guilt and innocence. Inven- tions, it must be confessed, were discovered, calculated to impose on popular credulity ; false relics were employed, false miracles were per- formed. It was asserted that the saints were presented with fi-equent and rich presents, while the Deity was neglected.* The annual reve- nues arising from these establishments destroyed, amounted to one hun- dred and sixty-one thousand pounds. In order to reconcile the people to these innovations, the king erected six new bishoprics, and settled sala- ries on the abbots and monks ; and it was given out that the crown would never more have occasion to levy taxes, but that the church lands would be sufficient to discharge all the expenses of the govern- ment. In this manner were all the monastic orders abolished in Eng- land. Notwithstanding the censures of the Pope, which were violent and indignant, and vented in holy execrations and anathemas, still Henry piqued himself on his zeal for the Romish faith, and was ambitious to defend it, as well by disputation as by persecution. In an assembly at Westminster, in which the prelates, the nobility, and gentlemen of dis- tinction attended, Henry was charmed with the opportunity for signal- izing his theological talents ; and disputing with Lambert, on the sub- ject of the eucharist, seemed to him no derogation from his dignity. His new parliament, a. d. 1539, was an instrument of his dominion rather than the council of the nation ; and he failed not to avail himself of their abject servility. " It is his majesty's pleasure," said the chan- cellor, " to extirpate from his kingdom all diversity of opinion with re- * Burnet has related that, one year, at the Church of St. Thomas, of Canterbury, there was not one penny offered at God's altar, and that the Virgin's gained only four pounds, but that of the saint acquired nine hundred and fifty-four pounds. What further resistance was made to popery ? — What transfer took place from abbeys to bishoprics? — With what zeal did Henry still defend the Romish faith? HENRY VIII. 85 gard to religion ;" and the famous bill of " Six Articles," was passed, termed by the Protestants, " the bloody bill," as enforcing- the observ- ance of the principal doctrines of the Romish church, under the most cruel punishments of confiscation, imprisonment, or death. The parlia- ment, by an act still more ridiculous, gave these edicts of the king the same force v^ith statutes enacted by the three estates. Thus the con- stitution of England was entirely overthrown. Jane Seymour, the most beloved of all his wives, had died in the year 1537, after having given birth to Edward. The king, therefore, began to think of a new marriage, and his minister, Cromwell, engaged him to address Anne of Cleves; but he never bore her any affection, and the king's resentment soon fell upon his minister. The parliament, who had flattered Cromwell in his prosperity, insulted him in his disgrace. They accused him of heresy and treason, and condemned him without examination and without evidence. His sentence was executed with- out delay. Cromwell was a man of industry and ability, and deserved a better fate. Henry was now induced to repudiate Anne of Cleves upon frivolous pretences; and Anne, on receiving a settlement of three thousand pounds a-year, consented to the divorce. Her place was filled by Catharine Howard, whose vices soon after conducted her to the scaffold. The statute of the Six Articles was vigorously executed, and many Protestants acquired the glory of martyrdom. But Henry was no less rigid against the Catholics, who refused to take the oath of his su- premacy. A foreigner at that time in England, had reason to say, that " those who were against the Pope were burned, and those who were for him were hanged." About this time came out, by the sanction or caprice of Henry, a small work, entitled " The Institution of a Christian Man,''^ which con- sisted partly of Protestant and partly of Catholic doctrines. Some time after, he published a different rule of orthodoxy. He again restrained the reading of the Scriptures, made alterations in the Missal, and ordained that the name of the Pope should be erased out of every book ; but, however versatile were his own opinions, he inculcated upon his sub- jects the most passive obedience to his power. In about a year after the death of the late queen, Henry once more changed his condition, by marrying his sixth and last wife, Catharine Parr. She had been the wife of Lord Latimer, and was considered a woman of discretion and virtue. Catharine made good what had been said in jest, that he would be obliged to marry a widow. She favoured the doctrines of the reformers. In the year 1545, a French fleet, of about a hundred sail, made a de- scent upon England, but performed nothing decisive. The cannon, at this time, were so ill served that it was thought a circumstance some- what wonderful, that each fleet, in the course of two hours, should fire three hundred shot. One small ship in our time, could, without diffi- Mention the parliament's servility to the " Six Articles." — Whom did the king marry, after the death of Jane Seymour ? — What was the fate of Cromwell ? — What, of Anne of Cleves ? — Name the various changes in Henry's religious no- tions. — Who was Henry's sixth and last wife ? 8 86 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. culty, do thrice as much. The succours of parliament in 1546, enabled him again to prepare for war ; but Henry finding his health began to decline, concluded a truce with the King of France ; nothing, however, could cure the king of the madness of introducing new systems of faith. He now permitted the Litany to be celebrated in the vulgar tongue, and he added a prayer to it, " to be delivered from the tyranny of the Bishop of Rome, and from all his detestable enormities." Queen Catharine had nearly been sacrificed to the dogmatical zeal of her husband. The extreme corpulency of Henry, joined to an ulcer in his leg, endangered his life. The queen soothed his discontented and peevish humour. But his favourite topic was theology, and she en- tertained sentiments very different from his. A suspicion of her being heretical induced the king to order articles of accusation to be drawn out against her. Apprised of her danger, she lost not her courage, but visited the king as before. The conversation failed not to turn upon theology, and Catharine affected to excuse herself, and said if she had ever spoken upon such subjects, it was merely to amuse his majesty or animate his conversation, that she might profit by his reflections. " By St. Mary," said Henry, " you are now become a doctor, and are better fitted to give than to receive instruction." He then embraced her with great aflfection, and gave her assurances of his kindness. The next day, while they were conversing with great cordiality, the chancellor, who knew nothing of what had passed, arrived with forty of the pursuivants, to convey her to the Tower : the king spoke to him at some distance from her, treated him very roughly, calling him knave, fool, beast, and ordered him to begone. The nearer Henry approached to his end, the more violent and ty- rannical were his acts. The Duke of Norfolk and the Earl of Surrey were the last that fell under his resentment. On some frivolous accu- sations, Surrey was condemned and executed. The parliament meeting in January, 1546, a bill of attainder was found against the Duke of Norfolk ; the death-warrant was made out, and sent to the lieutenant in the Tower. The duke prepared for death, but an event of greater con- sequence intervened to prevent his execution. The king, who had been for some time past approaching fast towards his end, died the night pre- ceding the day appointed for the duke to suffer, and it was thought im- proper to stain, by an act of tyranny, the commencement of the new reign. Henry reigned thirty-seven years and nine months, and died in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Henry had ability, resolution, and talents ; but his reign is a series of the most tyrannical acts. Amidst all the cruelties of this reign, literature made a considerable progress. The commerce of the English, during this period, was chiefly confined to the Netherlands. What change took place in Henry's health and principles? — What precaution of the queen averted her danger ? — Who were the last that felt the king's resent ment ? — Describe Henry's character, conduct, and cruelties. EDWARD VI. 87 SECTION 5. EDWARD VI. A. D. 1547. Edward VI., the only son of Henry VIIL, succeeded to the throne in the ninth year of his age. Henry had appointed sixteen executors to take the charge of the prince during his minority, and had invested them with the administration of the kingdom. To these he added twelve councillors, to assist with their advice in cases of difficulty. No sooner was the king dead, than it was deliberated whether a protector ought not to be chosen who should possess the exterior symbols of royal dignity, and yet be bound in the exercise of power to follow the opinion of the executors. Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, maternal uncle to the king, was appointed to this dignity, and created Duke of Somer- set. The chancellor, at the same time, was created Earl of South- ampton. The ambition of Somerset grew with his power. He procured a patent from the king, which invested him with full regal authority. The council he appointed consisted of the former persons, except South- ampton. The disgrace of the chancellor was a fatal blow to the Catho- lics. Somerset dissembled not his inclination to extend the reformation. The education of Edward he entrusted to men of the same principles. Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, who was a Protestant as well as the protector, gave his opinion for moderate measures, and that it would be dangerous to introduce a change of religion by violence and perse- cution. A general visitation was made of all the dioceses of England. Those who were charged with this duty had directions to proceed with cau- tion and prudence, and to continue such usages as had no superstitious tendency. Their authority was chiefly to be exerted against sprinkling of beds with holy water, the ringing of bells, and the using of blessed candles in order to drive away the devil. The intemperate zeal of the old monks, who inveighed with much spleen against the reformation, was to be restrained, and certain homilies were published which were to be read to the people. Gardiner, the head of the Catholic party, remonstrated against these innovations. Somerset, having regulated the affairs of the kingdom, raised an army of ten thousand men, determined to make war upon Scotland, and produce, if possible, an union with England, by the marriage of the princess Mary with Edward; and he published a manifesto, in which ne set forth many arguments to engage them to the measure. The Scots, with an army double the number, waited for them. A movement of the English towards the sea, as if intending flight, drew the Scots into an engagement, when ten thousand of the Scots fell in the action. During the king's minority, who was appointed protector? — To whom was the education of Edward entrusted ? — What popish customs were forbidden to be con- tinued? — What marriage was projected ? — What battle was fought ? 88 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. This action is called the battle of Pin key, and cost the English onlj/ about two hundred men. The Earl of Huntly, who had at first been disposed to favour the proposal of Somerset, said pleasantly, that he was not averse to the match, but that he much disliked the manner in which the princess was courted. A cabal in London hastened the protector's return. He summoned a parliament, and its authority completed the reformation. Many laws of the -imperious Henry were* abrogated, particularly those which ex- tended the crime of treason ; the statute of the six articles and private masses were abolished ; the use of the cup was restored to the laity. Candles were forbidden to be carried about on Candlemas and other set days. No images were to appear in churches; auricular confession was left free, to be used or not, at the discretion of the people ; priests were permitted to marry ; and a liturgy was framed for the service of the church. It was also enacted that mass should be celebrated in the vulgar language, and that the prayers to the saints, and some other cere- monies, should be retrenched from it. The doctrine of the real presence in the eucharist was the last tenet of popery that was abandoned by the people. Still, however, the government was in its nature arbitrary ; it punish- ed those whose sentiments accorded not with the creed of the day. A woman who did not conform to the ritual respecting the incarnation of Christ, was condemned to be burnt ! The nation in general, however, submitted to the new doctrine and the new liturgy. The Lady Mary alone continued to adhere to the mass, and refused to admit the estab- lished mode of worship. The suppression of abbeys and monasteries had not only deprived the poor and idle of a great resource, but also the peasants in the neigh- bourhood ; and the spirit of revolt spread itself in the interior, where the people were in extreme indigence. In some of the counties, par- ticularly Devon and Norfolk, the spirit of rebellion threatened the most fatal consequences. The insurgents demanded the re-establishment of the mass, holy bread and holy water, and the redress of other grievances ; marching with crosses and banners before them, and other implements of the ancient religion. Others went so far as to require the suppres- sion of the gentry, and new councillors about the king. Somerset dispatched troops to oppose them, and they were at length dispersed. A violent faction was now formed against Somerset in the council. The haughtiness of his carriage, his ambition, and the contempt and resentment he expressed for those who refused to be directed by his sentiments, the immense riches he had acquired, and the magnificent palace he had built, on ground taken from the church, irritated the dis- contented. Warwick, the most dangerous of these, influenced the council, who magnified his imprudences into crimes, and set aside his uthority. The protector, finding that- he was abandoned by his parti- ans, submitted to his enemies. They informed the young king that What further popish customs did the parliament abolish ?— How were the new doctrine and the new Hturgy received ? — What peasants raised a clamour for the mass, &c.? — What faction was raised against Somerset ? EDWARD VI. 89 the protector, instead of bein^ guided by their direction, had usurped the whole sovereign authority. Their remonstrances were heard; Somerset was thrown into prison, and an accusation framed against him. Dejected and humbled, he confessed himself guilty in a manner that disgraced him. The parliament deprived him of all his offices, and subjected him to a large fine. But Warwick, thinking that he was now sufficiently humbled, re-admitted him into the council. Warwick, though indifferent on the head of religious disputes, de- clared for the Protestants, as the king had imbibed their principles. Se- veral bishops, notwithstanding their compliance with the court, remained still in the Romish faith ; and as they had agreed to hold them only during the king's pleasure, the council determined to seize on their re- venues. The prosecution was commenced on the famous Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. In vain he agreed to subscribe a declaration, that the king was head of the church, &c. ; the more he acquiesced, the more they multiplied their demands. He then refused to subscribe any articles they should submit to him, and he was deposed. Several other bishops underwent the same fate. If ambition could prescribe bounds to itself, Warwick had been happy. He directed the council, he had vast possessions, and had been created Duke of Northumberland. But his prosperity, mstead of satisfying, in- creased his desires. The Duke of Somerset, although degraded, ap- peared to him a rival, and he conspired his destruction. By working on his temper and chagrin, Northumberland provoked him to commit im- prudences, and thus furnished himself with accusations against him. Somerset was charged with the guilt of high treason, and of having meditated the murder of Northumberland and several members of the council ; and the king, prepossessed against his uncle by the enemies of that nobleman, permitted his execution. The Duke of Northumberland, no less rapacious than ambitious, formed the project of seizing for his use the revenues of the bishopric of Durham, one of the richest in the kingdom. Tonstal, who had been promoted to this dignity, and who was possessed of distinguished merit, had opposed all innovations in religion ; though, when established, he had, from a sense of duty, submitted to them. Notwithstanding, a bill of attainder was passed against him in the House of Peers, by means of the Duke of Northumberland. Tonstal was deposed, and the dignity of earl palatine, connected with his see, was conferred on Northumber- land, and two subsidies and two-fifteenths were granted to the king. The debts of the crown, though the sale of the manors and the plun- der of the churches had been great, amounted to three hundred thou- sand pounds sterling. Edward was an economist, but the rapacity of his courtiers was insatiable. As the health of the young monarch now visibly declined, Northum- berland hastened to execute a project which he imagined would conduct his family to the throne. He married Lord Guilford Dudley, one of his sons, to Lady Jane Grey, the heir of the Marchioness of Dorset, niece What bishops still adhered to the Romish faith ? — What was the fate of the Duke of Somerset ? — On what bishopric did Northumberland seize ? 8* 90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. to Henry VIIL, in the hope of making the crown pass immediately to Jane. Edward, wasted with disease, and afraid of the zeal of Mary for the Romish faith, allowed himself to be overcome by the artifices of Northumberland, and expedited letters patent conformable to his desires. The chancellor and the other members of the council subscribed them with extreme reluctance, and yielded to menaces, and the violence of present power and authority. A few days after, Edward expired at Greenwich, in the sixteenth year of his age. This prince was of a mild disposition, and possessed of application, a capacity to learn and to judge, and a scrupulous attachment to equity and justice; and had he been favoured with a longer life, he might have rendered his people happy by a wise and equitable administration. SECTION 6. MARY. A. D. 1553. Mary's title to the crown was indisputable ; nothing could have con- tested it but the criminal policy of Northumberland, who was ambitious to reign under the name of his daughter-in-law. Therefore, before he published the last will of the king, he was solicitous to secure the per- sons of the two princesses ; but Mary, apprised of the plot, retired pre- cipitately into Suffolk. From thence she wrote, in character of queen, to the council and to the nobility, demanding to be acknowledged and proclaimed. The minister offered the crown to Lady Jane Grey. The young lady was, indeed, highly worthy of it, had personal merit been a sufficient title : to the natural virtues and charms of her sex, she united knowledge, and talents of the highest order. Struck with surprise and consternation at this unexpected overture, she refused a sceptre to which she had no right, insisting on the rights of the two princesses ; nor was it till after the most urgent remonstrances that she could be made to yield. Orders -were given for proclaiming her throughout the kingdom, but she was nowhere proclaimed, except in London. The people gave not their assent to the measure, though sanctioned by some of the Protestant clergy and the bishop of London. Mary, in the meantime, was collecting forces ; and as she promised not to reverse the laws of Edward, the nobility and the people flew to her standard. Mary was proclaimed, and Northumberland, who had put himself at the head of six thousand men, was ordered to lay down his arms ; and when he found himself abandoned, he lost his hopes and his courage. When the Earl of Arundel put him under arrest, he meanly threw himself at his feet and begged his life. When on the scaffold, the people, who had lamented the Duke of Somerset, beheld with joy the punishment of his oppressor. Jane Grey and her husband were capitally convicted, but the queen, for the present, suspended their execution. The Duke of Norfolk, who had been a prisoner since the reign of Henry VIIL, and the bishops With what disease, and at what age did the king die ? — Who opposed Mary's title to the crown ? — And why ? — What was the fate of Northumberland ? — To whom did Mary give freedom from prison ? MASY. 91 Gardiner, Tonstal, and Bonner, who had been confined, obtained their liberty and the favour of Mary. She granted a kind of general amnes- ty, but the act was soon followed by the rigours of tyranny. The queen was naturally solemn and gloomy, with a mind not highly cultivated ; and her zeal to re-establish popery, soon degenerated into cruelty. After having restored the deprived bishops to their sees, she impris- oned others of the opposite party. Cranmer became the principal object of her hatred ; he was impeached for high treason, and capitally con- victed. She ordered mass to be performed in Latin before both houses at the opening of parliament, and this was followed by a statute that abolished the laws of Edward. She demanded of Julius III. to appoint Cardinal Pole his legate ; a man so highly in her esteem, that she had even entertained thoughts of marrying him, for he was not a priest. But there was another match, of which she thought more seriously, and a marriage was secretly negotiated with Philip II. of Spain. The commons could see nothing in this alliance but the danger of their liber- ties, and they shook off their submission to the court, and their remon- strances caused them to be instantly dissolved. In 1554, the marriage of Philip and Mary was concluded, on condi- tions apparently advantageous to England. The government was to continue in the hands of the queen. No foreigner was to bear any office in the state. The laws, customs, and privileges of the nation were not to be infringed. The English, apprehensive that the kingdom might, ere long, become a province of Spain, evinced much discontent. The spirit of revolt went abroad. Wyat and Carew promoted insurrections, and they were joined by the Duke of Suffolk, the father of Jane Grey. The leaders were taken, and the scene closed with the most bloody executions. The Princess Elizabeth, in the meantime, by her superior qualities attracting the regard of the nation, was in danger of falling a sacrifice to the hatred of her sister. It was reported that Wyat had impeached her, but he denied the charge on the scaffold. The princess, notwith- standing, was shut up in the Tower. Being restored to her liberty, she had an offer of marriage from the Duke of Savoy ; but she was unwil- ling to leave her country, and rejected the offer. On this refusal, she was again imprisoned. ' The gloomy jealousy of her sister furnished her with perpetual subjects of chagrin. The revolt of the Duke of Suffolk served for a pretext for the execu- tion of Lady Jane Grey, and she received without emotion the long expected news that she must prepare for death. The Romish priests importuned her for three days on the subject of religion, without being able to change her sentiments. She beheld with steadiness her hus- band conducted to the scaffold. At the moment of execution she ac- knowledged her punishment was just ; though, contrary to her inclina- tions, she had been made instrumental to the ambition of her relations ; and added, that her example might teach the world, that without per- What marriage was negotiated for Mary ? — On what conditions was the mar- riage solemnized ? — To what danger was the Princess Elizabeth exposed ? — Who now suffered, without committing personal guilt? 92 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. sonal guilt, one may be justly punished for circumstances that tend to prejudice the state. The duke of Suffolk was executed soon after. The prisons were filled with people of distinction. The queen in the meantime summoned a parliament; and Gardiner, in quality of chancellor, proposed that the queen should be authorized to nominate a successor. On this occasion the parliament was awake to the interests of the nation. The exclusion of Elizabeth was apprehended, and it was feared that Mary might be induced to make a will in favour of Philip. In short, the people were afraid that England would be swallowed up in the monarchy of Spain ; and they determined that Philip should have no share in it. The par- liament also rejected several bills against heresy, and as this did not coincide with the purposes of the court, it was dissolved. SECTION 7. Philip was not in haste to set out for England ; and the queen, con- sumed with impatience, expected him with a degree of inquietude that affected her health. At length he arrived. His cold, reserved, impe- rious air, and the vexatious ceremony that cut off" all access to his per- son, rendered him no favourite with the people. Mary called a new parliament, which she found more complying than the former, and after repealing many statutes, which were thought unalterable, they found no difficulty in renewing those that lighted up the piles for heresy. Such however was its rooted aversion to Spain, that it would never suffer the king to have the charge of government, much less to be presumptive heir to the crown. Philip, finding himself little less than hated, affected a more gentle conduct. He set at large the prisoners of distinction, and among the rest, Elizabeth, who was no less dear to the nation than odious to her sister. One of the great objects of the court was to put in force the rigorous laws against heretics. We shall glance at these during the last three years of this reign. Rogers, a respectable clergyman of the Protestant party, was the first victim. Hooper, bishop of Gloucester, showed still more courage, during three quarters of an hour that he lived in the midst of the flames. Saunders, another ecclesiastic, embraced the stake, as the cross of Jesus Christ. His brother Taylor followed, and repeating a psalm in English at the time of his execution, one of the guards struck him on the mouth, and told him to pray in Latin. Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, the old bishop of Worcester, were burned together at Oxford. The passion for martyrdom excited by these examples, communicated itself to young people, and even to women, many of whom suffered with great fortitude. Gardiner, who had the management of these persecutions, finding that punishments multiplied offenders, gave up the direction to Bonner, bishop of London, a man still more sanguinary than himself Tyranny, in short, proceeded so far as to issue a proclamation that whoever was possessed of heretical books, and did not burn them, should be deemed a rebel, and executed imme- Wherein was the parliament opposed to the queen ? — How did Philip conduct himself in England ? — Mention several among those that were burned for heresy MARY. ELIZABETH. 93 (iiately by martial law. In the space of three years, two hundred and seventy-seven persons were burned for heresy, among- whom were five bishops, iifty-five women, and four children. Mary had sent an embassy to Rome, to reconcile her kingdom to the holy see. That haughty and ambitious pontiff, Paul IV., who trod in the steps of Gregory VII., among other requirements, demanded even the restoration of the Peter-pence, which had been so long abolished. Affected by these remonstrances, the queen thought herself obliged to give up such church lands as were in her possession, and to found new monasteries. In vain the interests of her crown were represented to her. " I prefer," said she, " the salvation of my soul to ten such king- doms as England." She might have learned from the scriptures other means more effectual to save Tier soul, than that of Peter-pence, or founding monasteries. It was not long before she felt the effects of public hatred. The parliament granted but a very small supply ; and several of the commons declared that it was absurd to raise supplies for such purposes. Her ill temper was increased by other chagrins. Phi- lip, disgusted with a wife who was extremely jealous, without being in any respect amiable, left her with disdain, and jouied the emperor. The choler which consumed her she discharged upon her people, by extort- ing excessive loans, and loading them with intolerable exactions. The execution of the famous archbishop Cranmer filled up the mea- sure of iniquity in this atrocious reign, and cardinal Pole succeeded him in the see of Canterbury. By the solicitation of Philip, England sup- ported his endeavours, by joining in a war against France, and an army of ten thousand men was sent to join the Spaniards in the Low Coun- tries. The campaign opened with the siege of St. Quintm, the taking of which threw France into such consternation that it was judged pru- dent to fortify Paris. The French recovering from their fears, sent the duke of Guise to besiege Calais, which he took in eight days ; a place deemed impregnable, and which had cost Edward III. a siege of eleven months. The loss of Calais filled the kingdom with murmurs, and was severely felt by Mary ; she was heard to say that, when dead, the name of Calais would be found engraven on her heart. The mortification of bemg without children, the fear of leaving a crown to a sister whom she hated, the approaching ruin that threatened the Catholic religion, the indifference of a husband about to retire to Spain, the hatred of her own subjects, irritated by her deeds of cruelty, all uniting, made serious inroads on her constitution. A slow fever car- ried her off", in the forty-fourth year of her age, after an unfortunate reign of five years, four months, and eleven days» Cardinal Pole died the same day with Mary. SECTION 8. ELIZABETH. A. D. 1558. Elizabeth was welcomed to the crown by general acclamation. Sh^ was about twenty-five when she passed as it were from a prison to a What embassy did Mary send to Rome ? — What did she prefer? — What occa- sioned the loss of Calais ? — What circumstances hastened her death? — What was the age of Ehzabeth on coming to the crown ? 94 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. throne. The remembrance of her misfortmies gave an eclat to hei merit. After having thanked heaven for her deliverance, as for a mi- racle, she s'eemed to forget all the injuries of her enemies. Even he who had been her keeper, when in prison, found her not actuated by revenge. The ambitious Philip II., the late husband of Mary, made her proposals of marriage, but the queen, unwilling to have a master, eluded his offers, without appearing to reject them. Though Elizabeth was determined in favour of the Protestant reli- gion, the English ambassador at Rome, received an order to notify to the pope her accession to the throne. Paul IV. with inflexible haughti- ness, prescribed submissions to the queen, previous to her obtaining countenance from the head of the church. The queen is reported to have said in reply, that " the pope in order to gain too much would lose the whole." She recalled her ambassador, and restored a religion alto- gether unfavourable to the papacy. She imitated not the precipitate conduct of Mary, but took her measures with caution. She discharged from prison, or recalled from exile, those whose religion had been their crime. The spirit of reformation was rekindled by the clergy. Some altera- tions m divine service followed. Part of the prayers were read in Eng- lish. The elevation of the host was discontinued, and a greater zeal was expressed for the Bible than the Church of Rome. A wit of those times, alluding to the scriptures, said there were four more prisoners to be set free, viz. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John: the queen replied, we must first consult the good people themselves, whether they will wish to have them. She left it to parliament to put the finishing hand to the business, and to give it the sanction of the laws. The affability of the queen, her address in gaining the hearts and directing the opinions of the people, her graceful dignity, and her insi- nuating manners, subdued all the difficulties of the enterprise. The parliament was no sooner assembled (a. d. 1559) than it gave every tes- timony of zealous loyalty and obedience. The two houses not only con firmed her right to the crown, and acknowledged her supremacy, but gave her all the ecclesiastical authority, with a power of deputing it to such commissaries as she should think proper to nominate. This was the origin of the high court of commission, which exercised an arbitrary authority, so dangerous at all times to civil liberty. The statutes of Edward VI. respecting religion were confirmed. The oath of supremacy was required to be taken. The mass and the liturgy of the Church of Rome were abolished. These changes took place without disorder or opposition. The commons petitioned her, in form, to make choice of a husband. She answered, with great politeness, that marriage always appeared to her a burden ; and that with the go- vernment of so great a kingdom, it seemed still more so; that the state was her husband, and the people of England her children, and that she should not thmk her life unfruitful, while her days were devoted to the care of such a family. What occurred between Elizabeth's ambassador and the pope ? — What changes occurred, favourable to Protestantism ? — Did not the queen's graceful dignity win upon the parliament ? — What was her reply to parliament, on one occasion? ELIZABETH. 95 When the queen came to the throne, she found an interval of peace necessary, m order to restore the shattered state of her finances, and to make the kingdom flourish. She therefore concluded a peace with France. In the meantime, the court of France gave great umbrage to Elizabeth. Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland, niece of the Guises, and wife of Francis IL, who soon succeeded Henry, his father, contested the legitimacy of Elizabeth's birth, in order one day to dispute the crown with her ; and she took the arms and title of the Queen of Eng- land. The Guises added fire to her ambition ; and waited only for a favourable opportunity of confirming her triumph. Elizabeth did not slumber on the brink of danger, and the troubles of Scotland afforded her the means of preventing it. Religious feuds in that kingdom rose to the most outrageous heights. At the head of the Protestant party were people of the first distinction, who established a society denomi- nated the Congregation of Jesus, (December, 1557.) The famous John Knox kindled and kept alive the religious zeal of the Scots, and these revolters had recourse to Elizabeth for protection. In vain did Francis II. offer to restore Calais on condition of her ob- serving neutrality. She answered that a fishing town was of small consequence compared with the security of her dominions. She entered into negotiations with the Scotch reformers, and a very humiliating treaty was signed at Edinburgh, by which the King of France and Mary Stuart renounced the arms of England, together with the title they had assumed. The reign of the Queen of Scots was unfortunate. After some years of turbulent government and the endurance of much humiliation, she was opposed by many of her nobility and subjects in arms. A battle fought at Langside, near Glasgow, a. d. 1568, was decisive against the young queen, and she fled with precipitation to the borders of England, where she hoped for protection from Elizabeth, who, instead of protect- ing her, ordered her to be put in confinement in Tutbury Castle ; yet treated her with all proper marks of respect.* The Duke of Norfolk, one of the first peers in England in point of birth and fortune, and who was beloved and respected by the people, flattered himself with the hope of marrying Mary. The sentiments of that princess were consulted, to which she replied that her repugnance to a new marriage should give way to the public good, &c. Norfolk at first agreed to conclude nothing without the consent of Elizabeth ; but despairing to obtain that consent, he sought to form a party capable of supporting his interests. The Icings of France and Spain, being pri- vately consulted, approved his design. Cecil, secretary of state to Elizabeth, got intelligence of the conspiracy, and the queen one day told Norfolk to take care on what pillow he reposed his head. The duke with many of the conspirators were arrested. In the meantime, to quiet the partisans of Mary, Elizabeth affected to negpciate in her favour, and to give testimonies of her attachment ; but political motives disguised her real sentiments. Pius V., unable to gain her friendship, * For the events connected with Mary Q,ueen of Scots till she was imprisoned mi England, see the account under the head of Scotland, in the latter part of this volume. What occurrences took place in Scotland ? — What treaties did the queen enter into? — Who approved of Norfolk's union with Mary, Queen of Scots? — Where did the Queen of Scots flee for refuge ? 96 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. aimed against her the thunders of the Vatican. He excommunicated her, and affected to deprive her of her crown, by absolving her subjects from the oath of allegiance. SECTION 9. Elizabeth found among the Puritans, as well as among the Papists, sufficient cause for the exercise of her vigilance. The puritans, from the year 1568, were known for enemies to episcopacy, and to all reli- gious ceremonies ; and the spirit of liberty which fanaticism inspires became formidable to established government. The seeds of these dis- orders began to vegetate in the new parliament. One Strickland pro- posed the abolition of the liturgy, and the omission of the sign of the cross in baptism. But whatever sallies of zeal were shown in the house, they did not weaken the general respect for the prerogative. The general opinion invested such extensive powers in the crown, that the efforts of natural liberty were unsuccessful. Two words were suf^ ficient to silence the parliament. " The queen will be offended." " The council will be shocked," Still Elizabeth was regarded as a popular princess. So different were the ideas of the constitution at that time fr'om those which soon followed. Her economy, and other resources, placing her above want, contributed not a little to secure her from any dangerous opposition. While she maintained tranquillity in her own kingdom, religious wars were ravaging the neighbouring states, and Elizabeth sent repeated suc- cours to the Protestants or Huguenots, as they were termed, in France, headed by the prince of Conde, and his son, the young prince of Na- varre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, together with the formidable Coligny and others. The Low Countries also became the theatre for a spirit of reformation on the one hand, and rigorous persecution on the other ; and Elizabeth, beholding these scenes of violence with indigna- tion, afforded aid and protection to the unhappy people when reduced almost to despair. The Duke of Alva, in return, endeavoured to raise disturbances in England, by renewing the intrigue of Mary Stuart and the Duke of Norfolk. A new conspiracy was set on foot ; the plot was discovered, and the Duke of Norfolk, accused of high treason, died on the scaffold. The year 1572 was pregnant with all the hidden horrors of St. Bar- tholomew. That hideous massacre of the Huguenots in France, in the reign of Charles IX., was the result of a policy equally blind and atro- cious. This same year, the Protestants in the Low Countries, who had been struggling for their liberties against Philip II. of Spain, till their valour had been heightened by despair, took the Brill, a maritime town in Holland, and that province, with Zealand, revolted from the Spanish government. William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, put himself at the head of the confederacy, which formed, in process of time, a pow- erful republic in Europe, under the name of the " Seven United Pro- vinces." In 1575 the confederates implored the assistance of Elizabeth, Did not both Puritans and Papists exercise her vigilance ? — To what Protestants did EHzabeth afford assistance ? — What rehgious persecutions occurred in the Low Countries ? — What took place in France 2 ELIZABETH. 97 even offering to acknowledge her for their sovereign. She rejected the sovereignty, which could not be supported without the most dangerous wars ; but she first negotiated with the court of Spain in their favour and afterwards, in 1578, concluded a treaty with them. While these religious wars involved in flames one of the finest coun- tries in Europe, Elizabeth still secured the tranquillity of her own king- dom ; where the same principles of discord might have been expected to produce the same effects. Firm, but discreet, she supported the Church of England, without alienating by persecution those who did not conform to it. The Irish, who were zealous Catholics, but at that time an unculti- vated people, superstitious, and disposed to revolt, wanted only an occa- sion to rise ; and Philip, of Spain, in the name of the pope, sent a body of troops to Ireland. The enterprise had no success. The foreign troops were cut to pieces. Francis Drake did the Spaniards consider- able mischief in the New World. His captures enriched him, and his courage defied all danger. Having fitted out at his own expense a small fleet of four ships, he left Plymouth in 1577, penetrated into the South Sea, through the Straits of Magellan, carried off immense riches, opened a passage to the East Indies, and returned to England by the Cape of Good Hope. He was the first Englishman who sailed round the world. Philip of Spain complained in high terms, but the queen found means to appease him. In 1581, the queen assembled the parliament, as her finances were exhausted ; and as the Papists, by their zeal and activity, had occasioned many disturbances, the parliament made the laws against them more severe. Many of the sons of the English Catholics were sent for in- struction to the seminary of Douay. The Jesuits were the teachers, and it was alleged that they inspired their pupils with a violent hatred to the queen, and even authorized a revolt from an excommunicated prin- cess ; and that as the pope had ordered the execution of his bull, it was their duty. Hence the severest pains and penalties were decreed by the parliament. But the violence of religious zeal is almost always at- tended with dangerous disorders, A proposal of marriage was negotiated between Elizabeth and the Duke of Alengon, who, when his brother, Henry III., came to the crown, succeeded to the title of Duke of Anjou ; and the articles of the treaty were agreed upon. This treaty made the English very uneasy, for though the queen was in her forty-ninth year, and there could be no probability of issue, yet, what could be expected from a union with a Catholic, whose hands were already stained with the blood of the Hu- guenots 1 And what would become of England, if a King of France should unite the two crowns 1 Sir Philip Sidney had the courage to address an elegant and respectful letter to the queen, opposing a union so obnoxious to his country. Elizabeth was struck with Sidney's let- ter ; and after many days of reflection and uncertainty, she broke with the duke. What success had Philip's troops in Ireland ? — What occasioned more severe laws against the papists ?-— Did Elizabeth accede to the Duke of Alencon's propo- sal ? 9 98 HISTOKY OF ENGLAND. All the prudence of the queen could not secure her from conspira- cies. The partisans of Mary of Scotland were impatient to set her at liberty, and many plots were discovered. The Jesuits, and other priests of the Romish Church, were banished the kingdom ; and the English students in foreign seminaries were required to return, within a certain time, and make the usual submissions. From that time toleration of popery was no more. The laws were executed with rigour. In the space of ten years, fifty priests suffered death ; the House of Commons were anxious for an entire uniformity in religious matters, thinking it an object of the greatest importance to the kingdom. This shows how far they were at that time from those principles which have since ac- quired to them so much dignity and power. An ecclesiastical court, called the high court of commission, estab- lished an arbitrary tribunal, which may be reckoned among the worst abuses of despotism. The whole kingdom was subject to its decrees. The commissioners had the power of examining into errors, heresies, incest, adultery, and all other irregularities. Thus it was that Eliza- beth exercised her supremacy, at the expense of the rights of humanity. Though the commons had carried their deference even to a weakness, the queen did not fail to reproach them for their presumptuous impru- dence. Singular as it was for a woman to be the head of the church, the nation yielded to the yoke ; yet so little influence had the best es- tablished authority over the prejudices of sects, that about five hundred Puritan ecclesiastics secretly subscribed a book of discipline conform- able to their principles ; — and the force of the laws was unable to pre- vent Presbyterianism taking root in the bosom of the church of Eng- land. About this time a horrid conspiracy against the life of Elizabeth was discovered. William Parry, a gentleman of the Romish religion, per- suaded himself that the interests of the church would sanctify the at- tempt ; but his accomplice and relation, from motives of interest, im- peached him. Parry confessed the whole, and was executed. Admiral Drake was sent into America, where he took from the Span- iards St. Domingo, Carthagena, and other places. A number of Eng- lish adventurers embarked for the New World. The celebrated Sir Philip Sidney, a man of the finest genius, and the most heroic virtue, perished in the Low Countries, fighting for the cause of the States ; the queen having entered into a treaty oftensive and defensive with them, had sent them six thousand men, and maintained them during the war. SECTION 10. The Catholics still persevered in their animosity against Elizabeth. A priest from the English seminary at Rheims, went into England wit?i a resolution to kiU Elizabeth. He drew into his principles one Babington, a young nobleman, who was susceptible of that false zeal which believes What were the conspiracies in behalf of Mary, Queen of Scots ? — What were the abuses of the High Court of Commission ? — Was not a conspiracy formed asjainst Elizabeth ? — What celebrated man fell in the Low Countries ? ( 100 ) ELIZABETH. 101 every thing justifiable in defence of religion. Several other Catholics of distinction were drawn into the conspiracy. They agreed to assas- sinate the queen of England, place Mary, queen of Scots, upon the throne, and restore popery. x\Iary, to whom the scheme was communi- cated, approved the design. Happily for Elizabeth, her prime minister, Walsmgham, was a man of the first genius, and by his vigilance she escaped the danger. The conspirators were taken up ; fourteen were executed, of whom seven acknowledged their crime. The council deliberated on the measures to be taken with regard to Mary, and the major part were for bringing her to trial. There are few scenes more tragical than that which attended the death of this princess. Forty commissioners appointed for the trial went to Fotheringay castle, where Mary was imprisoned. The great business was to prove that she had concurred in the plot of assassinatmg Elizabeth ; and the testimony of both her secretaries, and the copies of intercepted letters, were decisive proofs. Havuig finished the trial, the commissioners returned to London, and pronounced sen- tence of death against her. Elizabeth aftected to be greatly interested in the fate of her relative, and that she might appear to be guided only by the suiirages of the nation, she called a parliament, who solicited Mary's execution ; urging many specious arguments for its necessity. But they could not justify an action barbarous in itself, and the necessity for which was by no means obvious. The minds of the people being at length inflamed to her wish, Eliza- beth signed the warrant for the execution (1587). Mary received the news with tranquillity. Her heroic firmness during her execution never 9nce failed her. She died at the age of forty-four, after an imprison- ment of eighteen years in England : a princess of uncommon beauty, and distinguished by great qualities ; but her connexion with Both well, and the effects of a blind passion, were the occasion of a conduct which nothing can justify. Yet culpable as was Mary, and as was Elizabeth, their times, their situations, and other circumstances, will offer many an excuse for each. In the following year, 1588, Philip II. of Spain meditated a most for- midable invasion of England. All the ports of Naples, Sicily, Spain, and Portugal contributed to the immense preparations for the expedi- tion, and the " Invincible Armada," as the Spaniards called it, threaten- ed the annihilation of the English. The magnanimity of Elizabeth showed itself in this juncture. Her fleet at this time consisted of no more than twenty-eight sail. The maritime towns, the nobility, and gentry testified the greatest zeal on this occasion ; even the Catholics themselves discovered patriotic sentiments. London fitted out thirty ships. The land forces were superior in number to those of Spain, and they were ready to sacrifice their lives to liberty and the laws. The queen appeared on horseback before the camp at Tilbury, harangued her army, expressed her entire confidence in it, assured them that she Was not another conspiracy formed against the queen ? — Relate the trial of Mary, Queen of Scots. — With what firmness did she meet her fate ? — How did the queen prepare for the Spanish Armada ? — What did she say to the army ? 9* 102 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. would march at their head, and not only behold, but reward, their bra- very. — " My arm," said she, " is but the arm of a woman, but I have the heart of a king, and what is more, of a king of England," and added, that she would sooner die in the field of battle than survive the ruin of her people. The enthusiasm caught every breast, and the whole army partook of the ardour of the heroine. The '' Invincible Armada," first detained by the death of the admiral, and secondly by a tempest, put to sea a third time, with a hundred and thirty ships, and twenty thousand soldiers on board, besides eight thou- sand seamen, and advanced full sail towards Plymouth, occupying a space of seven miles in length. The Duke of Parma engaged to meet them with a large army from the Netherlands. But human hopes are often the sport of fortune : an armament, till then unparalleled on the, ocean, and calculated at once to excite terror and amazement, was soon overwhelmed. Admiral Effingham, ably seconded by Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, played his cannon against the enemy's heavy vessels with success. Two of the Spanish galleons were first disabled and taken. To increase their confiision, Howard filled eight of his smaller ships with combustible materials, and sent them as fire-ships amongst the ene- my. The Spaniards fled in great disorder, while the English took or destroyed twelve of their vessels. A violent storm completed the ruin of the invincible fleet : as it was returning through the Orkneys, seven- teen ships, with five thousand men on board, were cast away on the Western Isles and the coast of Ireland. Not half the number of ves- sels returned to Spain. Philip is reported to have said, " I sent my fleet to combat the English, not the elements," and he thanked God that the calamity was not greater. Nothing is more seductive than victory. The English now thought of nothing less than of taking Portugal fi:om Philip. Of those who made the most signal figure in the depredations upon the enemy, was the young Earl of Essex, a nobleman of bravery and genius, who risked every thing for glory. One of the queen's favourite ministers, Leices- ter, died in 1588, and the Earl of Essex became his successor. He be- came also the professed rival of the sage Burleigh and the celebrated Raleigh. His interest in the queen's afifections promoted his interest in the State, and he conducted all things at his discretion. In a debate before the queen between him and Burleigh, he carried matters so high, as to turn his back upon the queen with an air of disrespect : Elizabeth in her anger gave him a box on the ear. Instead of recollecting him- self, and making that submission due to her sex and station, he clapped his hand to his sword, and swore he would not endure such an affront, even fi-om her father. His friend the chancellor advised him to make due apology to the queea^ and to consider his duty and his fortune ; which he refiised. But the queen's affection for him was so strong, that she forgot or overlooked the offence. Describe the conflict, and the happy result to England. — Relate the occurrence between the queen and Essex. — Its result. ELIZABETH. 103 SECTION 11. The troubles of Ireland opened a new scene for the ambition of Essex, and he rashly ran upon a fatal career. That kingdom, though it had been under the government of England nearly four hundred years, was still in an uncivilized state. The attachment of the Irish to the church of Rome heightened their aversion to their Protestant oppressors. So out- rageous was their fury, that in one revolt they put to death all the in- habitants of the town of Athamy, because they began to be civilized, by adopting the English manners. To subdue these disorders was an employment that Essex thought worthy of his ambition ; though the queen, for the execution of this design, had cast her eyes on Lord Mountjoy. Essex" was appointed ; and an army of twenty thousand men was raised, not doubting that the first campaign would be decisive. The first acts of Essex, as governor of Ireland, were opposed to the wishes of the queen, both in the choice of a master of the horse, and in the march of the army ; and after an ineffectual struggle, in which his forces were greatly weakened, he concluded a suspension of arms. The queen did not fail to signify to him her dissatisfaction, and commanded him to continue in Ireland till farther orders. But he precipitately left Ireland, arrived in London, and presented himself before the queen. Elizabeth gave him a kind reception, but he was ordered to be account- able for his conduct to the privy council, and was kept sequestered firom all society. This humbled his pride. He fell sick, and his life was thought to be in danger. The queen showed herself greatly interested in his recovery, and that proof of her tenderness was apparently his most effectual remedy. In the meantime Mountjoy, appointed to the command of Ireland, con- ducted himself with great dexterity and success. Essex was tried be- fore the privy council, and the chancellor's sentence is remarkable. " If the Earl of Essex," said he, " had been tried in the star chamber, I should have condemned him to perpetual imprisonment in the Tower, and should have laid a heavier fine upon him than ever was known in that court ; but as we are in the train of favour, I declare that he be de- prived of his offices and functions, remanded to his house, and continue there a prisoner during the queen's pleasure." Essex lost all hopes of being restored to the queen's favour, and flew to revenge. To increase the number of his partisans, he paid his court to the Catholics, and even flattered himself that he might gain over the Puritans. His house was a kind of pulpit, where the fervours of fanaticism constantly discharged themselves, and the imprudent Essex did not spare the queen in his discourses. He represented her as an old woman, whose temper was as crooked as her person. Elizabeth was informed of it ; and being extremely sensitive on the subject of her beauty, though now almost seventy, she felt this injury as a woman and as a queen. What new troubles now agitated Ireland ? — How did the Earl of Essex there conduct himself? — What sentence did the chancellor pronounce against Essex ? — What steps did Essex take in revenge ? — What sarcasm did he utter ? 104 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Every step the earl took in the intoxication of his passion, brought him nearer to the precipice. He attached himself to the king- of Scotland ; he formed a plan for a revolt ; and he resolved with his partisans to at- tack the palace, to oblige the queen to call a parliament, and change the administration of government. He flattered himself that the inhabitants of London would take up arms at the first signal ; but the court being informed of the plot, had taken proper measures to suppress it. Essex appeared in town, accom- panied by two hundred men. His seditious exhortations were without effect. He was pursued, and notwithstanding his bravery, submitted at discretion, a. d. 1601. His trial was soon finished : his crime was noto- rious. Far from making his defence, he gave himself up to sentiments of religion. He not only acknowledged himself guilty, but impeached his friends ; a circumstance of the most infamous baseness. The queen, in great agitation, balanced between justice and cle mency. She felt the revival of an ill-extinguished passion, and if the earl would have solicited her pardon, love would certainly have granted it. He was executed in the Tower, to prevent popular commotions ; for the people, by whom he was too much beloved, were irritated by his death. This illustrious criminal was not more than thirty-four years of age, descended from a royal lineage on the female side, and endowed with superior talents and heroic qualities. Although Philip II. of Spain died in 1598, that court, still animated by the same councils, sent troops to Ireland. Religion served as the pretext to the enterprises of ambition and of rebellion. The commander took the title of " General in the Holy War for the Preservation of the Faith," and his measures were authorized by the bulls of Rome. — Mountjoy foresaw this storm. He attacked the Spaniards and the Irish rebels ; drove away the former, subdued the latter, and by a conduct equally prudent and vigorous, completed in a few years the reduction of Ireland. The last two years of Elizabeth furnish no memorable event. In the midst of her prosperity and her glory, she fell into a profound melan- choly : some consider it as an effect of her passion for Essex. After tlie expedition of Cadiz, it is said she gave him a ring, promising him that in whatever circumstances he might be, the sight of that pledge would induce her to favour him. Essex, when under sentence of deatii, intrusted the Countess of Nottingham to carry the ring to Elizabeth ; but the Earl of Nottingham, his enemy, prevented it. The queen waited for the ring with the utmost impatience, and not receiving it, she signed the death-warrant. At last the countess, in a violent illness, stung with remorse, confessed the whole to her. Outrageous and in- consolable, Elizabeth at first abandoned herself to her wrath; after- wards to all the bitterness of remorse. A miserable languor soon reduced her to the last extremity. The council sent to consult her with regard to her successor ; she named Where did Essex suffer ? — What were his qualities ? — What success had Mountjoy in Ireland? — What is said to have affected the queen's health? — What incident is related ? JAMES I. 105 the King of Scotland, her nearest relation, and died at the age of sixty- nine, after a reign of forty-four years, a. d. 1603. This princess, too much exalted by flattery, too much blackened by censure, will always, notwithstanding her faults, hold a place among the greatest monarchs. The firmness, the prudence, and the glory of her government ; her policy, her vigilance, her heroism, her unavaricious economy, and her address in difficulties, give a triumph to her reputa- tion. In this reign flourished Spenser, Shakspeare, Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam), &c. CHAPTER YL— THE HOUSE OF STUART. SECTION 1. JAMES I. A.D. 1603. James VI. of Scotland, and the First of England, was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. The English nation appeared to be greatly in- terested in his favour. He began his reign by lavishing titles and fa- vours, of which the Scots had the greatest part ; on which account the English were offended. James, however, employed Englishmen in the administration, and among others, Cecil, secretary of state, who was created Earl of Salisbury. A conspiracy, which has never been sufficiently cleared up, was ex- cited in the beginning of this reign. Lord Grey, Lord Cobham, and Sir Walter Raleigh, were condemned to die ; the two former were par- doned afl;er they had laid their heads on the block. Raleigh was respited, but remauied in confinement for many years, and at last suffered for his offence. Secure fi-om this danger, James turned his attention to theological disputes. The severities of Elizabeth had restrained the partisans of the Church of Rome ; but the fanaticism of the Puritans was a matter more difficult to subdue. Nevertheless, he was willing that the divines of the Church of England should hold a conference with them at Hamp- ton Court. The objects of the controversy were mostly the ceremonies and not the doctrines. Some small change in the liturgy was the only fruit of this conference. Each party retained its prejudices, with all the animosity they inspired. From this time the parliament began to assume a more liberal spirit. The love of liberty had increased with the taste that now prevailed for letters. From the spirit of independence the parliament opposed the union of the kingdoms of Scotland and England ; a union which true policy must have considered as the greatest advantage. They also re- Mention her age, how long she reigned, and her character. — Who was her successor ? — What conspiracy occurred in the beginning of this reign ? — What sontioversy was held with the Puritans ? 