Class ±L Brmli . b 3&. GAV'S SERIES OF STANDARD HISTORIES. FIRST SERIES. THREE GREAT MODERN NATIONS. FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS TO 1S34. OUR GREAT REPUBLIC AND THE EARLY DISCOVERIES. AN IMPARTIAL HISTORY OF The United States of America to 1884, BY JOSEPH H. BEALE, A.M. WITH COMPLETE ESTDEX, CHKONOLOGICAL CHART OF AMERICAN LITERATURE, DECLA- RATION OF IKDEPENDEKCE, CONSTITUTION, EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION, LESSONS FROM OUR HISTORY. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: WILLIAM GAY AND COMPANY, SUCCESSORS TO GAY BROTHERS. \ ^ ^ "-y^ E. B. SHELDON & CO., Compositors and Electrotypers New Haven. Conn. WILLIAM GAY & CO., Printers and Binders, New H.vven, Conn. CONTENTS. PAGE. Histor}' : An Essay by'Lord Macaulay 9 Introduction 21 I. The Age of Discovery and Settlement 23 The Story of Columbus 24 The English and Spanish Discoveries 26 The Early Settlements 28 The Settlement of New England 29 The Indian War 32 Settlement of New York 34 The Land of Penn 35 Settlement in the other Colonies 36 II. The Colonial Period 3^ The Growth and Government of the Colonies 41 III. The War of Independence ; The Gathering Cloud 45 The Bursting of the Storm 50 George Washington, Commander-in-Chief 53 John Hancock 54 Benjamin Franklin ; Israel Putnam 55 Patrick Henry, the Orator 5^ Samuel Adams 57 Battle of Bunker Hill and Siege of Boston 59 The Declaration of Independence 65 The Progress of the War 66 The French Aid to the Colonies 68 The Campaign of 1777 and 1778 , 7° The Wyoming Massacre 74 The War in 1779 and 1780 76 The First and only Traitor "° The Closing Years of the Struggle ^^ IV. The Constitutional Period 86 Administration of Washington °9 Administration of John Adams 9- Administration of Thomas Jefferson 93 Administration of James Madison 96 Second War for Independence "97 Tiie Battle of New Orleans 99 IV CONTENTS. PAGE. Administration of James Monroe loi Lafayette (Sketch and Visit) 102 Administration of John Ouincy Adams 104 Administration of Andrew Jaclii the- hone of interestin/x them in HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. study which ought to engage the attention of every person who enjoys the protection, peace and personal rights offered in America to all classes alike. In the presentation of more recent history, culminating in the civil war and the reorganization of the States, we have studiously avoided the use of any epithet, or the attributing of any improper motives to any party. " Let the dead (past) bury its dead," and surround them with tributes of personal respect and honor if you will. The heroic bravery, the intense love of country, and the brilliant achievements were not all on one side or the other. They were noble foemen in battle, and attested their rights to be called " good men and true," on a hundred battlefields. The bloody strife is over, and they are fellow countrj'men all. The issues of the conflict are happily closed, and a bright and successful future awaits a united land. At best our circle of vision, even from the highest standpoint, is verj' limited, and we must ask the kindly charity of all who find, or think they find, 'the least indication of partizan spirit in the record of the wonderful history we have opened for them. Twenty years have elapsed since the country was in the midst of the fearful struggle, and the blood of this generation then heated from the fervor of youth has had ample time to cool. The judgment has been ripened, and we can dispassionately look back upon the stirring events of these years, and calmly judge of the questions which then excited us by the slightest mention. Then let the calm judgment of mature years be the arbiter, and leave the generations to come to pass the final verdict. We have done our best to give a fair and "IMPARTIAL HISTORY" from the data which have come to us. The error, if there be an error, is in the understanding, and not in the intention. READ AND JUDGE. Washington's Headquarters on the Hudson. I. THE AGE OF BISGOyEEY Al SETTLEINT. iHi^HERE are many indications that the ancients may have ?r^' known something- of the existence of a Western World, ill but tliis is not altogether certain. The visit of the early ^ Norsemen, who made a voyage of discovery in the eleventh century, had left no permanent trace behind, and it was not till after the discovery of the wonderful properties of the magnetic needle that the spirit of adventure and enterprise led the navigators of Europe to venture out on the great ocean, and attempt to cross its wide expanse. W^e will take our readers back to the time when the whole of America was a trackless wilderness, inhabited by the wild beasts, and no less- wild Indians, who roamed unrestrained , r-. ;3^ through its grand old forests and over its wide extended ^i^ tlvX The same noble rivers and broad inland seas ; the same ""^ wide e.xtent of prairie and lofty mountains were here then as now, with water-power capable of carrying all the machinery of the world ; there was the same wide extent of sea coast ; with its grand bays and harbors which can float all the navies of earth ; but for fifteen hundred years after the birth of Christ it had remained an unknown world. It was not till the hardy Genoan navigator in his Spanish ships dared to trust the mariner's compass, and turn his eyes toward the West, that the belief in a new continent took possession of man, and urged them to make voyages of discovery. Then a remarkable interest sprang up in every land distant and unexplored. The minds of men were shaking off the dullness of centuries, and the " fullness of time " had come. Science and intelligence were more widespread and men more eager to know something about the world in which they lived, and to learn of the unknown races beyond the narrow limits of Europe and the shores of the Mediterra- nean. The navigators of Genoa and Venice were becoming bolder and more skillful, and pushed their investigations further from land, and southward down the coast, of Africa and around the Cape of Good Hope. They had penetrated to the Indies. Portugal and Spain were washed by the waves of a sea which seemed boundless, and the new impulse of discovery came to them. Just then the courts of Lisbon and Madrid were crowded with adventurers who had made some great discoveries, or were seeking the aid of the sovereigns to enable them to make voyages. Among them there was one man who had for eighteen years been traveling from one king to another in Europe, to induce some one to fit out ships in which he might cross the Atlantic to find a new world. For he had argued if the world was round, as the learned men had proved, then then- 24 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. must be land on the other side of the globe, " to balance " the continent of Europe, Asia and Africa. This man had passed through sorrow and hardship in early life, and had become gray at thirty. But he was tall and stately, of grave and gentle manners, and courteous bearing, though he had a saddened look. When he spoke of his discoveries, his eye kindled, and he seemed to be moved by an incontrollable passion of adventure. He regarded himself as the chosen instrument of Heaven to open the way across the pathless sea to an unknown world. Such was the man who had for years been telling his plans to the incredulous monarchs. of Europe, only to be repeatedly disappointed in getting the aid he sought. In him the instir.ct of discovery rose to the height of a noble inspiration which no discouragement could dampen. This man was Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America. THE STORY OF COLUMBUS. S^'^^^HRISTOPHER COLUMBUS was a native of the city of Genoa, Italy. He was born of humble parentage, about the year 1436, and in early life was a swineherd. A high spirit and restless religious zeal led him to devote his time to the study of Geometry, Astronomy, Geog- raphy and Navigation, together with the Latin language, for a time in the University of Padua. He had been to sea for a while after he was fourteen. He became convinced that "[5^ there was land to the west, and thought that by sailing in that direc- (^ lion he could reach the coast of Asia. He applied to the Senate of his native city for ships and men, but they denied him. Then he went to Portugal, where he had married a lady of Lisbon, whose father had been a famous nav- The charts and maps which he found here still further inflamed his mind with the desire ^^ of discovery. Disappointed by •%-^*^S^««*^ the Court of Lisbon, he applied to Ferdinand of Spain, in 1484, „:<^^^^ .^^ -* but that cautious monarch listen- ,™,_, ed to him and referred his theory ' -^^^^^isSmMl Ifs*? / to the wise men of the Universi- ty of Salamanca. Some of these very learned men came to the conclusion that if there was land irator. 149=] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 2? on the other side of the world the people who li\'ed there must walk with their feet pointing upward and their heads downward, and as this would be a disagreeable land to explore they dismissed the subject. But Columbus was not yet past all hope, for he obtained an audience with Queen Isabella, who ruled jointly with her husband. He won her by his candor and enthu- siasm to favor his cause. It is said that she was willing to part witli some of her Court jewels to raise money to equip the ships which Columbus needed. Columbus was indebted to two women for the success of his plans. To his wife, who fostered and shared his inspiration, and to Isabella, the Spanish Queen, who furnished him with means to carry out his plans. On the third day of August, 1492, Columbus set sail from Palos in Spain to cross an unknown sea. His crew was made up of unwilling sailors who were compelled to embark with him by command of the king. It was Friday, and their vessels were turned towards a trackless waste of waters in whose mysterious distance the sun seemed to set every night. There were three vessels ; the best of which was only a small craft with a single deck. No sane man would dare now to venture a hundred miles from land in such a vessel, while the other two were open, save at the stem and stern, where there were cabins for the crew and officers. On Sunday, September 9th, the adventurer, with his poorly equipped and ill-manned vessels, passed out of sight of the farthest limit to which any other navigator had before come, and still he sailed to the west. But after awhile the sailors were awe-stricken to see that the needle of the compass did not point exactly to the nortli, and they were going farther and farther from land. They were in the latitude of the trade winds which blew from the south- east, and week after week went by and still no signs of land. A reward \s-as promised to him who should first see land. On the evening of September 25th, Martin Alonzo Pinzon thought he saw land in the distance, but in the morning it proved to be only a cloud. For two weeks longer they sailed on their course while Columbus had all that he could do to prevent an open mutiny. He promised them if they did not see land in three days, he would turn about and sail back to Spain. At last there came signs that they were nearing the shore, and Columbus cried, " We shall see land in the morning." The vesper hymn to the Virgin was sung, and the leader remained on the lookout of the Pinta all night peering out into the darkness. At midnight he saw a light which moved in the distance, and when the morning came, behold they were near the beautiful wooded shores upon which the foot of the wliite man had never trod. Birds of wonderful plumage hovered over them and the air was fragrant with the odors that blew off the land. The delighted crew clustered around their commander and knelt to ask his forgiveness. Then they set off in their boats for the shore ! Columbus first stepped on the beach and unfurled the banner of Spain, claiming the country in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella. The crew knelt on the strand to kiss the earth, and wept, and sang their hymns of praise. 26 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1496 This triumph was the long wished-for reaHzation of the discoverer's visions and dreams for many years, but he did not yet realize the extent of his wonderful achievement. He died thinking that he had only found a shorter route to India, and never knew that he had opened the way to a mighty continent. The revelation which Columbus had given the inhabitants of the Old World that there were lands to the west where dwelt human beings unlike any that they had ever seen, aroused the eager desire for greater discoveries. They imagined that wealth could be had for the gathering. The rivers ran over golden sands. The meanest savage was decked in ornaments, and his house was hung with pearls, and somewhere, there was a fountain, if one could only find it, whose waters would bestow eternal youth on him wl:o bathed therein. All these and other fancies of the brain were circulated, and these romances were greedily received by the people who were anxious to leave the mean and commonplace surroundings of the Old World for the New. The men who had been trained to fighting, now thought that they could wrest untold wealth from the simple and harmless natives of the West. France and England were anxious to secure what Spain had gained by the great discovery of the Genoan. Even the honor of naming the New W^orld vras taken from Columbus and given to another. Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine navigator, claimed to have discovered the continent, and his name, America, was given to the Western World. THE ENGLISH AND SPANISH DISCOVERERS. MERCHANT in the city of Bristol, England, by the name of John Cabot received authority from his king to make discoveries in the northern part of the American Continent. The king made a sharp bargain with the subject. Cabot was to bear all the expense, and the monarch was to receive one-fifth of the profits of the expedition. John Cabot, taking with him his son, s'i?^ Sebastian, sailed directly westward from England, supposing that he would find the same climate as in his English home. He reached the coast of Labrador in 1497, and was without doubt the first discoverer of the continent ; but to his great astonishment, he found himself in a region of snow and ice. He was ignorant of the existence of the Gulf Stream and its wonderful effect on the climate of Europe. This stream of warm water flowing from the Giilf of Mexico across the ocean renders the climate of those nations which lie on the western shores of the Old World warmer than the land in the same latitude in America. The 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 27 Cabots, father and son, made many other voyages, and explored the whole coast from Labrador to Florida. The French turned their thoughts to the West, and sent adventurers to the St. Lawrence, who sailed up the river, and, after many attempts, established settlements in Canada which they held for a hundred and fifty years. An aged warrior. Ponce de Leon, started out upon an expedition at his own expense, to find the fountain of perpetual youth in the New World, but he searched in vain. He entered the St. John's river in Florida and found a land clothed in grand old forests and perpetual flowers, and gave it the name it now bears. He attempted to found a colony in the paradise which he had found, but his men were set upon by the savages, who slew many of them, and wounded him with a poisoned arrow, and drove the rest to their ships carrying their wounded commander. Ferdinand de Soto, another Spaniard, with si.x hundred young men who were eager for e.xploits, came to the coast of Florida, and set out for a journey through the wilderness, allured by the hope of finding wealth. The Lidians soon learned that they were expected to tell the strangers where they could find gold, and it was very unpleasant for them not to be able to point the way. De Soto had burned three of the savages who would not tell him, so the poor Indian found that it was for his advantage to send the Spaniard on his journey in search of the Eldorado, where gold could be found. The poor savage drew on his imagination to save his life. The Spanish commander went on and came to the great river a mile in width. Still not to be baffled, he built boats and ferried across to resume his weary march. At last he was obliged to confess the failure of his undertaking ; and, broken in spirit, he took the fever and died. His body was buried in the Mississippi, the great river he had discovered. Then the remainder of the band built ships to float them down the river and reach Cuba. The vessels used by the European voyagers were small, but few of them a hundred tons burden. The merchant ships of that time were small, although the ships of war were quite large. The commerce of Europe was too poor to employ any but the smallest ships. But the hardy adventurers who came to America were brave, energetic, and daring. They opened up to the over-crowded countries of Europe an asylum in the wilderness, and made it possible for a mighty nation to grow untrammeled by narrow boundaries, and unterrified by surrounding nationalities. 28 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 THE EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 'HE earliest settlement that remained permanent in the United States was at Jamestown, Virginia. Sir Walter Raleigh, who was at one time a great favorite of Elizabeth, the Queen of England, was very much interested in making a settlement in America, and expended a- vast amount of money to forward his plans. But his colonies always failed for some cause or another. Sometimes the colonists would return in disgust at the hardships which they had to endure. One colony was murdered by the Indians, and when help came nothing but ruins could be found, and one colony was lost, and its fate is unknown to this day. At last, in 1 606, a grant was given by the king to a company who could colonize any part of America claimed by the English and trade with the natives. Under this grant, a company of one hundred and five men set out for Virginia in three vessels. One-half of this number were gentlemen of broken fortunes, some were trades-people, and some were footmen. There was not a farmer or mechanic among them. There was one man in this band who was a born hero and leader, — John Smith. They came to the James river and laid the foundation of a set- tlement, which they named Jamestown, in honor of the king. Here were planted the seeds of the first settlement that took root and flourished. The colonists, unaccustomed to toil, worked manfully and erected their homes in the wilderness, and planted their wheat. When the summer came, the supply of food was low, and many of the settlers died from the heat and hardships ; but winter brought them better climate and abundant supplies of game and fish, with a good harvest of wheat. Smith set out to explore the country, was captured by the Indians ; and after puzzling them for a time with the mysteries of the pocket compass and the art of writing, was rescued from death by Pocahontas, the young daughter of the Indian chief, Powhatan, who had decided to kill him. When Smith returned from his captivity with the savages, he found his colony on the very point of breaking up. Only thirty-eight were living, and these were making preparations to leave. But the return of their leader inspired them with new nope, and they resumed their work. New colonists joined them from England, but they were of a class known as " vagabond gentlemen, who had packed off to escape worse destinies at home." The reputation of the colony was so bad, that we are told that some, rather than come to Virginia, " chose to be hung, and zverc." These were the undesirable subjects whom Smith was obliged to rule with an authority that none dared to question. But unfortunately for the colony, Smith was obliged to return to England to procure surgical treatment for an injury caused by an accidental discharge of gunpowder. In six months the colony was again reduced to sixty men, and 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 29 were making ready to depart, when Lord Baltimore, their new governor, came and prevented them. Once more the settlement was saved on the very verge of dissolution. Years of quiet growth followed, and a better class of emigrants came. There was a great demand for tobacco, — a new plant unknown to Europe until Sir Walter Raleigh introduced it into England ; — and the colonists found it growing in Virginia, and learned its cultivation from the natives. It was in extensive use among the Indians, and regarded as a medicine. The use of this plant spread in England very rapidly, and created a demand for its supply, and the Virginians found it a most profitable crop to cultivate. In the absence of money, tobacco became a medium of exchange among the colonists. Salaries of officers and ministers, fines in churches and State were paid with it. In a few years after the first settlement there was a written Constitution. They had a House of Parliament chosen by the people, and a governor sent out from England. The Episcopal church was recognized as the State church, and the colony was divided into parishes. A college was founded, and the Indians were friendly. The first white child born in America was here baptized by the name of Virginia Dare. Pocahontas went to England with her husband, a young colonist by the name of John Rolfe, where she was kindly received by the queen, and made the recipient of many favors; but she died at Gravesend, March, 1617, just as she was about to return to America with her husband. She left an infant son, from whom some of the noblest families of Virginia descended. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. ^^^W^\ LITTLE more than two centuries ago, the part of the IfSill^ United States we call New England, was one vast forest, ■.^l^^^'ls :*.'■ with here and there a little clearing where a few Indian Sfr^i I ?;" ■' ■■■» ° ■.«>I>1'' '■»" families made their temporary home, and raised their ^'-:j|\~ scanty supply of corn. But it was destined to become l^^h^ '^£j the abode of hardy and devout people, who by their .f -^ i^'iC^industiy and frugality were to lay the basis of a mighty ": nation upon the broad foundation-stones of civil and , religious liberty. % A noble band of men who were denied the liberty o-f worship [ which they desired in their own land, resolved to escape from ? England to Holland to find the freedom denied by their own ' countrymen. Mr. Robinson, a wise and good man, had been their minister, and after straggling bands of Pilgrims, as they were called, reached Holland, their pastor joined them. They remained here eleven years receiving additions, from time to time, from those who were anxious to be free from religious oppression. Then it was decided to establish 30 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 a new State in America where they could be free to worship God, and not fear any aUiances with the nations around them. Enough money was raised among them to equip and send one hundred of their number to the new world. A ship called the Mayflower was chartered to take them across the stormy Atlantic. On a morning in July this vanguard of freedom knelt on the sea-shore at Delftshaven to listen to the prayers of their pastor, and receive his parting blessing. The vessel was of one hundred and sixty tons burden, an old hulk which would not now be considered safe for a coast-wise trip in fair weather. After repeated delays, the expedition set sail in the early part of Sep- tember, 1620, and after a long and stormy voyage, dropped her anchor in the waters of Cape Cod Bay on the nth of November of the same year. It was a cold and barren coast which met their view, with low sand hills devoid of any vegetation except long grass and low dwarf trees. The Pilgrims hesitated so long about the place to begin a settlement, that the captain threatened to put them all on shore and leave them. They went out to explore, and finally chose a spot where they decided to found their colony. They landed on the 22nd of December upon Plymouth rock, and began the Colony which they called by the name of the city in England which they had left. Here they were in an unknown wilderness, the winter upon them with scant supplies and no shelter. But they worked manfully to build their little town, sadly hindered by the severe cold and the death of their comrades, who fell around them. They erected nineteen houses, sur- rounded them with a palisade, and then on the hill they erected a building which served the double purpose of a fort and a church. The severe winter passed, and when the spring came their numbers had been sadly reduced by death : but now the health and spirits of the survivors began to improve. The little band had signed a civil compact in the cabin of the Mayflower before they landed, in which they formed themselves into a government, and chose John Carver as their governor. They acknowledged King James as their sovereign, but were emphatically a self governing commonwealth. They had known enough of the despotism of Kings, and were quite sure that democracy could not be any worse, and they had faith to try tlie experiment. From this small beginning came the establishment of self-government over all the country. For some years, the difificulties which beset the infant colonists were well nigh insurmountable, but their faith failed not, and after a tim.e prosperity came to them. Each summer new additions were made to their number, of men and women who had caught the spirit of religious freedom, and sought to find here an as\'lum from the tyrannies to which they were subject in their old homes. Thus New England became the place of refuge to many of the wearied victims of persecution, and seemed a paradise to those who were i;:,;] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEME:;T. 31 denied the right to worship God according to the dictates of conscience. Whole congregations with their pastors came to swell the number. The men were stout of heart and patient in toil, and their industiy and labor brought them comfort. They were simple in manners and plain in dress ; their wants were few and these were supplied by the harvests of the autumn, by their success in hunting and fishing and by the flocks they raised. The women carded, spun and wove the wool. The men felled the forests and built houses and vessels, erected cities and formed new towns in the woods. The ships they built crossed the ocean and carried their freights of timber, fish and furs. Commerce sprung up and prosperity smiled upon the settlers. They early made friends with the Indians, and one of the most pleasant episodes in the early days of the Colony was the visit and friendly aid of Massasoit, a chief who lived at Sowansee, now Warren, Rhode Island. He came with his brother and si.xty warriors to the little settlement in March, 1621, the spring which followed the first severe winter in the new world. He made a league of friendship with the English, and for forty years was their staunch friend and protector, never failing them in ail their dangers and hardships. His influence saved the little band from destruction by the Narragansets. Two years after his visit the old chief was taken very sick, and would have died if the governor had not sent him Mr. Winslow who used simple remedies which effected a cure ; and in his great joy and gratitude he said, " Now I see that the English are my friends and love me, and while I live I will never forget the kindness they have shown me." The kindness of this Indian was of great value to the Colony as long' as he lived, and he was highly respected by them. The Colonists of New England paid great attention to the subject of education, believing that it was of vital importance to the preservation of the State and Church. In a few years schools began to appear, and a law was passed that every town of fifty freeholders should maintain a common school, and every town of one hundred, must sustain a grammar school. Some tolerably qualified brother was chosen and " entreated to become school- master. " Harvard College was established within fifteen years after the Pilgrim fathers landed at Plymouth. Twenty-three years after the landing, there were twenty-four thousand white people in New England. Forty-nine wooden towns, and four Colonies namely, Plymouth, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New Haven. There seemed at first a desire to scatter widely, push out into the wilderness, form new settlements and set up self-government, each for itself. But this separation could not long exist for there were other human beings in the wilderness beside the white settlers, and these had a prior claim there. Within calling distance there were Indians enough when aroused and com- bined to drive out all the colonists. And be\-ond the frontiers were French and Dutch settlements. So it came to pass that the four Colonies were forced to form themselves for mutual protection and encouragement, into a band called "The United Colonies of New England." This was the first confed- 32 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 eration in a land which was destined afterwards to estabhsh this form of government on a scale the world had never seen before. Nor was this done any too soon, for there were troublous times to come, and these earnest God- fearing men found that they would need all the strength which a united assistance and a common bond would bring. Massasoit was dead, and all the efforts of the English to Christianize and civilize the natives had produced but little effect. THE INDIAN WAR. 'HE great Indian Apostle, Rev. John Eliot, was the pastor of the church at Roxbury. He was moved by pity to carry the Gospel to the tribes around him. and for this purpose learned their language, and translated the Bible by means of an alphabet of his own. He preached to them in their own tongue, and many became converts. He even attempted to establish a college for the Indian youth, but was obliged to abandon this undertaking on account of their natur:d love of idleness and strong drink. They would not work. Tliey could indeed be taught to rest on the Sabbath, but the}^ would not labor on the other six days. This was a great cause of f?0 hindrance, but in spite of the general discouragement, there y^Sf were many noble exceptions, and the hold which Christianity took upon those who accepted it was never wholly lost. In the Indian wars which arose, the converts were never found fighting against the English, but usually united in aiding them. At length came the short but bitter war with King Philip, the younger son of the old chief, Massasoit, the friend of the colonies. Even his enemies will acknowledge that this savage chief was a hero. The noble old chief who had been faithful to his early friendship with the English, had two sons, whom governor Winslow had named Alexander and Philip. Alexander had succeeded his father, but had died, and Philip had become chief. He was noble-hearted', patriotic, and filled with good sense. He was a statesman as well as a warrior, and at first was friendly to the settlers. But he saw that the whites were crowding year by year upon his domain ; still he kept the treaties which his father had made, and even submitted to grave insults from the white men. There came a time when he could endure this no longer, and he arose in war against them. The war spread throughout New England, and the colonies of Plymouth and Massachusetts united to meet them. In a week the Indian chief was driven out of his beautiful home on Mount Hope, Rhode Island, and went a fugitive to other tribes, arousing them to vengeance. The whites thought the ^\■ar was over, but it had just begun. The powerful tribes of the Narragansets joined in the war. The Indians avoided the white troops, and carried on the 1/33] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. 33 warfare, after their savage fashion, by plundering towns and villages, and killing defenceless women and children. Whole villages were wiped out, and no one could feel safe. The fields, the homes, the churches, the very beds of the poor colonists were liable to be attacked without warning, and a general massacre of all would follow. Out of one hundred towns twehe were entirely destroyed, and more than forty others were more or less plundered. Josiah Winslow, with a brave band of settlers, captured the principal fort of the Narragansets, which stood where South Kingston, Rhode Island, now is, and destroyed it. Their chief, Canonchet, was soon afterwards taken, and offered his life if he would submit ; but he proudly refused. When he was condemned to death, he said, " I like it well ; I shall die before I speak anj-thing unworthy of myself." The close of 1675 brought an end to the war, King Philip saw that he could not prevent the other tribes from making peace, and the most of his own warriors had fallen. When he heard that his wife and child had been taken by the English, he exclaimed in his anguish, " My heart breaks; now I am ready to die." He was shot in the swamp by a traitor Indian, and his body given to Church, the captain of a party who were pursuing them. According to custom, the head of Philip was severed from his body, and carried on a pole to Plymouth, where it was set up in sight of the people for a number of days. The body was quartered and hung on trees. In this way did our enlightened ancestors retaliate upon the Indian warrior and statesman, who labored and fought for the rights of his tribe. There were now scarcely one hundred of the Narragansets left, and their last Sachem, the sole survivor of the family of Massasoit, was carried to Bermuda and sold into slavery. Annawon was the next in command over the Indian forces after the escape of Philip, and the same captain, Benjamin Church, who had taken the head of the king to Plymouth, was sent to capture him. Church became separated from his company, and had only one white man and five friendly Indians when he heard where Annawon and his band of fifty warriors were encamped. These men succeeded in surprising the chief, and taking him a captive to Boston, where he was put to death by the English, after he had surrendered all the royal emblems of Philip. The whites had no excuse for this act of wanton cruelty. 't^^W ""^'^ 34 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1609 SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK AND PENNSYLVANIA. ^ ENDRICK HUDSON, an explorer in the employ of the Dutch, had discovered and sailed up the river which bears his name, in the year 1609. Three or four years after the Pilgrims had landed at Plymouth, the Dutch West India Company resolved to establish a f^0^^^^^^^^^ trading post with the Indians. They sent out a ^1^^'^^''^^ settlement in 1623, which located on Manhattan island 0,0^0"'" at the north of the Hudson, and built a town which they called New Amsterdam. They grew rich and numerous, until a war broke out with the Indians, who drove the settlers to the southern extremity of the island, and they built a wall across the island where Wall Street is now situated. The war came to an end, and for twenty years after there was a time of peace and prosperity under the government of a wise and sagacious man, Peter Stuyvesant. While his government was not faultless, the city flourished under it, and a continued flow of emigration came in from Europe. In the year 1664, when Peter was away from home, an English fleet appeared in the harbor to demand the territorj.' in the name of their sovereign. Charles II. had given his brother James of York, a large tract of country, embracing the land on which the Dutch city stood. Peter at first was willing to fight them single-handed ; but the English settlers would not fight against their king, and the Dutch, ^■^■ho remembered some of the petty tyrannies of Peter would not join him. At length he yielded to the entreaties of two ministers and many of the people, and the city of fifteen hundred inhabitants quietly passed into the hands of the English, and its name was changed to New York. With this city the Dutch also gave up their settlements in New Jersey, which they had taken from the Swedes, and so the English had the Atlantic coast from Massachusetts Bay to Georgia. 1733] THE AGE OF DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT. iwr% THE LAND OF PENN. ILLIAM PENN, the son of an English admiral, who had won many noted victories for the Crown, became a Quaker, to the dismay of his friends, just at the time ^ a briUiant future spread out before him. At first the father was furious and turned his son out of doors, hoping that hunger would soon cause him to recant : but the admiral relented and restored him to favor. c?^ ^'^t/^ When his father died, soon after the reconciliation, young Penn - ;^^t, inherited his possessions, and among the rest a claim for $8o,000 Mm^ due the admiral from the king. Penn, who had formed in his mind a design to establish a settlement in America for the persecuted members of his own sect, offered to take payment of the king in land ; and Charles was ready enough to bestow upon his subject a vast region stretching westward from the Delaware River. Penn then came to America with the noble purpose of founding a free and self governing State, where, as he said, he could show men as free and " as happy as they can be." He proclaimed to the men who were already settled within his territory, " Whatever sober and free men can reasonably desire, I will comply with." He was true to his word ; and when they sent representatives his people met them and a Constitution was framed. Penn confirmed this arrangement. He also dealt honorably and kindly with the Indians, and bought their lands of them, and in return they respected and loved him. The conference with the natives was held under a large elm which stood in the forest where Philadelphia now is, and a monument marks the spot. All was to be " openness and love," and " no advantage was to be taken on either side." For long years the Indians recounted the words of Penn, and the blood of a Quaker was never shed by an Indian on the soil cf Pennsylvania. The fame of Penn's new State went abroad to all lands, and it grew verj- rapidly with grave and God-fearing men, w^ho came from all parts of Europe. During the first year, two thousand persons arrived, and Philadelphia became a town of six hundred houses. A few years later Penn returned to England, and reported that " things went on sweetly with the Friends in Pennsylvania : that they increased finely, in outward things and in wisdom." The settlement of Pennsylvania was founded in 1682, 36 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 at /^; ^''^\S^ SETTLEMENTS IN THE OTHER COLONIES. HE thirteen original States were Virginia, Massachu- setts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Connecticut was settled by men and women from Massachusetts, in two colonies. One came through the wilderness and settled in Windsor above Hartford ; the other came by water and settled in New Haven. Rhode Island was settled by Roger Williams, a minister of Salem, who declared that the State had to do with the " bodies and goods and outward estates " of men. In the domain of conscience God alone was the ruler. He was ~^„, , , r^ banished and went to Rhode Island, where he obtained a grant ^tM ] iJ^i'^f land from the Indians and laid the foundation of a new '" ~ ' ^'^ State. He founded the city of Providence and proclaimed that his settlement was to become a " shelter for persons distressed for conscience sake." And so has it ever been. New Hampshire was settled by colonists from Massachusetts, of which it was a part from 1641 to 1C79. Delaware was named in honor of Lord Delaware, who came to Virginia to aid the colony at Jamestown, in 161 1. It was first settled by the Swedes, in the year 1627, and passed, as we have seen, into the hands of the Dutch and then to the English. Penn annexed it to his new State. In the year 1703, it was returned to its former condition as a separate colony. Maryland was first settled in 1631, by a band of adventurers from Virginia, under one Captain Clayborne, and received a charter from the king making it a distinct province, named after the queen, his wife. New Jersey was first settled by the Dutch in 1612, and then by the Swedes and Danes. It afterwards passed into the hands of the English when they took possession of New York in 1664. North Carolina was permanently settled under a grant from King Charles II., in 1663. John Locke, the celebrated Scotch metaphysician, wrote a code of laws which were in force in this colony for twenty-five years. South Carolina received its first well-defined settlement in 1663, under a charter from Charles II., when a number of English noblemen built a city at Port Royal, and established themselves in a government. The city of Charleston, named in honor of the king, was founded in 1680, and thereafter the growth of the colony was very rapid. Georgia was the latest of the colonies, and the farthest south of any of the English possessions in America during the time of colonial history. It was settled in 1733, when General Oglethorpe founded the city of Savannah. He obtained a charter from Charles II. of all the land between the Savannah River and the Altamaha, extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. It was o» r^-^ "Weil 40 ^Xongiliide from Greenwi Beliritig jfJan 3Iai/en -, ^»^^, Un ijQJu Tanning I Starbuct S^ — > JORTI''c»f u iSandwic/iJslands .3faW«,.i-. EQUATOR POLYNESIA ' ' • '• Xow AtcW) ctaga Jilcairn lilajid '' Gai/t?>ie r YxfatJdn ^ _ _ .z'' St.FeTix TsTan^ ^^stef Island. ? q S O rj^f JI^ ^ O C E J 1^ "Wclliviton Js. UNPoftheWO/?/^^ n., PUBLISHERS ,^v^' ^ , GflV'sSTAigDAHOHlSTORIES. tj/loAlegro yXiuae laJttlat. r J"- • \ Bntburs GoljC^ \Gu Capi San Jioque- \ K.Sait lEtancisco J ' \ StJTehva 3e Janeiio C^< Strati of. 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A 1 1 A»t;p»d.i^ So as the time of separation drew near the governors found their powers very much circumscribed by the heavy pressure which the Assembly brought to bear upon them. When the governor as the king's representative had a falling out with the popular will as expressed by the representatives of the Commonwealth they assumed the whole business of government. They were in fact, a self-governing people who held a pride in their connection with the mother country, but if their governors encroached too much upon their rights, they were ready to resist them to the utmost. Virginia had two councils at first, one appointed by the king, and the other elected by the colonists, but both were under control of the king. In a few years the representative system prevailed, but the governor retained the power of veto. She was more closely allied to the Crown than the more northern colonies, and remained loyal to the Stuarts. Charles II. ruled her while in exile, and Virginia refused to recognize the dictator, Cromwell. Refugees from England were gladly received during these troublous times, and when the Stuarts were returned, her joy was unbounded. On the other hand the colonists of New England had come to America to get rid of kingly rule, and were of a different spirit and temper. In the little cabin of the Mayflower they had signed their compact of government and selected their own governor. Every member of the church was an elector, and could hold office. This democratic form of government continued for sixty years, until the despotic James II. took it away and appointed a governor of his own choosing. They cordially supported Cromwell, and hesitated for two years after the restoration of Charles II. before they recognized him as their king. These colonies were the most democratic and the least tolerant of kingly interference of any of the colonies in the New World. New York, which had been given to the Duke of York, had its governor appointed by him. Pennsylvania was bestowed upon Penn, who had a right to name its governor. But at last all the colonies came to receive a governor from the king. Connecticut held out longer than the rest, and when the governor, appointed by the king, came to Hartford to 42 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1755 demand the charter of the colony ; it was hidden in the hollow of an oak tree, afterward known as the Charter Oak. While the colonies had as yet no thought of separation from the Old Country they were still in the presence of a common enemy. The French had taken Canada and the present State of Louisiana, and thus were stretching down from the north, and up from the south, a line of trading posts and settlements, which was a continual menace to the western frontier of the colonies. The French were inciting the Indians to attack the English, and there were constant incursions upon the pioneers who were moving westward from the coast. Sooner or later the trial of strength must come between these rival forces. The French claimed the Mississippi River and the fertile valley of the Ohio. To establish this claim, they sent three hundred soldiers into this valley and nailed upon the trees leaden plates bearing the French coat of arms, and drove out the scattering English who had ventured there. The English, on their part, had given large grants of land to a trading company, who agreed to colonize the valley, establish trading relations with the natives, and a competent military force. This was in 1749, and then the two nations were preparing for war. The home government left the colonies to carry on the struggle for themselves. Virginia raised a little army and appointed a young man of twenty-one, in whom they had great confidence to command it. His name was George Washington ; a name destined, a few years later, to become famous over the whole world. He started for a fort on the Ohio, to hold it as an out-post against the French, but after toiling on in the pathless forest for six weeks, he received intelligence that the French were coming towards him with a force far out-numbering his. He halted and built a fort, which he called Fort Necessity, because his men were half starved while building it. Nor did they build it any too soon ; for the French attacked the fort, and after a brave resistance, W^ashington was obliged to surrender, upon honorable terms, and return to Virginia. This campaign was honorable to Washington, but resulted in no especial advantage to the colonies. This contest between the colonies of French and English was going on for a year and a half before war was declared between the two great nations. But the English were aroused to the necessity of doing something to secure the rich Ohio valley, and they sent Edward Braddock, an officer of distinction, with two regiments of soldiers, to aid the colonies. He began his campaign in 1755, with two thousand troops. He had learned the best rules of war in the broad battle fields of Europe, but was perfectly unacquainted with the rude tactics of the W^est. Wash- ington was invited to join his staff, and the young man eager to retrieve his loss in the former campaign, assented. The English general started on his march, June loth, to reach Fort Duquesne, on the Ohio, the great center of French power in the valley. Ohio was the objective point of Washington in his former expedition, and was deemed of great importance. This fort had been built by the English and taken from them by the French. Benjamin 1759] THE COLONIAL PERIOD. 43 Franklin told General Braddock that " he would undoubtedly take the fort if he could reach it, but the long slender line which his army must form on the march would be cut like a thread in several pieces by the hostile Indians." Braddock "smiled at his ignorance." Franklin offered no further opinion, but performed his duties of collecting horses and equipage for the army. The young aid-de-camp, Washington, offered some suggestions based on his •experience, but the general would not listen to any advice from a provincial subordinate. No scouts were sent out, and the commander did not know how near his unseen foes might be. He was marching along a road twelve feet wide, when suddenly an Indian war-hoop burst upon the air, and a murderous fire opened upon them. The battle lasted three hours and General Braddock was killed. " Who would have thought it ? " said the dying man as they carried him from the field. Washington was the only mounted ofificer who remained unharmed, while the regulars, seeing their general fall, fled in confusion. But young Washington rallied the provincials and covered the retreat of the regulars with such a desperate defense that the Indians did not follow. One half of the entire force had been killed, and the remainder returned, disheartened and broken, at the end of a disastrous expedition. War was now proclaimed between France and England, and the siege of Quebec by the English General Wolfe followed. This was the crowning achievement of a long and tedious war which established the English in possession of Canada, and saved the Northwest to the Anglo-Saxon crown. The English fleet came to Quebec in June, 1759, with a large force. Captain James Cook, the famous navigator, who had been the first to sail around the world, was in charge of one of the ships, and General Wolfe had command of the army. The city was divided into an upper town, on the Iieights of Abraham, beyond the reach of the guns from the fleet, and a lower town, on the banks of the river. The lower town was quickly reduced, but the upper town held out against any attempt of the English. But the enthusiastic young general was not to be baffled, and carefully searched the coast for miles around. He found an opening where a path led up to the heights above, and here Wolfe resolved to land his men, lead an attack and capture the French position, or perish in the attempt. One night in September, he landed his men silently, and they quietly clambered up the high hill, while the sailors contrived to drag up a few heavy guns. When the morning rose the whole army stood on the Heights of Abraham. Montcalm, the French commander, was so taken by surprise at the presence of the enemy, that he refused to believe the first report which came to him. But he lost no time in forming his line of battle, and made a fierce and bloody contest with his unexpected assailants. Both generals fell in the conflict, Wolfe dying happy at the thought of the French defeat. As his blood was flowing he heard the shouts, " They fly ! They fly!" He raised his head to ask, "Who fly?" "The French," was the answer. "Then I die content," said the hero. The French General died thankful he was not 44 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [I75S compelled to surrender to the English. These men died as enemies but after-generations blended the two names upon a common monument, which marks out to posterity the scene of this decisive battle. The French made an ineffectual attempt to regain Quebec the following year. In due time the French surrendered Canada to the English ; at the same time, Spain gave up Florida to England ; and thus the English held undisputed possession of America from the regions of perpetual ice and snow to the Gulf of Mexico. All these contests with the savages and the French had fallen with heaviest weight upon the colonists, although they had received some assistance from the home government in the latter part of the struggle. The colonies had poured out then- blood and treasure without stint and were loyal to their King. They were proud of the mother country, and were willing to do their utmost to support the honor of the English flag. A hundred and fifty years had passed since the settlement of the feeble colonies on the Atlantic coast They were self-sustaining and prosperous and their increase in numbers ancl wealth was most remarkable. Thousands were coming every year to seek their fortunes in the West. America opened her wide arms to the oppressed and offered them the blessing of liberty and comfort. The thirteen colonies had increased to a population of three millions and were upon the eve of a mighty struggle. m. THE GATHERING CLOUD. )^^1^^'^!R ^ may be a natural question to ask, how it came to pass ^^ifivi * fe'L'ifeiiw i^'i^t in the short space of ten or twelve years the ^A^ ISI" ^-Arifci affection and respect which the colonies had for England, which they still fondly called " home," were changed to ^|[1 hatred and a desire for separation ? What cause had ^^® been at work to sever the bonds of attachment, and 1- ■*\^4,:-^:■ "^[''W''"' " awaken the mighty spirit of resistance which spread all r'T^te' over the country ? For generations they had spoken the same ^j^ language, and had a common code of laws, while glorying in the ^jv^^l^ history of the past. \k?Pi- England was the model in all things, and to be an " Old j^-M J^ England man " gave one a prestige and position among the 1-^ colonists ; while all yielded a willing obedience to her laws. They s^p^ were governed, as Benjamin Franklin had said, " at the mere expense of ink and paper." Money was voted without grudge by their assemblies, and all the relations between the colonies and the home government were of the pleasantest kind, and such was their love for England that " they were led by a thread." But a wonderful change was wrought in the public mind, and the aroused people resolved in their public gathering by the most solemn compact, that they would not use any article of English manufacture, or engage in any transaction which would bring money into the pockets of the English. They tarred and feathered any person who expressed friendliness for the British, 46 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 and burned the acts of Parliament by the common hangman. They fired upon the king's soldiers, and resisted the authority of the king's government. In fact, the thirteen colonies were in open rebellion and armed resistance. What had caused this wonderful change, and how were three millions of obedient subjects taught to despise and fight against the very men whom they had before regarded as fellow countrymen ? The answer to these questions can be summed up in one sentence. The persistent ignorance and folly of the English government, urged on by cupidity and a desire to wring out of the prosperous colonies a rich revenue to replenish the depleted treasury of the country that had become exhausted in the expensive wars of Europe, wrought all this evil, and lost to the English crown her richest possessions in the western world. The result was that a new nation was formed that was destined to become the leading power of Christendom, but it would have been better if she had gone in peace, and thus not engendered an animosity that lasted for two generations, and led to two disastrous wars between men of the same language and religion. We come now to the story of this struggle. England had shown for many years a disposition to govern her American colonies in a spirit of harshness and undisguised selfishness. The interest of England was the chief object, and not the good of the colonies. No foreign vessels could land in American ports, and woolen fabrics could not be taken from one colony to another. At one time the manufacture of hats was forbidden. Iron works were prohibited, and up to the last the Bible could not be printed in America. The colonies had borne the expense of their own governments and defenses, but now the long-continued struggle had left the treasury of England very low, and Parliament came to discuss the propriety of taxing the colonies for the benefit of the home government. The eager eye of Lord Greenville was searching for something new to tax, and he saw that America was growing rich and powerful. The English officers who had served in the West, had brought back the most glowing accounts of its resources and prosperity. The English merchants were already envious of their increasing wealth. When the House of Commons passed their resolution setting forth their right to tax the colonies, not a single voice or vote opposed the measure. Thereupon an act was passed imposing a tax upon silks, sugar, coffee, and other articles used in the colonies. The Americans remonstrated, and claimed that taxation and representation should go together ; they were willing to vote what money the king might require of them, but they would not pay taxes when they had no voice in laying them. But Lord Greenville, who thought the Americans would finally submit, persisted in his course. The act called the Stamp Act was passed at the next session of Parliament in 1765, this required a government stamp on all legal documents. Benjamin Franklin told the House of Commons that America would never submit to this, and no power on earth could enforce it. Nor could England long misunderstand the position of the colonies upon this 1765] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 47 question. Everywhere in New England riots were raised, and the Stamp Act was denounced. The stamp distributors were obh'ged to resign. A universal protest that Ihey would not eat, drink, or use anything which came from England, was passed by the citizens everywhere. The act came in force November 1st, 1765, and on that day the bells tolled, and the people appeared as if some great public calamity had fallen upon them. Not a stamp was sold in America, but business went on all the same, men were married, and bought and sold their goods. The courts were held and all the functions of government went on ; but all this was illegal because it was done without stamps. Yet no serious harm came of it. The English were astonished, and some demanded that the Stamp Act be enforced with the sword, but the British merchants feared the loss of their trade with(.the colonies if this were done. William Pitt, afterwards the Earl of Chatham, joined with the merchants and caused a repeal of the law the very next year. But stupid old King George never ceased to regret " the fatal repeal of the Stamp Act." The first inter-colonial Congress was raised during this excitement. It met at New York, but did little else than agitate and discuss the situation of things. It accomplished a good design in showing the tendency of Union between the States. The approaching crisis was delayed for a little time by the repeal of the Stamp Act. But when the feeling in England was stormy against the colonies, Charles Townshend, the virtual Prime Minister of England, during the sickness of Pitt, proposed to levy various taxes on America. All his proposed measures became laws. The most obnoxious of them was a tax of three pence a pound on tea. This act was passed in 1767. The Americans despaired of justice and right from the English Parliament, yet they hardly dared to think of open separation, but already the most thoughtful among them were becoming fixed in their opinion as to what the issue would be. They protested, they appealed, they held large public meetings, and everywhere the people were inflamed with a sense of their injuries, other laws restricting the liberties of America were passed by Parliament, and the people resorted to the last step in the solution of the fearful problem. Riots were raised, the foreign officials were resisted, and public meetings were held to deliberate upon their grievances. English troops were sent across the ocean to preserve order. Their presence was galling to the citizens, who could not brook this restraint upon their liberty. The press, the pulpit, and the assemblies of representatives in all the colonies were bold in their utterances against the tyranny of the old country. The General Court of Massachusetts, called on their governor to remove the soldiers, but he was powerless. The governor called upon the court to raise money to maintain the troops, and they took infinite pleasure in refusing to 48 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 raise money for that purpose. Then came the Boston massacre, in which the troops fired upon the citizens, and killed and wounded eleven persons. This inflamed the zeal of the patriots still more, and the entire populace was aroused. The people again demanded the removal of the troops from the city, and the trial of the soldiers for murder. This was complied with, and two of the soldiers were found guilty of murder, by a Boston jury. Parliament now wavered in its treatment of America, and removed all the duties, except the small one on tea. But they had mistaken the feeling of their colonies. It was not the amount of the tax to which they objected^ but the principal of taxation without representation. In the spring of 1773, ships laden with the taxed tea, appeared in the bay of Boston. The crisis has now arrived. Although it is Sunday, a council was called in the exigency. If that tea is landed, it will be sold and liberty will become a by-word in America. Samuel Adams, a man of strict integrity and powerful eloquence as a speaker and writer, was the true leader of the revolt in Massachusetts. He was one of the first who saw at the outset that there could be no stopping- place short of independence. " We are free," he said, " and want no king." He assumed the leadership of his fellows, and was worth)' of the trust. They hoped that the officers of the East Indian Company, in whose employ the ships were engaged, would send them back, but they refused. Days of intense excitement followed. Public meetings were held constantly in an old building, Faneuil Hall, afterward known as the cradle of American liberty. One day the debate waxed hot, and the people continued together till night-falL Samuel Adams announced, " This meeting can do nothing more to save the country," and with a shout it broke up. The excited crowd hastened down to the wharf, led by fifty men disguised as Indians. This band of disguised men, rushed on ship board, broke open the boxes of tea, and poured their contents into the harbor. The crowd looked on in silence, and not a sound was heard but the striking of the hatchets, and the splash of the ruined tea in the water. That cargo of tea would bring no taxes into the English treasury, that was certain. This was the night of December i6th, 1773, and was the first move of the colonists toward open resistance. Then they waited to see what might be the next move of England. Lord North was then Prime Minister of the English Crown, and he determined to deal harshly with such men. The port of Boston was closed as a port of entry and sailing for shipping ; a heavy fine Avas imposed for the destruction of the tea. The charter of Massachusetts was revoked, and the governor was ordered to send political offenders to England for trial. In spite of the remonstrance of Lord Chatham, and of Edmund Burke, these measures became laws. Four regiments of regulars were sent to Boston, under the command of General Gage. The Americans held a day of fasting and prayer. More than this, they organized military companies, and began the process of equipment and drill. While all this was going on in the northen provinces, the other Colonies were not idle, but Massachusetts received 1/75] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 49 the heaviest blows of vengeance. An invitation to all the Colonies to meet in General Congress at Philadelphia, on the fifth day of September, 1774, was sent out by the sturdy Representatives, who met in Salem, Massachusetts. Twelve States sent delegations to this Congress. Georgia, the youngest and most southern of the thirteen Colonics, alone stood trembling upon the verge of the perilous enterprise. The first General Congress of the American States, met in Carpenter's Hall, in the city of Philadelphia, on the 5th day of September, 1774, agreeable to this call. The regular business of the Congress, began on the 7th, and was opened with prayer. In all their proceedmgs, decorum, firmness, moderation and loyalty were manifested, and the delegates voted to adjourn to the loth day of the following May, unless the English Crown in the meantime should redress their grievances. But King George was blind and stubborn. Lord Chatham said in open Parliament of the men who formed this Continental Congress : " For solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under such a complication of circumstances, no nation, or bod)' of men can stand in preference to the General Congress in Phila- delphia." Peyton Randolph, of Virginia, was President, and Charles Thompson, of Pennsylvania, was secretary of this body. George Washington, Patrick Henry, John Routledge, Richard Henry Lee, John Dickinson, and other men of that stamp were there. Washington assures us that this Congress did not aim at independence, but a removal of wrongs. The time was ripe for open resistance, and the patriots of Massachusetts were busy in the autumn and winter of 1774, in making preparations for war, and uniting the people to meet the storm that was sure to come. so HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 THE BURSTING OF THE STORM. O alternative M-as now left to the colonists, and they saw that they must fight for their liberties or forego them altogether. Throughout the State of Massachu- setts, where the heel of the oppressor was planted the heaviest, the most active preparations were in progress. 