106 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. fused the king a supply which he v/anted. This conduct of parliament showed the new principles that were taking root in the nation. James did not foresee the consequences. He relied on the rights of the crown, without imagining that his subjects could have any rights to set against them. His weakness and timidity, rather than any political motives, made him .conclude a peace with Spain. But a great conspiracy disturbed that tranquillity so favourable to his indolence. The Catholics, per- suaded at first that the son of Mary would certainly favour their reli- gion and mitigate their laws, enraged at finding themselves treated with the same rigour, indulged in the principles of a blind zeal. Cates- by and Piercy, men of distinguished birth, united in a project of estab- lishing their religion on the ruins of every thing that was great in the kingdom. The king, the royal family, and the parliament were to be involved in one common ruin. For the execution of this incredible en- terprise, there were twenty conspirators mutually sworn to fidelity. Thirty-six barrels of gunpowder were concealed under the hall where the parliament assembled. The secret did not transpire. The day of execution was at hand. Happily, Lord Mounteagle, a Catholic, was advised by an anonymous letter not to appear in the parliament house. The parliament, it was said, w^ould receive a dreadful blow, without knowing fi:om what quarter it came. Mounteagle consulted Lord Salisbury, secretary of state, and though at first they gave but little credit to the letter, they communicated it to the king. James judged differently. The vaults were searched, the powder was discovered, and one of the conspirators, Guido Faux, was taken. The fear of torture at length compelled him to declare his accomplices. They having fled to Warwickshire, stood upon their de- fence, though so few in number. Their powder failing, great part of them were killed. Some of them being conveyed to prison, confessed their crime and were executed ; others experienced the king's mercy. Two Jesuits, Garnet and Oldcorne, it is said, were privy to the plot, and had abused the confession to confirm the will of the culprits. Garnet was executed with the rest. This deed excited the rage of the English against the Papists. But James moderated their resentment : he declared in parliament that the whole body should not be accused for the acts of a few, and that, while he punished the guilty, he would protect the innocent. At length he even mitigated his own laws against that people. Difference of reli- gion did not exclude those from his favour whom he thought worthy of it. In 1610, the parliament re-assembled, and made new efforts against his prerogative. A considerable supply, which he obtained in 1606, was in a short time dissipated. An indiscreet profusion rendered him every day poorer, and made those supplies necessary which the parlia- ment would not grant. He seemed impressed with the conviction that What were the views of James and the parliament ? — Relate the gunpowder plot, — And the means of its discovery. — Its effect on the people. — The king's clemency. — Was not James profuse of the public money ? JAMES I. 107 the royal authority had no bounds, but he found, with indignation, that bounds were prescribed to it. These agitations seemed to announce the approach of those violent storms which, in the reign of his successor, overwhelmed the throne. About 1612, the king turned his attention to Ireland. Though that country had been subject to England four hundred and forty years, yet they had continued ignorant, and were a prey to the tyranny of their conquerors. James determined to secure to them their property, de- fended the people from the oppression of the nobility, introduced agri- culture, and abolished barbarous customs, so that in the course of a few years he was enabled to govern them by justice and the laws ; and this was the most glorious monument of James's reign. About this time, Robert Carr, a youth of good family in Scotland, attracted the king's attention and became a favourite. The king knighted him ; he was next created Viscount Rochester, honoured with the order of the Garter, made a privy councillor, and at last created Earl of Somerset. Some time after, being accused and convicted of being accessary to an infamous murder, he sunk to the level from which folly had raised him. The king, however, pardoned him, though his accomplices were punished. James was not so improvident as to part with one favourite before he had obtained another. George Villiers, a young man remarkable for his beauty and effeminacy, attracted the monarch's regards, and weakened the influence of the former favourite. The fortune of Villiers grew with amazing rapidity ; he was created Duke of Buckingham, Lord High Admiral of England, &c., so that in a few years he was loaded with favours suiScient to reward the merit of many illustrious men. Without economy, and lavish to his favour- ites, his resources were ill proportioned to his wants. After selling baronets' titles to the amount of two hundred thousand pounds sterling, he restored to the Dutch three important places which Elizabeth had required as pledges for the sums advanced to them. He was contented to receive about one-third of those sums, which amounted to nearly seven hundred thousand pounds sterlmg. SECTION 2. About the year 1617, James turned his views to Scotland. He was extremely desirous of establishing there the mode of worship and doctrines of the church of England. In that country fanaticism had raged with all its horrors, and the Scots had expressed an extreme aversion to these and such like ceremonies. In England, also, from an erroneous Catholic persuasion, that holidays were intended not only for the honour of God, but as a relaxation from labour, he ordered that, after divine service, all manner of harmless amusements might be exercised, which gave great offence to many conscientious minds. The famous Sir Walter Raleigh, during his imprisonment of thirteen years, had written several learned works, and the favourable disposition By what means did James benefit Ireland ? — Mention who were James's fa- vourites. — What was the history of Carr ? — Of Buckingham ? — Did not James interfere in the religion of Scotland ? 108 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. of the public, who thought such a valuable citizen ought to be restored to the State, increased his desire and his hope of liberty ; and he ex pected to obtain it by publishing that in the reign of Elizabeth, he had discovered in Guiana a gold mine of immense value. James, though not much struck with so improbable a report, gave him the command of twelve ships ; and Sir Walter, in 1616, arrived on the coast of Gui- ana, and attacked the town of St. Thomas, belonging to the Spaniards, notwithstanding the peace concluded between Spam and England. The place was taken, but no treasure found. This called down the reproaches of those whom he had undertaken to command, and they compelled him to return with them to England to answer for his conduct. He and his companions were examined before the privy council. In the course of his trial he is said to have shown great coolness and ability, and to have displayed not less of intrepidity at the time of his execution. On feel- ing the edge of the axe, he observed, that it was a sharp and sure rem- edy for all evils. Raleigh was one of those men whose genius was suited to great enterprises and emergencies. He was one of the ear- liest and most efficient friends of colonization in North America, sent out several expeditions and spent a large fortune in attempting the set- tlement of North Carolina. If the introduction into England of tobacco as an article of commerce and impost, and of the potato as an article of culture and food, were his only benefactions to his country, she would owe him an eternal debt of gratitude. His character stands higher now than in his own time. The king's eldest daughter had been married to Frederic, the Elector Palatine of Germany ; and if any event could have roused him from his inactivity, it should have been the disaster of his son-in-law. Bohemia, having revolted from the house of Austria, offered the crown to Frede- ric, who readily received it. The emperor, Ferdinand 11. , after having conquered Prague, took from him his hereditary possessions. The Eng- lish expressed a great desire of revenge, and were bent on war, but James flattered himself he should be able to re-establish his son-in-law in the palatinate by negotiation : but Ferdinand had given it to the Duke of Bavaria, and James's negotiations produced nothing. The marriage of his son Charles with the Infanta of Spain, seemuig to him a sure means of restoring the elector, he solicited that alliance ; and Digby, Earl of Bristol, ambassador at the Spanish court, conducted the nego- tiation. But Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, the king's favourite, by an unparalleled piece of folly, frustrated the whole. This rash favourite engaged Charles in a romantic adventure to Spain. Charles was to be the knight errant, and Buckingham his squire, and they prevailed with the king to consent, and his weakness gave way to what his judgment disapproved. They set off post, with two or three attendants, and soon arrived at Madrid. The prince Avas received with great magnificence, and the treaty was concluded on conditions advan- tageous to the Catholics. But Pope Urban VIII. delayed its confirma- Relate the result of Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition. — His death and character. — What disaster happened to James's son-in-law ? — Relate Prince Charles's adven- ture to Spain. — When did James die ? — What was his character? CHARLES I. 109 tion. Charles, impatient at the delay, set off with Buckingham to Lon- don. The prince Charles now turned his eyes towards France ; and Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV., was assigned to him with a portion of eight hundred thousand crowns, a. d. 1624. James died the year following, afflicted to see that peace which he nad maintained during his whole reign, and to the preservation of which he had sacrificed the able and accomplished Raleigh, broken at last. James was liberal, but at the same time extravagant: his profusion made him indigent. The Englisli took advantage of it, and made themselves his masters. Elizabeth's economy was, as we observed before, the greatest security of her prerogative. His doctrines of absolute authority were the ruling principles of the house of Tudor. It is said that at an entertainment, where the bishops Neill and Andrews were present, he openly asked them if he had not a right to the people's money, without the concurrence of parliament. Neill said he had ; James pressed Andrews for his answer. " Well," said Andrews, " your majesty, without transgressing any law, may take my brother Neill's money, because he offers it." The immortal Shakspeare flourished in this as well as in part of the former reign. Bacon opened a wide field for the cultivation of sound philosophy. The fine arts, and the amusements of society, drew the nobility to the metropolis. Commerce and the marine were ui a flou- rishing state. English colonies were established in America, very ad- vantageously. In short, the peacefiil reign of James would have con- tributed to the happiness of England, if his courage had been equal to his humanity, and his discretion equal to his zeal for the prerogative. Under the princes of the house of Tudor, the great council of the nation were slaves to the court. They abandoned the constitution, as founded on Magna Charta, to the absolute power of the sovereign. But it was now passing fi:om one extreme to the other. The bold spirit of the cominons grew up imperceptibly ; nothing escaped their attention and vigilance ; they examined the rights of the crown in the minutest articles. SECTION 3. CHARLES I. A.D. 1625. A prince at the age of twenty-five, brave, sober, and virtuous, was likely, it may be thought, to make England respectable among the nations, and preserve submission at home. But unfortunately Charles, like his father, was under the influence of the Duke of Buckingham, and the public hatred of the minister could not fail to devolve on the monarch. Besides, the new king inheriting the prmciples of James I., equally obstinate and open to prejudice, the seeds of discord scattered through the kingdom would naturally produce, in such a reign, the most unhappy effects. Relate his question to the bishops, and their answers. — What great characters flourished in this reign ? — What changes were taking place in the national coun- cils 7 — In politics ? — Under whose influence did Charles I. commence his reign ? 10 110 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Charles, in coming to the throne, had been loaded with a treaty for defending the Prince Palatine, his brother-in-law, in the last reign, com- menced at the request of the people ; and great supplies were needful, in order to cope with the power of the house of Austria. The supplies granted by parliament did not exceed one hundred and twelve thousand pounds, a sum far trom sufficient for the purposes of such a conflict. The principal members of the house, persuaded that the power of the crown had been increased at the expense of the liberties of the people, were inclined to confine it within narrower limits, and the necessities of the prince were favourable to their designs, and of these they availed themselves. The rights of the commons to grant or refuse the neces- sary supplies, they regarded as an infallible means of gainmg the most important concessions. These politics disconcerted the hopes of the king ; he dissolved a parliament from which he had nothing to expect. He fitted out a fleet, by the aid of a tax called a benevolence, and for which privy seals were issued, and sent it to the coast of Spain, an expedition which proved wholly ineffectual. Obliged once more to have recourse to parliament, a. d. 1626, he found them possessed of the same views, and a restless spirit of liberty. The king ordered them to dispatch the requisite supplies, and they were told, if they refused the money necessary for the crown, the ex- ample of other princes should be followed, who had known how to abolish national assemblies : a rash menace, calculated rather to inflame than to intimidate the patriots. The imprisonment of two members occasioned a new subject of complaint. The commons declared that no business should go forward till their privileges were restored, by which declaration they soon obtained the enlargement of the two prisoners. These measures, followed by violent efforts against the Papists, and against the levying of tonnage and poundage, greatly heightened the displeasure of Charles. After dissolving the parliament, he had recourse to more dangerous expedients ; — compositions with the Catholics for dispensing with the penal laws — free gifts — forced loans; — violent and illegal measures, which, though not without precedent, were incompatible with the con- stitution of the kmgdom. Many subjects were imprisoned for refusing the loans ; some appealed to the laws, and demanded their enlargement. The Duke of Soubise, one of the chiefs of the Huguenots of France, solicited assistance at London. The minister supported his applica- tions ; and Charles, notwithstanding his domestic troubles, was led into that dangerous war, and fitted out a fleet to make a descent upon France with seven thousand land troops. Though Buckingham knew nothing of the art of war, he took the command of the fleet, made a descent on the isle of Rhe, and failed in his enterprise by the grossest mismanage- ment. ' Charles again summoned a parliament in 1628, his only resource under his present necessities. The religious zeal of the commons was favour What made large supplies necessary for the crown ? — In what did the commons disconcert the hopes of the king? — What threats from the king inflamed the com- mons ? — ^To what dangerous expedients had the king recourse ? CHAELES I. Ill able to a war in defence of the Huguenots ; but the remembrance of Charles's threat, to take extraordinary steps if they refused to conform to his wishes, still spurred them on to attack the prerogative. The cry of liberty was echoed in the house of commons, as it had anciently been in the Roman senate, and many bold speeches were delivered. " We must preserve and defend our ancient, our legitimate, our vital liberties," said Wentworth ; " we must confirm the laws established by our ancestors ; we must put a seal to them such as no licentious spirit shall dare to break." From such language, it was easy to judge of the violence that would ensue. It was determined at all events to abolish forced loans, free gifts, taxes without the consent of parliament, the martial law, and above all, arbitrary imprisonment. These were abhorred, as abuses of the great charter ; and abuses could never pass into laws. With this view, the commons made an act, under the title of The Bill of Rights, to restrain the prerogative to its ancient limits. Charles, seconded by the house of lords, attempted to parry this blow, by advancing specious reasons. "What barrier," they asked, "would there be agamst rebellion, when the parliament were not sitting, if the king had not the power of imprisoning a subject?" The commons, however, were insensible to this inconvenience. The bill passed in the upper house ; and Charles, after fruitless evasions, was constrained to put the seal to it, with the usual form. Let this bill be a law, as is desired. The king averted new encroachments by pro- roguing the parliament. If the sentiments of the major part of the clergy had prevailed, the prerogative would have been extended rather than abridged. Doctor Manwaring printed a sermon, in which he insisted that in cases of urgent necessity all property devolved to the crown ; that the prince might levy taxes without the consent of parliament ; that the divine law enjoined submission to all demands, however extraordinary, that he might make on his subjects. The two houses, provoked by this doc- trine, had punished the preacher with great severity, but the session being ended, he received from the king, together \rith his pardon, a considerable living, and some years after, the bishopric of St. Asaph. This imprudent conduct served still farther to inflame and irritate the peopl* Two subsidies were granted by parliament to carry on the prepara- tions against France. An English fleet attempted in vain to relieve Rochelle. Buckingham was fitting out another, more considerable, when he was assassinated at Portsmouth, by an officer named Felton, whose enthusiasm delivered his country from a minister who deserved the public hatred, as much as he was unworthy of the favour of the two monarchs whom he had exposed to so many misfortunes. After the death of Buckingham, the English presented themselves before Rochelle, but they could not force the mole which Richelieu had caused to be erected ui the sea. a. d. 1629. What abuses were the commons determined to abolish ? — For what purpose was the bill of rights passed ? — How was the doctrine of divine right and passive obe- dience received ? — Relate the murder of the Duke of Buckingham. 112 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. This event irritated the malcontents. The parliament being assem- bled at the time appointed, the commons pursued their plan with vigour. But their principal effort was to deprive the king of one of his greatest resources. The right of tonnage and poundage on the importation and exportation of merchandize, though originally the mere gift of the peo- ple, had been so strongly confirmed to the crown since the reign of Henry IV., that the kings had always claimed it, from the moment of their accession. This right, which had been granted for life to former kings, was allowed to Charles only one year. Finding the commons resolved to strip him of it, he sent a message to them, importing that he had never pretended to look upon it as a branch of the prerogative ; that necessity alone had compelled him to make use of it till that time ; and that he desired the house to favour him with this gratuity of the people by a bill. This request was the more reasonable, as tonnage and poundage made a considerable part of his limited revenue. But the house was inflexible. The officers who levied this duty were deemed enemies to the nation, and the merchants who paid it volun- tarily, were considered as traitors to their country. A few days after, Charles dissolved the parliament, and by indiscreet severities inflamed the minds of the factious. That he might be no longer harassed with parliamentary turbulence, he made peace with France, abandoned the Huguenots to the clemency of Louis XIIL, and soon after concluded a treaty with the Spaniards, from whom he obtained nothing more than a promise of their using their good offices to restore the Elector Palatine. The victories of Gus- tavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, the most formidable enemy of the Austrian power, served also to raise the hopes of Frederic. SECTION 4. Charles, being now at peace with the neighbouring nations, eased of a burthen too heavy for him, instructed by experience, naturally mode- rate, virtuous from principle, no longer a slave to the pernicious coun- cils of Buckingham, and blest with a wise and faithful minister in Wcntworth, Earl of Strafford, whom he had detached from the repub- lican party by conferring honours upon him ; it might have been e:ljlected that his affairs would wear a more favourable aspect, but in reality it gave occasion to new troubles. The king unfortunately honoured Laud with his confidence, a prelate whose disinterested principles and strict morals were no doubt praise- worthy ; but whose superstitious prejudices, obstinate zeal, enterprising spirit, and inflexible firmness in opposition to the national spirit, were likely to be productive of the greatest evils. He advanced Laud to the see of Canterbury, and thus empowered him to exercise a kind of reli- rgous despotism. He multiplied church ceremonies, several of which \/ere similar to those of the church of Rome : and the Puritans beheld Did the commons grant to the king tonnage and poundage ? — With whom did Charles now make peace ? — What favourable circumstances now attended Charles ? — Enumerate the great qualities of Archbishop Laud. CHAKLES I. 113 with horror what they called ahominable superstitions, and so many scandalous attributes of Antichrist. Distressed for money notwithstanding the strictest economy, the king began to make a free use of his authority. To the right of tonnage and poundage, to palliated monopolies, to compositions with noncon- formists, he added the tax of ship-money, for the maintenance of the marine. These taxes, though ostensibly for the public good, occasioned great discontent. Decrees of the court of high commission, and the star-chamber, still formidable tribunals directed by the crown, height- ened the national grievances ; and the people saw with regret that no parliament was to be summoned. Prynne, a Puritan lawyer, was sen- tenced to the pillory, to lose both his ears, and to be imprisoned for life, for having written against the hierarchy and the innovations of Laud. The bishop of Lincoln was cruelly punished for giving offence to Laud. But the trial of John Hampden interested the whole nation. A firm friend of liberty, Hampden refused to pay ten shillings for ship- money. The cause was tried, and the pleadings lasted twelve days. His counsel ably advocated his cause, but the judges sentenced Hamp- den to pay the tax ; and the people, considering in its true light the principle thus supported, looked upon themselves as a prey to the scourge of despotism. After the example of his father, this prince was desirous of establish- ing in Scotland the discipline and worship of the church of England. He loved church ceremonies, and wished to have them received as es- sentials of divine worship. He sent canons to the Scots, for the regu- lation of their worship and ecclesiastical jurisdiction ; but that people was not disposed to receive them. The nobility, from a jealousy of power, and the Presbyterian clergy, from principles of equality, were enemies to episcopacy ; and their universal hatred of the church of Rome made them abhor what had the least resemblance to it. On a day appointed, the dean of Edinburgh, in a surplice, began the service with Charles's liturgy ; and the people cried out, " A pope ! — Antichrist ! — stone him," &c. He was pursued out of the church ; the contagion spread, and the magistrates suffered a thousand insults. At length, the four councils of the nation assembled at Edinburgh in 1638, and formed the famous covenant, by which they engaged upon oath to defend the profession of the faith against popery, to reject all innovations, and mutually to defend each other in support of religion and the . royal authority. Charles had neither power to quell these measures, nor prudence to give up the design that occasioned them. He only offered to suspend the liturgy for a time, till it could be received in a legal way, provided they would retract the covenant they had entered into. Their answer v/as, they would sooner abjure their baptism. They afterwards declared all acts with regard to ecclesiastical matters, made smce the advance- ment of James to the crown of England, null and void. A measure so What persons were tried and punished, or fined ? — How did the Scots receive Charles's church canons ? — What determination did the Scots form ? 10* 114 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. bold could not be supported but by arms. They prepared openly for war, and seized all places of strength, a. d. 1639. Charles, though he loved both peace and Scotland, his native country, could not avoid raising troops; but when at the head of the army, he too hastily came to terms with the enemy. The measures of the Scot- tish parliament compelled him again to have recourse to arms, and the rebels made themselves masters of Newcastle. Anew parliament was now called, to support the royal authority; and if the spirit of party could have kept within bounds, the commons might have prevented the most dreadful evils by a prudent compliance. The king in vain urged them to grant those supplies that were evi- dently necessary. In vain he gave them his royal word that they should afterwards be at liberty to continue their deliberations and to make their remonstrances. In vain he offered to give up ship-money, which had nevertheless been entirely applied to the maintenance of the navy. Their favourite system. of independence overbore every other considera- tion. If Charles and his predecessor extended the bounds of the pre- rogative, the popular doctrines were not less obstinately supported, and the king abolished the fourth parliament, as he had done the three preceding ones. The clergy, however, granted him a supply, and the courtiers lent him considerable sums ; but these resources were quite inadequate to his necessities, and the triumph of the opposition was at hand. Charles now called his fifth parliament, and it proved a crisis that fore, boded a complete revolution. It was this parliament that conspired the ruin of Strafford. He was impeached of high treason, together with Laud. Both were suspected of a design to establish arbitrary power, on the ruin of the laws and the constitution. The imprudent zeal of the queen had exposed her to all the rage of sectaries, who beheld with indignation a pope's nuncio, with a number of priests and Jesuits, calmly basking in the sunshine of the court. The city of London presented a petition to parliament, signed by one thousand five hundred of their body, to abolish the power of episcopacy. The commons, by continual perseverance, acquired an authority which they abused. Charles neither knew how to observe a just medium, nor to avoid extremes, no less dangerous in politics than in morals. Too great a determination to defend his prerogative had plunged him into this abyss ; and too great indulgence to the enemies of the crown, completed his misfortunes. Charles signed a bill that the parliament should be summoned triennially ; and that when assembled it should be neither adjourned, prorogued, nor dissolved within the spjice of a fortnight, with- out the consent of the two houses. SECTION 5. These extraordinary concessions did not prevent the commons from prosecuting the earl of Strafford. That great man defended himself Would not the British parliament yield to Charles's proposals ? — What occurred in Charles's fifth parliament? — In what did Charles's misfortunes mainly consist — Relate the prosecution of the Earl of Strafford. CHAELES I. 115 with such strength of evidence, as confounded his accusers. But where the passions sit in judgment, devoted innocence will always be found guilty. High treason had been clearly defined by the laws, and none of the facts alleged amounted to it. The house of commons, however, passed the bill of attainder against him, and it remained to be signed by the king and the lords. The king's palace was soon beset by a mul- titude of people, who demanded justice against Strafford. The queen and the court were for giving way to their violence. Juxton, bishop of London, alone had the courage to say, that if the bill was unjust it ought not to pass. In this extreme perplexity, Charles received a letter from the earl, wherein the minister intreated the prince to give him up. Necessity at last determined the monarch. He appointed four commissioners to sign the bill in his name, being incapable of doing it with his own hand. Strafford, on this unexpected news, expressed his surprise, in that too applicable passage of scripture, " Put not your confidence in princes, nor in any child of man, for there is no help in them." However, he went to meet his fate on the scaffold with heroic firmness. Charles, to the end of his life, considered his own weakness in this instance as a crime. Strafford had been governor of Ireland, and merited in that im- portant and difficult commission, the lasting gratitude of the public. His care, his vigilance, and his firnmess, had secured peace, augmented the resources, encouraged agriculture and industry, established manu- factures, rendered the marine stronger than he found it, and always reconciled the interests of the king and the people, without the least suspicion of peculation. It was the fate of Charles I. to see his three kingdoms in flames at the same period. Ireland had been peaceable since the establishment of the laws and subordination, under Strafford's government. But that people being zealous Catholics, and sunk in superstitious ignorance, beheld with horror a number of Puritans scattered over their country. Besides this, the troubles of England and Scotland revived their passion for independence. Some of their chiefs projected a revolt ; and all the savage ferocity of fanaticism showed itself in the execution of their design, and Ireland became a scene of blood. The English Protestants were massacred with unexampled fury by the Catholics. Women and even children lent a hand to the carnage. More than forty thousand persons were murdered ; and those that escaped suffered the most inex- pressible hardships. Charles represented to the commons the necessity of granting sup- plies against Ireland, and he offered to give up this war to their care and discretion. They seized the opportunity, raised money, possessed themselves of the magazines, under pretence of the Irish expedition, but in fact to bring their unfortunate prince into subjection. Charles, stripped and degraded, and driven to the last extremity, animated by the advice of the queen and some others, determined to strike one bold stroke, after so many proofs of complaisance and weakness. He sent How did he meet his fate ? — How had he governed Ireland ? — Relate the mas- sacres that occurred in Ireland. — What occurred in the house of commons ? 116 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. his attorney-general to the house of peers, to impeach lord Kimholton, and five members of the lower house, of attempting to destroy the fun- damental laws of the kingdom, &c. The serjeant-at-arms demanded the five persons accused. The king's messengers sought them to no purpose ; at length the king appeared personally in the house, declared his pleasure, assured them he never had any intention of employing force, and that his desire was to act in conformity to the laws. The persons accused, apprised of his design, had time to withdraw. Not seeing them, he asked the speaker whether any one of them was there. " Sire," said the speaker, " in the place which I occupy, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak, but by the direction of this house, whose servant I am ; and I humbly ask pardon of your majesty, that I cannot make you any other answer." The day following Charles assembled the city council, and went himself, without guards, to inspire them with the greater confidence. He hoped they would afford no asylum to the persons he had impeached of high treason. The streets through which he passed were filled with seditious excla- mations. Privilege of Parliament ! Privilege ! cried the populace. Another cried. To your tents, oh Israel ! as said the Israelites when they abandoned Rehoboam. The five persons accused were soon con- ducted m triumph to the house of commons. Petitions were received firom all parts, portending a general rebellion. This rage infected even the women. The king, finding himself no longer safe in his palace, left London. In vain he attempted to repair, by an excess of conde- scension, the mischief he had done himself by an intemperate rashness, by offering to pardon the persons impeached. Hardly the shadow of royalty remained. The queen, whose imprudent zeal had made the papists obnoxious, felt the opposition of their enemies. Her confessor was in prison, and she, apprehensive of personal impeachment, was resolved to flee, no longer giving the king any other than timid coun- sels. The commons now advanced another claim, determined to secure their acquisition by arms. With this view, under the pretext of popish plots, they voted an augmentation of power to the governors and lieu- tenants ; and that they should be responsible not to the king, but to the parliament. The monarch was urged to consent. At length they invited him to return to the capital, probably that they might keep him in a state of subjection. But Charles retired to York, among a people who were favourable to him, and he resolved firmly to oppose the bill respecting the military. It was then that the enemies of the crown gave to the lord-lieutenants the command of the militia, the garrisons, and forts, obliging them to obey his majesty's orders, signified by the two houses ; that is, in reality, the orders of parliament, using the king's name, with an intent to dethrone him. Manifestoes, the harbingers of civil war, were published on each side. A quarrel so violent could not be decided by the pen. Charles How did the populace express their sentiments ? — What stretch of power did the commons now claim ? CHARLES I. 117 wanting to make himself master of the magazine of arms deposited in Hull, the governor shut the gates against him. Preparations were carried on with great vigour. The parliament received by way of loan considerable sums and a quantity of plate. People used great exer- tions to replenish the treasury. The women of London, in particular, gave up all their jewels and valuables, happy, as they said, to serve the cause of God against the wicked. But most of the peers joined the royal party, and followed the king. Charles protested that he required no other obedience to his orders than what was conformable with the laws ; and the lords in return de- clared they would receive such orders only. This prince appears not to have understood his real situation. His want of political pru- dence occasioned his riiin. The queen, a daughter of Henry IV. of France, exerted herself for him m Holland, and sent him a considerable quantity of arms and provisions, purchased with the jewels of the crown. SECTION 6. The proposals of the parliament were rejected with spirit. " If I agree to these councils," said Charles, " people may still wait upon me uncovered, and give me the title of majesty, but in point of real power I shall be nothing more than the image of a king." His resolution was taken. " He had been robbed," he said, " of his ships, his arms, and his money, but still he had a cause left." The first rank of the no- bility, the friends of episcopacy and the church of England, and the Catholics in particular, declared in his favour ; but the major part of the great towns, naturally inclined to republican principles, together with the Presbyterians, jealous of their independence, followed the contrary party. The parliament, being in possession of the ports and the navy, and having the riches of the nation at its disposal, seemed to have every advantage on its side. The royal army, in the meantime, though inconsiderable at first, soon became formidable. Charles was naturally brave. He had with him the princes Rupert and Maurice, his nephews, sons of the Elector Pala- tine. In a succession of hostilities, the royalists had frequently the ad- vantage. After gaining several battles, they besieged and took Bristol. They laid siege to Gloucester ; the assault was vigorous, and the de- fence not less so ; and it was just ready to fall into the hands of the king, when Essex, the parliament's general, came to its relief. Charles was obliged to raise the siege, and hastened to Newbury, where a con- test between him and Essex, in which the two armies gave proofs of the most astonishing valour, proved unfavourable to the royal cause. In this battle, the death of Lucius Carey, viscount Falkland, caused much grief to the king. Falkland had been a zealous parliamentarian, but when he found that the object of parliament was to annihilate mon- archy and the constitution, he embraced the royal interest. He mourn- What loans were raised for the service of the parliament ? — What part did the queen talie in the business ? — What was Charles's reply to the parliament ? — Name a succession of hostilities that occurred. 118 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. ed over the public miseries, and on the day of battle in which he fell, " I foresee," said he, " many evils threatening my country, but I hope to be clear of them before night." The Marquis of Newcastle maintained the royal cause, while Sir Thomas Fairfax began to distinguish himself on the opposite party. Though Charles had attempted to make peace with the Scots, yet the parliament defeated his purposes: and they formed themselves into a solemn league to attack popery, prelacy, heresy, and profane cere- monies. They raised an army of twenty thousand men to support the parliament: Charles, on the other hand, concluded a truce with the Irish rebels ; and the Marquis of Ormond sent him several bodies of troops. In the year 1644, Charles called a parliaipent at Oxford, of such members as declared for his interest. The number of peers was here double those that met at Westminster, but of the commons not half the number. Both parties plunged into the horrors of war. The battle of Marston-Moor was one of the bloodiest that was fought. Cromwell, then lieutenant-general, decided the victory by his valour and conduct. Cromwell had a capacity adapted to the greatest enterprizes ; the ar- dour of an enthusiast, and the daring spirit of a leader, the talents of a general, and the genius and address of a statesman. He was one of the heads of the sect of Independents, who at that time had the control of the house of commons, and by whom a bill was passed that excluded members of parliament, a small number excepted, from all employment, civil and military ; and the upper house, too weak to stand the torrent, assented, from policy or from fear. Essex, Manchester, and many more peers, resigned their commissions. Sir Thomas Fairfax was appointed general, and he desired that he might have the assistance of Cromwell for a time. By this means Cromwell ultimately gained the military authority in his hands ; and Fairfax, an honest man without eminent parts, was only the instrument of his designs. In 1645, the commissioners of Charles and the parliament negotiated for a treaty, at Uxbridge ; but after twenty days of fruitless confer- ence, the commissioners parted. Archbishop Laud was at length sa- crificed to the pious vengeance of his enemies. The commons caused the old primate, whose principal fault was his zeal for high church prin- ciples, to be executed on a scaffold for high treason. And not long after, Charles received his decisive blow. Fairfax and Cromwell new-modelled their army. A rigid discipline increased the religious fervour of the soldiers. They passed in prayer, in conference, and spiritual lectures, all the time they could spare to amusement and repose. Their inflamed imaginations raised them above the character of humanity. In the royal army, on the contrary, there was nothing but licentiousness and disorder. This contrast foreboded great evils ; and the battle of Naseby* was decisive in favour of the * In Northamptonshire. What solemn league did the Scots enter into ? — Where did Charles now assem- ble the parliament ? — What was the result of the battle of Marston-Moor ? — Hov) did Cromwell gain the military power ? — What was the fate of Archbishop Laud ? — Mention what discipline prevailed in each array. CHARLES I. 119 commonwealth party. Prince Rupert, whose fiery courage knew no moderation, broke the left wing of the enemy, and while he was pur- suing them with a blind impetuosity, Fairfax broke the line o"f battle troops, commanded by the king in person. The valour and dexterity of the king were of no use. He lost all his infantry, his baggage, and his coffers. After the battle of Naseby, the king's affairs declined very fast. Every thing yielded to the conquerors. Prince Rupert himself lost his bravery, and in a cowardly manner gave up Bristol. In Scotland, the Earl of Montrose, who had fought successfully for the royal cause, was defeated. Charles supported these disasters with great firmness of mind. He endeavoured in vain to bring the commons to a reasonable accommo- dation. With a view of drawing succours from Ireland, he sent propo- sals to the Marquis of Ormond, on condition of ten thousand men being sent to England ; and the commons were impressed with the conviction that the king's object was to re-establish the Catholic religion. As Fairfax was preparing to besiege the king in Oxford, the fear of being carried in triumph by the enemy induced him to seek an asylum in the Scottish army. At the sight of the king their surprise was ex- treme. They affected to do him homage, but it was to make him a slave. The parliament wanted him to be delivered into their hands, and four hundred thousand pounds, one-half to be paid down immediately, was the purchase. Charles was playing at chess, when he Vv^as inform- ed by letter that his person was sold by the Scots : and he continued the game, without showing the least emotion. When delivered up to the parliament, he was conveyed to Holmby Castle, in Northampton- shire, and he needed all his firmness to support the many indignities he met with. The tyranny of the parliament was at length destroyed by another species of t3n'anny. The artfiil Cromwell established a military parlia- ment, much more formidable than that of Westminster ; and in order to get possession of the king's person, one Joyce was sent with five hun- dred horse to Holmby, and entering the king's apartment, told him that he must follow immediately. Charles demanded by whose orders. Joyce, by way of answer, showed him one of his dragoons, well equip- ped. "Your orders," said the king, smiling, "are written in a fair character, and easy to be read." The commissioners of the parliament thus beheld their prey snatched from their hands ; and the army, with this pledge in their possession, found it easy to give law to the two houses. This was Cromwell's object. Every thing was done by his address. Fairfax was the instrument of his political intrigues ; having too little sagacity to discover, or too much honesty to suspect, all th fi-auds of hypocrisy. What resulted from the battle of Naseby? — To what army did the king resort for refuge ? — Who obtained possession of the king's person ? — How ? 120 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. SECTION 7. The parliament, however, still exercised its power ; a power that be- came more arbitrary than any that had been exercised by the king-. The excise, a tax on liquors and provisions, with several other imposts, alienated the minds of the people. At length, while the nation groaned beneath these oppressions, Cromwell marched to London at the head of the army, and compelled the parliament to revoke its decrees, and to change its haughtiness into complaisance. But the army no-v\^ became despotic in its turn. The more there was conceded to it, the more it exacted. Thus from the government of a single master, they gave up England to a multitude of despots. When Charles was no longer in the hands of the parliament, his prison became more supportable ; he was permitted to see his family and his friends. Cromwell himself treated him like a king, and that prince hoped to gain him by titles and promises. Possibly he might have succeeded in time, if some critical events had not excited the usurper to break through all barriers. -The king heard however of the project of parliament, for annihilating monarchy, and of their designs of assassination ; and he fled from Hampton Court, and took refuge in the Isle of Wight, of which Hammond, a man devoted to Cromwell, was governor. A resolution was taken to get rid of the king by some decisive blow, that should have the appearance of justice. Charles offered to give up to the parliament the military power, and the nomination to great offices, provided that after his death those rights should revert to the crown. This offer was rejected with arrogance. Four preliminary articles were sent to him to subscribe, and those the most humiliating and unjust. He demanded to treat in person with the two houses, before he made concessions. This made the republicans outrageous, and the king got nothing but contempt and injurious treatment. Charles, calm in his prison, opposed this torrent of misfortunes with heroic firmness. In the meantime a considerable party suddenly rose in his defence. The Scots thought themselves bound by the Covenant to defend the regal as well as the Presbyterian power. Their parliament armed forty thousand men, and in many parts of England the partisans of Charles levied troops; and a second civil war was kindling in the kingdom. This induced the parliament to send fifteen commissioners to treat with the king. The commissioners found Charles in a situation that might have affected their sensibility; almost without attendants, his beard long, his hair neglected and grown gray with anxiety. But his mind had lost nothing of its penetration or its power. He discussed the most difficult points with a superiority of reason that astonished them ; while necessity compelled him to accept of odious conditions. He refused his assent to only two articles ; one for the punishment of those who had been his adherents, the other for the abolition of episcopacy. The ne- By what power did Cromwell control the parliament? — How was the king treated at first by Cromwell ? — How were Charles's proposals received ? ( 122 ) CHARLES I. 123 gotiators stuck at an article apparently the least difficult, that of allow- ing the queen, who was a Catholic, the exercise of her religion. " The two houses, detesting the abominable idolatry of the mass, cannot admit an exemption for the queen and her family from the penal laws on that head." Thus a blind perverseness shut up the way to a reconciliation. Cromwell soon dispersed the royalists, and penetrated into Scotland, where nothing could resist him. After overcoming every obstacle, his first care was to convey the kin^ to a closer prison. The parliament, at first, had the courage to resist the king's opposers, and to declare that his concessions might serve as a basis for a national treaty ; but Colonel Pride, who had formerly been a carman, beset the House of Commons, and arrested forty-one Presbyterian members. The other suspected members were excluded, and the Independents alone remained. This shadow of a parliament executed the bold project of bringing the king to a trial. Commissioners were appointed to draw up the articles of impeachment, and the House of Commons declared him guilty of high treason. The peers, with a proper indignation, rejected the bill. But Cromwell, m giving his opinion, declared, " When I would have spoken of re-establishing his majesty, I found my tongue cleave unto the roof of my mouth, and I consider this circumstance as an an- swer from Heaven, which rejected that hardened prince." Charles, being conducted to London, appeared before his judges, among whom were Brereton, Cromwell, Harrison, GofFe and Whalley. The Attorney-general said, in the name of the Commons, that " Charles Stuart, being desirous of establishing a tyrannical government, had traitorously and wickedly made war on the parliament, &c., and that he was impeached as a traitor, a tyrant," &c. Charles, with a dignity and courage which ill-fortune had not abated, replied that he did not acknowledge the authority of that court, &c., but that if he were called upon in another manner, he would demonstrate to the world the justice of that war in which he was engaged in his own defence. This answer had no efl^ect, and the new court continued the process. Charles having been brought up three times, and as oflen denying its jurisdiction, the judges pronounced sentence of death. France, Hol- land, and Scotland in vain attempted to stop these proceedings, and four illustrious friends of the king, Richmond, Hertford, Southampton, and Lindsey, interposed their influence, but without avail. During the three days that were allowed the king before his execu- tion, he calmly employed himself on those eternal truths, which elevate the soul above the evils of mortality. The scaffold was erected before the palace of Whitehall. Charles mounted it without weakness. He harangued the people, protested his innocence of the charges preferred against him, and that he was punished for not having opposed an unjust sentence, (meaning, undoubtedly, that of Strafford,) he generously for- gave his enemies, and exhorted them and the nation to obedience to his lawful successor. His head was then severed from his body at one blow. What at last closed the door to a reconciliation ? — In what words did Cromwell deliver his opinion ? — What were the charges against the king on his trial ? — Who interposed to prevent the death of the king ? — What was Charles's deportment at the scaffold ? 124 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Few kings have possessed so many virtues or so few vices. In times of happier tranquillity he would have reigned with glory, and with the confidence of his subjects ; but he wanted that political sagacity which can adapt itself to critical circumstances and events ; and he was led too easily by counsels inferior to his own. He was executed in the forty-ninth year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his reign. He was of middle stature, robust, and well proportioned. His complexion was pale, his visage long, but pleasing, and his aspect melancholy ; and it is probable that the continued troubles ui which he was involved had con- tributed to those impressions on his countenance. REMARKABLE EVENTS IN THIS REIGN. 1625. A great plague in London, swept away above 35,000 persons. 1630. A bright star appeared May 29th, and shone all the day. 1635. Thomas Parr, being 152 years of age, was presented to the king. 1636. Another plague in London. 1643. Excise on ale, beer, &c., first imposed by parliament. SECTION 8. THE COMMONWEALTH. A. D. 1649. The parliament now governed England, and the strength the nation exhibited at this period is astonishing. Cromwell led an army to Ire- land, and rapidly overcame and conquered the whole kingdom ; but be- fore his departure he provided for the tranquillity of England. The excise and other extraordinary taxes were exacted with rigour. The government was administered with great vigour and decision. Cromwell, on his arrival in Ireland, obliged the Marquis of Ormond to raise the siege of Dublin ; carried the town of Tredah, which was defended by a numerous garrison, by assault, and ordered a general mas- sacre of the soldiers. This politic cruelty difi:lised an universal terror. The towns threw open their gates. Upwards of forty thousand men voluntarily fled their country, to enter into the service of foreigners. Cromwell, after his return to England, having taken his seat, received the thanks of the house for the services he had done the Commonwealth in Ireland, and as Charles II. had entered Scotland, they proceeded to delib- erate upon choosing a general for conducting war against the Scots, who had espoused the royal cause. Fairfax declining to take the command, upon principle, against the Presbyterians, it devolved upon Cromwell, who entered Scotland at the head of sixteen thousand men. a. d. 1660. Lesley commanded the Scotch army, and Charles attended the camp ; but the clergy taking umbrage at his vivacity and levity, obliged him to return. Cromwell began to be in want of provisions, and the Scotch general, by avoiding battle, reduced him to great extremity. The eccle- siastics had the ascendency over the troops, and by saying that the Lord had heard their prayers, and that they were sure of victory, Lesley was Describe Charles's character and his quahties. — What were the remarkable events in this reign? — What appearance of vigour did the nation exhibit? — How came Cromwell to have the command against Scotland ? — What was Cromwell's success in Ireland ? THE COMMONWEALTH. 125 constrained to leave the high ground and to hazard a battle. Crom well, with half the number of men, put the Scots to flight at the first charge, took nine thousand prisoners, made himself master of Edinburgh and Leith, not losing more than forty men in all. The young prince, in this terrible exigence, took the resolution of passing into England, where no care had been taken to prevent his pro- gress. Had the royalists expected him, it would have been a favourable moment for a revolution. The militia soon assembled, by Cromwell's orders, and joined the regulars. At the head of forty thousand men he attacked Worcester, where the king had shut himself up with his par- tisans. Cromwell overturned every thing before him, and made himself master of the place. The. streets were strewed with slaughter, and the Scotch army almost annihilated. Charles took to flight, separated from his companions, and arrived with the Earl of Derby at a remote farm, called the White Ladies, twenty-five miles from Worcester ; from thence he went to Boscobel, in Staffordshire. Here he concealed himself, for a whole day, in an oak, from whence he saw several soldiers pass in search of him. To give him an asylum was at the hazard of life ; to betray him, was the certain way to fortune; nevertheless he wandered one-and-forty days in dis- guise, in the midst of infinite perils ; and though no fewer than forty persons, masters and mistresses of families, and even servants, were in the secret, not one of them proved unfaithful to the trust. The prince at last met with a vessel at Brighthelmstone, in which he embarked for France. From this time the republic of England appeared to be more firmly established. Admiral Blake pursued prince Rupert, who commanded Charles's fleet, to the mouth of the Tagus. The King of Portugal having prevented his entering that river, he took several Portuguese ships, and the court of Lisbon was obliged to submit. The American colonies, also, at first faithful to the royal party, submitted to superior force. In Ireland, Ireton, who succeeded Cromwell, died, and General Ludlow completed the reduction of that kingdom. In Scotland a total subjection took place, under General Monk. These domestic successes made the parliament desirous of humbling their neighbours, and of dis- tinguishing themselves abroad. The Dutch had given them provocation. Dorislaus, their agent, had been stabbed at the Hague, by some royalists in the suite of Montrose, and another of the parliamentary deputies had been insulted with impu- nity. London was desirous of a rupture, and to chagrin the Dutch, the famous navigation bill was passed, by which all foreigners were .prohi- bited from brmging to England any merchandize that was not the pro- duce of their country, or fabricated among them. This measure, fol- lowed by some violences, made the States apprehensive of an open war. They attempted to prevent it by negotiation, but at the same time took the precaution to fit out a fleet of a hundred and fifl;y sail. The famous Describe the battle of Worcester ? — Where did Prince Charles fly for refuge ? — What conquests were made at this time abroad?— What caused an open rupture w'th the Dutch? n * 126 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Van Tromp was charged with the defence of the Dutch navy against the English privateers. He met Blake near Dover. The two fleets engaged, and it was impossible to say which was the aggressor. Holland in vain sought to justify herself. The English par- liament would hear no apology, and seized the opportunity of declaring war. To their celebrated Van Tromp was opposed the courage and activity of Blake, who, though he had not embarked in the naval com- mand till late in life, yet surpassed all that went before him in courage and dexterity. Many were the engagements between these celebrated admirals, but the English, in the end, had greatly the advantage. The parliament congratulated themselves on their success at sea, and more particularly as it would tend to diminish the power of General Cromwell by land. Cromwell perceived their motive ; he knew they dreaded his growing power, and secure in the attachment of the army, he was determined to dissolve the parliament. He marched at the head of three hundred soldiers, entered the lobby, heard the debates for a few minutes, then hastily rising up he loaded the house with reproaches ; accusing them of tyranny, ambition, and rapine. The soldiers appeared on the first signal. Then with inimitable eflrontery, " Fie, fie," cried he, " begone, you are no longer a parliament ; the Lord hath cast you off;" and laying hold on some of their cloaks, he charged them seve- rally with their vices. Then addressing himself to the house, " It is you who have compelled me to this. I intreated the Lord night and day that he would rather slay me than put this commission upon me." After which, the soldiers having turned out the members, he ordered the doors to be shut, and put the keys in his pocket. No circumstance better marks the character of Cromwell, who though a man of the pro- foundest subtlety, had, nevertheless, the most fiery intrepidity. SECTION 9. Not doubting but heaven had invested him with the sole administra- tion of government, yet willing to satisfy the people with the appear- ance of a republic, he summoned one hundred and twenty-eight Eng- lishmen, six Irish, and five Scots to appear in London, and entrusted them for fifteen months with the legislative authority, which authority they were afterwards to transfer to one hundred and thirty-nine others, chosen by themselves. This assembly, composed of the dregs of the people, declared universities and other seats of learning to be vain and heathenish institutions. This parliament soon fell into contempt. It got the name of B«re- ftoTie's Parliament, fi-om one of its members, 'who was called Praise God Barebone. Some of the members, sensible of the ridicule thrown out against them, assembled earlier than usual, and observing to each other that they had met long enough, hastened to Cromwell, with Rouse, their Speaker, at their head, and into his hands resigned the authority with which they had been invested. What occurred between the admirals Van Tromp and Blake ? — How did Crom- well address the house ? — What followed ? — How did Cromwell appoint a new parliament ? — By what name were thev distinguished ? THE COMMONWEALTH. 127 The rest, consisting of a small number, designing to protest against this act, a troop of soldiers came up and decided the question. " What are you doing here 1" said Colonel White. " We are seeking the Lord," said they. " Then," replied the colonel, " you may go and seek him elsewhere, for I assure you he has not been seen here for this long time." They all withdrew. The military council conferred on Cromwell the title of Protector, with an authority little different from that of a king. Justice was to be administered in his name ; the military power, the power of makmg peace, war, and alliances, was invested in his hands. He was to have a standing army of thirty thousand men. His dignity was for life, and the council empowered him to nominate a successor. The war against Holland was revived. The two nations tore each other in pieces at sea, for the frivolous honour of a flag. The English admirals. Monk and Dean, engaged on the coast of Flanders a fleet of a hundred sail, commanded by the gallant Van Tromp. Dean fell in the action. In a second engagement, soon after, the Dutch admiral was slain. The commerce of the Dutch sufifered prodigiously. At length, A. D. 1654, the Protector signed a treaty of peace, and a defensive league. Holland gave up the honour of the flag, and lost nothing con- siderable, except paying forty-five thousand pounds as an indemnifica- tion for former expenses, and restoring to the English East India Com- pany a part of those dominions of which the Dutch had dispossessed them in the former reign. Cromwell was not less successful in his negotiations with the court of France. Cardinal Mazarin concluded a treaty with him, by which France abandoned Charles, and England joined her agamst Spain. The court of Spain was not less assiduous to gain his friendship, but without* success. Cromwell lent France six thousand men, to attack the Spanish dominions in the Netherlands, and for that service Dunkirk was put into the hands of the English. Blake, also, whose fame had spread over Europe, entered the Mediterranean with a fleet of thirty sail, and conquered all that dared to oppose him. Casting anchor before Leghorn, he obtained satisfaction for some injuries the English com- merce had suffered from the Duke of Tuscany. At Algiers, he re- strained the Dey's piratical subjects from further injuring the English. At Tunis, making the same demand, a. d, 1655, the Dey of that place told him to look at the two castles, Porto Farino and Goletta, and do his worst. Blake accepted the challenge, entered the port, burnt the ship- ping, and then sailed out triumphantly to pursue his voyage. At Cadiz he took two galleons, valued at nearly two millions of dollars. In the bay of Santa Cruz, at the Canaries, he burnt a Spanish fleet of sixteen ships, notwithstanding the fire from a castle and ^seven redoubts, which seemed sufficient to blow up his whole fleet. Returning to Eng- land to enjoy the fame of his noble actions, as he came within sight of his native country he expired. This gallant man, though a republican in principles, had always the confidence of Cromwell. " We should What title did the council confer on Cromwell ? — On what conditions was peace made with the Dutch ? — What took place in France, Leghorn, Tunis. &c. ? 128 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. fight for our country," said he, " into whatever hands the government may have fallen." During this period another expedition was going forward under the command of Admiral Penn and General Venables, with about four thou- sand land troops, to attack the island of Hispaniola. Failing in this, they steered for Jamaica, which surrendered to them without a blow. These conquests contributed greatly to enhance the Protector's reputa- tion abroad. Cromwell hoped, ultimately, to confirm his usurpation by a legal establishment. With this view, a. d. 1657, he assembled a parliament, composed of the representatives of three kingdoms. Ireland and Scot- land nominated such members as he chose. To secure a majority of votes, he excluded a hundred suspected members, and thus made him- self master of the house. In the first place, it abrogated all the titles of the Stuart family. Then it was moved that the Protector should have the title of king ; and afl;er some warm debates, the majority were for the bill. A committee, dispatched to Cromwell, offered him the title, and though his ambition aspired to the crown, and a single word would have made him king, yet he refused it. The fear of a revolt of the army, to which the name of king was odious, and the prospect of slumbering conspiracies, prevailed over ambition itself Though he declined the crown, he resolved upon a new inauguration, which was accordingly performed in Westminster Hall, June 26, 1657, with all the splendour of a coronation. The names of Commonwealth and Protector were .retained. He was allowed to name his successor, and they assigned him a perpetual revenue. A million a-year for the army and navy ; and three hundred thousand pounds for the civil list. To this they added the power of instituting a new house of parliament, which should exercise in part the functions of the ancient House of Peers. Not only his son-in-law, and his own sons, but his daughters also were opposed to his usurpation : but above all, Mrs. Claypole, his favourite daughter, upon her death-bed upbraided him with those crimes that had led him to trample on the throne. The terrors that follow a tyrant never forsook him ; — always in arms and armour, surrounded with a numerous guard, never sleeping three successive nights in the same apartment. These cruel agitations brought on him a slow fever, which soon appeared dangerous. He died on the 3d of September, the anniversary of the victories at Dunbar and Worcester, the day he had considered as the most fortunate of his life. He was then fifl;y-nuie years old, and had usurped the government nine years. His death was rendered remarkable, by one of the most violent tempests which had blown in the memory of man. This extraordinary man, though of a good family, was born to no for- tune. His education was narrow, and he was unknown to the world till the age of forty-four, when he was chosen member of parliament What West India island was now possessed by the English ? — What prevented Cromwell's assuming the regal title ? — Under what title was Cromwell inaugural ed ? — What alarms agitated him, and hastened his death ? THE COMMONWEALTH. 129 for the town of Cambridge. His valour and military talents, joined to an inflexible hatred of the royal cause, were the origin of his reputa- tion and his fortune. He was by no means eloquent, but he had an inti- mate knowledge of men, and his genius supplied him with the means of making them either the instruments or the victims of his passions ; and (as an author has observed) he wanted nothing but honesty to make him one of the greatest men in the world. SECTION 10. Richard Cromwell was at once acknowledged by the council, the army, the navy, and the whole country, as Protector of the Common- wealth. He was a plain, indolent, good-natured young man, brought up in the country, at a distance from Wsiness and intrigue. He was formed neither by inclination, habit, nor talents, to supply the place of the usurper. His first care was to summon the parliament, to obtain sup- plies ; but its discussions soon became formidable. The army was still more to be dreaded : they, in a tumultuous man- ner, required the Protector to dissolve the parliament. To this he had the weakness to consent ; and having thereby deprived himself of his proper support, in a few days after he resigned the protectorate. His brother, Henry, Governor of Ireland, a man of better parts, but not of greater ambition, resigned at the same time. Such was the fate of Crom- well's family. That edifice of grandeur, erected with so much ambi- tion, disappeared almost instantaneously. Richard retired to live first on the continent, and afterwards on his paternal fortune at Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire, where he died in 1712. . The military council, finding itself in power, yet not venturing to exercise it without some form of civil administration, thought of recall- ing the long parliament which had dethroned Charles I., and which, out of contempt, was called the Rump. But the army and the parliament did not agree, and the officers made use of their power, and the Rump was dissolved by Lambert, with the same ease that it had been by Cromwell. General Monk, who had been appointed by Cromwell Governor of Scotland, had gained the love both of the soldiers and the people ; and he declared in favour of the parliament against those who had dismissed it : but whether he meant only to oppose the views of the ambitious Lambert, or secretly meditated the restoration of the king, remained unknown ; and his prudence kept his designs impenetrable. As soon as it was known that the governor of Scotland took the part of the par- liament, many of the English followed the example. Whole regiments revolted. Monk traversed England at the head of the army. People joined him from all quarters ; they implored him to restore the government. At first he appeared to be zealous for the Rump. At length, on their Mention his education, talents, and character. — What was Richard Cromwell's general character ? — How came he to resign the protectorate? — How did the mili- tary succeed in their design ? — Describe the caution with which Monk proceeded. 130 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. discovering' his real designs, he reproached them with tyranny. The members that had been excluded from parliament were invited to re- sume their place. The Rump retired in confusion. This happy event was the result of Monk's wisdom and policy. Un- moved by all the offers of the factious, he pursued his plan with equal firmness and prudence; and changed the face of the nation without shedding a drop of blood. His designs, with regard to the king, still remained a secret. Charles was at Brussels, and fearing that the Spaniards would retain him till they compelled him to give up Dunkirk and Jamaica, Monk advised him, by message, to leave their territories. Charles, in consequence, quitted the Netherlands ; and it was thought, had he remained there a few hours longer, he would have been detained. While the parliament was lamenting the late troubles, and express- ing their abhorrence of Cromwell's usurpation, no one yet venturing to mention the name of Charles, Monk acquamted the House that Gran- ville was at the door with dispatches from the prince. The whole house was in an ecstasy of joy. Granville was introduced. He pre- sented a letter and a declaration from Charles. The prince offered a general indemnity to all criminals but such as should be excepted by the parliament, an entire liberty of conscience, &.c. : every one was satisfied, and Charles 11. was solemnly proclaimed. The two houses, (for the peers had resumed their rights without opposition,) assisted at this pompous ceremony. Monk went to Dover to receive the prince, whom he had the glory to replace on his throne. No revolution was ever more rapid, more advantageous, or less vio- lent; so many evils occasioned by civil commotions, had taught the English that a legal government was the only support of the liberties and happiness of the subject. In these times lived Harvey, who discovered the circulation of the blood ; and Milton, the author of Paradise Lost. SECTION 11. CHARLES II. A.D. 1660. Every thing seemed to promise a reign equally glorious and fortunate for the king and the people. Charles was about thirty years of age, tutored by misfortunes, acquainted with men and courts, a man of genius, acute, sensible, polite, and unaffected. His council was at first chosen indifferently from among the Presbyterians and the loyalists. Monk was created Duke of Albemarle ; and Sir Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon. The latter was appointed chancellor and prime minister ; and m virtue and knowledge he had few equals. One of the first cares of government was to regulate the exceptions of the general amnesty ; and Charles insisted on clemency in a manner that was generally applauded. The regicide judges, and the furious republicans, were the only persons absolutely excepted. Some others What precautions did he give to Charles ? — What was the resuh of the despatches from Charles ? — With what exultation was Charles restored to his throne ? — What were Charles's qualities ? — What titles did he create ? CHARLES ir. 131 were deprived of all benefit of this act, in case of their accepting- public employments ; and some rendered incapable of holding them. It would have been difficult to show greater moderation, where there had been so many criminated. The revenue of the crown was fixed at twelve hundred thousand pounds, and this was superior to that of former kings. But the royal expenses were particularly enhanced, after the courts of Europe, follow- ing the example of Louis XIV,, had adopted the system of keeping large standing armies. The maintenance of the navy, with some other articles, which had formerly stood in no more than eighty thousand pounds per annum, now required eight hundred thousand pounds. The trial and execution of the regicides was matter of universal joy ; tind nothing now remained, but to disband that numerous army, whose Enthusiasm had been productive of disorders that might be repeated. Charles was struck with their martial deportment and discipline. He would have been glad to retain them, but Clarendon showed him the inconvenience of it. Only five thousand men and a few garrisons were retained. As episcopacy was a kind of appendage of monarchy, and had not been legally abolished, it was restored without violence, by the sole au- thority of the king. In an affair so delicate, and so odious to the Pres- Dyterians, Charles from the first showed himself very moderate. The episcopal jurisdiction was to be limited; and each man was at liberty to pursue his principles. An insurrection of the Millenarians afforded the minister a pretext for abandoning that indulgence. Clarendon hated the Presbyterians, whose factious spirit, he said, had created all the troubles of the kingdom. The prelacy, so much opposed in Scotland, was established there also. The covenant, reverenced as divine, was dissolved. The Scotch parliament acquiesced, but the people still retained the leaven of discontent, which might one day ferment into the worst effects. Charles would gladly have united the Presbyterians with the national church ; and for this purpose there was a conference of the clergy ; but as each party came determined to give nothmg up,. no arrangement was effected. A new parliament in 1661, in which there were only fifty-six Pres- byterians in the lower house, distinguished its zeal for the church and the crown. The covenant, and other republican acts, were condemned to be burnt. At last a bill was passed for uniformity of religion ; en- acting- that every muiister who had not received episcopal ordination, should receive it ; that he should declare his approbation, without reserve, of the book of common prayer ; that he should take the oath of canoni- cal obedience ; and that he should abjure the covenant. This was a thunder-stroke to the Presbyterians. Confounded with other nonconformists, and even with Catholics, they had the mortification of finding themselves exposed to penalties, after having seen their sect predominant during the commonwealth. The church of England was How did Charles regulate his general amnesty? — At what was the revenue of the crown fixed ? — How was the trial of the regicides received ? — To what extent was episcopacy restored? — What did the new parliament, in 1661, enact? 132 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. put on its ancient looting; the penal laws were revived. Liberty of conscience, so expressly promised by the sovereign, was annihilated. The king reluctantly assented to the bill. Clarendon was the principal mover of it, and it created him many enemies. This parliament granted the king an extraordinary supply of above a million, and also an impost of two shillings for each hearth or fireplace. In 1662, Lambert and Vane, who were still in prison, were brought to trial ; they were both condemned, but Vane only suffered ; Lambert was respited, and lived upwards of thirty years after in exile. A king without economy must be exposed at times to cruel necessity. Charles's fault was an excessive love of pleasure, and the gratification of prodigality. The expenses of the crown were immense. Urged by necessity, he sold Dunkirk to France for four hundred thousand pounds. Clarendon himself approved this measure. The advantages arising from the possession were not adequate to the annual expense of the gar- rison. This, notwithstanding, occasioned great murmurs. SECTION 12. The act of uniformity produced a kmd of ecclesiastical revolution. It was called the St. Bartholomew act, being appointed to take place on the 24th of August, the feast of that apostle ; though it bore no resem- blance to the St. Bartholomew's day in France. In one day, and by concert, about two thousand Presbyterian ministers gave up their bene- fices, because they would not sign the articles of the act. The church of England now in its turn persecuted its persecutors. In a. d. 1665, the Presbyterians were even prohibited coming within five miles (except when on journeys) of those places where they had exercised their min- istry, on pain of six months' imprisonment and a penalty of five pounds. But these enactions were by no means sanctioned by the king. Though suspected of indifference for all religions, he was secretly inclined to popery, which he had probably embraced before his restoration. His brother, the duke of York, with less understanding, but more spirit and activity, was a zealous papist ; and strongly solicited hun to grant a general toleration. Charles proclaimed an indulgence to scru- pulous consciences, and gave his assurance that at the approaching ses- sions he would endeavour to have their indulgences confirmed. The parliament; which met soon after, far from approving the king's decla- ration, represented to him that extreme lenity had drawn into the king- dom a great number of Romish priests and Jesuits, and demanded an order for their removal. In 1664, a war commenced with Holland, which soon increased the king's necessities. The duke of York, whether from national interest, or from a hatred to a Protestant republic, excited his brother to a rup- ture. A supply of nearly two millions and a half, the greatest that had What obnoxious bill was Clarendon the mover of? — Who were now brought to trial? — Whosuflfered? — What were Charles's principal failings? — What was the result of the act of uniformity ? — Did the king sanction it ? — Was Charles's proclamation approved by the parliament? — Name the occasion of a war with Holland. CHARLES II. 133 ever been granted, enabled him to make a very grand appearance ; and war was declared, though Holland left nothing undone to prevent it. John de Witt was then at the head of the republic, in quality of grand pensioner. He had equal courage and prudence ; and armed against the dangers he could not avoid. The English fleet, commanded by the duke of York, in 1665, con- sisted of one hundred and fourteen sail, and had twenty thousand men on board. The ship of Opdam, the Dutch admiral, was blown up, and the Dutch were beaten. More than one hundred thousand persons died of the plague in Lon- don the same year, and a dreadful fire completed the desolation of the capital. It began in the house of a baker, and continued raging for three successive days and nights. Six hundred streets, and more than thirty thousand houses, were reduced to ashes. The streets were very narrow, and nearly all the houses were built of wood. London was soon rebuilt in a more substantial, as well as more safe manner. • This twofold scourge of fire and pestilence, joined to the great ex- pense of the Dutch war, inclined both king and people to treat with Holland for peace. But while the negotiation was going on at Breda, the grand pensioner, de Witt, sent the Dutch fleet, under the command of de Ruyter, and set fire to the English ships even in their ports on the Thames. A war so ruinous, and terminated with so little advantage, disquieted the English, and Charles made them a sacrifice of Claiendon. He respected the merit of that great minister, but his virtues were trouble- some to him. The chancellor, incorruptible in the midst of a dissolute court, still retained his integrity of manners. He had no complaisance for the king's mistresses. He was a restraint upon his pleasures, and he op- posed his prodigalities. The ungrateful people, less mindful of the good he had done them, than of the circumstances that displeased them, considered him as the author of their sufferings. On one hand, the Presbyterians reproached him with persecution, and that reproach was not groundless ; on the other hand, the papists, knowing his zeal for the church of England, despaired of toleration under his ministry. Though the war with Holland was undertaken contrary to his advice, the mis- fortunes attending it were attributed to him, because he was at all events to be found guilty. He was impeached, but the upper house refiised to put him under arrest. The parliament banished him, and the king as- sented to the bill. Clarendon fixed his residence in France, where he lived six years, employing his leisure in composing a history of ine late civil wars ; the work of a statesman and an illustrious citizen. The early part of his life had been spent in the study of the law. His father, it is said, often exhorted him never to advance the Prerogative at the ex- pense of public liberty ; — a maxim which he professed to observe. A new proposal of toleration, in favour of the nonconformists, pro- voked the commons, who immediately demanded a proclamation against Enumerate the effects of the plague and the fires. — What did the Dutch ships crtect on the Thames ? -^ What fate awaited the chancellor. Clarendon ? 12 134 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. conventicles, a. d. 1670 ; and to obtain money, it was needful to satisfy them, and their bill was confirmed. Every member of a conventicle, or assembly of nonconformists, consisting of more than five persons, besides the family where it was held, was liable to a fine. This seve- rity of the commons was the more extraordinary, as the same spirit of persecution had a little before occasioned a rebellion in Scotland. About two thousand Presbyterians, after renewing the covenant, took up arms; and the flame which despair had kindled, was quenched in blood. Five new ministers now directed the affairs of the empire : Ashley earl of Shaftesbury, distinguished by his wit, but a man of violent pas- sions ; the duke of Buckingham, possessed of Mat, figure, and fortune, but not conspicuous for either conduct or principle ; the duke of Lau- derdale, a man of learning, but a sycophant to his prince, and a tyrant to the subject ; the bold and impetuous Clifford ; and lastly, the earl of Arlington, well versed in business, and worthy of his place, had he had the resolution to follow his own sentiments rather than the influ- ence of the court. The last two were Catholics. This council was called the Cabal. Their political system conformed too much to the inclina- tions of the king, and to the interests of his brother, the Duke of York. SECTION 13. Charles, to shake off that dependence in which he was kept by the economy f f parliament, and forgetting the interest of England, formed a close connexion with Louis XIV., who supplied him with men and money for a new war with Holland. De Ruyter, with eighty ships of war, and forty fire-ships, attacked the united fleets of England and France ; the former under the command of the Duke of York, the latter commanded by the Marshal D'Estrades. The loss on both sides was nearly equal, but the French took no part in the action, a. d. 1673. The parliament compelled Charles to assent to the Test Act, where- by any person that should hold any public office, should be obliged, be- sides the oath of allegiance and supremacy, to take an oath against transubstantiation, in these terms : — " I declare that I believe there is no such thing as transubstantiation, in the Sacrament of the Lord's Sup- per, either before or after consecration, made by any person whatever." Thus all Catholics were excluded from employment, and the Duke of York himself was obliged to resign the command of the navy. The Earl of Shaftesbury was the principal cause of the resolutions formed gainst the court, and the seals were taken from him. In 1674, a new treaty of commerce was agreed upon with Holland, v^hich once more gave up to England the honours of the flag, and pro- nised to pay three hundred thousand pounds. Sir William Temple was sent to Holland with the title of ambassador. Before he set off, he represented to the king the inconvenience the system of the Cabal What new bill passed against the nonconformists ? — Name the five ministers that formed the Cabal. — What connexion did Charles form with Louis XIV. ? — What were the terms of the Test Act ? — On what conditions was a treaty made with Hol- land ? CHARLES ir. 135 would occasion. How difficult, if not impossible, it was to establish in England the g-overnment and the religion of France. That the genius and the principles of the people were not to be suddenly or easily changed. That force of arms alone could effect it, but that an English army could never be prevailed upon to promote it. That the Catholics did not compose the hundredth part of the nation ; and that foreign troops, if employed, would excite the hatred and revolt of the people. At last he referred him to the observation of Gourville, a French gen- tleman, much esteemed by Charles II, " A king of England," said Gourville, " that chooses to be the man of his people, is the greatest monarch in the world ; but if he chooses to be something more, he is nothing at all." This discourse displeased the king, but he knew how to dissemble. " 'Tis very well," said he, " I will be the man of my people." Scotland, for the space of ten years, had groaned beneath the yoke of tyranny. Charles had sent the Duke of Lauderdale into that king- dom, in quality of his commissioner. As much as Charles was naturally an enemy to toleration, was the duke fond of persecution, and the details of his oppressions would be endless. The resentment of the people in- creased every day, and the report of the oppressions reached the English, who were persuaded that Charles contemplated the establishment of Popery and arbitrary power. At length a conspiracy was said to be dis- covered, by one Titus Oates, for the establishment of Popery ; and the Duke of York was excluded from inheriting the crown. Oates, in the early part of his life, was a man of bad character ; he afterwards turned Catholics, and lived some time with the Jesuits at St. Omers, but on being discharged by the society, his resentment induced him to turn informer. The substance of his depositions was, that the pope claimed the sove- vereignty of England, and had commissioned the Jesuits to exercise his rights. That, in consequence, the general of the order had by pa- tents, under the pope's seal, disposed of the principal offices, civil and military. In a council of fifty Jesuits, held in London, it was resolved unanimously to kill the king. The crown was to be offered to the Duke of York, on condition that he would receive it of the pope, otherwise he too was to be assassinated. In short, that their object was to over- turn the kingdom, and establish by blood and fire the dominion of po- pery. These reports diffused universal terror. Coleman, secretary to the Duchess of York, being arrested, copies of his correspondence with father De la Chaise, the pope's nuncio, and with some other Catholics, increased the alarm, and carried conviction along with them. Godfrey, the justice of the peace who first took the deposition of Oates, was found dead in a ditch near Primrose Hill, with his rmgs on his fingers and his money in his pocket ; a proof that he had not been killed by rob- bers, and it was concluded to have been the work of the Catholics. Charles mentioned the conspiracy to parliament, and recommended the affair to the vigilance of the magistrates. Danby, the prime minister, brought it before the lords ; and the two houses took it into What was Charles's object towards Scotland ? — What was the subject of Titus Oates's deposition ? — What was the effect of Godfrey's assassination ? 136 HISTORY OF ENGLAJND. consideration. Gates had an apartment in the palace of Whitehal assigned him, with a pension. Soon after, Bedloe accused some Catholics in the service of the queen O'f the murder of Godfrey. The test, which held popery to be idolatry, was now instituted, and all who refused it were excluded from parliament. The Duke of York, with tears m his eyes, requested of the upper house an exception in his favour ; declar- ing that his religion should be altogether between God and himself, and never appear in his public conduct. It was with difficulty he carried is point by two voices. SECTION 14. The king, in 1678, dissolved that long parliament which had sat from the year 1661. It was at first favourable to the interest of the crown ; but the conduct of the king, and the spirit of the nation, altered its dis- position. The persons accused of the popish conspiracy were tried, and Coleman was the first victim. Father Ireland suffered likewise, though he alleged that he was in Staffordshire at the time ; but every Jesuit was considered as a knave, mental reservation making a part of the principles of that order. Some others that were impeached, suffered at the same time. Rapin and Hume are of different sentiments with regard to the reality of this conspiracy ; but the indubitable evidence of Coleman's letters, the death of Godfrey, the impeachment of the queen's servants, and other circumstances, caused it to be fully believed at the time. The leaders of the popular party, in 1679, and Shaftesbury among the rest, availed themselves of these commotions to carry into exe- cution the exclusion of the Duke of York from the throne. A new parliament being called, the elections went against the court, and Charles soon perceived that this parliament would tread in the steps of the former. The danger roused him from his lethargy. To remove the suspicions of popery, he obliged his brother to retire out of the kingdom. The duke obeyed, after requiring assurances with regard to his right of succession. The duke fixed his retreat at Brussels. The commons resolved that the duke's zeal for popery, and the hope of see- ing him on the throne, occasioned popish conspiracies. To prevent the consequence of this resolution, the king proposed conciliating conditions, such as giving up the right of conferring church dignities, &c. These extraordinary concessions, which would so greatly limit the prerogative of a Catholic prince, did not appease the house. The exclusion bill was drawn up, in which it was declared that the crowns of England and Ireland belonged to the next heir, the Duke of York excepted. They excluded also from their body all such as possessed lucrative offices, in order to weaken the power of the crown. They declared standing armies, and even the guards, illegal. At length they abolished arbitrary imprisonments by the Habeas Corpus bill, which the English C3nsider as the first security of the subject. What steps were taken by the king and the parliament? — Who were accused of the popish conspiracy ? — What resolutions did the commons adopt against popery? CHARLES II. 137 [n Scotland, the Presbyterians, as ill-treated as were the Catholics in ^gland, at length lost all patience. In despair they took up arms. Charles sent the Duke of Monmouth to reduce them. They were easily beaten, and Monmouth treated them with great humanity. Some time after, the Duke «f York got him disgraced and sent beyond the seas. For the duke had returned upon a secret invitation from the king, who was in an ill state of health. He himself,, under the pretext of quieting the apprehensions of the English, obtained permission to retire into Scotland. The king's sickness had occasioned universal alarm ; for still he was beloved for his good-nature ; and that, together with the fear of seeing his brother on the throne, made his death looked upon, to use Sir Wil liam Temple's expression, as the end of the world. In the meantime the opposition was not inactive. They demanded that the parliament should be assembled immediately. The court party, as a counterpoise, presented the most respectfiil addresses. The names of Whig and Tory were then first introduced ; the former, by which the Scotch fanatics were distinguished, was given to the opposition ; and by the latter, (which had been given originally to the Catholic rebels in Ireland,) the courtiers were designated. The king at length assembled the parliament, and endeavoured to inspire it with sentiments of unanimity ;" the commons, far from enter- ing into these views, began with acts of violence against the Tories. They returned to the exclusion act. After great debates in the upper house, in which the eloquence of Shaftesbury was eclipsed by that of Halifax, (his nephew,) a zealous partisan of the court, the peers de- clared against the bill, and defeated the hopes of the commons. Their resentment discharged itself on some Catholic peers, whom they im- peached as abettors of the popish plot. The- old Lord Stafford was the first whom they attacked, and he was found guilty by his peers, upon a majority of twenty-four voices. His courage did not forsake him to the last. The commons declared they would grant no supplies till the exclu- sion bill passed into a law. A dissolution of the parliament was the consequence. The kuig, in 1681, summoned another parliament at Ox- ford. London expressed the strongest resentment, and the representa- tives were followed by crowds of citizens, with cockades, inscribed with No Popery ! No Slavery ! Such were the apprehensions of the people. The commons insisted boldly on the exclusion bill, rejecting every ex- pedient. They were determined on their object, and palliating expe- dients would not do. At this time Fitzharris, an Irish Catholic, had given information at court concernmg the operations of the Whigs. He had engaged with one Everard, a spy of the Whigs, in composing an infamous libel, appa- rently with a view of getting money by the information. Everard im- peached Fitzharris, whom the court immediately arrested. The pri- How were the Presbyterians in Scotland treated ? — How came the terms Whig and Tory to be introduced? — What difference arose between trie commons and the peers? — On what did the parliament insist ? — What was the cry of the people? 12=^ 138 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Boner, a dexterous impostor, then paid court to the popular party, and declared that the court had engaged him to write the libel. This occa- sioned an altercation between the two houses ; and Charles, finding that he could keep no measures with the parliament, quietly dissolved it. This resolute blow disconcerted the commons ; an9 the king, determined no longer to expose himself to parliamentary storms, retrenched his expenses, and seemed resolved to maintain his triumph over the opposi- tion. SECTION 15. We must now turn to the affairs of Scotland and Ireland. In Scot- land, the exercise of arbitrary power induced the people to revolt. The Scotch parliament, where the Duke of York presided as king's commis- sioner, established a test, by which the royal prerogative, the supre- macy, and passive obedience were acknowledged. The Earl of Argyle opposed the motion of the court party ; he observed that the established religion had nothing to fear but from the royal family. The Duke of York indulged his resentment. Argyle was arrested and condemned; but found means to escape, and came off with the loss of his fortune only. A cruel inquisition was carried through many miserable families. About two thousand Presbyterians, outlawed on this account, were per- secuted with horrible severity. The Duke of York was considered as the principal occasion of these cruelties ; even the king was less punc- tually obeyed ; so that Waller said, "Charles, to vex the. parliament, which would not let the Duke of York reign after his death, was resolvea that he should reign before it." In Ireland, the Duke of Ormond was governor ; a zealous loyalist, and, at the same time, true to the principles of the Protestant religion ; yet indulgent to other persuasions. Charles had too long neglected him, as it often happens to the best of subjects, who disdain the mean- ness of intrigue and adulation. Dillon, an Irish colonel, intreating the duke on some occasion to serve him at court, and telling him that he had no dependence but on God and him ; — "Alas, poor Dillon," said the duke, " I am sorry for you ; you could not possibly have two friends of less credit at court." The happy and pacific administration of the Duke of Ormond's government in Ireland, exposed him to the hatred of Shaftes- bury. He attacked him in parliament. Ormond's defender was his own son, the Earl of Ossory, whose powerful reply prevailed over the artificial eloquence of his adversary. It was somewhat singular, that in Ireland, a Catholic country, there were neither plots nor rebellions heard of, at a time when the popish plot threw England into such vio- lent agitations. In 1682, the authority of the crown had increased. The city of London, whose political intrigues had given umbrage, was humbled by extraordinary measures. A quo warranto was issued against it; in other words, a warrant to produce its charters and privileges. If the conditions prescribed in any of those charters had been violated in any Upon what steps did the king resolve ? — What persecutions did the Scots un- dergo? — Was not the Duke of Ormond's government favourable to Ireland ? CHARLES II. 139 essential point, the privileges might be taken away. This was said to be the case with regard to London. Two facts were cited, and the judges devoted to the court passed sentence against it. To obtain the re-establishment of the charters, it was necessary to submit to whatever requisitions might be made. The lord mayor and sheriffs could not enter upon their office, without the king's approbation. The same mea- sures were employed to reduce other towns to a state of dependence. The patriots complained of despotism ; and a spirit of rebellion still sub- sisting in the nation, occasioned a plot of a dangerous nature. In the year 1680, Shaftesbury, in conjunction with the Duke of Mon- mouth, Lord Russell, and some other lords, laid a plot for an insurrec- tion. After the parliament of Oxford was dissolved, Shaftesbury was impeached and imprisoned. He found means, however, to escape from justice ; and the conspirators revived the cabal, on occasion of the new sheriffs being nominated by the court. They proposed to make the greatest part of the nation rise, and to attack even the king's guards. All their measures were taken, and the time fixed ; but some unfore- seen delays disturbed Shaftesbury, and made him despair of success. He retired into Holland, where he soon after died, undeserving of gene- ral applause; yet in the character of chancellor, his decrees were allowed to be equitable, a. d. 1683. The conspirators prosecuted their plan, but a traitor to the party re- vealed the plot. The Lords Russell, Grey, and Howard were arrested, and afterwards, the Earl of Essex, the famous Algernon Sydney, and Hampden, grandson to the celebrated republican of that name, were taken up, and three of an inferior rank were executed. Russell, the idol of the people, suffered next. Algernon Sydney was the next vic- tim. The Earl of Essex was found dead in his bed. Monmouth was pardoned, but disgraced again for retracting his confession. The plot thus formed against Charles being defeated, he now enjoyed, in peace, almost an unlimited authority. The doctrine of absolute sub- mission, and passive obedience, became the prevailing system. The Duke of York was re-appointed high admiral, without taking the test loath. This prince held the reins of government, and the severities exercised in the last years of Charles were more agreeable to his cha- racter than to that of the king, who was always inclined to indolence and good-nature. One day, when the duke proposed to him some vio- lent measures, " Brother," said he, " I am too old to begin the race again ; you may do it if you like it." Charles died in 1685, in the fifty-fifth year of his age. He received the sacraments of the church of Rome. He had always lived more like a deist than a Catholic. He would have been more worthy of a throne, if indolence and the indulgence of his passions had not perverted his natural talents. He had the qualities of an agreeable man, rather than those of a great prince. Were not London and other towns deprived of their charters ? — By whom was a plot raised for an insurrection ? — What noted characters suffered on this account? - Who held the reins of government at this time ? — How long did Charles reign ? — What was his age and character ? 140 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. REMARKABLE EVENTS OF THIS REIGN. 1660. The Royal Society established. . 1662. A great storm in London. 1665. A most terrible pestilence in London. 1666. A great fire in London. 1666. Tea first used in England. 1680. A great comet appeared, and continued visible from Nov. 3 til March 9. Among the many eminent persons of this reign, were Hyde, Earl of Clarendon ; Villiers, Duke of Buckingham ; Butler, Duke of Ormond ; Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury ; Sir William Temple ; Algernon Sydney ; Boyle, Earl of Orrery ; Dudley, Lord North ; Monk, Duke of Albemarle ; C. Stanley, Earl of Derby. SECTION 16. JAMES II. A. D. 1685. The Duke of York, as James XL, did not begin his reign without ap- plause. His speech in the privy council, was expressive of wise and moderate principles of government. After bestowing some eulogiams on the clemency of his brother, and saying that he should take him for his model, " I have been represented," said he, " as infatuated with prin- ciples of arbitrary power, but I will endeavour to maintain the govern- ment, both in church and state, as it is by law established. The church of England is favourable to monarchy ; and I shall apply myself to sup- port and defend it. The laws of England make me as powerful a prince as I can wish to be, and my object is to preserve the prerogatives of the crown, without invading the privileges of my subjects," &c. This speech, though it seemed to express his sentiments, did not cor- respond with his fiiture conduct. He received respectful addresses from all parts. That of the Quakers is a monument of the singularity of their sect. " We are come to signify our affliction for the death of our good friend Charles, and our joy to see thee made ruler of the people. They tell us that thou art not of the Church of England any more than we, so we hope thou wilt allow us the same liberty that thou takest thyself, and if thou dost we wish thee all manner of prosperity." The conduct of James, however, soon occasioned apprehensions both for the national liberty and for religion. The Excise and Customs, granted to his predecessors, were levied by his order, as if given by par- liament. He appeared publicly at mass, contrary to the laws established. Priests, particularly Jesuits, became his principal confidants. Pope In- nocent XL, to whom he sent his submission, condemned his imprudent zeal. The Spanish ambassador represented to him that so many priests about court might do hurt by their counsels. James, asking him if the How was James's speech in the privy council received? — Among the many congratulations, what said the Quakers ? — Who became James's principal confi- dants and advisers ? JAMES II. 141 King of Spain did not consult his confessor, " Yes," replied the Spa- niard, " and that is the reason why things go so ill with us." There is no doubt that James's desire of absolute power and of changing the na- tional religion, led him to the precipice from which he fell. The coun- cil, indeed, was composed of Protestants ; but the queen, Maria Eleo- nora of Este, and some Catholic priests, were more listened to than the council. It became necessary at the beginning of the reign to call a parliament. For some years past the court had got a great ascendency. Elections were controlled, and the commons were almost wholly composed of To- ries. The two houses granted the king the fixed revenue of his prede- cessor. The Duke of Monmouth, the natural son of Charles II., and who was much beloved by the people, attempted to dethrone his uncle, at a time when the throne seemed firmly established. He landed with three ships on the western coast, with about a hundred men in his suite; and pub- lished a manifesto, ui which, giving the king only the title of Duke of York, he represented him as a traitor, a tyrant, a popish usurper, and invited the nation to take up arms. Monmouth was proclaimed in seve- ral towns, and was beaten near Bridgewater. He was warmly pursued, and found in a ditch, covered with mud and disguised in the habit of a peasant. The fear of punishment brought him to make humble sub- mission, but he refused to impeach his partisans, and died upon the scaf- fold. James had here a fine opportunity to signalize his clemency, but his. natural severity prevailed. This victory was followed by many barbarous executions. Colonel Kirk, a most sanguinary man, carried his cruelty so far as to sport with the miseries of those whom he sacrificed. The chief justice, Jefferies, still more insufferably inhuman, filled the counties that had taken part m the insurrection with carnage. Father Orleans asserted that James expressed his indignation at the severities of Jefferies ; but that is ut- terly incredible, since Jefferies was created a peer on his return, and raised afi;erwards to the dignity of chancellor. The Earl of Argyle, previous to Monmouth's rebellion, had attempted an invasion in Scotland ; but his countrymen not being disposed to sup- port him, his small army dispersed of itself, and he was taken and exe- cuted. All the acts of parliament that then took place in Scotland, were against the liberties of the people. It was made death to be pre sent at a conventicle, and to refuse taking the test oath, when requirer by the council, was declared high treason. The English parliament was not so tractable. James had declared that in consequence of the Catholics having served him so faithfully, he totally dispensed with the test required by law ; the commons at first showed some spirit of resistance, but proceeded no farther. The upper house, however, contrary to custom, undertook to examine the power which the king assumed ; and in which they were encouraged by the How terminated the Duke of Monmouth's rebellion ? — What cruelties did Kirk and Jefferies exercise ? — What differences arose between the king and the parlia- ment? — What test did James dispense with towards the Catholics ? 142 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. bishops themselves. The king was irritated, and the parliament was prorogued. Openly to favour the Catholics, who were always suspected and hated, was a measure equally rash and dangerous. Lewis XIV. had revoked the edict of Nantz ; and the rigours exercised against the Hu- guenots, made the name of Papist more abhorred than ever. Till then the power of dispensing with positive law, had been considered the pre- rogative of the crown ; but the use James made of it occasioned doubts, and those doubts awakened principles contrary to the ancient maxims. The test act being the strongest barrier against popery, what could pre- vent the establishment of that religion under a king who professes it, if the act be set aside] These arguments made an impression on the people, and their uneasiness increased, when they saw many of the no- bility and the ministry embrace the religion of James, and the most illustrious Protestants disgraced. The Duke of Ormond was recalled from Ireland, and the Earl of Tyrconnel, a zealous Catholic, advanced to the government of that kingdom. Father Peters, the king's confes- sor, a member of the privy council, was thought to be the author of these resolutions ; and the people considered a Jesuit, in that place, as a public enemy holding the reins of government. Several fresh imprudences showed James's settled purpose to change the national religion ; such as the establishment of an ecclesiastical court, little different from that of the high commission, already abolished ; the suspension of the Bishop of London by that court for not arbitrarily punishing a minister who had preached against popery ; the infringe- ment of the privileges of the universities, in causing the admission of Catholics ; an open rupture with the Church of England ; and the penal laws, by declaration, also suspended. Depending on his authority, more absolute indeed than that of his predecessors, he was not afraid of send- ing to Rome an ambassador extraordinary, nor of receiving at his court a pope's nuncio. Every connexion with Rome had been declared high treason by act of parliament, and what was to be expected from a mea- sure contrary to the laws 1 The Pope, Innocent XL, foresaw the con- sequence, and disapproved of that intemperate zeal, which would be pernicious in its effects. " It is strange," says Hume, " that James, who knew what influence religious belief had on his own heart, should be so blind as not to suspect that it might have the same power over Iiis subjects," The declaration of tolerance being renewed, and ordered to be read in all the churches, six bishops represented to the king, in a respectful petition, that the declaration being founded on a power that the parlia- ment had often pronounced illegal, they could not allow it to be read publicly. Though these prelates had kept their business as secret as possible, they were presently sent to the Tower. The confluence of the people on the way, the consternation of the spectators, and the respect shown by the soldiers who conducted them, strongly testified What changes took place in Ireland ? — Did not James attempt to change the reli- gion of the state ? — What was Hume's remark ? — For what were several bishops sent to the Tower ? — What was the consequence ? JAMES II. 143 the sentiments of the public. The counsel for the bishops defended their cause with equal freedom and success, and the judges, in discharg- ing them, gave equal satisfaction. SECTION 17. On the day of trial, James reviewed his troops on Hounslow Heath, and hearing a sudden shout, he inquired what was the occasion. " 'Tis nothing," answered a nobleman ; " the soldiers are only expressing their joy for the discharge of the bishops." " Do you call that nothing ]" re- plied the king ; " but so much the worse for them." Two of the judges on this occasion lost their places, and the ministers who had not read the declaration were prosecuted. The public discontent increased. Till then the Prince of Orange, in hopes of succeeding to the crown, had behaved to the king, his father-in-law, with profound policy, giving him every demonstration of respect and attachment. William, how- ever, was wary of exposing himself to the hatred of a people whom he might one day govern. He gave the king to understand that though he approved of the revocation of the penal laws, as a friend to tolera- tion, yet he regarded the test oath as a necessary means to preserve the established worship. After this declaration of his sentiments, the prince began to listen to the complaints of the English, nor did he long hesitate to break with his father-in-law, whose conduct he could not approve. Several of the English had already invited him to their assistance. The Church of England and the Presbyterians were equally desirous of such a protec- tor. At length he prepared for war, without hoping, however, that this would place him on the throne. For what purpose such armaments were intended, was for a long time impenetrable. They appeared to be destined against France. Lewis the French king's ambassador at the Hague, at length penetrated into the secret and informed his mas- ter. Lewis communicated the discovery to the king of England, and offered him a squadron to join his fleet. James, carried away with a blind confidence, rejected his offer : " I am not reduced," said he, " to such a condition as to be obliged to seek the protection of France." The English fleet mutinied because James had ordered mass to be said on board. The land forces were no less disposed to revolt, because their consent was required to the revocation of the test and the penal laws. James rushed forward to his ruin, with the security of a man who sees no danger. But the illusion vanished when it was too late. His ambassador wrote to him fi:om Holland that every thing was ready for an invasion. Distressed and terrified with this news, James re- tracted ; he restored the friends of the test and penal laws to their places ; he caressed the persecuted bishops ; he broke the ecclesiastical commission ; he restored the charters of London and the other cities. But his indiscretion had rendered the evil incurable. A manifesto from What said the king, after the trial of the bishops ?— Did not William, Prince of Orange, raise an armament? — What concessions and retractions did James now make ? 144 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. the Prince of Orange prepared the way for the invasion ; and he de- layed not to support this declaration with his arms. His fleet, amount- ing to five hundred ships, transported an army of more than forty thou sand men. He landed at Broxholme, in Torbay, on the 5th of No- vember, 1688. For some days the prince had the mortification to find himself joined by very few ; but just as he began to despair of success, a number of the nobility and English ofiicers joined him, and the whole country soon after came flocking to his standard. Churchill, afl;erwards the famous Duke of Marlborough, deserted his unfortunate master. Prince George of Denmark, his son-in-law, and the princess Anne, his favourite daughter, also abandoned him. In this scene of distress, he cried, " Great God, have pity on me ! my own children have forsaken their father." Distrusting his army, and fearful of throwing himself upon the par- liament, James, though a prince of approved valour and firmness, lost all courage, and abandoned his throne without ever attempting to de- fend it. He was seized in his flight, returned to London, and demanded a conference with the Prince of Orange. William ordered him to re- move to Rochester Castle, which is at no great distance firom the sea, in hopes that this dangerous prisoner would rescue himself by flight. The dethroned monarch fled to France, where Lewis XIV. received him with more than royal generosity. Mr. Hume has observed, in justice to the unfortunate James, that to make an excellent sovereign he wanted nothmg but the respect due to the religion and laws of his country. " Had he possessed this excel- lent quality," adds he, " even his middling talents, aided by so many virtues, would have rendered his reign honourable and happy. When it was wanting, every excellency which he possessed became dangerous and pernicious to his kingdom." The Prince of Orange, too politic to seize the crown, and too much a friend to fi-eedom to expose himself to the reproach of tyranny, left the government to the disposal of the laws. A parliament was called, under the name of the Convention, and the commons resolved, that James 11. , having attempted to overturn the constitution of the king- dom, by breaking the original contract between the king and the people, and having fled out of the nation, &c., had abdicated the government and vacated the throne. This resolution occasioned high disputes in the upper house, but it was at length carried in the affirmative. The business was next to fill up the vacancy. Some were for a re- gent, others for a king. The Prince of Orange then summoned several of the peers, and told them that he meant not to interfere in the de- liberations of the parliament ; but if they determined upon a regency, he thought himself bound to acquaint them that he would not accept the title. The bill then passed for the establishment of the crown. It was given to the Prince of Orange, jointly with his wife, but the adminis- tration was reserved to the prince only. Anne was to succeed afl:er In his perplexity, where did he fly for safety ?— The absence of what sole quality lost him the kingdom ? — What measures were now taken by the parliament ? — Who were chosen to fill the vacant throne ? ( 145 ) 13 JAMES II. WILLIAM AND MARY. 147 their death, and her posterity after those of her sister. To this regula- tion was annexed a declaration which fixed the bounds of the royal prerogative. It was then enacted, that the king could not suspend the laws by the royal prerogative, without the consent of parliament; that the establishment of an ecclesiastical court is illegal ; that raising money for the service of the crown, without consent of parliament, is illegal ; that to levy forces in the kingdom, without the consent of parliament, is contrary to law ; that the election of members of parliament shall be free ; that the speeches and debates in parliament are not amenable to the examination of any court ; with several others. In the reigns of the two last princes, the English militia had fallen much to decay, but the navy was greatly improved. Charles, in 1660, found only sixty-three ships. His fleet, eighteen years after, consisted of eighty-three. That of James, at the time of his abdication, amounted to one hundred and seventy-three, and required forty thousand sailors to navigate it. This prince, when Duke of York, invented the signals used at sea. In the course of twenty-eight years, the number of mer- chantmen was doubled — an evident proof of the increase of commerce. After the restoration of Charles II., unbounded libertinism corrupted the manners of the people, fanaticism was almost extinguished, and to fanaticism, irreligion succeeded. The extravagances of bigotry inspired a contempt of those truths which are so necessary to the well-being of society. Religion was unjustly confounded with superstition that dis- graced, and fanaticism that perverted it. The two greatest philosophers of the age, Boyle and Newton, opposed the torrent of unpiety, both by precept and example. SECTION 18. WILLIAM IIL AND MARY. A.D. 1688. William III. of Nassau, Prince of Orange, Stadtholder of the United Provinces, King of England, &c., was the son of William of Nassau, Prince of Orange, by Mary, the eldest daughter of Charles I. On the 4th of November, 1677, he was married to the Princess Mary, eldest daughter of the Duke of York. William and Mary were proclaimed king and queen on the 13th February, 1689, and crowned in April following. It was necessary either to assemble a parliament, or to give that title to the convention : the latter was chosen. The king appeared in parliament, addressed the two houses, and represented to them the necessity of vigorous measures. Jt was resolved, however, that the revenue granted to James should no longer subsist. While they were deliberating on the means of raising supplies, William informed the commons that James was invading Ire- land, and they immediately voted him four hundred thousand pounds to carry on the impending war. Under what laws and regulations was William chosen? — Under Charles and James, was not the navy greatly increased ? — What change took place in the man ners of the people ? — What were William's titles ? — To whom married ? — In the first parliament, what supplies were granted ? 