1^ Minute men were drilling, and stores of arms and where 3-0 ammunition were being collected in central places, they would be considered safe from seizure by the British. The press and the pulpit vied with the rostrum in their bold defiance of the aggression of the soldiers. Fathers and sons were urged on by their wives and mothers, and the spirit of freedom incited them to deeds of danger and sacrifice. The ofificers of the English Government were insulted, the soldiers defied, and the laws set at defiance. Such was the condition of things when the spring of 1775 dawned upon the conflict. This is regarded as the first year of the long struggle of seven years which was to test the strength of the young country in her contest with the victorious armies of English warriors who came fresh from the battle-fields of Europe. General Gage, the commander of the British forces in Boston, had learned that a large amount of military stores were secreted at Concord, eighteen miles away. He decided to send an expedition to seize it in the king's name. He sent eight hundred soldiers upon the errand. To prevent the tidings from being carried to the patriots the general forbade any one going out of Boston. The troops were silently, landed at the foot of the Common, where the tide then reached, under the pretence of learning a new kind of drill. Doctor Warren, afterwards killed at Bunker Hill, made arrangements with his friend, Paul Revere, to carry " the tidings to every Middlesex village and farm." Young Revere escaped from Boston in a small boat just five minutes before the guard was stationed to prevent any one from leaving the city. He was to notify Hancock and Adams who were at Lexington, and to arouse the people all along the route. Revere waited on the Charlestown shore until his friend should learn how the British were to proceed. He was to hang a lantern in the North Church tower, " one if by land and two if by sea." At the instant the twin lights appeared upon the tower, he dashed off in the darkness and spread the tidings. He reached Lexington and warned Hancock and Adams. Then he proceeded toward Concord, but was arrested by a British guard, not, however, until he had communicated the news to a friend, who carried it forward. The British crossed the Charles River and marched all night, and reached Lexington just as day was breaking. The minute men were called by the 1775] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 51 beating of the drum, and sixty or seventy farmers stood in their ranks to meet ten times as many trained soldiers. There they stood on the Common, in the cold frosty morning as the regulars came up. Captain John Parker had ordered them not to fire on the British until they had first fired on them. Major Pitcairn rode up and ordered the " villains " and " rebels," with an oath to disperse, and instantly commanded his men to fire on them. The captain of the Continentals had intended to disperse his men, but the fire of the British had killed eleven and wounded nine, one-fourth of the whole. The British fire was returned only by a few of the wounded men ; not an Englishman was harmed. But the war had begun by the cold-blooded murder of Americans on their own soil. It was no battle and the act of the British ofificer was nothing less than wanton murder. Samuel Adams said when he heard it, " Oh ! what a glorious morning this is," knowing that it would rally and unite all the people. The regulars cheered over their triumph of sixty or seventy farmers, who had not attacked them, and pressed on to Concord. They reached here at seven in the morning, but were too late, for the news of their coming had preceded them several hours. The military stores had most of them been removed and hidden away, and but little remained for them to destroy. In the mean time the towns all around had been aroused, and the militia were pouring in from every direction. There were not enough to attack the troops, nor was there any serious thoughts of doing so, and they were with- drawn from the village of Concord to a hill on the other side of the river. The British scattered to find the concealed stores, and one party went ove> the north bridge and one over the south. As the party went over the north bridge, the provincial troops, if troops we could call them, were in plain sight, and therefore, a part of the regulars, about one hundred, were left to guard the bridge, while the rest, about the same number, went over. The Continentals saw the British at the bridge and could see the smoke that arose across the bridge. What should they do ? see their houses burned and not go to the rescue of their wives and children ? They consulted and agreed to march down to the bridge, but not a man was to fire until they had been fired upon. The British saw them coming and began to tear up the bridge. The Continentals hurried on and the British fired upon them, — at first one or t^vo shots by which no harm was done ; then more shots were fired ; two men were wounded ; a whole volley and two of the patriots were killed. " Vire ! fellow soldiers ; for God's sake, fire ! " cried Captain John Buttrick, leaping into the air and turning to his men. This began the American revolution. Two British were killed and several injured. Blood had been shed by men in armed rebellion, and the men who had done it were rebels ai,d traitors. There could be no backward steps now, and the contest must wage till one or the other side should give in. This was the battle of Concord, and the first ' f the war. " British retreated from the town, as quickly as possible toward 52 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1755 Lexington and Boston. It had been a mild winter followed by an early spring, and the day was intensely hot. The provision train which was to supply them with food had been taken, and all they could get was what they might plunder from the citizens. Nor was this the worst, for the minute men without any orders from their ofificers, but each on his own account, lay in ambush behind trees and fences and stone-walls, where they were safe, and kept up a harassing fire upon the retreating British to the very shelter of their ships. As the troops would pass by one place the patriots would go forward by by-paths and fire upon them again from another position. When one party became worn out, fresh recruits would come up from the surrounding country, and thus the war was kept up all along the distressing march back to Boston. The march was kept up in good order at first, v." were shocked by the fratricidal war and dreaded its consequences ; *-vM^'y.. some were conscientious loyalists who thought the patriots were guilty of treason ; some were renegades who had private grievances to settle, and some were bribed by offers of British possessions and gold. All of them, from the peaceful Quaker and Moravian who would rather suffer than fight, to the lawless assassin who would kill for pay, were termed tories. We have spoken of two, Johnson and Butler. The latter, Colonel John Butler, was in command of a body of tories from Niagara, and he came southward inciting the Indians to arise against the settlers. They gathered at Tioga early in June, 1778, and ijSj] the war of independence. 75 by the 1st of July mustered eleven hundred whites and Indians, the latter from the head waters of the Susquehanna. They entered the beautiful Wyoming Valley the 2nd of July. This was a part of the State of Pennsylvania. The strong men were mostly in the distant army on duty ; the aged men with the women and children and a very few trained soldiers were ail that were left in this defenceless valley. Colonel Zebulon Butler, a native of Connecticut, who had been in the early Indian and French wars, with a small force of four hundred men marched up the valley to drive the tory Butler and his Indians back. They were met by the savage foe and after a fearful conflict were most of them killed or taken prisoners July 4th, 1778. A few of them made their escape to Forty Fort where the families of the settlers were gathered for shelter and defence. The invaders swept like a storm cloud down the valley and surrounded the fort, where contrary to expectation they offered humane terms of surrender. They returned to their homes in fancied security, but the Indians could not be held in restraint, and plundered and burned, slaughtered and butchered on every hand. They scattered in every direction at sunset and when the darkness of night settled upon the scene twenty burning houses sent up their lurid flames to the sky. The cry of women and children went up from every field and house, and many who fled to the Wilkesbarre mountains and the black morasses of the Pocono, perished from exposure and starvation. That dark region between the valley and the Delaware is very appropriately termed the Shades of Death. Thus was enacted the most shameful crime committed among the many that disgraced the action of the English during the war. Joseph Brant, a Mohawk Indian, who had adhered to the English, had gone with war parties south of the Mohawk River, and joined, with their allies, Johnson, the tory leader, and together they attacked the settlement of Cherry Valley, killed many of the people, and carried the rest into captivity. Such was the alarm in all that region that for months no eye was closed in security. The country for a hundred miles around was called the dark and bloody ground. The record of that one county in New York, — Tryon County, it is now called, — for four years, would fill a large volume. To such severe straights had the British government come in their contest with a united people fighting for their freedom. The Americans had a great account to settle with the tories who had already been the cause of much bloodshed and misery and were always a source of strength and information to the British. 76 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 THE WAR IN 1779-1780. '^ HE Continental army had gained much in the former campaign although the spring of 1779 opened with the forces in the same relative position as the spring before. But the American army was in better condition and material than ever previous. France was in active sympathy with the States, and they were learning how to conduct naval operations and the art of civil government. The power of the British in the States north of the Potomac was becoming weak and the field of conflict was to be changed to the sparsely settled South. The French fleet had sailed to the West Indies to attack the English possessions there, and this drew away a part of the English force with some of their ships. Altogether the conditions of the conflict were bright for the side of America. The chief embar- rassment was the fact of a large issue of scrip of the government in the place of money, and its large depreciation in value. This Continental currency had neither the binding force of a promise to pay in gold or silver, nor the pledge of public credit. In the spring of 1779, Washington, in conference with a committee of Congress, matured a plan of campaign for the year. He was to act on the defensive so far as the English were concerned, and on the ofTensive in dealing with the Indians and tories. The British troops were to be confined to the sea coast and the Indians and their unholy allies were to be severely punished wherever a blow could be struck. The English had already sailed to the South and subjugated the whole State of Georgia, making their head-quarters in the capital, which they held until nearly the close of the war, even after the rest of the State had been recovered. The patriots of Georgia and South Carolina contended with the invaders bravely and punished them at many points, but were overcome by superior numbers. They were kept out of Charleston and obliged to retire to Georgia, where General Prevost came up from Florida to join the English and assume command of the forces. In the North the British were sending out marauding parties to harass the citizens along the sea coast. Such an expedition under General Tryon came to Greenwich, Connecticut, to attack General Putnam. The Americans were dispersed but rallied at Stamford and drove the invaders back, recaptured a part of their plunder, and harassed them all the way back to New York. An expedition under command of Sir George Collier sailed up Hampton Roads into the Elizabeth River, and laid the country waste on both sides from the Roads to Norfolk and Portsmouth. The last part of the same month two forts on the Hudson were captured by the same fleet, Stony Point and Verplanck's Point. These exploits ended. General Tryon went to New i;S2] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 71 Haven, Connecticut, and burned that city, also East Haven, Fairfield and Norwalk, and boasted of his extreme clemency in leaving a single house standing on the coast. The Americans were not idle all this time, but were making" ready to strike heavy and unexpected blows at different pomts. Three^days after the burning of Norwalk the Fort at Stony Point was captured by Colonel Anthony Wayne, who secretly attacked it on the night of July 15th, 1779, with ball and bayonet, and captured it after a strong resistance. This was one of the most brilliant exploits of the war. Another brilliant achievement followed this, the capture of a British force at Jersey City by General Henry Lee, August 19th, but the joy which these events occasioned was changed to sorrow by disaster in the extreme East. Massachusetts fitted out an expedition of forty vessels to sail to the Penobscot and take a fort held by the British at Castine. The commander delayed to storm the place for two weeks after his arrival, and an English fleet appeared, destroyed the vessels and captured the sailors and soldiers, all but a few who made their way back to Boston through the trackless wilderness. The settlers of the territories beyond the Alleghanies, who had been accustomed to fight the Indians from their first coming into the wilderness, were fearless and bold, and now they turned their attention to the British outposts to fight the whites. Colonel George Rogers Clarke (who finally broke the power of the Indians incited by the tories and English) led an expedition into the far wilderness of the northwest territory, where Illinois and Indiana now are, and took the fort at Kaskaskia, and the strong post at Vincennes. This had happened in 1778. But the British from Detroit retook the post in January, 1779. Acting as a peace-maker, Clarke agam penetrated a hundred miles beyond the Ohio river, to quiet the Indians m the Northwest. He came through the drowned lands of Illinois in the month of February, and came upon the fort at Vincennes like men who had dropped from the clouds. On the 20th of February, the stars and stripes floated once more over the fort. The indignation of the people was thoroughly aroused by the massacre of the Wyoming, and General Sullivan was sent to the very heart of the region held by the Six Nations to chastise and humble them. On the last day of July he marched up the Susquehanna and joined the forces of General James Clinton, a patriot soldier, in August, making an army of nearly five thousand men. On the 29th of August they fell upon a fortified band of Indians and tories and dispersed them. Without waiting for them to rally, he went on dealing severe blows and chastising the savages on every hand. The Indians were awed and spirit-broken for a while. The campaign in the South had closed with the unsuccessful attempt of the Americans to capture Savannah. The French fleet was withdrawn, and General Lincoln was in full retreat toward Charleston. Thus closed the campaign for 1779 with discour- agement for the Americans, as nothing of importance had been accomplished in the South. In the North the British were driven out of Rhode Island by the fear of a French fleet. Lafayette had gone to France and induced the 78 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 government to send a larger fleet and six thousand troops to America. Sir Henry Clinton sailed for South Carolina in December, 1779, and Washington went to winter quarters. While at best there was no perceptible gain on the land, the American sailors were achieving wonderful success from their bravery and audacity. John Paul Jones had dared to attack the strongest ships in the English navy, and had followed them into the very chops of the British channel. The Scrapis and the Countess of Scarborough had struck their colors to the Bonliomine Richard, the ship commanded by Jones, and he had taken in all, during the year, prizes to the amount of two hundred thousand dollars. The English had gained nothing in America, and had a great weight of trouble in other parts of the world. Spain had declared war with England, and the hands of the English were full. The campaign of K780 in the South was a source of disasters to the Americans, resulting in the loss of Charleston, the whole State of South Carolina, the destruction of two armies, and the scattering of a good band of independent rangers. Lincoln and his army surrendered at Charles- ton after a gallant defense of forty days. Thus the British took at one time between five and six thousand men, and four hundred pieces of artillery. Colonel Tarleton, a name which is held in contempt by all honest men, and which comes down the pages of history as the synonym of the meanest' treachery, surrounded a band of patriots, who were retreating from Charleston toward North Carolina, with a force twice the size of the Americans, and almost annihilated them, killing men after they had surrendered and while they asked for quarter. It was a cold-blooded massacre, denounced by the liberal press of England in the most scathing terms. General Gates and Baron De Kalb were defeated at Sanders' Creek after a sanguinary encounter in which they were completely overcome, and Baron De Kalb was slain. The flower of the American army was now destroyed, and the hearts of the patriots were beating with anxiety. General Gates had ordered General Sumter to command a detachment to intercept a detachment of British and take their supplies. But when he heard of the defeat of General Gates, Sumter fortified his camp at the mouth of the Fishney Creek. Tarleton, the atrocious general, fell upon him and scattered his band. Sumter escaped, but his power was broken. But while these misfortunes were spreading a pall of darkness over the American cause, a man hitherto unknown was waging a warfare on his own account upon the tories, and hanging upon the flanks of the British army, dealing heavy blows to injure and cripple them. He was Marion, the partisan leader of South Carolina who had collected a band of Southern patriots after the fall of Charleston. He had been with the army in that city, but at the time of the surrender was at home with a wound, so he was not hampered by any parole. He came to General Gates just before the disastrous battle of Camden with a few ragged fellows, more grotesque than 1-8,] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 79 the soldiers of Falstaff. The general was inclined to ridicule them, but Goven or Rutledge, who was present, knew the sterling quaht.es of the man, ^.d m de him a b^-igadier on the spot. The people of WUhamsburg arose ,n arms and sent for him to command them. He went and organized h.s wrd^-ful brigade which defied the Brhish power after the disaster at "^'"Connvallis organized the State of South Carolina as a royal provir.ce as mmtar^• governorrbut he was so merciless, vindictive and se hsh that even hose who were friendly to the British fell away from him, and on the 7th of October a band of patriots fell upon the army, which he was leading into the Sorth State, at Ki.rgs Mountain, two miles south of the ^-te hne, and ot^^^^^^^^^ defeated them. This gave the republicans renewed hope. On the seaboa.d mIhoiVs men were doing wonders in driving back the British and redeeming the country. Cornwallis fell back to Wainsborough and fortified Heie he remained until he went in pursuit of Greene a few weeks later ^ ictory af er victory, crowned the efforts of Marion and his men, but he had confined 1 operadons thus far to forages upon the enemy. Now - included to try s ren-th in an open assault upon the British post at Georgeto^^n. The partisan warrior was repulsed but not disheartened. He had a camp on Ws Island in the Pedee country, and would sally forth so suddenly and attack the British unawares at so many and widely separated points in such a m rvelously short time, that they became thoroughly a armed and determined to break up his rendezvous. This was not accomplished until the s, i o of 1 78 1, when a band of tones led the way to his camp m the swamp while\e was away, took the few whom Marion had left there and destroyed his supplies. The hero, when he returned, was surprised, but ot dihear ned, and at once started in pursuit of the marauder, and after following him, suddenly turned and confronted the British colonel, Watson, who came up with fresh troops. But now we will turn to the North for a little whde In June 1,80 Clinton had made an invasion into New Jersey, burned Elizabeth and Co necticut Farms, and had been driven back to Staten Island a ter a severe def at at Springfield, June 33. The French fleet under Count de Rocham- beau had landed in Rhode Island with six thousand land troops, July 10, X780. Lafayette had arranged the whole affair during l-/-'! ^" F'-;-' and to prevent any conflict of authority, as in the case o D Esta.ng. the French had commissioned Washington a Lieutenant General m their arm>. Rochambeau first met Washington in Hartford, and his men were sent to encamp in Lebanon, Connecticut, as the season had too far advanced for them to be of service in the campaign this season. 8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1 775 have seen, and held a high command in the army. He was impulsive, vindictive and THE FIRST AND ONLY TRAITOR. OW we come to a sad chapter with which we wish to wind up the record of the j'ear 1780. At different times during the war the British officers had attempted, directly or indirectly, to tamper with Americans of W-^i/^ high rank whom they thought were of easy virtue, but ^^^ not till the very last of the war had they found a *'ii'^ single one to listen to their advances. Now they J |;'T;*C;%jj^ approached one whose personal ambition had led him to <~5gjKi|s|'/^ aspire to supersede his commander-in-chief, but he had failed in '^''■'F;tLl§' '•he attempt. Benedict Arnold, of Connecticut, the arch traitor 'j ; S'.'.i'-^ and the man whose name would go down to posterity covered ^|i '';•:',:? with execration to future generations, was a brave man, but ^^ ■ . thoroughly bad. He had fought nobly at the outbreak of the war, as we Continental unscrupulous, and always in some sort of a quarrel with his fellow- generals ; unpopular with his command. When he was appointed to the command of Philadelphia, after being wounded at Bemis' Heights, he married the daughter of a provincial tory, and lived in splendor far beyond his means. To meet the exactions of his creditors, he resorted to a great many fraudulent practices, which caused him to be reported to the Continental Congress. He was convicted and severely reprimanded by a court marshal appointed to try the case. Washington bestowed this reprimand, and Arnold, smarting under the disgrace, and pressed by the load of debt, fell into the grievous crime of betraying the command at \\'est Point. He was regarded with suspicion, but Washington did not think him capable of treason. The price of his perfidy was to be a major general's commission in the English army and fifty thousand dollars. Major John Andre was sent by Sir Henry Clinton to complete the negotiations which had been going on for months. West Point was a fortified position on the Hudson, deemed of great importance to both parties, and was strongly garrisoned by the Americans. The plans were, that Clinton was to sail up the Hudson, attack the Fort, and after a show of resistance, Arnold \\'as to surrender all the arms and men to him. But the final arrangements must be made by a personal conference, and Andre was sent for this purpose. He was taken up the Hudson on board of a British vessel, the Vulture, — rightly named — and landed ; but all did not work well, for some patriots dragged an old six-pounder out upon Tellers' Point, and hammered away with it until the Vulture was compelled to land Andre and drop down the river. He then proceeded on foot as far as Tarrytown, when he was stopped by three young Americans, searched, and sent to the nearest military post, then in command of Colonel Jackson. The colonel unwisely allowed the prisoner to send a 1782] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 8i letter to Arnold, although he could not see why ; and then the double-dyed traitor abandoned the unfortunate Andre, and escaped in his own boat to the Vulture Andre was more to be pitied than blamed, but found m the vile condition of an enemy taken in disguise, he was tried as a spy, found guilty and hanged, while the real miscreant escaped. Washington did his best to save the brave young officer, but the stern rules of war would not permit him to save one engaged in such an act. There were dark intimations of other treasons and it would not do to pass this lightly by. Andre begged to die a soldier's death, but this was denied him. and he was executed on the second day of October, 1780. The double traitor, Arnold, whose life was not to be compared with that of Andre, lived and enjoyed the price of his treason. And thus the campaign of the sixth year closed with a dark plot for the betrayal of the cause of the American States by one of its own officers. THE CLOSING YE.\RS OF THE STRUGGLE. HE events of the year 1781 opened with one of the noblest displays of true patriotism in the army. For the long years of the struggle the soldiers had endured every privation and suffering from the want of money and clothing. The scrip in which they had been paid depreciated in value until it was almost worthless. Faction and discontent had come into the Continental Congress and prevented needed action upon important measures. The soldiers had enlisted for three years, or during the war, and this they regarded as meaning for three years if the war did not sooner end, but the officers interpreted it for the , - entire war, even if it lasted longer than three years. The j \r. soldiers asked for aid, which was not given them. On the .•^'|,lwJ,;;3o^first day of January, thirteen hundred of the Pennsylvania line ?'^S<' > ^vho regarded their term of enlistment as having expired, S<>VaX marched out of their camp at Morristown and determined to ^^'f^ return to Philadelphia in a body and demand their rights of Congress. General Anthony Wayne, who was much beloved by his command, tried" by threats and promises to dissuade them, but they would not be persuaded. The poor fellows thought, rightly enough, that they had a righteous cause of grievance. General Wayne stood before them and cocked his pistol, but they presented bayonets to his breast and said, " We love and respect you ; you have often led us to battle, but we are no longer under vour command ; be on your guard. If you fire your pistol we will put you to instant death." Wayne appealed to their patriotism, and they pointed to the impositions and unfulfilled promises of the Congress. He told them of the comfort and aid their conduct would give the enemy, and they pointed to their tattered garments and poorly-fed bodies, but said that they were willing 6 82 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 to fight for freedom for it was dear to their hearts, but Congress must make adequate provision for their comfort and necessities, and declared that they were determined to go to Philadelphia to enforce their rights. Wayne went with them, and when at Princeton they halted and drew up a written programme of their demands. This was forwarded to Congress and resulted in a compliance with their just demands. Tb.c Pennsylvania line was disbanded, but when Sir Henry Clinton endeavored to treat with them and sent emissaries to promise them all their back pay, one of the leaders said, " See, comrades, he takes us for traitors, let us show him that the American army can furnish but one Arnold, and that America has no truer friends than we." They seized the emissaries and their papers and sent them to Wajme, who executed them as spies. When the reward was offered to the insurgents they refused to touch it and sent back word : '' Necessity compelled us to demand our rights of Congress, but we desire no reward for doing our duty to our bleeding country." Many of them re-enlisted for the war. On the 18th of January the New Jersey troops, emboldened by this success, also mutinied, but the mutiny was put down by harsher means. Congress was aroused to action, and devised means for the relief of the soldiers. Taxes were imposed and cheerfully paid, money was loaned on the credit of the government, a national bank was established, and Robert Morris, who had given his wealth to the country and aided in establishing the national credit, was the president. He supplied the army with food and clothing bought on his own credit, and doubtless prevented it from disbanding by its own act. All honor to Robert Morris, who, though not a soldier, was a patriot and the soldiers' friend. The military operations of the year were confined to the South, and opened with a series of depredations committed by the arch traitor, Arnold, who seemed over anxious to inflict all the misery he could upon liis suffering country, and earn the price of innocent blood with which his treason had been rewarded. He made two expeditions up the James river, destroying public and private property at Richmond and Petersburg, and although the Americans did their utmost to capture him, he was too cautious, watchful and (juick for them, and after plundering and slaughtering the people on every hand, returned with the English fleet to the New England coast, where an inhuman butchery, equalled only by the massacre of the Wyoming Valle\-, was enacted under his command, of which we will speak hereafter. General Greene was appointed to supersede General Gates in command of the American forces in the South. The battle of Cowpens was fought January 17th, 1781, and resulted in a brilliant victory for the Americans. Then followed the most remarkable military movement in the war, the retreat of General Greene through North Carolina to Virginia, who was not strong enough to cope with the whole British army, but on the 15th of March, finding his force much increased in strength, he fought the battle of Guilford, and although the Americans were repulsed and the British were in possession of the field. Charles To.x, in a speech in the House of Commons, declared 17S2] THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 83 ■' Another such victory will ruin the British army." A line in the Scotch ballad was fully illustrated : " They baith did fight, they baith did beat, they baith did rin awa'." Cornwallis could not maintain the ground he had gained, and the Americans retreated in good order. Greene rallied his forces and pursued the British to Deep River, Chatham county. April 25th the American army was surprised and defeated at Hobkirk's Hill, but Greene conducted his retreat in good order. The British commander, Rawdon, set fire to Camden and retreated May loth. Within a week Greene captured four important posts, but was unsuccessful at Fort Ninety-Six from which he retired June 19th. Successes at other points were being reported. Fort Galpin and the city of Augusta, Georgia, had been taken by the Americans under Charles Lee. Now the British were retreating and the Americans were the pursuers. The battle of Eutaw Springs, September 8th, resulted in a victory for Greene. The partisan bands under Marion and Sumter were winning victories on the Santcc waters. The French army left New England to come southward to the aid of Lafayette, and Washington succeeded in avoiding the watchfulness of General Clinton in New York, and crossed the Hudson into New Jersey, and was well on his way before Clinton was aware of his real intention. Arnold was sent to New England by the British to draw Washington back. Then followed the bloody and inhuman butchery of the garrison at Fort Griswold, opposite New London, in which nearh' one hundred men were murdered in cold blood by the orders of the traitor. Cornwallis was fortifying his army at Yorktown. Clinton sent a fleet to aid him, but he was too late, for when the British ships came to the mouth of the Chesapeake the}' found the French fleet there, under De Grasse, to oppose their advance. The combined American and French forces under Washington and Lafayette were investing the whole British force under Cornwallis. A desperate defense was made and repeated sallies were attempted to drive the assailants from their works, but all without success. The end was approaching. In a few days the defenses at Yorktown were laid in ruins by the armies of Washington and his compeer. The English guns v.-ere put to silence. One night Cornwallis attempted to break the lines and get his men back to New York, but was prevented by the obstinate fire of the besiegers, and barely escaped to his intrenchments. All hope was over, and eight weeks after the siege began Cornwallis and his army of eight thousand men capitulated to the American commander-in-chief. Cornwallis felt the keenness of his humiliation and feigned sickness on the day of his surrender, and therefore sent his sword by an inferior officer. General Lincoln, who had before surrendered to Cornwallis under the most humiliating terms at Charleston, S. C, was detailed to receive the formal surrender. When the sword was handed to him he took it and at once returned it to the fallen English general. The war w;is virtually over, a little skirmishing was going on in Georg'.a and South Carolina, but all was rejoicing and gladness. 84 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1775 Old King George was stubborn, but his Parliament would not sustain him, and although a treaty of peace was not signed until 1783, there was but little movement in America among the English, while the Americans were constantly on the watch. Savannah was evacuated July nth, 1782. The last blood was shed in September, 1782. Measures were taken by the American Congress and the British government to effect terms of peace. Peace was made with France and Spain. The Americans had become exhausted by the long struggle of eight j-ears, and could show little more than their soil and their liberty in return for it all. Their commerce was dead ; their fields ruined ; their towns and cities in ashes ; and they had no money. The public debt had swelled to one hundred and seventy millions of dollars, and there was nothing which could be called a government. Five commissioners were appointed to meet the English commission in Paris, and effect a settlement. John Adams, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Henry Lawrence were the five chosen. A preliminary treaty was signed November 30th, J782, but the final treaty was not signed till September 3d, 1783. That treaty gave full independence to the thirteen United States of America, with ample territory to the great lakes on the North and westward to the Mississippi river, with unlimited rights to fish on the banks of Newfoundland. The two Floridas were returned to Spain. There is one little episode prior to this time which we desire to mention : After the surrender of Cornwallis on the 19th of October, 1781, and before peace was declared, everything seemed to be in a perfect state of confusion. The thirteen States were loosely held together. Congress had but little power. There was no money to pay either officers or men, and they had been fighting for no pay. The army would become disbanded. They had fought bravely, heroically, and, as patriots, had won the victor}'. Now they must find a livelihood amid the desolations which had been wrought by the fearful struggle. The gloomy aspect threw a pall over all classes. Congress voted to retire the officers on half pay for life, and the soldiers must shirk for themselves, but this was afterwards changed to full pay for five years, and the soldiers to full pay for four months, in part pay for their losses. Great dissatisfaction arose all over the country. Many attributed the trouble to the weakness of a Republican form of government, and desired a monarchy. Nicola, a foreign officer in a Pennsylvania regiment, in a well-written letter, advocated the claims of a monarchy, and proposed that the army make George Washington king, but he was sharply rebuked for this by Washington, and it was never afterwards broached. The United States was now a nation recognized by England, France, Spain and Holland. But the feeble compact of the Continental Congress could not long hold them together. Each State might or might not comply with its demand, as she saw fit. That power could onl}' discuss and advise. No taxes could be collected by their authority ; they could only apportion certain amounts for the States to raise or not, as they chose, and most frequently they did not choose, and it became utterly impossible to raise GAY'S CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS OF J^ The name of each author, the dates of his birth and death, as far as could be ascjnaine.l. ihc uiic >i iiu work by which he Poets and NoveUsts ; the second, the writers on History, Gco^^rai^iiy. ^.in'i«:lit, Life of Jefferson. Edw'^d Livingston, Fenal Laitr. James Gould, Pleading in Civil Action. AVm. W^irt, Life of Patrick Henry. A. T, Thomson, Medical Depository. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1 70.*— 1776 Jotham Parsons, ^''Si.vt^- Sermons,'' etc. 6—1790 Ben.). Franklin, Electricity : Philos. 29—1824 Chas. Tonison, Four Evangelists. 30— 1807 Samuel West, Liberty and Necessity. 35—1819 Stephen "IVest, On Moral Agency. 37— i7Sg SamM H, Parsons, .Antiquities of the 61 — 1S36 James Madison, .-Indent and Modern Confcderncici* 64—1845 Henry Ware, Evidences of Christianity. 71—1858 Kobl. Oivon, AVtc i'ir'ivs of Society. 72—1825 ArcJiibaltl Alexander, Evidences of ' ''ir,il Science. 75—1836 Lyinaii iSee^'-laer, news on T/wolog}'. 1 652-I730 71— >7S3 1 7*7—1795 32-1799 34— 1866 35—1826 36-1793 38— 1820 39—1823 44—1775 ■45—1826 i —1813 ^ 50—1811 '^- o2-i8i6 —1835 54—1829 S5— 1789 —1832 67-1804 68— 1S43 59-1856 63—1847 64-1846 —1836 70-1838 72-1834 78-1849 1779—1793. 1 7 79— 1843 Frances S. Key, Star Spangled Banner. — 1843 W. Allstoil, Elijah in tlie Desert. 83 — 1S59 '%Va!!ihiii. H. Si^ourney, .Moral Pieces. 1852 Jno. Howard Payne, "Home, Sweet Home.'' ■ — Jno. Neal, K'eep Cool, Brother Jonathan. 1 779—1845 Jos. story. Commentaries on the Conslilu- tittn. —i860 Jas. K. Paulding, Bulls and Jonathans. 80— 1840 Xiniuthy Flint, Hist. 0/ Western States. —1859 RicJiardRush, Legal Works. —1865 Hannalt F. liCe, Luther and His Times. 82—1852 Daniel Webster, Dart. College Address; Reply to Haytie. —1858 Tlios. H. Benton, Thirty Years in U. S. Senate. —1862 Clias. J. Ingersoll, War 0/ 1812. 83— 185S Bennett Tyler, ///j/. ,)/Ar, £.,• Thrology. 84—1851 Nathaniel B, Tucker, Constitutional La'M. 86—1867 Liucius M, ^ViT^Kn.%, Li/e 0/ Dexter. 89—1866 Jared Sparkes, Writings 0/ Gee. Wask- inglon. —1873 Rlcll'd S. Storrs, Li/e o/Sam'l Green. —1855 Win. V. Bedfield, Theory 0/ Storms. 93 — 1861 Sain'l G. Goodrich, History and Travel. Ily. C. (ZaLreji Pdtitical £conoiny. I78O-1S70 NathunloJ WiniS, Theological Articles. 83—1827 Ediv'd Payson, iheological Works. —1850 Jno. t'. Calhoun, Treatise on the Na- ture 0/ Concernment. 84—1869 William Allen, Junius Unmasked : Christian .Sonnets. 88—1852 Francis Burkninn, The Offering 0/ Su/ferin -. 91-1871 Geo. Tlcknor, History 0/ Spanish Lit- erature. —1858 Sani'l Gilman, Pleasures 0/ Student Li/e. —1875 Clias. Spraffue, Ode 0/ Speculation. 93—1879 tly. <'. Care}", Political Economy. Designed for Gay's Standard Histories, by "WXLXIAM GA"! lERICAN AUTHORS AND LITERATURE. It kn;)wn. Tiic n^raes are arranged under ihree heaai : Iinas,'ination ; Fjc-l ; Speculative an J Scien-.iiic. The lirsl includes the the tnirJ, tuoo-- >vho treat of Philosophy and Science. This division cannot be perfect, for an author tere be founa in tiie division which includes his best known productions. 1794-1802. 1794- Caroltne Gilman, Oracle from the —1878 IVm. t'ulloil Bryant, " Thanatopsis." 95—1820 Jos. K. Drake, I m- Aiuerican flag. —1856 Jas. «. Perflval, 1 he Mind : Other Poems. —1870 Jiio. p. Keiiuedy, //urseShoe Koihison. —1868 Uaillel p. Xlloiupsoil, The Green Muuiiliun Hoi^. [Other Poems. —1845 Mrs. Maria G. Brooks, Esther, and 96—1828 Jiio. G. C. Braluard, Poems and Son- nets. 97—1852 Wm. Ware, .Imrlian and Julian. 99 Catlivriiic M. Sedgwick, iirit 0/ I/ebrrrv Poetry. 90 -135. Horace Mann, Slavery; Letters: .s/.,, ,•,•.. —1859 Geo. Blisll, Xe-i' Church Repository ; Li/e 0/ Moh-'d. 97 — 1843 llll:;ll S. Le^-aree, Essays on Roman Literature. 1800 Daniel D. Whedon, Outh,- Will : Coui- n:cntuy o'l tlte.\eiv 'Testa uicut . — 1871 Rob'1 J, B8re<*keiibrid;xe, Popism in the L'nitc, s/ ./ ,. 1 — 1864 Mrs. C M. Kirkland, Home lieauiy : Holidar.i A /-road. —1877 Rob't Dale Owen, 'The Debatable Land. Geo, p. Marsh, .Van and Nature. 180S-7. 1803 Wni. J. TBtoiUS, Lays and Legettds. ITIaria J. HDrlnlosli, .l///«7 Cray, 4—1864 Nalliailict as. .\\\\\%>\'\\f^-^ Scar l,-t Letter, 6—18^3 KlIlElia <■, \a v.i'WV^^i oustiuuf Latimer. AVai. G. ^.ikL(>ik.<», 1 ..I' ll'/^ifum and the Cal'in. C'liaH. F", ISoHniaii, Craysiaer, Jii<>. G, \%'liiltii'r, I'oices of Freedom^ 7— iSd^ Hy. W, I<4>ll»lello\V, lliaivntka. VJt'O, S. l^'ay, 1 he Voitnti-ns Ida. JJli Waldo Eiuerson, The Conduct 0/ Life. 4— 1852 Will. L.I'(>J. Slllilll, M'oman and Her Needs. — 1870 ICit-ll. Fllll(*r, Haf'tixm and Communion. — i8iu JaN. \V, Alexander, Thoughts on {•v.. '.I. . 