148 HISTORY or ENGLAND. In the meantime, some divisions prevailed among the people ; somo bishops and some peers refused to take the oaths. Those who did not conform to the established government were called Nonjurors. Wil- liam's great object was to annihilate religious animosities. All such oaths as were obnoxious to the consciences of the people, or that ex- cluded men of merit from office, appeared to William to be equally use- less and dangerous. He proposed to unite the Protestant sects, so that, enjoying the same privileges, they might concur for the public welfare. The church of England however opposed this. The ancient oaths of allegiance and supremacy were abolished ; but the nonconformists did not obtain the privileges of the members of the national church. An act of parliament exempted such only from the penal laws as should take the oaths to the king, and hold no private meetings. This tolera- tion extended to the Quakers and the Anabaptists. Though the Catho- lics were not comprehended in this act, William treated them with the same moderation. Scotland as well as England acknowledged William, notwithstanding the efforts and emissaries of the dethroned king. James wrote from Ireland to the Scotch convention, soliciting it to maintain his lawful rights against the usurper ; but the states of the kingdom declared that James, by bemg a Papist, and by violating the laws and liberties of the nation, had forfeited all right to the crown, and that the throne was va- cant. William and Mary were proclaimed, and commissioners were sent with an act establishing their authority. The Duke of Gordon, however, still faithful to the Stuarts, kept the castle of Edinburgh, which was blockaded by the troops of the city. He stood a regular siege, and at length capitulated on terms advantageous for the garri- son. James succeeded no better in Ireland than his friends had done in Scotland ; this fugitive prince had been magnificently received by Lewis XIV., though, by his being surrounded by Jesuits and occupying himself in ecclesiastical matters, he lost the esteem of the French, and exposed himself to the raillery of the court. " Here is a good man for you," said the archbishop of Rheims ; " he has given up three kingdoms for a mass !" The earl, afterwards duke of Tyrconnel, in the mean- time supported his affairs in Ireland. A French fleet was to escort him into that kingdom. The Catholic priests received him with great so- lemnity. The people, too, expressed their zeal and their joy. But these happy beginnings soon terminated unfortunately. Londonderry, a town built by the English, and mostly inhabited by Protestants, shut its gates against him and made an obstinate resistance. The want of provisions and ammunition reduced them to great distress. Razon, the French general, in vain threatened them with the most cruel treatment. The horrors of famine soon added to those of the siege, when they were relieved by the arrival of General Kirk, in the service of king William, who with two ships, broke a staccado that blocked up the port, and entered the town amidst the acclamation of the inhabitants. James's Was notWilliam a friend to religious toleration? — What reply did the Scots return to James ? — Relate James's enterprize in Ireland. WILLIAM AND MARY. 149 army soon after raised the siege, having lost nine thousand men before the place. His misfortunes changed not his conduct : James continued to be still inclined to despotism, still immoderate in his zeal. The Irish parlia- ment, consisting chiefly of Catholics, annulled an act by which the Pro- testants were maintained in the possession of those estates that had been taken from the Catholics. The Protestants were stripped of every thing with great severity. The Protestant clergy were driven from many of their churches, and a bill of attainder was preferred against any who had correspondence with the enemies of James. These mea- sures would have been dangerous in times of peace ; and at the present juncture, were infinitely more so. Lewis sent him fresh succours, and king William prepared to drive his competitor from Ireland. He first sent the duke of Schomberg to Ireland with an army, resolving, as soon as the affairs of government would permit, to proceed thither in person. The government during the absence of William was vested in the queen. The gallant Schomberg, now grown old in arms, had not fiilfilled the expectations of the people. His troops had been sickly, and he had avoided fighting, because the enemy was too strong for him. William landed in Ireland in June, 1690, and with a superior force was more active and more successful. James rashly resolved to give him battle. The river Boyne separated the two armies. While William was reconnoitering the ground, a can- non-ball grazed his left shoulder, tore his coat, and carried away part of his hair. The enemy, believing him dead, broke out into premature joy. The news fled rapidly to France, and occasioned public rejoicings. William, in the meantime, rode through the lines, animated the troops by his presence, and gave orders for battle the day following. The English passed the river, stood the shock of the Irish cavalry, and broke in upon and dispersed the infantry. Schomberg fought at the head of the French refugees. That famous general, at the age of eighty-two, v/as killed as he was crossing the water. His death might have been attended with fatal consequences, but William came up at the critical moment, and decided the victory. He met with little re- sistance, except from the troops of Lewis XIV. These retired in good order, while the affrighted Irish fled in confiision ; for though the Irish troops have been reckoned the best in Eurppe abroad, they have always fought indifferently at home. James, merely a spectator of an action in which he ought to have borne a part, was the first in the retreat. His former courage had been shaken by misfortune, and he embarked for France. William, leavmg his generals to complete the conquests, returned to England. The celebrated Churchill took the towns of Cork and Kin- sale. The last battle fought in favour of James was at Anghrim, in 1691, in which the Irish were put to the rout, and retreated to Lime- rick. The taking of this town crowned the success of the English Did he not deprive the Protestants of their estates ? — In whom was the govern ment vested, in William's absence ? — Relate occurrences at the battle of the Boyne — Where, and by what generals, was the war terminated ? 13* 150 HISTORY OF ENGLAND forces. The general, Baron Ginckel, granted the inhabitants an honour- able capitulation, and, as a reward for his services, he was created Earl of Athlone. In the terms of capitulation, it was agreed that all who should acknow- ledge the authoritj'" of William and Mary (a very few persons excepted) should be restored to their fortunes, privileges, and immunities ; that each should have liberty to retire with his family and effects into any other country, England and Scotland excepted ; and that such should be provided with carriages and transport vessels ; that the Roman Ca- tholics should have the free exercise of their religion, as they had en- joyed it under Charles 11. Notwithstanding the amnesty and liberty of conscience, twelve thousand Irish chose rather to banish themselves than submit to the government. France was their asylum. William returning to Holland in 1692, Lewis XIV. made fresh efforts to restore the dethroned king. James published a manifesto, announcing the enterprise, pledging himself to redress all grievances, and confirm the happiness of the nation. Queen Mary, who was charged with the government during the absence of her husband, ordered all the Catholics to quit London ; the militia were under arms, and Admiral Russel, rein- forced by Holland, defeated the French fleet, and burnt fourteen large ships in the road of La Hogue. James was an eye-witness of this dis- aster, and returned in despair to St. Germain. SECTION 19. In 1693, William repassed the sea to put himself at the head of the allies, and though the success of the wars against Lewis XIV. was not answerable to the wishes of the people, yet still the parliament, gained over by the court, granted large supplies. This was effected by the usual resources of corruption, such as pensions, places, favours, and all the vari- ous means which seduce the heart, when self-interest is the ruling prin- ciple. The parliament had lost its integrity, and hence William had nothing to fear from parliamentary opposition. Queen Mary, an amia- ble princess, died in 1694, at the age of thirty-two. The king lamented her, and indeed her death rendered the security of his crown less cer- tain. Though Mary's father was a devoted Catholic, she was a firm Protestant ; she was an excellent wife, and a pious woman. William, in departing for the Low Countries, in 1695, nominated a council of regency ; and in this campaign he had the glory of stopping the progress of the French arms. The first scene of action was at Na- mur, which William recovered from the French. The French bom- barded Brussels, in revenge for the bombardment of Dieppe, Havre de Grace, St. Malo, Dunkirk, and Calais, which had been attacked by the English the year before. New bombardments were attempted, but not with much success. All Europe was in flames, and exhausted of men and money, for the quarrel of some particular princes, who were too What were the terms of capitulation ? — ^^Vhat victory did the English gain under Admiral Russel ? — From whence was William said to have gained his supplies ?— What conquests were made and towns taken in the Netherlands ? WILLIAM AND MARY. 151 regardless of the calamities of their subjects. William was received in triumph by the English. The conquest of Namur merited this, and he acquired some degree of popularity on the occasion. The former parliament being dissolved, he called a new one, which granted him six millions. The taxes were enormous, and the whole nation complained that it was lavishing its treasure. Yet its hatred to Trance, and the necessity of checking the ambitious projects of Lewis XIV., gave a sanction to these expenses. This parliament passed the celebrated bill respecting trials for high treason. By this, the person impeached was to have a copy of the impeachment five days before trial, and to be allowed counsel for his defence. No person could be impeached but on the testimony of two credible witnesses. If the impeachment consisted of different articles, the two witnesses were to be considered as only one, when their depositions were not upon the same article. The persons accused were to have a list of the witnesses two days before trial ; and three years after the crime was committed, the accusation could not take place, unless the attempt were against the life of the king. The lords added a clause, whereby a peer was to be judged by the whole body of peers. Had this law taken place sooner, it would have saved the lives of many illustrious men, and liberty would have had a rampart against vengeance and despotism. It is a deplora- ble thing, that legislation arrives so slowly at perfection, where the in- terests of humanity are at stake. Another bill passed for new coining specie. Sir Isaac Newton had the direction, and Mr. Locke assisted. In 1696, a plot was carried on for assassinating William, and restor- ing his rival. The Earl of Aylesbury, Lord Montgomery, and others, were at the head of the plot. The Duke of Berwick, James's natural son, passed secretly through the kingdom, and concerted measures for the attempt, and James came to Calais with a design to embark. But the whole was revealed to William, by one Pendergrass, an Irish offi- cer, and measures were immediately taken to frustrate the scliemo. Admiral Russel appeared off the coast of France, and disconcerted the project of James, The two houses of parliament, when informed of the plot, engaged themselves to support William's government, and re- venge every attempt against his person. In 1697, war was renewed on the continent, with the usual animosity. But William's ardoui produced no striking events ; and Lewis XIV., being less fortunate than before, became desirous of peace. A nego- tiation was opened at Ryswick. Lewis gave up almost all his conquests to Spain and to Germany, and lastly, he acknowledged the Prince of Orange to be King of England, Thus William was confirmed in iiis kingdom, while France abandoned the fruits of her victories. The bur- dens of the war were become intolerable. The victors and tlie van- quished were equally weakened. Hence, after the ambition of victory had covered Europe with blood, peace was purchased by restoring what had been conquered. What induced the parliament to vote such large sums ? — Who were concerned hi the plot against William ?— What events induced William and Lewis to nego- liate for peace? — What was the result of the late wars? 152 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. On William's return to England, the parliament loaded him with congratulations, but opposed his designs. William was for a large standing army, but the major part opposed it, and only ten thousand of the standing army were retained. Instead of ten thousand men, Wil- liam, in 1699, had retained sixteen thousand. The commons expressed their dissatisfaction, and reduced the standing army to seven thousand, and obliged the king to discharge the Dutch guard. His remonstrances on this occasion had no effect : he was reminded of his former promise to dismiss all foreign troops, and he was obliged to accede. The com- mons now made it their study to vex that hero, that politician, who had governed, in a great measure, the affairs of Europe. They examined into the administration, re-established the ancient India company, de- clared Catholics incapable of inheriting or purchasing lands ; and they deliberated on demanding of the kmg the dismissal of lord chancellor Somers. William, sometime after, took the seals from him to please the Tories, whose party then prevailed. Scotland gave him no less disturbance. It had set on foot a commer- cial company, which the English and the Dutch looked upon with a jealous eye as a dangerous rival. This company had established a colo- ny in the Straits of Darien, between North and South America ; which was made by agreement with the natives of the country. The Scots, disappointed of their promised treasures, made violent outcries, and it was only by time, address, and flattering promises, that the king could tranquillize them. In 1701, a new parliament was called. The first deliberations of the bouse were on an object of great importance. The young Duke of Gloucester, only surviving son of the princess Anne, who was heiress to the throne, died. To exclude every Catholic prince from the succes- sion, and to fix it in the Protestant line, the commons resolved that the heir should be of the Church of England. After these, and other regu- lations which restrained the prerogative, it was resolved that the princess Sophia, duchess-dowager of Hanover, grand-daughter to James I., was the next heir in the Protestant line, after the respective descendants of the king and princess Anne. This bill passed mt6 a law, notwithstand- ing the opposition of William, and established the right of the house of Hanover to the throne. William, with great infirmities of body, still possessed a vigour of mind equal to the highest enterprises. He sent the Earl of Marlbo- rough into Holland, and appointed him plenipotentiary to the States. The superior talents of the minister both for war and negotiation, ren- dered the appointment equally glorious to his prince and to himself In 1702, the king, wholly occupied with his great designs, though threat- ened with approaching death, made preparations for a campaign, and intended to put himself at the head of his army, when a fall from his horse shortened his days. He met death with that firmness of mind which always distinguished' him. He died in the fifty-second year of What differences arose concerning a standing army? — What commercial com pany had the Scots established ? — What resolution took place, concerning tho suc- cession ? — What accident hastened the king's death ? WILLIAM AND MARY ANNE. 153 his age, after a reign of thirteen years. He was called the stadtholder of England and the king of Holland ; having always had less authority m the former than in the latter country. William III. had talents and merit sufficient to distinguish him as the ablest prince of the age, and one of the best and greatest monarchs that ever sat on the English throne. To keep possession of the throne against internal factions, and against the most powerful monarch in Europe ; to direct with profound policy the councils of foreign courts, and command armies with equal skill and bravery ; to be equally inde- fatigable in the cabinet, and in the field, under the weight of labour, and in the languor of sickness ; to contend with Lewis XIV., and hum- ble his prosperous power ; — these circumstances are more than sufficient to immortalize him. In this reign the Bank of England was established. Among the great characters of this reign, were Sir Isaac Newton, Locke, Tillotson, Prior, Burnet. SECTION 20. ANNE. A.D. 1702. Anne, second daughtei: of James II,, and consort of George, Prince of Denmark, ascended the throne in the thirty-eighth year of her age, and showed herself worthy of her high dignity. The nation acknow- ledged her with great unanimity; and the parliament expressed the greatest zeal and readiness to support her. The death of William, however flattering to the French, or terrible to the Dutch, produced no change in the affairs of Europe. Lewis XIV. in vain attempted to shake the principles of the States. Marl- borough confirmed their resolution; and the queen, in following the measures of her predecessor, animated that formidable league which was to humble France. Marlborough having great influence at court ; honoured with the confidence of the queen, who made his wife her fa- vourite ; secure of the favour of the parliament and the people ; with superior capacity either for debate or action ; of indefatigable activity, and invincible courage, — soon put hunself at the head of the forces in the Low Countries. Lewis XIV. had now no longer those great ministers whose talents nad contributed to the glory of his reign ; the resources of his govern- ment seemed, as it were, in the old age of" monarchy, and France found herself in a critical situation. Her generals made an unfortunate cam- paign in Flanders : Marlborough took Venloo, Ruremond, and Liege, and was preparing for more important expeditions. At the same time there was an engagement at sea. The English attacked Calais, and failed in the enterprise. But the Duke of Ormond and Sir George Rooke forced the port of Vigo, where they took ten French men-of-war and burnt What were the character and abilities of William? — Who were among the greatest characters of the age ? — Of what family was Anne ? — And to whom mar- ried ? — In what did the queen I'bllow the measures of William ? 154 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. eleven; captured eleven galleons and sunk six. In July, 1704, Sir George Rooke took Gibraltar, after a siege of two days. The queen, by gaining the hearts of her subjects, laid the foundation of that prosperity which followed ; she called a parliament and made an interesting speech that had all the merit of sincerity. Both houses an- swered by addresses full of acknowledgement. Supplies were granted for the maintenance of forty thousand men. Marlborough was created duke by the queen, and she settled upon him a pension of five thousand pounds a year, to descend to his posterity. To the prince of Denmark, a pension of one hundred thousand pounds was granted in case he should survive the queen. Being husband to the queen gave no authority to the prince. Anne reigned alone, and he witnessed her glory without acquiring any part of it himself In 1703, the heat of parties revived. The Tories had the upper hand in parliament, and were favoured by the queen. They professed attachment to the Church of England. Most of the Whigs, though in appearance united with the Church of England, and not scrupling the ordinary oaths, frequented the assemblies of the nonconformists, without being deprived of any advantage as subjects. The then reigning par- ties were desirous of excluding them from employments. A bill was offered, in consequence, and passed the house of commons, but it was thrown out by the peers. There were also two factions among the clergy, the high church and low church. One party accused its adver- saries of being Presbyterian hypocrites ; the other called their opponents the partisans of tyraimy and oppression. The prorogation of parlia- ment put an end to these quarrels. There were also troubles in Scotland, the effects of which might be contagious. The ancient genius of the nation showed its turbulent ac- tivity. The cry of liberty, and invectives against the ministry, echoed through the house. The Duke of Queensberry, the queen's commis- sioner, was in danger of being cut to pieces ; but he at length calmed the Scots by the promise, that on the first session of parliament they should pursue their measures in favour of liberty. The Irish parliament showed the same animosity, and malversation and rapine were the sub- ject of complaint ; yet much zeal was shown for the established go- vernment, and an act was passed against the Papists, who were sus- pected of fresh designs in favour of the Pretender. During this reign, the honour of the British arms was carried to an amazing height, particularly by the Duke of Marlborough, who humbled the pride of France, by many glorious victories at Blenheim, Ramilies, Oudenarde, Malplaquet, &c. In Spain, the Earl of Peterborough, one of the bravest and most distinguished men, took Barcelona, and con- quered all Catalonia. In 1706, the Earl of Galway, at the head of twenty thousand men, took Alcantara, a city of Portugal. In 1708, Major-General Stanhope landed with three thousand men on the island What victories were gained both by land and sea ? — What supplies did the par- liament grant? — What pensions did the queen bestow? — Were there not two factions, both in the state and the church ? — What agitations occurred, both in Scot- land and Ireland ? — What were the English victories over France and Spain? ANNE. 155 of Minorca, and attacked fort St. Philip, where the garrison, consisting of one thousand Spaniards and five hundred French, surrendered in three days : the men were made prisoners of war, and the whole island was conquered in three weeks. These wars were concluded by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. But in this progress of hostilities we must not lose sight of Scotland, nor of the measures adopted for a union of the two kingdoms. An act of parliament granted powers to commissioners named on the part of both nations, to treat on the preliminary articles of the union ; and, after a conference of some months, they finished the articles of that famous treaty which was to unite in one body a people who had once been implacable enemies. The treaty stipulated that the two kingdoms should become one, un- der the name of Great Britain ; that all the subjects of Great Britain should enjoy the same privileges, and be under the same laws ; that the kingdom should be represented by one and the same parliament, in which Scotland shall have sixteen peers, and forty-five members of the lower house ; that all the Scots peers and their successors shall be ac- counted peers of Great Britain, &c. This treaty met in Scotland with the most violent opposition. All parties at first united to oppose it. The Presbyterians feared the loss of their religion ; the Jacobites fore- saw the exclusion of the Pretender ; the merchants trembled for their commerce ; and the nobility were shocked at the loss of their best pri- vileges, by the abolition of their parliament. The nation in general considered itself as sold to a foreign power, and several members of the Scotch parliament vigorously opposed the treaty. An open revolt was commenced. ' The Presbyterians, roused to enthusiasm, erected their standard, publicly burnt the treaty, published a manifesto, and deter- mined to dissolve the parliament. Yet, after all, whether the influence of the court, or the means of corruption, prevailed over the national spirit, or whether, after the first alarms subsided, reason and argument took place, the Scotch parliament ratified all the articles, with some slight alterations. When the treaty was laid before the English parliament, it occa- sioned, as it had done in Scotland, contests and disputes. So rare is it to find a uniformity of sentiment. It was compared to a forced mar- riage, to which the woman does not consent ; and it was said that an act, like this, produced by corruption and violence, could not be perma- nent. These, and many other objections, were ably rebutted. " The security and tranquillity of the kingdom," said an advocate for the union, " will evidently be the fi-uits of this treaty. Our inveterate enemies, France and Popery, will no longer be formidable, when Great Britain is united in one body." An act, supported by reason, and opposed only by weak objections, carried the majority of votes ; the parliament rati- fied it ; and the experience of its good effects has dissipated those phan- toms which imagination had raised against it. What measures were adopted for a union with Scotland ? — And what were the stipulations of the treaty ? — What arguments were advanced both for and against it ? — What was the result ? 156 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. SECTION 21. In 1708, the interest of the Duke of Marlborough began to decline in England. The Tories hated him. His wife, the duchess, who had exercfsed a despotic authority over the queen, became at last insupport- able for her haughtiness. Another favourite succeeded her, and, though her cousin and her creature, had the address to supplant her. Harley, secretary of state, and St. John, afterwards the celebrated Lord Boling- broke, conspired the disgrace of Marlborough, and of the treasurer, Go- dolphin. The general was reproached equally with avarice and ambi- tion : he amassed immense treasures. War, so terrible a scourge to the people, was for him the high road to fortune. Though the first parliament of Great Britain was held, agreeably to the treaty, at this juncture, Lewis XIV. countenanced an invasion in favour of the Pretender, the son of James II. An English fleet of fifty men-of-war waited for the passage of the French. The prince met with contrary wiads : it was with difficulty he saved his ships, and thus ended the expedition. In the midst of these events Anne had the misfortune to lose her husband, the Prince of Denmark, a man of amiable character, without ambition or intrigue, and giving no umbrage to the English nation. The act of naturalization in behalf of Protestant foreigners, at length passed into a law : the Tories in vain opposed it. The French refugees, how- ever, had served the English very effectually, as well by their valour as their industry. The revocation of the edict of Nantz had made them implacable enemies to Lewis XIV., and the friends of liberty and gene- rous sentiments admitted these enemies of despotism into the body of the nation. While England was triumphing over Lewis XIV., a singular kind of trial rekindled the animosity of the parties in England. Dr. Sache- verel, an enthusiastic preacher, carried away by the spirit of party, which is sometimes miscalled zeal, preached in favour of passive obe- dience, and against the toleration of the nonconformists. The house of commons declared Sacheverel's sermons scandalous and seditious libels, and the author was called to account. His trial suspended fat three weeks all other kind of business, attracted the whole attention of the public, and became so interesting that the queen was present at it. The clergy and the people declared for Sacheverel ; but the Earl of Wharton spoke ably in the house of peers on the dangerous conse- quences of advocating such doctrines. Bishop Burnet, also, justified resistance from history, both ancient and modern ; and the Duke of Ar- gyle, (in reply to the Tory principles of the Bishop of Bath,) with much warmth, declared, that the clergy had in all ages abandoned the interests of the people, and extolled the majesty of kings, that they might govern them with greater ease. What caused the Duke of Marlborough's interest to decline? — Did not Lewis countenance the pretender's invasion ? — What was the character of the Prince of Denmark ? — Relate what commotion was raised by Dr. Sacheverel. ANNE. 157 Sacheverel was found guilty, by a majority of seven votes. He waa suspended from the pulpit for three years ; his sermons were condemned to be burnt, as well as the famous decree.of the University of Oxford in favour of absolute authority, and the irrevocable right of kings. Anne seemed to favour a doctrine which tended to secure her throne, and to maintain the public tranquillity. She expressed her concern that any doubt should arise of the church being in danger ugder her government. In 1711, the Tories, who had become too powerful for their adversa- ries, carried their animosities beyond all decency. Marlborough, so often extolled in both houses, suffered great indignities. The people insulted the hero whom they had idolized. Pride, avarice, and extortion, were laid to his charge. Never had Rome or Athens known popular clamour more iniquitous or absurd. But though Marlborough had lost his court influence, he had still the command of the army, and appeared again with eclat on the theatre of his victories. This campaign laid France open to her enemies ; while England bought dear those triumphs, from which she reaped no advantage. A conference for a peace, there- fore, was opened at Utrecht, where treaties were signed in March, 1713. Dr. Langhorne, in a poem, when speaking in praise of Anne, calls her " The glorious Arbitress of Europe's peace." But the spirit of faction, which sees most objects in a false light, con- demned her measures. The Whigs exclaimed against the peace, and their invectives were altogether merciless; and the queen, after the sacrifice she had made to general humanity, incurred the blame of her own subjects. This uneasiness was increased by a dangerous contest in parliament. A duty was laid on malt, and Scotland was not exempted, though the Scotch members insisted, with a patriotic energy, on the poverty of their country. Debates ran high ; the Tories had the ma- jority, and the Scots submitted to the tax. The more the queen, in her declining state of health, was desirous of tranquillity, the more she was disturbed with the vexations of fac- tion. It had been reported that she had thoughts of placing the Pre- tender on the throne, and that the Hanoverian succession was in danger. A price was set upon the Pretender's head, but it was provisionally confined to his mvasion of England. The Queen receiving the address of the peers, replied that she saw no reason for coming to such extremi- ties ; but parties grew warmer, and Anne at length published the de- sired proclamation against her brother. Her uneasiness was increased at the cabals of the court. St. John, secretary of state, now created Lord Bolingbroke, had insinuated him- self into the good graces of the favourite, and undermined the credit of the Earl of Oxford. There was an open rupture between the two min- isters. Anne was present at one of these disputes, ui which Oxford lost all respect for her presence, and fell into the most violent menaces What sentence was pronounced against him? — What was objected to Marlbo- rough ? — Where was peace signed ? — What unpleasant contest occurred in parlia Hient? — Was not Anne supposed to favour the Pretender's succession? 14 158 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, against his enemies. She immediately stripped him of his employ ments, and vexation and uneasiness hastened her death. She died in the fiftieth year of her age, and the thirteenth of her reign. Few sovereigns have merited higher eulogiums than this princess. Without splendid talents, she shone" in the qualities of the heart, in a sincere affection for her subjects, and an invariable affability, both in the government and in fthiiliar life. She has been emphatically called, the good Queen Anne, a title more glorious than the victories that distin- guished her reign. Marlborough made France tremble, but she gave peace to Europe, REMARKABLE EVENTS. 1706. The kingdoms of England and Scotland united. 1707. The first British parliament met. 1710. St. Paul's Cathedral rebuilt. Great Characters. — Churchill, Duke of Marlborough; Lord Boling- broke ; Sir William Temple ; Boyle, Earl of Orrery ; Addison ; Steele ; Swift ; Sidney, Earl of Godolphin ; Harley, Earl of Oxford, &.c. CHAPTER VIL— HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. SECTION 1. GEORGE I. A. D. 1714. George of Brunswick, Elector of Hanover, son of the Princess So- phia, grand-daughter of James I., was proclaimed without opposition. He was about fifty-four years of age, a prince of great spirit, at once a soldier and a politician ; and his maxim was, " never to abandon his friends, to do justice to all, and to fear no one^ The parliament, assembled in his absence, granted him the same revenue that Queen Anne had enjoyed. George soon arrived in England. A prince hitherto esteemed for his prudence, seemed capable of extinguishing the heat of faction ; but whether he thought it impossible, or whether his prejudice against the Tories inflaenced him, he gave all his confidence to their adversaries. Bolingbroke was dismissed ; the command of the army was taken from the Duke of Ormond, and restored to Marlborough. This change ex- tended to other public employments, and the Whigs triumphed with as liigh a hand as they had before been disgraced. Such beginnuigs con- tributed to inflame the animosities of parties. What court cabals increased the queen's uneasiness ? — What was her age ? — How long did she reign ? — What eulogiums have been passed on her character ? — Mention the great characters that adorned her reign. — What relation was George I. to James I. ? — What was his age ? — What was his maxim ? — To what party did George give his confidence ? — What minister was dismissed ? — Who was re- stored ? GEORGE I. 159* George, how^e-ver, showed more wisdom in declaring that he was resolved to maintain the churches of England and Scotland, as by law established, without infringing upon that toleration granted to the Pro- testant nonconformists. The spirit of mutiny, notwithstanding, showed itself The Tories did not fail to call in the interests of the church, and the cry was " Down with the Whigs ! Sacheverel for ever," The Pretender, who went by the name of the Chevalier de Saint George, availed himself of this juncture by publishing a manifesto, setting forth his hereditary right, &c. In 1715, the king called a new parliament, and his proclamation ever- went so far as to suggest the election of such persons as would support the Protestant succession. This influence of the court, and the spirit of liberty among the people, had the desired effect. The reigning party was resolved to crush its adversaries, A secret committee was ap- pointed to inquire into the late negotiations; and the famous Robert Walpole, president of the committee, impeached Bolingbroke, then in France, of high treason, as being the author of a particular treaty, con- cluded with Lewis XIV. Lord Coningsby immediately rose and said, " The worthy president has impeached the hand, I impeach the head ; he the scholar, I the master. I impeach Robert Harley, Earl of Oxford, of high treason, and other crimes and misdemeanors," Oxford's brother rose up in his defence, but it was unavailing. These impeachments were carried to the upper house ; and the earl, after protesting his inno- cence, and that he had only executed the orders of the sovereign, &c., added, " I will with pleasure lay down my life for a cause which my dear mistress, our late queen, had at heart. When I consider that I shall be judged by the equity, honour, and virtue of my peers, I readily acquiesce in their judgment : God's will be done." He was conveyed to the Tower, though dangerously ill at the time. The Duke of Or- mond, also, and the Earl of Strafford were impeached. The former, rather than hazard the event, quitted the kingdom. A bill of attainder passed against him and Bolingbroke, and their names were struck out of the list of peers. These measures increased the popular ferments. The populace, on George's birth-day, burnt William in effigy. The Jacobites were in motion throughout the kingdom. The king informed the parliament that an invasion was threatened. Troops were raised, a fleet was equip- ped. One hundred thousand pounds sterling were promised to any one that should take the Pretender, alive or dead. The alarm was not with- out foundation. The Tories had held a correspondence with the friends of the house of Stuart abroad. The Pretender had relied on the pro- tection of Lewis XIV., who died about the same time ; and the Duke of Orleans, the regent during the minority of Lewis XV., connected himself with England : his politics not corresponding with the desires of the Pretender. ^ Did he confirm the toleration of the English and Scotch churches ? — What ma- nifesto did the Chevalier de St. George publish ? — What great statesmen were im- peached ? — What was the reply of the Earl of Oxford ? — What invasion was threatened ? — What preparation was made to oppose it ? — What king died at this time ? 160 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. In 1715, a rebellion broke out in Scotland. The Earl of Mar raised troops, and proclaimed James III. The North of England followed the example, but the rebels were vigorously attacked. The battle of Dum- blain greatly weakened without subduing them. A reinforcement of six thousand Dutch gave the king's army the superiority, and the Pre- tender, who had landed in Scotland, was obliged to return, accompanied by the Earl of Mar and some chiefs. Several of his partisans, however, were taken up and condemned. Among them were the Lords Der- wentwater and Kenmuir, who were beheaded on Tower-hill, Feb. 1715-16. In vain the wives of the unhappy noblemen who suffered im- plored with tears the intercession of parliament. George was inflexible. Lord Nithisdale was also to have died on the scaffold, but his mother, obtaining permission to take her last leave of him, exchanged dresses with him. By this artifice he escaped, and she remained' prisoner in his stead. In justice to her affection and virtues, she was afterwards discharged. The court, after indulging its severity, adopted means to avert its effect. The present parliament was under command ; a new one might not be so, but might return upon the ministry the rigour they had exer- cised on their predecessors. The act of triennial parliaments was justly alarming to such a ministry, and one of the peers in the upper house moved for extending the duration of parliaments. This was strongly opposed by other lords. The reasons urged on each side were long and numerous. Court influence prevailed. Both houses passed the bill, which extended the duration of parliaments from three to seven years. George's affairs now called him into Germany. Charles XII. of Swe- den was incensed against the King of Great Britain, because he had acquired the duchies of Bremen and Verdun, and he undertook an inva- sion in favour of the Pretender. The king, informed of this design, A. D. 1717, suddenly quitting Hanover, returned to London, and de- manded of the parliament an extraordinary supply to defend his king- dom. Thus Great Britain found herself embarked in continental con- nexions, because the reigning family possessed estates in Germany. The Earl of Oxford languished about two years in the Tower. He availed himself of a quarrel in the ministry to demand his trial. The two houses had violent disputes concerning the process. The house of lords insisted on its being under their cognizance, and they carried it against the commons. The accusers not appearing, Oxford was dis- charged. An unforeseen event put an end to all uneasiness on account of Swe- den, Charles XII. being slain at the siege of Frederickshall, in Norway. A quadruple alliance was signed in London, in June, 1718, between the emperor, France, England, and Holland ; and in July of the same year, Sir George Byng entirely defeated the Spanish fleet in the Mediterra- nean. The Spaniards had made conquests in Sicily, and the English What rebellion broke out in Scotland ? — How subdued ? — Whatnooieman escap- ed, and by what means ? — Were not triennial parliaments now made septennial ? — Why was Charles XII. incensed against the king ? — What was the result of the Karl of Oxford's imprisonment? — What befel the Idng of Sweden? — What was the quadruple alliance? — By whom was the Spanish fleet defeated ? GEORGE I. 161 admiral attacked their fleet, though more numerous than his own, and destroyed it, almost without opposition. War had not yet been de- clared, and Spain exclaimed that by this act the law of nations had Deen violated. Some members of parliament, Walpole, in particular, who was no longer in favour, blamed it with great asperity, but the par- liament approved all its measures, and war was declared against Spain. Another invasion in favour of the Pretender, was projected by Albe- roni, the Spanish minister. In 1719, ten men-of-war, and a number of transport vessels, put to sea, under the command of the Duke of Or- mond, who was impatient to revenge his disgrace. But George had for- tune on his side. The fleet was dispersed by a tempest ; three hun- dred Spaniards who had landed in Scotland, were forced to surrender themselves prisoners ; and all the Pretender's hopes vanished. SECTION 2. In 1720, another scourge, in the insatiable hand of avarice, threw England into confusion. The national debts amounted to more than fourteen millions. Means were thought of to discharge them. Both the Bank and the South-Sea Company made proposals for this purpose. Those of the company, appearing more advantageous, were accepted, and one Blount, a scrivener, the author of the scheme, took upon him its management. Not long before, there had been a scheme in France, called Law's system, for erecting a company under the name of the Mississippi, which led to the wildest speculations. The passion for riches, like other passions, is sometimes too blind to be controlled. The desire and the hope of large fortunes, drew into the snare a multitude of people, who became the dupes of artifice and interest. The directors of the South-Sea Company, having deluded the subscribers by flattering chi- meras, stocks immediately rose from one hundred to one thousand. The rage of stock-jobbing filled every head, and engrossed every idea. Whigs, Tories, Jacobites, the nobility, the clergy, physicians, lawyers merchants, the very women themselves, all were animated with the same spirit. All converted their money into paper ; all believed they should grow rich by parting with their riches. This delusion was not of long duration. The South-Sea scheme was soon proved to be built on a ruinous foundation. The views of ava- rice were disappointed ; and stocks fell prodigiously. Several projects, set on foot by the fraudulent industry of covetousness, totally failed. No money appeared, payment was stopped, public credit vanished, nu merous families were reduced to beggary, and despair succeeded to senseless hopes. George, who was then in Germany, returned with expedition, and recommended the business to the notice of parliament. The two houses endeavoured to do justice, though some of their mem- bers were implicated in these infamous proceedings. The goods of the Who projected the Pretender's next invasion ? — How did it terminate ? — What scourge threw England into confusion ? — Relate the scheme erected in France' What was the ruinous consequence ? 14* 163 HISTORY OF BNGLAND. directors were confiscated, except a bare subsistence; the creditors were indemnified, as far as circumstances would permit, and public credit was restored. Walpole contributed greatly, by his genius and application, to allay these disorders. Upon this he was restored to office, and made first commissioner of the treasury. In 1721, some ecclesiastical matters were subjects of debate in par- liament. Three years before, a bill had passed for annulling the severe acts against the nonconformists ; the Bishop of Bangor had asserted that all such acts were laws for persecution ; and that if principles of intolerance were admitted, then all persecutions, and even the popish inquisition might be justified. From whatever cause it arose, unbounded luxury, dissoluteness, and infidelity, seemed to succeed the South-Sea scheme, which had made gold and silver the objects of human worship; and in consequence a bill was brought into the upper house against blasphemy and profaneness. In the bill were several articles not per- fectly consistent with the liberty previously granted to the noncon formists. On this account the bill met with so great an opposition that it did not pass. The Society of Friends also, in 1722, occasioned some disputes in par- liament. Under King William they had procured their solemn affirma- tion to pass for a judicial oath ; and they now further demanded that the words — in the presence of Almighty God, should be left out of their judicial affirmation. The commons passed the bill. In the house of lords it was opposed by the Archbishop of York and some other peers ; and the clergy of London presented a petition against a concession so singular : but it ultimately passed. It is devoutly to be wished that the legislature may ere long substi- tute a form for Christians in general, that may remove the obligation of such fi-equent oaths as serve only to multiply perjuries. The great Duke of Marlborough died this year. During this year, the king communicated to the house a newly dis- covered conspiracy. A manifesto, attributed to the Pretender, inflamed the minds of the people. Severe bills passed against the Catholics, and the preparation for war put the whole kingdom in agitation. The com- mons avowed the certainty of a plot to place a Catholic on the throne. One of the persons accused was the famous Atterbury, Bishop of Ro- chester, a prelate of distinguished abilities. The proofs against him were two letters, intercepted at the post-office, written in a peculiar cipher, which some suppose to have been fabricated by his enemies. For this, however, he lost his bishopric and was banished. Atterbury took refuge in France. The king pardoned Bolingbroke at the same time. There was but one man hanged for the conspiracy. The rigour of the law, in 1725, was exercised against the Earl of Macclesfield, the chancellor, who, borne down by public hatred, volun- tarily resigned the seals. He was impeached in parliament, and con- Were not the goods of the directors confiscated ? — What ecclesiastical matters were subjects of debate ? — What new demand was made by the Friends ? — Men- tion what new conspiracy had occurred. — What nobleman was impeached in par liament ? GEORGE I. 163 victed of fraudulent practices, and condemned to pay a fine of thirty thousand poun/Js. In consequence of an alliance entered into between the emperor and Spain, in which Russia joined, George took the alarm. He was appre- hensive for his possessions in Germany, and three English squadrons put to sea ; one destined to block up the ports of Russia, another to <^ruise on the coast of Spain, and a third to seize the Spanish galleons HI the West Indies; which last did not succeed. To enable the king to carry on the war, the commons voted him forty-six thousand men, together with a land-tax of four shillings in the pound. The upper house was not so complaisant. A violent debate at first announced a formidable opposition. The measures of the king were at length car- ried. The Spaniards in the meantime laid siege to Gibraltar, but their measures were but ill taken, and the place too well defended. The king, after appointing a regency, embarked for Hanover. In his journey he was seized with a disorder, of which he died at Osnaburg, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, and the thirteenth of his reign. George I. had great qualities, a considerable capacity, discernment, policy, and a talent for negotiation. He was an enemy to parade, grave in his con- duct, and averse to every species of tyranny. In 1727, inoculation was first tried on criminals with success. ►Among the noted characters of this reign, were — Sir William Wynd- ham; Sir Robert Walpole; William Pulteney; Francis Atterbury, Bishop of Rochester ; John, Lord Hervey ; John Perceval, Earl of Eg- mont, &c. SECTION 3. GEORGE ir. A. D. 1727. George II. succeeded his father, and was proclaimed king of Great Britain, June 15, 1727, in the 44th year of his age ; and on the llth of October the coronation of the king and queen was performed at West- minster Abbey, with the usual solemnity. In December following, his Majesty's eldest son. Prince Frederick, arrived in England from Hano- ver, and was created Prince of Wales. A misunderstanding with the Spaniards was one of the first occur- rences of this reign. The people of the British West India Isles had carried on an illicit trade with the subjects of Spain, upon the continent, and complaints were often brought to England that merchants were plundered by the Spanish vessels, and sailors treated with cruelty. The house of commons, in consequence of being petitioned by the merchants, entered into a deliberation on the subject ; negotiations with Spain were set on foot, which terminated favourably, and put off" the threatened war for a time. What alliances occasioned preparations for war? — To what place did the Spa- niards lay siege ? — What befel the king? — When was inoculation first tried? — Who were the most noted characters? — When was George II. proclaimed ? — And when crowned ? — What occasioned a misunderstanding with the Spaniards ? X64 HISTORY OF ENGLAJN1>. In the year 1731, a society of men formed themselves into a com- pany, called the " Charitable Corporations," professing to lend money at legal interest to the poor, upon small pledges, and to persons of higher rank upon proper security. Their capital was at first limited to thirty thousand pounds, but they afterwards increased it to six hundred thou- sand. This money was supplied by subscription, and the whole in- trusted to directors. The company having continued for above twenty- years, the cashier and warehouse-keeper disappeared, and a most ini- quitous scene of fraud was discovered, in which even some of the first characters in the nation did not escape censure. A scheme for fixing a general excise, about the year 1732, was intro- duced by Sir Robert Walpole into the house. He spoke of the frauds m the article of tobacco, and recommended that it should be lodged in warehouses, appointed by the officers of the crown ; and from thence sold by paying a duty of ^d. in the pound. The proposal raised a vio- lent ferment, not less within doors than without. The parliament house was surrounded with multitudes ; the ministry were intimidated, and the design was dropped. / A misunderstanding with the Spaniards, before mentioned, though pacified for a time, was not entirely removed. The commerce of Great Britain was still insulted and distressed. The English merchants claimed the right, by treaty, of cutting logwood in the Bay of Campeachy ; but the Spaniards refiised to allow the claim, and the British mer- chants complained loudly, and fi-om time to time, of the outrages com- mitted. The Spanish guard-ships continued to seize not only the guilty but the innocent. The minister at length put the nation in a condition for war : and letters of reprisals were granted against the Spaniards. Orders were issued, in 1739, for augmenting the land forces, and raising a body of marines, and soon after two rich Spanish prizes were taken in the Mediterranean. Admiral Vernon was sent m July, as commander, with a fleet of six ships, to annoy their commerce and settlements in America. In No- vember, he took the town of Porto Bello, a fort and harbour in South America. The next year, advice was received fi-om Admiral Vernon, that he had bombarded Carthagena, and taken Fort Chagre. A squad- ron of ships was also equipped for annoying the enemy in the South Seas, the command of which was given to Commodore Anson. This fleet was appointed to sail through the Straits of Magellan, and steer- ing northward along the coasts of Chili and Peru, to co-operate occa- sionally with Admiral Vernon, across the Isthmus of Darien. But some delays in the outset firustrated that part of the scheme. After reachmg Brazil, he refreshed his men on the island of St. Catharine. From thence he steered southward, doubled Cape Horn, and reached the de- lightful island of Juan Fernandez. From thence steering for the coast of Chili, he attacked the city of Paita,, and stripped it of its treasures and merchandize. After which, coasting the western side of the Ame- What discredit befel the charitable corporations? — Did Sir Robert Walpole's plan of general excise succeed ? — How did the English resent Spanish aggression ? j - What appointments had admiral Vernon and commodore Anson ? ■' GEORGE II. 165 rican continent, he lay in wait for one of those great and valuable Spa nish galleons which traded between the Philippine Isles and Mexico, and was so fortunate as to meet with and capture one of them. And after a voyage of about three years, circumnavigating the globe, he returned home with immense riches. In the meantime, the government sent out a large fleet under general Wentworth and Admiral Vernon against Carthagena, but owing to a disagreement which arose between them, the enterprise fatally miscar- ried ; and on that account the kingdom was filled with murmurs, a. d. 1741. The minister, Sir Robert Walpole, finding the indignation of the house of commons against him, declared he would never more sit in that house. The next day both houses of parliament were adjourned for a few days, and in the interim Sir Robert Walpole was created earl of Orford. The emperor of Austria, Charles VI., dying in 1740, without male issue, the French, regardless of treaties, (and particularly of that called the pragmatic sanction, by which the reversion of the late emperor's dominions was settled upon his daughter, the archduchess Maria The- resa,) caused the elector of Bavaria to be crowned emperor ; and the king of Prussia, at the same time, seized upon Silesia. England was the first ally that espoused her cause. Sardinia and Holland soon after came to her assistance, and at last Russia acceded to the union. With this junction in her favour, Maria Theresa began to triumph over her enemies ; the elector of Bavaria was obliged to fly, and being stripped of his dominions, he repaired to Frankfort, where he lived in obscurity. The French meanwhile projected an invasion of England; and Charles, the son of the old Pretender, quitted Rome to have an audi- ence with the French king. The troops destined for the expedition amounted to fifteen thousand men, who were to be embarked at Dun- kirk and some of the nearest ports to England, under the eye of the Pretender. But the project was defeated by the appearance of Sir John Norris, who with a superior fleet made up to attack them. The French fleet was thus obliged to put back, a very hard gale of wind damaged their transports, and their attempts were for the present frustrated. SECTION 4. The French now openly declared war, and entered upon it with great alacrity. The combined fleets of France and Spain for some time fought the British armament under the admirals Matthews and Lestock, though with inferior force, and came off upon nearly equal terms. Both the English admirals were tried by a court-martial. Matthews, who had fought the enemy with intrepidity, owing to some deviations from his prescribed injunctions, was declared incapable of serving for the future in his majesty's navy : Lestock, who had kept aloof, was acquit- What prize did Anson obtain? — What induced Sir Robert Walpole to quit the house of commons ? — When did the Emperor of Austria die ? — Did Maria The- resa succeed him ? — Who opposed her, and who espoused her cause ? — Did not Charles, the son of the Pretender, project an invasion ? — For what were the Eng- lish admirals tried ? 166 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. ted, not having exceeded the punctilios of disc ipline. The proceedings in the Netherlands were still more unfavourable. The French besieged Friburg, and in the succeeding campaign, April 1745, invested Tournay, which they took, after one of the most bloody battles that had been fought in this age. During these continental wars, England had enjoyed internal tran- quillity, till, in 1745, Charles Edward, son of the Pretender, landed in the north of Scotland, and was joined by several of the Highland clans. There being no adequate force there to oppose them, they took posses- sion of Dunkeld, Perth, Dundee, and Edinburgh. At Preston-Pans they defeated the royal troops. After some delay they marched into Eng- land, took Carlisle, established their head -quarters at Manchester, and advanced as far as Derby. But not finding themselves joined by the English Jacobites they retreated homewards. Carlisle was retaken by the duke of Cumberland ; but Stirling fell into the hands of the rebels. On the advance of the duke, the Pretender retired northward, followed by the royal army. The final and fatal battle to the hopes of the Pretender was fought at Culloden* (April 16, 1746). After long skulking in various disguises, and experiencing a fidelity and honour creditable to the national cha- racter, he made his escape to France. The barbarity exercised by the victors would disgrace the best of causes. Perhaps few greater in- stances of human folly could be shown, than this blmd attachment to an obstinate, tyrannical, and bigoted family. On the continent, victory and defeat had rapidly succeeded each other for some years, till all sides found themselves growing more feeble, yet gaining no solid advantage. A negotiation was therefore resolved on, and a congress was opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748, and peace was concluded at the end of the year. To Philip, heir apparent to the throne of Spain, were ceded Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla, with pro- vision against their being united to the crown of Spain or of the two Sicilies ; the queen of Hungary was secured in her patrimonial domi- nions ; Silesia and Glatz were guarantied to the king of Prussia, whose selfish policy began the war, and who was the only real gainer by it. France and England, by all their waste of blood and treasure, gained nothing. Indeed, with respect to England, its interests, both at home and abroad, seem to have been greatly neglected. Though the war between England and France was thus hushed up for the present in Europe, yet in the East and West Indies it was still carried on. On the coast of Malabar, the English and French had never ceased fi"om hostilities, and in North America they were still quar- relling about their boundaries. As war seemed inevitable, England wished to make it a naval one, and it was arranged to put Hanover un- der the protection of Prussia. The courts of France and Vienna were displeased at this project, and concluded an alliance in 1755, in which they were joined by Sweden and Saxony. In 1756 the island of Mi- * Culloden is situate about nine miles from Inverness. Relate the progress of the young Pretender. — Where was the final battle fought, and with what success? — Where and when was peace concluded ? GEORGE ir, 167 norca was taken by the French, and Admiral Byng", who had been sent to the relief of the place, but who neglected to fulfil his instructions, was shot at Portsmouth. The French arms met with partial success both in India and America. But in 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, at the head of the Hanoverians, obliged the French to cross the Rhine. At the commencement of the next campaign, in order to save Hanover, the prince found it necessary to give them battle ; the conflict took place at Minden, (August 1759;) the French were defeated. The blame of the victory not being complete was laid on lord George Sack- ville, the English commander, who was in consequence disgraced. The English admirals Hawke and Boscawen enhanced the lustre of. the British arms at sea, defeating the French fleets off Cape Lagos and Belleisle. In America, the islands of Cape Breton and St. John's were taken by general Amherst: the French settlements on the coast of Africa were reduced ; but in India the advantage was, for a while, on the side of the French. The English took the island of Guadaloupe in the West Indies ; and Quebec, after the defeat of the French army by general Wolfe, surrendered. This decisive victory put nearly all North America into the possession of the English. Wolfe's courage and perseverance surmounted incredible difficulties, and in the moment of victory on the heights of Abraham, he met a death of glory. In the East Indies, 1757, the British arms began to be successful. Mi Clive, who entered the company's service in a civil capacity, gave up his clerkship, and joined the war about 1751 ; and not only his courage, but his military skill soon became so remarkable as to raise him to the first ranks in the army. After clearing the province of Arcot of its enemies, he took the French general prisoner, and restored the nabob, whom the English supported, to his government. But the prince of the greatest power in that country had laid siege to Calcutta, and the fort having been deserted by the commander, the garrison, to the number of 146 persons, were made prisoners. By the commands of the savage conqueror, they were all crowded together in a narrow prison, called the black-hole, of about eighteen feet square. After fruitless attempts to burst their prison, they gave vent to their distress in shrieks, groans, and despair. Suffocation and expiring languor succeeded, till all was silence and death. In the morn- ing, out of 146 that had been incarcerated, twenty-three only were found alive; and of these very few long survived. Mr., now Colonel Clive, backed by an English fleet under admiral Watson, proceeded to take revenge for these cruelties. Appearing before Calcutta, he soon silenced their batteries, and obliged them to abandon their fortifications. Hoogley, a city of great trade, was soon after reduced, and the vice- roy of Bengal's storehouses and granaries were destroyed. To repair these losses the barbarian prince raised an army of ten thousand horse and fifteen thousand foot. Colonel Clive advanced with his little army, and by a judicious disposition of them into three columns, victory soon What admiral was shot for supposed neglect of duty ? — What did Hawke, Bos- cawen, Amherst, and Wolfe ? — Relate the courage and skill of Mr. Clive. — What occurred in the Black Hole of Calcutta ? 168 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. declared in favour of the English. After these and cjther decisive con- quests over the Indians, colonel Clive turned to the attack of the French, w^ho had previously been successful in that part of the world ; and he soon dispossessed them of all their power and all their settlements. It has been said that Clive, in artifice and dissimulation, was a full match for an Asiatic. The efforts of England at this time, ui every part of the globe, were amazing, and the expenses of her operations had never been equalled, either on land or at sea, by any nation, when an event happened of great national concern. On the 24th of October, 1760, the king died suddenly, full of years and glory, in the seventy-seventh year of his age, and the thu:ty-third of his reign. REMARKABLE EVENTS. 1738. Westmmster Bridge begun. Finished 1750. 1753. The British Museum established. 1760. Blackfriars Bridge begun. Fuiished 1770. Among the noted characters of this reign, were William Pitt, Earl of Chatham; Alexander Pope; Horatio, Lord Walpole, &c SECTION 5. GEORGE III. A. D. 1760. George III, the grandson of the late king, was twenty-two years of age when he came to the crown. He was the eldest son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, who, dying before his father, never ascended the throne. The parliament met in November, and settled eight hundred thousand pounds on the king, for what is termed the civil list. The whole supply for the service of the ensuing year amounted to upwards of nineteen millions and a half As his Majesty could not espouse a Roman Catholic, he was precluded from intermarrying into any of the great families of Europe ; he chose Charlotte Sophia, Princess of Meck- lenburgh Strelitz, a small sovereign State in the north-west of Ger- many. The nuptials were celebrated on the 8th of September, 1761, and their coronation was performed on the 22d of the same month, in Westminster Abbey. The war, which Mr. Pitt, in the preceding reign, had conducted with success, was continued ; but this year was not distinguished by any great naval or military operations in Europe, except the taking of Belleisle by Commodore Keppel and General Hodgson. In the East Indies the nabob of Bengal was deposed ; Prince Ferdinand repelled Did not Colonel Clive obtain a victory over the viceroy, and also dispossess the French of their settlements. — What were the efforts and success of the nation at the king's death ? — Name the remarkable events ; and the noted characters. — What was the amount of the civil list settled on George III.? — Whom did he marry? — When were they crowned ?— For what was the year 1761 distingiaished ? GEORGE HI. 169 an attack of the French armies at Kirche Denkirn ; and in the following year he was everywhere successful in Westphalia. In 1762, war was mutually declared by the courts of London and Madrid. Portugal, because she refused to join against England, was invaded by the Spaniards ; but they were driven out by the British and native troops. The death of Elizabeth, the empress of Russia, hap- pened this year : she was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III., who, joining his arms to those of the King of Prussia, acted hostilely against her former allies ; and by this step and some others, brought on him the hostility of his subjects. In six months he was deposed, and soon after died in prison, and was succeeded by his consort, Catharine, who with- drew her forces from the King of Prussia, but did not renew hostilities against hifn. Frederic being thus freed from one of his most formida- ble enemies, recovered Silesia, and ravaged Bohemia and Franconia. The British fleets and troops took Martinique and Havannah, in the West Indies, and Manilla, in the Philippine Isles, besides the whole of Canada, the islands of St. John and Cape Breton, part of Louisiana, the island of Grenada, &c. Thus, in the space of seven years, the Eno-lish had possessed themselves of nearly the whole territory of North America, had destroyed or taken above a hundred ships of war from her enemies, had won by sea and land twelve great battles, and had re- duced many islands, fortified cities, forts, and castles ; and thus the ob- jects for which war was undertaken having been accomplished, she listened to her enemies' solicitation for peace, and the definite treaty was signed at Paris, in February, 1763. The public attention was now called to furious political papers, and among the rest to one entitled the North Briton, by a Mr. Wilkes, mem- ber for Aylesbury, who had attacked the king's speech with a very in- decent freedom. For this he was committed to the Tower. He was afterwards released by the decision of the Court of Common Pleas, and retired to France. In January, 1764, he was expelled the house of commons. Mr. Wilkes returned from the continent in 1768, and offered himself as a candidate for the city of London, though a sentence of outlawry against him had never been repealed. He lost his election, but immediately put up for Middlesex, when he was chosen by a great majority. The ministry however determined to prosecute Mr. Wilkes, who, for publishing No. 45 of the North Briton, and some other papers, was again imprisoned, and fined a thousand pounds. When his impris- onment was expired, he was chosen one of the sheriffs of London and Middlesex, had his debts paid, was elected lord mayor, and aft,erwards chamberlain of London. In the beginning of the year 1765, were kindled the first sparks of that fire, which, a few years afterwards, involved part of Europe and all North America in flames. We allude to the Stamp Act, which was now imposed upon the American colonies. But the Americans remon- strated ; a change took place in the ministry, and the Act was repealed. The spirit of oppression on the one hand, and of resistance on the Why did England aid Portugal ? — What empress died ? — What conquests did the British fleets effect ? — Relate the commotion occasioned by Wilkes 15 170 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Other, still continued ; and when the parliament imposed a duty on tea» the Americans refused to pay it, and at Boston the tea was flung into the sea. The British parliament passed bills for shutting up the port of Boston. The colonists, in 1774, called a congress at Philadelphia, and ui the following year a civil war began.'^ In 1765, the old Pre- tender died at Rome, in the seventy-seventh year of his age. Mr. Pitt in 1766 was made earl of Chatham, and by his recommenda- tion a new ministry was formed. The affairs of the East India Com- pany were now become much embarrassed, and Lord Clive was sent out to India, to put a stop to the growing evil. On his arrival, he con eluded an advantageous treaty with the Mogul, and put the Company in possession of a clear revenue of above one million and a half sterling a year, at the same time enhancing his own. In 1768, his Majesty established the Royal Academy of Arts, for instructing young men in the principles of architecture, sculpture, and painting. The artists, previous to this, had formed themselves into a society, and many had attained to a high degree of excellence. The East India Company about this time found a new foe in one Hy- ier Ally, who had raised himself from the rank of a sepoy to that of a sovereign prince, and became a very troublesome enemy to the East India Company ; and in 1769 and the following year the government at home was again disturbed by Mr. Wilkes, who was elected for Middle- sex, though confined in the King's Bench prison. This gave occasion to the passing an Act for regulating the proceedings of the house of commons in controverted elections. By this bill, which was called the Grenville Act, thirteen members were chosen by lot to decide in all Buch cases. The government was censured, about this time, for suffering the French without resistance to take possession of the Island of Corsica, in the. Mediterranean. The island had for a time belonged to the Genoese, whose cruelties and exactions had driven the nation to revolt ; but not being able to secure their freedom, they had thrown themselves into the arms of the French. A rupture with Spain, also, concerning an island in the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean, was with difficulty adjusted. About the year 1772, a bill passed both houses, enacting that all the descendants of his late Majesty should be incapable of contracting mar- riage without the previous consent of the king, or his successors on the throne, &c. This Act was proposed in consequence of thp king's two brothers, the dukes of Gloucester and Cumberland, having married pri- vately ; and the object for passing such an Act was, to prevent, as much as possible, disputed titles, by keeping the line of succession clear and distinct. In the session of 1772, a barbarous practice in the criminal law was * For a full detail of particulars respecting this war, see Russell's History of the United States, published by Hogan and Thompson, Philadelphia. What led to the war with the American States ? — What success attended Lord Clive in India? — When was the Royal Academy established ? — What new foe had the East India Company ? — What is meant by the Grenville act ? — What change did Corsica undergo ? — What new marriage act passed into a law ? GEORGE III. 171 abolished : before that time, when a felon refused to plead, he was laid upon his back, and a heavy weight was placed on his breast, which was gradually increased till he expired. SECTION 6. That iniquitous act, the dismemberment of Poland, was perpetrated this year, by the Empress of Russia, the Emperor of Germany, and the King of Prussia. About 1773, very many of the common people, both of Scotland and Ireland, emigrated to America, in consequence, it is said, of their unfeeling landlords raising their rents ; and it has been farther asserted, that these emigrants composed some of the first forces to resist English aggression on the American shores. This same year, government sent out two ships to attempt the discovery of either a north- east or a north-west passage to the East Indies, but they were retarded by the mountains of ice, and returned home without accomplishing their purpose. Four different voyages, also, round the world may be here noticed ; one by Commodore Byron, a second by Captain Wallis, a third by Captain Carteret, and the fourth by Captain Cook, who, in his third voyage, met his death at 0-why-hee,* in a skirmish with the natives. In 1775, (April 19th), hostilities first commenced at Lexington, be- tween the king's troops and the Americans ; and the battle of Bunker's Hill shortly followed. A civil war was the result, which, after a con- test of seven years, terminated in the independence of the United States. In 1776, one hundred thousand pounds per annum was added to the civil list. We have already noticed that his Majesty had eight hundred thousand pounds per annum granted him at the commencement of his reign ; but that sum not having been found sufficient, the king had now granted him nine hundred thousand pounds, for supporting the charges of his civil government. An extraordinary event occurred in India : the Governor of Madras, Lord Pigot, merely for executing the orders of the directors, was imprisoned by the leading members of the council, and not brooking the indignity, he sickened and died. He left behind him an amiable character, and his death was sincerely lamented. The war with America was still going on with doubtful success, the British forces under General Howe, and the Americans under General Washington, when General Burgoyne, who commanded the British army in Canada, resolved to encounter the American forces in New England ; for this purpose he crossed lake Champlain, and reduced the Fort of Ti- conderoga, but, on his arrival at Saratoga, his army was Captured by the Americans, under the generals Gates and Arnold. During this war, a person under the assumed name of Jack the Painter set fire to the rope-house at Portsmouth, and to a street called Quay-lane, in Bristol ; and he had formed a plan to destroy all the docks and shipping in the *One of the Sandwich Isles in the Great Pacific Ocean, now called Hawaii, By what powers was Poland dismembered ? — What circumnavigators are men- tioned ? — When did hostilities first commence in America ? — What occurred to Lord Pigot, governor of Madras ? — By whom was General Burgoyne captured ? 172 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. country, but he was timely arrested, tried, and hung in chains. Not long after, the famous Captain John Paul Jones landed at Whitehaven, burnt a ship in the harbour, and even attempted to burn the town. In the year 1778, the French openly declared in favour of the Ame- ricans, the independence of whom they acknowledged and guaranteed. A war between England and France was the consequence. Fleets were accordingly fitted out on both sides. A running fight, but no de- cisive action, took place between D'Orvilliers, who commanded the French squadron, and Admiral Keppel, who conducted the English. This year died William Pitt, Earl of Chatham : as an orator and a statesman, he was the pride and boast of the English nation ; and, as a mark of public gratitude for his eminent services, the parliament granted the sum of twenty thousand pounds for the discharge of his debts, and an annuity of four thousand pounds was settled upon his successor to the earldom. A monument in Westminster Abbey was erected to his memory. In 1779, the King of Spain acknowledged the independence of the American colonies, and his fleet, uniting with that of France, became formidable to Great Britain. From the commencement of hostilities with Spain, the fortress of Gibraltar had been closely invested, and the defence of the place, under General Elliott, displayed a scene of uncom- mon bravery and success. The works they from time to time erected he levelled to the ground ; and their last attempt with their floating bat- teries, which they deemed bomb-proof, he overwhelmed by firing red- hot balls into them. The Spaniards, though failing in this attempt, took the island of Minorca and the State of W est Florida. In the year following. Admiral Rodney set sail with a squadron for Gibraltar, and in his way took a rich convoy of Spanish men-of war, capturing the Admi- ral Don Langara's ship, and three other ships of the line. Some months after, he fought a most obstinate battle with a superior French fleet, in the West Indies, and two years afterwards he obtained a glorious victory, near Jamaica, over another French fleet, commanded by the Count de Grasse ; taking the admiral's own ship, the Ville de Paris, of 110 guns, and several others. For these valorous deeds he was raised to the peerage. The year 1780 was distinguished by some domestic disturbances. The parliament having granted some indulgences to the Roman Catholics, a riotous mob, led on by Lord George Gordon, assembled in St. George's Fields, in order to petition parliament against these indulgences ; after which they proceeded to commit the most horrible devastations. They burnt the prisons of the Fleet, Newgate, and the King's Bench, the Ro- man Catholic chapels, and many private mansions. They were going to make an attempt on the Bank, but were happily opposed by a body of citizens and by the regular troops, who were now called in. About two hundred and twenty of the ringleaders were killed or dangerously wounded. Lord George was afterwards tried for having collected this When did the French declare for the Americans ? — What great statesman died this year ? — Relate the Spanish attack on Gibraltar. — What damages occurred in Lord George Gordon's riot ? GEORGE III. 173 »ssembly; but as he was actuated merely by religious prejudices, and nad never encouraged the mob to proceed to outrage, he was acquitted. In 1781, a war with the Dutch commenced, which led to a desperate engagement off the Dogger-bank, between a small squadron of English ships, under Admiral Hyde Parker, and a like squadron of Dutch ships, under Admiral Zoutman. This year was fatal to the British forces in America. Lord Cornwallis threw himself into York Town, in Virginia, and was presently invested by General Washington by land, and by a French fleet which occupied the Chesapeake ; and after a short and in- effectual struggle, nothing remained to the British general but to nego- tiate terms of capitulation. This surrender of York Town was the virtual termination of the war ; for when the news of this disaster ar- rived in England, the public voice was loud against carrying on the contest. Lord North, however, was still desirous of its continuance, till he was outvoted in the house of commons. This led to a change in the government. The old ministry were dismissed, and a new one appointed. The Marquis of Rockingham was made first lord of the treasury; Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer ; Mr. Fox and Lord Shelburne, secretaries of state ; and the Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. The prelunina- ries of peace were scarcely entered into, when the death of the mar- quis occasioned a change in the ministry. He was succeeded by the Earl of Shelburne. This appointment gave offence to Mr. Fox and several other gentlemen, who resigned their places. In 1783, these in their turn yielded to the superior influence of Mr. Fox and Lord North, who, though of different political sentiments, now formed a coalition, and finished those terms of peace which acknowledged the indepen- dence of the United States. The next object that attracted public attention was Mr. Fox's famous East India Bill, which, however suitable for counteracting misrule and peculation ui that distant region, met at home with much discounte- nance. It was carried, however, through the lower house by a great majority, but in the upper house it was rejected. On the following night the ministry were dismissed, and Mr. Pitt was appointed first lord of the treasury. As this appointment met at first with much oppo- sition from Mr. Fox's party, the parliament was dissolved in March, 1784, and the new parliament discovered a considerable majority on the side of the minister. Mr. Pitt now brought forward his India Bill, which passed with little opposition. The attention of parliament and of the public was next called to a great question of reform in the representation of the people. The pur- port of the bill was to transfer fi-om certain decayed boroughs the power of election, to towns of greater consequence; not by compulsory means, but as an option of choice : but Mr. Pitt's proposition w^as negatived by What defeat, in 1781, did the British forces sustain in America?— What changes m the government now took place?— What was the fate of Mr. Fox's East India Bill ?— And what of Mr. Pitt's ?— What plan of reform was proposed ?— and with what success ? 15* 174 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. a considerable majority. Laws were also made for the restoration of the Scotch titles which had been forfeited in the rebellion. SECTION 7. The month of August, 1786, was remarkable for an insane attempt on the king's life, by one Margaret Nicholson, as his Majesty was alighting from his carriage at the gate of St. James's Palace. While the king was receivuig her memorial, she struck a knife at his breast. The king's attendants arrested her arm and wrenched the instrument from her hand. His Majesty, with great presence of mmd, exclaimed, " I have received no injury, do not hurt the woman : the poor creature appears to be insane." She was taken into custody, and after due ex- amination sent to Bethlehem Hospital. It was about this time that the plan was suggested by government for establishing a colony, by the transportation of convicts to New Hol- land. How ably and perseveringly it has been carried into effect, is now generally known. In 1787, Warren Hastings, late governor of the English settlements in the East Indies, was accused of high crimes and misdemeanors. The subject was brought forward in the house of commons by Mr. Burke, Mr. Sheridan, and others, who impeached him. A disturbance m the United Provinces of Holland, between the Stadt- holder and a refractory portion of his subjects, claimed the attention of the English government. The malcontents had likewise treated the Princess of Orange, consort of the Stadtholder, with great indignity. She was sister to the King of Prussia, and that monarch took instant measures to enforce his demand of satisfaction for the insult offered; and the rapid success of the Prussian troops, conducted by the Duke of Brunswick, obtained the reparation demanded, and re-established the tranquillity of the government. In 1788 died at Rome, Charles Stuart, who headed the rebellion in 1745. He was commonly known on the continent as the Chevalier de St. George, and in England as the young Pretender. It may be worthy of remark that exactly a century had elapsed, from the abdication of James to the death of the chevalier, the last hopeful branch of the Stuart race. The centenary of the revolution in 1688 was this year observed on the 5th of November, in nearly all parts of the kingdom, with festivity and gratulation. His Majesty, in the month of November this year, 1788, was so se- verely indisposed by a mental affliction as not to be able to perform his executive functions, and after strenuous debates, the Prince of Wales was proposed as regent during his majesty's indisposition, but with very limited powers ; he could not confer peerages, nor grant pensions nor salaries for life. The care of the king's person was committed to the queen, and for her assistance a council was appointed. These arrange- What maniac made an attempt on the king's life ? — What new settlement was chosen for convicts ? — By whom and when was Warren Hastings impeached ? — What disturbance occurred in Holland ? — What remarkable person died at Rome ?— By what malady was the king afflicted in November, 1788 ? I GEORGE III. 175 merits had scarcely been completed, when, on the 10th of Maich fol- lowing, his Majesty's recovery was announced to both houses of parlia- ment ; and the 22d of April was observed as a day of thanksgiving for his recovery. The king, attended by the whole royal family, went to St. Paul's cathedral in state, amidst the acclamations of the populace. It was succeeded the same evening by a splendid illumination. In the month of July, 1789, a most unexpected revolution took place in France ; the result, perhaps, of concurring causes — a court corrupt and profligate ; a literati whose philosophy was hostile to the sublimest truths of religion ; a noblesse whose excessive pride and insolence galled the middle orders ; and a clergy, many of whose lives had shaken the general reverence for religion. The more immediate cause was the disordered and embarrassed state of the French finances, which induced the court to assemble a national council at Versailles, to replenish the treasury. In that assembly the commons were thought to assume too much power, and the king ordered some regiments to advance towards the capital. The populace, excited by the democrats, rose, committed great outrages, and demolished the fortress termed the Bastile. The king was obliged to transfer the assembly to Paris, where the mob was at the devotion of the democrats. The property of the church was trans- ferred to the nation. The privileges of the nobility and clergy were soon abolished ; and the king was compelled to assent to every thing. This constitution soon surrendered its sway to another, which proved more fatal to royalty, by causing the deposition and imprisonment of the king, exposed to the brutal triumph of his relentless enemies. In 1790, there arose a dispute between Spain and Great Britain, re- specting certain alleged aggressions upon British sailors, and the capture of two English merchant-ships, by a Spanish officer at Nootka-Sound, on the north-west coast of America. The British government demanded satisfaction for the aggression from the court of Spain, but that court in- stead of acquiescing, asserted its claim to an exclusive right of sove- reignty in those territories, as a grant from the pope. And not till En- gland had prepared an immense armament, at the cost of nearly three millions sterling, did the Catholic king comply with her demands ; namely, — to restore whatever had been taken — to make ample compen- sation for all losses, with free settlement, commerce, &c. At this period the British possessions in the East were disturbed by Tippoo Saib, the son and successor of Hyder Ally. After two years' hostilities Lord Cornwallis, in 1792, completely invested Seringapatam, t,he sultan's capital ; and he was compelled to submit to humiliating terms of peace. It was in 1792 that Mr. Fox introduced his bill by which the trial by jury was invested with an important right, jurors be- ing declared judges both of the law and of the fact. And this was the memorable year when a bill was brought in, on the motion of Mr. Wil- berforce, to prohibit the further importation of slaves. The bill was What revolution commenced in July, 1789 ? — How was the Spanish q-uarre. at Nootka-Scund settled ? — What occurred at Seringapatam ? — What bill was intro- duced b} Mr. Fox ? — Was not a bill introduced for the non-importation of slaves? — and by whom ? 176 HISTORY or ENGLAND. lost by a minority of seventy-five. A bill was also passed in favour of the English Catholics, who had entered into a protest against the uni- versal supremacy of the pope ; they were released from certain pains and penalties under which they had laboured. To the colonies of Up- per and Lower Canada were now appointed legislative assemblies of their own. In the beginning of the year 1793, the Jacobins of France brought their unhappy king to trial, and judicially murdered him. And in Octo- ber following, the public were sensibly affected by the execution of the queen. These iniquitous acts were followed by a declaration of war against the kings of England and Spain, and the Stadtholder of Hol- land. For the restoration of the crown of France, a confederacy had been entered into by the German empire and Russia. Great Britain now joined this confederacy ; and British troops, under the command of the Duke of York, joined the allied army. The English failed in an attack on Dunkirk ; but, aided by Spain and Naples, the English fleet took possession of Toulon ; they were forced, however, to abandon it. In 1794, in consequence of the French threatening to invade Great Britain, great exertions were made to put the country in a state of de- fence, and voluntary military associations were everywhere raised. Earl Howe, on the 2d of June, obtauied a signal victory over the French fleet ; and the year after. Lord Bridport won a naval battle at port rOrient. Both in the East and West Indies the British forces had been successful. The Corsicans placed themselves under the king of Eng- land ; an alliance of no long continuance. SECTION a On the 8th of April 1795, the marriage of the Prmce of Wales with Caroline, daughter of the duke of Brunswick, and niece of his majesty, took place. In the following year, an insurrection breaking out in the United Provinces, the stadtholder and his family took refuge in Eng- land, and Hampton Court was assigned for their residence. The people of Holland became, under the name of allies, the subjects of France, and experienced, in consequence, much of that domineering exaction which so often is the lot of the weaker party in such a relation. On December 5, 1796, the patriotism as well as the opulence of Great Britain were evinced, by a loan of eighteen millions sterling being raised for government, by voluntary subscriptions, in fifl;een hours and twenty minutes. In 1797, the Bank of England was restrauied by act of parliament from making its payments in specie ; and notes of one, two, and five pounds were issued. This year a victory was obtained over the Spanish fleet, off" Cape St. Vincent, by admiral Sir John Jervis, who was in consequence created earl of St. Vincent. But the bright naval prospects were for a short time clouded by a mutiny which broke out among the seamen of the channel fleet, lying at Spithead. They deprived the officers of the command of the ships, and even threatened What befel the king and queen of France, in ]793? — Whom did the Prince ot Wales marry ? — What occurred in Holland ? — What loan was raised ? — What victory was achieved? GEORGE III. 177 some of them with the loss of their lives. Their chief object of revolt was an increase of pay ; which being considered by government not altogether unreasonable, was complied with, and order and discipline were re-established. Shortly after, another tumult broke out among some ships at Sheerness. New and extravagant demands were made, which government resisted, and vigorous measures were taken to reduce the mutineers to their duty. Many of the ringleaders were hanged. This stigma on the character of British seamen was soon wiped away by a splendid victory over the Dutch fleet off the Texel, by admiral Duncan, who captured nine of their largest ships and two admirals. For this great achievement the admiral was raised to the peerage, with the title of viscount. Three such glorious victories, under Howe, Jer- vis, and Duncan, were succeeded by a day of solemn thanksgiving ; and their majesties, accompanied by the members of both houses of parlia- ment, attended its celebration in St. Paul's cathedral. A third attempt at negotiation for peace was set on foot at Lisle ; but, after long pro- tracted conferences, nothing was effected, and lord Malmsbury returned to England. In 1798, admiral Nelson obtained a splendid victory over the French fleet on the coast of Egypt, in which nine sail of the line were taken, and others either burnt or blown up in the action : two only of the French fleet escaped. For this important service the admiral was created Ba- ron Nelson of the Nile, and the king of Naples conferred on him the title of the Duke of Bronte. This year a dangerous conspiracy mani- fested itself in Ireland, and acts of open rebellion were committed in the counties of Naas, Meath, Kildare, and Dublin. These commotions continued till September, when about seven or eight hundred French troops, which had landed in its favour, surrendered. In 1799, an un- successful attempt was made on Holland by the Duke of York ; but in India, Tippoo, sovereign of Mysore, lost his life and his kingdom. Se- ringapatam, his capital, was captured by general Harris, and immense treasures were found in the palace. The question of a union between Great Britain and Ireland was re- vived in January, 1800, and after much opposition, it was ratified by the parliaments of both kingdoms, and passed into a law by royal assent. In 1801, Bonaparte succeeded in uniting Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, and Russia in an armed neutrality, that is, they were to arm themselves at sea against the right of search. The British government sent nego- tiators to Copenhagen, accompanied by a strong fleet under admiral Sir Hyde Parker, together with vice-admiral Lord Nelson and rear-admiral Graves ; the attack was commenced by Lord Nelson with twelve ships of the Ime, together with frigates, bombs, fire-ships and small vessels, upon the Danish navy, which was supported by the batteries ; when, after an engagement of four hours, seventeen sail of the line, nearly the whole of the Danish fleet that could be brought into action, were What victory did Admiral Duncan gain over the Dutch ? — For what victory was Nelson created duke of Bronte? — What conspiracy occurred in Ireland ? — ■ What occurred to Tippoo ? — When occurred the union between Great Britain and Ireland ? — What occurred at Copenhagen ? 178 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. cither sunk, burnt, or taken. At this juncture news arrived of the era, peror of Russia's death; the armed neutrality was abandoned, and the confederacy dissolved. The French, having now been so far successful as to detach from England all her allies except Portugal, prepared to attack that kingdom also. Great Britain prepared for an attack of the French forces m Egypt, which at that time amounted to about thirty thousand men. On the 2d of March, 1801, the British army, consisting of from seventeen to eighteen thousand, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, arrived off Aboukir. The landing of the troops took place under the direction of Captain Cochrane and Sir Sidney Smith, in which they met with incessant op- position and much loss, which they sustained with the utmost bravery. The general action took place on the 20th of March, in which the Brit- ish were victorious ; but the glories of the day were clouded by the loss of their brave general. Sir Ralph Abercrombie. Major-general Hutch- inson succeeded to the command. Cairo next surrendered, and soon after Alexandria, which led to the evacuation of Egypt by the French. During this period. Great Britain was threatened with an invasion, and troops were stationed along the frontier towns of France and Hol- land, ready to be embarked, and vessels and flat-bottomed boats were stationed on the coast for their conveyance. The British, instead of waiting the attack, were determined to act on the offensive ; and a flo- tilla, under the orders of Lord Nelson, was sent to destroy them in their harbours. After two surprisingly bold, but unsuccessful efforts, Lord Nelson returned, leaving a sufficient force to cruise on the French coast. A mutual desire of peace seemed to be manifest among the belligerents, and Mr. Pitt, that he might be ho obstacle to the deed, resigned his office of first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, and was succeeded by Mr. Addington, (late speaker of the house,) under whose administration a negotiation for peace commenced, which was concluded at Amiens on the 27th of March, 1802 ; and on the 29th of April, peace was proclaimed in London. The blessings of peace, however, were not of long duration. Bona- parte was now declared chief consul for life. He restored the Catholic religion, and gave new constitutions to France, Genoa, and Switzerland. A force was sent by France to St. Domingo, where Toussaint I'Ouver- ture, a negro, had erected a republic. That chief was treacherously seized and sent to France ; but the French were unable fully to recover the island. Its power was ultimately overthrown, and Dessalines was made chief of the republic. Disputes arose between France and England respecting the fulfilment of the treaty of Amiens. The French government imposed severe re- strictions on British commerce, and refused to restore some vessels cap- tured in India. The annexation to France of Piedmont, Parma, and other Italian States, together with the subjugation of the Swiss can- tons, in direct violation of the treaty of Luneville, and the possession What action took place in Egypt? and what brave General fell there ? — Where and when were the negotiations for peace signed ? — What title did Bonaparte assume ? — What disputes arose between France and England ? ( 179 ) GEORGE III. 181 of Malta, became also subjects of contention ; while the navies both of Spain and Holland being held by the first consul, and the equipments preparing in the French and Dutch ports, created doubt and suspicion respecting the designs of Bonaparte. SECTION 9. After a protracted correspondence had been carried on between the courts of Paris and London, relative to the objects of dispute, an inter- view took place between the chief consul and Lord WhJtworth, the English ambassador, in which Bonaparte treated his lordship with so much indignity, that he instantly returned to England, and the British government prepared for war. The public feeling in Great Britain was very strong against France, and the ministry had little difficulty in procuring the most ample supplies. The militia were embodied, an army of reserve was raised, letters of marqUe and reprisal were issued, vo- lunteer associations were formed, and in many of the principal towns vast subscriptions were raised. On the coast of France immense prepar- ations were made for the invasion of England, — an army of three hun- dred thousand men was prepared, with vessels of a suitable construction to waft them across the Channel ; but with what prospect of success could they approach a navy that could cope with the world, — a people animated but with one impulse, and a nation of volunteers in arms 1 The French consul must have seen its impracticability, and his rage exhausted itself in empty menaces. The electorate of Hanover, however, was overrun and plundered by the French ; but in order to annoy them as much as possible, the Elbe and the Weser were blockaded by British ships. Several French ports were also blockaded, and the French islands of Tobago, the Dutch islands of Demerara, Essequibo, together with St. Lucia and others ; these, with the settlements of Berbice on the coast of South America, yielded to the British naval force. During this and the previous year, one Colonel Despard, who had previousfy, as a meritorious officer, performed some military exploits, held secret communication with the French government, and entered into treasonable correspondence against his country and his king. To his proselytes, who were numerous, he administered a secret oath, and held out the promise, when his revolution was effected, of high posts and military rank : but, ere the plot was ripe, Despard and twelve of the conspirators were arrested and convicted. Six, with their leader, were executed; some received the King's pardon. In Ireland, also, were seen the emissaries of insurrection, which led to the perpetration of cold-blooded murder and sanguinary contests, but the rebellion was completely quelled by the military. Many of the offenders were tried : fortunately, the victims were but few. In May 1804, a change in the administration took place. Mr. Ad- dington retired from office, and was raised to the peerage, with the title What led to a fresh rupture with France ? — ^What electorate was overrun by the French ?— What colonel secretly corresponded with the French government ? 16 182 HISTORY OF E^TGLAND. of Viscount Sidmouth ; Mr. Pitt resumed his formei office, and formed a new administration. Government having received mtelligence that Spain (though not at war with Great Britain) had engaged to aid the French by a supply of fifteen sail of the line, and upwards of twenty thousand men, and no satisfactory reply being given to the British am- bassador, the ministry sent out a squadron of British frigates to encoun- ter four large Spanish ships that were returning from America loaded with treasure. Two of the ships were captured, a third blew up. Spain now declared war. A bill was passed this year, to empower the Bank of England to issue dollars as five shillmg tokens, after beuig re- stamped with a suitable impression. In the course of the present year, 1804, Bonaparte assumed an impe- rial diadem, with the title of " Emperor of France." He compelled the pope to sanction the coronation with his presence. And at the com- mencement of 1805, he transmitted to the English court proposals for peace. His Britannic Majesty, in reply, declined the discussion unless in conjunction with his allies. In the month of April, Mr. Whitbread brought forward his motion against Lord Melville, as having connived at a gross misapplication of the government money. In June following, his im- peachment was carried in the house of commons, when the trial came- on in Westminster Hall, and on the seventeenth day of trial, the vis- count was acquitted by a great majority. Lord Nelson was appointed to the command of a fleet of twenty-se- ven ships, to watch the harbour of Cadiz, where the French and Span- ish fleets were lying. The French had eighteen ships under Admiral Villeneuve, and the Spaniards fifteen under Admiral Gravina. On the 21st of October they appeared off Trafalgar, presenting a line of thirty- three ships ; — the British hero, with the twenty-seven under his com- mand, approached to the conflict. He commanded the fleet to bear up in two columns, issuing the signal, " England expects every man to do his duty." Lord Nelson, in the Victory, commanded the windward co- lumn; Rear-Admiral Collingwood the leeward column, in the Royal Sovereign. Nelson caused his ship to be placed alongside his old ac- quaintance, the Santissima Trinidad. The leading ships of the columns broke through the enemies' lines ; the others following the example, broke through in all parts, and engaged the enemy at the muzzle of their guns. This tremendous conflict lasted for three hours, when many of the enemy's ships having struck, their line gave way and the victory became decisive. Nineteen sail of the line, of which two were first- rates, with Villeneuve and two other flag-ofRcers, were taken, namely, Don D'Avila, vice-admiral, and the Spanish rear-admiral, Don B. H. Cisneros. The other ships with Admiral Gravina, for the present escaped ; but four of them were afterwards captured off Ferrol by Sir Richard Strachan, and carried to a British port. Thus at one blow ,was the enemies' marine almost annihilated, and Napoleon's boasted visions of ships, colonies, and commerce, were dissolved in air. Did not changes take place in the administration ? — What dignity did Bonaparte assume ?— -Relate the splendid victory achieved by Nelson. GEORGE III. 188 SECTION 10. This splendid victory was, however, dearly purchased, by the death of the gallant commander, who, about the middle of the action, received a musket-ball in his left breast, and an hour afterwards expired. In January 1806, the remains of Lord Nelson lay in state in the Hall at Greenwich Hospital. His interment took place on the 9th, at St. Paul's Cathedral, accompanied by a procession more splendid than had ever been witnessed in England. On the 23d of this month, died that great statesman, the Right Honourable William Pitt, in the forty-seventh year of his age. He had held the first offices of state, with short inter- mission, for about twenty-three years. An unremitted attention to bu siness, and the unfortunate events of the war, caused excessive anxiety, which superinduced extreme debility and accelerated his death. A public funeral was decreed him, which was solemnized on the 22d of February, in Westminster Abbey. A monument was erected to his memory. This year is also memorable for the final abolition of the slave-trade. The measure was brought in by the Right Hon. Charles James Fox, secretary of state, and passed through both houses by a great majority, about the middle of June ; and on the 23d September following, this great statesman, who had been for some time seriously indisposed, died at Chiswick, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. His remains were deposited with great solemity in Westminster Abbey, near to the grave of Pitt. In the beginning of this year, a bill, called the " Catholic Bill," was introduced for the relief of Roman Catholics, enabling them to hold places of trust under government, and though it had passed both houses of parliament, the King declaring that his coronation oath did not allow him to sign it, reftised his assent. He asked from his ministers also, a solemn pledge, that in case they continued in office, they would in fu- ture abandon the measure. This they refused ; and on the resignation of Lord Erskine and the other ministers, a new administration was formed. Lord Eldon was created lord-chancellor ; Spencer Percival, Esq., chancellor of the exchequer ; the Duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury, &c. The French having previously invaded Naples, Joseph Bonaparte was placed on the throne of that country. Holland was also made a king- dom for Louis Bonaparte. At Berlin, Bonaparte declared the British isles in a state of blockade, and, by what he vauntingly called the con- tinental system, he prohibited all intercourse with them. The war was renewed in the north, and a desperate, but indecisive battle, was fought at Prussian Eylau. Dantzig was taken by Lefevre. The Russians sustained a defeat at Friedland with great slaughter ; which was fol- lowed by the capture of Konigsburg, and the treaty of Tilsit, on the Describe the funeral of Lord Nelson. — What great statesman died this year ? — What abolition bill now passed?— To what bill did the King refuse his assent?— What new kings were made ? — What followed ? 184 HISTORr OF ENGLAND. 8th of July, 1807, between Bonaparte and the Emperor of Russia. This interview took place on a raft constructed on the river Niemen, where tents were prepared for their reception. This treaty deprived the King of Prussia of one-third of his dominions, and erected the kingdom of Westphalia for Jerome Bonaparte. An expedition little creditable to Britain was sent out against Den- mark, a power with whom she was at peace ; but the British ministry, alleging that the French ruler designed to possess himself of the naval force of Denmark and turn it against them, sent out an expedition in order to attack Copenhagen, and obtain possession of the Danish fleet. By this enterprise was obtained the surrender of the whole fleet, consist- mg of eighteen ships of the line, besides frigates, brigs, and gun-boats. The demands made by France in 1808, on the Regent of Portugal, were so unjust, that the prince, at the desire and under the protection of the British cabinet, departed for the Brazils. Bonaparte had required that court to shut her ports against the English ; a demand which, on account of their long commercial alliance with England, they hesitated to comply with. Bonaparte next insisted that British merchants should be imprisoned, and that their property should be confiscated. Junot, the French general, entered Portugal; and Loison occupied Oporto with a garrison of three hundred men. The Portuguese, enraged at the treachery of Junot, took up arms and expelled Loison. A powerful force was sent to Portugal, under the command of Sir Arthur Welles- ley, to aid the people in their resistance of the French invasion. In 1810, th^e temporary cessation of hostilities with Austria enabled Bonaparte to forward additional forces into Spain ; but the Guerilla bands, by intercepting convoys, were almost as formidable to the French troops as a regular army. But the appearance of the British troops in Portugal became fatal to the French. Lord Wellington, after de- feating the enemy under Massena at Busaco, retired on the 10th of Oc- tober, into the impregnable lines of Torres Vedras. The French mar- shal, though he felt convinced that it was utterly insurmountable to him, yet placed his troops in bivouac before it. By the end of February, 1811, Massena's means of subsistence were wholly exhausted ; and, learning soon after, that English reinforcements had landed, he began his retrograde march towards Spain ; in the conduct of which he dis- played his great military skill, but he was guilty of the most wanton and sytematic cruelty ; or, in the words of Lord Wellington, " a bar- barity seldom equalled, and never surpassed." SECTION 11. This year was fatal to the Princess Amelia, the king's favourite daughter, which brought on a return of his Majesty's malady. The emainder of his days was spent in a total incapacity for government, By whom was the treaty of Tilsit formed ? — Who conducted the expedition to Denmark ? — What occurrences happened in Portugal ? — Relate the success of the English forces in Portugal. — What effect had the Princess Amelia's death on the king ? GEORGE III. 18^ and t'xe Prince of Wales was appointed Regent ; but at first under some restrictions, which were subsequently removed. Massena met with a severe repulse in attacking the English at Fuentes de Honore. His ill success led to his being recalled, and Marmont was appointed, who proved not a more successful warrior than his predecessor. This was evinced by his defeat at the important battle of Salamanca, m which the French lost, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, nearly treble the number of the English. In 1812, Mr. Percival, the premier, was assas- sinated in the lobby of the house of commons by one Bellingham. Lord Liverpool was in consequence appointed first lord of the treasury, and Mr. Vansittart chancellor of the exchequer. Wellmgton, who was created an earl, pursued his successes, and took possession of Madrid. Relying on Spanish co-operation, but not re- ceiving it, he retired to the north of Spain and the frontiers of Portugal. Bonaparte was at this time preparing for a war with Russia. He collect- ed an immense army, and forced his way to Borodino, on the Moskwa, where, in a most sanguinary battle of three successive days, the Rus- sians were out-manceuvred, and the French pushed on to Moscow. The Russians, to deprive the French army of supplies, formed the extraor- dmary resolution of sacrificing their ancient capital by settmg it on fire, by which the greater part was consumed. Disappointed of resources for the army, the French began their pre- cipitate retreat to France, through an enemy's country, destitute of provisions, and exposed to all the horrors of a northern winter, in which three hundred thousand of Bonaparte's troops fell victims. These re- verses led to the combination of all the European powers against France ; and the year following, their united forces gained a decisive victory over those of the French at Leipsic, and Napoleon's army was driven across the Rhine. In the early part of the year 1814, the allied armies advanced into the heart of France, and in spite of the emperor's skill in manceuvring his forces, the Austrians and Prussians possessed them- selves of Paris. This led to Bonaparte's abdication on the 6th of April, his retirement to the isle of Elba, and the recalling of Louis XVIII. to the throne of his ancestors. While these important events were occurring in France, Lord Wel- lington was pursuing his successes in the peninsula. In June, 1813, he defeated the forces of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria ; and he reduced the fortresses of St. Sebastian and Pampeluna. In October he crossed the Bidassoa, and defeated Soult's army on the Nivelle, and again at Orthes, and then occupied Bordeaux. Soult led his army to Toulouse : Lord Wellington followed, and was there completing his victory when the news arrived of the allies entering Paris and that the war was at an end. On the return of peace, the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prus- sia, together with many distinguished foreigners, visited England, and were received with the most flattering attentions. Relate the victory at Salamanca? — What did Lord Wellington gain in Spain?— What capital vi^as burned ? — What reverses did Bonaparte experience ? — To what* isle was Bonaparte consigned ? — What battles did Lord Wellington gain in France 16* 186 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Commercial disputes, the impressment of American seamen, and the capture of American vessels, under the orders in Council which forbade the intercourse of neutral nations with France, had led to a serious mis- anderstanding between the governments of Great Britain and the United States. On the 18th of June, 1812, the latter power declared war against the former, which was carried on with various success on both sides till it terminated with the battle of New-Orleans, January 8th, 1815. Duiing the continuance of hostilities, the Americans failed in their attempts to conquer Canada ; but they bravely defended their own soil, and in a great number of actions at sea proved their superiority of discipline, by capturing, with one or two exceptions, every British frigate or man-of-war which they encountered, when the superiority of num- bers and weight of metal was not greatly in favour of their enemies.* In the year 1815, while ambassadors were assembled at Vienna to adjust the claims of the European powers, the world was astounded by the report of Bonaparte's escape from his exile at Elba and landing in France. The French army espoused his cause. Louis made a precipi- tate retreat to Lisle, and the usurper again ascended the throne of France. The allied sovereigns had again to re-assemble their forces, preparatory to a second invasion. They met in Belgium, where Bona- parte with his forces had advanced to dispute with them once more the fate of empire. The French commenced their attack on the Prussians, before the allies could assemble their forces. Blucher was defeated, and forced to retire from Ligny : Wellington, on the 16th of June, fought with the enemy at Quatre-bras, which seemed to afford the French hopes of success. But nothing could long withstand the cou- rage and unshaken firmness of the English. The 18th of June was the ever-memorable day of the splendid victory of Waterloo, which decided the fate of many nations. After a day of the most sanguinary fighting, the French army was irrecoverably routed, and fled from the field in the greatest confusion. Never was the characteristic firmness of British soldiers more strikingly displayed. Bonaparte once more abdicated the throne, fled to the sea-coast, and, finding his escape by sea cut off by English ships, surrendered himself to Captain Maitland, of the Belle- rophon. The place appointed for his future residence was the island of St. Helena, where he was closely guarded till his death, which hap- pened in May, 1821. This year, 1816, the marriage of the Princess Charlotte of Wales with Leopold, Prince of Saxe Cobourg, Was celebrated; and that of the Duke of Gloucester with his cousin, the Princess Mary. This year, too. Lord Exmouth sailed with a fleet to Algiers, to compel the Dey to terms of peace ; and notwithstanding the strength of the place, its fortifica- tions and fleet were destroyed, all the Christian slaves were set at liberty, and slavery was abolished for a time in his dominions. In 1817, * For a detailed account of this war, see Russell's History of the United States, pub- lished by Hogan and Thompson, Philadelphia. What caused a misunderstanding with the United States ? — When was war de- clared ? — When did it terminate ? — What remarks are made respecting it ? — Relate Bonaparte's return from Elba, and the battle of Waterloo. — The fight at Algiers. GEORGE III. GEORGE IV. 187 the riots of London, Manchester, Derby, &c., under pretence of peti- tioning for a reform of parliament, for a while agitated the nation. To- wards the close of the year, the death of the Princess Charlotte of Wales, who survived but a few hours the birth of a still-born infant, threw the nation into deep and general mourning : and her death hav- ing broken the direct line of succession to the throne, several of the royal family, in 1818, sought matrimonial alliances. The Duke of Cam- bridge was united to the Princess of Hesse Cassel ; the Duke of Kent to the Princess of Leiningen, and the Duke of Clarence to the Princess of Saxe Meiningen. On the 17th of November, this year, died Queen Charlotte, aged 75. Slie was an example of conjugal affection and parental care. In January, 1820, the Duke of Kent died at Sidmouth ; and, on the 29th of the same month, George III. expired in the 82d year of his age, and the 60th of his reign ; the longest and the most memo- rable in the annals of England. This reign was distinguished by many discoveries, inventions, and improvements, — ^by the discoveries of Captain Cook and others in the great Pacific Ocean ; the introduction of vaccination ; the use of gas for the illummation of streets, &c. ; the employment of steam for pro- pelling ships at sea and machines on land. Chemistry also was enriched by important discoveries ; and painting and sculpture were carried to a high degree of perfection. In short, eminent characters in each sepa- rate department of every art and of every science, have contributed to the adornment of this enlightened reign. SECTION 12. GEORGE IV. A.D. 1820. George IV. succeeded his father ; but havmg held the reins of go- vernment since the year 1810, through the late king's incapacity, no material change took place immediately in the government. The first event of note was what was termed the Cato-Street conspiracy. This- tlewood, a restless demagogue, who had been many years before acquit- ted on a charge of treason, was the ringleader of a set of low fellows ; and their design was, by a stratagem to obtain access to Lord Harrow- by's, while the ministers were assembled at a cabinet dinner, and thus to cut off the whole party. But their plan was timely discovered ; and afler a struggle with the police and a detachment of the guards, in Cato-Street, the greater number were secured. Thistlewood escaped for the present, but was soon after taken, and with four others executed ; some others were transported. To this succeeded an event, which long kept the nation in a state of agitation : the return of Queen Carolme to England. Notwithstanding her acquittal had taken place some years previously, after what was termed the Secret Investigation, she left England, and after travelling What important events occurred in 1817 and 1818?— What discoveries and inven- tions distinguished this reign ?— What conspiracy took place soon after George IV.'s accession ? 188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. to Palestine and several parts of the Mediterranean, she took up her residence in the north of Italy. On the accession of her husband, George IV., to the throne, she returned to England ; and reports having spread, while abroad, that reflected on her honour, a bill of pains and penalties to deprive hex of her rights and dignities, and to produce a divorce, formed the subject of a trial in the house of peers. After forty- five days' investigation, ministers obtained a majority of only nine, and the bill was abandoned. Her name, however, was not to be restored to the liturgy, nor did she receive the honours due to her station by foreign powers. From the moment of her landing, the populace had very warmly espoused her cause ; and it was feared that on the king's ex- pected coronation, the rejection of her claim to participate in the cere- mony would lead to alarming results. The queen had fixed her resi- dence at Hammersmith, where she was hourly receivmg addresses expressive of the warmest attachment. But being excluded from the coronation, deprived of her honours, and banished from the society of the Court, proved too much for her ; and, after a short illness, nature sunk under it. Her remains were removed to Brunswick, in Germany, and they repose by the side of those of her ancestors. Soon after his coronation, his Majesty visited Dublin ; and as he was the first English monarch that visited Ireland with peaceful intentions, he was received by his Irish subjects with enthusiastic loyalty. On his return, he made a visit to Hanover, which had been the residence of his ancestors ; and after the close of the parliament in 1822, sailed for Edinburgh, and was received by his Scottish subjects with the utmost demonstrations of joy. Here, however, a gloom was cast over the fes- tivities, by receiving the melancholy tidings of the death of the Mar- quis of Londonderry. Mr. Canning, after some delay, was appointed his successor. In 1823, the independence of the Spanish revolted colonies in Ame- rica was acknowledged by Great Britain and other European powers. In Africa, the British colonies were severely harassed by the Ashantees, a native powerful tribe, by whom Sir C. M'Carthy was murdered. The savage nations were however soon subdued. In India, the Burmese, after a repeated and sanguinary struggle, were defeated, their fortifica- tions captured, and peace was granted them on terms favourable to British India. The year 1825 proved fatal to many banking-houses and joint-stock companies ; nor did the embarrassments and the confusion of the money markets soon subside. " In 1826, the public attention was attracted to Portugal : by the death of the king, John VI., the succession devolved on his eldest son, Don Pedro : but he, accepting of the imperial crown of Brazil, left Portugal to his daughter. Donna Maria, during whose minority her uncle, Don Miguel, was appointed regent. The next year, Don Miguel usurped the crown, and made himself absolute. To dispossess him of his assumed power, a severe struggle was carried on Relate what resulted from Queen Caroline's return to England. — What visits did George IV. pay to his dominions ? — What occurred both in Africa and India ?