6— 1878 NellCllliali A\ The next year, 1804, this disaster was somewhat repaired. Lieutenant Decatur with seventy-six volunteers, entered the harbor of Tripoli and boarded the Philadelphia, drove off her captors, and setting fire to her, made their escape without losing a man. This gallant act received ample acknowledgment from the Navy and the home government. In the first term of Mr. Jefferson the first exploration to the Pacific was organized, and sent out under the command of Captains Lewis and Clarke. They left the Mississippi the 14th of May, 1804. Mr. Jefferson was re-elected for a second term, but Mr. Burr, who had displeased the Democratic party, was not nominated by them, and George Clinton was elected Vice President. Burr, in anger, and feeling that he had lost the confidence of the people, resolved to cause a revolt in the regions southwest of the Mississippi. He had murdered Alexander Hamilton in a duel July 12, 1804, and was generally abhorred by all classes. The attempt of Burr against the Government failed. There were indications of a war with Spain, but it was providentially averted. The United States were continually irritated by the British claim to a right to search American vessels and take away any suspected deserters from their army or navy. An act of partial non-intercourse with England took effect November, 1806. In 1807, the first steamboat was built by Robert Fulton, and the application of steam to navigation became a fact. The ominous war cloud that threatened the country grew heavy and dark. France and England 8oi] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 95 vere at war, and they both were inflicting injury and insult upon our young .'ut thriving commerce. England still seizt.'d and searched American vessels, 5sued orders and decrees against commerce, proclaimed blockades on paper, ■nd was crippling the marine interests of the United States, in order to prevent them from reaping any benefit from the French carrying trade. Napoleon retaliated with like orders, decrees, and paper blockades, and between ihe upper and nether millstones of these two powers the commerce of America was being ground to pieces. The crisis came. Four seamen of the United States man-of-war, Clicsapcake, were claimed as deserters from the British ship, Melampus, and Commodore Barron of the Chesapeake refused to give them up. A little while after the Chesapeake was unexpectedly attacked by two English vessels, and was obliged to surrender the men. This aroused the nation, and Jefferson issued a proclamation in July, 1807, that all British ships should leave American waters. Great Britain continued in her unjust course, and a general embargo was placed upon all shipping, detaining all American and English vessels in any of the ports of the United States, and ordering all American vessels in other ports to return home, that their seamen might be trained for war. This embargo was the cause of great distress, and put American patriotism and firmness to a severe test. This measure failed to accomplish the desired result, and was repealed three days before Jefferson retired from the office which he had held for eight years, and at the same time Congress passed a law forbidding any commercial intercourse with France and England so long as their unjust orders and edicts were in force. James Madison was elected President, and George Clinton, Vice President for the next four years. g6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1809 THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. sHERE was no man in the unprejudiced judgment of the people of all classes better fitted to administer the government in this period of gloom and doubt than James Madison, who had been the Secretary of State under Jefferson. He made no change in his policy, and pressed the claims of the United States for a redress of grievances upon both England and France. The latter acceded to the rights of America, but still continued to deal in a covert and underhanded way, while England, in a more honorable but wicked way, persisted in her right to impress and search. There was an important question at issue between the United States and the foreign governments. It was the right of changing allegiance from one country to another. England held that a man born under her flag was forever an English subject, and although he might settle in any part of the world, he could claim the privileges of a British subject, and was bound by the obligation of citizenship to render service to the English f^ag. America on the other hand, claimed that a man had the right to choose the place of his citizenship, and could renounce his allegiance to the land of his birth, and become a citizen of any country he should choose to settle in. The Englishmen who had settled in America were regarded as American citizens and nothing else. She would defend the rights of her adopted sons, and maintain her position to all the nations of the world. England had a system of obtaining seamen for her navy by impressment ; that is, she would take men who were engaged in the merchant service and compel them to serve on her men-of-war. This was a species of slavery, and the men thus obtained would embrace the first opportunity to desert. These desertions became frequent, and the natural refuge in America was in most instances sought, and the protection of its flag obtained. Now it was very hard to distinguish between an English and an American sailor, and when the American ships were searched the English were not very exact as to nationality, provided they got a first class sailor. Thus things went on until 181 1, when the British sloop of war. Little Belt, was met off the Virginia coast by the American frigate, President, and was obliged to pull down her flag, after a severe fight, This same year an Indian revolt broke out which was evidently the result of English intrigue. All the frontier tribes were engaged in it, under a crafty, intrepid and unscrupulous chief, Tecumseh. It was suppressed by General William H. Harrison, who thus became the hero of Tippecanoe, in a severe engagement which routed the whole Indian force. The nation was now ready for war. England had an immense navy of nine hundred vessels with one hundred and forty-four thousand men, while America had twelve i8i7] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 97 vessels, which mustered about three hundred guns. It seemed the wildest folly to cope with " the mistress of the seas " at such a fearful odds, but the rallying cry, " FREE TRADE AND SailoRS' RIGHTS " was taken up from the Lakes to the Gulf, and war was formally declared June 19, 181 2. The people of the West and North were no less enthusiastic than on the seaboard. The only region where the Federalists, or peace party, was predominant was in New England. Congress at once voted an appropriation of fifteen million dollars for the army, and three millions for the navy, and authorized the President to enlist twenty-five thousand regulars and fifty thousand volunteers for the army, and call out one hundred thousand militia for the defense of the coast. THE SECOND WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE, as this contest was rightly named, now began. Benjamin Franklin had before this said to a friend who had called the Revolution the war of independence, " Not the war of independence, but the war for independence." And now the second act of the grand drama was to be presented to the world. There had been all along a suspicion that England had not relinquished her hope to regain the colonies she had lost. The constant intrigues with the Indians, the subtle arts of diplomacy, and her heavy armament in Canada pointed to this. The American nation was watchful and jealous, and now the whole force of her power was thrown to settle the question of nationality forever. Four days after the declaration of war, England had repealed her blockading decree, and there remained only the question of the right of search and expatriation. The British minister at Washington offered to peaceably settle the question at difference, but his proposition was rejected. The first attempts in the war were signal failures. General Hull was sent to Canada with an army of invasion, but no sooner was he on Canada soil than he was obliged to surrender. He was put on trial before a court martial, on his return to the States, found guilty, and sentenced to be shot. But he had been a brave officer in the Revolution, and for his past services he was pardoned. His reputation was afterward vindicated, and the cloud removed from his fair name, but he retired to private life. The war had been long threatening, and in this time Canada was fortifying her strong points and preparing for a threatened invasion. The able generals of the Revolution were now either all dead, or too old for active service ; and the army was either under the command of men who had been inferior officers in their youth and were now old men, or of men who had seen but little service except with the Indians. A second invasion under Colonel Van Renssellaer was equally unsuccessful. The whole army of the Northwest had surrendered, and nothing was gained at that point. But on the sea, the American sailor had dared to measure strength with the British, and had been remarkably successful in every engagement during the first year of the war. In spite of the tremendous odds in the navies of the two countries, the American was 7 98 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [i8i3 gaining victory after victory. The British ship, Gucrricrc, had been taken by the frigate, Constitution, August 19, 1812. The Frolic had struck the English flag to the little Wasp October i8th. The Macedonian surrendered to the United States October 25th, and the Java to the Constitution December 29th, all in the same year. This rekindled the national spirit, and made up for the defeat on the land. The country was justly elated by these successes, and sustained the administration by re-electing Mr. Madison to a second term. The second year of the war, and the first of Mr. Madison's second term, was signalized by a series of important victories by the Americans in Canada ; and the naval victory of Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, by which the United States became masters of the Great Lakes. These were cheering to the Americans. At sea, England was doing her best to retrieve the severe blows she had received the year previous, and regain her injured prestige as " Monarch of the Seas." The loss she had met the autumn before, of five ships, was a heavy blow to her pride, and her statesmen regarded this humiliation as greater than the loss of so many battles. No other country, before this, had produced sailors equal to hers. Now she had met her first disasters from an inferior, and strenuous effort must be made to undo this disgrace. The British nation and navy felt this, and put forth their best endeavors to show their superiority. Two English ships came to Boston in the summer of 1813, and Captain Broke sent a challenge to Captain Lawrence to come out and " try the fortunes of their respective flags." The English captain sent one of his ships away, and with the Shannon waited for the Chesapeake to come out. Captain Lawrence accepted the challenge, ano went to his death. The fight lasted only fifteen minutes, but in that time the Chesapeake was dismantled, her commander killed, and her flag struck to the proud ensign of Britain. This was June 1st, 1813. This same Captain Lawrence, who exclaimed, " Don't give up the ship ! " with his latest breath, had in February before, taken the English frigate. Peacock, with the sloop Hornet. In August another disaster befell the American navy. It was the loss of the Argtis, which had taken Mr. Crawford, the minister, to France, across the ocean, which was obliged to surrender to the Pelican. The tide of victory now turned, and the English ship Boxer struck her flag to the Enterprise, September 5th. The complete naval victory of Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, in which he captured the whole English fleet of six vessels, followed. When the year closed, the balance seemed to be in favor of the Americans. On land, the war had been waged with varying fortunes. The English had talked of chastizing America into submission, and the instrument they sent was a squadron under the command of Admiral Cockburn, which scattered to different points on the Atlantic coast and burned, robbed and slaughtered, ivithout mercy. In April, they destroyed the town of Lewiston, on the Delaware ; in May, Frenchtown, Havre de Grace, Georgetown, and Frederickstown on the Chesapeake, and all along the southern coast committed their fearful work of depredation and pillage. Commodore Hardy was sent to the New England coast, but his conduct i8i5] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 99 everywhere was in strong contrast to that of Admiral Cockburn. He acted like a high-minded gentleman and generous enemy. He landed at Castine, Maine, and sent a land force up the Penobscot to capture the sloop of war Adams. The war was now carried on with renewed vigor by the United States and men and money were furnished without stint. The Americans were gaining victories and matters were progressing. Then came an act which was most reprehensible and unusual in the annals of civilized warfare, for which the home government of England was solely responsible. The war with Napoleon had ended at the battle of Waterloo, and the veterans of Wellington were sent to America. The city of Washington was taken by them, and acting under orders the people were commanded to pay a large sum or have the public buildings burned. They refused to pay and the Capitol, Post Office building, President's mansion and other buildings were plundered and burned. The navy yard and some ships in process of building were burned by the Americans themselves. The bridge across the Potomac was destroyed, and then the British vandals withdrew to the coast. The war was scattered over a wide theater and the Americans were gaining victories here and there. Commodore Macdonough had gained a complete success over the whole English fleet on Lake Champlain, and the British sailor found his match on the ocean in his Anglo-American kinsman. Both sides were becoming weary of a devastating war and already there were negotiations for peace. The treaty was signed in December, 18 14, and sent to America, but before it had arrived or was known one of the most remarkable battles of history had been fought and won. This deserves record and we will here give a short account of it. THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. If there had been a submarine telegraph in 181 5 the battle of New Orleans would never have been fought, and much English blood would have been saved. The treaty was signed December 24th, 18 14, and it was seven weeks before the news came to the southern portions of America. New Orleans was then a town of twenty thousand inhabitants and, as now, the center of a large cotton trade. The English Commander, General Packen- ham, saw that it was an important point and decided to attack it. He had the best English troops fresh from their victories in Europe. Andrew Jackson, now a Major-General in the army, arrived at New Orleans December 2d, and, declaring martial law, soon restored confidence. He fortified the city, and when the British squadron, bearing twelve thousand soldiers, made their appearance he was ready to give them a good reception. On the 23d of December he met the advance guard of the army, twenty four hundred and routed them at a place about nine miles from the city, then he returned to a stronger position. He built a line of breastworks of cotton bales and earth to defend New Orleans, and awaited the attack that was made 100 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1815 January 8th, 181 5. These defenses were four miles from the city, and guarded the advance. General Packenham advanced with his entire army, under the best military discipline in the world, numbering twelve thousand. Jackson had less than six thousand men and the most of them were militia, but all had become good marksmen in the western woods. All was silent as the grave while the British advanced in solid column to carry the works. " Trust in God and keep your powder dry" had been Jackson's advice in the swamps of Florida, and now his men were putting it in practice. Steadily the attacking* army advanced and not a shot was fired until they were half a gun-shot distant, and then a terrific fire, every shot of which did good execution, burst upon the assailants. The British column wavered, their general was killed and they fled in confusion leaving seven hundred dead and more than a thousand wounded on the field. The fugitives hastened to their camp and ten days after sailed from the mouth of the Mississippi. This battle saved the whole South from invasion and rapine which would have followed before the news of peace was received. Thus the war closed, and both countries could point with pride to the heroic courage that had been displayed on land and sea, and deck their brave defenders with the medals of honor. The president issued his proclamation that peace was declared, February i8th, 1815, and the people united in celebrating the return of quiet all over the country. Business had become prostrated, the ships were rotting idly at the docks and industry was at a stand-still. The echoes of the shouts of rejoicing had not died on the air before the ring of the woodman's axe was heard in the forest of the settler, and the sound of the carpenter in the deserted shipyards. Commerce revived and industry lifted up its head. The Americans had the wonderful power of rapid recuperation from disaster. The treaty was not all that America could ask, but she had asserted her claim and maintained her rights. Never afterward was a sailor taken from an American ship as an English deserter ; sailors' rights were maintained, and the flag of the United States respected as never before. The Americans had lost thirty thousand lives, and one hundred millions of treasure, while England had suffered much heavier. The war had been a gigantic piece of folly and crime such as we trust no future generation will re-enact. During Mr. Madison's term and after the peace with England, the Algerian pirates thinking that the power of the United States on the sea had been broken, began their depredations again and were violating their treaty. Commodore Decatur was sent to punish them and forever put a stop to their infamous traffic. He bombarded Tripoli and the capitals of the several Barbary States which were subject to Turkey, brought their rulers to terms and compelled each State to re-imburse the United States for the losses caused to American shipping, and free all the American and English slaves held by them. This put an end to the infamy for all time. The only remaining events worthy of notice during the remainder of this Presidential term, were the admission of Indiana into the Union GAY'S CHRONOLOGICAL CHARTS OF AI The name of each author, the dates of his birth and death, as far as could be ascertained, the title of the work by which he is b Poets and Novelists ; the second, the writers on History, Geography, and other matters of exact detail is often celebrated in various departments of knowledge. His name will 1808-13. IMAGINATION. I8O8-1850 SeargentS. Prentiss, The Dying Ytar. —1867 INatliaillel P. Willis, Sacred JWms. 9 Oliver Wendell Holmes, Cunrdinn A ngcls. 10— 1858 Robert T. Courad, Canr.ui 0/ Xafles ,■ Jack CaJc. 11— 1849 Edgar Allen Poe, A'.ir-f « ,■ The Beth : i'ocjns. — 1881 Alfred B. Street, I'oems : The Indian Pass. —1850 FraneisS. Osgood, The Haffy Release : Floral Olfcring. 12 Harriet Beeclier Stowe, " Uncle Toms Ca6in :" Ni'T'cls. Augustus C. Xlioiupson, Songs in the Night. Cephus G. Tliompson, The Mother's Prayer. 13—1878 Sarab H. AVbltmau, Hours 0/ Life; Poems. Ann Stepltens, Fashion and Famine. FACT. 1808 Jefferson Davis, C/ViV W'or. —1879 Geo. S. Hilliard, Six Months in Jail. 10 Asa Gray, Elements 0/ Botany : Hoiv Plants Crow. — ■ — Jno. S. Hart, Prose Writers 0/ America; Am. Lit. J no. O. Sargent, Improvement in Naval War/are. —1873 James Brooks, Seven Months Around the World. 11—1872 Horace Greeley, History 0/ Rebellion, W^endell Pllllllps, Speeches in Faneuil Hall. —1875 EllIlU Burrltt, Speeches and Lectures: Peace Papers. — — Tlieo. Sedge«rlck, Measure 0/ Damages. 18— 1867 Jno. H. Alexander, Inter. Coinage: \y eights a nd Mcasu res. —1883 Alexander H. Stephens, Constitution- al I'ieiv 0/ Civil War. 13— — Jas. Dwlgbt Dana, Geology : Journal 0/ Science. SPECULATIVE AND SCIENTIFIC. 1808 Geo, B. Cbeever, Cod .-tgainst Slavery. 9 Samuel Tyler, Dissertation on Baconian Phils. 10— 1870 Edivard Tomson, .floral Essays. Margaret Fuller, Women 0/ the Nine- teenth Century. —i860 Theo. Parker, Sermons and Essays. 11—1874 Cbas. Sumner, True Grandeur 0/ Na- tions. 12—1880 Sam' 1 Osgood, Mile Stones in Life : Stu- dents' Li/e. Thos. HI. Clark, Early Discipline o/ the Church. 13 Hy. Ward Beeelier, Star Papers: One ha 1/0/ the Li/e 0/ Christ. - — 1871 Hy. T. Tuckerman, Book 0/ the .Art- ists. 1814—20. 1814— 1880 Epes Sargent, The Bride 0/ Gensa : t he Priestess. 15—1852 mrs. Eliz. Stuart Phelps, Sunny- Side : Tell lalc. -1850 Eleanor W. £,ec. Wife of Leon : Poems. 16 Jno. G. Saxe, Progress: Poems : Satires. 17-1877 Catharine A. n^ariield, Esther How- ard's Tejuptation. IS Susan Warner, The Wide, Wide World. Annie Warner, I he Other Shore. — 1S77 Eliz. F. EllCt, Eveningat Woodlamn. Emma ». E. Southworth, The De- serted it i/e : thirty-five Novels. 19 W. W. Story, /Vfwj. —1870 Anna C. RItrble, Sketches and Essays. Walt Whitman, Leaves 0/ Crass. Thos. ^V. Parsons, The Magnolia I'oems. Cbas. A. Dana, Household Book 0/ Poe- try. Jas. Russell Lowell, Bigclow Papers. 1814— 1877 Jno. L.. Motley, Dutch Republic. —1873 Jas. R. Brodtaead, History 0/ New i ork state. 15—1882 Rich. Hy. Dana, Jr., Inter. Law: Seaman's I'riend. Ed^vard Joy Morris, The Turkish Empire. 16— 1874 Jos. Haven, Mental and .Moral Phil. — — Geo. Leuis Prentice, Li/e 0/ Dr. Skin ner : Btogi up/: .c. . Williams. Tyler, Hist. Amherst Col- lege. 17-1862 Henry D. Thorean, The Maine Woods. Jno. B, iiouglkj Lr/e and Reminiscences. 18— 1879 Caleb Cushlng, .I/,■•■;»*:■» v..^:?.f 1814 Sam'l Harris, Kingdom 0/ Christ on Earth. Daniel KIrknrood, Comets and their Origin. 15 Jos. Vvimm\li^»^ Moral Philosophy. —1877 Henry B. Smith, The Relation 0/ Faith a ltd Fh ilosopny. 18— 1869 Frederick S. Cozzens, Sparrowgrass Papers. 19-1879 Jos. P. Thompson, The Holy Com- /orter. 20 Erastus O. Haven, Pillars 0/ Truth : Rhetoric. ERICAN AUTHORS AND LITERATURE. town. The names are arranged under three heads ; Imagination; Fact; Speculative and Scientific, third, those who treat of Philosophy and Science. This division cannot be perfect, for an author be found in the division which includes his best known productions. The first includes the 1821—39. 1830—44. 1822- - Donald G. Mltrliell, Reveries of i Bdche/or. 1830- — mary A. Dodge (Gail Hamilton), Wofnan's H rongs .- The Battle oj' the Books. — 1S72 Tho8. B. Read, n'asroner a/ the Alle- 31- — E. EgglcNton, The Hoosier .Schoolmaster. ghiinics. — 1865 mortimer ITI. XliumpMon, Doesticks. — — Wiu. X. Adams (Oliver OptK ), S lories. 33- — liOUisa M. Alcott, ■' Old Fashioned Girl." . 23- — Mr». Sarali J. L.lpplncoU, Greemvooa — — Edward 0. Stedmaii, /7,7u>/,i« /V/j. t-ru'-es : J\>r/u.\. 35- 1867 Clias. F. Brown ( Vrtcmus AVard), 24- — listclle A. Lewis, The Child 0/ tlie Sea Jill morons. — — CliaN. G. \^v\-A\\A^ Sunshine in Thouglit 1 'OfTlli. — — Sam'l Ii. Clemens (Illark Twain), Innocents .-i broad. - Adeline D. ^Vliltney, OJd and Even — — Louise C lUoultOn, Soine Women's 25- — Wni. A. Butler, S'othingto Wear ; Law- Ite.-.rls. yer and Cltent. — — Harriet C. Spoflbrd, -V. E. Stories. — 1873 Caroline Chestro, The Foe in the House- hold. — — Margaret Preston, lieeehen Brook. — 3\\o. 3. I'latt, .Vulsat Washington. - 1878 Bayard Taylor, //to. Coil/re}' s Fortune 36- — T, I5ulli>y Aldricll, Prudence Pal/rey. 27- — Jno. X. Xrowbridge, Cudjos Ca?^ 37- — %Vi!liuni'D. Howells, No Love I.ost. Novels 39- — I-'i'uiieis Brete ilarte. Heathen Chi- 28- iS6i Tlieo. ^ViUthrop, Ceeil Dreeme. nee : /•lip. Poems. - IS63 Aliee B. Haven, No Sueh Word as Fail 41- — C. H. miller (Joaquin), Song 0/ the 29- — ('has. Dudley Warner, My Summer in the Garden. 43- Sierras: The Danites. — Henry James, Portrait 0/ a L.ady. 1872 Jas. Hadley, Greek Grammar ; Essays 44- — MissE. Stuart Phelps, " (7,!to.jy,(j-." 1821- 1831- — Mary L. Booth, Uprising 0/ a Great rkilolot^ieal and Critical. People : Results 0/ Slavery. 22- — James Parton, Life of Aaron Burr 33- — James Redpath, Li/e 0/ John Bromn. A ndrew JaeksoK : Biographies. 35- —■ Geo, F. Barker, Text Book on Chemistry. " " Rich. Grant White, Every-Day Eng- lish. — — Moses C. Xyler, Hist. 0/ Am. Lit.: Brovjnville Papers. 23- — Francis Parkman, Conspiracy 0/ Pon- 34- - Geo. Wm. Cnrtiss, Poiiphar Papers. Nile Notes. — 1864 Xlios. Starr King, White Hills 25- 1870 iriuthrop Sargent, Life 0/ Andre. 27- — Wm. DwigUt Whitney, Philosophica Works. 29- 1867 Henry Xtmrod, Journalist Essays ana Sketches. 1821- l88o Gilbert Haven, Pilgrim's Wallet: Ser 1832- — Moncure D. Conw^ay, The Rejected tnons. .Stone : 'J'he Golden Hour. - — Rich. S. Storrs,' Constitution 0/ Human Soul. 35- — W^ni. H. AVood, -Articles in Bildiotheca Sacra. 23- — Xhos. £.ukc Harris, Arcana 0/ Chris- tianity : The Great Republic. 24- 29- Xl«03. Preston, Ark 0/ the Covenant. Albert I,. Rawson, The Divine Origin o/the Bible. CHART XII. BIRTHS, AUT A.D. 1808—1844. HORS AND LITERATURE. I8i7] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. lOI December, 1816, and the chartering of a United States Bank with a capital of thirty-five million dollars. The new election resulted in the choice of James Monroe as President and Daniel D. Tompkins as Vice President. THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MONROE. 'HE fifth President of the American Republic had been the Secretary of State under his predecessor. His administration was distinguished by the rapid growth in material wealth and population, and the expansion of all the resources of the Republic. The manufactories of the United States, which had kept busy during the war, suffered from the influx of foreign goods, and were obliged to contract their work. This compelled many who had been engaged in them to see': - h a d been i n c o m m and; but now there came a severe tri- al of his patriotism and patience. General Winfield Scott, who superseded him in rank, was sent to take com- mand in Mexico, and General Taylor was left with a command of onl\- five hundred r e g u 1 a r s and five t h o u s a n d volunteers. February 22d, the anni- versarj- of the birth of SANTA ANNA. Washington, the little band of General Taylor was attacked by twenty thousand Mexicans, who, after a severe battle, were repulseii by the Americans. While these victories were being gained in Central Mexico. " The army of the West" was sent under command of General Kearney, to Northern Mexico. This army took possession of Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, August iSth ; hero he received information that the conquest of California had already been achieved by Commodore Stockton and Lieutenant Colonel Fremont, who had aroused the resident Americans on the Pacific coast and captured Sonoma Pass, Juno 15th, 1S46, and driven all the Mexicans out of that region July, sth. On the 7th Monterey h.ad been bombarded and captured. The Commodore and Lieutenant-Colonel had entered San Francisco on the 9th. The city of Los Angeles had surrendered on the 1 "th. .>nd l-^omont had boon the true liberator of the whole Pacific i849] THE CONSTITUTIONAL TKRIOI). in coast. General Kearney on roccixiiitj^ tliis iiifdini.ilion pusluil on In's forces, and met Commodore Stocl^ton, and Lieutenant-Colonel Fremont, December 27th, 1846, and with them shared the final honors which completed the conquest of California. Fremont wanted to be i;o\-ernor of the territory he had conquered, and his claims were favored by Commodore Stockton and all the people, but General Kearney, his superior, refused to allow it. I*"remont would not obe)' him but issued a proclamation as governor. l'"remont was called home to be tried for disobedience of orders. Mis commission was taken from him, but the President offered to return it the ne.xt day. Fremont refused to accept it, and turned again to the wilderness to engage in exploration. While General Kearney was gone to California, Colonel Doniphan with one thousand Missouri volunteers, forced the Navajo Indians to sign a treaty of peace, November, 1846, and then \vd his troojjs southward to join General Wool. He met and overcame a large force of Mexicans at l^aciti, in the valley of the Rio del Norte, on December 22d. The Mexican General sent word to him, " We will neither ask nor give quarter." With a black flag the Mexicans atlvaneed, antl the INlissourians fell on their faces. The savages thinking them all killed rushed forward to plunder them, but the whole force sprang to their feet and fired with such deadly effect as to disperse the Mexicans with great slaughter. Colonel Doniphan met another force of Mexicans, four thousand strong, on h'ebruary 28th, 1847, «i''"J completely routed them. He raised the American flag over Chihuahua, a city of forty thousand inhabitants, March 2d, and after resting six weeks marched to Saltillo, and turned over his command to General Wool. He had made a perilous march of five thousand miles, from the Mississippi, won two great battles, and then returned to New Orleans. All Northern Mexico and California were now in possession of the Americans, and General Winfield Scott was on his way to the city of Mexico. General Scott landed before Vera Cruz with an army of thirteen thousand, March gth, 1847. The squadron was in coniiiiand of Commodore Connor. The city was invested March I3tli, and held out until the 27th, when the Americans took possession of Vera Cruz, and captured live thousand prisoners and five hundred guns. Ten days after this, General Scott commenced his march inland, and on the iSthof April he fought and won the battle of Cerro Gordo, at the foot of the Cordilleras. More than a thousantl Mexicans were killeil and three thousand taken prisoners. These Scott dismissed on parole, which they at once viol.ited. The victorious army entereil the city of Jalapa on the 18th, aiul on the 22d of April, General Worth unfurled the Stars and Stripes on the summit of the Cordilleras, fifty miles beyond the city of Jahqia. But the victorious army did not halt here. They marched forward, and on the 15th of May, 1847, took po.ssession of the well fortified city of Puebla, containing eighty thousand inhabitants. Here they halted to rest for a while. In the short space of two months an army of ten thousand men hail capturetl a larger number of prisoners than the army 112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1845 itself, taken possession of the strongest points on the continent, and were Avaiting for the order " on to Mexico." In August, after being reinforced by fresh troops, Scott resumed his triumphal march to new victories. August 20th, the camp of six thousand Mexicans at Contreras was defeated by the Americans in a detachment under General Smith. Churubusco was taken at the same time by General Scott. An army thirty thousand strong, in the heart of its own country, had been broken up by one less than a third of that number. The American army were at the very gates of the city of Mexico and might have entered in triumph, but General Scott held out the olive branch of peace and would have spared the Mexicans that disgrace. A flag of truce from Santa Anna came asking for an armistice, which was granted. Mr. Nicholas P. Twist, a commissioner of peace, appointed by the United States, was sent to the city to treat with Santa Anna, but returned with the information that he had not only rejected the offer with scorn, but was violating the armistice by strengthening his defenses. General Scott began his demonstration against the city, September 8th, when a body of less than four thousand troops attacked a superior force at El Molinos del Rey, near Chapultepec, and at first suffered the only repulse of the war, but afterwards rallied and drove the Mexicans before them. On the morning of the 13th of September, the flag of the United States was unfurled over the ruined castle of Chapultepec, and Santa Anna was fleeing a fugitive with his shattered army and the ofificers of government. September 14th, the army of the United States entered the city of Mexico in triumph, and planted the Stars and Stripes over the National Palace. Order was soon restored in that ancient capital, and when a provisional government could be formed, peace was declared. Mexico gave up California, Arizona and New Mexico, and conceded to all the claims of the United States. Mexico was evacuated by the American army, and twelve million dollars were paid by the United States to Mexico in four annual instalments, and the United States also assumed the debts due to private citizens to the amount of three millions. This treaty was signed in February 2d, 1848. The very next month gold was discovered in large quantities in California, and President Polk in his annual message, in December, 1848, published the fact to the world. The gold fever broke out all over the States, and spread to other ■countries, and during the whole year of 1849 ^ constant stream of emigration flowing across the plains and around Cape Horn, came to this Eldorado of the West to find the wealth which the early Spanish and French adventurers liad sought in vain. Thousands came from Europe and South America, and ship-loads of Chinese came from Asia. The dreams of the voyagers who came to Salvador and Florida, in the fifteenth century, seemed to be realized in the nineteenth. Emigrants continued to flock thither, and yet (1882) the supply is not exhausted. The popularity which General Taylor had acquired in the Mexican war by his victories and his patriotism, led to his nomination and election to the Presidency, with Millard Fillmore as Vice President. 1 849] THE CONSTITUTIONAL PERIOD. 115 Two domestic measures during the administration of James K. Polk had been very popular. The estabhshment of a national treasury system, and a protective tariff. Wisconsin was admitted to the Union,, May 29th, 1848, making thirty States in all. At this point we will stop for a while to review the dark question of American history, and tell the story of its wrongs. The Hero of The Mexican War, General Winfield Scott. V. rown THE PERIOD OE AGITATION AND THE DARK CHAPTER IN AMERICAN HISTORY. E have brought our readers down the line of events to the time the twelfth President was about to take his seat of office. We liave seen the continent redeemed from its savage inhabitants and settled with an active, energetic population of freemen who had acquired their independence, subdued the wilderness, devel- oped its resources, spread their white-winged com- every sea, explored their own territory and made discov- ther parts of the world, driven the pirates from their own id humbled the pirates in the Mediterranean, compelled t due their flag from other nations and established their jndaries by peaceful diplomacy or glorious war. They had Ti thirteen States to thirty and their domain now stretched 3ad belt from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the .e gulf, with no nation to challenge their right. They were prosperous at home and respected abroad. The industry, intelligence and enterprise of her citizens are unparalleled, and their inventions, discoveries and mechanical arts were astonishing to the inhabitants of the old world. The inventors and discoverers of the United States had revolutionized the commerce, the manufactures and the travel of the past. The steamboat, the electric telegraph, the cotton gin and the inventions in every department of trade had startled the inhabitants of Europe from their dream of centuries. But in spite of the growth in material strength, in national domain and wealth there was a' dark blot upon the country, and the agitation and strife which it was continually causing, gave reasons for constant alarm to our wisest and best statesmen. How to deal with this dark subject was a serious question to the moralist, the patriot and the philanthropist. That question was the fearful presence of American slavery and its insatiate demand for more territory. To go back to the beginning : England had forced the African slave trade upon the unwilling colonists, and her Parliament had watched with fostering care this hideous traffic. In the first half of the eighteenth century there was constant legislation in its favor, and every restraint upon its largest development was removed with solicitous regard. Twenty negro slaves were sold to the planters of Virginia in the same year the pilgrims landed at Plymouth, 1620, and these were the first brought into America. In December, 1671, Sir John Yeamans, Governor of South Carolina, brought two hundred black slaves with him from the West Indies. In 1641, the blacks were recognized in law as slaves by Massachusetts. In Connecticut i85o] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 115 and Rhode Island in 1650; in New York in 1656; in Maryland in 1663, and in New Jersey in 1665. There were some slaves in Pennsylvania and Delaware about 1690. In North and South Carolina, they were introduced at the time of settlement. In Georgia the use of slaves was prohibited by law but the planters evaded the law by hiring servants for one hundred years, paying their owners in the other colonies the value of such slaves. In New Hampshire the slaves came with the settlers from Massachusetts. So ■we see that slavery could be found, under the sanction of law, in every one of the original thirteen States, at the opening of the eighteenth century. The British government seemed determined to encourage the importa- tion of slaves into the West Indies and American Colonies by every means in her power. The Colonies sought to check the increase by imposing a tax on slaves brought into them, but Parliament compelled its repeal. A hundred acres of land in the West Indies was given to every planter who would keep four slaves. Forts were built and manned on the African coast to protect the men who were engaged in this trafific. The most humiliating chapter in the history of England was in regard to this subject. As late as the year 1749, the English Parliament passed an act bestowing still greater encouragement upon the traffic, in which it was stated : " The slave-trade is very advantageous to Great Britain." The moral sense of New England was opposed to slavery and very early the idea became prevalent there that it was unscriptural to hold a baptized person in slavery. They did not however liberate their slaves, but withheld religious instruction from them. The Bishops of the church and the officers of the crown endeavored to put them right on this question, and the Colonial Assemblies passed laws to reassure the people that it was right to hold Christians in slavery. Before the Revolution three hundred thousand slaves had been brought into the Colonies from Africa, and at that time there were half a million slaves scattered over the country. These were in every Colony, although there were but thirty thousand in the North. The children of the Puritans owned Indians, and in due time came to hold Africans, but the soil was hard and sterile and required that the tiller should be a person of thought and intelligence. All kinds of labor demanded brain as well as physical force and for this reason slave labor in the North was never remunerative, and gradually the slaves all died out or were shipped South. The moral senti- ment as well as the conditions of the soil and climate of the North was opposed to the whole system of human servitude. There were different conditions in the fertile and sunny South. The climate was congenial to the African and the soil was productive to the extreme of luxuriance. The crops were such as the unskilled labor of the slave could produce with profit to his master, tobacco, cotton and rice. The land in the South was divided into large plantations and the cities were mostly engaged in the export of their staple products. Yet for all this, at the time of the Revolution there was a very wide spread opposition to the ii6 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 institution of slavery. The free spirit which influenced the patriots was. antagonistic to the whole idea of human bondage. The leaders of the conflict were many of them slaveholders but they regarded the institution as odious and wrong. Washington provided in his will for the freedom of his slaves. Hamilton was the member of a society which aimed at the gradual abolition of the whole system. John Adams was deadly opposed to it. Patrick Henr}% Franklin, Madison and Monroe, were outspoken against it. Jefferson, the man who wrote the first draft of the Constitution, himself a Virginian, said of it, " I tremble for my country when I remember that God is just." When the convention that met to frame the Constitution assembled in Philadelphia, the feeling was strong against slaverj', and had the majority followed their own conviction of right, a provision would have been incorporated for its gradual and final extinction. But the desire to frame a document that would be acceptable to all the States led to a tender treatment of the subject, and finally to one of these unholy compromises which has marked the whole course of legislation upon the subject for more than eighty years, and in time resulted in the most cruel and bloody internal war which has ever come to any nation. It was proposed to prohibit the importation of slaves at once, and all the Northern and most of the Southern members were in favor of it. But the delegates of South Carolina and Georgia threatened to withdraw from the convention if this was done ; and instead, it was provided that Congress might abolish the traffic after twenty years if she saw fit. Using the same threat of disunion, the slave States of the extreme South gained other concessions of great importance. First, that if a person escaped from a slave State to a free State that did not make him free ; and second that in the apportionment for representatives to Congress the population of white citizens should be taken and to this should be added three fifths of all other persons excluding Indians not taxed. While the words slave and slavery are not to be found in the Constitution, by these unrighteous concessions to the extreme slave States, the vile institution was intrenched within the organic law of the land and the first and most important victory was gained for the monstrous evil. Even in the South there was a strong public sentiment against the wrong. Slave owners acknowledged its evil and freely discussed it. The pulpit preached against it, and men prophesied its extinction, and the meanest black might hope that the time would come when the words of the Declaration of Independence would apply to him. The accession of the vast domain of Louisiana from France, opened up a mighty region to the profitable cultivation of sugar cane and cotton by slave labor. The growth of cotton was becoming a matter of great importance. The invention of the spinning jenny by Richard Arkwright in England, in 1768, followed by the introduction of steam power by James Watts had created an extensive demand for cotton, which Great Britain could only find in sufficient quantity and proper quality in the Southern States of the iSso] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. u; American Union. Eli Whitney, a New England farmer's son, was a born mechanic. In 1792, he was on a visit to the home of Mrs. Greene, in the State of Georgia, and heard of the trouble which surrounded the cotton planters in separating the fibers of the cotton from the seed, and the wish that some device would be invented to overcome this. Young Whitney set his inventive genius at work to construct a machine for this purpose, and 1 after much study, many improvements, and oft repeated failures, finally invented the cotton gin. The planters of Georgia saw in the rudely constructed machine exhibited to them in the back room of Mrs. Greene's residence the possibilities of untold wealth for them, and heeded it as a sign of their deliverance from this trouble. The cotton gin made the growing of . cotton vastly more remunerative than ever before. But the South treated the brain work of the " Yankee mudsill" the same as they did the toil of the poor African. They stole it without paying for it, and the inventor of the instrument which gave the cotton growing States their supremacy in the markets of the world, and brought a constant flow of wealth to their doors, died a poor man. To return from this digression. Ten years after Whitney's cotton gin 'had been invented, Louisiana was added to the United States, and there was a great demand for slaves. The northern tier of slave States began to grow slaves for the southern market. Human beings were bred and used like cattle to be sold. Great God ! how could such things be in a country that boasted of freedom, and claimed to be a beacon to the oppressed in all nations? John C. Calhoun, for eight years Vice President of the United States, was the leader and apostle of the slave holders. He was a South Carolinian of great force and eloquence. He taught the people that slavery was good for the black. It was a civilizing and benign institution, which gave the slave a greater measure of intelligence than he could attain in freedom, and surrounded him with Christianizing influences which he never would have had in his native land. The inference was easily drawn that it was a Providential design for the ad\-ancement of both races. Hence opposition to this heaven-appointed institution was profane, and abolitionism was only a species of infidelity running rank in the North. This Calhoun taught ; and the people were eager to catch upon an excuse for their pet institution. Calhoun's last utterance in Congress was to the effect that the opposition to slavery would result in the destruction of the Union, and his latest conversation was upon the all-absorbing topic. The people of the South were taught from pulpit and press, from the rostrum, and in the schools, that it was a divine institution, ordained of Heaven, and they were willing enough to believe it. Laws were passed which were extremeh" barbarous. The slave was regarded not as a person, but a thing. He had no rights. The most holy ordinance of marriage, was set aside at the will of the master. Parents had no claim on the offspring of their own bodies. The child followed the condition of its mother no matter what that of the father might be. It was a statutory offense to teach a slave to read. The life of the slave was in the hand of his master, and a slave who would not submit to iiS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 a flogging by his master's order, might be shot. If a white man killed a slave, not his own, he could settle with the master of the slave, by paying his value. If a slave killed a white man, he might be shot without trial. No black, bond or free, could give testimony in court. There was a very slender show of protecting the right of the slave. The practice of the slave owners was not better than their laws. Families were separated ; husband'; from wives ; and children from parents. And the men and women were compelled to pair as often, and with whom their masters wished. The hunting of fugitive slaves became a business in which trained bloodhounds were used, and the owners of the slaves paying for those returned. Discussions against slavery were not permitted in the slave States ; and no papers, pamphlets, or books opposing the institution were allowed to find sale or to pass through the mails. To such an extreme of madness had the defenders and upholders of the system gone that many northern men were subjected to the most cruel indignities, and even in numerous instances to death. Shipmasters from northern ports were obliged to submit to seizure and search — the very thing for which the country had gone to war with England in 18 12. Mobs were raised and the North denounced. We do not wish to tear open the old wounds, but are writing sober history which is proven by the records of the past. There were good masters and Christian principles taught in many instances. The blacks under such conditions were contented and happy, but the death of their owner and the settlement of his estate might change all this in a day. The whole system was evil, and the stifled conscience of the enlightened people knew it to be so. When the State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union, in 1812, the vast northern part of the purchase from France was left in a territory without inhabitants. This was rich in natural resources. Iron, copper and coal enough to supply the earth, lay beneath its surface. Large rivers flowed in natural highways to the seas. The climate was genial and mild. Gradually settlers came flocking thither. The slave-holder with his human chattels was the first in the field, and the free settler turned aside to the northwest, from which slavery had been excluded by the act of the Continental Congress. So Missouri became a slave State. In 1818, there were sixty thousand persons in the Territory of Missouri, and she was knocking at the doors of Congress for admission. The slave States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi, had been admitted before this without any controversy, but now the slave power was becoming too aggressive and reaching far to the north. The first great contest between the North and the South was fought over this question. For more than two years the conflict waged, and after a desperate fight in the Halls of Congress and before the people, resulted in the compromise measure. There had been heated debates which had agitated the whole country from Maine to Louisiana. The compromise was that slavery should be allowed in all States south of 36 degrees, 30 minutes north latitude, and excluded from all States and territories north of that latitude iS5o] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 119 This conflict ended with a decided victory for the slave power. The cotton f^in, the admission of Louisiana, and the teaching of Calhoun, had all had their effect in making the South a unit, and the slave power very strong in the ration. The institution required more territory for its expansion. And the ]i(ilicy never changed. The agitation which had begun would rage over the country for fifty years, and find its solution only when the institution lay in ruins at the fall of a gigantic struggle inaugurated to uphold it by an attempted dissolution of the Union. Indeed this was the threat all through the controversy that had led to the compromises which were always in favor of the slave power. The active hostility of the North against slavery, began to grow in the time of John Ouincy Adams (1825-1829). General Andrew Jackson was President from 1829 to 1837 ; during a part of the same time, John C. Calhoun was Vice President. This question was the overshadowing one for this period. The South found a faithful ally in a certain class at the North. People in the North participated in gains from the slave trade in the South. The planter borrowed money in the North, and sold his cotton to the Northern manufacturer, and Northern ships were engaged in the cotton conveying trade. They were coining money out of the peculiar institution and no scruples of conscience about it. There was a wide spread opinion that the slave of the South was in better condition than the poorly paid laborer of I'lurope ; and that was all that could be asked. It was claimed that cotton could not be grown without slave labor. And thus the institution, intrenched in the constitution, became united in the South, and had its friends in the North. There seemed no hope for the poor black now, and the South began to rule in Congress with the same spirit that was displayed on the plantation. But there was an influence at work in the free States, at first weak and insignificant, but like the leaven hidden in the three measures of meal, affecting the whole mass. On the first day of January 1831, there appeared in Boston the first number of a paper, called the " Emancipator," published by a journeyman printer, William Lloyd Garrison. It was devoted to the abolition of slavery. It was an insignificant opening for a noble enterprise, which found its consummation in the necessity of a civil war that threatened the very existence of the Republic. But every word spoken or written upon the subject fouixl some willing hearer or ready reader, and gradually the influence reached the pulpit, the political caucus, and the Halls of Congress. An abolition society was formed at first composed of twelve members. In three years there were two hundred such organized, and in seven years increased to over two thousand anti-slavery societies. The contest began in earnest. The conflict was long and fiercely waged. The question of the tariff had its northern and southern side, and v. hen the nullifiers of South Carolina, in 1833 and '34, resisted the government, it was in the interest of their cherished institution, and in every measure that came before the National Congress the decision turned upon its aspect to t;;" I20 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1620 same question. There is another side to the annexation of Texas into the Union than the one we have presented. Texas was a large uninhabited tract on the southwest border of the country, and the South looked upon it as a desirable region for the spread of slavery. The climate was genial and the soil rich. It was of uncertain ownership, and after some negotiation it was recognized as belonging to Mexico. The United States offered to purchase it but Mexico refused to sell it. General Samuel Houston, of Virginia, with a number of adventurers from the southwest went to Texas and started a revolution, proclaimed a provisional government, and declared it independent. It was wanted for a slave State and Mexico had abolished slavery. Now the liberties of the new State must be defended with the sword, and General Samuel Houston with four hundred men imperfectly armed and equipped, at once became a patriot. Santa Anna had an army of five thousand men, and the Texans retreated. At San Jacinto Houston found two field pieces and turned like a lion upon his pursuer. He then followed and fell upon the unsuspecting Santa Anna as he was crossing the river, and poured grape and canister into his ranks. The Mexicans fled in hopeless rout, and Texas was a free State. The grateful Texans made Houston President of the Republic which 'he had thus saved. The independence of Texas, as we have said was acknowledged by the United States, Great Britain, France, and some other European countries, but Mexico still claimed the territory. A fierce debate arose in Congress, and the first proposal from Texas to enter the Union was rejected. The conflict became bitter. If Texas was admitted she would come as a slave State ; on this ground the North opposed it, and the South favored it. Daniel Webster said, " We all see that Texas will be a slave-holding State, and I frankly avow my unwillingness to do anything which shall extend the slavery of the African race on this continent, or add another slave-holding State to the Union." The Legislature of Mississippi said in resolutions on the subject, " The South does not possess a blessing with which the affections of her people are so closely entwined, and whose value is more highly appreciated. By the annexation of Texas, an equipoise of influence in the Halls of Congress will be secured which will furnish us a permanent guarantee of protection." Such was the plain statement of the question from both sides. The matter went to the people and resulted in a victory for the South. Texas was admitted, two votes for slavery were gained in the Senate, and unlimited room for the expansion of the darling institution. But the victory cost a war with a sister Republic, in which might was arrayed against right, and the United States won the questionable glory of conquering a weaker power and dismembering her territory to a vast extent. In this Mexican war ' we find the names of many men who won their first military honors in the " country under the sun," and afterwards took a conspicuous place in history. Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant took part in this war ; but never met face to face until many years after, when they had a conference under an historic apple tree, on the Appomatox River, in Virginia, to arrange for the surrender of a brave but conquered army. General Franklin iS50] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 121 PiercC; and General Zachary Taylor were also in the Mexican war, and became Presidents of the United States. There was a strong opposition to this war_ and in the North the public opinion was instantly aroused in regard to the demands of the arrogant slave power. A young lawyer from Illinois, serving his first term in Congress, made a most stirring speech against it. He was Abraham Lincoln, who was destined to occupy a position next to Washington in the hearts of his countrymen. Thus far in the conflict of agitation and argument the South had gained at every move and in their delirium of madness considered them- selves safe to demand that their institution should be considered a national one. But there came other agencies into the field and the very war which had been waged in Mexico became under Providence the means of checking their supremacy and putting an end to the acquirement of any more slave States. Of the original thirteen States, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were slave-holding. Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas had been added to their number. But now there was to be a halt and the voice of Providence seemed to say "thus far shalt thou come and no further, and here shall thy proud waters be stayed." The discovery ot gold, and the rapid increase of population in California made up of men who came to carve out their fortunes, was unfavorable to the introduction of slavery and the people formed their Constitution and asked admission as a free State. This was a greivous disappointment to the slave States which had been so enthusiastic in pressing on the Mexican war, for the sake of gaining new States and new votes in the United States Senate, and a large area for the spread of slavery. The people from the North had flocked to the Pacific Coast and quickly decided the fate of the first State formed on tl:at coast. . But we will now resume the Hne of general history at the end of Mr. Polk's administration. General Zachary Ta}-lor, who had been conspicuous for his bravery and patriotism in the war with Mexico was elected to the Presidency by a large majority, as we have said. I 22 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1849 ADMINISTRATION OF ZACHARY TAYLOR. .^!^HE twelfth President of the United States was inaugu- rated March 5th, 1849 — the 4th, being Sunday — and from the start had the sympathies and best wishes of a large majority of the people. The administration of the newly inaugurated incumbent promised to be one of unusual happiness and prosperity. The Constitution framed by the delegates of fornia at Monterey, was adopted by the convention on the day of September, 1849. The birth and formation of a State had been so sudden as to surprise the countrj', g been onlj- twenty months from the time of the discovery ^ of gold. Edward Gilbert, and G. H. Wright, were sent as dele- cites to Congress and John C. Fremont, and William M. Gunn, c . I w ere elected Senators and appeared at Washington with the V .^^/ ,i»'v State Constitution in their hands, and presented a petition V' >j^ .?\, asking to be received as a free and independent State. Then "'>-^ ^/'" there came a severe struggle in the two Houses of Congress over the anti-slavery clause, and the excitement ran high all over the country. The old and oft-repeated threat of disunion was raised and again another compromise was effected in which the victory was on the side of the South. Henry Clay appeared as a peacemaker and implored the people to make any sacrifice but honor to preserve the Union. Daniel Webster warmly seconded the efforts of Mr. Clay and the compromise measure w^s passed September 9th, 1850. This is known as the Omnibus Bill and provided "for the admission of California as a free State ; second, the formation of the territory of Utah ; third, the formation of the territory offNew Mexico, and ten million dollars be paid to Texas for her claim on this territory ; fourth, the abolition of slaverj' in the District of Columbia: fifth, the fugitive slave law." This last measure was extremely unpopular in the north. Its provisions were excessively obnoxious to the whole non slave-holding States, and raised a storm of opposition, evasion and violation, which led to serious disturbance and much bitter strife. In the midst of this excitement the President died, and was succeeded by the Vice President, Millard Fillmore, July 9th, 1850. In the brief administration of General Taylor, there had been a number of important events which affected the issues of the impending Civil War. One of these was the invasion of Cuba by General Lopez, a native of that island, who had come to the United States and raised, organized and equipped a force in violation of the neutrality laws. He landed in Cuba the 19th of April, 1850, expecting to find the Cubans ready to rise and make a strike for freedom from Spain. But in this he was disappointed, and returned to the States to raise a larger force. Of this we shall speak further on. The other event was the establishment of Mormonism in the region called Utah, a large tract of country midway 1853] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. between the Mississippi and the Pacific. The Mormons were a rehgious sect who had accepted the dehision of Joseph Smith in 1827, and had emigrated from the State of lUinois. They came across the plain and founded their settlement, after many hardships and trials, in the spot they called Deseret. They were fanatical in their notions, and had adopted a system of marriage which was antagonistic to the religious and moral sentiment of the whole country. They recognized the right and held to the practice of polygamy, or a plurality of wives. They spread their doctrines by means of missionaries over all parts of the world and came in large numbers to Utah. They have long had sufficient population to form a State but up to this writing — 1882 — have been kept out of the Union on account of their peculiar institution of polygamy. ADMINISTRATION OF MILLARD FILLMORE. yS^S^K^'HE compromise measure adopted as we have seen was the first measure of importance during his term of office. The cabinet of General Taylor resigned at the time of his death but the incoming President retained them in ofifice, and zealously carried out the policy which had been inaugurated by his predecessor. The Fugitive Slave Law was supported by the executive power, and occasioned wide-spread dissatisfaction all over the non-slave-holding States. Before this time, while the slave owner could claim, and recapture his so-called property when found, he could not demand the aid of northern officials, or citizens in aiding him in the search ; but '^O this law authorized liim to employ the executive arm of the }}y^ general government, in the search and delivery of his fugitive \kSr- slaves, and any citizens could be called upon to assist in X^^^W\^ this, when a United States Marshal demanded it. This was ^ & at utter variance with the spirit of free institutions in the North, and the people of that section, and a large number in the South, were in favor of its repeal. This led to a fearful struggle on the part of both sides, to carry their points, and the final result was most disastrous to the nation. In the spring of 1851, there were enacted the most salutary changes in the Post Office laws, and a great reduction in rates of postage. The electric telegraph became perfected, and thousands of miles of wire, were binding cities, countries and States. Thus instantaneous communication could be held between distant points. Fulton and Morse, by their discoveries, had annihilated time and space, and bound the distant States into a more solid union, than had ever been known before. In the summer of 185 1, there was increased excitement over the proposed invasion of Cuba a second time, under General Lopez. The 124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1850 watchfulness of the government was awakened, and the United States' marshals were ordered to arrest any persons suspected of violating the neutrality laws. The steamer Cleopatra, was detained in New York harbor, and several respectable citizens were arrested for complicity in the matter. General Lopez made his escape from the authorities, with four hundred and eighty men, and landed on the northern coast of Cuba, August iith. He left Colonel N. L. Crittenden, of Kentucky, with one hundred men at that point, and went into the interior with the rest. Crittenden with his party was captured ; taken to Havana, and shot on the i6th. Lopez was attacked on the 13th, and his band dispersed. He had been deceived in finding any of the natives ready to aid him. There were no indications of any uprising and he was a fugitive. He, with six of his men, was arrested on the 2Sth, and on September ist, 1851, they were all shot. In the Fall of 1S51, there was more accession of territory for the United States. Many millions of acres of land, were purchased of the Sioux Indians and they were removed to the reservation appointed for them. The territory of Minnesota was organized, and emigration soon filled it with a white population. The number of Representatives and Senators in Congress had increased so much since the war of 1812, that it now became necessary to enlarge the Capitol building in Washington, and the corner-stone was laid for a new wing July 4th, 185 1, by the President, with appropriate ceremonies. The expedition of Elisha Kent Kane, M.D., a surgeon in the United States Navy, started for the Arctic Ocean, in 1853, and resulted in many scientific discoveries which settled the fact of an open Polar Sea, but the object of the search, to find Sir John Franklin, was not accomplished. The visit of Louis Kossuth, an Hungarian patriot to this country during Mr. Fillmore's term of office, was an occasion of much interest in awakening the sympathies of the people, but the government did not give him the material aid he sought. There was much ill feeling engendered between the United States, and England, growing out of the Newfoundland fishery question ; but it was settled in October, 1853, without any rupture. An event of great commercial interest, occurred the same year in the distant East. Commodore Perry,— a brother of the hero of Lake Eric- made a treaty with the Government of Japan, in which it was agreed that part of that Empire should be opened to American commerce; the steamers from California to China, should be furnished with coal, and American sailors shipwrecked on the coast of Japan, should be hospitably treated by the natives. The relations between the United States and Spain, became involved, growing out of the Cuban matters, and for a time war was threatened. There was a feeling in Europe, that the United States wanted Cuba, to hold command of the entire Gulf of Mexico. England and France, asked that the United States enter into a treaty with them which should secure Cuba to Spain, and disavow, " now and forever hereafter, all intention to obtain iS53] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 125 possession of the Island of Cuba." Edward E\-crctt, Secretary of State, answered this demand in a logical, and unanswerable argument, which was praised for its power and patriotism, and the subject was dropped. The most important event at the close of President Fillmore's term was the organization of the Territory of Washington, from the northern half of Oregon. This became a law on March 2d, 1853, two days before the newly elected President, General Franklin Pierce, took his seat. William R. King, of Alabama, had been elected Vice President, but failing health prevented him from entering upon the office. ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. HE day that Mr. Pierce was inaugurated, March 4th, 1853, there was a bitter storm of sleet and rain, the most severe that had ever been known in Washington, and augured a tempestuous administration. So it proved in the sequel. The first serious difficulty that arose was in regard to the boundary line between Mexico and the United States, and for a time war seemed inevitable. The Mexican army occupied the disputed territory, but the matter was amicably settled by peaceful negotiation, and friendly relations between the two republics have existed ever since. In the early part of this administration a large exploring expedition was sent to the Pacific coast of Asia, which was of O great importance in view of the establishment of numerous '[ j" -^ steamship lines between the ports of Asia and the United States. The question of connecting the Atlantic and the / Pacific coast with railways, was agitated in connection with this ^ 1^ subject. Four explorations were sent out by government to survey as many routes: one from the head waters of the Mississippi to Puget Sound ; one from the same river to the Pacific along the thirty-sixth parallel of latitude ; one by way of the Great Salt Lake to San Francisco, — which line was completed in 1869; the fourth from the lower Mississippi to Southern California. The explorations were made, and a vast amount of scientific, geographical and natural information was gained. A world's fair of Industry and Mechanical Arts was opened in New York, in the spring of 1853 and modelled after a similar one held in Hyde Park, London, England, in 1851. This gave great encouragement to the manufacturers and mechanical arts in America, and showed the nations of Europe what strides the young republic was making in the march of improvement. The lull \\'hich precedes a deadly storm had fallen upon the country at the time Congress met, in December, 1S53. There was an unprecedented calm in the political world, and the quiet of a settled peace 126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1853 rested upon liie country, rippled only by a wave of trouble with Austria, which was soon settled. Important treaties with Mexico and the Central American States were in progress of settlement in regard to various inter-oceanic communications by railway or water. In the distant Pacific there was a kingdom whose inhabitants had become civilized, Christianized, and established in a govern- ment with a wide extent of commerce, in a single generation, namely, the Sandwich Islands. The king and his people desired to unite with the American States, and took steps to bring that about. France and England at once were jealous, and charged the whole scheme upon the American missionaries. The United States Minister and the missionaries denied that they had influenced the natives. The American government denied the right of foreign governments to interfere, and a treaty for the annexation of the Sandwich Islands was in preparation when King Kamchameha died, and his successor discontinued negotiations. These were afterward revived in 1866, by Queen Emma, when she returned from her visit to England. The slavery question which had been so quiet for a few years, suddenly presented itself just as Congress was sitting down to work on the important matters of commerce and internal improvement. Stephen Douglass, United States Senator froin Illinois, introduced a bill which aroused the people to the most intense excitement, and broke in upon the harmony of Congress. In the very center of our continent there was a vast domain embracing one fourth of all the public land of the country. It extended from thirty-seventh parallel of north latitude to the British possessions, and was the most fertile and best watered portion of America. The bill of Mr. Douglass provided that this territory should be organized into two territories — Kansas and Nebraska — and contained a provision to repeal the compromise of 1820, and allow the people to decide whether or not slavery should be permitted. The thunder storm broke over the country in renewed fury, and violent discussion arose in the North and South. The bill was discussed in the Senate from January 30th to March 3d, 1854, and thousands of remonstrances poured in from all parts of the North, but it passed the Senate by the decided vote of thirty-seven to fourteen. In the House of Representatives it was shorn of its worst features by amendments, and the final defeat seemed almost certain. A bill for the construction of a railroad to the Pacific, was reported to the Senate. A Homestead Act, giving one hundred and sixty acres of land from the public domain to any white male citizen who would occupy and improve the same for five years, was introduced in the House of Representatives. An amendment graduating the price of land was passed in its stead. Another victory for slavery. But the excitement quieted down till the 9th of May, when the Nebraska bill was called up again. At once the public pulse ran up to fever heat. The debate was fierce and intense ; the suspense of the people was fearful, but on the 22d of May, the bill as amended passed the House, was rushed to the Senate, adopted as amended, and signed by the President the last of May. Every barrier to the iS57] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 127 lawful spread of slavery over the public domain was now removed ; but the end was not yet. Another chapter in the controversy opens at once. Spain had a cause of grievance with the United States in regard to Cuba. The American steamship, Black Warrior, was seized in the port of Havana by the Cuban authorities. The Spanish government justified the act when the American ]\Iinister at Madrid asked for redress. But the Cubans became alarmed and offered to give up the ship by the owners paying a fine of six thousand dollars. The owners complied under protest. The matter was amicably adjusted between Spain and the United States. The slave power used the irritation caused by this incident as a pretext for a gigantic scheme of propagating slavery. In 1S54 President Pierce appointed James Buchanan, then ambassador at London, James M. Mason, ambassador at Paris, and Mr. Soule ambassador at Madrid, as a commission to confer about the difficulties in Cuba, and to get possession of that island by purchase or otherwise. The Ostend Circular was issued by them, on the iSth of August, 1854, in which they said, "If Spain, actuated by pride and a stubborn sense of honor, should refuse to sell Cuba to the United States," then, " by every law, human and divine, we shall be justified in wresting it from Spain, if we possess the power." This is the argument of the highway robber, and why it should not have been rebuked at Washington can only be understood in the coming light of future events. In the light of these events, we learn that the stupendous design embraced the plot of "the Golden Circle," which was to establish an empire with Havana as its center, embracing an area of sixteen degrees of latitude and longitude, to take in the slave States, the West Indies, and a great part of Mexico and the Central American States. We find a little relief in turning from this subject for a moment to others. The boundary line between Mexico and the United States was established upon satisfactory terms, as we have already stated. The United -States was to pay ten millions of dollars, and be released from all obligation imposed in the former treaty of 1848. Seven millions on the nitification of the treaty and three millions when the line was established. These conditions were faithfully carried out. An important reciprocity treaty was made with Great Britain, which was of great advantage to both parties, and removed to a considerable extent the restrictions on free trtide, between the United States and Canada. The two governments agreed to the introduction of many articles, such as bread- stuff, coal, fish, and lumber, from one to the other, free of duty. England gave the United States the free use of the St. Lawrence, and the canals of the provinces, and in return, enjoyed the right of fishing, as far as the thirty-sixth degree of north latitude, and other privileges. This treaty continued until 1866. The attempt on the island of Cuba, had failed ; but there was started 128 IISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1853 at once an expedition to Central America to overcome a portion of the golden circle. This was organized by a warm personal friend of Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, under the administration of Mr. Pierce. His name was William Walker, and he invaded the State of Nicaragua, on what is known as the Mosquito Coast, under the pretext that the British were attempting to take this coast, in violation of the principle of the " Monroe doctrine," many persons had emigrated hither from the Southwestern States. The guns of the United States Navy, had already awakened the echoes of these trojjical forests. The Mosquito King, had sold a large tract of land to two British subjects, and the emigrants led by Colonel H. L. Kenney, had settled there. The attention of our Minister to the State of Nicaragua, had been called to this matter, and our government could not wholly ignore the subject, but dealt -with it so mildly as to leave the inference that the emigrants would not be molested by the United States. Captain William Walker, went to the aid of Colonel Kenney, and with his band attempted to capture the city of Rivas, but his attack was repulsed, and he escaped to the coast. Walker returned, with armed followers, in August, 1855, and in September the emigrants assumed the independence of Nicaragua. Walker, after gaining some victories, placed General Revas, in the Presidential chair, of the independent State of Mosquito, and drove Colonel Kenney away. He strengthened his military power, and was recognized by a British consul. The other States of Central America, became frightened at this display of audacity, and combined to drive Walker out of his position. Costa Rica, formally declared war against this new power, and Walker raised a strong band, and shamelessly proclaimed, that he was there by invitation of the liberal party of Nicaragua. The army of Costa Rica came to attack him, and he overcame them. Walker then became arrogant, forced a loan from the people, and after Revas had abdicated the Presidency, Walker was elected President, by two-thirds of the popular votes. He was inaugurated June 24th, and our government hastened to recognize the new nation. It was the opening chapter in the grand plot. He held his position for two years, and finally was obliged to surrender his army of two hundred men, and flee to New Orleans. He attempted to raise another expedition, and on the 25th of November, landed at Puntas Arenas, where he was captured by Commodore Pauling, of the United States Navj% and with two hundred and thirty-two men, was taken to New York. President Buchanan privately commended Commodore Pauling for the act, but for "prudential reasons" /I'.vMf/)/ censured him in a special message to Congress, January 7th, 1858. Walker was discharged, and preached a new crusade against Nicaragua, all through the Southern States, collecting money to aid him in a new invasion. He sailed from New Orleans, on a third expedition, but was arrested, and tried before the United States Court, for " leaving port without a clearance," but was acquitted. Then he went to Central America, recommenced hostilities, was taken, and shot at Truxillo by the natives. Thus ended another act in the civil strife which was' raging. 1857] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 129 In 1855, there was serious trouble with the Indians in Oregon, and Washington Territories, and the United States Army was sent to quell it, the aborigines overcame them, and a general massacre of white families followed. . In the season of 1855-56, it seemed that the combination of Indians was so strong that the settlers would have to abandon the territories named, but General Wool, was sent to Oregon, to organize against the savages, and the trouble was settled the following summer. A slight war-cloud arose betv/ecn Great Britain and the States, growing out of the enlistment of men in the United States for the Crimean war. This was done under the sanction of several British consuls in this countr)'. After some diplomatic correspondence, the offending consuls were dismissed and the British Parliament disavowed any complicity in the matter. The remaining events in the administration of Franklin Pierce, are full of matter having immediate reference to the great struggle going on in the country between the advocates of the spread of slavery, and the advocates of free soil. The contest was most intense and bitter in Congress, and in the political canvass. Silently there were unseen and complicated moral forces at work, but none the less potent because unseen. A great party sprung into existence in the North, and found many adherents in the South. John C. Fremont of California, and William L. Dayton, were the candidates of this party for President and Vice President. This was the Republican party. Another organization throughout the country known as the American or Know-Nothing party, who were opposed to the foreign element in the national politics, nominated Ex-President P""illmore and A. J. Donaldson of Tennessee, for the same offices. The Democratic party put James Buchanan and John C. Breckenridge, in nomination for the same. The political canvass of 1856, was the most exciting and antagonistic that the country had ever seen. The press, the pulpit and the rostrum, rang with the utterances of men who were alive to the questions of the hour. In every hamlet and village of the North, and most of the South, the party lines were distinctly drawn, and families, and neighborhoods were stirred with the agitation of the all absorbing subject. The day of the election came and the whole country waited in breathless anxiety for the returns. The election of James Buchanan for President, and John C. Breckenridge for Vice President, was the result. 130 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1S53 THE STRUGGLE IN KANSAS. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN. jHE virtual repeal of the Missouri Compromise of 1820 led to a renewal of the contest between the two contending forces, and Kansas became the battle-ground of the decided opponents on the two sides. The people from the North began to pour into the new territory and it became apparent that they would largely outnumber the settlers from the slave States. The South was the first in the field and took possession of land in all parts. Missouri was near at hand and Kansas was easy of access, but the Southern people were not an emigrating class and their numbers came slowly. There were people enough to form a State in time, but the Northern settlers could outvote the Southern. The time for election was coming and some decisive steps must be taken. Large bodies of Missourians came in 1854, and when a delegate was chosen from the Territory out of twenty-nine hundred votes cast, seventeen 'p*"' hundred were by Missourians who had no legal right to vote there. These men from " over the border " were in tents and had artillery with them as if arrayed for battle. A legislature was illegally chosen to meet at Pawnee City, one hundred miles from the Missouri line. This body immediately adjourned to meet on the very borders of that State and proceeded to enact laws in favor of slavery. They were vetoed by the governor and passed over his veto. The actual settlers of the territory appointed a convention to meet at Topeka, October 19th. Governor Ruden was nominated for Delegate to Congress and at once elected b)' the legal voters. On the 23d of the same month a convention chosen by the actual citizens of Kansas adopted a Constitution providing that it should be a free State, and asked admission to the Union under this instrument. Governor Ruden and the pro-slavery delegate appeared at Washington as contestants for seats. In the meanwhile January 17th, 1855, an election was held and the state officers were chosen b}- the legal voter- of the Territory. President Pierce, January 24th, sent a special message to Congress representing the action of the people in Kansas in forming a State government as a rebellion. Then there came a reign of terror for Kansas in which violence, blood- shed and fraud were rampant. The actual settlers resisted the efforts of their pro-slavery neighbors in forcing upon them a condition of things obnoxious to their sense of right and justice. Men were slain and driven out of their possessions for expressing anti-slavery sentiments and :b.e i857] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 131 struggle seemed to be like the death grapple of giants. Finally a committee of investigation was sent from Congress, and a majority of them agreed in their report to sustain the acts of the legal voters and refuse the frauds by which Whitfield had been elected and the pro-slavery constitution passed. The member of the Committee from Missouri alone dissented from the report, and the mission failed to accomplish any result either way. Then came the election of Buchanan a; fifteenth President of the United States. There had been an important case pending in the United States Supreme Court in which a decision had been reached before the election, but it was withheld from the public until the result of the popular vote should be known. It was the famous Drcd .Scott decision. Scott was a slave of a United States ofificer who had taken him into a free State and while there Scott had married the slave girl of another officer, both masters giving their consent. Two children had been born of this marriage on free soil. The master of Scott bought the wife of his slave, and brought the parents and their children to Missouri and held them all. Scott claimed his freedom on the ground of his involuntary service in a free State and the District Court had given him the case. It went to the Supreme Court of the State which reversed the decision. Then it came before the Supreme Court upon the question of jurisdiction solely. The Chief Justice of that court decided against Scott, and announced that no person "whose ancestors were imported into this country and sold as slaves" had any right to sue in the courts of the United States. The majority of the Court agreed with him. But after the election was decided they published their decision, and went beyond the question at issue to say that our Revolutionary fathers " for more than a century before " regarded the African race in America as "so far inferior, that they had ;/() rights li'kich the white man zcas bo;:nd to respect" and they were never thought or spoken of except as property. President Buchanan in his inaugural address tzuo days before this strange decision had been promulgated, referred to a mysterious something which would settle the slavery ques- tion " speedily and finally," and expressed the hope that thus the long agitation of this disturbing question was approaching its end! But the etid was not yet. Kansas was still a battle-ground and the contending parties had not given up the struggle. Peace was for a while restored, but the two forces were energetic and active. The question of a free or a slave State was not yet decided. The pro-slavery party had met in convention and framed a constitu- tion favorable to their side, at Lecompton, in September, 1S57. It was submitted to the people in this way. They could vote " For the consti- tution with slavery " or " For the Constitution without slavery ; " in any case they must vote for this Constitution, which was "all one way," and that protected slavery until 1864. Of course the free soil men would not vote at all, and the pro-slavery Constitution was adopted by a large majority. 132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1853 An election for the territorial legislature was held under assurance from Governor Walker that the people should not be molested, and although there were many frauds the anti-slavery party l:ad a large majority. This legislature ordered that the Lecompton Constitution, should be sent to the people to vote "for"' or "against" the measure as a whole. It was rejected by over ten thousand majority. But in spite of this the President sent the Lecompton Constitution to the Senate, February 2d, 1858, by whom it was once passed. The House of Representatives amended the bill by referring it again to the people of Kansas for acceptance or rejection. It was again rejected by over ten thousand majority, and finally Kansas was received into the Union as a free State. In the year 1862 the opinion of the Supreme Court was practically rejected as unsound by granting a black citizen a passport to travel in foreign countries. Such were some of the skirmishes which preceded the war of 1861-65. The " Southern Commercial Convention " convened at Vicksburg, voted on the nth of May, 1859, that "All laws. State or Federal, prohibiting the slave trade, ought to be abolished," a scheme was started to promote the African slave trade, under the specious disguise of an " African labor-supply Association." The withdrawal of American cruisers from the coast of Africa, was discussed in the United States Senate by Mr. Sidell, of Louisiana, and Mr. Buchanan protested against the right of British men-of-war to search suspected slave-traders who flew the United States flag. Ship-loads of slaves were landed in southern ports directly from Africa. The northern States had in many instances passed personal-liberty laws, restricting the Fugitive Slave law so far as they could do, without a rupture with the national law. This exasperated the other party. A National Emancipation Society was formed in Cleveland, Ohio, which aimed at the gradual extinction of the institution of slavery. The attention of the country was turned to the disturbing Mormon question. These people in Utah were rising in a revolution because they could not gain admission as a State. They destroj-ed the records of the United States District Court, and by orders of Brigham Young, their governor and spiritual guide, they were to look to him for all law. Colonel Cummings, the actual governor of the Territory, was sent with an army to enforce the United States law. The Mormons destro3'ed a provision train, committed sundry depredations, but finally Young surrendered the seal of the territory, and threatened to gather his people and leave the country rather than submit to Gentile rule. But he thought better of it, and in a short time Utah made another unsuccessful attempt to enter the Union. This little episode made scarcely any impression upon the great excitement that was agitating the country. The " Mormon War " had ended in smoke. The South American troubles were settled. Walker in Nicaragua, had ceased to interest the public mind, and Congress was engaged upon the Homestead ^ct, the Pacific Railroad bills, Soldiers' Pensions for the war of 1 8 12, and 1859] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 133 "Other peaceful and unexciting measures, when suddenly the smouldering ^ame of excitement broke out afresh, and startled the land from Maine to Florida, and from ocean to ocean. John Brown, an honest enthusiast with a handful of followers had assembled at Harper's Ferr}-, Virginia, and with a written constitution, a secretary of war, a secretary of state, and a treasurer, he was ready to declare war with the government as far as slavery was concerned. His little band consisted of seventeen white men and five blacks. The whole land was informed by telegraph from Baltimore, that " an armed band of Abolitionists have full possession of the Government Arsenal, at Harper's Ferry." All the border States were in a ferment of anxiety ; their homes, their sacred altars, and their institutions were in danger. Governor Wise, of Virginia, summoned the State Militia, and General Robert E. Lee with United States troops and cannon, were hastened to the spot to suppress the bloody insurrection. Two of Brown's men were slain, and he was arrested. He was tried for exciting the slaves to insurrection, for treason and murder, found guilty, and shot on the 2d day of December, 1859. This was the raid of John Brown. The excitement and terror of Governor Wise, of Virginia, was very great. The most exaggerated rumors concerning the whole affair spread over the whole countr)% and Governor Wise prepared to repel the invasion which he was sure was being organized in the Northern States to sweep over Virginia. A thorough investigation developed the fact that Brown had less than twenty persons associated with him in his undertaking, and no open sympathizers in the whole land. The indications of the elections of 1858 and 1859, pointed to a loss of supremacy in the party which had held the national government so long, and something must be done to protect their own interests. The designing politicians had a gigantic plot in view, and while the great mass of the people in the South were a law-abiding people, who would abide by the constitution and the laws of their country if left to their own judgment, these men, comparatively few in number, deliberately set about the scheme ■«f severing the Union, and establishing a Confederacy of States in the South. The time had come for their action, for the new party were growing strong. If they did not strike at the close of Mr. Buchanan's administration, although they might succeed in electing a President in sympathy with them, their power in Congress would be much weakened. Now if they could give the people of the South another cause for their action and succeed in "firing the Southern heart " to the sense of wrong they would gain a material advantage when the blow should fall. It would not do then to have their candidate of the Democratic party elected, and the first point was to assure the election of a Northern man to the office of President, by the vote of Northern States. How could this be done? Why, the answer was easy enough. Divide the grand old Democratic Party into two factions. Then with the plea that the Republican party was a sectional one, and would oppress the South, inflame the people of the slave-owning States with the 134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [185a idea that their State institutions were in danger, and arouse them to patriotism for the State. Now the people of the South were brave, her men were conscientious, and her upper classes were the peers of any nation in intelligence. The doctrines of Jefferson had been the theme of her orators for two generations, and the theory of State Sovereignty had taken root in a rich and productive soil, where it had grown to a stalwart tree. The training of years had taught the great mass of her people to believe that slavery was right, or if not morally right, was a necessary evil in the very condition of things. The North had agitated, discussed, and stirred up strife when the whole land had been prosperous and at peace, and had caused contention and unreasonable commotion with their internal affairs. What though the North disavowed any intention of interfering with slavery in the States where it then existed, the very agitation of the subject on their borders, made them restless and stirred up their slaves. The conspiracy of a few score men could magnify all this into a grievous wrong, and stir the warm blood of the South to the intensest heat, and unite the people in a common cause, as dear to them as that which moved the hearts of their Revolutionary sires. For months there had been indications that the convention which was to meet in the city of Charleston, South Carolina, would be a stormy one, and there were mutterings of the coming tempest, that should shake the country to its center. The gathering of the si.x hundred delegates, from all States in the Union, began on the 23d of April, i860; and from the hour of its opening, there was the strong pressure of the conspiracy felt. Caleb Cushing, was chairman, and Stephen A. Douglass of Illinois, was the strongest candidate whose name had been proposed before the convention. He had won the title of " Little Giant of the West. " His idea of popular sovereignty, had been engrafted into the platform of the party at Cincinnati four years before. The oppositions were in favor of a speedy adoption of the institution of slavery as a national institution, but the friends of Douglass were not ready for this. The convention, by a handsome majority, re-afifirmed the doctrine of popular sovereignty, and at once the plot was sprung. The leader of the delegation from Alabama, announced that he, and his colleagues, would formally withdraw from the convention. Other delegates followed, and a new convention was formed, in another hall. The dismemberment of the Democratic Party, was complete, and the plot was subsequently unmasked by Mr. Glenn, of Mississippi, who said in the new convention, " I tell Southern men here, and for them I tell the North, that in less than sixty days, you will find a united South, standing side by side with us." Charleston was the scene of great delight that night, for South Carolina understood what that utterance signified. The result of this secession was that John C. Breckenridge, was nominated by the National Democratic Party, and Stephen A. Douglass was the candidate of the Regular Democratic Party. The Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for President, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice President. A fourth party. The iS6i] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. 135 Constitutional American Party, which adopted the constitution of the United States for its platform, nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, for the Presidency. And the political contest was fought with such vigor as had never been known before. The Republican and the pro-slavery wing of the Democratic party, were antagonistically opposed, and the brunt of the struggle waged between them. Abraham Lincoln had said there is " an irrepressible conflict between Freedom, and Slavery." "The Republic cannot exist half slave, and half free," and " Freedom is the normal condition in all the Territories." This was the Republican side of the question. Mr. Breckenridge claimed that no power existed that might lawfully control slavery in the Territories, and it existed in full force wherever a slave-holder, and his slaves, entered it, and it was the duty of the National Government to protect it there. The issue was plain and decided ; no one need misunderstand it. Abraham Lincoln was elected by a majority of the votes in the electoral college; but since there were four candidates in the field he had a large MINORITY of the popular vote. This was a part of the plot, to claim that he was a sectional, and a minority President. There would be four months in which to mature and carry out the plans already working so well. Two years before this, William L. Yancey had written to a friend : " Organize committees all over the Cotton States ; fire the Southern heart ; instruct the Southern mind; give courage to each other; and at the proper moment, by one organized, concerted action, precipitate the Cotton States into revolution." Mr. Yancey had been an active public speaker in the South, during the canvass of i860, and when the result was known, the leaders in the South were as much elated over the election of Lincoln, as any one in the Republican party. Now the pretext that the platform, and the policy of the Republican party, and the utterances of the President elect, with the fact that he was a sectional candidate, elected by Northern votes, and these a minority of all the votes cast, led the people of the South to fear that he would be a usurper of their rights, and the people listened until their righteous indignation was stirred, and they were ready to make one bold and united stand for their inalienable rights. In the third year of the war, a Southern gentleman wrote in a letter to a friend, " Perhaps there never was a people more bewitched, beguiled and befooled, than we were when we went into this rebellion." In the President's Cabinet, there were three, if not four men, in active sympathy with the movement, and they were anxious to wait until the end of the term before the blow should be struck. There were arsenals, fortresses, custom houses, and other public property in the South. The forts and arsenals in the North were stripped of all movable military stores, and they were sent South. The United States Navy was scattered to the four quarters of the globe, and most of the ships in commission were beyond the reach of speedy recall ; others were lying in ordinary in the navy yards under the pretense of being repaired, but no work was being done upon them. The United States Army Officers in suspected sympathy with the 13^' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1850 North, were sent to the extreme West, and the credit of the government was purposely injured. A small loan could not find a market at twelve per cent, interest. This was the condition of things. Some wanted to strike the blow as soon as the election was over ; others had another plan, which was this, as avowed by a disunionist who was in the plot. Near the close of Buchanan's term " we intend to take possession of the army and navy and the archi\-es of government ; Hot allow the electoral votes to be counted ; proclaim Buchanan Provisional President if he will do as we v.'ish, if not choose another, seize Harper's Ferry Arsenal and the Norfolk Navy Yard, and sending armed men from the former, and armed vessels from the latter, seize the city of Washington and establish a new government." Why was this not done? Lewis Cass was Secretary of State, and he discovered the treason of his associates ; but being powerless to avert the danger, he resigned. The Attorney General was promoted to be Secretary of State, and E. M. Stanton was called to be Attorney General. Secretaries Holt, Dix and Stanton, all of whom had been called into the Cabinet after its first formation, were loyal men, and brought a pressure upon the President that he could not withstand, and while he did nothing to openly aid the plot, he was obliged to make a show of sustaining the National government. The first step to open revolt was made by South Carolina. A convention of delegates in Charleston, adopted an Ordinance of Secession December 20th, i860. This was signed by one hundred and seventy members. A similar ordinance was passed by the following States in the order given : Mississippi, January 9th, 1861 ; Florida, January loth ; Alabama, January iith; Georgia, Januar\- 19th; Louisiana, January 26th; Texas, February 1st; Virginia, April 17th; Arkansas, May 6th ; North Carolina, May 20th; Tennessee, June 8th. On the fourth of February, 1861, delegates of si.x of the States above, met in Montgomery, Alabama, and formed a league styled THE CONFEDERATE States of America. A provisional Constitution was adopted at once, and Mr. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen Provisional President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice President. This organization of a few conspirators, — since no Ordinance of Secession was ever submitted to popular vote, — became a self-styled government, and made war on the United States ; seized its public property ; put a loan upon the markets of the world , issued letters of marque and reprisal, and raised armies to overthrow the government while yet its own instrument was in the presidential chair in Washington. And to increase the infamy, the Attorney General of the United States declared that the President had no right to interfere to prevent the ])roperty from being seized, and so millions of dollars worth of public property fell into the hands of the South, without an arm being raised to prevent it. A Peace Convention was held in Washington, in January, 1861, but the Senators and Representatives, rejecting all offers of compromise that were pre- i86i] THE PERIOD OF AGITATION. ^37 sented from Congress, and from this Peace Convention, witiidrew as their States seceded under the pretext of being loyal to the State. The poor, distressed President Buchanan, had to do his best for the two months which remained of his term of office. The Southern members of his Cabinet, holding on to their positions as long as they could be of any service to the South, there and then leaving their chief to fill their places with Northern men. The first overt act was performed when Major Robert Anderson, a loyal Kentuckian, refused to give up Eort Sumter, into which he had retired from a weaker fort, Moultrie. The General-in-chief of the army was Lieutenant General Scott, who was enfeebled in body and mind from age, and although he was loyal he was unable to cope with the mighty problem. He, however, caused Mr. Lincoln to be warned of his danger, and the President elect came through Baltimore alone on his way to Washington, on the morning of February 23d, 1861, antl remained there until his inauguration, on the 4th of March. yi. THE Cim WAE, 1861-5, ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN. HE sixteenth President of the United States was inducted into his office in the fear of ha\"ing his hfe taken at any moment, and General Scott had arranged the mihtary forces at his disposal in such a way tliat they could be called upon in any exigency that might arise from any suspected outbreak in the National Capitol. But all passed off quietly, and the President took the oath of office as his predecessors had done in the open air, at the east portico of the Capitol. The Senate confirmed his nominations at once. The new administration set itself at work with great zeal to ascertain the resources of the government ^ and FOUND what we have already hinted at. The public credit ^ was destroyed, but the now loyal Congress set at work to S'^ restore it. The Army and Navy were of little use ; of the >- former there were only 16,000 men, and most of them were on ^'^^ the frontiers, sixteen forts with all their' equipments were in the hands of the South, and all the arsenals. The value of the public ]iroperty in the hands of tlie insurgents was thirt\- millions of dollars. There were forty-four vessels in commission, and of these only one, the Brooklyn, of twenty-five guns, was ready for immediate service, and a store ship. Many officers of the navy were Southern men and had resigned, leaving this branch of service very weak and crippled. The first gun fired at Sumter, April 12th, 1861, awoke the slumbering nation which had thought that all this array in the South was for effect. Before Major Anderson and his heroic band brought away the flag from Sumter, which he evacuated but did not surrender, there was a divided sentiment in the North; some thought that there could be no war and that a peaceful solution was still possible, others comprehended the spirit of the revolt and were satisfied that the struggle would produce blood-shed. The flag was taken from Sumter, on April 14th, and the sun went down that day with a united North arrayed against a united South. Such an uprising the land had not seen before. Men of all grades of .society, and every political and religious creed were ready to spring to arms in defense of the Union, at the call of the President two days later. Seventy-five thousand men were called for a three months' service, and were hurried to the front from all the Northern States. The six slave States, to whose governors the requisition for troops was sent, treated the whole subject with utter scorn. The crusade was spontaneous ; in every town and hamlet and village the Stars and Stripes were displayed, and brave i865] THE CIVIL WAR. 139 men enlisted to don the union blue, and march to the front. Nothing like it had been known since the crusades of the Middle Ages to redeem the tomb of the Saviour from the Saracen. The Nation was in danger, and the old spirit of the fathers now glowed in the bosoms of their sons. But little did the)' know what was before them. Three months they thought would suffice to put down the revolt. Three months and they would come home as heroes, and a grateful country would honor them as the preservers of their nation. They soon found that the South was organized for war, and fighting at their own doors on the defensive. They had mistaken the spirit and temper of the men in arms against the government. In the South there was also a wide-spread mistake in regard to the North. They thought that the Northern people would not fight, and that their friends of the pro-slavery party there would make a strong resistance in their favor. Within seven days after the attack on Sumter, the South had an army in the field ready for battle, and the shout " on to Washington," was as enthusiastic as the cry '' on to Richmond " was in the North. The South and the North were of the same race, but under the sunny sky the former had warmed up to fever heat, and were ready for war at the instant ; the latter under a colder climate, was longer in being aroused, but when once in thorough earnest they had entered the strife they did so with the dogged determination to conquer or die. These were the two parties in the contest, and now in dead earnest, there could be no cessation in the deadly grapple until one or the other should succumb to superior strength and determination. Governor Pickens had said to the people of the cotton growing States, " Sow your seed in peace for old Virginia will have to bear the brunt of battle." So prompt was the uprising of the people in the North that the very next day after the issue of the call for troops several companies of militia arrived in Washington ready for the service. The Si.xth Regiment of Massachusetts \-olunteers were attacked in the streets of Baltimore, and the first blood shed on the 19th of April. Communica- tion by rail and telegraph was severed between that city and Washington and for several days the President and his Cabinet were virtually prisoners in their Capital, but General Benjamin Butler with Massachusetts men found a way there by water to Annapolis and the Relay House, and relieved the anxiety of suspense. Troops of hopeful men began to throng to the Capital, but they were none too soon, for an army was being collected in Northern Virginia to march to Washington and take the city. Harper's Ferry Arsenal and the Norfolk Navy Yard had fallen into the hands of the insurgents. There was an opinion on both sides that the war would be brief, and the South thought that she had only to march on to the Capital of the United States, seize, hold it and dictate terms of peace favorable to herself ; while the North regarded the Southern uprising as a formidable riot that could be crushed in ninety days. So little did either party under- stand the grit and persistency of the other. The truth was that six I40 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [i86r millions of people in the South, high spirited, possessing a fertile soil,, with a great industry upon which the manufactories of England were dependent for a supply, had risen against the government after months, if not years, of careful preparation. The problem for the loyal States, taken at a fearful disadvantage in matter of preparation, was to conquer. The new flag of " stars and bars " was floating over Alexandria in full view of the Capital. Preparations were being pushed to fortify Arlington Heights from which the Confederates could shell the city of Washington. At Manassas Junction a large army were encamped only thirty miles; away. It would seem to a casual observer that the proper course to- pursue would have been to act on the defensive, but the North were now fully aroused. They had been deceived by the threats of disunion so many times before that it had taken some time for them to realize the fact now, but once awake to its stupendous existence they bent all their energies to its suppression. A blockade of all the Southern ports was declared, and in a few weeks ships enough were manned to shut every Southern port of any considerable size. The government had gained much in a short time but there was a general cry for some decisive battle. The Secretary of War, at this time more sanguine of a short contest than he was a few months later, yielded to the popular pressure and ordered the imperfectly disciplined army of citizen soldiers to battle. General McDowell with an army variously estimated from thirty to forty thousand, marched from his quarters at Centerville, to Bull Run, Sunday, June 17th, a distance of only ten miles. The volunteers, not yet inured to hardship, suffered much on this march, and when they reached the small stream which was to become famous as the scene of a great battle, they were met by the Confederate army of General Beauregard, and a general engagement took place in which the loss was heavy on both sides. The Union army was repulsed and fled in a precipitate route to W^ashington. The men were hurrying in wild confusion from the field of conflict. The defeat had become a general panic, and baggage trains, artillery, cavalrj^ infantry, and civilians were mi.xed in a promiscuous mass. The confederates had won the battle, but showed no disposition to follow up the advantage. In fact they had suffered as severely, and in the first general engage- ment each side was equally astonished at the force displayed on the other, and awoke to the consciousness of the fact that there was equal determination and bravery in both armies. The North were taught that the work of putting down the insurrection was a more stupendous task than had been imagined but their purpose was not shaken. The day after the battle Congress voted to raise five hundred million dollars and five hundred thousand men to put down the Confederates. A few days after a resolution was passed in both Houses, saying that it was a sacred duty of the nation to put down the revolt, from which no disaster should deter them, and to which they pledged every resource,, national and individual. Mr. Lincoln said : " Having chosen our courser 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 141 without guile and with pure purpose, let us renew our trust in God and go forward without fear and with manly hearts." The spirit of the North was fully aroused and no thought of any other issue came to them. Thousands of earnest youth and middle aged men thronged into the ranks, fermented with the same lofty spirit of patriotism. Many of the three months' men re-enlisted for three years. Regiments and brigades divisions and army corps, were organized, and the army was being rapidly disciplined and prepared for the fearful task imposed. Public credit was established and private patriotism was aroused. The money to pay the soldiers of a Connecticut Regiment was not ready on time, and a private in the ranks drew his check for one hundred thousand dollars to advance the pay of his comrades. Tjiis man was Elias Howe, Jr., of Bridgeport, the inventor of the sewing machine. He had a physical lameness which would have exempted him from military service, and -when a commission was offered to him refused it on the ground of his inabilit\- to perform the duties, but he enlisted as a private to encourage other men, \\ht) could perform good service, to do the same. After the disaster at Bull Run, General George B. McClellan was placed in command. He was a skillful engineer and organizer and set about the task of organizing this incongruous mass of patriotic volunteers into a well arranged and thoroughly disciplined army. His friends knew that he was the man to mould the army and make it Avhat it should be, an obedient, disciplined and well officered instrument of the government. In October, 1861, he was the commander of two hundred thousand fighting-men, the largest army the United States had ever known. The men loved him with an enthusiasm that had been unequalled since the days of Napoleon Bonaparte and the army delighted to call him " The young Napoleon of the West. " After the secession of Virginia the Confederate government removed its seat from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, and now the capitals- of the two contending forces were within a few hours travel of each other. The most severe fighting of the entire war was occasioned by each endeavoring to capture the capital of the other, and the brave obstinacy displayed in the defence of each. General Robert E. Lee was in chief command of the Confederate army. He had been educated at the United States Military Academy at West Point, and was an officer in the United States Army ^\■hen his native State, Virginia, joined her fortunes with the Confederacy, and following his sense of duty and honor, he allied his fortunes with those of his native State. He was a brave, conscientious and skillful general, and a calm, thoughtful, unpretending man. He contended almost always with a force superior in number and armament,— such was the fortunes of war— but he made up more than the deficiency by his genius and skill. By his consummate ability and devotion to the cause, the war was maintained after the hope of success was- gone, and when at length the overpowering resources, and numbers of the North compelled his surrender, he was esteemed even by his enemies, wha 142 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1867 were proud of this noble but erring son, who had been educated by the nation against which he had with mistaken judgment drawn his vaHant sword. Thomas Jackson, who earned the epithet of " Stonewall " Jackson, was the most celebrated of Lee's generals. He was an earnest religious man of stern uncompromising integrity, whicli won the admiration of friend and foe alike ; but he had gone into the war from a high sense of duty, and shows how a noble man can be sadly mistaken in judgment. He was scrupulously exact in his own private life, led a class in Sunday School, taught his negroes, and delivered lectures on the authenticity of the Scriptures. He firmly believed in the justness of slavery, and ordered his slaves to be flogged when he thought the circumstances required it. He proposed at the commencement of the war, " that no prisoners be taken," and when this inhuman opinion did not gain the sanction of the chief generals, he never ceased to his death to regret that this policy was not carried out. He was a brave, expert and successful general, and died regretted by honest men in both armies. In January, 1862, President Lincoln ordered General McClellan to advance with his finely equipped army upon the enemy, and by the end of March was ready to move. At the opening of the new year we will glance back over the history of the year 1861. Fort Sumter had been evacuated by Major Anderson, April 14th. President Lincoln had issued his call for troops on the 15th. The si.xth Massachusetts had been mobbed in the streets of Baltimore, on the 19th. The offensive operations were begun by the United States Army on the i8th of May. The engagements of Big Bethel, Philippi, Fairfax Court House, Paterson Creek, Mather's Point, York Bridge, Laurel Hill, Rich Mountain, Beverly, Carrichford, Bunker Hill, Barboursville, and First Bull Run, all in Virginia, had been fought before the disaster at Bull Run, of which we have written. They were, for the most part but preliminary skirmishes, and in no sense decisive. The insurrection in Maryland had been strangled at its birth, and that State saved to the Union. In Missouri, three engagements of considerable importance had been fought at Boonsville, Carthage, and Briar Forks. The Confederate privateer Petrel was sunk by the St. Lawrence, August 1st. A battle was fought between General Lyon, of the Union army, and General McCulloch, of the Confederate army, at Dug Spring, Missouri, August 2d. Fort Fillmore was treacherously given up by Major Lynde, with seven hundred and fifty men, the same day in New Me.xico. Lovettsville, Grafton, Boone Court House, Carnifax, Lucas Bend, Lewinsville, Elk Water, Cheat Mountain, Damstown, Romney Fall Church, Chapmansville, Greenbriar, Bolivar, Balls Bluff, Vienna and Drainsville, all in Virginia, were places where more or less blood was shed during the opening year of the war. In the State of Missouri, whose governor was determined to take her out of the Union, a severe contest ensued, which resulted in driving the Confederates from her borders, and preserving her to the United States. Potosi, Wilson Creek, Charlestown, Lexington, Blue Mill Landing, Papinsville, .865] THE CIVIL WAR. 143 Fredericktown, Springfield, Belmont, Mount Sion, were the names of places where engagements were fought in that State. In Kentucky the Confederates gained a slight foothold in the southern and western part, and under the show of military power they held a convention, and passed an ordinance of secession and delegates were chosen to the Confederate Congress. A skirmish was fought at Buffalo Hill, and another at Hemington in that State, in October, and battles at Wildcat, Cromwell, Saratoga, Piketown, during October and the early part of November. On the 7th of November, the Union forces captured and held the forts on Hilton's Head, South Carolina. In the fall of 1861, there occurred an event which for a time threatened to cause a rupture with Great Britain. The Confederate government had sent two commissioners with credentials as ambassadors to the English and French courts, which had already acceded belligerent rights to " The Confederate States of America." These gentlemen, each with his secretary, had succeeded in running the blockade on the stormy night of October 12th, 1861, and proceeded to Cuba. Here they took passage on the British steamer Trent for St. Thomas, intending to take the regular packet steamer from that port, but the United States vessel, San Jacinto, Captain Charles Wilkes, took them from the Troit and carried them to Boston, where they were incarcerated in Fort Warren, then used as a military prison. This act was in the strictest accord with the British interpretation and practice of the question for which the war of 1812 was fought, and which was left undecided in the treaty of peace at the close of that war. But it was in direct opposition to the avowed theory and policy of the American government. England now claimed, as the Americans claimed in 1S12, that this was a violation of the rights of neutral powers, and after fifty years, in which she had strenuously maintained the right to do the very thing which the United States had now done, that proud nation acknowledged that the principle was wrong. A demand was made for the return of the ambassadors, James M. Mason and John Slidell. The American government were too glad to vindicate their policy, and to rid themselves of the burden, by giving up the men on January ist, 1862. The ambassadors did not gain the advantage they sought, and the event silenced forever the arrogant claim of England to search the ships of neutrals. 