- What commercial distress happened in 1825 ? GEORGE IV. WILLIAM IV. 18§ by Don Pedro, which ended in the expulsion of Miguel, and the estab- lishment of Donna Maria on the throne of Portugal. In 1827, died his royal highness the Duke of York, sincerely lament- ed ; by the army denominated " the soldier's friend." Towards the close of the succeeding year died Lord Liverpool, prime minister. In that office he was succeeded by Mr. Canning ; but the fatigues of office upon a frame far from robust, soon closed his career. After a short direction of the helm of state by Mr. F. Robinson, (then created Lord Goderich,) the Duke of Wellington was called to preside over the national councils, in which he was ably aided by Mr. (now Sir Robert) Peel. The struggle between the Turks and Greek having continued long, and having been marked by sanguinary cruelty, the sovereigns of Europe were induced to interfere ; and a treaty for the pacification of Greece was entered into in 1827. In the port of Navarino, the allied fleets ot England, France, and Russia, after a contest of four hours, de- molished Ibrahim Pacha's fleet, with comparatively trifling loss to the allied squadron. The liberation of Greece, soon after, from Turkish thraldom, was mainly attributed to this victory. In the early part of the year 1830, the king's indisposition com- menced, and after an illness of some months' continuance, he died at Windsor, on the 25th of June following. The reigns of George III. and IV. were distinguished by a great and progressive advancement in the arts and sciences. The names of Scott, Southey, Moore, Byron, Crabbe, Watt, Sir Humphry Davy, Herschel, &.C., reflect honour on these reigns. SECTION 13. WILLIAM IV. A. D. 1830. The proclamation of the king's eldest brother, the Duke of Clarence, to the throne, as William IV., was received with universal acclama- tion ; and while feelings of delight actuated the British nation, on the accession of the naval hero and patriot king, William, and his amiable consort. Queen Adelaide, the affairs of France exhibited an important contrast. Charles X. broke his word to his people, aimed at nothing less than the subversion of every liberal institution, and at bringing back a free people beneath the yoke of arbitrary and papal power. He twice dissolved the chamber of deputies for their want of loyalty ; he disfran- chised a portion of the electors, and he imposed fresh restrictions on the press. The Parisians rose, and after three days of sanguinary conflict, possessed themselves of the capital. This was generally called the " Revolution of three days." Charles was compelled to abdicate, and his cousin, the Duke of Orleans, was proclaimed king, by the title of Louis Philip I., king of the French. What prince died in 1827, and what great statesman? — By what powers was Navarino blockaded ? — When did George IV. die ? — and at what age ? — For whal was his reign distinguished ? — How was the proclamation of William IV. received — What occurred in France ? — Who abdicated, and who succeeded ? x90 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The Belgians, too, who had been, at the peace of 1814, reluctantly united to Holland, following the example of Paris, rose, resolving to sever themselves from a people from whom they differed in language, religion and general habits of life ; and after a series of civil commo- tion, they succeeded in expelling their Dutch sovereign, and in forming a new and separate state. The Belgic crown was offered to Prince Leopold, and accepted. The Poles, also, writhing under the oppression of Russian tyranny, followed the example, and made a brave but inef- fectual struggle for their independence. The popular excitement ex- tended even to America. The Brazilians compelled their emperor, Don Pedro, to abdicate in favour of his son. The Duke of Wellington's government, from some apparently acci- dental occurrences, seemed to be losing something of its popularity in 1830 ; and his grace's speech at the opening of parliament, instead of holding out to the people the prospect of any improvement in the repre- sentation, conveyed his opposition to it. A circumstance soon after oc- curred, with respect to the civil list being referred to a select commit- tee, in which the ministers' muiority was apparent, and their resigna- tion followed. For the formation of a new ministry the king applied to Earl Grey, who selected his colleagues from the Whig party, and from the ablest members of the Canning administration ; and in March, 1831, Lord John Russell explained to the house of commons the great outline of the reform contemplated. The boldness of the plan engrossed the at- tention of all orders of the people, and obtained for it great popularity ; but in the house it was less approved. The proposal for abolishing the franchise of many of the small boroughs, militated against the interests of the representatives, as it would deprive them in fiiture of their seats ; and after long and protracted debates, the second reading of the Reform Bill obtained but a majority of one. In the following month, the minis- ters were twice left in the minority. Therefore, in order to obtain the real sense of the nation by a new election, the king dissolved the par- liament. In the new parliament, the result was favourable to the minis- ters, and the Reform Bill was ultimately carried through the house, by a majority of 123 : in the house of lords the bill was rejected by a ma- jority of 41. The populace became enraged, and they proceeded to riot at Derby and Nottingham, and afterwards at Bristol, while more serious disturbances were apprehended. In December, the parliament re-assembled ; and in March following, the Reform Bill again passed. In the upper house it also obtained a majority in the second reading ; but still, so great was the opposition to it, that Earl Grey tendered his resignation. The king, perceiving that nothing less than the Reform Bill would satisfy the public, and that the peers had only one of two alternatives to make choice of, either that of admitting an increase of members in the upper house, or that the bill What occurred in Belgium ? — What in Poland ? — What in Brazil ? — What change occurred in the government of the Duke of Wellington ? — Whom did the king ap- point as premier ? — What resulted from a dissolution of parliament ? — What oppo- sition did the Reform Bill receive ? WILLIAM IV. 19i should be allowed to pass, the latter was preferred ; many members therefore absented themselves, or abstained from voting, and the bill passed, and on the 7th of June received the royal assent. It was to- wards the autumn of 1831, that the cholera, after crossing the conti- nent, visited Britain. In many instances its ravages were great, though less so than in many parts of Europe. On the 13th of February, 1832, it was first observed in London, at Rotherhithe, and Limehouse. Soon after the passage of the Reform Bill, others of the same charac- ter, applying to Scotland and Ireland, were passed without difficulty. The disturbances which afterwards arose in Ireland, made it necessary to pass the law known by the name of the coercion bill, in 1833. To remove the causes of discontent in Ireland, the ministry relieved the Catholics from some of the imposts, levied for the support of the Pro- testant church, and raised a new fiand for that establishment, by abolish- ing several bishoprics, and diverting the revenues of the suppressed sees to the general uses of the church. The charter to the Bank of England was soon after renewed, as was also that of the East India Company so far as the government of India was concerned, but the company was deprived of its exclusive commercial privileges, and the trade to China was made free for all merchants. The total abolition of slavery in the British West Indies, from and after the first of August, 1834, was a still more important measure ; the sum of twenty millions sterling, about one hundred million of dollars, was voted to be paid by the nation as a compensation to the owners of slaves ; and it was arranged that the negroes should be gradually pre- pared for the full enjoyment of liberty, by a limited apprenticeship. In April, 1834, Mr. O'Connell thought proper to agitate in parliament the question of a repeal of the legislative union between Great Britain and Ireland. The motion to repeal was rejected in the house of com- mons, by a vote of 523 to 38. The cabinet of Lord Grey was dissolved in July 1834, and a new one was organized under the direction of Lord Melbourne. No important changes in the policy of the government resulted from this arrange- ment. The year had not closed, however, before the king thought pro- per to dissolve the whig ministry of Melbourne, and order the Duke of Wellington to form a new one. He advised his Majesty to appoint Sir Robert Peel premier, who being in Italy at the time, the duke was for three weeks at the head of affairs. On Sir Robert's arrival, December 10th, a new ministry of the conservative party was formed. The whigs now resorted to a coalition with the radicals led by O'Connell, and were thus enabled to outvote the ministry repeatedly. On the 2d of April, 1835, Lord John Russell's motion for applying the surplus revenues of the Church of Ireland to the religious and moral instruction of the people, passed the house of commons by a majority of 33, against the Did the Reform Bill ultimately pass ? — What general disease first showed itself in England in September 1831 ? — What bills respecting Scotland and Ireland pass ed ? — What was done to remove the discontents in Ireland ? — What charters were renewed ? — What was abolished ? — What compensation was voted to the planters ? — What was done respecting the union in 1834? — When was Lord Grey's ministry dissolved ? — Who was his successor ?— Who succeeded Melbourne ? 192 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. ministry, who resigned on the 8th. On the 18th, Lord Melbourne was reinstated as prime minister, and he was enabled to conduct affairs to the satisfaction of the majority in parliament for several years. On the 21st of June, 1837, William the Fourth died, after a short but popular and prosperous reign. He was succeeded by his niece, Alexandrine Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, under the title of Victoria I. She was then but nineteen years of age. SECTION 14. VICTORIA I. A. D. 1837. The immediate consequence of the accession of a female to the British throne, was the separation of Hanover from the rest of the kingdom ; as the laws of that country required that the crown should descend in the male line of the royal family. The young queen had urgent need of the wisest councillors. Distress in the United King- dom and rebellion in the colonies were to be vigorously met. For some time past there had been symptoms of discontent in Lower Canada, fomented by the old French party, which at length broke out into the appearance of a civil war. To check an evil so pregnant with mischief, it was deemed advisable that no ordinary person should be sent out to that important colony. Accordingly, it was notified in the London Gazette, Jan. 16, that the Earl of Durham, G. C. B., was appointed governor-general of " all her majesty's pro- vinces within and adjacent to the continent of North America, and her majesty's high commissioner for the adjustment of certain im- portant affairs affecting the provinces of Lower and Upper Canada." His lordship did not arrive in Canada till nearly the end of May. Actual contests had taken place between considerable parties of the insurgents and the troops under Lieutenant-colonel Wetherall, who had succeeded in driving them from all the villages on the line of the river Richelieu. At length, on the 13th of December, Sir John Col- borne himself marched from Montreal to attack the chief post of the rebels at the Grand Brule. On the following day an engagement took place in the church-yard of St. Eustache, when the loyalist army proved once more victorious, 80 of the enemy having been killed, and 120 taken prisoners. Dr. J. 0. Chenier, their leader, was slain ; and the town was more than half burnt down. On the 15th, on Sir J. Colborne's approach to the town of St. Benoit, a great portion of the inhabitants came out, bearing a white flag and begging for mercy ; but in consequence of the great disloyalty of the place, and the fact of the principal leaders having been permitted to escape, some of their houses were fired as an example. In the Upper pro- vince, a body of rebels, which occupied a position about three miles from Toronto, threatening that city, were successfully attacked and Who was reinstated on the 18tli ? — When did William IV. die ? — Who suc- ceeded him ? — What was the immediate consequence of her accession ? — Who was appointed governor-general of Canada? — When did the rebellion in Canada commence ? — What did Sir John Colborne do in December ? VICTORIA. 193 dispersed on the 7th of December, "by Sir Francis Bond Head, at the head of the armed citizens, with such reinforcements as had sponta- neously joined them from the country. The rebels had, however, established a cam]) on Navy Island, on the Niagara river ; and many citizens of the United States were implicated in the insurrectionary movements there and elsewhere on the frontier. On the 3d of March a sharp engagement took place between her majesty^s troops and the insurgents, in which the latter were totally defeated at Point Pele island, near the western boundary of the British possessions. The island had been occupied by about 500 men, well armed and equipped ; when Colonel Maitland, in order to dis- possess them, marched from Amherstburg with a few companies of the 32d and 83d regiments, two six-pounders, and some volunteer cavalry. The action that followed assumed the character of bush- fighting — the island, which is about seven miles long, being covered with thicket, and the pirates outnumbering the troops in the propor- tion of nearly two to one. Ultimately, however, they were driven to flight ; leaving among the dead. Colonel Bradley, the commander-in- chief; Major Ho wdley ; and Captains Van Rensellaer and M'Keon; besides a great many wounded and other prisoners. In the mean time. Queen Victoria's coronation took place, and the ceremony was of the most magnificent description. Canada again demands our notice. Lord Durham had been sent out with extraordinary powers to meet the exigency of afiairs in that colony. It was now admitted that he had exceeded the scope of those powers, by deciding on the guilt of accused men without trial, and by banishing and imprisoning them ; but the ministers thought it their duty to acquiesce in passing a bill which, while it recited the illegality of the ordinance issued by his lordship, should indemnify those who had advised or acted under it, on the score of their presumed good intentions. The passing of the indemnity act made a great sensation as soon as it was known in Canada ; and Lord Durham, acutely feeling that his implied condemnation was contained in it, declared his intention to resign and return immediately to England ; inasmuch as he was now deprived of the ability to do the good which he had hoped to accomplish. Meanwhile the Canadas again became the scene of rebellious war. The rebels occupied Beauharnois and Acadie, near the confluence of the Richelieu and the St. Lawrence, establishing their head-quarters at Napierville ; and their forces mustered, at one time, to the num- ber of 8000 men, generally well armed. Several actions took place ; and Sir John Colborne, who had proclaimed martial law, concen- trated his troops at Napierville and Chateauquay, and executed a severe vengeance upon the rebels whom he found there, burning the What occurred on the 7th of December in the Upper province ? — What oc- curred on the 3d of March ? — What coronation took place in the mean time ? — How had Lord Durham exceeded his powers ? — ^What action did parliament take upon his conduct ? — What did Lord Durham then do ? 17 194 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. houses of the disaffected through the whole district of Acadie. But it was a part of the plan of the traitors and their republican confe- derates to distract the attention of the British ' commander, and to divide the military force by invading Upper Canada ; and at the moment Sir John Colborne was putting the last hand to the suppres- sion of the rebellion in Beauharnois and Acadie, 800 republican pirates embarked in two schooners at Ogdenburgh, fully armed, and provided with six or eight pieces of artillery, to attack the town of Prescott, on the opposite side of the river. By the aid of two United States steamers they effected a landing a mile or two below the town, where they established themselves in a windmill and some stone buildings, and repelled the first attempt made to dislodge them, killing and wounding forty-five of their assailants, among whom were five officers ; but on Colonel Dundas arriving with a reinforcement of regular troops, with three pieces of artillery, they surrendered at discretion. Some other skirmishes subsequently took place, chiefly between Americans who invaded the British territory and the Queen's troops ; but the former were severely punished for their temerity. The conduct of Sir John Colborne elicited the praise of all parties at home ; and he was appointed Governor-general of Canada, with all the powers which had been vested in the Earl of Durham. The adjustment of a boundary line between Maine and New Bruns- wick had been a subject of dispute from the time the independence of the States was acknowledged in 1783. Though the tract in dis- pute was of no value to either claimant generally as likely to become profitable under cultivation, yet some part of it was found necessary to Great Britain as a means of communication between New Bruns- wick and the Canadas, and thus through all the British colonies. It was eventually agreed that both parties were to continue in posses- sion of the parts occupied by them respectively at the commence- ment of the dispute, until the Federal government and Great Britain should come to a definite arrangement. On the 7th of May, Lord John Russell and Lord Melbourne, find- ing that they could not depend upon a majority in parliament, ten- dered their resignations from office. An attempt was then made to form a new ministry under the Duke of Wellington and Sir Robert Peel, but the effort failed, and the Melbourne ministry was then re- instated. One of the first acts of the reinstated ministry was to form a legis- lative union of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, and to continue for two years the powers vested in the governor and special council of Lower Canada by the act previously passed to that effect. Another measure was also carried, after much opposition, namely, to grant the sum of £30,000 for the purposes of public education. In narrating the affairs of Britain we are necessarily led, from "What was the plau of the Canadian rebels ? — What was done at Prescott ? — Who was now appointed governor-general of Canada ? — What boundary line was disputed ? — When did Lords John Russell and Melbourne resign ? — What caused them to bo reinstated ? — What was one of the first acts of the reinstated ministry ? — What sum was granted for public education ? VICTORIA. 195 time to time, to advert to the events wliicli take place in Briti&h colo- nies and possessions, wherever situate and however distant. For a considerable time past the government of India had been adopting very active measures, in consequence of the Shah of Persia, who was raised to the throne mainly by British assistance, being supposed to be acting under Russian influence, to the prejudice of this country. Stimulated by Russia, as it appeared, the Persian undertook an expe- dition to Herat, an important place, to which a small principality is attached, in the territory of Affghanistan. Lord Auckland, the governor-general of India, thereupon determined to send an army of 30,000 men towards Candahar, Caboul, and Herat ; and this force was to be joined by about 45,000 men furnished by Runjeet Singh, the sovereign of the Punjaub. In the mean time it appeared that the Persians had suffered great loss at Herat. It was soon afterwards rumoured that the chiefs of Affghanistan were prepared to meet a much stronger force than the Anglo-Indian government, though rein- forced by Runjeet Singh, could bring into the field, and that they would listen to no terms of accommodation. The next accounts, however, informed us that the British had entered Candahar, that the difficulties experienced with respect to provisions had vanished, and that the troops were received with open arms. Shah Soojah was crowned with acclamation; and the army proceeded forthwith to Caboul. On the 21st of September, the fort of Jondpore, in Rajpootana, sur- rendered to the British ; and that of Kurnaul, in the Deccan, on the 6th of October. The camp of the Rajah was attacked by General Willshire, which ended in the total rout of the enemy. A very great quantity of military stores were found in Kurnaul, and treasure amounting to nearly £1,000,000 sterling. The Shah of Persia con- sented to acknowledge Shah Soojah as king of Affghanistan; but Dost Mahomed, the deposed prince, was still at large, and no doubt existed that a widely ramified conspiracy existed among the native chiefs to rise against the British on the first favourable opportunity. The year 1842 commenced with most disastrous intelligence from India. In consequence of reductions having been made in the tribute paid to the eastern Ghilzie tribes, for keeping open the passes be- tween Caboul and Jellalabad, in Affghanistan, the people rose and took possession of those passes. General Sir R. Sale's brigade was therefore directed to re-open the communication. The brigade fought its way to Gundamuck, greatly harassed by the enemy from the high ground, and, after eighteen days' incessant fighting, reached that place, much exhausted; they then moved upon Jellalabad. Meantime an insurrection broke out at Caboul. Sir A. Burnes, his brother Lieutenant C. Burnes, Lieutenant Broadfoot, and Lieutenant What expedition did the Shah of Persia undertake ? — What did Lord Auck- land then do ? — How were the British received at Candahar ? — What fort sur- rendered to the British on the 21st of September ?— What fort surrendered on the 6th of October ?— What success had General Willshire ?— What did the Shah of Persia then consent to do ?— What disasters occurred in India at the commencement of 1842 ? 196 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Sturt were massacred. The whole city then rose in arms, and uni- versal plunder ensued; while another large party attacked the British cantonments, about two miles from the town. These out- rages, unfortunately, were but the prelude to others far more fright- ful. Akhbar Khan, the son of Dost Mahomed, on pretence of making arrangements with Sir W. M'Naghten, the British envoy at the court of Shah Soojah, invited him to a conference ; he went, ac- companied by four officers and a small escort ; when the treacherous Affghan, after abusing the British ambassador, drew a pistol and shot him dead on the spot. Captain Trevor, of the 3d Bengal cavalry, on rushing to his assistance, was cut down ; three other officers were made prisoners, and the mutilated body of the ambassador was then barbarously paraded through the town. It was also stated that some severe fighting had taken place, but under the greatest disadvantage to the British and native troops, and that the army in Caboul had been almost literally annihilated. A capitulation was then entered into, by which the remainder of the Anglo-Indian army retired from the town, leaving all the sick, wounded, and sixteen ladies, wives of officers, behind. They had not, however, proceeded far before they were assailed from the mountains by an immense force, when the native troops, having fought three days, and wading through deep snow, gave way, and nearly the whole were massacred. So terrible a disaster had never visited the British arms since India first acknowledged the supremacy of England. A fatal mistake had been committed by the former government, and it was feared that all the energy of the new ministry would be insufficient to maintain that degree of influence over the vast and thickly peopled provinces of India, which was necessary to insure the safety of the empire. The governor-general, Lord Auckland, was recalled ; and his place sup- plied by Lord Ellenborough. His lordship arrived at Calcutta on February 28 ; at which time Sir Robert Sale was safe at Jellalabad ; but he was most critically situated. The garrison, however, main- tained their post with great gallantry, and were able to defy the utmost effi^rts of the Affghans, having in one instance sallied forth and attacked their camp of 6000 men, and gained a signal victory. At length General Pollock effected a junction with the troops of Sir R. Sale, and released them from a siege of 154 days' duration ; hav- ing previously forced, with very little loss, the dreaded pass of the Khyber, twenty-eight miles in length. General Nott also, who ad- vanced from Candahar to meet General England, who had sustained considerable loss at the pass of Kojuck, encountered a large force of Afi'ghans, and completely defeated them. But, on the other hand, Colonel Palmer surrendered the celebrated fortress of Ghuznee, on condition that the garrison should be safely conducted to Caboul. The day of retribution was now at hand. General Nott, at the head of 7000 men, having left Candahar on the 10th of August, pro- What outrage did Akhbar Khan commit? — What happened to the army in Caboul? — Who was appointed governor-general of India? — Were the Affghans successful at Jellalabad ? — When did General Nott commence his march from Candahar ? VICTORIA. 197 ceeded towards Ghuznee and Caboul ; while General Ed gland, with the remainder of the troops lately stationed at Candahar, marched back in safely to Quetta. On the 30th of August, Shah Shoodeen, the governor of Ghuznee, with nearly the whole of his army, amount- ing to not less than 12,000 men, arrived in the neighbourhood of the British camp ; and General Nott prepared to meet him with one-half of his force. The enemy came boldly forward, each division cheer- ing as they came into position, and occupying their ground in excel- lent style ; but after a short and spirited contest, they were com- pletely defeated, and dispersed in every direction ; their guns, tents, ammunition, &c. falling into the hands of the English. On the 5th of September, General Nott invested the city of Ghuznee, which was strongly garrisoned, while the hills to the north-eastward swarmed with soldiers ; but they soon abandoned the place, and the British flags were hoisted in triumph on the Bala Hissar. The citadel of Ghuznee, and other formidable works and defences, were razed to the ground. Early in September, General Pollock marched from Gundamuck on his way to Caboul. On reaching the hills which command the road through the pass of JugduUuck, the enemy was found strongly posted and in considerable numbers. In this action most of the influential Affghan chiefs were engaged, and their troops manfully maintained their position ; but at length the heights were stormed, and, after much arduous exertion, they were dislodged and dispersed. General Pollock proceeded onwards, and does not appear to have encountered any further opposition until his arrival, September 13, in the Tehzear valley, where an army of 16,000 men, commanded by Akhbar Khan in person, was assembled to meet him. A desperate fight ensued ; the enemy was completely defeated and driven from the field. On the day following this engagement the general advanced to Boodkhak ; and on the 16th he made his triumphal entry into the citadel, and planted the British colours on its walls. On the arrival of General Nott's division, the resolution adopted by the British government to destroy all the Affghan strongholds was carried into execution ; though not without resistance, particularly at the town and fort of Istaliff, where a strong body of Afighans, led on by Ameer Oola and sixteen of their most determined chiefs, had posted themselves. This town consisted of masses of houses built on the slope of a mountain, in the rear of which were lofty eminences, shutting in a defile to Toorkistan. The number of its inhabitants exceeded 15,000, who, from their defences and difficulties of approach, considered their possession unassailable. The capture, however, was a work of no great difficulty ; the British troops driving the enemy before them with considerable slaughter. The Anglo-Indian troops soon afterwards commenced their homeward march in three divisions ; the first under General Pollock, the second under General M^Caskill, What success did he meet with ? — "Who was victorious at the pass of Jugdul- luck ? — Who was victorious in the Tehzear valley ? — When did General Pollock enter Caboul? — What resolution was adopted by the British government? — What occurred at the town of Istaliff? 17* 198 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. and the third under General Nott. The first division effected their march through the passes without loss ; but the second was less suc- cessful, the mountaineers attacking it about Ali-Musjid, and plun- dering it of part of the baggage. General Nott, with his division, arrived in safety, bearing with them the celebrated gates of Som- nauth, which, it is said, a Mahometan conqueror had taken away from an Indian temple, and which, during nearly eight centuries, formed the chief ornament of his tomb at Ghuznee. Great Britain had been much disturbed during the year by large and tumultuous assemblages of the people, of a revolutionary cha- racter, under the name of Chartists ; and many excesses were com- mitted by them in the large manufacturing towns of Manchester, Bolton, Birmingham, Stockport, &c., that required the strong arm of the law to curb. This was alluded to in her majesty's speech, at the close of the session of parliament, as the first attempts at insubordi- nation, which had been checked by the fearless administration of the law. But present appearances were not to be trusted. Secret organiza- tion was all the time going on, and a general rising was in contem- plation. It was arranged that their active operations should com- mence in the remote and unguarded districts of South Wales, where the emissaries of " the charter" had obtained considerable influence ; and while the country was in a state of alarm and confusion at what was going on in that quarter, other branches of the widespread con- spiracy were to assemble and make a display of physical force suf- ficient to overawe the local authorities and astound the government. Thus prepared, on the 2d of November the men began their march from the " hills" in the neighbourhood of Merthyr, &c., armed with muskets, pikes, swords, crowbars, pickaxes, and whatever other im- plements they could muster, and proceeded in the direction of New- port in Monmouthshire, marching through the villages and compelling many to join them, till the whole number amounted to nearly 20,000 men. It was their intention to enter Newport in the dead of night, and thus obtain possession of it unresisted ; but the rain had con- tinued to descend in torrents, which greatly impeded their progress, and that part of the design was frustrated. On the morning of the 4th, the insurgents came in collision with the soldiers and police, and after a short conflict, in which a number of men were killed or wounded, the riot was suppressed. The prin- cipal Chartist leaders were arrested, tried, convicted of high treason, and several of them sentenced to transportation for life. Riots con- tinued, however, and it was quite apparent that the doctrines of the Chartists had gained a firm hold among the labouring classes. On the 10th of February, 1840, Queen Victoria was married to Prince Albert of Saxe Coburg-Gotha, to whom parliament voted In what order did the troops return home? — Who excited tumults in the Uniteid Kingdom ? — What occurred on the 2d of November ? — What occurred on the morning of the 4th ? — What was done with the Chartist leaders ? — When Was Queen Victoria married ? — Whom did she marry ? ( 200 ) VICTORIA. 201 £30,000 per annum. This event was celebrated throughout the United Kingdom. In 1839, a difficulty occurred between Great Britain and China in regard to the opium traffic. The emperor of the Celestial Empire prohibited the importation of the destructive drug, and in defiance of his authority the British merchants continued to send large quan- tities of opium to Canton. On the 13th of March, 1839, Commis- sioner Lin issued a proclamation, requiring all the opium contained in the ships and storehouses, or factories, at Canton, to be delivered up. Captain Elliot, the British superintendent, was compelled to comply, and over 20,000 chests of the drug, valued at £4,000,000, were destroyed. On the 7th of July following, a collision occurred between a party of Chinese and some English sailors, in which one of the former was killed. Commissioner Lin demanded the surrender of the murderer, and, on the refusal of Elliot, he ordered the inha- bitants to withhold provision from the English. Several skirmishes now ensued, and Captain Elliot in vain attempted to restore a good understanding. In September, the Chinese commenced active hos- tilities by attacking the English vessels; but in every effort they were repulsed with loss. Captain Elliot now entered into negotia- tions with the Chinese commissioner, Keshen, but this led to no satisfactory conclusion. In the mean time a small fleet of English vessels of war had arrived. Preparations were made for attacking the outposts of the Bogue forts, on the Bocca Tigris. Having obtained possession, the steamers were sent to destroy the war-junks in Anson's bay ; but the shallow- ness of the water admitted only of the approach of the Nemesis, towing ten or twelve boats. The junks endeavoured to escape, but a rocket blew up a powder-magazine of one of them, and eighteen more, which were set on fire by the English boats^ crews, also successively blew up. At length a flag of truce was despatched by the Chinese commander, and hostilities ceased. On the 20th of January, 1841, Captain Elliot announced to her majesty's subjects in China that the following arrangements had been made : — 1. The cession of the island and harbour of Hong Kong to the British crown. 2. An indemnity to the British government of 6,000,000 dollars, 1,000,000 dollars pay- able at once, and the remainder in equal annual instalments, endipg in 1846. 3. Direct official intercourse between the two countries upon an equal footing. 4. The trade of the port of Canton to be opened within ten days after the Chinese new year. Thus far all appeared as it should be ; but great doubts of the sin- cerity of Keshen, the Chinese commissioner, were felt. Accord- What difficulty occurred between Great Britain and China ? — What proclama- tion was issued on the 13th of March, 1839 ? — How much opium was destroyed? — What collision occurred on the 7th of July ? — What did Commissioner Lin de- mand?— Did Captain Elliot succeed in restoring a good understanding? — When did the Chinese commence active hostilities ? — What negotiations were opened ? — What hostile movements were now made by the English ? — What arrange- ments did Captain Elliot announce on the 20th of January ?— Whose sincerity was doubted ? 202 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. f ingly the Nemesis steamer was sent up the river to reconnoitre, and on nearing the Bogue forts (30 in number) it was discovered that preparations for defence had been made ; batteries and field- works had been thrown up along the shore, and upon the islands in the middle of the river ; a barrier was in course of being constructed across the channel, and there were large bodies of troops assembled from the interior. Keshen, finding his duplicity discovered, commu- nicated that further negotiations would be declined. The emperor, it appeared, had issued edicts repudiating the treaty, and denouncing the English barbarians, *' who were like dogs and sheep in their dis- positions.^' That in sleeping or eating he found no quiet, and he therefore ordered 8000 of his best troops to defend Canton, and to recover the places on the coast ; for it was absolutely necessary (said the emperor) " that the rebellious foreigners must give up their heads, which, with the prisoners, were to be sent to Pekin in cages, to un- dergo the last penalty of the law." Before the hostile edicts had appeared. Captain Elliot, confiding in the good faith of Keshen, had sent orders to General Burrel to restore the island of Chusan (which had been taken many months before) to the Chinese, and to return with the Bengal volunteers to Calcutta. This order had been promptly obeyed ; Chusan having been evacuated February 29. Captain Elliot set sail on February 20, up the Canton river. On the 24th he destroyed a masked field-work, disabling eighty cannon there mounted. On the 25th and 26th he took three adjoining Bogue forts, without losing a man, killing about 250 Chinese, and taking 1300 prisoners. The subsequent operations of the squadron presented one unbroken succession of brilliant achievements ; until, on the 28th of March, Canton, the second city in the Chinese empire, containing a million of souls, was placed at the mercy of the British troops. Every possible means of defence had been used by the Chinese com- mander ; but nothing could withstand the intrepidity of the British. In consequence of the Chinese firing on a flag of truce, the forts and defences of Canton were speedily taken, the flotilla burnt or sunk, and the union-jack hoisted on the walls of the British factory. But Captain Elliot seemed doomed to be made the sport of Chinese du- plicity. He no sooner issued a circular to the English and foreign merchants, announcing that a suspension of hostilities had been agreed on between the Chinese commissioner Yang and himself, and that the trade was open at Canton, and would be duly respected, than the emperor issued another proclamation, ordering all commu- nication with " the detestable brood of English'' to be cut off. Cap- tain Elliot, however, whose great object hitherto appears to have been to secure the annual export of tea, had succeeded in having 11,000,000 pounds shipped before the fulminating edicts of the em- peror took effect. How was his duplicity discovered ? — What did he then do ? — What edicts were issued by the emperor? — When had Chusan been evacuated? — When did Captain Elliot sail up the Canton river ? — What success did he meet with ? — Was Canton captured ? — What did Captain Elliot do during the cessation of hosstilities? ( 203 ) Tlie Emperor of China. VICTORIA. 205 On the SOth of May the contest "began by the Chinese firing on the British ships and letting loose some fire-ships among them, which, however, did no damage. Next morning the fort of Shaming was silenced, and a fleet of about forty junks burnt. On the 24th, a favourable landing-place having been discovered, the right column of the 26th regiment, under Major Pratt, was convoyed by the Ata- lanta to act on the south of the city ; while the Nemesis towed the left column up to Tsinghae. After some sharp fighting, the Canton governor yielded, and the troops and ships were withdrawn, on con- dition of the three commissioners and all the troops under them leav- ing Canton and its vicinity, and 6,000,000 of dollars to be paid within a week, the first million before evening that day. Sir H. F. Sen- house died on board the Blenheim from a fever brought on by exces- sive fatigue. Notwithstanding this defeat, the Chinese were still determined to resist, and Yeh Shan had reported to the emperor, his uncle, that when he had induced the barbarians to withdraw, he would repair all the forts again. The emperor, on his part, declared that, as a last resort, he would put himself at the head of his army, and march to India and England, and tear up the English root and branch ! Sir Henry Pottinger, the new plenipotentiary, and Rear-admiral Parker, the new naval commander-in-chief, arrived at Macao on the 9th of August. A notification of Sir Henry's presence and powers was sent to Canton immediately on his arrival, accompanied by a letter forwarded to the emperor at Pekin, the answer to which was required to be sent to a northern station. The fleet, consisting of nine ships of war, four armed steamers, and twenty-two transports, sailed for the island and fortified city of Amoy on the 21st of August. This island is situated in a fine gulf in the province of Fokein, the great tea district of China, opposite the island of Formosa, and about 350 miles north-east of the gulf of Canton, 500 miles south of Chusan, and 1300 miles from Pekin. It was fortified by very strong defences, of granite rocks faced with mud, and mounted with no less than 500 pieces of cannon. On the 26th, after a brief parley with a mandarin, the city was bombarded for two hours. Sir Hugh Gough, with the 18th regiment then landed, and seized one end of the long battery ; whilst the 26th regiment, with the sailors and marines, carried the strong batteries on the island of Koolangsee, just in front of Amoy. The Chinese made an animated defence for four hours, and then fled from all their fortifications, and also from the city, carrying with them their treasures. The Chinese junks and war-boats were all captured ; and the cannon, with immense munitions of war, of course fell into the hands of the English. Not a single man of the British was killed, and only nine were wounded. The next day, Sir Hugh Gough entered the city at the head of his troops without opposition. Chusan was recaptured on the 1st of October. A more resolute stand than usual was made by the Chinese; but the troops, sup- When was the fighting renewed? — ^Were the Chinese reduced to terms? — What new officers arrived at Macao on the 9th of August? — Whither did the fleet sail? — Where is Amoy situated? — What hostile movements were made on the 26th ? — When was Chusan recaptured ? 18 206 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. ported by the fire of the ships, ascended a hill, and escaladed Ting- hae, the capital city, from whence the British colours were soon seen flying in every direction. On the 7th the troops attacked the city of Cinhae, on the mainland, opposite Chusan, which is enclosed by a wall thirty-seven feet thick, and twenty-two feet high, with an embra- sure parapet of four feet high. The ships shelled the citadel and enfiladed the batteries ; the seamen and marines then landed, and Admiral Sir W. Parker was among the first to scale the walls. Here was found a great arsenal, a cannon foundry and gun-carriage manu- factory, and a great variety of warlike stores. Several other engagements took place, in all of which the British continued to have a most decided advantage, although it was admit- ted that the Chinese and Tartar soldiers showed more resolution and a better acquaintance with the art of war than on former occasions. However, as a large reinforcement of troops, with a battering train which had been sent from Calcutta, was shortly expected. Sir Henry Pottinger put off the execution of some intended operations on a more extended scale until their arrival. After the arrival of reinforcements, the British expedition on the 13th of June entered the large river called Yang-tze-Kiang, on the banks of which were immense fortifications. The fleet at daylight having taken their stations, the batteries opened a fire, which lasted two hours. The seamen and marines then landed, and drove the enemy out of the batteries before the troops could be disembarked. Two hundred and fifty-three guns were here taken, of heavy calibre, and eleven feet long. On the 19th two other batteries were taken, in which were 48 guns. The troops then took possession of the city of Shanghai, destroyed the public buildings, and distributed the granaries among the people. Two other field-works were also taken, and the total of the guns captured amounted to the astonishing num- ber of 364. The squadron set sail from "Woosung on the 6th of July ; on the 20th the vessels anchored abreast of the city of Ching-Keang-foo, which commands the entrance of the grand canal, and the next morning the troops were disembarked, and marched to the attack of the Chinese forces. One brigade was directed to move against the enemy's camp, situated about three miles distant; another was ordered to co-operate with this division in cutting off the expected retreat of the Chinese from the camp ; while the third received in- structions to escalade the northern wall of the town. The Chinese, after firing a few distant volleys, fled from the camp with precipita- tion, and dispersed over the country. The city itself, however, was manfully defended by the Tartar soldiers, who prolonged the contest ^for several hours, resisting with desperate valour the combined "efforts of the three brigades, aided by a reinforcement of marines and What place was attacked on the 7th of October 7 — ^Who were successful in the several engagements ? — What river did the British enter on the 13th of June ? — Were they successful in their assaults ? — What took place on the 19th ? — What city did the squadron next visit ? — Was it captured ? VICTORIA. 207 seamen. At length opposition ceased, and ere nightfall the British were complete masters of the place. A strong garrison being left behind for the retention of Ching- keang-foo, the fleet proceeded towards Nankin, about 40 miles dis- tant, and arrived on the 6th of August, when preparations were immediately made for an attack on the city. A strong force, under the command of Major-general Lord Saltoun, was landed, and took up their position to the west of the town ; and operations were about to be commenced, when a letter was sent off to the plenipotentiary, requesting a truce, as certain high commissioners, specially delegated by the emperor, and possessed of full powers to negotiate, were on their way to treat with the English. After several visits and long discussions between the contracting powers, the treaty was publicly signed on board the Cornwallis, by Sir H. Pottinger and the three commissioners. Of this convention the following are the most im- portant articles : — Lasting peace and friendship between the two empires. China to pay twenty-one millions of dollars in the course of that and three succeeding years. The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ningpo, and Shanghai to be thrown open to British merchants, consular officers to be appointed to reside at thera, and regular and just tariffs of import and export (as well as inland transit) duties to be established and published. The island of Hong- Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to her Britannic majesty, her heirs, and successors. All subjects of her Britannic majesty (whether natives of Europe or India) who may be confined in any part of the Chinese empire, to be unconditionally released. Correspondence to be conducted on terms of perfect equality among the officers of both governments. On the emperor's assent being received to this treaty, and the payment of the first instalment, 6,000,000 dollars, her Britannic majesty's forces to retire from Nankin and the grand canal, and the military posts at Chinghai to be also withdrawn ; but the islands of Chusan and Kolangsoo to be held until the money pay- ments and the arrangements for opening the ports be completed. In August, 1841, the Melbourne ministry was compelled to resign, on account of a want of the confidence of parliament, and a new conservative cabinet was formed under the auspices of the Duke of Wellington and Sir Kobert Peel. In the mean time two attempts were made to shoot Queen Victoria, by desperate workmen, named Edward Oxford and John Francis. Oxford was sent to an insane asylum, and Francis was transported for life. The Affghan war in India had scarcely been concluded when the British became involved in another contest. When the expedition to Affghanistan was first undertaken, it was intended to open the Indus for the transit of British merchandise, and render it one of the great highways to Asia. The object was not lost sight of, though Affghanistan had been abandoned; and endeavours were made to obtain from the Ameers of Scinde such a "What city was then visited ? — What were the terms of the treaty there con- cluded ? — When was the Melbourne ministry compelled to resign ? — Who formed a new ministry ? — What attempts Mfeve jnade UBPU the life qf Queen Victoria ? 208 HISTORY OP ENGLAND. treaty as -would secure the safe navigation of that river. In Decem- ber, 1842, Major Outram was dispatched to Hyderabad to conclude the best terms in his povrer v^ith the native chiefs. Not being in a condition immediately to refuse to give up for the use of the naviga- tion certain strips of land lying along the river, they temporized until at length their troops collected, when on the 14th of February, 1843, they sent word to Major Outram to retire from their city. The ma- jor, not supposing they would proceed to extremities, delayed. The next day the residence of the British political agent was attacked ; it was gallantly defended by 100 men for several hours ; but at length, their ammunition having been expended, the British soldiers retired with a small loss to the steamers, and proceeded to join Sir C. J. Napier, then at the head of about 2700 men, at a distance of about 20 miles from the capital of the Ameers. The latter hastened at the head of 22,000 men to attack the British force. On the 17th a battle took place, in which, after a severe struggle of three hours, the Ameers were totally routed, although they outnumbered the British force by seven to one. The Ameers on the following day surrendered themselves prisoners of war, and Hyderabad was occu- pied by the conquerors. Treasure and jewels were found to an amount considerably exceeding one million sterling. In consequence of this success, the territories of Scinde, with the exception of that portion belonging to Meer Ali, the morad of Khyrpore, were declared by the governor-general to be a British province, and Sir Charles J. Napier was appointed governor. The new governor, however, was not to remain in undisturbed possession for any length of time. An army of Beloochees, twenty thousand strong, under the command of Meer Shere Mahomed, had taken up a strong position on the river Fullalie, near the spot where the Ameers of Scinde were so signally defeated, and Sir C. J. Napier, on ascertaining the fact, resolved to attack them forthwith. On the 24th of March he moved from Hyderabad at the head of 5000 men. The battle lasted for three hours, when victory declared for the British ; eleven guns and nineteen standards were taken ; about 1000 of the enemy were killed, and 4000 wounded: the loss of the British amounting to only 30 killed and 231 wounded. By this victory the fate of Scinde and Beloochistan was sealed, and the whole territory finally annexed to the Anglo-Indian empire. In the United Kingdom, at this period, much distress and discon- tent prevailed, especially in Ireland. Kiots were frequent. The Repeal agitation reached a threatening heat, and parliament felt called upon to adopt a disarming enactment, designated the " Irish Arms Bill.^' The queen and her consort made the tour of Great Britain, and they were received with many demonstrations of enthu- With what people of India did the British now become involved in war ? — Who was at the head of the British forces? — What battle occurred on the 17th of February ? — ^What territories were annexed to the British dominions ? — Who now took up arms against the British ? — What occurred on the 24th of March ? — What was the fate of Beloochistan ? — What was the condition of things in the United Kingdom at this pexiod?— What measure did parliament adopt? VICTORIA. 209 siastic loyalty. They then visited the court of Louis Philippe, and the interview between the sovereigns was considered an indication of continued peaceful relations between Great Britain and France. A short visit to Belgium followed, and then the British sovereign returned to her own subjects. In October, 1843, the government, alarmed at the progress of the Repeal agitation, found occasion to arrest the great champion of the cause, Daniel O'Connell. He was tried for sedition, in May, 1844, convicted, and sentenced to undergo an imprisonment of twelve months, and pay a fine of £2000. The House of Lords, however, reversed the decision of the Irish court, and Mr. O'Connell was released. Sir Robert Peel continued in the premiership until the 10th of De- cember, 1845, when, disagreeing with the Duke of Wellington as to the propriety of repealing the duty on corn, the cabinet was dissolved. The task of forming a new ministry was then entrusted to Lord John Russel, the leader of the Whig party. But he could not effect the requisite combination, and Sir Robert Peel once more resumed the direction of affairs, to resign his post in 1846 ; not, however, before he had rendered that year memorable by the amicable settlement with the United States, of the Oregon question, and by the repeal of the duty on corn, a reform so long agitated by the Anti-Corn-Law League, headed by Richard Cobden. In June, 1846, Lord John Rus- sell succeeded in forming a Whig ministry, which included Lord Palmerston as minister of foreign affairs. The British empire in India was extended by rapidly succeeding wars. Soon after the annexation of Scinde, the warlike Sikhs of the Punjaub suddenly took up arms, and for a time threatened the very existence of the British dominion in the East. The Sikhs were nu- merous, well armed, provided with artillery, and had the advantage of taking their adversaries by surprise. Sir Henry Hardinge waa governor-general of India at the time ; but he waived his claims to command, and served during the war under Sir Hugh Gough. A number of bloody contests ensued, in all of which the British were victorious, and the Sikhs sustained an immense loss. At length they were utterly defeated, and the Punjaub, a vast, fertile and popu- lous territory, was annexed to the dominions of her Britannic majesty. In 1847, while the labouring classes of England suffered much distress, Ireland was visited by a dreadful famine, in consequence of the failure of the potato crop. A vast amount of misery prevailed throughout the island, and numbers of the people starved by the way- side. The workhouses were crowded with hungry wretches. Mea- What tours did the Queen and Prince Albert make ? — Who was arrested in 1843 ? — ^What punishment was inflicted upon him ? — When was the Peel cabi- net dissolved?— What caused its restoration ?— When did Sir Robert Peel again resign ? — What great measures had he effected ? — Who formed a ministry in June, 1846 ? — What war succeeded the annexation of Scinde, in India, ? — Who commanded the British forces ?— -What was the result of the contest ? — What occurred in Ireland in 1847 ? 18* 210 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. sures of relief were taken in England and in the United States ; but these came too late to do any considerable amount of good for the unhappy country. The effect of this distressful state of affairs was to increase the influence of the repeal agitators, and to swell the ranks of the discontented class. In England, the chartists agitated their reforms with determined energy. The prevalence of distress among the labourers aided their efforts, and at the commencement of 1848, the signs of a great con- vulsion were apparent to the leaders of parliament. The news of the February revolution in France, by which the republicans tri- umphed over Louis Philippe, induced the chartist leaders to attempt a decisive movement. The 10th of April was fixed upon for a great meeting upon Kennington common, near London, from which a pro- cession, bearing a petition for the charter, signed by an immense number of names, was to proceed to the Parliament House. The government determined to crush the rebellion at all hazards. The most rigorous measures were adopted to preserve the peace in and about London. The military and the police, in great force, were skilfully disposed by the Duke of Wellington. The demonstration of the 10th of April was a failure in every respect. Some thousands of chartists assembled upon the common, and violent speeches were delivered by Messrs. Ernest Jones, Cuffy, and other chartist orators. But there was no remarkable breach of the public peace. The peti- tion was conveyed to the Parliament House in a cab, to be treated with derision by the majority in the house of commons. The orators of the meeting were arrested, tried for sedition, convicted, and sen- tenced to transportation for two years. The attempt of the Irish repealers at revolution was quite as lamentable a failure. At the commencement of 1848, a resort to force was boldly threatened. Companies were organized and trained throughout the island. After the establishment of the French Ee- public, Messrs. Smith O'Brien and Meagher went to Paris to en- deavour to obtain the aid of the provisional government ; but their mission produced no satisfactory result. They then prepared their countrymen to take the field. In the mean time the government acted with energy and determination. The habeas corpus was sus- pended, anda disarming measure adopted. John Mitchell, editor of the " United Irishmen," was arrested, tried for sedition, con- victed, and sentenced to transportation for fourteen years. In the month of August, Smith O'Brien, Thomas F. Meagher, and Patrick O'Donoho endeavoured to bring the colliers of Tipperary into the field ; but their efforts were unsuccessful. They were beaten by the Who adopted measures of relief? — Who agitated reform in England? — ^What induced them to attempt a decisive movement ? — What was to be done on the 10th of April, 1848 ? — What course did the government pursue ? — ^What was the character of the meeting on the 10th of April? — What was done with the ora- tors_ of the meeting ? — What movements were made in Ireland ? — Who went to Paris, and what was their object? — What measures were adopted by the government? — What editor was arrested? — What was done in the month of August ? VICTORIA. 211 police, arrested, and tried for high treason. Their defence was ably conducted ; but they were convicted, and sentenced to death. The queen, however, commuted their punishment to transportation for life. Thus ended another attempt to sever the union of England and Ireland. In the course of 1851, the Russell ministry, finding itself without a reliable majority in parliament, resigned. The Earl of Derby and Mr. Benjamin D'Israeli, conservative leaders, then undertook the formation of a ministry. This lasted but a short time, giving place, early in 1853, to a ministry composed of liberal tories, whigs, and radicals, and comprising the influential leaders, the Earl of Aber- deen, Lord John Russell, Sir James Graham, and Mr. William Glad- stone. This was a singular combination, and one of rather doubtful permanency. Such a cabinet could only agree in doing nothing. In 1851, a World's Fair was held at London, in a splendid struc- ture, called the Crystal Palace. The industry of all nations was represented in this novel display. An immense number of persons, from all parts of the world, visited England to see the exhibition. Such an affair had no precedent in history. In India, the British dominions have been recently extended by a war with Burmah — the Burmese being defeated, and a large portion of their territory taken from them. The occasion of the contest, which, though short, was very sanguinary, was an unpaid claim of a few hundred pounds sterling, due an English captain. In 1850, a discovery was made in Australia, which had been hitherto merely valuable to Great Britain as a penal colony, by which that island-continent was rendered one of the most attractive por- tions of the globe. It was ascertained that a region in the vicinity of the British settlements teemed with gold. Within two years vast quantities of the precious metal were obtained and exported. The population was more than trebled by fortune-seekers, who came from all parts of the world. Great Britain was relieved of its surplus of labourers, and the working classes were greatly benefited. In all parts of the globe the power and influence of Great Britain was splendidly displayed at this period, showing that she is the most extensive commercial empire that the world ever saw. What was the result ? — What punishment was inflicted on the Irish leaders ? — When did the Russell ministry resign ? — Who formed a new ministry ? — When did this ministry give place to another ? — Of whom was the new ministry com- posed? — What great exhibition was held in London in 1851? — What war recently occurred in India? — What was the result? — What discovery was made in Australia in 1850.? — What were the effects of the discovery? DUNCAN. ALEXANDER. 213 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. CHAPTER 1. The Caledonians are supposed to have been the ancient inhabitants of Scotland. At the time the Romans occupied Britain, it was governed by a race of brave and wise princes. Galdus, in a. d. 79, resisted the Romans, who were never able to subdue the country. The Scots, who were probably from Scythia, occupied the hills to the north ; and the Picts occupied the southern part, and were men of the plains. Its early history is involved in much uncertainty ; but in the fifth century, both Fergus and Dongard are said to have reigned, and the Scots were repre- sented as a powerful nation. About the middle of the ninth century Kenneth MacAlpinus finally subdued the Picts, and united the Picts and Scots under one monarchy : the kingdom was afterwards known by the name of Scotland. Its authentic history commences at the reign of Duncan, 1033, a prince distinguished for his virtues. He was treacherously murdered by Mac- beth, who usurped the throne. The usurper was killed in battle, and Malcolm Canmore the Third, the son of Duncan, succeeded, 1057. This prince, espousing the cause of Edgar Atheling, heir of the Saxon Kings of England, whose sister he married, provoked a war with William the Conqueror, which was equally prejudicial to both king- doms. In an expedition of Malcolm into England, it is alleged that, after concluding a truce, he was compelled by William to do homage for his kingdom. The truth is, that this homage was done for the ter- ritories in Cumberland and Northumberland won by the Scots, and held in vassalage of the English crown, though this homage was afterwards absurdly made the pretext of a claim of feudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of twenty-seven years, Malcolm supported a spir- ited contest with England, both under William I. and his son Rufus ; and to the virtues of his queen, Margaret, his kingdom, in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civilization remarkable in those ages of bar- barism. Alexander I., his son and successor, defended, with equal spirit and good policy, the independence of his kingdom ; and his son David I., celebrated even by the democratic Buchanan, as an honour to his coun- Who were the ancient inhabitants of Scotland ?— When were the Picts arid Scots united under one monarchy ?— Who reigned there during the time of William the Conqueror ?