144 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 THE OPERATIONS OF 1862. 'HE year 1862 opened with a design on foot to establish the national power on the Atlantic coast of the Southern States. A secret expedition under Command of Major.. General A. E. Burnside, sailed from Hampton Roads January nth. The result was that Roanoke Island and the coast of Albemarle Sound fell into the hands of the Union forces. The Confederate force fled from Royal, South Carolina, January 2d. Kentucky there had been a fight near Prestonburg, in which General J. A. Garfield, defeated the disunion General r Humphrey Murphy, January loth. General Thomas had defeated > General Zollicoffer in a battle at Mill Spring, Kentucky, where fs) the latter was killed. Kentucky was saved and a path of '''P/W escape made for the Union men in East Tennessee by these ,^^^ two decisive victories. The disunion army fled into Tennessee. ■^'w ®\\2^ A flotilla of gun boats had been built and equipped under General ^ ^ John C. Fremont, of California fame, at Cairo on the Mississippi. Commodore A. H. Foote, had been put in command. An expedition against Forts Henry and Donaldson had been organized, and General U. S. Grant had been put in chief command. Commodore Foote was ordered to the Tennessee River with his gun boats. February 3d, he was in front of Fort Henry, and on the 6th, the fort surrendered. General Grant made immediate preparation to attack Fort Donaldson, while Commodore Foote hurried back to Cairo to obtain mortar guns for the siege. The battle began on the 13th, was renewed on the two following days and the fort surrendered on the i6th with thirteen thousand three hundred prisoners of war. The Confederate Generals, Floj-d and Pillow, fled the night before and left General Buchner, who was the only brave man of the three to surrender the fort. This was the first brilliant victory for General Grant during the war. The fall of Fort Donaldson was a heavy blow to the Confederates, but the news caused the most wide-spread rejoicing all through the loyal States. It was regarded as a crushing blow to the Southern cause, and lost to them the States of Missouri, Kentucky and all northern and middle Tennessee. The campaign in Arkansas resulted after a few skirmishes in the decisive victory for the Union forces under General Sigel at Pea Ridge, on the 7th of February 1862, in which the five disunion generals. Van Dorn, McCulloch, Mcintosh, Pike and Price were engaged. McCulloch and Mcintosh were mortally wounded and Van Dorn retired behind the mountains. The Confederate army lost thirty-four hundred men in killed and wounded, and sixteen hundred prisoners. While these important victories were going on in the West there 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 145 were events of interest occurring in Virginia. The Confederates liad taken an old frigate which they sheatlied in iron and roofed her with iron rails and fitted her up as a formidable iron clad. There was no ship in the United States Navy which could withstand her attack. On the 8th of March she steamed down to assault the fleet in Hampton Roads. This monster, which had been re-christened the Mcrriinac, came into the very midst of the fleet. Not a man was seen on board, not a gun was fired, and the broadsides poured in upon her rolled off her iron sides and left her unharmed. She destroyed the Congress and Ctunbcrland, -and no power could withstand her assault. The Union fleet was apparently doomed, and this monster could devastate the whole Northern coast. There were anxious hearts that clay through all the North as the news of this encounter flew on the wires over the country. The Confederates had the advantage of them now, and could rest on their laurels for one night at least. The next day she came down the James to complete her work of destruction so well begun the day before. But at midnight a mysterious something came in from the sea, lighted on her way by the burning Congress. The thing looked like a cheese box on a raft ; and there had been nothing like it in the whole history of na\-al warfare. It \\-as the Monitor on her trial trip from New York. That day was the trial of strength between the inventive genius of the two sections. The Yankee cheese box won the prize. In the novel naval engagement she was the victor and the monster crawled back to her moorings disabled and useless. The United States Navy had found a champion that could defend her from the monster that but yesterday threatened her annihilation. The army of the Potomac was transferred to Fortress Monroe, and prepared to sail up the James river. General Banks was sent up the Shenandoah to attract the attention of General Stonewall Jackson. The battle of Winchester was fought on the 23d of March and resulted in a victor)- for the Union arms. The month of May found General Fremont in the mountains of West Virginia ; General Ranks at Strasburg in the Shenandoah valley ; and General McDowell at Fredericksburg on the Rappahannock, for the two fold purpose of defending Washington and helping McClellan. The swift moving General Ewell had joined Jackson, and on May 8th struck Fremont a heavy blow, and Ma}- 23d sent Banks flying down the valley to Winchester. Then the tide turned and Ewell was driven back, pursued by Fremont and Shields. Jackson rallied his forces, joined Ewell, and on the 9th of June the national armies began their second great race down the Shenandoah, followed by the Confederates. The two main armies were face to face with each other on the first of June, within six miles of the Confederate Capital. The army of the Union were anxious to enter the city of Richmond at once, and the time had •come for a decisive blow. The leader was wanting, McClellan's habitual 10 146 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 caution and desire to save human life led him to be over anxious for the safety of the army, every man of which loved him. They were burning to win glory and honor, and were in good condition to march directly into the city. Lincoln urged him daily to make the attack, but still he hesitated. The Confederates came out to attack him, and the general made preparation to retreat to the shelter of the gun boats on the James river. He would save his army or " at least die with it and share its fate." The army of patriots were anxious to fight on the offensive and could decide the question of its own fate but the general, over- solicitous, moved away from the enemy, and his retreating army was daily attcked by the Confederates, and as often gained the victory ; but still they fell back for seven days. Once they drove the enemy fleeing before them and the soldiers demanded to be led into Richmond. The army was strong enough but its leader was weak. McClellan was loyal and desired the success of the North, nor would we for an instant hint at any improper motives. McClellan was such a man as aroused the enthusiasm of the rank and file, and at the same time hesitated to lead them to death. He lost fifteen thousand men in seven days fight' from Gains' Mills, June 28th, to July 3d, 1862. The army of Generel Lee had sustained a loss even larger, and when McClellan was fortifying his camp on the James, Lee was glad to rest his shattered and discomfited troops behind the fortifications of Richmond. The retreat was a masterly and skillful one, and showed magnificent generalship no doubt, but neither the army nor the country were in a humor to appreciate the greatness of a General whose skill consisted in conducting a successful flight. The prize had been within the grasp of a hand powerful enough to seize it, but the brain that directed that power was conservative and cautious, and therefore the city of Richmond was to be a bone of contention between the magnifi- cent army of the Potomac and the brave army of Virginia for long years to come. The Confederates were exultant and the North sadly disappointed with the results of the campaign of the Spring of 1862. We will turn in this swiftly changing panorama to the West. The silent, determined and persistent General U. S. Grant, was doing valiant service for the Union army, and rising in rank and influence. After the fall of Fort Donaldson, Johnston saw that he could only save the Confederate army by evacuating Bowling Green, and Columbus, Kentucky ; he then marched his forces to Nashville, Tennessee, closely followed by General Buell, and at the same time the national gunboats moved up the Tennessee River from Fort Donaldson. Nashville, Tennessee, was surrendered to the Union forces February 26th, and on March 4th, Andrew Johnson was appointed Military Governor, with the rank of Brigadier-General. Columbus w'as taken by Commodore Foote and General W. T. Sherman, March 4th, 1862. Island Number Ten, a thousand miles from New Orleans, was now regarded as the key to the Mississippi River, and was strongly fortified by the Confederates. This was flanked by General Pope, and Commodore Foote hammered away at iS65] THE CIVIL WAR. 147 the defenses from his gun-boats until it surrendered, April 7th. This was another heavy blow to the Confederates, and they never recovered from it. General Grant had sent the gun-boats up the winding Tennessee River, from Fort Henry, and they penetrated the country as far as Florence, Alabama, under Lieutenant Commander Phelps, United States Navy, who found an intense loyal feeling among the people. The army were anxious to advance to their aid, and General Grant attempted to do this. The objective point was Corinth, a city on the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. The large Union army was encamped at Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, about twenty miles from Corinth, on the first of April. General Buell was trying to join Grant with his forces from Nashville, leaving General Ne}-ley in command in that city. Huntsville was captured April nth, by a part of Buell's army under General Mitchell. The battle of Shiloh had been fought and won by Grant, on the 7th. The Southern army had advanced from Corinth to within four miles of the Union army unperceived on the morning of the si.xth, Sunday, and fell upon Generals Sherman, and Prentice, — the battle waged all day, and the Union army at night was driven discomfited to the shelter of their gun-boats, on the Tennessee. Beauregard telegraphed a shout of victory to his chief at Richmond, but Buell and Lew Wallace arrived in the night, crossed the river, and Grant's army was saved. The next day the fight was renewed. Wallace charged on the Confederate left, and pressed Beauregard back. The battle became general, and the Southerners were driven from the ground that they had taken the day before. Then they fled in precipitate rout, covered by a strong rear guard. The South lost ten thousand men, the North fifteen thousand, and that night the Union army buried the dead on the battle field, while the enemy fled to Corinth. General Halleck came from St. Louis, April 12th, and assumed command, but instead of marching directly upon Corinth, he moved by slow approaches with spade and pick, fortifying as he advanced. On the morning of May 30th, when he sent out skirmishers " to feel the enemy's position," there were no enemies, for Corinth had been evacuated, and the city burned. At the mouth of the Great River the Union Squadron, with General Butler, had captured Forts Jackson and Philip, and entered the Mississippi. New Orleans had been occupied by General Butler, who declared military law April 29th. Commodore Foote with his flotilla, besieged Fort Pillow, May lOth, and on the 4th of June the forces fled to Memphis, where Commodore Davis, who had succeeded Commodore Foote, had a severe engagement on June 6th, but soon after the flag of the United States waved over the city of Memphis. All this was going on in the west while the army of the Potomac was moving so cautiously under General McClellan. The e.xpedition to North Carolina was accomplishing much in gaining that State back to national control. The battle of Newberne was fought on March 8th, and a fight occurred upon the nth of April, near Elizabeth City. The Northern troops had taken the coast, and were moving into the interior. The national forces captured Fort Mason, at the entrance of 148 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 Beaufort Harbor, April 25, and now held undisputed sway from the Dismal Swamp to Cape Fear River. While General Burnside was engaged in this work in North Carolina, General Sherman and Commodore Dupont went upon a similar expedition to the coast of South Carolina and Georgia. Fort Pulaski was taken after a severe pounding, April 12, and this commanded the entrance to the Savannah River. The coast of Florida was easily seized in the early winter. Fort Clinch, the first of the national forts re-occupied since their seizure, was taken in February, Jacksonville, Florida, March nth, St. Augustine and Pensacola, opposite Fort Pickens, which never had been in possession of the South, were ■ captured in March. Thus in less than a year from the fall of Sumter, the United States was in possession of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast, with the exception of Charleston harbor, as far as Pensacola bay. The scene will change again to the army of the Potomac. General McClellan had disappointed the country, and when the news of the disasters to the Union forces, in front of Richmond, swept over the North, the hearts of the people sank within them. The commander assured the government, three days after the battle of Malvern Hill, that he did not have "over fifty thousand men with their colors." What had become of the one hundred and sixty thousand men who had been sent to him within the one hundred days previous? Lincoln with an anxious heart hastened to the head-quarters of McClellan, to solve this question and answer his request for more troops. The result of this conference was that Lincoln found forty thousand men more than the general had reported, and yet there were seventy-five thousand men missing. Orders were given to remove this army from the Peninsula, and concentrate it before Washington, but McClellan was opposed to this plan, and he was slow to obey. In the month of August, 1862, the national Capitol was in great danger. The battle of Cedar Mountain had been fought on the 9th of that month. In this fight the national troops were under command of General Banks. They were driven back, but by the timely reinforcement of General Rickett's division, were able to check the Confederate advance in one of the most desperate encounters of the war. Both sides claimed the victory. General Pope was reinforced by Burnside's army, and moved to the Rapidan, intending to hold that position until the arrival of McClellan, but was driven back by Lee. The Confederate general found that he could not force a passage in this direction, and he moved toward the mountains to outflank Pope. This general did his best to thwart the plan of Lee, but his army was much weakened, and McClellan protesting against moving from the James delayed reinforcements from that quarter. Pope, therefore, concentrated his forces at Rappahannock Station, August 23d, 1862, that he might be able to fall with a superior force, upon the flanking army under " Stonewall " Jackson. This adroit and skillful general, with accustomed swiftness, crossed the Bull Run Mountain at Thoroughfare Gap, and placed his immense force between Pope and Washington. His cavalry swept as far as Fairfax Court House 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 149 and Centcrville, and his main army were at Manassas, waiting for a heavy cokimn under Longstreet, who was advancing. The t\\'o armies were both of them in danger of annihilation. Pope mo\-ed with quickness to attack and capture Jackson, before Longstreet could come up. But the latter succeeded in joining Jackson, and Pope, who was now assured that he need no longer wait for reinforcements from McClellan, saw that he must fight. The second battle at Hull Run, was fought with great loss and defeat to the Union arm}', August 30th. Pope fell back to Centerville, where he was joined by Franklin, and Sumner. Lee did not now attack them, but made another flank movement August 31st. This resulted in a battle September ist, at Chantilly, where Generals Philip Kearney and Stevens were killed, and the whole army driven within the fortifications of Washington. The Confederates now had the advantage and determined to follow it up. The time had come when they could make a formidable advance upon Washington, and carry the war into the land of the enemy. September 7th, Lee crossed the Potomac with almost his entire force, and marched into Maryland with the belief that thousands of people in that State would join his army and fight, to redeem her from the Northern army. In this he was sadly disappointed. McClellan with the Armj^ of the Potomac, numbering 90,000 came to the rescue, and the army of Virginia was merged into it. McClellan moved cautiousl)'; but in the meantime Burnsidc had fought and won the battle of South Mountain, in which the gallant General Reno was killed. Harper's Ferry was captured by Lee's army, where Colonel D. H. Miles, a Virginian, surrendered nearly 1200 United States troops. The crisis was coming and the issue must be met at Antietam. The Confederates had possession of the right bank of the stream, and the Union army the left. The contest opened with artillery firing from the former. McClellan was not ready to move until noon. Hooker crossed the Antietam and had a successful fight on the Confederate left, and rested on his arms that night to renew the fight in the morning. The fight opened early the next day, by Hooper charging on Lee's left again ; Burnside on the right, was doing good execution against Longstreet. The contest waged all day, and at night the Confederate army retreated from the scene. Fourteen thousand fresh troops came to the aid of McClellan, and it would seem as if he might have followed up his advantage, and taken the Confederates ; but when he was ready to move, thirty-six hours later, Lee's shattered and broken army were behind their own defenses on the south side of the Potomac, whither they had hastened in the cover of darkness, the night before. McClellan came to Harper's Ferry, which he found abandoned by the Confederates, and ten days after the battle of Antietam, while the North were hourly expecting to hear that his victorious army had pursued and overcome Lee, he coolly declared his intention to remain where he was, and " attack the enemy should he attempt to re-cross into Mar^'Iand." October 1st, President Lincoln, instructed the Commander of the Army of the Potomac, to move at once across the river , but twenty days were spent in correspondence, during which the beautiful 150 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [iS6i October weather, which was favorable for military mo\'ements had passed, and Lee's army was resting, recruiting and fortifying. Then, November 2d, McClellan announced that his whole army were in Virginia, prepared to move southward, on the east side of the Blue Ridge, while Lee was on the west side. The patience of the government and the loyal people of the North was exhausted, and McClellan was relieved November 5th, and General A. E. Burnside was placed in command. This ended the military career of Major- General George B. McClellan, the beloved commander of the army of the Potomac, who was over-cautious and careful of the lives of his men. General Burnside reorganized the army and formed a plan to capture Richmond. For this purpose he made his base of supplies at Acquina Creek, and took position at Fredericksburg, from which he intended to advance. But before he was prepared to cross the Rappahannock, Lee appeared with an army 80,000 strong, on the heights in the rear of the city, and destroyed all the bridges on the river. Burnside was obliged to cross upon pontoon bridges. The Union army advanced under a heavy fire, and a bloody battle ensued, which lasted from the 13th, to the i6th of December, and the Unionists were defeated with great slaughter. Lee took possession of the city, and the National forces retired under cover of darkness. Burnside was superseded by General Joseph Hooker January 26th, 1863, when the army were in winter-quarters. We must here leave them, \\'hile we turn our attention to the stirring events on the Mississippi. We had left the Northern army June ist, 1862, in possession of the river, from its mouth to New Orleans, and from its sources to Memphis, Tennessee. Colonel John H. Morgan, of Tennessee, had organized an independent band for guerilla warfare, and was overrunning his native State with his horsemen, and making long and swift raids through the country in all directions preparatory to an invasion of Tennessee and Kentucky by a Confederate force. By these raids much damage was done to private and public property, and many exactions were wrung from, the people. General E. Kirby Smith, with a large Confederate force, entered Kentucky from East Tennessee, and prepared to march upon Frankfort, the capital. A desperate battle was fought August 30th at Richmond, Kentucky, in which the Union army under General Manson was defeated. The affrighted Legislature in session at Frankfort, fled to Louisville. But the Southern army pressed on to Lexington with the intention of crossing the Ohio River and destroying the city of Cincinnati. They found their way obstructed by strong fortifications on the south side of the river and a force under General Lew Wallace. Smith then turned toward Frankfort, captured the city, and waited for General Bragg. Bragg crossed the Cumberland River September 5th with 8000 Confederates, and September 14th the advance guard was repulsed by Colonel T. J. Wilder; but two days after Colonel Wilder was compelled to surrender to a superior force. Thus far the Southern army had had it their own way, but now there came a change ; General Buell fell upon the combined armies of Bragg and Smith at i86s] THE CIVIL WAR. 151 Pcrryville, and after a severe fight, drove the Confederates from Kentucky, with severe loss, October 8th. General Buell like General McClellan was too cautious and careful. If he had acted with vigor and decision, the invasion of Smith and Bragg, would have been crushed at once by the capture of the entire force. As it was it was harmful rather than beneficial to the Southern cause, and General Bragg who was responsible for it, was relieved of his command by the Confederates. While all this was going on in Kentucky, General Van Dorn, and Price, were invading Tennessee with another Confederate force. General Rosecrans with a small force overcame the Confederates in a closely contested battle at luka Springs, September 19th. The beaten army fled southward, and at Ripley were reinforced, and prepared to attack Corinth, now held by Ros- ecrans, and in both engagements of October 2d and 3d, the Southern army was repulsed, and finally driven back to Ripley. Then there came a period of quiet in the department over which General Grant was in command. In the meantime there were important events transpiring on the Great River. The forces under Admiral Farragut, and General Butler, had mo\-ed up the river and taken Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana, as early as May 7th. Farragut's vessels ran up to Vicksburg and exchanged salutations with the gun-boats of Admiral Davis, which came down from Memphis, June 29th. Farragut with the Hartford, and other vessels, ran by the forts of Vicksburg and joined the fleet above. He besieged the city, and attempted to cut a canal across the peninsula, and avoid it altogether, but this failed, and the fleet returned down the river. There was an attack by the Confederate troops under General Breckenridge, at Baton Rouge. The Union General Williams was killed, but the assailants were repulsed. The Confederate ram, Arkansas, was destroyed by the United States vessel i;.f.f(U-, Captain Porter commander, August 6th. Captain Porter went up the river to reconnoitre and had a sharp fight at Port Hudson, September 7th. A large part of Louisiana, on the west bank of the Mississippi, was brought under control before the close of the year. General Butler was relieved of the command of New Orleans, by General Banks, December i6th. The account of one more battle will end the record for the year 1862. General Rosecrans had taken the sadly demoralized ami)' of the Cumberland, thoroughly reorganized and disciplined it. It was in the vicinity of Bowling Green when he took command. Bragg had a large force at Stone River, or Murfreesborough, and was preparing to annihilate the Union army. A most sanguinary conflict was begun on the 31st of December, and was fought all day. At night the Unionists were so completely overcome that Bragg expected that they would seek safety in flight during the darkness, but to his astonishment they were still in his front, ready to renew the encounter. The contest was fierce and sharp, when the day seemed to be irretrievably lost to the North, a charge of seven regiments under the leadership of Brigadier-General W. B. Hargen, sent the Confederate lines flying in confusion, and won the fearful prize of victory 15^ HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 from the very teeth of defeat." Bragg retreated to Chattanooga, and Rosecrans held possession of Murfreesborough. Thus begins the year of 1863, with a decided and glorious victory on the field of battle ; but there was a moral victory also won on this day, which decided the fate of the country for future generations. THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. ^^HE National Government had disavowed any intention ' " to make war upon slavery in the States where it existed- The contest was for the supremacy of the Nation. and the enforcement of its laws and Constitution. There came a mighty revolution of feeling among tliose in the North, who had sympathized with the peculiar institution of the South. They came to see that this was the fundamental cause of the insurrection, and at the same time a means of prolonging strife. The negroes could plant, reap the crops, and attend to domestic affairs, while the white men were doing military duty. The course of many of the Northern generals in returning the fugitive slaves who came into their lines, was very unpopular. The Republican party in Congress was pressing upon the attention of President Lincoln, the importance of emancipating the slaves held by those who were fighting the national government. Congress had abolished slavery in the District of Columbia, and on the 22d of September, Abraham Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation, in which he declared his purpose to issue a Proclamation of Emancipation on the first day of January, 1863, forever setting free the slaves of all men found that day in open rebellion against the United States. The Confederates sneered at this, and their Northern sympathizers, of whom there were some still remaining called it a" Pope's Bull against a Comet." The war went on as we have seen ; prosecuted with vigor on both sides. The dawn of the New Year came, and "The Emancipation Proclamation " was issued under the seal of the United States. The friends of freedom hailed it all over the world as the harbinger of success to the North. At once the fetters were stricken from over three millions of human beings, and they were free before the law to enter the union lines, and as fast as new territory in the South was occupied by Union arms they were set at liberty. It was a severe blow to the South, and took away their hope, but it allied all the real friends of human liberty in the world to the cause of the Union. While the North was engaged in this work, the 'Confederacy was engaged in extensive preparations to destroy the commerce and the power of the nation. Privateers, built in British shipyards, equipped with British guns and seamen, fitted out in British waters; were sent to prey upon American commerce, with the stars and bars flying at their peak. iS65] THE CIVIL WAR. When the people of New York heard the. cry of the starving operatives at Manchester, England, whose supply of cotton had been cut off by the blockade of the South, they sent a ship-load of provisions to aid them. This vessel, laden with the voluntary bounty of America to the starving citizens of England, was guarded upon her voyage by an armed government vessel t'O preserve her from the piratical torch, lighted by British hands. The course of Great Britain, during all the period of civil war in America, seems to the historian a peculiarly inconsistent one. With the proud boast that no slave could live under her flag, she hastened to recognize the belligerent rights of the Confederate States, gave the moral aid of her indifference and apathy to acts of illegality, and stultified herself in regard to her national policy of eighty years on the question of neutrality ; gave a ready market to the bonds of irredeemable \'alue, and sheltered and abetted the enemies of a country with which she was at peace: furnished ships, munitions of war, and men to fight against the same country. All this for the sake of aiding a cause avowedly resting upon slavery as its chief corner- stone. The Confederate privateer Alabama, the principal one of the craft fitted out by the British, committed fearful depredations on American commerce during the last ninety days of the year 1862. THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1863. E will open the account of the year with the operations on the Mississippi. A portion of this great river was still in the hands of the Confed- erates, from Vicksburg to Port Hudson, where the South had been permitted to erect strong fortifi- ' cations, a distance of twenty-five miles from Baton Rouge. Grant had a large amount of supplies at Holly Springs, which, owing to the carelessness or worse of the commandant, there fell into the hands of the Confederates December 20th. Grant was forced to fall back, and thus a large force was able to come to Vicksburg. Sherman had planned to attack the city in the rear, but in an engagement on the Chickasaw Bayou was defeated with great loss December 28th, 1862. He was compelled to abandon that enterprise, and January 2d, 1S63, he was superseded by General McClernand, who out-ranked him. About the middle of January the Confederate fort at Arkansas Pass was captured and many supplies destroyed. Grant had come down the river from Memphis, and \^icks- burg was placed under siege. The army was organized into four corps, and after a series of movements which would in themselves fill a volume he finally struck upon a plan which he followed to the end. Some of the naval something 154 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 fleet ran down by Vicksburg to destroy the Confederate fleet below, but were themselves taken and destroyed. A strong force went down the west bank of the riv-er in command of generals McClernand and McPherson, in the direction of New Carthage. Porter determined to run by the batteries of Vicksburg, and succeeded in doing so with most of his fleet and transports on the i6th of April; on the 22d six transports accom- plished the same feat, and now Grant prepared for a vigorous attack upon the flank and rear of the city. A most wonderful cavalry raid under Colonel Grierson through the very heart of Mississippi assured , Grant that the bulk of the Southern army of that region was in Vicksburg. Porter attacked and again ran by the batteries of Vicksburg April 29th, and May ist gained a victory at Port Gibson. Sherman joined the Union army May 8th. The Confederates were defeated near Ridimond Ma}- 12th, and again at Jackson May 14th. The Confed- erates were driven northward and another victory was gained for the Union army at Champion Mills; the i6th and 17th Grant drove them from Big Black River, and on the 19th he had the whole army penned up in Vicksburg, having lived off the enemy's country for two weeks, in which time his army had gained repeated victories. The very day he arrived before Vicksburg Grant made an assault, but was repulsed. This he followed up with another unsuccessful attempt on the 22d. Then he settled down to a regular siege of the city for forty days, pouring shot and shell into the beleaguered town day and night, until the citizens were safe only in caves that they dug in the banks of the hills with which the city abounds. The army and people were reduced to the verge of starvation and were in great distress. They were driven to the necessity of eating mule meat, and cats and dogs. Fourteen ounces of food for ten days was the e.xtent of the rations issued. General Pemberton gave up all hope of being relieved by Johnston, who he thought would strike in Grant's rear, and on the morning of July 3d he sent proposals to surrender. The formal surrender was made on the glorious fourth of July, and there was great rejoicing, for on the same day another hard fought battle was won in the East. Twenty-seven thousand stand of arms were taken and the strongest fortress on the Mississippi fell into the hands of the Unionists. The commander of Port Hudson, which had been bravely besieged by General Banks for forty days, surrendered on the 9th; but we will recount his doings in the Lower Mississippi prior to this. Banks had sent troops to the support of the Union forces at Galveston, Texas, but the Confederate General Magruder had repulsed them and retaken the city. This was a barren victory to the Confed- erates for Admiral P'arragut maintained a strict blockade over that port. After this a land and naval force was sent into the Teche region and made a successful expedition to repossess the western part of Louisiana. An expedition to the Red River under Banks penetrated the country 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 155 as far as Alexandria, where the general proclaimed that all Southern and Western Louisiana was free from Confederate rule. With this impression he led his troops to Port Hudson and invested that point. He made an assault on this fortress on May 2gth, but was repulsed with much loss. The siege went on for forty days, and after Vicksburg fell into the hands of the Unionists, the Confederates saw that it would be useless to try to hold out longer and capitulated. Now the river was open to the sea, and the Confederacy was severed in two parts. The blow was a severe one, and the wiser men of the Confederacy saw that their cause was hopeless from this point in the contest. We last left the army of the Potomac in winter-quarters at the opening of the year, Major-General Joseph Hooker in command. There followed a period of three months in which he was busily engaged in re-organizing that army. A large number of officers and men were absent from their regiments. There were officers who were opposed to the Government's policy on the question of slavery, and many were crying out it is a " war for the negro " and not a " war for union." These men were removed and their places were filled by energetic men in full sympathy with the administration. Order and discipline became thoroughly established and Hooker had over one hundred thousand available troops on the first day of April. The period of rest and reformation of the army had done much to add to its tone and strength. During this same time General Lee had been engaged in strengthening the army of Northern Virginia. A rigid conscription act had been enforced and all the available men were hurried into the ranks. He had made the defense of Richmond impregnable and with wonderful energy and skill had put his army into the best condition for the coming struggle. In April, Lee had a well organized and enthusiastic army of more than sixty thousand men. A part of his army under Long- street were in South-eastern Virginia but Lee was behind the strong, fortifications and able to cope with a much superior force. Early in April Hooker determined to make an advance upon Rich- mond. He threw a mounted force of ten thousand men in the rear of Lee's army, and moved with another large force to Chancellorsville, within ten miles of Richmond. The left wing of Hooker's army, consisting of the First, Third, and Sixth Corps, was near Fredericksburg, under General Sedgwick, and by their demonstration on the Confederate front so completely deceived General Lee that Hooker was well on the way before Lee was aware of his real design. But Lee did not turn back to Richmond, as Hooker thought he would when he discovered his peril, but pushed the column of Stonewall Jackson forward, and compelled Hooker to fight at Chancellorsville, with his army divided. There was great peril for both armies — Hooker and Lee. The bloody battle of Chancellorsville was fought the 1st and 2d of May, and resulted in a bitter defeat for the Union army. The struggle was severe and sanguinary, and Hooker's army was driven back on the road leading to the Rapidan and the Rappahannock. Lee's forces 156 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 were united, but Hooker's were divided. Sedgwick, at Fredericksburg, was in danger and could not come to Hooker's aid. When he received the command of his chief, he moved at once and took possession of Fredericks- burg — stormed the heiglits, and drove General Early back May 3d. He then moved on to join Hooker's main body, but was checked at Salem's Church, a few miles from Fredericksburg, by the whole of Lee's army. Now, instead of being able to join Hooker, he was driven across the Rappahannock May 4th and 5th. Hooker, hearing of the disaster to Sedgwick, was obliged to retreat across the river. The Union forces united and fell back on May 5th. The whole movement had resulted in a severe loss to the Union army, and a decided victory to the Confederates. Longstreet had made a spirited and vigorous attack upon General Peck, but had been repulsed at Suffolk at the head of the Nansemond River, and Longstreet, hearing of the disaster at Chancellorsville, joined Lee and made his army as strong as that of the Nationals. The Union army had been out-generaled once more, and the skill and energy of the Confederate commander had won the day. Under the impression that there was still a large body of people in the North who would manifest active sympathy with the Confederates if they had the opportunity to do so, and highly elated by their successes at Chancellorsville, the authorities ordered Lee to prepare for another formidable invasion of Maryland and Pennsylvania. But they had misunderstood the temper and the resources of the North. Hooker suspected this design, and reported his con\-ictions to the government at Washington. The term of enlistment of a large number of troops that had volunteered for nine months had e.xpired, and Hooker's army was being weakened by their discharge, but other recruits for three years or during the war were coming in. By a flank movement Lee compelled Hooker to break up his camp on the Rappahannock and move toward Washington. Lee at the same time sent his left wing up the Shenandoah, and a battle was fought at Winchester, in which General Milroy was driven back and the Union forces suffered severe loss, but escaped into Maryland and Penns}-lvania with their supply and ammunition trains. A large cavalry force pursued Milro\' into Pennsylvania, and destroyed the railroad up the Cumberland Valley to Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania, plundering the people all along the march. The Confederate army was upon Northern soil on June 25th. Hooker had been vigilant and active in the meanwhile, and crossed the Potomac at Edwards' Ferry. A disagreement arose between General Hooker and General Halleck — then Commander-in- chief — and Hooker resigned. General George G. Meade was placed in command of the army of the Potomac June 28th, and retained it to the close of the war. At this time the Union army were in Frederick, Maryland, ready to cut off Lee's line of communication, fall upon his columns in retreat, or follow him up the Susquehanna Valley. Lee was then preparing to march on to Philadelphia, but learning of the danger which threatened his flank and rear he recalled Ewell, who was within a few miles of Harrisburg. The rapid gathering of the militia of Pennsylvania and surrounding States 1 865] THE CIVIL WAR. '3/ alarmed him, and Lee, therefore, concentrated all the army of Northern Virginia in the vicinity of Gettysburg. He did this for the purpose of falling upon the army of the Potomac with crushing force, and then march upon Baltimore or Washington, or, in case of defeat, have a line of retreat to the Potomac River. General Meade did not comprehend this design of Lee until June 30th, and then at once he prepared to meet the shock of battle on a line a little south of Gettysburg. This was the pivotal battle of the war, and deserves more than a passing notice. The Confederates had invaded a Northern State, and were now. to meet the Union army on its own soil. The great cities of the North were threatened. The Southern army had touched its highest point, and upon this issue the fortunes of the country hung. A new' general had assumed the command of an army with which he was unacquainted two days before the contest was commenced. Meade had an oft-defeated army of from sixty to seventy thousand men with which to meet the seventy-five thousand victorious troops of Lee. McClellan, Burnside and Hooker had measured ability with this adroit and self-possessed chieftain, and been worsted again and again. It seemed a hopeless task, but Meade was calm, quiet, resolute, brave, and unpretending. He set himself about the task assigned him, and he accomplished it by the loyal co-operation of his brave corps commanders, and the persistency of the noble rank and file who were determined to conquer or die. Thousands of men who had hitherto excused themselves from active military service in the field arose to arms, and offered themselves for immediate service, when the field of battle was changed from Southern to Northern soil. The Union cavalry under General Kilpatrick had met and defeated the force under General Stewart, at Hanover, a town east of Gettysburg, June 29th, and on the same day Buford and his horsemen entered Gettysburg, but found no Confederates there. The 30th, General J. F. Reynolds, the brave commander of the First Corps, who fell on the field of battle the next day, arrived with his troops. General Hill of the Confederate army was approaching with a large force from Chambersburg, which encountered Buford's cavalry in the early morning of July 1st. The sound of a sharp skirmish brought Reynolds to the field, and a severe engagement ensued on Oak or Seminary Ridge, in which the gallant Reynolds fell dead. General O. O. Howard with the Eleventh Corps came up and the battle became more general, for Lee was concentrating his forces there. The Union army resisted the attack, and held their ground bravely as charge after charge was made upon their lines, but at night they were pressed back to a more advantageous position selected by General W. S. Hancock, the intrepid and beloved commander of the Second Corps. This position was on a range of rocky hills back of, but close to, the village. The line was formed in the two sides of a triangle, with Cemetery Hill, the point nearest the town, forming the angle. Here the troops halted for the night, and threw up breastworks for defense. General Meade with the main body of the army hastened up to join the noble forces who had sustained the brunt of the first day's fight. The next day the forces were facing each other on what was to I5S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 pro\-c llie most hotly-contested battle field of the war. Each commander understood the immense value of the prize at stake, and seemed loth to make the first move in the decisive contest. Not until late in the afternoon of July 2d did the carnage open. General Lee then precipitated his solid columns upon Meade's left, commanded by General Sickles, and the fearful harvest of death began. This extended to the center, commanded by Hancock, and the heavy masses of armed men rolled up to his line to be driven back, like the waves of the sea from an iron-bound coast. Huge furrows were plowed through the solid ranks of men by the shot and shell, that swept them from the Union artillery and yet they would re-form and march up, again to be swept back by the awful whirlwind of slaughter that opposed them. At sunset the battle ceased on this side of the triangle. The rocky eminence called Little Round Top, was the center of the most determined struggle, and the Confederates endeavored to take it at any cost so that they could hurl the left wing, back on the center. But the brave troops stationed here were as firm as the impenetrable granite, and held the position ; at once it was opened on the right and right center, commanded by generals Slocum and Howard. The latter occupied Cemetery Hill, and the former Gulps Hill. Early and Johnson, of General Ewell's corps of the Confederate army, fell with great vigor upon these points, and seemed determined to carry them at all hazards. They were repulsed with great slaughter from the right center on Cemetery Hill, but succeeded in turning the right wing, and holding it for the night. This struggle ended at ten o'clock at night. This day's fight had resulted in some advantage to the Confederates. Lee was sanguine that another day would bring a complete victory for the Confederate cause. That was an axious night in many a Northern home, as millions of sleepless men and women were reading the swiftly flying news of the deadly encounter. The loss of Lee had been considerable ; but the Union line was ■weakened, and an attack on the morning would sweep them from the field. This was the hour of deepest gloom to the Union cause, and not a man from the Commander-in-chief down to the humblest private in the ranks but knew it. A million of brave men throughout the country were in arms, but the course of Lee's northward march could not be prevented if he won this decisive battle field. At four the next morning General Slocum advanced and re-occupied the ground he had lost the night before. Meade strengthened his weakened lines. A hard fight of four hours was necessary to retrieve the old position, and hold the persistent columns of Ewell in check. The Union left and left center were impregnable, and Lee prepared to fall with crushing effect upon the weaker right. The entire forenoon was passed by the opposing generals in making preparation for the fearful death grapple. At one o'clock the artillery from Lee's army opened upon Howard's front. The challenge was answered by the Union army. The country for miles around shook at the roar of over three hundred i865] THE CIVIL WAR. 159 heavy guns. For three hours the awful duel was kept up, sending death and carnage to either side. Then Lee, under the cover of this heavy cannonading, precipitated his solid columns which were to break the Federal line and gain the day. They swept over the plains, and with the fearful yell of battle, attacked the breastworks, only to be swept down by the grape and canister, belching forth from a hundred cannon. The ranks fell as grass before the mower's scythe ; but on and on the gathering columns press, and the harvest of death ceased not till the sun went down. As men went down in the bloody tide their places were filled by those who pressed on after them, and brave men contended hand to hand on the ramparts. At one time Lee, who, like the French Napoleon at Waterloo, was watching the battle from a hill-top, saw through the lifting battle-cloud the Confederate flag waving on the Union ramparts at a certain point. His generals congratulate him on a victory ; but he looks as another dense cloud of smoke lifts, and his men are seen broken and fleeing down the fatal hill-side, where dead men cover the ground so thick that the retreating army tread upon them at every step. The last attack has failed and the Federals have won THE BATTLE uF Gettysburg. Lee began his hasty retreat on the fourth of July, and Meade, with his victorious but exhausted army, followed in hot pursuit to the Potomac, where, by fortifications and a show of force, Lee was able to hold the Federals at bay until he had got his army and artillery safely across the river into Virginia. This was the last Confederate advance into the territory of the Northern States. The United States now resolved to make one grand effort to suppress the Confederacy. A call for men to fill up the army not meeting with so ready a response as the circumstances required, a draft was made upon able- bodied men between eighteen and forty-five. This gave rise to much dissatisfaction among the peace faction, and was the occasion of riots in New York. These were put down by the police, aided by some troops, and the draft went on. After the defeat at Gettysburg, General Lee and General Meade had a race down the Shenandoah Valley similar to the one of the year before. There was no decisive battle between the two armies for the remainder of the year. Several cavalry fights at Culpepper, Fairfax, Fredericksburg, Raccoon Station, Robertson's River and Kelley's Ford, in the months of August and September. At Cumberland Gap, Burnside captured two thousand Confederates September 9th. There was a sharp fight on the Rappahannock November 7th, in which Lee with his army was driven across the river with a loss of two thousand prisoners, four guns, and eight stands of colors. Lee then took his post across Mine Run, which he strongly fortified with breastworks and abatis, and held Meade again at bay. Meade attempted to dislodge him, and for this purpose cut loose from his base, with ten days rations crossed the Rapidan, and with his force advanced to Mine Run, but he found Lee so strongly intrenched that he gave up the i6o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 attempted attack, and re-crossing the river went into winter-quarters the first of December. In the State of Tennessee there were some startHng events during the summer and fall of this year. In June, Rosecrans ordered an advance of his army in three divisions under generals Thomas, McCook and Crittenden. The point to be reached from Murfreesborough was Chattanooga. June 30th. Bragg, who saw the design of Rosecrans, fled before him and passed over the Cumberland Mountains. Rosecrans followed hard after him, but he reached the Tennessee River, and crossed it at Bridgeport, and then hastened to Chattanooga. Rosecrans pursued Bragg as far as the base of the mountain ; here he halted and rested for a whole month. But the middle of August he surprised Bragg by appearing in his front, with a line extending along the Tennessee River above Chattanooga for a hundred miles, and poured shot and shell into the Confederate camp. Early in September, Thomas and McCook had crossed the Tennessee River, and by the 8th had secured the passes of Lookout Mountain, while Crittenden was in Lookout Valley, near the river. When Bragg was informed of this, he abandoned Chattanooga to defend his line of communication, and Crittenden moved his forces into the Chattanooga Valley. Thus without a battle the object of crossing the mountain was gained. Bragg had been driven from Middle Tennessee, and from his strong- hold. Burnside crossed the mountains with twenty thousand troops and joined Rosecrans on the line of the railroad south-westerly from London. Rosecrans thought Bragg was in full retreat and pushed forward to strike his flank, but found him concentrated at Lafayette. About the middle of September the two armies were face to face on the Chick- amauga Creek. A battle ensued and the Confederates won the closely contested field at a fearful loss to themselves. Chattanooga was held by the Federals but they were hemmed in by Bragg and his army. The Government decided to hold this point, and ordered generals Grant, Burnside and Rosecrans to concentrate there. The Federals were now threatened with famine, but General Hooker was sent from the army of the Potomac with the Eleventh and Twelfth Corps, Howard's and Slocum's, to hold the line of communication for Rosecrans. So the attempt of Bragg to starve out the Federals in Chattanooga failed. The Confed- erates had possession of Lookout Mountain, and swept down upon the Twelfth Corps October 28th-29th at midnight, but found the general upon the watch and they were repulsed. In the mean time Longstreet had been sent into Tennessee to seize Knoxville and drive out the army of Burnside. He came swiftly and secretly, and Burnside was closeh- besieged in that city. Grant saw that he must attack Bragg at once upon the arrival of Sherman's troops. The plan was made of the battle in which Grant was determined to strike the center of Bragg's army on Missionary Ridge and his right on Lookout Mountain. Thomas advanced to Orchard Knob, and fortified it November 23d. Hooker carried the works at the base 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. i6i of Lookout Mountain, and his victorious troops pressed up the sides of the mountain, which was hidden from sight by a heavy fog, and fought above the clouds. The Union armies in the valley below heard the cannonading and the shout of the charge, but could not see anything of what was being done until the fog cleared up the next morning and showed Hooker in possession of the- mountain peak. While Hooker was fighting above the clouds Sherman had successfully performed his part in the plan and secured a strong position on Missionary Ridge. In the night of November 24th Bragg retired from Lookout Mountain and concentrated all his forces on Missionary Ridge. The severe and desperate encounter of the 25th raged all day — Sherman, Thomas and Hooker all taking part, and at night the fires of victciry lighted up the whole length of Missionary Ridge as Bragg was in full retreat. Sherman advanced to the relief of Burnside at Knoxville, and Longstreet was compelled to raise the siege December 3d, and return to the army of Virginia. Sherman returned to Chattanooga and Burnside was left at Knoxville. So great was the rejoicing at these victories that President Lincoln proclaimed a day of thanksgiving and praise, as he had done after the Union victory at Vicksburg and Gettysburg. There were military operations of some little account in North Carolina during the year, where General D. H. Hill had been sent by order of General Lee to harass the Federal troops, but the Union forces held the advantage gained and the State did not pass from their control. There was a most desperate attempt to capture Fort Sumter and Charleston waging all the year, with repeated failure and discouragement. The harbor had been filled with the strongest obstacles in the form of torpedoes, heavy iron chains, sunken vessels and other impediments, and guarded by batteries of great strength. General Q. A. Gillmore was placed in command of the Union forces June 12th, 1863, and Admiral Dupont was succeeded by Admiral Dahlgren July 6th. Active operations were commenced at once from Folly Island, held by the Union forces, opening upon Morris Island. General Strong landed on the latter island July loth, and drove the Confederates to their fortification, Fort Wagner, but when he attacked them the next day he was repulsed with heavy loss. Gillmore began a siege of this fort, which continued until September 6th, when the Confederates abandoned it, and at once the Federals occupied Fort Wagner and Fort Gregg. Now thc\- had full command of the city of Charleston, and could pour their solid shot and shell into the streets of the doomed city. Fort Sumter was made a heap of shapeless ruins in October by the heavy cannonading that Gillmore poured in upon it. There were some operations of more or less consequence beyond the Mississippi, inflicting some damages upon the Federal troops and stirring up the Indians against the United States. But these resulted in no very decided advantage to the Confederates, and at the close of 1863 all Texas west of the Colorado was in the possession of the Federals. II l62 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 The finances of the United States were in a healthy condition, for in spite of the enormous debt, constantly increasing, the public credit never stood higher, while the Confederate States were in a most deplorable financial situation. Their war debt was as large as that of the Federal government and the credit was wanting. They were forced to seize supplies for their army, and in order to keep their ranks full, passed a most severe conscription act, calling out every available man for military service " robbing the cradle and the grave." THE MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1864. iHE Congress of the United States in the opening of this year saw that there had been some radical trouble in the management of the war, and came to the conclusion to put some one man in command of the entire force of the Government and make him responsible for the conduct of the war. Hitherto there had been at times a • conflict of authority, and different generals had been working upon opposing theories, and this had been the prolific p cause of delays, and reverses. Now a new rank was created b}- law, and U. S. Grant was commissioned Lieutenant-General p" and Commander-in-chjef of all United States forces. He ^ believed that the surest way to end the war, and in the long run [Ip save human life, was to strike decisive and heavy blows and rj^pji^rags jJES^ follow them up with hard fighting. He would make war with '^^^^b- '•^^ horrible intention of killing men and end the contest as ^^^^ quickly as possible. Two expeditions were formed, one having p the capture of Atlanta, Georgia, and the other, that of Richmond in view. For the first he put General VV. T. Sherman in chief command, and for the second, General G. G. Meade. The task of the latter was to beat the army of General Lee, and the former the army of Johnston. These were now the chief armies of the Confederacy, and upon their destruction hung the issue of the war. The year 1864 began with a series of reverses in the extreme South and South-west. The capture of Fort Pillow and the treacherous massacre of its n-arrison by General Forest, in April, was a foul blot upon the civilization of the age. He sent a flag of truce demanding the surrender of the fort, and while it was under consideration secretly arranged his forces to fall upon it unexpectedly. This was done with the cry " No quarter," when a large number who threw down their arms were butchered in cold blood. Forest said in self-defense : " War means fight and fight means kill — we want but few prisoners." General Banks was sent up the Red River upon a disastrous expedition. Missouri was invaded by a large force which caused considerable trouble throughout the summer and was not driven out until November. Arkansas had come under the control of the Confederates, and the Union iS65] THE CIVIL WAR. . 163 citizens who had been making preparations to return the State government to the Federals were silenced. The operations in Charleston Harbor were being- carried on slowly. East Tennessee was the scene of stirring events of minor importance, but the country turned from all these to the more sanguinajy and gigantic operations in Virginia and Georgia. Some movements were undertaken in the early spring of 1864, with the design of capturing Richmond and releasing the Union prisoners in Libby Prison and on Belle Isle. In February, General B. F. Butler sent fifteen hundred troops against Richmond, but his design was frustrated by treachery. Later than this General Kilpatrick swept around Lee's right flank with five thousand cavalry and penetrated the outer defenses of Richmond, but was compelled to retire March ist. Another part of the same command was able to enter the lines at another point, but were driven back with the loss of Colonel Dahlgren and ninety men. General Easton with a considerable force threatened to cut Lee's communications with the Shenandoah Valley. But all these little forays were only intended to show how hollow the Confederacy really was, rather than to accomplish any great result. The two great plans of General Grant were to be put into execution later. The mistaken opinions in the early part of the war had been corrected by bitter experience, and the North and South were alike aware that the fight must wage to the end. A well-tried general, in whom the whole North had confidence, had assumed command. The volunteer army was no longer a mass of citizen militia, but hardened veterans of battle, inured to heavy marching and heavy fighting. The spirit of the North was resolute and as determined as ever. Grant had his headquarters with the army of the Potomac, which had been re-organized and formed into three corps, the Second Corps under General Hancock, the Fifth in command of General Warren, and the Sixth with the gallant Sedgwick at its head. General Burnside with the Ninth Corps, which had been filled up by recruits and thoroughly reconstructed during the winter, was attached to the arm}- of the Potomac. General Grant ordered Meade in Virginia and Sherman in Georgia to advance the beginning of May. We will follow the fortunes of the first. The 4th of May the army of the Potomac was led into the region known as the Wilderness, to attack the Confederates who were intrenched on Mine Run. A fearful carnage in that trackless and tangled country ensued for two days ; Lee's front could not be carried, and his flank must be turned if possible. General Warren led the movement out of the Wilderness with the Fifth Corps May 8th, and came to the open country at Spottsylvania, where he found a part of Lee's army posted across his path, and the rest of the force rapidly concentrating there. The flanking movement had been expected by Lee, and he was ready to meet it. On the 9th. General Sedgwick was killed while reconnoitering on the front line. The battle opened on the loth, and was contested with fearful loss on both sides. On the nth Grant sent his famous dispatch to Washington, "■ I intend to f:glit it out on this line if it takes all snuuner." On the I2th Hancock broke Lee's i64 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 line and gained a decided advantage, but the following night the Confederate army silently withdrew behind his second line of intrenchments and was as strong as ever. Another flank movement was impending, and Lee made an attack to prevent it on May 19th and was repulsed. While these operations were going on, General Sheridan made a raid upon Lee's rear with a large force of cavalry, and came to within a few miles of Richmond, destroying railroads and military supplies. General Sigel was in the Shenandoah and Kanawha valleys, and had a fight at New Market May 15th, in which the Confederates gained the day. General Butler with the army of the James had left Fortress Monroe with twenty-five thousand troops in transports, followed by Admiral Lee with gun-boats, and they took possession of both sides of the river as far as City Point by the aid of fifteen hundred mounted men, who had forded the Chickahominy and taken their position on the James opposite City Point. This was done with but little fighting, for there were few Confed- erates there. Butler fortified Bermuda Hundred and intended to cut communication between Petersburg and Richmond. The former city could have been easily taken, but for some reason it was not accomplished, and the Confederates from South Carolina hastened there to aid in its defense. Beauregard got into Petersburg before the railroad was destroyed, and on the morning of May i6th attacked Butler's right, and after a sharp fight drove his army into their intrenchments. At the same instant a charge on Butler's front was repulsed. For several days there was much fighting all along his lines. Grant's army was moving by the left flank, but Lee had the inside line of the parallel circles on the road to Richmond and consequently was able to move faster than his antagonist. A heavy battle was fought at the North Anna River. Grant was satisfied that he could not carry the strong position of Lee, and again resumed his march by the left flank. On the 26th of May the whole army 'was south of the Pawmunkey. Lee was again in a fortified position and a heavy battle ensued. " By the left flank " again came the order, and the army moved to Cold Harbor. Ten thousand men from General Butler's army under command of General W. F. Smith re-enforced the army of Meade, and he made an advance upon the enemy in front. The fight here on June 3d was bloody and short. In twenty minutes the Union arm}- lost ten thousand men and only succeeded in holding their own position. The line of Lee's army could not be broken. Other attempts to force the lines the next day met with similar results, but all the while the Union forces were moving by the left flank and June 7th rested on the Chick- ahominy. Sheridan crossed the river with his cavalry and tore up the railroads and bridges. The whole army moved across the river to Lee's right and crossed the James June 14th and 15th. Butler made an unsuccessful attempt to take Petersburg before aid could arrive from Richmond. The failure to accomplish this disarranged the plans some- 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 165 what, and caused the long and exhaustive siege of both cities which lasted for ten months. Grant established his head-quarters at City Point, and on the i6th preparations were made to carry the city of Petersburg by assault. Warren, Hancock and Burnside made a desperate attack on the lines here, but it was evident that the whole army of Lee was south of the James. The assaults of the Union army on the 17th and iSth of June resulted in some advantage to the Nationalists, but it was plain that the time to take Petersburg by direct advance was past. An attempt was now made on the right of the Confederate army to cut the Weldon Railroad and turn his flank. The railroad was destroyed as far as Ream's Station. The besieging lines of Meade's and Butler's army extended from Bermuda Hundred to the Weldon Railroad around Petersburg and Richmond. A disastrous attempt to break the Confederate lines at Petersburg was made on the 30th of July by exploding a mine under a fort on the outpost of the line. This proved a heavy disaster to the Union army, in which five thousand troops were lost and no advantage gained. September 29th Butler stormed and carried the strongest works on Lee's left, known as Fort Harrison. On October 27th an attempt was made to extend the Union lines to Hatcher's Run, but after heavy fighting the Federal troops were obliged to retire to their fortifications in front of Petersburg. Here they settled down for a winter's siege of that city. From the opening of the campaign in May to the ist of November the Nationalists had lost in killed, wounded, prisoners and missing, the enormous number of one hundred thousand men. There were exciting times up the Shenandoah Valley in the summer and early fall of this year. A Union army had encountered a Confederate force at Winchester July 20th and defeated it, taking many prisoners and supplies. Early was in full force up the valley, and so sanguine was he that an invading force of cavalry swept through Maryland and burned the city of Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Sheridan was sent into the valley with thirty thousand troops to repel the invaders. By a series of the most brilliant and dashing operations and unexpected movements, Sheridan sent the Confederates " whirling up the valley." Then there came another battle at Winchester, in which Early was driven to his •strong position at Fisher's Hill September 19th. He was forced from the new position the 21st and fled to the mountains. Early had less than one-half the men now that came with him into the valley. Sheridan had his position at Cedar Creek near Strasburg, and Early, who had been re-enforced heavily, now came with crushing effect upon the Union army at a time "when Sheridan was twenty miles away." The lines were driven back in great confusion. The Eleventh Corps were not able to withstand the fierce onslaught of Early's men. Sheridan hastened to the scene of battle, reformed the broken lines, and riding along the regiments and brigades with cheers encouraged his men to victory, regained the lost ground, and swept the Confederates in hopeless flight up the Shenandoah. Early's i66 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 army was nearly annihilated and Lee could spare no more men. This ended the contest for the fertile valley which had been overrun so often by the opposing forces — Sheridan had burned and destroyed on every hand — such was the stern necessity of war — and the Confederates could no more gain the abundant supplies that they found in the rich valley, which for years had been the store-house of their armies. The beginning of May, when General Grant ordered the two great armies to move, Sherman was at Chattanooga with about one hundred thousand men. His antagonist was General Johnston, with fifty-five thousand troops, who was at Dalton strongly intrenched. Sherman's plan was to move by the left flank and compel the Confederates to abandon one strong position after another in order to save their army. A sharp fight took place at Resaca Station May 15th, which drove Johnston across the Oostenaula. The Union army closely followed in three divisions. At Adairsville, Johnston made a stand, but when the Federals advanced he pushed on and fortified a position commanding the Altoona Pass. After resting a little Sherman moved forward to the right, and had a severe contest May 25th. This was a drawn battle, without advantage to either side. June 1st, Johnston was forced to abandon the Altoona Pass. Sherman took possession of this and made it a second base of supplies by repairing the railroad to Chattanooga. He here received reinforcements. June 9th he took possession of Big Shanty, and by persistency and frequent fighting forced Johnston to give up Pine Mountain June 15th, Lost Mountain June 17th, and Kenesaw Mountain July 2d. On the morning of July 3d, the stars and stripes waved over the last mentioned mountain, and Sherman rode in triumph into Marietta, close upon the heels of Johnston's army. The Confederates succeeded in crossing the river here before Sherman could give them a crushing blow. Johnston was obliged to retreat July loth, toward Atlanta, Georgia. He fortified his army on a line covering that town from the Chattahooche River to Peachtree Creek. He knew that his force was less than that of the Nationals, and therefore he preferred to save his army rather than risk an engagement. He had already had a number of severe encounters, and had been worsted in them all. General Johnston was here relieved of the command of the Confederate army, and superseded by General Hood. The former was a cautious, scientific soldier, while the latter was a dashing, reckless officer, who did not care for the loss of men if he could make quick work. July i6th. General Rousseau, with two thousand cavalry, joined Sherman. On the 19th, all the Union forces were across the river. A flank movement was made to cut the railroad leading to Augusta. This was accomplished. On the 20th, Hood attacked the weakened lines in front, but was repulsed with heavy loss. On the 22d, the Confederate lines on the heights about Peachtree Creek were abandoned, and Sherman thought that Hood, like Johnston had evacuated the city, and consequently moved his army rapidly toward Atlanta. He found Hood in a strong line of works near the city, which had been built the year before. Preparations 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 167 were made for carrying the city by assault, when a large part of Hood's army, which had come around Sherman's rear in the night, fell upon him, and a most sanguinary and hotly contested battle raged for four hours. The Union army was successful, and the Confederates were driven back to their breastworks. July 28th, Hood made another attack upon Sherman but was repulsed with heavy loss, and seeing that the Unionists were gradually getting possession of all the railroads leading from the city, after a month of counter maneuvering the Confederate general abandoned Atlanta, having destroyed all factories, warehouses and whatever would be of advantage to the enemy. He left no food for the inhabitants, who were on the point of starvation. Sherman took possession, and not being able to feed the citizens and his own army, humanely ordered all non-combatants to leave the city, either for the North or South, as they might choose. He furnished transportation for all who wished to go to Chattanooga. Hood, after leaving Atlanta, moved upon Sherman's base of supplies at Altoona Pass, and threatened the small force there. Sherman sent to their assistance, and drove the army of Hood with great slaughter. Then he returned to Atlanta with all his troops, destroying all foundries, dismantling the railroads, and preparing to cut loose from his base of supplies. His army numbered sixty-five thousand men of all kinds. He cut the wires which connected him with the North, and started on his grand march to the sea. The people in the North did not hear from him for some time except through the newspapers of the South, and this was far from being reliable. His army was divided into two great columns ; one under General O. O. Howard, the other under General W. H. Slocum, with the cavalry in command of General Kilpatrick. Nothing was heard from this army until December 13th, when it appeared before Savannah and captured Fort McAllister, on the Ogeechee River, not far from that city. Savannah was invested at once, and on the 20th, Hardee evacuated it and fled to Charleston with fifty thousand troops. The army of Georgia entered the city the next day and there rested, after a march of two hundred and fifty- five miles, inflicting very heavy loss upon the Confederates and sustaining but little loss in return. Some active measures were going on in Florida and North Carolina during this time, but the most interest was centered upon the two grand armies. In September and October there were some interesting events, and after considerable skirmishing on both sides there was a general engagement at Franklin, in which the Confederate forces at first drove their antagonists from their breastworks, and were in turn driven back. Hood the Confederate general, lost three thousand men. On the 15th of December, a desperate battle was fought in front of Nashville, where Hood was besieging Scofield. The attack was opened by General Thomas, who drove the Confederates from their works and pursued them out of the State. The campaign ended with complete success for the Union army. The Anglo-Confederate privateers were doing immense damage to our i68 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 commerce in all parts of the -world. The first and chief was the Alabama, in command of a former United States navy officer, Captain Raphael Semmes. The English also built for the Confederates the Florida, Georgia, Tallahassee, Olustee and Clnckamaiiga, all of which were committing great depredations upon the vessels and cargoes of American ship-owners. This drove a large part of our maritime commerce to seek the protection of foreign flags. A stupendous effort was made to capture and destroy these cruisers. The Georgia was captured off the coast of Lisbon in August, 1864, by the United States vessel Niagara ; the Florida by the Wachusett, October 7th, in a port of Brazil. The Alabama had been sunk some time before this by the Kfarsarge. Captain Semmes was rescued from capture by a British vessel which was conveniently near at hand, but the "common people" were left to drown or be picked up by the American vessel and a Frenchman. This had occurred Sunday June, 19th. Admiral Farragut had captured the port of Mobile with a fleet of eighteen vessels aided by a land force under General Gordon Granger. This fleet passed between the two forts, Morgan and Gaines, lashed together in pairs, August 5th, 1864. It was in this engagement that the brave admiral was lashed to the rigging of his flag-ship. The Confederate ram Tennessee was destroyed and a complete victory gained. The forts were surrendered after cannonading and siege. Fort Gaines on the 7th and Fort Morgan on the 23d of August. The port of Mobile was closed. We will turn for a brief space from the consideration of military to political affairs. The National Republican party had met in a convention at Baltimore, in June, and nominated Mr. Lincoln for re-election, affirmed its determination to maintain the Union and the policy of his government, and pledged themselves to sustain it to the end. Andrew Johnson was nominated for the Vice-Presidency. August 29th the opposition party, or " Democratic," as it was called, opened at Chicago, and displayed an intense anti-war feeling. George B. McClellan was nominated for the Presidency and George H. Pendleton for Vice- President. The resolution that declared the war a failure was scarcely dry upon the paper before the people of the United States were called to devote a day to thanksgiving and praise for the glorious victories of Sherman and Farragut. The election resulted in the most overwhelming majorities for Lincoln and Johnson. Only the three States of Delaware, Kentucky and New Jersey gave their votes to the opposition. 1865] THE CIVIL WAR. 169 THE CLOSING EVENTS OF THE WAR-1865. fHE year that saw the closing operations of the civil strife had come, and General Sherman, after giving his gallant army a rest of more than a month, started for a march into the interior. On the 17th of February, 1865, he captured Columbia, the capital of South Carolina. Wade Hampton had ordered all the cotton in that city to be piled in the public square and burned. In the severe gale which was then blowing the city was set on fire and destroyed in part. Sherman had now flanked the city of Charleston, which so long had withstood the most persistent siege, and in consequence the Confederates abandoned it. Hardee fled from the city and the United States colored troops marched in and raised the stars and stripes upon the public buildings February 19th. Sherman pressed onward to North Carolina, leaving a track of destruction forty miles wide, until he came to Fayetteville, March 12th, where he found the concentrated forces under Johnston, numbering forty thousand. Sherman here halted three days for rest. After destroying the Confederate armory and the military stores, he marched on in two columns, as when in Georgia. The column under Slocum had a severe fight with Hardee's force of twenty thousand men, and won the victory March i6th. Slocum marched on toward Goldsboro', and was attacked by Johnston, whom he repulsed near Bentonville March i8th. Johnston had fully expected to crush Slocum before the main body could come to his aid, but that commander held his ground firmly, and after six desperate attempts to drive him back, Johnston gave up the contest at night fall. The next morning, the 19th, there were sixty thousand Federals in front of Johnston, who retreated. Sherman's whole army then reached Goldsboro', the point for which they had started. Sherman then hastened to City Point to confer with Grant and Meade, and returned to his command three days later. Here we will leave him for a while. After closing the port of Mobile, the only port left to which the blockade runners could gain access was Wilmington, North Carolina. A movement was made in December, 1864. Admiral D. D. Porter was in command of the fleet, and General Butler, the commander of that department, accompanied it. After various attempts the expedition was successful and took possession of the city. The Confederates had abandoned Fort Anderson, destroyed the privateers Tallahassee and Cliickamauga, lying in port, burned a vast amount of cotton and naval stores, and fled from the city February 22d, 1865. In the Gulf Department the fleet under Farragut had prepared the way for the fall of Mobile, which was accomplished April 2d, 1865. W;i;'.t 170 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1861 were the army of the Potomac and General Lee's forces doing all this while? Let us see. Grant was holding Petersburg and Richmond in a vise-like grip, which prevented Lee from going to the assistance of Johnston. He dared not send him any men, for in so doing he would weaken the defense of the Confederate capital. The besiegers were pounding away with solid shot, and mortar shells upon the fortifications around the doomed cities, and daily extending the cordon around them, and cutting one after another of the railroads which fed them from the south. About the end of February, Sheridan with ten thousand cavalry left their head-quarters, and sweeping around Lee's flank scattered the forces under Early from Staunton March 2d, and destroyed the Lynchburg Railroad as far as Charlotteville. Then dividing into two columns, one to destroy the railroad further up and the other to destroy the James River Canal, accomplishing this, he swept around Lee's left and joined the army of the Potomac March 27th. Lee now made a desperate attempt to break through Grant's lines and join Johnston. A most desperate assault was made March 27th upon Fort Steadman, in front of Petersburg, held by the Ninth Corps. The Con- federates captured the fort and held it about four hours : then it was recaptured by the Federals, and Lee's last chance to break the Union lines was gone. The Union troops were nearer the city at night than when the attack was made in the morning. A grand movement was begun on March 29th by General Sheridan with ten thousand cavalry, the Fifth Corps under Warren, and the Second under Hancock, while the Ninth, under Parke, held the long line of breast works. Lee saw his peril and made great haste to avert it if possible, but his army was disheartened by the hard work of the winter, the want of supplies, and the loss of all hope. A heavy fight ensued at Five Forks, in which Sheridan was forced back on Dinwiddle Court House, but held his ground, April 1st, 1865. On the evening of the same day a continuous and concentrated cannonade was opened upon Petersburg all along the line, and at early dawn of the 2d a part of the works were carried. The left had been successful, and when General Longstreet came down from Richmond to aid Lee he was too late to be of any service. Lee sent word to President Davis : " My lines are broken in three places ; we can hold Petersburg no longer: Richmond must be evacuated this evening." Davis and his cabinet fled to Dansville, where Lee hoped to join him, but Sheridan was in the way at Amelia Court House. Lee endeavored to escape and did some heavy fighting in the desperation of despair, but on the 9th of April, after one final charge to break the Federal lines at Appomatox Court House, he sent a flag of truce with an offer of surrender. Grant and Lee met under an apple tree on the grounds of W. McLean to make generous terms of surrender. Mr. Lincoln went to Richmond April 4th, and was enthusiastically received by all classes, the officers high in rank, and the poor colored men, and then returned to Washington happy that the cruel war was over. On the i865] THE CIVIL WAR. 171 •evening of the 14th, while the patient man who had endured the most fearful strain of these anxious years, was quietly sitting in a private box in a public place of amusement, he was shot by an assassin, who entered from behind and •deliberately aimed his revolver at his unsuspecting victim. John Wilkes Booth, a play actor of moderate ability, and a warm secessionist, was the actor in this diabolical crime. The Confederate government were not responsible for the act, much less the brave men who had contested so many hard fought battles with the North. No man was found to openly applaud the act save here and there a solitary voice in -the North, which was quickly hushed by the intense popular excitement of the times. Andrew Johnson took the oath of President April 15, 1865, and entered at once upon the discharge of his duties. After some active operations in North Carolina Johnston asked for an armistice, proposing to refer the matter of settlement -of grievances to General Grant. The armistice was granted the 14th day of April, but the idea that the defeated chieftain should dictate terms caused Grant to order a resumption of hostilities on the 26th. This was followed by the surrender of Johnston on the same generous terms that had been given •General Lee. The fugitive President of the Confederacy was captured at Irwinsville, Georgia, May nth, and sent to Fortress Monroe, and there he was treated with marked kindness, until he was released under bail placed at one million dollars. Lieutenant-General Grant issued a patriotic and thrilling farewell address to the " Soldiers of the Armies of the United States," June 2d, 1865. The military prisons, where tens of thousands of Confederate prisoners of war were held for exchange, were opened and the men were sent to their homes at Government expense. The millions of liberated blacks were cared for by Government, and the nation, happy that peace had again dawned upon t]ie •distracted country, were loud in their demonstrations of joy. The most brilliant pageantry of modern times was held in W^ashington, consisting of a grand review of the Union armies of the Potomac and of the James, and of Sherman's army. This lasted two days, and then the task of disbanding the mighty Union army began. The rolls were made out, the arms were stacked, the artillery parked, and flags were furled. In an incredibly short time the hundreds of thousands of boys in blue had donned the garb of private citizens and returned to the avocations of peace. The great work of putting down armed resistance to the Government had been accomplished, and now the peaceful question of regulating the commercial, political and social relations of the States late in arms would be settled in the halls of Congress. vn. ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON. HAT was the position of these States which had passed the ordinance of secession ? The war had closed, but it had been maintained by the North that the States were all the while an integral part of the Union and had no power to dissolve their allegiance to it. What was to be done ? Should their territory- be held as if it had been conquered from a foe? They had endeavored to sever the bonds that bound them to the Government but had been prevented by the firm hand of armed law. They now claimed the right to resume their old places in Congress as if they had never attempted to secede. What should be done ? The Proclamation of Emancipation had given freedom only to those slaves whose masters were in arms on the first day of January, 1863. There were many others whose owners could hold them under that proclamation, but many of the slave States removed this impediment of their own account. Louisiana, Maryland, Tennessee, Missouri and Arkansas had abolished it within their borders. An amendment to the Constitution of the United States had been submitted to the several States and adopted, in 1865, by more than the required number to make it a part of that instrument. Another amendment was submitted to the States, giving the fullest rights of American citizenship to all natural-born citizens and naturalized citizens of the United States. This was made the condition for the restora- tion of rights to those men who were seeking to return to their old position of citizenship. The questions growing out of all this were most delicate, and required the careful consideration of patriots ; but the institution which had caused all the controversy of the past, all the bloodshed and ruin which had come to both sections of the country, must be thoroughly eradicated now, and leave no seeds to spring up in after years. So the men who had won the fight thought, and the men who had yielded " to the stern necessity of war " came to accept the situation with what grace they could, and slowly the work went on to its completion. April 29th, 1865, President Johnson issued a proclamation removing" certain restrictions on commercial intercourse with the Southern States. May 20th, provisional governors were appointed for the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. The order for rescinding the blockade was issued the 23d of June, another to still 1866] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 175 further remove the restriction on inter-state commerce August 29th. State prisoners were released October 12th. The "habeas corpus" was restored December ist. The provisional governors in the States, who were zealous to do all that could be done to reorganize their States, called conventions of delegates, chosen by citizens, who could take the oath required by the act of Congress. Before the session of Congress had met in December five States had ratified the proposed amendment to the Constitution, formed new State Constitutions, and provided for Representatives to Congress. When Congress met there arose at once a conflict between the President and the Legislative Department. This breach widened until it became an open rupture. The Cabinet resigned, with the exception of the Secretary of War, E. M. Stanton, who was advised to remain by his friends. On April 2d, 1866, the Executive issued his proclamation declaring that the civil war was at an end. Tennessee was finally restored to the Union July 23d. There had been a French occupation of Mexico, in which Maximillian had assumed to be emperor of that country during the years of the war. On the 5th of April, 1865, our Government had informed the French Emperor that the continuation of the French troops in Mexico was objectionable, and at once the assurance came that they would be withdrawn. Trouble arose with Great Britain over the Fenian question, but it was peaceably adjusted. The elections throughout the Northern States showed that the people sustained the policy of Congress. The act conferring the elective franchise upon all citizens in the District of Columbia was passed December 14th. This was vetoed by the President, but passed over his veto by more than a two-thirds vote January 7th, 1867. The same day the preliminary steps were taken for the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, which resulted in a trial before the Senate, with the Chief Justice presiding, in May, 1868. The territory of Nebraska was admitted into the Union March 1st, 1867. There was intense excitement over several bills which the President vetoed and Congress at once passed over his veto. The thirty-ninth Congress closed its session March 3d and the fortieth Congress met at once. This Congress adjourned on March 31st, te meet on the first Wednesday in July. This was done, and then the two Houses adjourned July 20th, to meet again November 2ist. In the mean time the President attempted to remove E. M. Stanton, Secretary of W'ar, who refused to resign. General Grant was ordered to assume the ofifice, which he did. The controversy went on until the impeach- ment of the President, and the trial lasted from March 5th to April 26th, when he escaped conviction by only one vote. Two-thirds of all the votes cast are required to convict. Every member was present. Thirty-five voted guilty and nineteen voted not guilty. The Secretary of State certified to the fact that the required number of States had adopted the amendment to the Constitution conferring civil rights upon all citizens, without regard to race or color. 1/4 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1869 The work of reorganization was completed in all the States save three, and the people of the South were betaking themselves to the task of retrieving their ruined fortunes, and thus comparative quiet was restored. An important treaty with China was ratified by Congress before its adjournment. The Indian question had caused some discussion, and an attempt to transfer the conduct of these affairs to the War Department failed. A fifteenth amendment \\as proposed by Congress Februar\' 26th, 1869, and submitted to the States, the requisite number of which ratified it soon after. General U. S. Grant was elected President of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax Vice-President, at the election of 1868, and on the 4th of March, 1869, took their oaths of office and entered upon the discharge of their duties. ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. t^ RESIDENT GRANT entered upon the task of finishing the incomplete work of reconstruction at once, and sent a special message to Congress April /th, 1869, in which he urged that body to adopt and maintain such measures as would effectually secure the ci\'il and political rights of all persons within the borders of the States not yet in full relations to the Union. Both the Executive and Legisla- tive Departments took every means in their power consist- ent with the provisions of the amended Constitution to restore the people who were not yet represented" in the National Congress to this position. This was finally accom- plished in 1872, when, on the 23d day of May, every seat that had been abdicated in 1861 by members from the Southern States was filled by legally elected members. May 22d a general Amnesty Bill was passed by Congress, removing the disabilities imposed by the Fourteenth Amendment from all persons, with the exceptions of those who had held positions in the National Government, the diplomatic corps, and the army and navy of the United States during the administration of James Buchanan. The political unity of the whole country was now established by law, and the rights of American citizenship conferred upon all native born and naturalized persons within the borders of the United States, with the exception of the comparative few mentioned above. The last tie which completed the railroad from the Atlantic to the Pacific was laid May lOth, 1869, and marked an important event in the social and commercial life of the United States. By this the States -on the eastern sea-board and the distant Pacific coast were brought iS77] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 175 together, and a grand highway opened to communicate with the over- land trade from China and Japan. There was a general rejoicing as the last spike was driven, for communication was made with the entire telegraph system of the country, and the blows of the hammer was recorded in thousands of offices in ail parts of the land. A gigantic insurrection arose in Cuba with which many citizens of the United States were in close sympathy, but the Government wisely maintained neutrality, and measures were taken to suppress all fillibus- tering. A number of gunboats ordered by the Spanish Government were detained in the United States on suspicion that they were to be used against Peru. They were released. There arose quite intense excitement, and war was threatened, growing out of the seizure of the steamship ]'irginiits in Cuba while flying the American flag, under the belief that she was bringing arms and supplies to the Cuban insurgents. A number of her passengers and her captain were shot by the Spanish authorities. The whole matter was finally settled by diplomacy. The Virginiiis was sunk at sea while being conveyed to the United States in a gale off Cape Fear. There was a violation of the neutrality laws in 1870 by a large band of Irishmen known as Fenians, who assembled to the number of three thousand on the borders of Canada in the State of Vermont. They invaded that province with the intention of freeing Ireland by some vague plan. The two governments suppressed the trouble, and our adopted Irish citizens have not since then attempted to violate the neutrality laws in force between the two countries. The United States had long desired some territory in the West Indies, and in 1869 a treaty was made with Hayti by which that island was to be annexed to the United States ; but the Senate did not ratify it, and thus the movement in that direction ceased to be a government measure. The survey of a proposed inter-oceanic canal across the Isthmus •of Darien was made by an exploration under Commander Selfridge in 1870. The year 1871 saw two of the most destructive fires, amounting to a national calamity, that ever visited this country. In October of that year the greater portion of Chicago was swept by the flames, which raged for forty-eight hours and devastated two thousand acres of territory and destroyed two hundred millions of property. This disaster called forth the sympathy and material aid of the whole civilized and commercial world. The next month, November, the fire-fiend swept away the very <:enter of Boston, destroying seventy-five millions of dollars. President Grant found at the opening of his first term the question of the Alabama claims an open one with the English Government. A joint commission was proposed by the United States, and England agreed. This "joint high commission" met at Washington May 8th, 1871, and completed a treaty, referring the whole matter at issue to a court of arbitration : this treaty was at once ratified by both countries. There 176 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1869 were four important questions involved: ist. The settlement of all claims by either government growing out of losses sustained during the Civil War. 2d. The permanent settlement of the American coast fisheries. 3d. The free navigation of certain rivers, including the St. Lawrence, and, 4th. The settlement of the boundary' between Vancouver's Island and the mainland on the Pacific coast. The first question was referred to a tribunal of arbitration, which met at Geneva, Switzerland, December 15th, 1871, and adjourned to June 15th, 1872. The final meeting of this tribunal was held September 14th, 1872. By their award Great Britain was to pay to the United States the sum of fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars in gold, as an award for losses sustained by the depre- dations of the Alabavia and other British-built privateers during the Civil War. The money was paid the following year. The fourth ques- tion was referred to the Emperor of Germany, who decided in favor of the United States, giving her the island of San Juan, which had been in dispute. The other important measures and events of General Grant's first term were the adoption of vv eather signals by the means of the jMorse telegraph under control of the National Signal Service. This has proved of inestimable value to American commerce and agriculture. The apportionment of representatives to Congress, by which there was one representative to every one hundred and thirty-seven thousand eight hundred population, making two hundred and eighty-three members in all. A new pension law was passed in aid of all Union soldiers who had suffered the loss of limbs or health in the late war. Early in 1873 the franking privilege was abolished, by which much money was saved to the Post-Office Department. In 1S72 an important embassy of twenty- one officials of the Chinese Government visited the United States, and the Grand Duke Alexis of Russia also came to this countr>'. Steps were taken to celebrate the centennial anniversary' of American inde- pendence, which would occur in 1S76, by a display at Philadelphia of the industries of all nations. The political campaign of 1872 was begun in May by the nomina- tion of Horace Greeley for President and B. Gratz Brown for Vice- President by a convention of "liberal Republicans." The Democratic party coalesced with them and ratified the same nominations July 9th.. The Republicans re-nominated General Grant for President and Henry Wilson for Vice-President June 5th. The election resulted in retaining General Grant for a second term and making jVIr. Wilson Vice-President. The relation of the troublesome Morman question to the general government agitated the public mind to some extent during this time. The system of polygamy was strongly intrenched in the very heart of the Continent, and a petition signed by twenty-five hundred women in its favor was presented to Congress. The elective franchise had been given to the female sex, and out of a large vote in favor of a State IS-/-] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 177 Constitution nearly one-half were cast by women. There had been population enough in Utah for some time, but the Congress of the United States refused to admit her with the system of polygamy. The second term of General Grant as President began March 4th, 1873, and his nominations for Cabinet officers was at once confirmed by the Senate. The country was prosperous and rapidly recuperating from the sad effects of the war. The improvement in the feelings between the South and North was very marked, growing out of the leniency with which the Government treated those lately in arms against it. The Indian troubles assumed unusual proportions during the second term of Grant's administration. The humane policy inaugurated at the beginning of his first term had not resulted in all that was hoped for it. The trouble seemed to be in the fact that the Government treated the tribes of Indians as distinct nations, and made treaties with them, appointed agents and com- missioners, supplied them with bounties and subsidies, and compelled them to remain upon reservations set apart for them. The men who were acting as Indian agents were not always true men, and caused ill feelings on the part of the red men. Not far from three hundred thousand Indians are living in the States, of whom ninety-seven thousand are civilized and one hundred and twenty-five thousand half civilized. The remainder are in a savage state. General Custer was sent into the Dakota region in 1874 with a military and exploration expedition, and gave such a glowing account of the country as to excite the mining population to enter and prospect for the precious metals in great numbers. At the close of 1874 a bill was introduced into Congress to extinguish as much of the title to the Black Hills reservation as lay within the territory of Dakota. This greatly irritated the chiefs of the Sioux, for they, with great show of justice, regarded it as a step toward robbing them of their lawful domain. A national geologist, guarded by a large military escort, went to this region early in 1875, and the Indians began preparations for war. A strong force of troops was sent to the Yellowstone early in 1876, and were divided into three divisions, General A. H. Terry in chief command. The three columns were commanded by Generals Terry, Cooke and Gibbon, and intended to form the meshes of a net into which they expected to ensnare Sitting Bull, the warlike chief of the Sioux. General Gibbon had a fight with the Indians June 17th, in which he was obliged to fall back. General Custer, with General Terry and his staff, joined Gibbon on the Yellowstone, near Rise Bub Creek. Custer was ordered to make an attack with his force, which consisted of the Seventh United States Cavalrj'. He and Gibbon advanced to the Big Horn River, and Custer, coming up with the Indians first, gave them battle without waiting for Gibbon, and falling into an Indian ambush was killed, with the greater part of his men. Many gallant officers and men were slain in this terrible encounter, including Custer and two of his brothers and a brother-in-law. This was June 25th, 1876, and at once the Government sent a large force to this region. The Sioux evaded a contest with them and the troops went 13 178 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1869 into winter quarters. Sitting Bull with his followers retired to the British Possessions, whither the United States troops could not follow him. The Government had a war with the Nez-Perce (or nose-pierced) Indians in 1875. They had been a peaceable and friendly tribe since the time of Jefferson, when the early explorers had come to their country, and were living happy and contented in the fertile Wallewa Valley. When agents were first sent to them they had been a little dissatisfied, but there had been no out- break. Now the settlers had begun to crowd upon them, and treaties were made with a part of the tribe to remove to a reservation, upon the Govern- ment paying them a certain fixed annuity. But an old chief, by the name of Joseph, who had taken no part in the treaty, refused to leave, and in 1873 Grant had ordered that they should not be molested. When the avaricious whites began to encroach upon the domains of this tribe the President was induced to revoke this order, and in 1875 a force was sent to compel them to move at a given time. Before the time came Joseph became incensed at the encroachments of the white settlers and about twenty whites were murdered. War was begun, and lasted until the Indians were forced again to make a humiliating treaty in 1877. These measures embittered that part of the tribe which had not entered the war, and they became enemies of the Government. Sitting Bull, who had gone to the British Possessions with his warriors in 1876, was an unwelcome guest there, but he remained stubborn and sullen. The United States sent several commissioners to treat with him, but he regarded them with contempt until 1 880. The British authorities had informed him that if he attempted to cross into the United States with hostile inten- tions that Government would join with the United States in making war upon him. Finally he offered, in 1880, to surrender with his braves, and a thousand of them did so in the early part of 1881, but their wily chieftain did not give himself up until some time later. Colorado, the " Centennial State," was admitted into the Union July 4th, 1876. The year 1876 was the " centennial year" and the year for a Presidential election. The celebration of the new year was very general throughout the United States with bonfires and the ringing of bells as the old year and century passed. The events of the political arena were the impeachment of Mr. Belknap, Secretary of War, for maladministration of office. He was acquitted in August. A resolution for submitting another amendment to the Constitution was passed in the House, but defeated in the Senate. At the end of June a resolution to provide for the coinage of ten millions of silver was passed, and very quickly silver became plenty. The fractional currency, which had come in use during the war, at once disappeared from circulation, June 1 6th Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated by the Republican party for the Presidency and William A. Wheeler for Vice-President. The 27th of the same month the Democratic party nominated Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas A. Hendricks for the same offices respectively, and a most exciting canvass was carried on until November, of which we will speak hereafter. i877] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. 17? "HERE had been a wide-spread desire to celebrate the centennial year in some way in which all nations could rejoice with the young Republic of the West. It was- proposed to hold a gigantic exposition of the arts, manufactures and industries of all nations at Phila- delphia. Invitations were sent to other governments and were very generally accepted. The early inception of the plan was opened by the communication of the Franklin Institute to the Mayor and other authorities of Philadelphia, for the use of Fairmount Park for an international exhibition. A committee of seven members of the municipal government proceeded to lay the subject before Congress. At the same time the Legislature of Pennsylvania sent a committee to ^^7 Washington for the same purpose. March 3d, 1871, an act was passed empowering the President to appoint a commission \^ for superintending the exhibition, and an alternate commission from each State and Territory in the Union. These com. missions met at Philadelphia, March 4th, 1872, and found twenty-four States and three Territories represented there. "The United States Centennial Commission" was organized by the choice of Joseph R. Hawley, of Con- necticut, as president, with five vice-presidents, a temporary secretary, an executive committee and a solicitor. John S. Campbell afterward became permanent secretary. A Centennial Board of Finance was appointed in 1873, and on the 4th day of July of that year the authorities formally surrendered the grounds to the commission. There were five grand buildings erected, the Main Building, Art Galler}% Machinery Hall, Agricultural Hall and Horticultural Hall. The applications for space from foreign governments was so great that it was seen that the work done by women would be thrown out or lost in the maze of other exhibits, and therefore the women of America raised thirty thousand dollars to build a Woman's Pavilion. The first five buildings named covered, in the aggregate, seventy-five acres of ground, and cost the sum of four million four hundred and forty-four thousand dollars. There were besides these men- tioned a number of other buildings erected by the several States and Terri- tories and by foreign nations, as well as by individual exhibitors, in all amounting to one hundred and ninety. At the beginning of 1876 there were lacking funds to the amount of one and a half millions to make it a success upon the plan that every one interested thought should be carried out. Congress advanced the money, with the proviso that it should be returned out of the proceeds of the Exposition. The exhibition was formally opened on the designated day, May loth, i8o HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1869 ■with imposing ceremonies. The President of the United States received the presentation of the ground and buildings from the President of the Centennial Commission, and the Stars and Stripes were unfurled upon the Main Building, to signify that the Exposition was opened to the public. The total number of ad- m iss ions to the grounds was 9,910,965, at an admission fee of fifty cents each. The month of October there were 2,663,911 persons passed the several gates. Thirty- six States had exhi- bits, and most of the foreign governments. We will speak of the material effects of this Exposition further on. The day of the national election came, and the result was in ENGINE ROOM OF Exposii ION. great doubt, owing to sets of returns from each of the States of Louisiana, Florida South Carolina. Both parties claimed the presidency, and for the two and first time in the history of the country each party claimed the election of its candidate. One hundred and eighty-five votes in the Electoral College were necessary to a choice. It was at once conceded that Mr. Tilden had one hundred and eighty-four. Representative men from both parties went to the questionable States to watch the official counting of the votes. Excitement ran high, and there were muttered threats of bloodshed and revolution. The United States troops in Louisiana and South Carolina were under orders November loth to be in instant readiness to preserve the peace. The air of Washington was filled by mutual accusations and charges of fraud. The way to settle the matter in such a contingency was not clearly defined by the Constitution, and it was at length agreed to submit the decision of the question to an Electoral Commission, composed of an equal number of both parties. A committee similarly constituted was to report a bill to put this in effect. January i8th, 1877, they reported the bill, which provided that five members from the House and five from the Senate, with five justices of the Supreme Court, should constitute the Commission, to be presided over by the justice longest in commission. Both parties agreed that the decision of the board should be final. The bill was passed and signed by the President January 29th. The next day the Senate appointed Messrs. Edmonds, Morton, Frclingh'iyien, Thurman, and Bayard. The first three were Republicans, the IS;;] RFXONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. iSi others Democrats. The House of Representatives appointed Messrs. Payne, Hunton, Abbot, Garfield, and Hoar, the first three of whom were Democrats, and the others Republicans. Associate Justices Chfford, Miller, Field, and Strong were appointed, and they chose Joseph P. Bradley for the fifth. They met in the Hall of Representatives February ist, and remained sitting until nearly the time for the session to close, March 3d, when they declared Rutherford B. Hayes duly elected President of the United States. ADMINISTRATION OF RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. HE nineteenth President was inaugurated March 5th, 1877, Chief Justice VVaite administering the oath of office. He nominated his Cabinet, and the names were at once confirmed by the Senate. He began with a kindly conciliatory policy toward the South, and en- ^ deavored by every means to produce the best of feelings among the citizens of the distracted States. He appointed Mr. Key, of Tennessee, one of the military kaders in the Confederate army, Postmaster-General. The United States troops were removed from the Southern States, and left the management of their affairs in the hands of their own civil leaders. He pronounced in favor of civil service reform. An g%) extra session of the forty-fifth Congress had to be called ■a:C?