— Describe the characters of Alexander I. and David L 214 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. try and to monarchy, won from Stephen, and annexed to his crown, the whole earldom of Northumberland. In these reigns we hear of no claim of the feudal subjection of Scotland to the crown of England ; though the accidental fortune of war afterwards furnished a ground for it. William I., taken prisoner at Alnwick by Henry II., was compelled, as the price of his release, to do homage for his whole kingdom ; an ob- ligation which Richard, the successor of Henry, voluntarily relinquished, as deeming it to have been unjustly extorted. On the death of Alexander III. without male issue, in 1285, Bruce and Baliol, descendants of David I. by the female line, were competi- tors for the crown, and the pretensions of each were supported by a formidable party in the kingdom. Edward I. of England, chosen um- pire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in that character, the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compelling all the barons to swear alle- giance to him, and taking actual possession of the country by his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Baliol, on the express condition of his swearing fealty to him as lord paramount. Baliol, however, soon after renouncing his allegiance, the indignant Edward invaded Scotland with an immense force, and compelled the weak prince to abdicate the throne and resign the kingdom into his hands. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes whom history records, restored the fallen honours of his country. Joined by a few patriots, his first successes in attacking the English garrisons brought numbers to his patriotic standard. Their success was signal and conspicuous ; victory followed upon victory ; and while Edward was engaged on the continent, his troops were utterly defeated in a desperate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacuate the kingdom. Wallace, the deliverer of his country, now assumed the title of Governor of Scotland ; a dis- tinction which was followed by the envy and disaffection of many of the nobles, and the consequent diminution of his army. The Scots were defeated at Falkirk. Edward returned with a vast accession of force ; and, after a fruitless resistance, the Scottish barons finally obtained peace by capitulation, from which the brave Wallace was excepted by name. A fugitive for some time, he was betrayed into the hands of Edward, who put him to death with every circum- stance of ignomuiy that barbarous revenge could dictate, 1304. Scotland found a second champion and deliverer in Robert Bruce, the grandson of the competitor with Baliol ; who, deeply resenting the hu- miliation of his country, once more set up the standard of war, and bade defiance to the English monarch, to whom his father and grandfather had meanly sworn allegiance. Under this intrepid leader the spirit of the nation was roused at once ; the English were attacked in every quarter, and once more entirely driven out of the kingdom. Robert Bruce was crowned king at Scone, 1306; and Edward, advancing with an immense army, died at Carlisle, 7th July, 1307, enjoining it From whom were Bruce and Baliol descended ?— Mention the character and en gagements of William Wallace.— Where were the Scots defeated ?— What was the tute of Wallace ?— What champion next appeared ?— Where was Bruce crowned t ROBERT BRUCE JAMES I. 215 with his last breath to his son, Edward 11., to prosecute the war witli the Scots to the entire reduction of the country. In obedience to his father's will, Edward invaded Scotland with 100,000 men. Bruce met this immense force with 30,000 at Bannock- burn, and defeated them with prodigious slaughter, June 25th, 1314. This important victory secured the independence of Scotland, and Ed- ward escaped by sea to his own dominions. His successor, Edward III. bent on the conquest of Scotland, marched to the north with a prodi- gious army, vanquished the Scots in the battle of Hallidon-hill, and placed Edward Baliol, his vassal and tributary, on the throne. But the Kingdom was as repugnant as ever to the rule of England, and a fa- vourable opportunity was taken for the renewal of hostilities, on the de- parture of Edward for a foreign enterprise which gave full scope to his ambition. CHAPTER 2. The Scots invading England, were defeated in the battle of Durnam, by Phillippa, the heroic queen of Edward III., and their sovereign, Da- vid II., was led prisoner to London, where he continued in captivity for eleven years. He was ransomed by his subjects, and restored to his kingdom in 1357 ; and he ended a turbulent reign in 1371. The crown passed at his demise to Robert, the high steward of Scotland, in virtue of a destination made by Robert I., with consent of the states. The reign of Robert 11. , which was of twenty years' duration, was spent in a series of hostilities between the Scots and English, productive of no material results to either kingdom. The weak and indolent disposition of his successor, Robert III., who found himself unequal to the contest with his factious nobles, prompted him to resign the government to his brother, the Duke of Albany. This ambitious man formed the design of usurping the throne by the murder of his nephews, the sons of Robert. The elder, Rothsay, a prmce of high spirit, was imprisoned, on pretence of treasonable designs, and starved to death. The younger, James, escaped a similar fate which was in- tended for him ; but on his passage to France, whither he was sent for safety by his father, he was taken by an English ship of war, and brought prisoner to London. The weak Robert sunk under these mis- fortunes, and died, 1405, after a reign of fifteen years. James I., a prince of great natural endowments, profited by a cap- tivity of eighteen years at the court of England, in adorning his mind with every valuable accomplishment. At his return in 1423 to his king- dom, which in his absence had been weakly governed by the Regent Albany, and suffered under all the disorders of anarchy, he bent his whole attention to the improvement and civilization of his people, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced with a resolute authori ty. The factions of the nobles, their dangerous combinations, and their Where were the English defeated with prodigious slaughter ?— What Englisla queen defeated the Scots ?— To whom did Robert III. re,sign the government ?— What is the character of James I. ? — Where was he a captive ? 216 HISTORY OF SCOTLANB. domineering tyranny over their dependants, the great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly restrained, and most severely punished. But these wholesome innovations, while they procured to James the af- fections of the nation at large, excited the odium of the nobility, and gave birth to a conspiracy, headed by the Earl of Athol, the king's un- cle, which terminated in the murder of this excellent pruice, in the forty-fourth year of his age, a. d. 1437. James II. inherited a considerable portion of the talents of his father; and, in the like purpose of restraining the inordinate power of his no- bles, he pursued the same maxims of government, which an impetuous temper prompted him, in some instances, to carry to the most blameable excess. The Earl of Douglas, trusting to a powerful vassalage, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state and splendour rivalling those of his sovereign. He was seized, and without accusation or trial, beheaded. His successor imprudently running the same career, and boldly justifying, in a conference, his rebellious practices, was put to death by the king's own hand. Thus were the factions of the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigour of authority. To his people James was beneficent and humane, and his laws contributed materially to their civilization and prosperity, and to the advancement of regal dignity. He was killed in the thirtieth year of his age, by the bursting of a can- non in besieging the castle of Roxburgh, 1460. His son, James III., without the talents of his predecessors, afiected to tread in the same steps. To humble his nobles, he bestowed his con- fidence on mean favourites ; an insult which the former avenged by re- bellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aided by Edward IV. of Eng- land, attempted a revolution in the kingdom, which was frustrated only by the death of Edward. In a second rebellion, the confederate nobles forced the prince of Rothsay, eldest son of James, to appear in arms against his father. In an engagement near Bannockburn the rebels were successful, and the king was slain, in the thirty-fifth year of his age, 1488. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, whose talents were equalled by his virtues, while his measures of government were dictated by a true spirit of patriotism, won by a well-placed confidence the af fections of his nobility. In his marriage with Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII. of England, both sovereigns wisely sought a bond of amity between the kingdoms ; but this purpose was frustrated in the succeeding reign of Henry VIII. The high spirit of the rival monarchs was easily inflamed by trifling causes of offence ; and France, then at war with England, courted the aid of her ancient ally. James invaded England with a powerful army, which he wished to lead to immediate action ; but the prudent delays of Surrey, the English general, wasted and weakened the Scottish force ; and in the fatal battle of Flodden, the Scots were defeated with prodigious slaughter. The gallant James What did James IT.'s impetuous temper prompt him to ? — What occasioned his death ?— How long did he reign ? — What were the talents, and what the conduct, of James III.? — What were the talents and virtues of James IV. ? — Whom did he marry ?— Did he not invade England ? ( 218 ) JAMES V. MARY. 199 perished in the fight, and with him almost the whoie of the Scottish nobles, a. d. 1513. " _ . _ , . Under the long minority of his son, James V.,' an mfant at the time of his father's death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by his uncle, Alba- ny. The aristocracy began to resume its ancient spirit of independence, which was ill brooked by a prince of a proud and uncontrollable mind, who felt the keenest jealousy of a high prerogative. With a system- atic policy, he employed the church to abase the nobility, by conferring all the principal offices of state on able ecclesiastics. The cardinal Beaton co-operated with great zeal in the designs of his master, and under him ruled the kingdom. Henry VIIL, embroiled with the pa- pacy, sought an alliance with the king of the Scots ; but the ecclesias- tical councellors of the latter defeated this beneficial purpose. A war was thus provoked, and James was reluctantly compelled to court those nobles whom it had been hitherto his darling object to hu- miliate. They now determined on a disgraceful revenge. In an attack on the Scottish border the English were repelled, and an opportunity offered to the Scots of cutting off their retreat. The king gave his orders to that end, but his barons obstinately refused to advance beyond the frontier. In a subsequent engagement with the English, 10,000 of the Scots deliberately surrendered themselves prisoners to 500 of the enemy. The high spirit of James sunk under his contending passions, and he died of a'^broken heart in the thirty-third year of his age, a few days afl:er the birth of a daughter, who was still more unfortunate than her father — Mary, queen of Scots, a. d. 1542. CHAPTER 3. Mary was educated in France, and she espoused the dauphin, after- wards Francis II. She imprudently assumed the arms and title of Queen of England, by the persuasion of her maternal uncles the Guises; and this laid the foundation of all the miseries of the Queen of Scots. Upon her husband's death, at the age of eighteen, she returned to her hereditary kingdom ; having fortunately escaped an English fleet which Elizabeth had despatched to take her prisoner on her passage. Her misfortunes began from that hour. Her Protestant subjects regarded their Catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked up to her enemy Eli- zabeth as their defender. That artful princess had secured to her in- terest the very men on whom the unsuspectmg Mary placed her utmost confidence, the Earl of Murray, the Earl of Morton, and ^secretary |:.ethington. The views of Murray aimed at nothing less than his sis- ter's crown, and the obstacles which opposed his criminal ambition served only to render his attempts more daring and more flagitious. The marriage of Mary with her cousin Lord Darnley, (a Catholic fts well as herself,) son of the Earl of Lennox, who stood in the same relation to Elizabeth, was not relished by that princess. Encouraged In what battle did he fall ?— Who ruled the kingdom during James V.'s mmonty ? —What conduct of the nobles hastened James's death?— Where was Mary edu* cated ?— To whom married ? 220 HISl'ORY OF SCOTLAND. by her ministers, Randolph and Cecil, Murray formed a conspiracy to seize and imprison the queen, put to death her husband, and usurp the government ; and on the detection of his designs, attempted to support them by open rebellion. Defeated, exiled, pardoned, and loaded with benefits by his injured sovereign, he persevered in the same atrocious purposes, till he at length accomplished them. The spouse of Mary had incurred her resentment by his vices and his follies. Taking ad- vantage of the weakness of his mind, Murray, Morton, and Lethington had rendered him jealous of the partiality of Mary for her foreign secre- tary, the aged Rizzio, and engaged him in the barbarous act of mur- dering this ill-fated wretch at the feet of the queen, to whose garment he clung for protection. The house which Darnley inhabited was afterwards blown up by gunpowder ; his body was found near the place, and the report im- mediately prevailed that Mary had been accessary to his murder. A most imprudent step, to which she was conducted by the same band of traitors, gave countenance to this suspicion. At the earnest recommend- ation of Morton and some of her chief nobility, she married the Earl of Bothwell, a man openly stigmatised as one of the murderers of her husband. He had, it is true, been acquitted on his trial for that crime, and had by force made himself master of her person. On the pretext of the queen's guilt of murder and adultery, she was confined by Mur- ray in the castle of Lochleven, and there compelled to resign her crown into the hands of her natural brother, who was to govern the kingdom as regent during the minority of her infant son, now proclaimed king by the title of James VI., 1567. Bothwell escaped to Denmark, where he died. A great part of the nation reprobated these infamous proceedings. Mary escaped from her confinement, and at the head of an army gave battle to the rebels at Langside, but being defeated, she fled for shelter to the north of England, and claimed as a suppliant the protection and aid of Elizabeth. The queen of England professed a desire to do her jus- tice, but first required that she should clear herself of the crimes alleged against her. To this Mary agreed, in the intrepidity of conscious in- nocence. In a conference held for that purpose, Murray openly stood forth as the accuser of his sister and queen, appealing to certain letters said to be written by her to Bothwell, plainly intimating her guilt ; and copies of these letters were produced. Mary demanded the origmals, boldly declaring them to be forgeries of her enemies ; but they were never produced. She retorted on Murray and Morton the charge of Darnley's murder ; and the conference was broken off at the command cf the queen of England, who detained Mary in close confinement. Worn out by the miseries of her situation, she privately solicited the aid of foreign princes for her deliverance. Her cause was espoused by all the Catholics of England ; and some of the most inveterate of these What resulted from her connexion with Lord Darnley ? — What was the fate of Darnley ? — Whom did the queen then marry ? — Where was she confined ? — To whom was her crown consigned ? — Where did Mary fly for shelter ? — What was ;he consequence ? — By whom was Mary's cause espoused ? MARY^=^ JAMES I. 221 had formed a plot to deliver her from captivity, and to place her on the throne by the murder of Elizabeth, This dangerous conspiracy was discovered, and its authors deservedly suffered death. The schemes of Mary for her own deliverance were held presumptive of her acqui- escence in the whole plot. Though an independent sovereign, she was brought to trial before a foreign tribunal, which had already decreed her fate ; and being condemned to suffer death, she was beheaded at Fother- ingay Castle, 1587, in the forty-fiflh year of her age, and nineteenth of her captivity in England. Previously to this event, Murray had fallen the victim of the private revenge of a gentleman whom he had injured, and Lethington poisoned himself in prison, to escape the sentence of his enemies ; Morton, for some time regent of the kingdom, was afterwards tried and suffered death for his concern in the murder of Darnley. A body of the Scottish nobility, dissatisfied with the new administration, which was entirely directed by Lennox, cousin-german to the young king of Scotland, and the Earl of Arran, succeeded in placing James in confinement; but afterwards making his escape, he fled to St. Andrew's, and sum- moned his friends and partisans to attend him. The earls of Argyle, Marshal, Montrose, and Rothes, hastened to pay their duty to their sovereign ; and the opposite party finding themselves unable to resist so powerful a combination, took shelter in England. The Earl of Arran was recalled to court ; a new attempt to disturb the government was defeated ; the Earl of Gowrie, its reputed author, was brought to the block, and severe laws were passed against the Presby- terian clergy, who had applauded the Raid of Ruthven, as the late conspiracy was called. Elizabeth endeavoured to keep James from revenging the death of his mother, and he fell gradually into a good understanding with the court of England. Elizabeth appointed him her successor, and at her death he ascended the throne of England by the title of James the First ; — thus uniting the two crowns. CHAPTER 4. One measure (said Dr. Russell, from whom this section is extracted) in which James engaged, rendered him as unpopular in Scotland as he had become in England. This was an attempt to establish a conformity of worship and discipline between the churches of the two kingdoms ; a project which he had long held in contemplation. It might have been readily foreseen by the Scots, when the crown of England devolved upon James, that the independence of their kingdom, for which their ancestors had shed so much blood, would thenceforth be lost ; and that if both kingdoms persevered in maintaining separate laws and parlia- ments, the weaker must feel its inferiority more sensibly than if it had been subdued by force of arms. But this idea did not generally occur Where did she suffer death ? — What was her age ?— What the length of her cap- tivity ? — What befei Murray, Morton, Lethington, &c.? — What steps were taken by the young king, James VI.? — Who, for disturbing the government, was brought to the block ? — What occurred between Elizabeth and James ? — What measure ren- dered James unpopular? 222 HISTORY OP SCOTLAND. to the Scottish nobles, formerly so jealous of the power as well as of the prerogatives of their princes ; and as James was daily giving new proofs of his friendship and partiality to his countrymen, by loading them with riches and honours, the hope of his favour concurred with the dread of his power in taming their fierce and independent spirits. The will of their sovereign was in danger of becoming the supreme law in Scot- land. Meanwhile the nobles, lefl in full possession of their feudal jurisdic- tion over their vassals, exhausting their fortunes by the expense of fre- quent attendance upon the English court, and by attempts to imitate the manners and luxury of their more wealthy neighbours, multiplied exactions upon the people, who durst hardly utter complaints, which they knew would never reach the ear of their sovereign. Thus sub- jected at once to the absolute will of a monarch and to the oppressive jurisdiction of an aristocracy, Scotland suffered all the miseries peculiar to both these forms of government. Its kings were despots, its nobles were slaves and tyrants, and the people groaned under the rigorous domination of both. There was one privilege, however, which the Scottish nobility in gene- ral, and the great body of the people, were equally zealous in protect- ing against the encroachments of the crown ; namely, the independence of their church, or kirk. The cause of this zeal deserves to be traced. Theological writers are divided in regard to the government of the primi- tive church. It appears, however, to have been that of the most perfect equality among the Christian teachers, who were distinguished by the name of Presbyters; an appellation expressive of their gravity and wisdom, as well as of their age. But the most perfect equality of freedom, requires the directing hand of a superior magistrate. Soon made sensible of this by experience, the early Christians were induced to choose one of the wisest and most holy among their Presbyters to execute the duties of an ecclesiastical governor ; and in order to avoid the trouble and confusion of annual or occasional elections, his office continued during life, unless in case of irregularity of conduct. Hence the origin of the episcopal hierarchy, which rose to such an enormous height under the Christian emperors and Roman pontiffs. When the enormities of the church of Rome, by rousing the indig- nation of the enlightened part of mankind, had called forth a spirit of reformation, that abhorrence, excited by the vices of the clergy, was soon transferred to their persons, and thence, by no violent transition, to the offices they enjoyed. It may therefore be presumed, that the same holy fervour which abolished the doctrines of the Romish church, would also have overturned its ecclesiastical government, in every country where the reformation was received, unless restrained by the civil power. In England, in great part of Germany, and in the northern na- tions, such restraint was imposed on it by the policy of their princes ; but in Switzerland and the Netherlands, where the nature of the go- vernment allowed fiiU scope for the spirit of reformation, all pre-emi- What was the conduct of the nobles ? — For what were the Scots particular!)' zealous ? — What distinguishes the Presbyterian system ? JAMES I. 223 uence of rank in the church was destroyed, and an ecclesiastical go- vernment established more suitable to the genius of a republican policy and to the ideas of the reformers. This system, which has since been called Presbyterianisra, was formed upon the model of the primitive church. It ought, however, to be remarked, that the genius of the reformers, and the civil polity, had a share in the establishment of the Presbyterian system. Zuinglius and Calvin, the apostles of Switzerland, were men of a more austere turn of mind than Luther, whose doctrines were generally embraced in England, Germany, and the north of Europe, where episcopacy still prevails. The church of Geneva, formed under the eye of Calvin, and by his direction, was esteemed the most perfect mode of Presbyterian government ; and Knox, the apostle of Scotland, who, during his residence in Geneva, had studied and admired it, warmly recommended it to the imitation of his countrymen. The Scottish converts, filled with the most violent aversion agamst popery, and being under no apprehension from the civil power, which the rage of reformation had humbled, with ardour adopted a system so admirably suited to their predominant passions. Its effects on their minds were truly astonishing, if not altogether preternatural. A kind of gloomy fanaticism, at that period, seemed to have affected all ranks of men ; which induced James to attempt extending to Scotland the more moderate and cheerful religion of the church of England. The abhorrence of the Presbyterian clergy against episcopacy was still, how- ever, very great, nor could all the devices adopted for restraining them allay their jealousy and fears. James was therefore sensible that he never could establish a con- formity of worship and discipline between the churches of England and Scotland, until he could procure from the Scottish parliament an ac- knowledgment of his own supremacy in all ecclesiastical causes. This was the principal object of his visit to his native country, where he proposed to the great council of the nation that an act might be passed, " that whatever his Majesty should determine, with regard to the go- vernment of the church, with the consent of the archbishops, bishops, &c., should have the force of law." Had this bill received the sanc- tion of parliament, the king's ecclesiastical government would have been established in its full extent. But many protested, being appre- hensive that by this new authority the purity of the church would be polluted with all the rites and forms of the church of England ; and James dreading clamour and opposition, dropped his favourite measure. James was, however, next year, able to extort a vote from the general assembly of the kirk, for receiving certain ceremonies upon which his heart was more particularly set ; namely, kneeling at the sacrament, the private administration of it to sick persons, the confirmation of chil dren, and the observance of Christmas and other festivals. Thus, by an ill-timed zeal for forms not absolutely essential, the king betrayed, Who were the apostles of Switzerland ? — Who of Germany ? — What system of leligion did James wish to adopt? — Did James succeed in his scheme ? — To what did the general assembly of the kirk yield ? 224 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. tliough in an opposite manner, an equal narrowness of mind with tha Presbyterian clergy, whom he affected to hold in contempt. The con strained consent of the general assembly was belied by the inward sen- timents of all ranks of people, the early bias of whose principles could not admit them to conform to a servile imitation of the modes of wor- ship, however good in themselves, that were practised m England. A series of unpopular measures conspired to increase that odium into which James had now fallen, in both kingdoms, and which continued to the end of his reign. CHAPTER 5. ON THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT. It was a constant policy with the Scottish kings to abase the power of their nobles, and this struggle was the source of much misery and bloodshed ; but the policy was necessary, from the dangerous ambition and lawless tyranny of the nobles, who frequently aimed at overturning the throne, and ej^ercised the severest oppression on all their depen- dants. The interests, therefore, of the people, as well as the security of the prince, demanded the repression of this overbearing and destruc- tive power. The aristocracy was, however, preserved, no less by its own strength than by the concurrence of circumstances, and chiefly by the violent and unhappy fate of the sovereigns. Meantime, although the measures they pursued were not successful, their consequences were beneficial. They restrained, if they did not destroy, the spirit of feudal oppression, and gave birth to order, wise laws, and a more tran- quil administration of government. The legislative power, though nominally resident in the parliament, was virtually in the king, who, by his influence, entirely controlled its proceedings. The parliament consisted of three estates, the nobles, the dignified clergy, and the lesser barons, the representatives of the towns and shires. The disposal of benefices gave the crown the entire command of the churchmen, who equalled the nobles in number ; and at least a majority of the commons were dependants of the sovereign. The chief business was done by a committee, termed the Lords of the Articles, who pre- pared every measure that was to come before the parliament ; and these, by the mode of their election, were in effect nominated by the king. It is to the credit of the Scottish princes, that there are few instances of their abusing an authority so extensive as that which they constitution- ally enjoyed. The king had anciently the supreme jurisdiction in all causes, civil and criminal, which he generally exercised through the medium of his privy council ; but in 1425, James the First instituted the Court of Ses- sion, consisting of the chancellor, and certain judges chosen from the three estates. This court was new modelled by James the Fifl;h, and What was the policy of the Scottish kings ? — By what means was the influence of the crown increased ? — What new court was instituted ? — And by whom new modelled ? ANCIENT SCOTTISH CONSTITUTION. 225 its jurisdiction limited to civil causes, the cognizance of crimes being committed to the Justiciary. The chancellor was the highest officer of the crown, and president of the parliament. To the chamberlain be- longed the care of the finances, and the public police ; to the high steward the charge of the king's household ; the constable regulated all matters of military arrangement; and the marshal was the king's lieutenant and master of the horse. The revenue of the sovereign consisted of his domain, which was extensive, of the feudal casualties and forfeitures, the profits of the wardships of his vassals, the rents of vacant benefices, the pecuniary fines for offences, and the aids or presents occasionally given by the subject ; a revenue at all times sufficient for the purposes of govern- ment, and the support of the dignity of the crown. The political principles which regulated the conduct of the Scots towards other nations, were obvious and simple. It had ever been an object of ambition to England to acquire the sovereignty of her sister- kingdom, who was constantly on her guard against this design of her more potent neighbour. It was thought the wisest policy for Scotland to attach herself to France, the national enemy of England ; an alliance reciprocally courted from similar motives. In those days, this attachment was justly esteemed patriotic ; while that portion of the Scots who were the partisans of England, were with equal justice regarded as traitors to their country. In the period of which we now treat, it was a settled policy of the English sovereigns to have a secret faction in their pay in Scotland, for the purpose of di- viding, and thus enslaving the nation ; and to this source all the subse- qvjeat disorders of the latter kingdom are to be attributed. HISTORY OF WALES. CHAPTER 1. It is probable, says an authentic historian, that Britain was first colo- nised by the Celtse of Gaul, at least a thousand years before the birth of our Saviour ; a period of time coeval with the reigns of David and Solomon. The names of Albion, and of Britam, are supposed to have been given to the island by the Belgic Gauls, who inhabited the opposite shores. The language of the ancient Britons was similar to that of their probable ancestors. When Julius Csesar invaded Britain, 55 b. c, Cambria, or Wales, was inhabited by three different tribes of Britons, namely, the Silures, the Dimetse, and the Ordovices; who were go- Of what did the sovereign's revenue consist? — What were the political princi pies that regulated the Scots ? — What secret factions were then encouraged ? — Who were in all probability the earliest inhabitants of Wales ?— What were the names of the three different tribes ? 226 HISTORY OF WALES. verned by a number of petty princes, sovereign and independent. Ca- ractacus, their prince, having, with variety of fortunes, opposed the Roman arms for nine years, M^as at length obliged to retire among the Silures, who were defeated by the Romans. He was afterwards be- trayed to his enemies, and led prisoner to Rome, where his heroic com- posure and magnanimity in the presence of the emperor Claudius, led to the restoration of his liberty, a. d. 52. Suetonius, the general of Nero, destroyed Mona, the centre of the druidical superstition. How- ever, the Romans did not penetrate far into the interior of the country. Caswallon, a prince of Cambria, in 443, made choice of Mona* for his residence ; and from this era we may fix the date of a distinct sove- reignty in North Wales. When the Saxons invaded Britain, after a severe struggle, the inhabi- tants pressed on every side by advancing enemies, and weakened by incessant wars, were at length obliged to retire before the Saxon arms, and they fled to the mountains of Cambria ; which country about this period took the name of Wales. In 686, the Saxons again endeavoured to penetrate into Wales ; but the Welsh encountered them with great bravery, and entirely defeated their purpose. The Welsh were light and active, and more fierce than strong ; from the lowest to the highest of the people they were devoted to arms, which the ploughman as well as the courtier was prepared to seize on the first summons. The chief sustenance of this people, was cattle and oats, besides milk, cheese, and butter. They were accustomed to walk with their feet bare ; or, instead of shoes, they used boots of raw leather. They were not given to excess either in eating or drinking, nor expen- sive richness in their clothes. Their whole attention was occupied in the splendid appearance of their horses and arms, in the defence of their country, and in the care of their plunder. Accustomed to fast from morning till night, their minds were wholly employed on their business. There was not a beggar to be seen among these people, for the tables of all were common to all ; and with them, bounty, and particularly hospitable entertainment, were in higher estimation than any of the other virtues. As soon as travellers entered any house, they immediately delivered their arms into the custody of a person in the tamily ; and if they suf- fered their feet to be washed, they were considered as lodgers for the night. The refusal of this civility intimated their desire of a morning's refreshment only. Such an influence had music on their minds, that they esteemed skill in playing on the harp beyond any kind of learning. The Welsh were a people of an acute and subtle genius. In civil causes and actions, they exerted all the powers of rhetoric ; and, in the conduct of these, their talents for insinuation, invention, and refutation, were conspicuous. In rhythmical songs, and extemporary effusions, * Now Anglesey, or as others think, Man. Did the Saxons effect any conquests in Cambria?— Describe their ancient man ners, customs, and habits. — In what did the Welsh always particularly pride them selves ?— What skill did they display on the harp ?— What was their genius ? ( 227 ) IRRUPTIONS OF THE SAXONS. 829 they are said to have been excellent, both in respect to invention and elegance of style, and for these purposes bards were appointed. The lowest of the people, as well as the chieftains, were indebted to nature for a certain boldness in speech, and an honest confidence in giving answers to great men on matters of business, or in the presence of princes. Pride of ancestry, and nobility of family, were points aeld in the highest estimation among the Welsh, and they were far more desirous of noble than of rich and splendid marriages. So deeply rooted was this spirit, that even the very lowest of the people carefully pre- served the genealogy of their femilies, and were able from memory to recite the names, not only of their immediate ancestors, but to the sixth and seventh generation. They were vindictive and cruel in their an- ger, and exceedingly prompt to revenge not only recent injuries, but those which had been committed a long time past. The Welsh did not reside in cities, villages, or camps ; but in gene- ral led a solitary life in the woods. They were first instructed m the Christian faith by Faganus and Damianus, who were sent by the bishop of Rome, at the request of king Lucius. The pilgrimage, which above all others was deemed most sacred by the Welsh, was a journey to Rome. They paid also great reverence to churches and to the clergy, to the relics of saints, to their portable bells, to text books, and to the cross. It was the disposition of that people to pursue every object with vehemence, — none were elsewhere to be found so bad as the worst, nor any better than the good among the Welsh. The princes of Wales usually wore on their bonnets or helmets a coronet of gold ; being a broad lace, or head-band, indented upwards, and set with precious stones. Cadvan, a king of North Wales, in 613, was elected to the sove- reignty of Britain, but on account of the Saxons, that dignity could extend no further than to command the united forces of the Britons. At his death, his son Cadwallon succeeded to the throne of North Wales, in whose reign Edwin overran all the British territories in Wales, and compelled the Welsh king to take refuge in Ireland. After an absence of some years, Cadwallon recovered his dominions. This prince joined Pinda, king of Mercia, and in an engagement slew Edwin and his son. A scene of desolation followed this victory, but Cadwallon surpassed his Pagan associate in cruelties and merciless ravages. In a battle fought against Oswald, the Welsh king was slain, and his army routed and cut in pieces. Cadwalader, his son, succeeded to the kingdom of North Wales, and to the ideal sovereignty of Britain, a. d. 676. In his reign the irrup- tions of the Saxons had^become more frequent, and a famine compelled him to retire with the nobility to Alan, his kinsman, the king of Bre- tagne, in whose court he found an hospitable reception. After residing there for some time, ,he prepared to return into Wales, having heard that the Saxons, with increasing power, were endeavouring to extend To what religious habits were they addicted ?-^What of Cadvan, Cadwallon, Os- wald, &c.?— Who succeeded to the throne in 676 ?— What sudden impulse directed nis journey to Rome ? 20 230 HISTORY OF WALES. their conquests. But at the moment that he was going to embark, he was vv^arned in a vision, which he fancied to be a sudden impulse frooi heaven, and which directed him to lay aside the cares of the world, lo go immediately to Rome, and to receive holy orders from the hands of the Pope. Accordingly, this weak and credulous prince proceeded lo Rome, where he lived eight years as a religious recluse. CHAPTER 2. Roderic Moelwynoc, his grandson, succeeded to his throne, a. d. 720. In his reign Ethelbald invaded his kmgdom with a powerful army, and proceeded as far as Carno mountain, near Abergavenny, where he was met by the Welsh, and a bloody battle ensued, (a. d. 728,) which was not decisive in favour of either party. The same prince, some years after, formed an alliance with Adelred, king of the West Saxons, and the two princes marched their united forces into Wales. The Welsh, with great spirit, opposed the combined princes ; and a well contested action, and dreadful slaughter on both sides, ensued, until the former were overpowered by superiority of numbers. The Welsh made an alliance with Cudred, king of the West Saxons, and by his assistance repelled another attempt at an invasion by Ethelbald ; but being de- serted by their allies, they were soon after discomfited. Roderic left two sons, Cynan Tindaethwy and Howel, 750. Cynan, the elder son of the deceased prince, succeeded to the throne of North Wales. The Saxons, with a confident expectation of being able to make an easy conquest of Wales, proceeded as far as Hereford ; but on that frontier they were again fiercely received by the Welsh, and the battle very probably ended ui favour of the latter, historians being silent as to the event and further progress of the invasion. In 776, the inhabitants of South Wales, fired with resentment at the reiterated injuries, rose up in arms, entered Mercia with fire and sword, and retaliated on the Saxons their usual devastations. They soon after made other successful inroads, filling the Saxon borders with alarm, and, obliging their enemies to retire beyond the Severn, returned into their own country with a considerable quantity of cattle. In consequence of this, a large army of Saxons passed the Severn into Wales ; but the Welsh, too weak to encounter so great a force, retreated to the moun- tains, and the Saxons, unable to penetrate the natural fortifications of the country, returned into Mercia. The Saxon king endeavoured to confine to the mountains the valour and restless activity of the Welsh. He caused a deep dyke and a high rampart to be made, which extended a hundred miles over rocks and mountains, and across deep valleys and rivers, from the water of Dee cO the mouth of the Wye. The Welsh beheld this with indignation ; and soon after it was finished, they broke down the rampart, and filled up the dyke for a considerable way. This so exasperated the Saxon What contests took place, about 728, with the Saxons ? — What resistance did the Saxons receive at Hereford ?— Who caused deep dykes to be cut to separate Wales ? —What inroads did the Welsh make in Mercia ? INVASIONS BY THE ENGLISH. 231 king, that he levied a formidable army, and the Welsh were defeated with dreadful slaughter. Cynan Tindaethwy died after a long reign, and left his throne to his daughter Esyllt, married to Mervyn Vrycii, the king of Man, a. d. 817. In the early part of their reign, Egbert, king of the West Saxons, invading Wales with a powerful army, desolated the country as far as the mountains of Snowdon ; thence he advanced to Mona, and took pos- session of that island : but king Mervyn soon recovered it. Egbert about this time, (a. d. 835,) issued a proclamation, that all the men, with their wives and children, who were descended from British blood, should quit his territories in six months, on pain of death ; and affixed the pen- alty of death to every Welshman who should be found on the English borders. Mervyn, king of North Wales, was slain in battle, and left his eldest son, Roderic, to succeed to his dignity, a. d. 843. This prince enjoyed, by the right of his father and mother, the sovereignty of the isle of Man, with the territories of North Wales and Powys ; and hav- ing espoused the heiress of South Wales, the whole sovereignty of Cam- bria centred in his person. Roderic fell fighting for his country against the English, a. d. 877. He had divided his dominion into three distinct sovereignties, which he left to his three sons ; but he reserved a pre-eminency over the other princes, for his eldest son, Anarawd, king of North Wales. This prince gained an important victory over the Saxons, laid waste their borders, and returned to his kingdom, laden with spoils. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Edwal Voel, a. d. 913, during whose reign, Athelstan, the king of England, imposed an annual tribute on the Welsh. Edwal was slain, fighting against the English and Danes, a. d. 940. Howel, prince of South Wales, then assumed the government of North Wales, and thus united the whole government. In his reign, the English invaded his kingdom ; and after they had laid waste the small territory of Strath-Clwyd, they returned to their own country. Howel died soon after this event, 948. CHAPTER 3. Jeuav and Jago, sons of Edwal Voel, then assumed the government of North Wales. They invaded South Whales, the territory of the sons of Howel, and succeeded in engrossing the whole government of Wales. They had neglected to pay the annual tribute to the English crown, and Edgar marched thither with a numerous force ; he exacted, in lieu of the ancient tribute, the yearly payment of three hundred wolves' heads, which singular demand was paid by the Welsh princes during three or four years. Howel Dha, by acts of injustice and cruelty, attained to the sove- reignty of North Wales, a. d. 973. He obliged his uncle, Jago, to flee What restrictions did Egbert, king of the West Saxons, enforce ? — Who imposed an annual tribute on the Welsh ? — What Welsh prince united North and South Wales ? — Who next engrossed the whole government of Wales ? — Who exacted Ihe tribute of 300 wolves' heads ? 232 HISTORY OF WALES. tor refuge to the English court, and he engaged Edgar to establish him on the throne. Howel was obliged to admit his uncle to an equal share in the sovereignty, and the English king exacted homage from both. Owen was at this time king of the principality of South Wales. Terms of agreement were now entered into by the legislature of England and Wales, for securing the peace of the borders. Howel was succeeded by his brother, Cadwallon, a. d. 984. This usurper determined on the destruction of his cousins ; but he had been in possession of the govern- ment only one year, when Meredydh, the son of Owen, the reigning prince of South Wales, invaded his dominions, slew him, and took pos- session of his kingdom. Owen, prince of South Wales, died about this time, (a.d. 987,) and was succeeded by Meredydh, his youngest son. The people of North Wales placed Edwal, the right heir to the crown, in the sovereignty, the lineal succession having been set aside by the late usurpations. He did not long enjoy his dignity, for Swane, a Danish chieftain, landed in North Wales, and, in attempting to expel the Danes by force of arms, Edwal was slain, a. d. 993. Jago, his eon, being set aside in the succession on account of his tender years, several competitors arose ; and North Wales exhibited many years a scene of the utmost confusion. ^Edan ap Blegored, having slain the son of Howel, was proclaimed king ; but the prince of South Wales invading JGdan's dominions, dispossessed him of his royalty and life. Llewelyn ap Seisyllt then took upon him the government of North Wales, annexing that dignity to the other two principalities. His wise administration soon produced national prosperity. He was virtuous, iust, and brave, yet his great and good qualities could not exempt him from the destiny which usually attended the princes of Wales ; he was slain in a conspiracy in the seventh year of his reign, and was succeeded by Jago, the son of Edwal. Jago was slain, however, by Gryffydh, son of Llewelyn, a. d. 1037. Gryffydh was scarcely seated on the throne, when the united forces of the English and Danes entered into Wales. With a promptness of courage natural to his years and character, the young prince advanced to the frontier of his kingdom ; and meeting the confederates at Cros- ford, on the banks of the Severn, he entirely defeated their forces. Elated with his success, he proceeded thence into South Wales, and, marching through that principality, received the submission of the in- habitants, and drove Howel, the reigning prince, out of his dominions. That prince raised an army of English and Danes, with which he marched into Wales against Gryffydh. Fortune, however, continuing propitious, that prince overthrew the foreigners, and again forced Howel to a precipitate flight. Cynan, the son of Jago, who on his father's death had fled into Ireland, having engaged in his interest the king of Dublin, whose daughter he had married, landed in North Wales, and " ither by accident or stratagem, made Gryffydh prisoner. But the Welsh, being apprised of the disaster, and anxious for the safety of their idng, pursued the Irish, recovered him, and obliged them to retire with What occurred between Howel Dha and Owen ? — Who were the next succes- sors ?— Who governed wisely ?— Did not Gryffydh oppose the English and Danes ? THE ENGLISH DEFEAT THE WELSH. 233 great slaughter. After this, the Welsh king made an inroad into the marches about Hereford, and was opposed by the English, and by a Norman garrison in that castle. But the contest having ended in favour of the Welsh prince, he returned into his own dominions, enriched with the spoils of the country. Algar, Earl of Chester, having been banished by Edward the Confes- sor on slight suspicion, had retired into Ireland, where, engaging in his service eighteen vessels, he landed in North Wales, and put himself under the protection of Gryffydh. These leaders, acting in conjunction with each other, ravaged the borders of England, and, proceeding into Herefordshire, laid waste that fertile country. They were met by Ra- nulph. Earl of Hereford, with an army of English and Norman soldiers. The Welsh were victorious, and pursuing the enemy, they entered Hereford, and having levelled the Avails, set fire to the city, and then returned in triumph, laden with much valuable spoil. The Confessor collected a large body of forces, and obliged the Welsh to conclude a peace not much to the honour of the English. Harold, son of Earl Godwin, by the command of his sovereign, marched into Wales, and the Welsh king could scarcely escape with his life. The English general then advanced into the mountainous parts of the country, and having driven the Welsh, with great slaugh- ter, out of their inmost recesses, compelled them to sue for peace, to submit to the ancient tribute, and to give hostages to Harold, as pledges of their future obedience. Gryffydh was put to death by his own subjects, at the instigation of Harold, 1064. Bleddyn and Rhiwal- lon were, by the appointment of King Edward, invested with the sove- reignty of North Wales and Powys. At the same time the English king gave the principality of South Wales to Meredydh, the eldest son of Owen. These princes were obliged to take an oath of fealty to the King of England, and to pay the full tribute which had been paid to any of his predecessors. A law was also made, that if any Welshman was taken on the English side of OfFa's dyke, his right hand should be cut off. Rhiwallon being slain in battle, Bleddyn was left sovereign of North Wales and Powys. This prince was assassuiated by Rhys, the son of Owen, a. d. 1073. CHAPTER 4. Trahaearn ap Caradoc, the cousin of the late prince, then assumed the regal dignity, and marching into South Wales, overthrew Rhys, the reigning prince, in battle. But Trahaearn was slain in an engage- ment, and Gryffydh ap Cynan, the son of Jago, succeeded to the throne of his ancestors. He was betrayed unto the English, and kept some years in captivity. Rhys ap Tewdwr, King of South Wales, was slain in an engagement with the English forces, and with him sunk the glory Who levelled the walls of Hereford, and set fire to the city ? — What tributes did Harold exact? — And what pledges?— What oath of fealty did Edward exact ? — And for what offence did a Welshman forfeit his right hand ? — ^What Welsh prince was detained in English custody ? 234 HISTORY 01 WALES. of that principality. Gryffydh had languished twelve years when he was restored to his country by the heroic conduct of a young man named Kynwric Hir. Animated by the presence of their sovereign, the Welsh spread de- vastation and ruin along the English borders. William Rufus, with a great army, marched to the confines of Wales ; where he met with a spirited resistance, and was compelled to retire with considerable loss. By his valour and abilities, during a reign of fifty years, Gryffydh de- livered his country from the vassalage of England ; and in general, by his conduct with Henry, or by the vigour of his government, he pre- served his terrritories free from the invasions of the English, and from civil commotions. On his death, his dominions, agreeably to the cus- tom of the country, were divided among his sons. His eldest son, Owen Gwynedh, under the newly adopted title of prince, succeeded as sove- reign of North Wales, 1137. In his reign the English kmg, Henry, resolved to employ the utmost efforts, in attempting the conquest of Wales, a. d. 1157. He col- lected a formidable army, with which he marched to Chester ; then ad- vancing into Flintshire, he encamped his forces upon a marsh called Saltney, which borders on the river Dee. Owen, the Prince of North Wales, marched to meet the English. But he was obliged to do homage to Henry ; and to deliver up two of his sons as pledges of his future obedience. Thus, by a solemn act of their sovereign, and by the means of an English fleet, the Welsh nation was again reduced to a depen- dence on the crown of England. If the long and gallant resistance which this people had made for fi-eedom, against a power so very un- equal, excite our admiration and wonder, wc shall be no less surprised that a nation like the English, so much farther advanced in political wisdom, should not have been able sooner to terminate the contest. Owen died after a reign of thirty-two years, and was buried in the cathedral church of Bangor, a. p. 1162. He had revolted fi-om the English king, and joining in confederacy with the other Welsh princes, he had recovered independency, with an increase of importance to his country. David, his eldest son, succeeded to the sovereignty of North Wales. The patriotism of this Welsh prince sunk under the civilities of Henry. The gallant and independent spirit inherited from a long line of ances- tors, and which had so eminently distinguished his own conduct, all that the terror of Henry's arms and a series of hostilities could not shake, was done away by a few acts of a well-directed courtesy. Forsaking the dignity of his character, he was in future only as a satrap to the English monarch. Mingling in the common mass, and losing for ever the ancient honours of his fe,mily, neither this prince nor his descend- ants, from this period, retained any marks of royalty. Henry gave David his sister Emma in marriage; thus disarming an hereditary What heroic deed did Kynwric perform ? — How long, and with what success, did Gryffydh reign ?— What did the English king, Henry, effect against Owen ?— How long did Owen reign, and where was he buried ?— What befel Wales under the reign of David ? ENGLISH HOSTILITIES. 235 enemy, oy the fascinating influence of ambition and love. This prince rendered himself odious by his cruelty, and grew bold ui the exercise of his tyranny, by his alliance with the English king. Llewelyn demanded, as the legal heir, the crown in preference to his uncle David. This claim was granted, and David retained only a few fortresses which were garrisoned by the English, a.d. 1194. A treaty of peace was concluded between Llewelyn and the Earl of Essex, justiciary of the realm. John, the English monarch, gave his daughter Joan to the Welsh prince. John, however, soon after invaded the Welsh dominions, and obliged Llewelyn to cede to the king for ever the inland parts of his dominions ; and thus the remnant of the British empire, after many and gallant struggles for freedom, was driven almost to the verge of the ocean. But the unsettled affairs of King John induced the Welsh prince to make another attempt to regain the fallen honours of his country. And on the succession of Henry III. to the throne of England, a treaty was concluded between that king and the Welsh prince. Yet he frequently revolted from Henry, and spread terror and "devastation along the English borders; and on the approach of the English, he would retire to the mountains which they could not pene- trate, bemg compelled to return with great loss. When Llewelyn was grown old and infirm, he gave notice to Henry that being in years, and desirous of peace, he was willing to put himself under his protec- tion, and to hold his dominions in future as a fief of the English crown. He died after a reign of fifty-six years. His talents and his virtues, with the fortunate direction of both, have acquired for this prince the illustrious title of Llewelyn the Great, a. d. 1240. David II. succeeded to the throne of North Wales in preference to Gryffydh, his eldest brother ; and after he had done homage to the king at Gloucester, a treaty was ratified. That the Welsh might no longer be deluded by even the semblance of freedom, Henry, already in pos- session of the sovereignty, gave to his eldest son Edward the title of Prince of Wales, a. d. 1244. Alive to a sense of shame for his own dishonour, and for the ignominious situation of his country, David re- volted from his allegiance, the Welsh pursued their devastations with increased rigour and fury ; and the most formidable preparations were made by Henry for the entire conquest of the country. Having, in the face of the Welsh, built the important fortress of Diganwy, Henry, at the approach of winter, returned into England, leaving the Welsh no alternative but famine or submission to his authority. In the midst of this calamity David died. a. d. 1246. CHAPTER 5. Owen and Llewelyn were appointed jouit sovereigns of North Wales. They concluded a peace with Henry upon severe conditions. A quarrel arising between the two princes, Owen was slain, and left his brother Relate the particulars of the reign of Llewelyn, commonly styled the Great ? — What homage did Henry exact ? — How did David perform ? — What success had Henrv in his attempt on Wales ? — Who succeeded David ? 236 HISTORY OF WALES. the sole possession of this mutilated kingdom. He roused his subjects to arms, and was opposed by Edward, over whom he gained some ad- vantages. Henry once more marched into Wales, to conduct the war. Llewelyn retired to the mountains ; and Henry, instead of punishing a revolting vassal, was himself, with the broken remains of his army, obliged to make a precipitate and inglorious retreat to Chester. Henry again marched against these brave people, who were bred upon the mountains the indigenous children of freedom. The Welsh obtained jfrom the king an advantageous peace; and having freed themselves from the arms of a potent enemy, they were left to enjoy their freedom, for a season, in the bosom of their native mountains. On the succession of Edward to the throne of England, Llewelyn refused to do homage to that prince ; and the former, after having taken every precaution to ensure success, left London with a full resolution never to return until he had entirely subdued the Welsh nation. The Prince of Wales, unable to resist a powerful enemy, pressing on by slow, cautious, and decisive operations, retired to the mountains of Snowdon. The English monarch, not choosing to enter the recesses of that diffi- cult country, calmly waited the result of his policy. Not preparing for contingencies, nor observing the measures of the English king, nor the effects already produced, Llewelyn had neglected to furnish with neces- sary supplies of provision an important post, to which he and his people, in their deepest distress, might be forced to retire. His enemies were masters of the country below, and seemed determined by their perse- verance to starve him into submission. Thus surrounded by dangers, he had no better alternative than to implore the mercy of the English king. It was stipulated that he should pay the king fifty thousand marks, and also the annual sum of one thousand marks for the island of Anglesey. Having thus, in the late fortunate campaign, completed, as he might think, the entire conquest of Wales, Edward returned into England, amidst the applauses of his subjects. The Welsh prince was summoned to appear before Edward at Worcester, to do him homage as a vassal ; and we see Llewelyn, a prince of a gallant spirit, and the brave descendant of a Ime of independent sovereigns, become amenable to usurped power. But the spirit of faction and revolt agaui manifested itself in another struggle for liberty. Mighty preparations were made by the English monarch, and on his approach the Welsh princes retreated slowly towards Snowdon ; thinking it more prudent to seize every opportunity of cutting off" his detached parties, than with equal force to fight him in the open field. The Welsh had at first some slight advantages, and Edward collected almost the whole power of England against these brave patriots. But in a skirmish Llewelyn was separated from his troops and was slain, in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, 1282. His brother David then pursued the war with the English ; but the Welsh were so sunk in despair, that every fortress was immediately What success had he in the war with Henry? — What was the fate of Wales under Edward of England ? — In what city did Llewelyn do homage to Edward? — In what year was Llewelyn slain? — How long did he reign ? EDWARD CONQUERS WALES. 237 yielded up, and the miserable natives fled on every side, to shelter them- selves in caves, within the recesses of rocks, and in the deep woods of their country. More than three thousand perished in the carnage. Prince David remained some months in the woods and marshes ; but some of his retainers, being corrupted by Edward, disclosed his retreat, and he with his family was brought prisoner to the king. David was tried at Shrewsbury, and condemned to die as a traitor, a. d. 1283. The death of David closed the only sovereignty that remained of the ancient British empire ; an empire which through various changes of fortune had opposed the arms of imperial Rome ; and for more than eight centuries had resisted the utmost efforts of the Saxon and Nor- man princes. The spirit of freedom and an ardent love of their coun- try, were the distinguishing traits in the character of the Welsh. Edward having at length obtained the point of his ambition, by the entire conquest of Wales, annexed that country to the crown of Eng- land. To secure the obedience of the newly subdued country, he intro- duced into Wales the whole system of English jurisprudence. He issued a proclamation to all the inhabitants of Wales, that he would receive them under his protection, giving them assurance of eiijoying their estates, their liberties, and property ; and that they should also hold them under the same tenures as they had heretofore held them under their native princes. Among other causes of that ardent spirit, with which this people had so long maintained their independence, the English king must have known that their bards had been the principal springs of action. To silence that voice, which might revive ancient ideas, and rekindle in the Welsh their love of freedom and native fire, Edward commanded that all the bards in Wales should be hanged by martial law, under pretence that they had incited the people to sedition. The union of Wales with the crown of England not having pro- ceeded from mutual inclination, was received by the Welsh with the deepest reluctance. The rigour exercised by Edward's officers in Wales, alienated them still more from an English administration. To all his proposals of settling their government, they said, that they were willing to be governed by a chieftain of their own country, or by the king in person ; but firmly declared that they would yield no obedience to any person who was not a native of Wales, or who did not reside there. The English monarch dispatched orders to Eleanor, his queen, to come into Wales. She bearing a son, he told the Welsh chieftains, that as they had frequently desired he would appoint them a sovereign, he would now indulge them in their request, provided they promised to yield, to the person he should name, a proper obedience. They assented to the terms he proposed, in case that person should be a native of Wales. The king then informed them that their future prince was his iafant son, Edward, born in Caernarvon castle a few days before. After the conquest of Wales by Edward the First, the concerns of that country, considered in a national light, are entirely uninteresting ; When and where was David executed as a traitor? — Whose death closed the sove- reignty ?