^l,^ October 15th, 1878, to provide for a deficiency of §35,000,000, ^'^^~^ 'V which had not been appropriated to pay the expenses of iV/4l^\ jv "military service in the army. The object was not attained, for ^3,°^ debates of an exciting partizan character consumed the time, and showed a disposition to block the wheels of government. A bill opposed to Chinese emigration was passed by Congress and vetoed by the President, and the opposition, having the power, failed to pass the appropriation bills. Another special session was called, to convene March 1 8th, 1879, when the House passed appropriation bills with such obnoxious provisions for extraneous matters that the President vetoed them, after which the bills were passed with the unsatisfactory measures omitted and he signed them. This session adjourned July ist. There was an immense exodus of negroes from the Lower Mississippi States and the Carolinas to Kansas and Indiana in 1S79, which caused Congress to appoint a committee to inquire into its cause. The results obtained did not prove in any way satisfactory. Specie payment was resumed January ist, 1879, ^fter having been suspended for eighteen years. The business of the country had been in a depressed condition since the great panic of 1873, but it now began to rapidly improve. In opposition to this measure there arose a " Greenback party." which clamored for an unlimited issue of irredeemable greenbacks, as the 182 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1877 national currency was called. They prophesied the financial ruin of the country to result from a specie currency, and have waited to the present time to see it come, but instead the country has been prospering in all departments. There was a fearful outbreak of the Ute Indians in 1879. ^^^ government agent, N. C. Meeker, was murdered, and for a time a general Indian uprising was feared. Major Thornburg was sent against them, but he and ten of his men were killed, and the rest surrounded for six days. The troops intrenched and held out until succor arrived, and soon the Utes were put down. A joint resolution, having for its design the enfranchisement of women, was introduced into the House of Representatives January 30th. The same in substance was presented to the Senate January 19th, 1880. It is known as the Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The project of an inter-oceanic canal was revived by a visit to this country, in 1880, of M. de Lesseps, the engineer of the Suez Canal. He examined the Isthmus, and declared his belief in the feasibility of the scheme. The President sent a message to Congress March 8th, 1880, in which he apprised the world that it is the duty of the United States to assert and maintain such supervision over an enterprize of this kind as will protect our national interests. The national election of 1 880 was one of intense interest, and party spirit ran high. There were four candidates in the field. James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur were nominated by the Republicans June 2d. On the 9th, the Greenback party nominated James B. Weaver and Benjamin J. Chambers. The Prohibition party put in nomination Neal Dow and A. H. Thompson June 17th. The Democratic party assembled in Chicago June 22d and nominated Winfield S. Hancock and William H. English. There is another fact which if not mentioned in history would be soon forgotten. There was another party in the field, whose candidates were John W. Phelps and Samuel C. Pomeroy. It was the Anti-masonic party. All of the four candidates for President had been generals in the Union army. The canvass was particularly spirited and bitter. The excitement ran high, and many rumors were put in circulation which had no foundation in fact. James A. Garfield was elected by an unquestionable majority. On the 28th day of February the President elect left his home in Mentor, Ohio, and in company with his family proceeded to Washington, accompanied by his aged mother. A special session of the Senate was called to confirm the nominations of the new President. i:5k iSCi] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES A. GARFIELD. jHE inaugural address of President Garfield met with the general approbation of the country. The points were: equal protection for all without respect to race or color; universal education as a safeguard of suffrage; an honest coinage; the funding of the national debt at a lower rate of interest ; the prohibi- tion of polygamy and the regulation of the civil service. These were well received by all parties and the administration started off with high hopes. The Senate of the United States was so evenly divided between the two great parties that at the beginning of the administration of General Garfield there was quite an animated contest over , , Kg the appointment of officers for that body. This caused a 1 Jjly dead-lock for a number of weeks. There had been a gentle- ^i\^ man nominated by the President for the office of Collector ''vw^%w^ of the port of New York who was distaseful to the senior ^ ^ Senator from that State, Roscoe Conklin, and because the Senate confirmed the nomination he with his colleague resigned and left that great State unrepresented in the United States Senate til! an election of their successors. The Legislature of New York was in session at Albany, and at once there began an exciting canvass for the elec- tion of the United States Senators. This lasted for several weeks and finally resulted in the retirement of Mr. Conklin and his colleague to private life and the election of two other gentlemen to take their places. In the mean time Congress had been performing its regular work. A treaty with China concerning immigration and commerce, with the United States of Columbia in regard to extradition of criminals, a con- sular convention with Italy, a convention with Morocco and a reciprocal treaty with Japan concerning shipwrecked sailors had received the attention of Government. May i8th the Senate had postponed the resolution reasserting the Monroe doctrine. The country was startled on the eve of a general wide-spread celebration of the anniversary of American independence by the news that the President of the United States had been shot by an assassin and would probably die. This diabolical crime had been committed at the passenger depot of the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad in Wash- ington Saturday morning, July 2d. Mr. J. G. Plaine, the Secretary of State, and the President were walking arm-in-arm through the waiting- room when two pistol shots were fired in quick succession from the rear. One shot penetrated the President's body, and he was carried wounded to a room in the second storv of the depot, and as soon as possible removed to the White House. The as.-^assin was at once arrested 184 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1881 by police officer Kearney and taken to the jail. He proved to be Charles J. Guiteau, a man of great self-conceit and little ability, who had been for months beseeching the President and the Secretary of State for an official appointment, and at length, becoming incensed at not receiving the attention he thought he merited he resolved upon revenge. It may have been that his unbalanced mind was inflamed by the discussions going on in the Republican party. The President, before leaving the depot where he had been shot, caused a telegram to be sent to Mrs. Garfield, who was at Long Branch, to relieve her of any undue anxiety in regard to his condition. It was in these words: "ThePresident desires me to say to you from him that he has been seriously hurt, how seriously he cannot yet say. He is himself and hopes you will come to him soon. He sends his love to you. A. F. Rockwell." Contrary to the expectations of the attending physicians he did not die at once, but seemed to rall\', and hopes were entertained of his final recovery. The deepest gloom was over the nation, and North and South alike felt the fearful shock of the blow. The glorious celebra- tions which were planned for July 4th in all parts of the country were abandoned. Messages of sympathy and condolence came from all parts of the world ; crowned heads in every country, American citizens in foreign lands, every form of association, commercial, social, benevolent, political and religious, vied with each other in tendering the deepest expressions of sympathy in this hour of sadness. Most heartfelt and touching were the kind words of the widowed Queen of Great Britain. Then followed the long and painful struggle for life which lasted for weary weeks. There were repeated relapses and rallyings, which caused the nation to alternate between the hope of final recovery and the despair of sorrow, until September i6th he had an alarming relapse. He was at Long Branch, where he had been carried in the most careful manner by a special train from Washington to the very door of the cottage where he was to die. The struggle for life had been heroic, persistent and patient, but the President must die. At 10:55 Monday, September 19th, he drew his last breath, and thus passed away the man who had risen from the humble position of a driver on the canal to the proudest station in the gift of a great people. This sad ending of an eventful life had filled the country with gloom and foreboding. Instantly the painful news was telegraphed all over the world, and the messages of condolence and kindest .sympathy poured in from every quarter of the globe. The noble Queen of England sent a message to her not less noble sister in America, Mrs. Garfield, in the following words: " Words cannot express the deep sympathy I feel for you at this moment. May God support and comfort you as He alone can. The Queen." The Cabinet at once summoned Vice President Arthur to take 1883] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 1 8= the oath of office without delay, and he did so in a very quiet manner before night. The oath was administered by Judge John R. Brady, of the Supreme Court, in New York. The remains of the dead President were conveyed to Washington, where they lay in state in the rotunda of the Capitol for two days. The floral tributes were of the most beautiful and expressive kind, and throughout the entire country the tokens of mourning were displayed from public and private buildings. The mansions of the rich and the homes of the humble poor, the large commercial palaces of business and the humble stand of the street vender, the massive factory of the wealthy corporation and the shop of the mechanic, all alike were decked with some emblem of mourning. The South vied with the North, and the whole country united in their heartfelt expressions of sorrow. ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. WIT ^55 *i - ^'i„^4,3g?^^?5^ RESIDENT ARTHUR was formally inaugurated in Washington September 22d. The oath was re-admin- istered by Chief Justice Waite in the presence of Mr. Garfield's Cabinet, ex-Presidents Grant and Hayes, General Sherman and some others. He then delivered a brief inaugural address, and immediately issued a proc- amation appointing Monday, September 26th, as a day « of fasting, humiliation and prayer. He called an extra session of the Senate, to meet October loth. The body of the late President was removed from Washing- ton, after appropriate religious services, and conveyed by a military guard, accompanied by the Congressional Committee and prominent citizens. Among the many emblems which were presented was a floral ladder, on the successive rounds of which were the words, "Chester, Hiram, Williams, Ohio State Senator, Colonel, General, Congressman, United States Senator, President and Martyr." These names indicated the upward steps by which James A. Garfield had advanced in his public career. Chester was the seat of an obscure seminary where he began his education. Hiram is the name of an insignificant college where he was a teacher, and Williams is the college where he graduated. The other titles explain themselves. The last public services over the remains were performed in the presence of two hundred thousand citizens in the cemetery at Cleveland, Ohio. There were services in all the cities and towns in the country at the same time. On the 23d of October the body was quietly transferred from the receiving tomb to the private vault of Captain L. T. Schofield, in Lake View Cemeteiy. The special session of the Senate met October loth, and the President's i86 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [iSSi nominations for Cabinet officers were confirmed, as follows: E. T. Freling- huysen for Secretary of State; Chas. J. Folger, Secretary of Treasury; Samuel J. Kirkwood, Secretary of the Interior; Robert T. Lincoln, Secretary of War; Wm. A. Hunt, Secretary of Navy; Benjamin H. Brewster. Attorney-General, and Timothy O. Howe Postmaster-General. Other nomi- nations were confirmed and the routine business of the Executive Department, which, to some extent, had been interrupted by the illness and death of the late President, was resumed. The Senate had considerable trouble in organ- ization, growing out of the even division of the two great parties. It ended in the election of David Davis, of Illinois, as President pro tempore of the Senate. The centennial celebration of the surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown, at the close of the War of the Revolution, was an occasion of great national interest. A grand naval review and a military display on shore, with histo- rical addresses and public festivities, were the main features of the occasion. The French Government v.-as represented by a large number of officials and a national vessel. Among the distinguished guests were lineal descendants of Count D'Estaing, Lafayette and Rochambeau, who had aided the patriots in their early struggle. Other nations of Europe were also represented. The President and Cabinet with the diplomatic corps of the nations of the world took part in the occasion. The celebration began October i8th, 1881, and lasted for a number of days. The trial of Guiteau, the assassin of President Garfield, was begun in November of the same year. The widest latitude was given the accused to present his defense. The counsel were allowed ample time to prepare their answer, and the brother-in-law of the prisoner undertook the case for him, associated with Mr. Reed. After a fair, impartial and lengthy trial, in which the plea of insanity was strongly urged, Guiteau was found guilty of murder and sentenced to be hanged June 30th, 1882. Two ineffectual attempts to shoot the prisoner were made during the progress of the case ; the first by a civilian, whose name was Wm. Jones, on the 26th of November, who shot at him while being conveyed in a van from the court house to the jail. The second attempt was by Sergeant Mason, of the military guard, who shot through the window of the prisoner's cell and failed to injure him. They were both brought to trial and punished as their cases demanded. A number of unsuccessful measures were taken by the family and legal advisers of Guiteau to set aside the verdict, obtain a new trial, or induce President Arthur to interpose his executive clemency in favor of the con- demned man, but all of no avail, and on the appointed day he was hanged. To the last he displayed his egotism and excessive self-conceit by making a characteristic speech from the gallows on which he was executed June 30th, 1882. Congress met in regular session in December, 1881, and entered upon a long and heated debate upon political questions. The people were demanding a revision of the tariff and a reduction of the burdens of taxation occasioned i8S3] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 187 by the immense war debt and the heavy expenditures of government. They were demanding reform in the civil service and purity in the administration of pubhc affairs. The people of the Pacific States were clamoring for a national law to prevent the immigration of Chinese into the country. The opportunity for Congress to distinguish itself in passing measures of great public benefit was never more plainly presented. The session lasted for nearly eight months, and when at last it adjourned the country took one long breath of relief. What had been done ? The subject of revision of the tariff was referred to a commission, to sit during the recess of Congress and receive testimony. The internal revenue tax was removed from perfumery and proprietary medicines. Appropriation bills, exceeding the amounts of similar bills passed by the previous Congress to the sum of $76,000,000, had been passed. The anti-Chinese immigration bill demanded by the Pacific States was passed and vetoed by the President, and then another bill, in modified form, passed. "A River and Harbor Bill," appropriating the immense sum of §19,000,000 for internal improvements, was passed and vetoed, and then passed over the President's veto. The great interest of ship-building, which had been entirely prostrate since the war, received some attention. And with this record they had adjourned and gone before the people for their verdict. The celebrated trial of tlie " Star Route conspirators" was pushed with great vigor in the United States S.upreme Court. This grew out of excessive and fraudulent contracts for the postal service, in which a number of promi- nent men were implicated. The first trial resulted in the conviction of two of the minor offenders, the acquittal of two, one of whom was dead, and a disagreement of the jury in regard to the principals in the alleged conspiracy to defraud the Government. Congress, we should have said, granted a special pension to the widow of President Abraham Lincoln of fifteen thousand dollars March 15th, 18S1, but that sadly unfortunate lady died a few months after. She had never recovered from the severe shock caused by the sudden blow of her honored husband's assassination. General U. S. Grant, the hero of the Civil War and the President for two terms, had retired from public life after receiving many tokens of esteem from his fellow-countrymen. Ex-President Hayes at the end of his official term had retired to quiet life, from which he emerged at the funeral of President Garfield, only to return again to the retirement of domestic life. The political outlook of the countiy was somewhat disturbed, and the canvass in most of the States waged bitterly. In the great States of Penn- sylvania, New York and Ohio there was much dissatisfaction in the ranks of the Republican party. In the State of Maine, the home of James G. Blaine, the ex-Secretary of State, the contest waged fiercely. All the Congressmen in this State who had been suspected of being friendly in any way to the River and Harbor Bill were defeated. In Vermont the majority was in favor of the Republican party. In Georgia, Alexander H. Stevens, formerly "Vice President of the Confederate States," was elected governor, and the ISS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [iSSi Democratic nominees for Congress were also elected by heavy majorities. In Ohio the election wag a most disastrous defeat to the friends and apologists of the " River and Harbor Bill." A large number of the States held their election for members of Congress on the 7th of November, which resulted in a most sweeping defeat for the Administration in all parts of the country. In the States of New York and Pennsylvania, where the most strenuous efforts were made on the part of the Government to elect its candidates, the opposition had immense majorities. The complexion of the National House of Representatives was changed to Democratic, while all who voted in favor of the Harbor and River Bill were either defeated or returned with meager majorities. Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and a majority of the States elected Democratic governors. The rebuke to the stalwart wing of the Republican party was most decisive. The XLVII. Congress opened its final session on the first Monday in December, and the annual message of the President was read in both Houses. The President first alluded to the pleasant relations with all the foreign governments, and expressed the hope that the differences between the United States and Spain in regard to naturalization may be speedily settled. Negotiations had also been opened with the Swiss Government upon the same matter. He also announced that the Ottoman Porte had not yet assented to the construction which the United States had put upon the treaty of i860 in regard to jurisdictional rights in Turkey. The recommendation of the United States to Chili in regard to her difificulties with Peru have been declined, and any steps toward the formation of a Protectorate is in opposition to the avowed policy of our Government. The President recommended that especial attention be paid to the interests of ship-building, which had declined since the war. FINANCIAL EXHIBIT FOR 1882. The ordinary revenues of the Government from all sources for the year ending June 30, 1882, amounted to $403,525,250.28, and the ordinary expenditures were $258,981,439.58. The surplus revenue was $145,513,810.71, which, with an amount drawn for the cash balance in the Treasury of $27,737>694-84. makes $166,281,505.55. Of this there was applied to the redemption of bonds to the sinking fund, .... Of fractional currency for the sinking fund, Of Loan of July and August, 1861, Of Loan of March, 1863, Of Funded loan of 188 1, Of Loan of 1858, .... Of Loan of February, 1861, . Of Five Twenties of 1862, Of Five Twenties of 1864, Of Five Twenties of 1865, Of Ten Forties of 1864, $60,079,150 00 .58,705,587 55 . 62,572,050 00 . 4,472,90000 •37.194-45000 1,000 00 303,000 00 2,100 00 7,400 00 6,500 00 . 254,55000 i883] RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 189 Of Consuls of 1S65, 86,45000 Of Consuls of 1S67, 407,25000 Of Consuls of 1868, 141,40000 Of Oregon War Debt, 675,250 00 Of Old Demand Compound Interest and Other Notes, 18,350 00 Total, §224,927,387 55 The foreign commerce of the United States during the last fiscal year, including imports and exports of merchandise and specie, was as follows • EXPORTS. Merchandise, $750,542,257 00 Specie, 47,417,479 00 Total, S797>959.736 00 IMPORTS. Merchandise, $724,639,574 00 Specie, 42,472,390 00 Total, $767,111,96400 Excess of exports over imports of merchandise, . $25,902,683 00 This excess is less than it has been before for any of the previous six years. The Congress set at work in earnest to transact the business of the session, and at once several important measures were introduced and put upon their passage. A bill favoring civil service reform, one in regard to American shipping, for a reduction of postage, and many other reforms. The difficulties between the United States and Mexico, growing out of the unsettled condition of the border, were referred to a commission. Romero, the Mexican minister at Washington, was one of the commissioners to negotiate a new treaty between Mexico and the United States. The Duke of Newcastle, a member of the English Government, made a visit to Washington in December, 1882. He dined with the British minister, and visited the Senate Monday, December nth, to obser\'e its methods. The United States vessel Jcannctte had been sent upon an expedition to the Arctic regions by co-operation of the Government and a private citizen, James G. Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald. No tidings had been received from them for more than two years, when the world was electrified by a telegram from the coast of Siberia that survivors of the party were being aided by the friendly Russians. Captain James H. Long and his men had been obliged to leave their ship in a sinking condition, and with three small boats traverse the immense ice fields to the open sea. Two boat loads landed upon the barren and uninhabited coast of Siberia. One boat load had been swamped in a gale, and the party with Captain Long were frozen after landing. One boat's crew and two men of the other finally returned to the United States in 1882 and were the recipients of many honors. The two hundredth anniversary of the landing of William Penn, in I go HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1S56 Pennsylvania, was celebrated in Philadelphia in a becoming manner by the city government and various organizations of citizens October 25th and 26th, 18S2. It was the occasion for fine military and civic display, the delivery of historical and patriotic addresses, and unusual festivities of great interest. PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT SINCE THE CIVIL WAR. 'HE war had been practically ended with the surrender of Generals Lee and Johnston in April, 1865, and both sections of the country rejoiced at the return of peace. The South had suffered most heavily and lost her all. The wealthy families were reduced to the verge of necessity. Their slaves were free, their plantations uncultivated, and their prospects for the future were dark indeed. Where the land remained in possession of its former owners they had not the means to cultivate it, nor the money to buy seed. The worthless Confederate bonds and currency in which they had invested or which had been forced upon them ^^•as of no use to them now. Their towns and villages were I5 filled with brave men who were shattered in life and limb, and had no government to care for them. Their industries were .. , , i' paralyzed and their commerce destroyed, and their political )Q\j^ '/ status was as yet uncertain. The first thought was for personal ^ ' preservation, and all classes bent their energies to the raising of the first crop of cotton, for which the manufacturers of the world were waiting. The demand for cotton and their ability to supply this demand was the only line of hope. Bravely and grandly did they seize upon it. Could it be produced without slave labor? This was a problem as yet unsolved. It must be done. The freedman was given an interest in the growing crop, and he labored with more zest than he had ever shown for the kindest master. He was dependent upon his own resources now, and with no owner to care for him his first experience in the new condition of things was at best a hard one. Even with the kindest disposition the whites were unable to aid the blacks. The bounty of the Government was extended to all alike. The United States issued rations of food and clothing to both blacks and whites in many places, and thus the first season after the return of peace was passed. The cotton crop brought a good market. The deserted factories in the North sprang into action, and the production of cotton goods, which had been suspended for years, was resumed once more. In the North the industries had been somewhat disarranged, but not to the extent they had been in the South. The manufacturing of all manner of army supplies had been pushed to its utmost limit. Iron factories had been running day and night. The demand of the army for clothing and •■ RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 191 equipments had been immense ; but that was all changed by the disbanding of the arm}-, and the industries of the North must be turned to other channels. The vast numbers of returned soldiers must be provided with means of livelihood and positions for peaceful employment. There was an abundance of money in the country, but it was below par value and prices were high. There had been a disposition to withdraw capital invested in mercantile and manufacturing pursuits. But with the return of specie pa}'ments and depreciation in prices came a general impulse for investments. The capital of the North was moving southward. Cotton mills and other factories were being erected nearer to the supply of the raw material. There arose a period of railroad development and thousands of miles of new roads belted the country. Real estate was advancing in price and the era of speculation was upon the nation before they were aware of it. All the while tile South was recuperating most rapidly. The vast war debt was being reduced and its interest lessened. The dawn of specie payment was like a healthful tonic, when all at once, like a thunder-clap from a cloudless sky, burst the ominous mutterings of that terrific black Friday that sent so many towering fortunes tottering in their fall. The long panic of weary years followed, in which the public was taught to contract private expenditures and perform business upon solid principles. The lesson was a bitter but a needful one, and the people were taught by a hard experience that inflated values and high living are destructive to financial success. Slowly the public confidence returned, and the revival of business began and assumed a healthy tone. The Centennial Exposition had displayed to the amazed countries of the world the wonderful progress in all the arts, manufactures and improvements of the age, the United States leading in nearly every department of trade, and at the same time showing the old world her desirable advancement in the refined arts and scientific discoveries. In machinery and labor-saving appliances she had distanced the nations of Europe. While in defensive and offensive military armature she had given them lessons which they were but too ready to learn and improve upon. A grand impetus was given by this exhibition to all the industries of the United States, while it opened up the markets of the world as never before. The fertile wheat and corn- growing sections of the great central Western States, as well as the cotton- growing South, found a ready market in the old world. The export trade of the United States began shortly after the v/ar to grow into enormous dimensions, and far exceeded its imports. The exports in 1881 reached the amount of $898,142,891 and the imports $729,608,823, as against exports in i860 $373,189,274 and imports $335,233,232. These figures are expressive of the vast producing power of the nation and the demand for the luxuries and necessities of life produced by other countries. The increase in positive values in the country would far exceed these figures. The public debt has been reduced at the rate of nearly one hundred million per year, and refunded 192 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. the principal at a low rate of interest. The cities of the South and the North have shared in the general prosperity and regained the lost ground caused by the war. The enterprise of the whole country has been stimulated by a healthful rivalry in business, and the bonds of commercial intercouse are fast blotting them out. The following extract show the real feeling of the South, especially among its young men: Frovi the Century. The Southern States are now rearing a large number of young men before whom the outlook is bright. Some of them are sons of the old ruling families, but many of them have sprung from the lower and middle classes. They enjoy the advantages of poverty ; they have no money to spend in luxuries or diversions ; they have fortunes to retrieve or to gain ; they have grown up since the war, and have inherited less than could be e.\pected of its resentments. " Well," said a bright fellow at the close of a college commencement in Virginia last .Summer, " Lee and Jackson have been turned over in their graves but once to-day." The sigh of relief with which he said it indicates the feeling of manv of these young men. They keep no grudges and have no wish to fight the war over again. The senti- ment of patriotism is getting a deep root in their natures. Yet they are full of faith in the future of their own section. Well they may be. During their lifetime the industry of the South has been revolutionized, and the results already achieved are marvel- ous. An era of prosperity has begun ; and there are few intelligent men at the South to-day who will not at once confess that it is destined to be a far brighter era than they have ever seen. Free labor is unlocking the wealth of farms and mines and falling waters in a way that slave-labor never could have done. New machinery, new methods are bringing in a new day. In the midst of the stir and move- ment of this industrial revolution these young men are growing up. Hope and e.xpectation are in the air; the stern discipline of poverty goads them on, and the promise of great success allures them. All the conditions are favorable for the development of strong character; and any one who will visit the Southern colleges and schools will find in them a generation of students alert, vigorous, manly and tremendously in earnest. Probably they do not spend, on an average, one-third as much money per capita as is spent by the students of the New England colleges ; and in the refinements of scholarship the average Southern student would be found inferior to the average Northern student; but they are making the most of their opportunities. They ought to have better opportunities. Most of the South- ern colleges and schools are crippled for lack of funds, and much more of the flood of Northern bounty might well be turned southward, to the endowment of schools and colleges for whites as well as blacks. The generous sentiment of the young South would thus be strengthened, and the bonds of union more firmly joined. But whatever may be done in this direction it is evident that a race of exceptional moral earnestness and mental vigor is now growing up in the South, and that it is sure to be heard from. If the young fellows in the Northern colleges expect to hold their own in the competition for leadership, they must devote less of their resources to base ball and rovi'ing and champagne suppers and come down to business. The "Cotton Exposition" in the beautiful and rejuvinated city of Atlanta, Georgia, in October, 1882, was a gigantic exhibition of the resources of the great cotton-growing States, and displayed the rapid stride made by a people but a few years ago prostrated by an exhaus- tive and unsuccessful struggle. The vast domain of the South-west is being rapidly opened up by the means of railroad communications and the influx of immigration. The crowded denizens of the old world are thronging in inconceivable numbers to the western republic as never before in the history of the country. The number of foreign immi- grants landed reached to the sum total of 669,431 human beings of every nation under heaven. Since 1820, when the Government first began to keep the official account, there have come to the United States no less than 10,808,189 persons of foreign birth to find homes in this country. RECONSTRUCTION AND PROGRESS. 192 In addition to these there have come 232,283 Chinese, who have been less welcome and more harshly treated than any of the rest. This vast heterogeneous mass of men and women of different races and types has become assimilated and equal under the law. They have aided much in developing the resources of the land, and added to its material wealth in many directions. The vast improvement in every department of science has kept pace with the demands of the age. The telephone, the audiphone, the electric-light have been invented during the period of which we are writing. The future success of this republic is assured if the institutions of its founders are maintained and its constitution and laws are kept unimpaired. The purity of the ballot box, the maintenance of public honor, the education of the masses and the civilization and Christianization of the foreign element and of the aborigines are demanded by the spirit of the hour. The great blots still remaining upon the national character — the permission of polygamy and the treatment of the Indian — should be removed. The sanctity of the marriage relation and observance of the Sabbath should be required. Public faith with nations, tribes and individuals is imperatively demanded, and then the fondest dreams of the most enthusiastic well-wisher of his country will be realized. Private integrity, sobriety and industry with the qualities above mentioned will secure us from the fate of the old republics that tottered to their fall as soon as these were waiting. JAMES ABRAM GARFIELD, THE MARTYRED HERO, Atlantic's waves with ceaseless rolling In ebbing tide of sorrow break. As miifHed bells at midnight tolling The saddened nation quickly wake. The Lord of Life the word hath spoken, *• lie still, O throbbing heart of pain ; * The golden wheels at once are broken, And Death hath touched the mighty brain. The vital forces strong had striven For many painful weeks in vain ; His column fair at length is riven, For deatii hath torn the veil in twain. He bravely yielded to the spoiler, And won at last his well-earned rest, From home of wealth, or humble toiler, The answer comes, '* God s will is best." In city mansions heads are bending, From manly eyes the teardrops start, And country homes their ericfs are blending, For death hath pierced the nation's heart. Palmettos join their mournful sighing In union with the northern pine, And east and west together vieing Their richest tributes for him twine. Two oceans join their swelling surges To mourn our nation's honored dead; From northern lakes to gulf the dirges Rise o'er the martyred hero s bed. From mountain slope to flowing river The mournful requiems softly rise, For saddened hearts with sorrow quiver As home the winged arrow flies. A deep, impressive silence resting On thronged mart and busy mill, A solemn awe each soul investing, — The mighty rush of trade is still. A world with sympathy is heaving To share with us a nations grief. As gray and blue alike are weaving A garland for our fallen chief. O God, we thank Thee that the nation May claim the ho])e Thy promise gives, And find in this our consolation, The God of justice ever lives. Our trembling haruls in silence clasping Above the martyr s sacred bier, A new-born hope 'mid sorrow grasping, As cloud-rifts show a sky more clear. J. H. m POSITION AIOIt the NATIOHS-LESm TAUGHT E are standing to-day like the Roman god of the gates with our faces turned both ways. With one we are gazing in subdued tenderness upon the sacred memo- ries of the past, and stretching our hands with their wealth of flowers to do honor to our hero dead : with the other we turn to the hopeful future, and offer our arms still strong to bear its burdens and brave to share its battles. For those who have nobly fallen in the line of duty the end has come, and to them the fullest praise should be given ; but for us who remain, the bugle only sounds the need- ful truce, while with reverent tread we bear our comrades to their resting place and strew their graves with the richest perfume of each returning spring. For us the respite from the conflict is but a brief one. The present makes its ever increasing demands upon us, and ^ calls for brave hearts with noble purpose true. Scarcely do the echoes of the burial note and the " volley of honor" die upon the air when the thrilling tones of the bugle sound " O/i to the battle .' " If we thought the truce meant a peace we were most sadly mistaken, for we shall find that the contest wages still. The battle-field only has changed, and with it has changed the relation of the contending forces. The armies late arrayed against each other are divided on a different line now. Happily the issues of that contest are settled, but the conflict of the people against the enemies of popular government wages still. The recent civil war was but one phase of the gigantic struggle which began with our existence as a people, a single scene of the national drama which opened when the genius of liberty " rang up the curtain," and our fathers pronounced the grand old prelude in their immortal bill of rights, " THE DECLARATION OF iNDEl'EX- DENCE." The first battalions of the army have engaged in conflicts fierce and long and they won the victory ; but their triumph was not destined to give com- plete security to them who came after them. The enemies of popular lib- erty have been encountered and overcome on many a hotly contested battle- field, but after each successive victory new allies of tyranny have as suddenly arisen ; new assaults have been prepared ; new tactics have been employed, and still new enemies pour down upon the army of freedom. Conquering field after field from their foes the patriot soldiers see the frowning hill-tops * An address delivered on Decoration day by the Author. LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 195 beyond, still black with threatening warriors pressing forward to meet them on other fields — and "tlie end is not yet." The march of freedom's host is like that of a conquering army into a fortress that has been breached. The men in the vanguard may fall by thou- sands. Was their fall a failure? Nay, nay ; for their bodies but helped to bridge the trench over which their comrades have marched to a complete victor>'. The dying exhortation of the falling heroes to those who came after them has been like that of noble Lawrence, carried wounded unto death from the deck of his vessel, " Don't give up the ship ! " Each succeeding genera- tion will find that " ETERNAL VIGILANCE IS THE PRICE OF LIBERTY," and this price must ever be paid by those who would retain it ! " This last successful experiment of self-government by the people" is still on trial before the ages, and the severest tests are now being applied, the strength of our institutions is put to its utmost tension. The cable of law that holds our ship of State is being stretched by two opposite forces : already do the strands smoke in their intense friction around the pierhead of the constitution. On the one side unbridled license exerts the full force of its diabolic strength ; the love of money and of power, on the other, puts forth all its energy to break the bonds of lawful restraint. Human greed and human lust have united to bid defiance to the right, — twin monsters more hideous than mythology ever painted or poet ever dreamed. They have given birth to a whole brood of bantlings as repulsive as themselves — the demagogues in society and Church and State ; communism with its red hand, Ishmael-like arrayed against every man, and every man's hand arrayed against it ; the Moloch of wealth seizing in its fiery arms the noblest children of our race; the Goliath of intemperance bidding defiance to the Church of God and the cries of humanity ; the shameless goddess. Free Love, and her wanton sister, Easy Divorce, who have polluted with their fetid breath the purest sanctuary of home ; dark-robed Skepticism assuming the name of Human Reason, who would pluck with skeleton hand the brightest star from our sky and throw her own black mantle of night over the horizon that hides our hopes of immortality; license which would bring to our land the Sunday of Europe and rob us of all the sacred memories which hallow " the day of rest ; " the corrupting and festering influences that are sapping the manhood of the nation ; the shameless immoralities and ill-concealed dishonesties which so frequently startle us with their public outcroppings are enough to sicken the heart and unnerve the arm of the patriot if he has not the same confidence in the God of battles that our fathers had. These are the foes with which we still have to contend, in their new disguises and upon their own well chosen and well fortified battle ground. Shall we overcome them ? In the words of the flaming orator of our early struggle, " I have no way of judging of the future, but by the past." Look back on the line of history along which this " Young Republic of the West " has come, and with the broad chart of ancient and modern times before you find a parallel to it all if you can ! But little more than a century 196 UNITED STATES HISTORY. has passed since thirteen isolated and dependent colonies, with no community of aims and no mutual bond save a common grievance in the oppression of the Home Government, came to agitate the question of an appeal to arms ; and to-day, as regards moral force and material strength, they stand united as the first power in Christendom. The thirteen States have increased to (will some little boy or girl who has the latest edition of geography please to tell me ?) — I am unable to keep up the count they come in so fast. We have a new star in our flag-to-day, I believe, and the number is thirty-eight. In view of the facts in our remarkable histoiy we may well say with the inspired Hebrew bard, " He hath not dealt so with any nation." Can we fathom the problems of Providence in reference to this American people? Has not Jehovah some mighty design in all this wonderful develop- ment ? Can we not see the plainest indications all along the highway of the past of the great fact which the crazy old king of Babylon acknowledged, ■' God doeth according to his will in the army of heaven and among the inhab- itants of the earth ; and none can stay his hand " ? Let us look back upon our history and trace, if we can, these developments of Providence. If we can do this we will not have misspent the few moments devoted to-day to this exercise. ' Here was a continent lying in a wilderness state, the only inhabitants were the wild beasts and scarcely less wild aborigines who roamed, unre- strained, over its extensive plains and through its grand old forests. Here were the same noble rivers, the same broad inland seas, the wide extended prairie with its rich deposit of soil, the hidden wealth of minerals in the bowels of the earth, water-power capable of carrying all the machinery of the world to-day ; the same lofty mountains with their magnificent scenery, the grandest upon which the sun e'er shines, all as we behold them now, and yet for fifteen hundred years after the birth of Christ it is an unknown world. And why was this? Look at the condition of the more civilized parts of the world for these long centuries and you will find the answer, — the dark black night of a thousand years which had come over Europe, when moral, religious and social darkness rested on all the people so dense that scarcely a ray of light e'er penetrated it. Then man was working out the bitter problem of the relation of the Church to the State, in the union of temporal and spiritual power: and the fearful solution was well nigh given in the loss of civil and religious liberty. Many abortive attempts were made to regain that which had been lost, but the heel of the tyrant at Rome was upon the neck of the masses, and the flickering fires, uncertain and disconcerted, which arose ever and anon amid the surrounding gloom went quickly out and made the darkness all the more intense for their short-lived burning. These questions had an ample theater in the old world ; the new was held in reserve for grander trials of those questions which are closely interwoven with our world-wide humanity. At length the echoes of the hammer of Luther as he nailed his bold Theses to the church door at Wirtemberg awoke the people from their sleep of LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 197 centuries, a sleep which had cost them so much, in which the chains of an irksome bondage were being riven harder and harder still about them. But the strength of the sleeping giant was aroused and the bands were rent asunder. And now, when this spirit of freedom from the chains which had bound body and mind and heart alike, had swept across the newly awakened nations, and men were seeking for some asylum from the bondage, God himself sent the hardy Genoan navigator in his Spanish ships to open the way to such a land as this. And he did it. When "the fullness of times" had come he sent the right people to colonize the land. The stern unyielding Puritan with hardy hand and living faith He sent to Plymouth, the Dutchman with his love for " Faderland " to Manhattan ; the Quaker with charitable heart and uncompromising integrity to build up the City of Brotherly Love ; the fervent, zealous Catholic to the shores of the Chesapeake ; the vanguard of all, led by the boldest of pioneers, to Jamestown ; the Huguenots of sunny France to the no less sunny clime of Georgia and the Carolinas. And these were they who laid the foundation of the civil government we now enjoy. Do we not see the plainest indications that right here, in this new world upon whose eastern shores these feeble colonies were planted, there were questions to be solved which were to affect all the race ? The variety of creed and nationality which characterized the pioneers was an arrangement of Providence to hold each in check, and thus prepare for the coming struggle which so soon was to be theirs. The seeds were planted, but it would take years of storm and sunshine, of tempest and calm, of anxious watching and bitterest disappointment, before that seed would germinate and develop into a full grown tree beneath whose shadow the nations of the earth might rest. This period which preceded the revolution is rich in indication of manifest providences. All the wars with the Indians, with the P"rench, and the wilderness, too, were but as a training- school for the contest which they were to have. All this was but the formative, concentrative period which was to try their young strength and develop it to maturity. Like the infant Hercules crawling from his cradle to throttle the twin serpents one in either hand did these young colonies contend with difficulties which might well appall the stoutest heart, and they overcame them. The savage climate and the more savage aborigines had well nigh annihilated the little band. But still they stood by the daring enterprise which seemed so perilous. A race of warriors was thus reared hardy of muscle and quick of sight, with indomitable courage and perseverance such as was soon to try the mettle of the well-trained soldiers of the Mother Country. The conflict came. Statesmen and generals and patriot soldiers were not wanting for the conflict. The night was long and dark and almost starless, but still they watched with unequaled patience for the coming morning. Seven weary years of war with all its sad experiences of want and misery, of sacrifice and blood came upon them. Then it was that these noble men needed such trust in God as 198 UNITED STATES HISTORY. the Puritan had instilled into his faith, such indomitable perseverance as the Germanic element infused with the burning zeal of the Catholic, and the inimitable patience of the Huguenot under affliction. And that there was a wise design in this protracted war is seen in the fact that the colonies were thus knit together as never before by a community of sacrifice and suffering in the same cause, and so the bond which was to hold them in sympathy was more and more firmly cemented. At length the glorious dawn was ushered in ; faint and uncertain at first, like the earliest break of day, but surely coming, till soon the sun of liberty rises full and clear on this western land. Clouds, dark and portentous, may cross his track and hide him from our view, but never again will Ue set till all the world has felt the warmth which comes from his beams. Now follows the formative period, when there needed men of wise heads and honest hearts to lay the foundations of government upon an unyielding basis. That these men who gave us such a document as " The Constitution of the United States " were eminently fitted for such a task is amply proven by the experimental workings of this Magna Charta of human rights for more than a century. Wisdom and patriotism in a very marked degree were the characteristics of the Federal Congress in the early days of our history. It was most eminently fitting that George Washington, who had commanded the army during the war of the Revolution, should be the chosen one to inaugurate the new government. No other man in all history had so united in himself every characteristic of nature's nobleman as he. Right worthy the trust confided to him by a grateful people he displayed to the wondering governments of Europe an example unequaled by anything which had preceded it. They sneeringly had asked the question : Can the American people establish a republic after a protracted war, arousing as war was prone to do an ambition for power in the breast of the successful chieftain ? The farewell address of George Washington to his countrymen, an immortal production, is the unhesitating answer to their questioning. Now succeeds another period of development unparalleled in all that the world had before seen. The government had demonstrated its adaptation tcv the wants of the masses ; it had shown its power to suppress domestic turmoil, and now the country is at peace. The pursuits of agriculture, of manufactures and of commerce receive the attention of the people. Wealth and commer- cial influence very rapidly increase, while throughout all the land there are being built up the monuments of intelligence and industry. The liberal arts and sciences, these problems which touch the vital interest of such a govern- ment as ours, receive ample attention. Our prosperity at home is not equaled by our national standing abroad. Two of the chief powers of Europe were at war, and while we remain strictly neutral they each trample upon our rights as a nation. The one takes from our ships of war, by a pretended right of search, men to fill her own depleted navy, and they both in turn, by their unrighteous embargoes, unite LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 199 to cripple our young commerce. France recedes from her position and makes restitution ; but the mother land, who has ever behaved in a very step- motherly way toward her vigorous child, is compelled to yield only by force of arms. In this war, disastrous to both countries, we were enabled to assert our national dignity, and to command the respect of other nationalities. That this war was needful is clearly seen by the marked increase of our commercial interests and the respect paid to our flag by all other powers ; a result whicli immediately followed. And, again, through a period of years the develop- ment of our country keeps pace with the loftiest imagination. State after State takes its place beside its fellow in the Union. Territory is acquired by peaceful purchase from Spain (of Florida) and from France (of Louisiana). Te.xas gravitates to us by the fortunes of war, and the golden land, with Arizona and New Mexico, are wrested from a sister republic by the force of arms. The strong arm of the nation has proved its power in subduing the Indi- ans and bringing the Nullifiers of Georgia and the Carolinas to bow to right- ful authority. The republic has, by the providence of God, taken a foremost place among the powers of the world, and with an enlightenment and liberal- ism unknown before has spread her broad arms to the nations and welcomed the oppressed of every clime and race to her " asylum of the free." Freedom, civil and religious, was proclaimed, in theory, at least, through all the land. And thus, as we have hastily sketched, a nation of patriots had conquered their independence and had laid the foundation of the best govern- ment the world has ever seen. They had developed into a powerful people, prosperous at home and respected abroad. This prosperity they had earned by their industry, this respect they had won by their swords from willing lips. For, while the bitterest hatred of old dynasties in the Eastern World still lay smouldering ill-concealed beneath their pretended friendliness, they only dared to flatter the rising power they so intensely hated. All the peo- ples of the Old World were looking on in amazement to see this experiment of popular government prove so successful as it did. Sister republics sprang up in the New World modeled upon our Constitution. The trembling mon- archies of Europe felt the moral force of such a fact in history as " the United States of America" came to be, and they all desired our destruction while they feared the power of our example, for the masses in every country where a general intelligence prevailed had caught the spirit of liberty borne to them on every Western wind, and should the fact be established beyond question that the entire people were capable of self-government they would be most likely to follow the example thus set them. This caused the monarchs of Europe to wear uneasy crowns as they sat upon their tottering thrones. And they said, " A violent internal commotion will rend this country asunder, and its disrupted States will form rival independencies, and thus the power which we fear will ere long overshadow us will be destroyed." This they said and this they sincerely hoped. There seemed to be the prospect of a speedy realiza- tion of tlieir fond anticipation, for there had been one dark spot upon our 200 UNITED STATES HISTORY. otherwise fair escutcheon. It stood out bold and black and repulsive, and made us a by-word to the nations. It was this: While we proclaimed univer- sal liberty in our immortal Bill of Rights, the Declaration of Independence, there was all the time within our own borders a race of serfs cut off from all these inalienable rights which we had demanded for every man. How to deal with this forbidding question which we had inherited from the mother country was a perplexing one to our wisest and best statesmen. Good men of all shades of political opinion could not fail to see the fearful cloud, small and inauspicious at first, but spreading wider and wider still was threatening our destruction. The contest must come sooner or later. Politi- cal extremists in either section of the country hastened it to its final issue. An appeal to arms, rash as it was wicked, was made. The flag of our common country was insulted and disgraced. The authority of the government despised and its rightful allegiance set aside. Nothing in all the world would give more satisfaction to the enemies of civil liberty in the Eastern continent than to see the rebellion prove a success. And so they threw the whole force of their sympathy and moral aid, under cover of a pretended neutrality, on the side of those who sought to overthrow the government. In this they were disappointed. The unrighteous appeal to arms was most disastrous to thosQ who made it. The authority of the government was asserted by the overthrow of the armed rebellion. The strength of the citizen soldiery which the nation could call into the field was appalling to other nationahties. More than two million of names were borne upon the muster rolls of the United States army, a greater force than Napoleon could command in the height of his power. The grand review of the army at the close of the war was a spec- tacle unequaled in history. One hundred and eighty thousand strong, they marched past the president and the generals of the army, and that, too, when many thousands of soldiers equally brave were scattered throughout the South. Never before had the world seen such a sight. But these men were ready to stack their arms, pack their artillery, and return to the avocations of peace. In an incredibly short time they were disbanded ; and to-day you will find them in the workshops, the fields, the stores, and all the marts of trade throughout our land, from its one extreme to the other. Those questions which were left to be solved as the outgrowth of the war are too new and too recent for us to discuss them without bias by our former opinions. That ultimately they will be wrought out to a successful issue is the hope, yes, the settled belief of every man who recognizes the truth that " God ruleth among the nations of the earth," and " he maketh even the wrath of man to praise him." Is there no design of Providence in all this wonderful history of the past and aspect of the present ? This free land, extending from sea to sea, with no abutting nation upon either frontier, capable of containing one hundred millions of inhabitants, offers now a home to the oppressed of the world ; and they are hastening to its shores, spreading over its wide extent, and peopling its towns and villages. The Celtic and Teutonic, the Anglo-Saxon and his Germanic cousin, the Scandinavian of LESSONS IN OUR HISTORY. 