— What befel the bards ?— What, at length, reconciled the Welsh to theur anion with England ? 238 HISTORY OF IRELAND. as until the reign of Henry the Seventh, the inhabitants were .educea to a state of bondage the most deep and severe ; for though the policy of Edward had allowed the Welsh nation to enjoy their liberties, and to hold their estates under ancient tenures, they had much reason to com- plain of the excessive rigour which was exercised over them by the officers of justice, and of the rapacity of the English barons who had settled in Wales. HISTORY OF IRELAND. m CHAPTER 1. The original inhabitants of Ireland appear to have been of the same Celtic stock which supplied Gaul and Britain with their early popula- tion ; and whatever tribes might follow, it seems certain that this most ancient people brought with them the pure Irish dialect now existing. Notwithstanding the proximity of Ireland to Great Britain, history makes no mention of any Roman having ever set his foot on Ireland, although the latter was for nearly four centuries subject to the Romans. The idea which some historians entertain of Ireland having been first peopled from Britain, seems to be erroneous. It appears much more probable that while Gaul poured her Celts upon the coast of Britain, the Celts of Spain supplied the population of Ireland. The Phoenicians were doubtless early acquainted with the Bli^.ish Isles, but they cautiously preserved the secret of the resources of their wealth, the only islands from which tin was imported. In a work, written in the time of Aristotle, mention is made of two British Isles ; and the Greeks were advised to explore those regions, and secure to themselves the Tyrian market, by buying up the lead. It is, however, from a more modern work of Festus Avienus, that our more certain information is derived. We are justified fi-om ancient records in be- lieving that to the Phcenicians, if not to the Greeks, Ireland was known, if not earlier, at least more intimately than Britain. An ancient poem called the Argonautics, mentions lerne (or Ireland) without any refer- ence to Britain. A proof of the early intimacy of the Phoenician Spaniards with Ireland, is derived from the geography of Ptolemy, pi* from Marinus of Tyre, who lived not long before him. Tacitus also asserts, that " the waters and harbours of Ireland were better known, through the resort of commerce and navigation, than those of Britain." From this it appears, that though then scarcely heard of by the Romans, this island possessed chaimels of separate inter- Of what excessive rigour did the country long complain ?— Who were the ori- ginal inhabitants of Ireland? — Were the Phoenicians acquainted with the British »sles ?— What did Tacitus assert? ANCIENT RELIGION. 239 course with the Phoenician Spaniards, whose barks pursued their long accustomed course between the Celtic cape and the sacred promontory. The epithet sacred bestowed upon this island in ancient times, seems to imply some pre-eminence of a sacerdotal character. It has been be- lieved that the Phcenician priesthood sent out missions to Ireland, for the purpose of extending their spiritual influence over a people with whom the merchants had established an intercourse. Sir Isaac New- ton says, " With these Phoenicians came a sort of men skilled in reli- gious mysteries." And the fact that there existed in these regions an island devoted to religious rites, is confirmed by historical evidence. It is stated by Plutarch, that an envoy dispatched by the emperor Claudius to explore the British Isles, found on an island in the neighbourhood of Britain, an order of Magi, accounted holy by the people. In another work of the same writer, some fabulous wonders are related of an island lying to the west of Britain, the inhabitants of which were a holy race ; while at the same time a connexion between them and Carthage is intimated. Strabo, in an extract from an ancient geographer, mentions an island near Britain, where sacrifices were offered to Ceres and Proserpine, in the same manner as at Samothrace, which is an island in the yEgean Sea, the favourite seat of idolatrous worship ; and on the shores of which religious mysteries had been established by the Phoenicians. It was usual for mariners, in traversing these seas, to stop at Samothrace, and offer up a prayer at its shrines for propitious winds. And it has been with good reason inferred that Ireland had become the Samothrace of the western seas, where the mariner found another sacred island in which to the same tutelary deities they could offer their vows and thanks for their safe arrival. But the monuments of Ireland, the names of her hills and promontories, her old usages and rites, all boar the same oriental stamp. The traditions of Ireland indicate vestiges of intercourse between that country and Galicia in Spain. Indeed, so abundant is the force of tradition in favour of a Spanish colonization, that no hypothesis can be formed without admitting it, at least in part. A late popular history of Ireland by Mr. Whitty, accounts for the striking similarity of the round towers and pillar-temples to those of Mazanderan, by deducing their origin from the shores of the Caspian ; and he yields to the current of tradition in conducting his colony from Iran to the west, to give it Spain for a resting place. In short, the universal voice of tradition is in favour of Ireland having received a colonization from Spain. Doubtless the Phoenicians that visited the coasts of Spain, while mixing with the original Celts, might imbibe much of their ancient religion, and the religion of the Irish might originate from the same mixed source. There may be traced, indeed, in the religious remains of the Irish, three distinct stages of superstition ; namely, the rude ritual of the Celtic ; the introduction of images ; and the monuments What said Sir Isaac Newton? — What did Strabo mention? — Where is Samo thrace ? — ^How does Mr. Whitty account for the origin of the round towers? — What three distinct kinds of superstition may be traced ? 240 HISTORY OF IRELAND. of a refined system of fire worship. Some of these were traceable to the Phoenicians ; and some derived through this people firom Persia. The mixed nature of the creed of the ancient Irish appears evident from the mode of designating their own priesthood ; calling them either Magi or Druids. The chief object of Phoenician adoration, the Sun, was, under the name of Baal, or Bel, the chief deity of the Irish ; and this was found established in the island on the arrival of St. Patrick, in the fifth century. Wherever the sun was made an object of worship, the moon came in for a share of adoration. In Ireland she was adored under the sacred name of Re, and those golden ornaments, in the shape of a crescent, frequently found in the Irish bogs, are supposed to have belonged to this lunar deity. With the worship of fire, that of water was usually joined ; and hence particular fountains and wells were, by the Irish, held sacred. It is, however, certain, that the sacrifice of human vic- tims formed a part of the pagan worship in Ireland, as it did in every country where the sun was an object of adoration. A plain in the county of Leitrim was called Mag-Sleaeth, or field of slaughter, where the Irish offered up their first-born to their chief idol Crom-Cruach. This idol was surrounded by twelve lesser idols, supposed to represent the signs of the zodiac. The pillar-temples, or round towers, anciently eo numerous in Ireland, it is probable were fire-temples, or mere repo- sitories of the sacred fire. Among other ancient remains with which Ireland abounds, may be nentioned that most common of Celtic monuments, the Cromleach, or altar. In the neighbourhood of Dundalk, in the county of Louth, was a large Cromleach, which fell to ruin some time since. In the ruins were found the skeleton of a human^ figure, the fragments of a broken rod or wand, probably what is still called in Ireland, the conjuror's or druid's wand. In the neighbourhood of this is another, called " The Giant's Load," because supposed to be the work of giants in the days of old. Not less ancient among the Celtic nations, was the circle of upright stones, serving sometimes as a temple of worship, sometimes as a place of national council. The ruinous remains of a circular temple near Dundalk, is like that at Stonehenge, and composed of similar cir- cles of stones. The Irish had also their sacred hills, or tumuli, on which sacrifices were offered by the priest, and from which the legislator promulgated his decrees. Such as are artificial have been usually denominated Bar- rows, or Cairns ; their original destination was that of tombs. The veneration for particular groves or trees, was also common to Ireland, as to several eastern nations.* As the religious system of the Irish pagans was in many instances peculiar to themselves, so the priesthood differed in many points from that of Gaul or Britain. * We read in 1 Kings, xviii. 19, of the Prophets of the groves Did not the sacrifice of human victims form a part of the pagan v^^orship in Ire land ? — What monuments and altars were raised in Ireland ? — For what purpose were their barrows or cairns ? ^ THE CELTS. 241 CHAPTER 2. Among the evidences of the high antiquity of Ireland, there is a]i existing proof in the living language of her people ; in the predomi- nance of its gutturals, and the deficiencies of its alphabet. These arc proofs of its eastern origin, and of its remote antiquity ; the tongues of the east having abounded with gutturals, and the more ancient Greeks having had the same number of letters as the Irish. That the Cad- meian number was but sixteen is generally admitted, and sixteen is the number of the genuine Irish alphabet. But though letters must have been very anciently known to this people, yet the knowledge did not extend beyond the Druidical class ; it was not then diffused among the community at krge. The materials upon which they wrote were wood, and their characters were formed by an iron stylus or pencil. There is a tradition that a colony under a chieftain of the race of Japhet, in their migration westward, made a settlement both in Britain and Ireland ; and of a later settlement of Nemedians, from the neigh- bourhood of the Euxine Sea, or the Caucasian mountains. The first language spoken in Europe, says Parsons, was Japhetan, called after- wards the Pelasgian, " and this language," he asserts, " is to be found only in Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and Wales." Other au- thors, however, think it more probable that Ireland derived her primi- tive population from Spain. And in the direction of Spain it is very probable was maintained whatever foreign commerce or intercourse the ancient Irish may have possessed ; not with the Britons or the Romans, but with the Phoenician settlers, who in early ages visited the western coasts of Spain. It was not, in all probability, till a much later period that the Gaulish colonies named by Ptolemy, established themselves in the island . The Firbolgs were evidently Belgse, of the same race with the British. The Menapii and the Cauci, both nations of the Belgic coast, are supposed to have passed directly to Ireland, as there is no trace of them in Bri- tain. It remains still uncertain whether the Belgoe were a Celtic or a Teutonic race. Among the tribes marked by Ptolemy in his map, may be noticed the Iverni, whose chief city was Ivernis, or Hibernis, and who occupied a portion of Cork and Kerry. The Velabri,. a people situated near Kerry Head, are supposed to have been of Spanish origin. Of the Brigantes, the most probable account is that they were a colony from the ancient Britons. The Naguatoe inhabited Connaught. Their chief city, Nagnata, is conjectured to have stood not far from the pre- sent Sligo. Among the towns enumerated by Ptolemy is Eblana, or Deblana, a city placed under the same parallel with the present Dublin. The latest and most important of the settlements in Ireland, is the Scytkic, or Scotic, from whence the whole of her people in the course of time received the name of Scots, There appears no grounds for What are the evidences of the antiquity of Ireland ? — What is the tradition of the race of Japhet? — What is the opinion of Parsons concerning it? — What is sai'i of the Gaulish colonies ? — And of the Firbolgs ? — Name the latest and most impoi tant settlement 21 242 HISTORY OF IRELAND. believing that the Scotic colony settled in Ireland at a period more remote than two centuries before our era. That they succeeded the Firbolgs, all its records and traditions agree. The first arrival of the Belgic tribes in Ireland could hardly have been earlier than about the third or fourth century before Christ. Another proof of the compara- tively recent date of the Scotic colony, is the entire omission of it in Ptolemy's map of Ireland ; nor was it till towards the end of the third century that a single instance occurs in any writer of the use of the term Scotia for Ireland, or Scoti for any of her people. We learn also from the confession of St. Patrick, who flourished in the fifth century, that the name of Scots was the distinctive appellation of only a portion of the Irish nation. The name Hiberione, is always applied by him to the island itself And from the name Hibernis may not the mark of its Iberian origin be adduced 1 Among the Milesian or Scotic monarchs, all before the time of King Kimbaoth are uncertain. It has been asserted, but without foundation, that Kimbaoth was the seventy-fiftli king of Ireland, and the fifty- seventh of the Milesian or Scotic dynasty. Kimbaoth's reign cannot be carried back to a period- more remote than 200 years before our era. But if we begin with the landing of the Scotic colony, it must be no- ticed that a decisive victory over the Tuatha-de-Danaan, the former possessors of the country, transferred the sovereignty to Heber and Heremon, the sons of Milesius. Their third brother, Amergin, they appointed Arch-Bard, or presiding minister over the departments of law, poetry, philosophy, and religion. Differences between the brothers kindled into animosity, and led to battles, which left Heremon sole possessor of the kingdom.* During tj^.iis period, it is said the Picts appeared on the eastern coast of Ireland, requesting permission to settle on the island. The natives refused, but directed them to other islands on the north-east. The Picts consented ; but first requested that some Milesian women might accom- pany tliem, pledging themselves that should they become masters of the country they were going to invade, the sovereignty should be ever after vested in the descendants of the female line. This request having been granted, the Pictish chiefs, accompanied by their Milesian wives, set sail for the islands bordering on Scotland, and there established their settlement. This matrimonial compact continued in force, it is said, for 2000 years. Of the successors of Heremon there is little remarkable till the reign of the idolater Tighernmas, who, while offering sacrifice, at a great popular convention, to the monstrous idol Crom-Cruach, was, together with the vast multitude around him, miraculously destroyed. During * The particulars of this quarrel are thus stated by Keating. " The occasion of the dispute was the possession of three of the most delightful valleys in the whole island. Two of these belonged to Heber; but his wife, a woman of great pride and ambition envied the wife of Heremon the enjoyment of the third, passionately vowing that she never would be satisfied till she was called the queen of the three most fruitful valleys in Ireland." What is said of Kimbaoth ? — What of Heber and Heremon ? — What request was made by the Picts ? — What befel the idolator, Tighernmas ? ANCIENT lEISII KINGS. 243 this reign, gold is said to have been worked in Ireland ; a mine of that metal having been discovered at Fothart, near the river Liftey, in the county of Wicklow. In the reign of Achy, who succeeded Tighern- mas, a singular law was enacted, regulating the exact number of colours by which the garments of the different classes of society were to be distinguished. Plebeians and soldiers wore a single colour ; infe- rior military officers, two ; commanders, three ; keepers of houses of hospitality, four ; the nobility and military knights, five ; the bards, who were distinguished by learning, six ; which was but one colour less than the number worn by the princes themselves. From hence is seen the distinction put upon learning in those days. CHAPTER 3. Among the kings that appeared in this period of Irish history, the royal sage, Ollamh Fodhla* stands most conspicuous. He is supposed to have lived about the second century before our era : his reign became important in the establishment of the Great Fes, or Triennial Conven- tion at Tara, of the three orders of the community, — namely, of the Monarch, the Druids or Ollamhs, and the Plebeians, for the purpose of passing laws and regulations for the public good. The result of these deliberations was entered in the great national register, called the Psalter of Tara. The policy adopted by the Egyptians and Lacede- monians of rendering employments and offices hereditary in families, was also, from the time of Ollamh Fodhla, observed in Ireland. The descendants of a physician, for instance, or an artificer, were to con- tinue such through succeeduig generations. Among these hereditary offices were heralds, practitioners in physic, bards, and musicians. To the professors of these arts Ollamh Fodhla assigned lands for their use, and also instituted a school of general instruction. A long interval, with scarcely an event worth recording, fills up the space between Ollamh Fodhla and Kimboath, from whose reign is dated the dawn of authentic history. The palace of Emania, built by Kimboath, forms a prominent era in the Irish annals ; from which period the princes of Ulster were called kings of Emania. It is hoped that the bards in describing some of these reigns have far exceeded the truth ; for out of upwards of thirty kings that reigned between Ollamh and Kimboath, not more than three are said to have died a natural death ; the great majority of the remainder fell by the hands of their successors. The reign of Hugony the Great proved a remarkable era. He succeeded in annulling the Pentarchy, and prevailed on the four prin- cipal kings to surrender their right of succession in favour of his family. He exacted from them an oath, " by all things visible and invisible," not to accept of a supreme monarch firom any other line. This extorted * Pronounced Ollav Folia. What singular law was enacted in the reign of Achy 1 — What is said of Ollamh Fodhla? — What did the Psalter of Tara contain ? — How were employments ren- dered hereditary ? — By whom was the palace of Emania built ? — What is related of Hugony the Great? 244 HISTORY OF IRELAND. abjuration the minor kings revoked on the first opportunity that offered •, and under the monarch Achy Fedloch, it was rescinded, and the ancient form restored. After the reign of Hugony another long interval succeeded, during vv'hich, with the exception of king Labhra's return from Gaul with a Gaulish colony, there is not a transaction worthy of notice. In A.D. 2, we read of the reign of Conary the Great, and of the hero Cuchullior, who died early, and in his full career of glory. In the latter part of the first century, Crimthan and Fiachad, Irish monarchs, flourished about the time that Agricola was pursuing his conquests in Britain ; and Tacitus asserts, as before mentioned; that at the period when he wrote, the waters and harbours of Ireland were better known than those of Britain. And these testimonies of her commerce and navigation afford proofs of an early civilization. Mention is made, in this period, of the Irish monarch Crimthan having made incursions into the Roman provinces in Britain, and returning to his dominions laden with rich plunder. To this, however, a more than usually troubled period of strife and disorder succeeded, by an usurper and his followers. A revolt of the old Belgic tribes was the cause, who were held in sub- jection by the sword of the Milesian or Scotic rule ; and at a great pub- lic assembly in Connaught was struck the first blow of a conspiracy. An indiscriminate massacre of the princes and chiefs succeeded, and the legitimate monarchy was overturned, and Carbre Cat-Can, a de- scendant of the old Belgic tribes, was placed on the throne, a. d. 90. Carbre Cat-Can's five years of rule are represented as a period of gloom and barrenness. The country being abandoned to the rule of the rabble, agriculture had been neglected, — " no grain on the stalk, no fruitfulness in the waters, no herds in the stall, and but one acorn on the oak." Unexpectedly, however, on the death of Carbre, the magna- nimity of his son, Moran, placed the crown on the legitimate brow of Feredach, the son of Crimthan. The post of Chief Justice, bestowed on Moran, was distinguished by acts of disinterested clemency and jus- tice. The fame of this judge's upright decisions gave occasion to the fable of Moran's Collar (Jodhan Moran), which was said, by its degree of pressure round the neck of the wearer, to direct his decisions. The reign of Feredach, in conjunction with his honest counsellor, afforded to the nation a scene of tranquillity as precious as it was rare. To Feredach succeeded Fiach, his son. In his reign happened a second revolt of the people, which was countenanced by the provincial princes, and which for a time was so successful as to compel the young monarch, Tuathal, son of Fiach, to take refuge in North Britain, at the court of his maternal grandfather, the king of the Picts. The re- volters, in a moment of compunction, invited back their king, who, at Tara, was re-elected sovereign amidst general acclamation. Then taking the field, he pursued his victories through the kingdom, till he had extinguished usurpation, and restored the former relations of society, What is said of Conary the Great? — What of Crimthan ? — Under whose govern- ment were there five years of barrenness ? — What change took place under Fere- dach ? — What happened to Tuathal ? THE FINE OF LEINSTER. 245 A. D. 130. Tuathal afterwards, in a convocation of the states at Tara, made efforts to confine the right of succession to his family, as two of his ancestors, Heremon and Hugony, had done. He found as little diffi- culty in obtaining from them their solemn oath, as they found upon the first occasion in breaking it. A circumstance not creditable to his policy is related of him, in having imposed a fine on the province of Leinster to atone for the ofl'ence of its ruler, Athy, a worthless prince. Athy had espoused one of the daughters of Tuathal. In the second year after their union he made his appearance at Tara ; and informing the monarch, under every appearance of sorrow, that his young queen was dead, requested per- mission to solicit the hand of her sister. He succeeded in making her his bride. But on accompanying him to his dominions, and finding his queen still living, the base and unpardonable indignity put upon her cost her her life. Nor was her sister, the queen, less a sufferer ; the perfidy of her lord, and the melancholy fate of her sister, so preyed upon her mind that she pined away and died. For this base act, which should have been revenged only upon the unnatural offender, a heavy fine was imposed not only on his subjects, but upon their posterity for more than five hundred years. This tribute, called the Fine of Leinster, according to the old history, cited by Keating, which was paid through the reigns of forty kings, consisted of 3,000 cows, as many hogs and sheep, 3,000 copper caldrons, as many ounces of silver, and the same number of mantles. The payments took place every second year, and in numerous instances occasioned resist- ance, collision, confusion, and bloodshed. In the reign of king Fin- nacta, a. d. 693, through the intercession of St. Moling, the fine was remitted. CHAPTER 4. Tuathal established courts of municipal jurisdiction for the regula- tion of tradesmen and artificers, previous to which it seems evident that none of the Milesian or dominant class occupied themselves in trade. For the minor Milesian branches were reserved the higher offices of the state, bards, physicians, judges, &c. The reign of King Feidlim, in A. D. 164, proves that the Irish jurisprudence was at that tune rude and barbarous, since we find that the old law of retaliation was then for the first time changed for the more lenient one of a mulct or fine. Some writers, it is true, have asserted that the very reverse of this was tire fact, and that Feidlim, finding the law of compensation already estab- lished, introduced the Lex Talionis in its stead. But this assuredly would have been to retrograde rather than to advance in civilization. His son Con, of the Hundred Battles, succeeded ; a prince whose reign was a series of conflicts of various success. From him descended that race of chieftains, v/ho, under the title of the Dalriadic kings, What fine did he impose on the province of Leinster?— How long was the fine paid ? — In whose reign did it cease ? — What occurred in the reign of Feidlim ?— From whom descended the Dalriadic kings? 24:6 HISTORY OF IRELAND. supplied Albany, the modern Scotland, with her jfirst Scottish rulers : Carbry Riada, the son of Conary the Second, by the daughter of the monarch Con, having been the chief, who about the middle of the third century established that Irish settlement in Argyleshire, which taking the name of its princely founder, grew up in the course of time into the kingdom of Dalriada ; and finally, on the destruction of the Picts by Keneth Maci\.lpine, became the kingdom of all Scotland. The incursions of those Irish into those northern parts of Britain, had com- menced at a very remote period. The most accomplished of all the Milesian princes, whether as legis- lator, soldier, or scholar, was the monarch Cormac Ulfadha, who flou- rished about A. D. 254. Through his munificence were founded three academies at Tara : the first for the science of war ; the second for historical literature ; the third for jurisprudence. The abdication of the supreme power by this monarch in the full vigour of his age and faculties was the consequence of an ancient law or custom of the coun- try, which forbade that any one who was affected with a personal blem- ish should hold possession of the throne : and, as, in resisting a rebellious attack on his palace, he incurred the loss of an eye, this accomplished monarch was thereby disqualified from longer retaining the sovereignty. He passed his latter days in retirement. Carbre was the son and successor of Cormac. It was in his reign that the famous Fianna Eirinn, or militia of Erin, was, in consequence of its dissensions, and the degree of power which it assumed, put down by force. Such violent feuds arose among the chieftains, as could only be appeased by the intervention of the bards, who, shaking the chain of silence between them, succeeded for a while in calming their strife. To such a pitch did the presumption of one clan arrive in the reign of Carbre, that it menaced the throne itself; and was put down only by a carnage which almost produced its annihilation. From this period nothing occurs very remarkable till about the begin- ning of the fourth century, when Huss Colla usurped the throne ; and three brothers bearing the same name, produced a long series of san- guinary wars, in which Fisch, the rightful monarch, lost his crown and his life. After a reign of five years, the usurper Colla and his brothers took flight to North Britain, and left the sovereignty to the rightful suc- cessor of the late monarch, Muredach Tiry. Colla, afterwards return- ing, dispossessed the king of Ulster of his dominions : and, in the course of the contest, the princely palace of Emania was destroyed, and not a vestige of its former glories remained. In A.D. 396-7, is recorded an invasion of Britain, on rather a bold scale, by the gallant Nial of the nine hostages. During the absence of the Roman forces, he made a descent upon the unprotected territory, and carried off" great plunder. Nial afterwards, encouraged by the tottering state of the Romans in Gaul, extended his ravages to Brittany Who was the most accomplished of the Milesian princes ? — What caused Cormac Ulfadha's abdication ? — In whose reign was the militia of Erin put down? — Did not Huss Colla usurp the throne? — When did JNial of the nine hostages extend hia ravages ? INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY. 247 and the north-west coast, where he was assassinated by one of his own •bllowers. It was in one of these predatory excursions that the soldiers of Nial carried off a youth in his sixteenth year, who was detained for many years in Ireland as a slave ; but who in the course of Providence was destined by his arduous labours to effect such a great religious revo- lution in the country, as has entitled him to be comm.emorated as the great Christian apostle of Ireland. To Nial the Great, succeeded Dathy, the last of the Pagan monarchs of Ireland, who extended his predatory excursions even to the foot of the Alps, and was there killed by a flash of lightning. Christian kings thereafter filled the throne of Ireland. It has not been satisfactorily ascertained at what period Christianity was first preached in Ireland. The boast of Tertullian, that in his time a knowledge of the Christian faith had reached those parts of the Brit- ish Isles yet unapproached by the Romans, is supposed to imply Ireland- as well as the northern regions of Britain; and Eusebius has asserted that some of the apostles preached the gospel in the British Isles. Some writers suppose St. James the elder to have been the promulgator of the faith among the Irish, just as St. Paul has been supposed to have com- municated it to Britain. However this may be, we have proof of the Irish having early distinguished themselves as scholars and writers, in the person of that eminent heresiarch, Pelagius, and his able disciple Celestius ; and two of the most learned of all the writers, respecting the heresy, admit Pelagius, no less than Celestius, to have been a native of Ireland. CHAPTER 5. Already had the tenets of Pelagius rapidly gained ground in Britain ; and the mission of St. Germain and Lupus to that country in 429, W'as for the purpose of opposing this heresy. The future apostle of Ireland, Patrick, then in his 42d year, accompanied them. The state of Chris- tianity in Ireland, and the inroads made there by the Pelagian doctrines, induced Pope Celestine to send Palladius thither to counteract them, and in him the Irish Christians saw their first bishop. For a short pe- riod success appears to have attended his mission, but at length, after some unavailing efforts to establish his doctrine, he was forced to fly from the country, and being driven by a storm, he died on the coast of North-Britain. St. Patrick was afterwards more successful, so that it gave rise to the Irish adage, " not to Palladius but to Patrick did God grant the conversion of Ireland." St. Patrick appears to have been fitted for the mighty work he had to accomplish, by an extraordinary train of preparation. Respecting his birth-place, he appears to have been a native |of the old Galilean, or rather Armoric-Britain, which comprised the whole of the north-west coast of Gaul ; and in the territory now called Boulogne, St. Patrick, it appears, was born. The year of his birth, according to accounts most What are the conjectures respecting the introduction of Christianity ? — Who were sent to oppose the tenets of Pelagius ? — What is said of St. Patrick? 248 HISTORY OF IRELAND. to be relied upon, was about a. d. 387, which brings the period of his captivity, when sixteen years of age, to 403, the period when Nial of the nine hostages extended his ravages to Gaul. On being carried to Ireland, he was purchased as a slave by a man named Milcho, in Dala- radia, now a part of Antrim. The occupation assigned to him was that of attending sheep, which employment became the nurse of his devo- tional feelings. After six years' servitude, a voice in his dreams, he says, told him that " he was soon to go to his own country," and that "a ship was ready to convey him." Accordingly in the seventh year of his slavery he betook himself to flight, and making for the western coast, was received on board a merchant's vessel, and in three days was landed in Gaul.* When in Gaul he repaired to that celebrated monastery or college of St. Martin, near Tours, where he remained four years to be initiated into the ecclesiastical state. About this time he dreamed of a messen- ger appearing before him, and bearing innumerable letters, with these words : " the voice of the Irish ;" and at the same time he fancied he heard voices from the wood, Foclut, crying out " we entreat thee, holy youth, to come and walk still among us." At the time of this vision St. Patrick was about thirty years old, and he shortly after placed him- self under the spiritual direction of St. Germain of Auxerre, a man of distinguished reputation, both as a civilian and ecclesiastic. In 429, we find him accompanying St. Germain and Lupus to Britain. It is supposed that the recent death of Palladius opened a way for St. Pa- trick, and his first landing appears to have been on the shores of Dub- lin, about A. D. 432.t After meeting with a repulse here and at other places in Leinster, the saint proceeded with his companions, to visit his old master Milcho, who, on hearing of his approach, refused to see him. On his journey, how- ever, he is said to have been more saccessfiil with Dicho, a lord of the district, (now called the barony of Locale,) who with all his house em- braced Christianity. In an humble barn belonging to this chief, which was ever after called Sabhul Padruic, or Patrick's Barn, the samt cele- brated divine worship. This was his first spiritual triumph, and we shall find this to be his last most fi-equented spiritual retreat. He soon after preached at the palace of Tara, in the presence of the king, Leo- gaire, where he also mauitained an argument against the Druids. Upon this occasion the arch-poet Dubtach became his convert, and thenceforth devoted his poetic talents to religious subjects. The monarch himself is said also to have professed himself Christian, exclaiming to his sur- rounding nobles, " It is better I should believe than die." It does not appear, however, that St. Patrick, among the first in- stances of his success, makes mention of the king and queen, though * In some of the lives of St. Patrick, it is said that there M'as a law in Ireland, by which slaves should become free in the seventh year, and that, by this law, he gained his liberty. f The celebrated port of the territory of the Evoleni, supposed to be the " portus Ebla- norum" of Ptolemy, the present harbour of Dublin. What influenced his mind to return to Ireland ?— What opposition did he meet with ? — And wiiat encouragement ? ST. PATRICK. 249 he boasts of many sons and daughters of high rank who embraced the faith. And among the females even of the highest class, the lessons of the gospel were received with welcome. In the course of his journey- ings, he passed through that plain of slaughter in the county of Leitrim, where stood the Druidical idol Crom-Cruach ; the image to which, as to Moloch of old, children were offered up in sacrifice. For St. Patrick was reserved the glory of destroying both idol and worship, and of erecting a Christian church upon its ruins. His labours appear to have been, with little exception, attended with great success ; he baptizing multitudes, and providing churches for the newly converted. He arrived in the neighbourhood of Foclut, near the ocean, soon after the death of the king of that territory, and at the time when his seven sons had just terminated a dispute concerning the succession ; a vast multitude of people had collected on the occasion. St. Patrick ap proached the assembly, and by his preaching brought over to the Chris- tian faith, not only the seven princes, but twelve thousand persons more, all of whom he soon after baptized. Notwithstanding the general for- bearance of his hearers, even where his doctrines were not received, his life was sometimes in danger, once by a desperate chieftain, and another time by the captain of a band of robbers. But his most inve- terate foes were amongst the Magi, or Druids, who saw in his preach- ing the downfall of their influence. Having at length preached through all the provinces, and filled the island with Christians, he formed the design, of constructing a metro- politan see at Armagh, near the place where the celebrated palace of Emania had formerly stood. Residing in the midst of his newly-formed converts, St. Patrick spent the remainder of his days in building up and consolidating his newly-erected hierarchy. Among these last proceed- ings, are mentioned some synods which were held at Armagh, in which canons were decreed and ecclesiastical matters regulated. When under an impression that he was near his end, he wrote his confession, the object of which was to publish to the world the wonderful effects of his ministry. He died in his favourite retreat at Sabhul, on the 17th of March, a. d. 465, having reached, it is believed, his seventy-eighth year. Although Christianity, during the times of St, Patrick, had spread sc rapidly, it does not appear that much moral good was effected, the same factious and turbulent feelings operating with their usual violence. Per- secutions fi-om Pagan princes, and perpetual struggles for power, con- tinued to present scenes of commotion until the invasion of the Danes in the eighth century. It was then that large bodies of Danes" and Norwegians, made descents upon the sea-coasts of different countries, and even plundered ships ; and the disturbed state of Ireland, at that time, offered to them a scene particularly favourable : notwithstanding, too, the powerful resistance they experienced from some of the Irish princes, they continued to burn and devastate wherever they made a descent, and then retreat to their vessels with the plunder. What people of rank were among his first converts? — Where did St. Patrick convert some thousands to the Christian faith ? — Where did he construct a metro- ^litan see ? — What people now made a descent upon Ireland ? 250 HISTORY OF IRELAND. At length Turgesius, a Norwegian prince, fixed his residence at Ar* magh, anil drove away the clergy. And in 833, the Normans made a numerous descent, and were, if possible, more cruel and destructive than the former. Turgesius collected his forces, and after a desperate conflict expelled the Normans. Animated by this success, he extended his conquests, and fortified some strong holds; and though Malscehlin, or Malachy, king of Meath, made a spirited resistance, yet Turgesius, after reducing the greater part of the kingdom to a state of subjugation, assumed the°title of monarch. After some years of cruel oppression, he was taken prisoner, by a stratagem of Malscehlin, and put to death, and this was succeeded by a general slaughter of the Danes. CHAPTER 6. Fresh swarms of Norwegians soon arrived ; these were followed by Danes, and the nation presented a scene of plunder and oppression till the reign of Brien Boiroimhe, who, about a. d. 1014, in a battle fought at Clontarffe, destroyed their power, though they could not be entirely driven out of the kingdom. But they had committed ravages which ages could not restore : they had pillaged and destroyed most of the churches and monasteries, and obstructed the progress of knowledge, civilization, and Christianity, so that when the English obtained posses- sion of Ireland, in the reign of Henry II., very few traces remained of that learning which had in former ages attracted students from many ol the nations of Europe. In 1150, Ireland had five petty monarchs, who ruled in Leinster, Uls- ter, Munster, Meath, and Connaught. The whole kingdom was subject to one monarch, who owed his elevation more to the power of his arms than to the law of inheritance. The minor thrones were not established on any firmer foundation. They had often " to wade through slaughter to a throne," and some part or other of the island was almost always in . a state of war. About the year 1150, during the contests of the princes Turlogh O'Connor and O'Lochlan, Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, had carried off Dovergilda, the wife of O'Ruarc, prince of Brefthey (Lei- trim and Sligo). The latter applied to O'Connor, king of Connaught, the chief of the five provincial monarchs, and Dermot was chased out of his dominions by their united forces. He repaired to Henry II., then in Guienne, and sought his aid, offering to acknowledge himself his vassal. Henry being then engaged, gave him letters, empowering any of his English subjects who pleased, to engage in the enterprize. Richard, Earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, and some other adVejiturers, embarked in the expedition, among whom were Robert Fitzstephen, and Maurice Fitzgerald, and though their numbers were small, such was Who was Turgesius ? — And whom did he expel? — Who resisted and destroyed the power of the Norwegians ? — Name the five petty monarchies of Ireland ? — Who was driven from his kingdom ?— Did Henry II. of England lend him his fissi.s'*- %nce ? (251 ) Eenry 11. departing for Ireland. ENGLISH HOSTILITIES. 253 the superiority of their arms and their skill, that they overpowered all resistance. Henry had obtained from Pope Adrian IV., a bull investing him with the kingdom of Ireland, with authority to reduce the people to obedience unto laws, for the propagation of the Christian faith, and securing to the Church of Rome the yearly pension called Peter's pence. Henry himself appeared in Ireland, in 1072, and received the homage of its princes. But the conquest was merely nominal ; and ages elapsed before Ireland was really subdued. During the absence of Richard, Earl Pembroke, and other English lords, the Irish chieftains were disposed to shake off the yoke of sub- mission. But Pembroke on his return appointed Raymond le Gros to the command of the army ; who, after chastising some petty disaffected chieftains, and gaining considerable booty, entered Waterford in triumph. A misunderstanding between Strongbow and Raymond, induced the latter to quit the command of the army and retire into Wales. This was succeeded by some reverses of the English troops, which induced several of the Leinster chieftains to disclaim the submission they had lately made to Henry. Apprehensive of the consequences, and not able to place reliance on his own troops, Strongbow entreated the return of Raymond, to whom he offered the terms which were formerly refused. Raymond with the forces he could speedily raise, arrived at Waterford in twenty transports, in time to prevent a massacre of the garrison, which the townsmen had projected. He then undertook the siege of Limerick, which was in the possession of the prince of Thomond, and after no very powerful resistance, made himself master of the place. Roderick, son of the late king of Connaught, who had been raised to the supreme power, convinced that no reliance could be placed on his chieftains, now resolved to yield to the English yoke; and sent to Henry the archbishop of Tuam, to offer homage and tribute ; by which act Roderick obtained the administration of the kingdom, and the Eng- lish interest became strengthened. By various intermarriages, how- ever, the English settlers became so closely connected with the natives as to occasion the jealousy of Henry, who ordered Raymond, a. d. 1176, to appear before him to answer to some charges that envy had raised against him. While Raymond was waiting for a favourable wind, news arrived of O'Brien of Thomond having besieged Limerick. Strongbow being at that time ill, the English soldiers refused to march to the relief of Limerick, unless under the command of Ray- mond ; and the commissioners agreed to wait the issue of the expedi- tion. O'Brien raised the siege, and awaited the enemy's approach in his entrenchments. Being defeated by Raymond, he gave security for his allegiance. On receiving intelligence of Strongbow's death, Ray- mond attended the funeral of the earl in Dublin, and the council nomi- nated him as his successor, and the commissioners made a favourable report of his conduct to the king ; but Henry's apprehensions of Ray mond not being removed, he sent over William Fitzandelem, as chief governor, a. d. 1177. Under his rule the English power was greatly Did not the Irish chieftains attempt to shake off the yoke ? — What king resolved to yield to the English yoke ?— What (Jid Raymond on the death of Strongbow ? 22 254 HISTORY OF IRELAND. weakened, and complaints being raised against him, he was recalled, and de Lacy was appointed his successor. About this time Henry appointed his son John lord of Ireland, where, in subservience to his father, he exercised the supreme power. The administration of de Lacy became so justly popular, that Henry felt alarm and recalled him ; but he found it needful to restore him to his office. He was, however, again replaced and succeeded by Philip de Braosa, whose government counteracted the security eifected by de Lacy. In 1085, prince John and his numerous attendants arrived in Ireland, but the courtiers, by their haughty carriage, treating the Irish chieftains and the earlier English settlements with indignity, produced sanguinary contests ; and the assassination of de Lacy was one of the fatal consequences. To repair these disasters, John was recalled in 1186, and the chief government was entrusted to John de Courcy, whose desperate valour succeeded in quelling the adventurous encroach- ments of the chieftains, and in establishing tranquillity. Amidst these commotions, Roderick was assassinated by one of his sons, a. d. 1189. Henry did not long survive. Richard did not interfere with his brother John's authority in Ireland. John's first act was to remove de Courcy from the government, and ap- point to succeed him Hugh de Lacy, the younger. Among the sur- vivors of Roderick, was Cathal, called the Bloody-handed. De Lacy was afterwards recalled, and William Petit succeeded : and he was again removed to make way for William, earl marshal of England, the husband of Isabella, daughter of Strongbow and Eva. In 1197, Hamo de Valois succeeded William Petit, and to provide for the exigencies of the state, he seized upon the property of the see of Dublin. An appeal to both John and Richard was without effect ; but after a lapse of years, Valois compensated the see of Dublin. Roderick died in 1198, at an advanced age. John, at this time, united the power of lord of Ireland and king of England. While king of England, John had but little leisure to attend to Ire- land. He removed de Valois. His successor was Meyler Fitz-Henry, natural son to Henry II. De Courcy and de Lacy acted as independent of the English monarch. In 1210, John landed in Dublin, where he received the homage of a considerable number of Irish chieftains, de- posited in the exchequer of Dublin a code of laws, and appointed she- riffs and other officers in many counties, and after a visit of three months, returned to England. The next chief governor was John de Grey, bishop of Norwich, who well maintained the English power. He was succeeded by Henry de Londres, archbishop of Dublin, in whose administration the castle of Dublin was finished. John died in 1216, and was succeeded by Henry III who assured the Irish that he would grant them the same liberties which had been secured to his English subjects. Prince Edward was invested by his father, Henry III, with the government of Ireland, and he was ordered Relate the transactions that now occurred. — What removals took place in the Irish government?— When was the castle of Dublin founded ?— What promise did Henry III. make to Ireland ? BATTLE OF ATHENEEE. 255 to repair thither ; but unfortunately the disorders in his father's roign, and his passion for the holy wars, prevented Ireland from enjoying the privilege of an efficient governor. To heighten the calamities attendant on scenes of public commotion, the King of England and the Pope made very considerable exactions from both clergy and laity. On for- eigners and Englishmen was bestowed the patronage of the Irish church, which received great opposition from her clergy. CHAPTER 7. In 1272, Edward I. ascended the throne of England ; and from a monarch of his abilities much benefit might have accrued to Ireland, had not the wars in Scotland and Wales so entirely absorbed his atten- tion : for the different provinces were still a prey to faction, and torn by the frequent contentions of its chiefs. Edward also made extensive grants, which introduced a tram of new comers, to take possession. Some of the chieftains exclaimed loudly against these encroachments, and the contests terminated in an appeal to the sword. A tenth of the revenues of the Irish clergy, Edward had already obtained, and he now demanded an additional fifteenth. The clergy representing to the king their utter inability to comply with his demand, he applied to the laity, from whom he obtained a fifteenth of their effects. In 1290, William de Vescy was made chief governor : he held the office for five years, and was succeeded by Sir J. Wogan, who strove, not without success, to compose the dissensions of the chiefs. He also summoned a more regular parliament than had met heretofore, by which many abuses were corrected, and many new laws, intended for the benefit of the state, enacted. In 1307, Edward 11. succeeded his father, and appointed Gaveston to the chief government of Ireland. He was not popular : he removed from office all who opposed his measures ; and the envy of the great lords threatening to oppose his measures, he was recalled, and Sir John Wo- gan reinstated in the high office. Sir John was for a time employed in ordaining and in endeavouring to enforce laws which the subject would not obey, when a new and unexpected cause of agitation pre- sented itself Robert Bruce of Scotland had, by his victory at Ban- nockburn, given the Scots a hope of freeing themselves from the Eng- lish yoke. The chieftains of Ulster, therefore, addressed themselves to Robert Bruce, offering to him or to any warrior the sovereignty, that could free them from English domination. Robert's brother, Edward, embraced the ofl^er ; and in 1333, he landed on the north-east coast, with six thousand Scots. The Irish lords of Ulster, with some others, flocked to his standard ; and, after several contests, Bruce was crowned at Dundalk. Alarmed at the danger that threatened their own possessions, the English lords now resolved to sup- port their king ; and a severe battle was fought at Athenree, which was How did Edward I. treat the Irish? — To what Scotsman did the chieftains of Ulster apply for aid ? — Was the offer embraced ? — And by whom ? — With wha success ? 256 HISTORY OF IRELAND. gained by the English. It was still difficult to arrest the progress of Bruce : at length an army of thirty thousand men was raised to oppose him, and Bruce retraced his steps. The pope lent his aid to the royai cause by excommunicating Robert and Edward Bruce by name, and also all the enemies of the king. In 1318, the armies met at Dundalk, both parties anxious to terminate the struggle. Each side fought with in- trepid bravery, but the Scots received a total defeat. Edward Bruce fell in the action : his brother Robert arrived in Ireland only in time to hear of his brother's defeat, whose death put an end to this rash and widely devastating invasion. The increasing property and influence of the English nobles who had settled in Ireland, and their contentions for power and possessions, per- petuated and increased the disorders of the kingdom. In the hope of arresting the progress of this unsteady course of things, some of the prelates used their influence to establish a university in 1320, which afterwards received the sanction of Edward III, who, by a special writ, enlarged the original endowment. But the scenes of disorder and anarchy which succeeded, defeated, for a while, its beneficial results. In order to obtain supplies for his projected invasion of Scotland, Ed- ward amused his parliament with proposals for visitmg Ireland, and bringing the whole into a better state of subjection , he ordered several noblemen to be in attendance to accompany him to Ireland: but at length, when his plan was complete, he discovered his real object, and marched to Scotland. Edward died in 1377. The accession of Richard II. made no improvement in the state of Ireland. In remote districts, hostilities were carried on ; and the Eng- lish parliament expressed their dissatisfaction at the expense attending the king's Irish dominions. The Irish, on the contrary, complained of many of the nobility, who abandoned their estates. A law was in con- sequence passed, imposing a penalty on absentees. In this reign, the king gave a liberty to the Irish to work mines, coin money, and hold a free trade with Portugal. A most extraordinary proof of Richard's im- prudence appeared in his creating the Earl of Oxford, his favourite, Marquis of Dublin ; and, at the same time, granting him, on certain conditions, the dominion of Ireland. Vast preparations were made, and great expectations were raised in consequence ; and the king accompa- nied his favourite as far as Wales, on his journey : but when about to separate, the king's affection was too strong, the marquis returned, and left Ireland to his deputies. The king, however, did not long enjoy his favourite, who was soon banished by the English nobility ; and the government of Ireland was committed, first to Sir John Stanley, and afterwards to the Earl of Or- mond. But the subsidies granted by the English parliament for the service of Ireland, still occasioned great dissatisfaction. The Duke of jloucester, the king's uncle, offered his services for Ireland ; but the ing, apprehending danger, probably from the duke's popularity, when What increased and perpetuated the disorders in Ireland ? — ^Was not a university now established ? — Was not a penalty imposed, during the reign of Richard II., on absentees ? — What occurred between the king and the Earl of Oxford ? RICHARD II. IN IRELAND. 257 invested with so much authority and power, did not accept them. In 1394, the king was determined to go in person ; and in October, he landed at Waterford, with four thousand men-at-arms, and thirty thou- sand archers, attended by the Duke of Gloucester and other distin- guished personages. During his stay in Ireland, instead of adopting regulations for reducing the disaffected chiefs to peace and tranquillity, Richard contented himself with receiving the homage of submission from a number of Irish chieftains, whom he entertamed with great magnificence. One stipulation, however, he made, with respect to the Irish of Leinster, who engaged to evacuate that province; and, after a residence of nine months, he departed, and with him the royal army. Roger Mortimer, Earl of March, vicegerent, in order to enforce the stipulations with respect to Leinster, had recourse to hostilities, in which he fell, and his army was defeated. Determined to avenge his death, Richard returned, and landed at Waterford, 1399 ; and, after waiting awhile for reinforcements, he marched against MacMurchad, who, on the enemy's approach, retreated, and sheltered securely in the woods. The king rashly vowed never to quit Ireland till MacMurchad was in his possession. Perhaps on this resolution hung the fate of England's crown. After a stay of six weeks in Dublin, receiving intelligence of having been dethroned, he departed. CHAPTER 8. The bloody contests of the houses of Lancaster and York, were not without their influence in Ireland. On the arrival of the Duke of Lan- caster, in 1402, several regulations were made, and the submission of chieftains was renewed. MacMurchad, however, bade the deputy defi- ance; and though, in a well contested battle, he was defeated, he was not entirely subdued : and during the reign of Henry V., Ireland received but little attention from a monarch who was occupied in wars with France, and the people were ready to sink under the turbulence of war and fac- tion, when John Talbot, Lord Furnival, distmguished for his military talents, was sent to assume the reins of government. He acted with a vigour that paralyzed the disaffected chieftains ; and even Mac- Murchad was compelled to give hostages for his future behaviour. During this reign, numbers of the necessitous Irish had sought relief for their wants in England, and the English parliament had enacted that all such should be obliged to quit the country ; and the law was carried to an unjustifiable length. This so greatly irritated the Irish, that a parliament met in Dublin, to lay their grievances before the throne. In the reign of Henry VI., an instance occurs of its being agreed in council, " that as the hall of the castle of Dublin and the Did not the king go in person to Ireland ? — How long did he remain ? — Did not Richard return to Ireland in 1399? — What unpleasant intelligence did he receive from England ? — Was not the contest between the houses of York and Lancaster severely felt there ? — What chieftain was disaffected ? — What law was enacted in the English parliament? 258 HISTORY OF IRELAND. windows thereof were in a ruinous state, and that there was in the trea- sury a certain ancient silver seal cancelled, which was of no use to the king-, the said seal should be broken up and sold, and the money laid out in repairing the hall and windows." About the year 1438, the Irish enjoyed a short cessation from public commotion. The neglect shown by the Lancastrian princes to some of the nobility, and the favour shown to others, occasioned jealousies and animosities which waited only for a favourable moment to break forth. Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, now created Earl of Waterford, was ap- pointed to the government ; and some of the most obnoxious, for theii hostilities, were condemned and executed. About a. d. 1447, a parlia ment was convened at Trim, in which " it was declared penal to con form to the Irish fashion of the hair and beard, — that no persons should use gold trappings, horse furniture, or gilded harness, except knights or prelates ;" and to discourage the transportion of bullion, a custom of twelve pence was imposed on each ounce of silver so transported. Du- ring the reign of Henry VI., there were eleven sessions, and thirty-six acts were published. In 1473 the Earl of Kildare raised a company of 160 archers and 64 spearmen for the protection of the Pale, and parliament provided for their support. He also instituted a fraternity of arms, consisting of thirteen persons of the highest rank, who assembled in Dublin annually on St. George's day, and were thence called the fraternity of St. George. The Pale included the city of Dublin, and portions of the adjacent coun- ties. The boundaries of this petty territory were occasionally enlarged, when the weakness of the native Irish, or the strength of the British settlers, permitted the latter to encroach upon the neighbouring districts. But these encroachments upon the lands beyond the Pale, were often retaliated when an enterprising Irish chief headed his troops, and it sometimes occurred that the limits of the Pale were driven back almost to the walls of Dublin. The original settlement of the Pale might be termed accidental, — the expulsion of the prince of Leinster from his territory, — ^his league, under the sanction of Henry II., with some Welsh noblemen and Norman lords, by whose aid he was restored to his chiefry, — these were the events, which in their ultimate conse- quences, brought about the political union of the two countries. The prince of Leinster (as has been already stated) had been expel- led his petty kingdom in consequence of the forcible abduction of the wife of O'Rourk of BrefRiy, and of other excesses. But when his allies appeared in the field, his partisans and neighbours rallied round his standard, and he at length retained the possession of his dominions. The Earl of Pembroke, surnamed Strongbow, married his daughter and his only child, and succeeded at Dermid's death to an Irish title and principality. But Strongbow, though he thus became an Irish prince, was also a British subject ; and his new title required British support. Under cover of that support, the British power was gradually extended From what source was the hall of the castle repaired? — What Irish fashions were declared penal ? — What company did the Earl of Kildare raise ? — And what occasioned the settlement of the Pale ? LITERATURE IN IRELAND. 259