201 Northern Europe and the child of sunny France and Italy. The Asiatic and the African are beneath a common flag to-day. The teeming population of Europe and Asia came of their own accord, the one part across the ocean which laves our Eastern shores, and the other wafted by the softer gales of the Pacific to the golden shores of the west. And now they find an equal home as they strike glad hands across our free America. The dusky sons of Africa are here as well. They came, it is true, as Joseph came to the land of Egypt, " whose feet they hurt with fetters." But, thank God, those fetters are stricken off to-day. Here there is ample protec- tion for all religions alike, the true and the false. The Protestant and the Catholic, the Mohammedan and Pagan, the Jew and the Christian of every name are on an equal footing before the law. The only conflict there is between them is the conflict of argument and ideas, and with a general diffu- sion of intelligence among the people the true religion has nothing to fear in the unequal contest with the false. If America in the future will keep her ballot-box pure and her people rightly educated she need fear nothing that that future has in store for her. The great duty of America to-day is to civilize, to educate and to christian- ize her people. The first of these results will follow from the other two united. God has sent the world to our feet for us to enlighten, to instruct, and to convert to him. When the great question came to the church of Christ, " How shall we bring all men to a knowledge of the truth ? How shall we send the light of a pure religion to all the world ? " God him- self answered it by sending the nations to us. Here they are to-day, and we must christianize them or they will paganize us. The Church can do her great part in this work so long as the strong arm of the Government protects the freedom of speech and disseminates the light of intelligence to the masses. These, then, are the bold questions which affect this common humanity of ours, and which America is working out for the world to-day : freedom of person and conscience ; universal equality and the brotherhood of the race ; the civilization and redemption of all men. If she be true to her trust the grandest place in history awaits her, but if she prove false, she will find written on the walls of her proudest palaces bj' the finger of Deity, " Thou art weighed in the balances and art found wanting. Thy kingdom is given to another," which, may heaven forbid ! Let us who are here to-day prize, as we should, the blessed inheritance which has come down to us from the past. Let us remember that the blood of three generations cements the bond which binds this union with its indis- soluble chain. The altar of our liberty has been baptized with the richest and the noblest blood which ever flowed in human veins. The patriots of 1776, of 1812, and of 1861 have vied with each other in sacrifices for a common country, and poured out their blood like water to enrich the soil from which has sprung this tree of liberty. Long may it flour- ish, striking its roots deeper and deeper still into the earth ; higher yet may it lift its towering top into the heavens as its branches, outstretching far and 202 UNITED STATES HISTORY. wide, throw their protection over all the land alike. Nor storms, nor tempests' fiercest power can now tear up the giant oak. If e'er it shall decay, the worm which feeds upon its life will be the cause. But may God forbid. Let us, then, swear renewed fidelity to our institutions, to the Constitu- tion and the laws of our united land. And with that stern old patriot, Andrew Jackson, answer back to the world, " The Unioi^ must and shall be preserved." OUR HERO DEAD. God's eternal stars are keeping Faithful watch above our dead. And His clouds, in pity weeping, Bathe each sleeping hero's bed ; Thus her misty mantle throwing 'Round each sacred resting-place, Nature keenest sorrow showing, Veils awhile her tearful face. Day and night, with varied changes. Hasten through the restless years. Swift-winged time, whose flight estranges Friendship's mingled joys and fears. Heals the wounds of bitter anguish Caused by deeds of angry strife, When the hearts in sorrow languish Brings its buried hopes to life. But our vows can not be broken Lightly as the spider's thread ; Vows in earnest whispers spoken. When we laid away our dead. And those deeds are not forgotten Which they wrought amid the brave, — Deeds of manly hearts begotten. Shedding luster o'er each grave. Low the gentle winds are sighing. Through the cypress and the pine, O'er the holy dust now lying Where their shadows dark entwine. And the soft and mournful cadence Of their plaintive, sad refrain. Breathing like a heavenly presence. Sing the tribute to our slain. Where the Nazarene was taken, Laid within a new-made grave. There by friend and foe forsaken, Was there not a spirit brave. Who had found the situation In the dismal midnight gloom, Taking then his humble station, Warden of the Saviour's tomb ? Thus would I, the office prizing. Stand beside our honored dead, While within my bosom rising. Thoughts that glory's luster shed. For the sacred voice would listen, "Weep not here with heart forlorn, Though like pearls your tea-drops glisten, Hail with joy the risen morn." Long in sorrow we have waited. For the passing of the storm, And the morning so belated. Lo ! there comes an angel form, Bidding us " No more in sadness Shed our bitter, scalding tears, For in that bright world of gladness Light shall shine through countless years." See ! the thinning clouds, now rifted Here and there, disclose the blue : Where their parted folds have lifted Breaks the sun upon our view. And his promise for the morrow Cheers our hearts amid the gloom ; Bids us banish everj' sorrow ; Sheds a radiance 'round their tomb. J. H. B. ADMINISTRATION OF CHESTER A. ARTHUR. 203 THE DEATH OF PUBLIC MEN IN 1883. A number of prominent men died during the early months of 1883, of whom the following deserve special mention : Honorable Marshal Jewell, of Connecticut, formerly United States minister to the court of St. Petersburg, postmaster-general and governor of his adopted State, died at his residence in Hartford, Connecticut, upon the loth day of February. He was born in New Hampshire, October 20th, 1825, where he was bred to the trade of a tanner. He established business in Hartford in 1850 as a manufacturer of leather belting. His talents, public spirit, and interest in State affairs gave him great prominence. He was governor of the State in 1869, 1871, 1872. In 1873 he went as minister to Russia, where he learned the secret of manufacturing Russia leather, which he imparted to the public of the United States. In 1874 he was appointed postmaster-general, which office he resigned before the close of the administration of President Grant. Honorable Edwin D. Morgan, of New York, was born at Washington, Berk- shire County, Massachusetts, I'ebruary 8th, 181 1. His family were plain, simple farmers of that sterling type which seldom fails to make its mark in this country when opportunity serves, either in the field or in the councils of the State. In 1828 he entered into business as a clerk in a wholesale grocery in Hartford, Connecticut, and in 1831 became a partner in the business. Five years after- ward he came to New York, where he es- tablished a most successful house, and where he soon began to exercise that influence which was to be expected from his upright- ness and abilities. In 1843-53 he was elected a State senator for New York ; and became governor from 1859 *o 1862, performing his duties during that trying period with an in- 1 telligence, a patriotism and a decision which' were acknowledged by all parties. In 1861 -62 he became a major-general of volunteers without pay, investing the post with character- istics creditable alike to himself and to his country. In 1863-69 Mr. Morgan was elected to the United States senate, and in 1S65 he was offered the position of secretary of the treasury, which he then declined. He was appointed to this position after Mr. Arthur became president, and accepted the office. He also died in February. Honorable Alexander H. Stephens^ governor of the State of Georgia, died at Atlanta in that State, March 4th. His life had been long^over 71 HON. EDWIN D. MORGAN. 204 UNITED STATES HISTORY. years— active, and in some respects heroic. He was the son of a planter, and was born on his father's plantation in Georgia. When he was fourteen years old his father died, but good friends came to his aid and lent him money to enable him to procure an education. Though he had intended to study theology he took to the law, and was admitted to the bar in 1834. He was very successful, and though he was in delicate health and weighed only ninety-six pounds he was active and ambitious. In 1836 he was elected to the State assembly, to which he was five times re-elected. He declined a re-election in 1841, but was, returned to the State senate in 1842. In 1843 he was elected to congress, where he remained till 1859. During the exciting events preceding the civil war years, though a firm advocate of State sovereignty he was by no means a disunionist. In i860 he warmly advocated the election of Douglas. When Lincoln was elected, and a majority of the Georgia legislation favored secession, Mr. Stephens was outspoken against it. But when Georgia seceded he went with her, and was elected vice-president of the confederacy. In 1866 he was elected United States senator from Georgia, but was not allowed to take his seat. In 1872 he was elected to congress, where he remained till 1882, retiring on his own desire. He was elected governor of Georgia in the fall of 1882. Mr. Stephens possessed many fine qualities. He was amiable, courageous, eloquent and upright. His popularity in Georgia was very great! and the mourning for him there was general and sincere. Postmaster-General Timothy O. Howe died at his home in the city of Madison, Wisconsin, March 25th, 1883. Mr. Howe has been for many years, one of the most prominent republicans in national politics. He was the fore- most of Wisconsin's politicians. He was a New Englander by birth, having been born in Livermore, Oxford county, Maine, on February 7th, 1816. He received an academical education at the Readfield Seminary, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1839. He settled at Readfield and was elected to the legislature of Maine in 1845. In the latter part of that year he removed to Green Bay, Wis., and was elected a circuit judge in 1850, holding that ofifice until 1859, when he resigned. In 1861 he was elected a United States senator from Wisconsin for the term ending March 4th, 1867. In January, 1867, he was re-elected to the senate for the term ending in 1873. At the conclusion of this term Mr. Howe returned to Wisconsin and engaged in business, from which he was called by President Arthur to the postmaster- generalship. As postmaster-general his management has been marked by the institution of many measures of economy and of reform in the postal service. Peter Cooper, an eminent philanthropist of New York, died in that city April 4th, 18S3, at the advanced age of ninety-one years. He had been born in humble circumstances, and by his own endeavors had attained a high social and public position. He founded and endowed the Cooper Institute for the advancement of education among the people. He was esteemed as a man of exalted moral character and extensive public spirit. DECLAEATION OF MPENDENCE. In Congress, July 4th, 1776. By the Representatives of the United States, in Congress assembled, A DECLARATION. HEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitled them, a decent respect for the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare ich impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident : — that all men are reated equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain nalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are :ed among men, deriving their just powers from the consent governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes :tive of these ends it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former sys- tem of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 2o6 UNITED STATES HISTORY. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- sentation in the legislature — -a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the danger of invasion from without and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of and superior to the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation, — For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders -which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States : For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world • For imposing taxes on us without our consent : For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offenses : For abolishing the free system of English law in a neighboring province. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 207 establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies : For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our government : For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun, with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic Insurrections among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts made by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must therefore acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war — in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that, as independent States, they have full 2o8 UNITED STATES HISTORY. power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protec- tion of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. Signed by order and in behalf of the Congress. JOHN HANCOCK, President. Attested, CHARLES THOMPSON, Secretary. NEW HAMPSHIRE. JosiAH Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. RHODE ISLAND, Etc, Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. CjEsar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. MARYLAND. Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll, of Carrollton, VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA, Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. CONSTITUTION OF THE IITED STATES OF AMEEICA. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, estabHsh justice, insure domestic tranquilHty, provide for the common de- fense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section I. — All legislative powers herein grauited shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Sec. II. — I. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- bers chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the sev- eral States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and ex- cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State ■of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts, eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, five ; Nezv York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Dclaivare, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; Smith Carolina, five ; Georgia, three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the ex- ecutive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, and thall have the sole power of impeachment. Sec. III. — I. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 14 2IO UNITED STATES HISTORY. senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, dur- ing the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the ofifice of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the mem- bers present. 7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to removal from ofifice, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any ofifice of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall, never- theless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Sec. IV. — The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature there- of ; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in everj^ year ; and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Sec. V. — I. Each house shall be judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members ; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 211 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and, from time to time, publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the con- sent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sec. VI. — I. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to or returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Sec. VII. — I. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house ; and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays ; and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journals of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return ; in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Sen- ate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States, and before the same shall take effect shall be approved by him or, being disap- proved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of 212 UNITED STATES HISTORY. Representatives, according to tlie rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Sec. VIII. — The Congress shall have power — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States : but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States : 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes : 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States : 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures: 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States: 7. To establish post-ofiSces and post-roads : 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries : 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations: 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water : 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 13. To provide and maintain a navy: 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces : 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the la\\s of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia, according to the discipline prescribed by Congress: 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may by cessionof particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings : And, 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this con- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 213 stitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Sec. IX. — I. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States, now e.xisting, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importations, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. ^,., 3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. ' ^" '' 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any ofifice of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. Sec. X. — I. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confed- eration ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, e.x post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasurj- of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign poAver, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. Sec. I. — I. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his ofifice during the term of four 214 UNITED STATES HISTORY. years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 3. [Annulled. See Amendments, art. I2.] 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President ; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated timc.^, receive for his services a com- pensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected ; and he shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the follow- ing oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." Sec. II. — I. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States : he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- ments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- ate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States whose appoint- ments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 215 by law. But the Congress may, bj' law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in t!;e heads of departments. 3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sec. III. — He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress informa- tion of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordi- nary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disa- greement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassa- dors, and other public ministers : he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sec. IV. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from ofifice on impeachment for, and convic- tion of. treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Sec. I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be Vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sec. II. — I. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, and other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction : to controversies to which the United States shall be a party . to controversies between two or more States ; between a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different .States ; between citizens of the same State, claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign .States, citizens or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls and those in which a State shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be bj* jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such a place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 2i6 UNITED STATES HISTORY. Sec. III. — I. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testi- mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or confessions in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Sec. I. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Con- gress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Sec. II. — I. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered upon claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sec. III. — I. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union, but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislature of the States concerned, as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States , and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Sec. IV.— The United States shall guarantee to every State of this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for pro- posing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three- CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 217 fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article , and that no State, with- out its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution as under the confederation. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land : and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by an oath or afifirmation to support this constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the con\entions of nine States shall be sufficient for tlie establishment of this constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. NEW HAMPSHIRE. NEW YORK. John Langdon, Alexander Hamilton. Nicholas Oilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, NEW JERSEY. RuFus King. William Livingston, CONNECTICUT. David Brearley, Wm. Samuel Johnson, William Patterson, Roger Sherman. Jonathan Dayton. 2l8 UNITED STATES HISTORY. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, GouvERNEUR Morris. DELAWARE. George Read, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. MARYLAND. James M'Henrv, Dan'l of St. Tho. Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Rich. Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. Attest, WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. Art. I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Art. II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Art. III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by the law. Art. IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Art. V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jur\-, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service, in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be sub- ject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be witness against himself, nor be de- prived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. Art. VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been CONSTITITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 219 previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted witli the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. Art. VII. — In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved ; and no fact, tried by a jury, shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of the common law. Art. VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Art. IX. — The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Art. X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the consti- tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respec- tively, or to the people. Art. XL — The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- strued to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. Art. XII. — I. The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the persons voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President : and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each ; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest number, not exceed- ing three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Represen" tatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But, in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole 220 UNITED STATES HISTORY. number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the hst the Senate shall choose the Vice-Presi- dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. Art. XIII. — I. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legis- lation. Art. XIV. — i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several States accord- ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, e.xcept for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrec- tion or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payments of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION. 221 claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obliga- tions, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Art. XV. — i. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. I BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a Proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing among other things the following, to wit : "That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State, or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward and forever free, and the exec- utive government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom." "That the executive will, on the first day of January aforesaid, by proc- lamation, designate the States and parts of States, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall then be in rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any State, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith represented in the Congress of the United States by members chosen thereto at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters of such State shall have participated, shall, in the absence of strong countervailing testi- mony, be deemed conclusive evidence that such State and the people thereof are not then in rebellion against the United States." Now, therefore, I, ABRAHAM LINCOLN, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war 2- UNITED STATES HISTORY. measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and in accord- ance with my purpose so to do, publicly proclaim for the full period of one hundred days from the day the first above-mentioned, order and designate, as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit: Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana (except the parishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St John, St. Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assump- tion, Terre Bonne, Lafourche, St. Mary, St. Martin, and Orleans, including the city of New Orleans), MISSISSIPPI, ALABAMA, FLORIDA, GEORGIA, SOUTII Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia (except the forty-eight coun- ties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of Berkley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Princess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth), and which excepted parts are, for the present, left precisely as if this Proclamation were not issued. And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States and parts of States are, and henceforward shall be free ; and that the executive govern- ment of the United States, including the military and naval authorities there- of, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defense, and I recommend to them that in all cases, when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. And I further declare and make known that such persons of suitable con- dition will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judg- ment of mankind and the gracious favor of Almighty God. In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my name, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washington, this first day of January, in the [l. S.] year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of the United States the eig/ity-seventh. Abraham Lincoln. By the President : William H. Seward, Secretary of State, 1883] ARTHUR'S ADMINISTRATION (CONTINUED). IRISH NATIONAL LEAGUE -THE XVII. CONGRESS. \ CONVENTION of delegates representing the Irish ^ Land League of the United States met in the city of Philadelphia the last week in April, and united with a similar convention of the Irish National League of jg America. This convention represented the sentiment of f|5»|;;t^ many thousand Irish-American citizens, who sympathize Jy^ with the peaceable agitation of the question of a just home rnmcnt for Ireland. The plan is thus fairly expressed by the president of the league : " The idea is to enlist the sympathy of the American and other people by an honest representation of facts. The statements will show how agriculture and the indus- tries have suffered by English legislation, and how they could thrive under self-government. Mr. Parnell will tell what successes have been achieved, what obstacles encountered, what hopes are entertained, what is expected of Irishmen here, and wliat the relations are between the two countries. Funds will be raised the same as by the Land League, and expended in relieving distress and keeping up the agitation, which funds will be sent to the Irish National League in Great Britain." General B. F. Butler, governor of Massachusetts, caused an official investigation to be made into the management of the State's almshouse at Tewksbury, and removed the board of trustees, appointing the board of public charities to act in their place pending the result of the investigation. The investigation still continues as we go to press. The final session of the forty-seventh congress closed at noon Mar-ch 4th. A bill for the revision of the tariff was passed as a compromise measure. There had been a distinct bill passed by the senate, another by the house of represen- tatives, and neither branch would concur with the other, so this compromise measure, embodying some of the features of both, was finally enacted. It passed the house by a vote of one hundred and fifty-two to one hun- dred and fifteen. It was satisfactory to no one, and presented very many inconsistencies in itself. The internal duties were entirely removed from bank checks and deposits, and also from sundry articles of domestic manufactures, while the tax on tobacco and cigars was reduced. The total reduction from the tariff and the internal revenue by the operations of this law is estimated at sixty-five to seventy million dollars annually. A law increasing'the pensions of soldiers disabled in the civil war of 1861-65 was also enacted, also a law reducing the rate of domestic postage from three cents to two. A " civil service " bill was passed, the fast mail service was retained, and 224 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. [1883 a law prohibiting the importation of adulterated teas. To the great credit of this congress they refused to pass another " river and harbor bill " and other measures of questionable public policy ; but many of the proper recommenda- tions of the president were entirely neglected. Honorable David Davis, of Illinois, who had been vice-president pro iciii. since the promotion of Mr. Arthur, resigned that office, and Honorable George F. Edmonds, of Vermont, was elected in his stead March 3d. An envoy from the island of Madagascar was entertained as the guests of the government, and a commercial treaty of mutual advantage to the two governments was signed at Washington before the adjournment of congress. The marquis of Lome, governor-general of Canada, was also a public guest at the capital for a few days. Commodore R. W. Shufeldt, U.S.N., was sent by the government in 1878 with the Ticondcroga. to negotiate a commercial treaty with Corea, an Asiatic kingdom, under tribute to China, " the hermit nation," but all advances were repelled by that government in 1880, upon which he returned to the United States ; but a subsequent visit of Commodore Shufeldt resulted in a treaty with that power May 22d, 1 882. This treaty, which has reference to aid to shipwrecked American sailors in Corea, privileges in the country, the prohibition of the opium trade, and the purchase of munitions of war, the appointment of consuls, and other mutual relations, was ratified by the senate in February, 1883. Mr. Gustavus Goward, secretary of legation at Japan, was dispatched to Corea to obtain an exchange of rati- fication. The following appointments were confirmed by the senate: John W. Foster, minister to Spain ; Dorman B. Eaton, of New York, John M. Gregory, of Illinois, and L. D. Thorman, of Ohio, to be civil service commis- sioners. The public indebtedness was reduced about eight millions of dollars in February, and somewhat more in March. In the State of Georgia, John S. Boynton, president of the senate, was duly qualified as governor in the place of Alexander H. Stephens, deceased. The United States steamer Aslmclot was lost in the China Sea, February 2ist, and eleven of the crew were drowned by the disaster. Upon the same date the steamer Mora Castle was burned at Charleston, South Carolina. The winter and spring of 1882-83 will be long remembered for the exten- sive and disastrous floods upon the Mississippi River and its numerous trib- utaries, by which a vast number of citizens were rendered destitute. The commercial cities of the Union responded to the cry for aid most liberally, and much money was sent to the places where there had been the greatest suffering. The second trial of the star route conspirators began in December, 1882, and continued for more than five months. One of the defendants in the suit, Mr. Rirdell, gave testimony for the government which was most damaging to the defense. The principal defendants were put upon the witness stand and subjected to a thorough and critical cross-examination by the government. Able and exhaustive arguments were made by counsel, and the trial still continues as this volume is being printed. INDEX ADAMS. Adams, John, vice-president, 89, 91 ; presi- dent, 92 : death of, 104. Adams, John Quincy, president, 104. Adams, Samuel, 57. Amendments to Constitution, I.-XIL, 218; XIV. adopted, 172 ; text of, 230 ; XV. adopt- ed, 174; text of, 221 ; XVI. proposed, 1S3. Agitation upon slavery, 1 14. Alabama claims, 175; Alabama admitted. loi. Ale.Kis, Grand duke of Russia, visit of, 176. Alien and sedition laws, 92. Algerian pirates, 92, 94, 100. Allen, Ethan, at Ticonderoga, 60. Andre, Major, death of, 81. Arkansas admitted, 107. Army and na\-y in 1861, 136. Arnold, Benedict, commissioned, 60; the first and only traitor, 80. Arthur, Chester A., vice-president, 182; pres- ident, 185. Ashuelot, the, lost in the China Sea, 354. Bainbridge, Captain, 94. Bank, United States, chartered, loi ; conflict over, 105 ; deposits removed, 107. Belknap, secretary of war, impeached, 178. Black a'arrior affair, 127. Boston, siege of, 62. Braddock. General, death of, 43. Breckenbridge. John C, on slavery, 135. Brown, John, raid of, 133. Buchanan. James, president, 129, 131 ; his cab- inet, 135. Bunker Hill, battle of, 61. Burgoyne's surrender, 72. Burr, Aaron, vice-president, 93 ; conspiracy of, Butler, General B. F., governor of Massa- chusetts, 253. Cabot, John and Sebastian, 26. California, gold discovered, 113; admitted, 122. Calhoun, John C, vice-president, 104. Campaigns of, 1777-8, 80; of 1779-80, 76. Canada surrendered to the English, 44. Census, the second, 93. Centennial exhibition, 179, 191. Central America, invasion of Walker, 127. Centttry, extract from the, 182. Chinese bill, 181. China, treaty with, 174, 183. Civil rights conferred upon freedmen, 174. CIVIL WAR. Civil Service Bill passed, 253. Civil war of 1S61-5, first indications of, 133; condition of army and na\-y at outbreak of, 135 ; Fort Sumpter evacuated, 138 ; uprising in the North and South, opinions in both sec- tions, 139; Alexandria, Manassas Junction, Bull Run, Congress votes men and supplies, 141 ; spirit in the North, George B. McClellan in command. Confederate capital removed to Richmond, Robert E. Lee in command of Confederates, his ability, 141; "Stonewall" Jackson, his character. Sixth Massachusetts, the operations of 1861, Maryland saved to the Union, 143 ; Trent affair, 143 ; Hampton Roads, Port Royal, operations in Kentucky and Arkansas, Fort Donaldson, General Grant, 144 ; the Merriuiac destroys the Con- gress and the Cumberland, the Monitor, Winchester, Shenandoah Valley, 145 ; " On to Richmond," the seven days' fight, in the West, near Corinth, New Orleans, General Butler, Fort Pillow, Newberne, Fort Mason, 147 ; Fort Pulaski, operations before Rich- mond, Washington in danger. Cedar Moun- tain, Rappahannock, 14S ; Kearney and Ste- vens killed, South Mountain, Harper's Fer- ry, Antietam, 149 ; McClellan relieved. Burn- side in command, Fredericksburg, Hooker relieves Burnside, operations in the West, 150; in Tennessee, on the Mississippi. Banks at New Orleans, Murfreesboro, emancipation, 153; depredations of the Alabama, opera- tions of 1863, on the Mississippi, 153, 154; Red River. 154, 155 ; on the Potomac, Chan- cellorsville, Winchester, George C. Meade in command. 156; Battle of Gettysburg, 157, 158. 159; draft and riots, after Gettys- burg, 159; war in Tennessee, Lookout Mountain, Charleston Harbor, beyond the Mississippi, 160 ; condition of finances north and south, LI. S. Grant commander-in-chief. Generals Sherman and Meade, Fort Pillow, General Banks up the Red River, 161 ; a series of reverses, 162 ; prepared to advance, in the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, death of Sedgwick, 163; Butler at Petersburg and Bermuda Hundred, North Anna River, Cold Harbor, Petersburg, 164, 165 ; up the Shen- andoah, Chambersburg, Winchester, Fisher's Hill, Early's flight, 165; Sherman at Chatta- nooga, Altoona Pass, Atlanta, 166 ; march to the sea. Savannah occupied, 167; opera- 226 INDEX. CLINTON. tions in North Carolina and Florida, Confed- erate privateers, 167 ; privateers destroyed, Mobile invested, political nominations, 168; Columbia captured, Fayetteville, Benton- ville, Goldsboro', Wilmington, Mobile taken, 169; closing struggles around Petersburg and Richmond, Lee surrenders, President Lincoln in Richmond, 170; Mr. Lincoln assassinated, Andrew Johnson president, capture of Jefferson Davis, Grant's farewell to the army, grand review, 171. Clinton, General, 61, 63, 64. Clinton. George, vice-president, 94, 95. Colorado admitted, 178. Colonies, settlement of, 28 ; government of, 41 ; treatment of, by English, 46; French aid to, 68. Columbus, Christopher, story of, 24. Concord, battle of, 51. Congress, first general, 49; second continental, 60; first United States, 89; return of mem- bers from Southern States, 1 74 ; forty- seventh, first session, 186; forty-seventh, final session opened, 188; closed, 253. Conklin, Senator, resigns, 183. Connecticut settled, 36 ; charter oak, 44, Constitution formed, 86 ; ratified, 88 ; text of, 209; signers of, 217 ; amendments to, 218. Continental currency, 76. Cooper, Peter, death of, 204. Corea, treaty with. 254. Cornwallis in South Carolina, 79 ; surrenders, 83. " Cotton exposition," 182. Cowpens, battle of, 82. Crown Point, capture of, by Col. Allen, 59. Danbury, Conn., raid on, 70. Davis, David, elected vice-president pro tein., 186; resigned, 253. Davis, Jefferson, 136. Delaware settled, 36. Democratic party formed, 92; divided, 133; Charleston convention of the, 134. De Soto, Ferdinand, 27. Douglas, Stephen, 126,134. Dred Scott decision, 131. Edmunds, Georoe F., vice-president, 254. Election of 1882, 187, 188. Electoral commission of 1876, iSo. Eliott, John, the Indian apostle. 32. Emancipation proclamation, history of, 152; text of, 221. Embargo bills, 95. England, first war with, troops sent, 47 ; re- peal of tax laws, 73 ; non-intercourse with, 95; second war with, 97; Hull defeated, army of North-west surrendered, victories at sea, in Canada, on Lake Erie, 98 ; on Lake Champlain. 99. English depredations on the coast, 98 ; destruc- tion of Washington, treaty of peace, battle of New Orleans, 99 ; close of war, 100. INDEPENDENCE. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 83. Explorations by government, 125. Feni.\ns in Canada. 175. Fillmore. Millard. President. 123. Financial exhibit of 18S2, 1S8, 189. Fishery question, 124. Florida, surrendered to England, 44 ; admitted, Indian war in, 106. Fort Sumpter held by Major Anderson, 137. France, first treaty with, 73 ; difficulty with, 92 ; pays indemnity, 106. Franklin, Benjamin, 43. 55, 86. Fredericksburg, battle of, 1 50. Fremont, John C, in California, 1 10 ; court martial of, in. French in America, 42 ; French and English wars, 42, 43. French in Mexico, 173. Fulton, Robert, and first steamboat, 94. Garfield, James A., president, 183 ; assassin- ated, I S3; sympathy for, death of, 184; queen of England's letter to Mrs. Garfield, 184; na- tional sorrow. 185; burial of the president. 185; trial and execution of Guiteau, 1S6; ""The Martyred Hero," a poem, 193. Genet, the French minister, 91. Georgia settled, 36. Gettysburg, battle of, 157. " Golden Circle." 127. Gold discovered in California. 113. Grant, the English general, 67. Grant, Ulysses S., in Mexico 120; m the west, 144; commander-in-chief, 161; farewell to the army, 171 ; secretary of war, 173; presi- dent, 174; second term, 177; retires to private life, 187. Great Britain, reciprocity treaty with, 127. Greenback party formed, 181. Guilford, Conn., raid on, 70. Habeas Corpus restored, 173. Hamilton, Alexander, on the constitution, 87 ; financial ability, 89 ; death of, 94. Hancock, John, 54. 74. Harrison, William H., at Tippecanoe, 96 ; presi- dent and death of, 108. Harvard College founded. 31. Hayes, Rutherford B.. president, 181, Hayti, annexation scheme. 175. Henry, Patrick, the orator. 56. Hero Dead, Our, a poem, 202. History, an essay by Lord Macaulay, 9. , lessons from our, an oration, 194. Homestead act passed, 126. Illinois admitted. loi. Immigration to the United States, 192. Independence, declaration of, adopted. 65 ; text of. 205 ; signers to. 208 ; war for, early years, 66; war in 1777-8, 70; in 1779-80, 76;'clos- ing years, 81 ; fiftieth anniversary of, 104. INDEX. 227 INDIANS. Indians, colonist war witli, 32 ; in Wyoming Valley, 74; subdued, 77; hostilities of. 1790. 90; revolt of, 181 1, 96; war of, 1832, 105 ; in Oregon, 129; troubles of 1875. Sioux, Sit- ting Bull. Nez Perce, Chief Joseph, 177; trouble with Utes, 182. Indiana admitted, 100. Inter-Oceanic canal, 182. Inventions since the civil war, 193. Iowa admitted, loS. Irish National League, 253. Jackson, Andrew, at New Orleans, 99 ; presi- dent, 105 ; custom house circular, 106. Jamestown, settlement of, 28. Japan, treaty with. 124. "Jtanncttc " expedition and loss of, 189. Jefferson, Thomas, 90; vice-president, 91; president, 93 ; re-elected, 94 ; death of, 104. Jersey City, victory of Gen. Lee at, 77. Jewell, Marshal, death of, 203. Johnson, Andrew, president, 172; conflict with congress and impeachment, 173. Kansas, the struggle in, 130. Kearney, General, in California, 1 10. Kentucky admitted, 90. King Philip's War. 32. Kossuth, Louis, in America, 124. La Fayette, Marquis, arrival in America, 57 ; last visit to the country, loi ; sketch of, 102. Lecorapton constitution formed, 131; rejected, 132- Le.xington, battle of, 50. Lincoln, Abraham, in congress, 121; nomi- nated for president, 135; on the slavery question, 135; inaugurated, 138; in Rich- mond, 170; assassinated, 171. Louisiana purchased, 93. Macdonough, Commodore, on Lake Cham- plain, 99. Madison, James, president, 96. Maine admitted to the Union, loi. Maryland settled, 36. Massachusetts settled, 30. Massasoit, the friend of the colonists, 31. Mexico, war with, 109; division of opinion upon, 120; actors in, 120, 121 ; treaty with, 112, 125; boundary settled, 125 ; negotia- tions for a new treaty, 189. Michigan admitted, 107. Minnesota organized, 124. .Mississippi admitted, loi. River, flood on the, 254. Missouri admitted, loi ; compromise over, loi ; compromise repealed, 130. Monroe, James, president, 10 1. Montcalm, death of, 43. Mormonism established in Utah, 122; rebell- ion of Mormons, 132; question in congress, 176. 17 SCHUYLER. Morgan. E. D. death of, 203. Mora Castle, the, burned in Charleston Har- bor, 254. Nations, our position among the, an oration, 194. Navy created, 92. Nebraska admitted, 173. Negro exodus from the South, iSi. New England, United Colonies of, 31. New Hampshire, settled, 34. New Jersey settled, 36. New York settled, taken by the English, 34 ; senatorial excitement in, 183. North Carolina settled. 36. Oglethorpe, George, 37. Ohio admitted. 93. Oregon admitted, 125. Ostend circular, 127. Pacific coast, first exploration to, 94; railroad bill, 126; railroad completed, 126. Paine, Thomas, 65, 87. Panic, commercial, of 1833, 106. Party spirit first manifested, 90. Pebble. Commodore, 94. Peace, convention of, 136; treaty of. with England, 84. Penn, William, settlement of, 35 ; centennial anniversary of landing of, 189. Pensions, for revolutionary soldiers, loi ; sol- diers of civil war, 1 76. Pennsylvania troops and General Wayne, 81. Perry, Commodore, on Lake Erie, 98. Philadelphia taken by British, 71 ; evacuated, 74- Pierce, Franklin, president, 125. Pilgrim Fathers sail to America, 29 ; landing of, 30- Plot for disunion, 136. Pocahontas and Powhatan, 28. Political campaign of 1882, 172. ' Polk, James K., president, 109. President, the U. S. man of war, and Little Belt. 96- Progress and development since the civn war, 190. Provisional governors for Southern States, 172. Quakers, persecution of, 39 ; excuse for, 40. Quebec taken, 43. Queen of England, letter from the, 184. Reconstruction and progress, 172. completed, 174. Revenues, scheme of Hamilton, 89. Rhode Island settled, 36; adopts the constitu- tion, 90. Sandwich Islands, offer of annexation, 127. I Santa Anna, 1 10. Schuyler, General, victory of, 72. 228 INDEX. SECESSION. Secession of Southern States, 136. Scott, General Wintield, Cherokees, 105 ; Sem- inole war, 106; Mexico, 1 1 1 ; in Washington Senate, special session of 1881, 1S5. Shufeldt, Commodore R. W., 254. Slavery and its agitation, slaves first introduc- ed, 114; in all the colonies, 115 ; slave trade, 115; number of slaves at time of revolution, Washington, Hamilton, John Adams, Patrick Henry, Franklin, Madison, Monroe, Jefferson, views on, 116; recognized in constitution, 116; effect of Whitney's cotton-gin, defense of, laws concerning, 117; purchase of Lou- isiana, 118 ; John C. Calhoun, the champion of, 117, 119; William Lloyd Garrison and his paper, 119; Te.xas a slave State, 120; fugitive slave law, 123; Kansas and Ne- braska bill, 126; emancipation proclamation, 152 ; slavery abolished in all the States, 172. Smith, John, and his colony, 28. South Carolina, settled, 36. Southern commercial convention, 132. South ready for the war, 135, 136. Spain, treaty with, 91. Specie payment suspended in 1837, 107 ; sus- pended in 1S61, 141 ; resumed, 181. Stamp act of England, 47. Stanton, E. M., secretary of war, "sticks," 173. Star route conspirators, first trial of, 187; second trial of, 254. Stephens, Alexander H., death of, 136. Tariff, first proposed, 89; opposition to, 106; the northern and southern side of, 119; the law of, 1883, 253. Taylor, Zachary, in Mexico, 109; president, 122. Tea, destruction of, in Boston Harbor, 48. Telegraph invented, 123. Tewksbury almshouse, investigation of, 253. Texas admitted, 108, 109, 120. YANCEY. Ticonderoga taken by Col. Allen, 59. , the. sent to Corea, 254. Tobacco discovered, 29 ; tax on, reduced, 203. Trade of the United States, 191. Tyler, John, president, 108. Tyron, English general in Connecticut, 76, 77. Ut,4H settled by Mormons, 122 ; refused ad- mission as a State, 132 ; refused admission again, 177. United States recognized as a nation, 84. bank chartered, loi ; opposed by Jack- son, 105; deposits withdrawn from, 107; charter vetoed by Mr. Tyler, 108. Valley Forge, Washington at, 73. Van Buren, Martin, president, 107. Vera Cruz captured, 1 1 1. Vermont admitted, 90. Virginia settled, 28. " Virgimus affair" with Cuba, 175. War with England averted, 91. Washington, George, first campaign, 42 ; un- der General Braddock, 43; sketch of, 53; commander-in-chief, 62 ; at Boston, 63 ; re- treat to Philadelphia, 67 ; crosses the Delaware, 68 ; in New Jersey, 70 ; at Valley Forge, 73 ; plans for 1779, 76; refuses to be made king, 84; popular estimation of, 85; as president, 89 ; death of, 92 ; Napoleon's tribute to, 93. Washington city burned by British, 99. Washington territory organized, 125. Weather signal service, 175. Webster, Daniel, 122. Whiskey insurrection, 91. Williams, Roger, his character, 39. Wisconsin admitted, 113. Witchcraft in New England, 38. Wyoming massacre, 74. Yancey, William L., on civil war, 135. SOPHOCLES. GAY'S SERIES OF STANDARD HISTORIES. FIRST SERIES. THREE GREAT MODERN NATIONS. FROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS TO 1884. THE HISTORIES OF GREECE AND ROME, AS AN Introduction to Modern Histoy, COMPRISING A BRIEF EXPLAXATIOy OF CLASSIC MYTHOLOGY AND A SUMMARY OF CLASSIC HISTORY, STORIES FROM CLASSIC LANDS, WONDERFUL MEN AND EVENTS. By JOSEPH H. BEALE, A.M. NEW HAVEN, CONN.: WILLIAM GAY AND COMPANY, SUCCESSORS TO GAY BROTHERS. E. B, SHELDON & CO., Compositors and Electrotypers, New Haven, Conn. .^ WILLIAM GAY & CO., Printers and Binders, New Haven\ Conn/ CONTENTS. Introduction THE HISTORY OF GREECE. I. Olympus and its Inhabitants 7 Day and Night •<' Men and Women H II. The Age of the Heroes. — The Exploits of Perseus 1 7 Hercules and his Labors '9 Jason and the Golden Fleece 22 III. Stories from Classic Lands.— The People of Greece 27 Lycurgus and his Laws 29 Solon, the Lawgiver of Athens 3' IV. The Battle of Marathon 33 V. The Expedition of Xer.xes 3^ VI. The Battle of Platjea.— The Age of Pericles 39 VII. The Decline of Greece 41 VIII. Glances at Modern Greece 43 THE HISTORY OF ROME. L Wonderful Men and Events. — The Land of Italy 47 The Wanderings of ^Eneas 49 The Building of Rome S- The Establishment of Religion 54 II. The Expulsion of the Tarquins S^ The End of the Tarquin Family 5^ III. The Fable of Menenius Agrippa 59 IV. Coriolanus and Cmcinnatus 63 V. The Decemvirs 65 The Samnite Wars 66 VI. The Punic Wars. — Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul 7° VII. Conquest in the East. — The Gracchi 73 VIII. Caius Marius and Cornelius Sulla 75 IX. Cnasus Pompeius. — Julius Casar 79 The Rivalry of Pompeius and Caesar 8 ' Julius Caesar '. 82 X. The Triumvirate. — The Empire 84 XI. The Emperors after Augustus 88 The Spread of Christianity 9° XII. Modern Rome and the Church 9+ INTBODDCm TO THE HISTORY OF GMCE Al 101. The intelligent study of modern history cannot be perused without some knowledge of the salient points in the history of Greece and Rome. The names and deeds of the men who have made those countries famous have become so interwoven in the thought of each succeeding age that we find oft recurring reference to them in the history of almost every country of modern times. The effect of the distinct types of civilization which these nations exemplified is seen in the formation, development and establishment of every government in Europe. The discipline of the Roman armies, the foundation of Roman law, and the constitution of the Roman State have been models after which each of "the four great modern nations" have copied. The exalted beauty of Grecian art, the perfection of Grecian culture and the purity of Grecian litera- ture have stimulated the minds and inspired the genius of the generations which have lived and acted their parts upon the stage of history since the ages of Phidias, Demosthenes and Aristotle. The attempt to crowd all this within the narrow limits assigned in this work is a formidable one, and we are encouraged to make such an attempt only from the belief that it will be appreciated by a majority of our readers, as an aid to the intelligent under- standing of the very numerous allusions, references and ilustrations in the preceding pages drawn from classic history. 6 INTRODUCTION. There is a peculiar freshness and naturalness in the character and the deeds of the men who lived in the childhood of history which gives a zest and fascination to the record which cannot fail to appeal to the minds of all. The very men and women themselves appear to be living verities and perform their parts in our immediate presence. We can almost hear them speak and see them breathe, so life-like are the scenes which they represent. This, then, is the reason which has induced us to find a place in this volume for the History of Greece and Rome. These histories come first in the order of time and form a connecting link, as it were, between the sacred history, with which every well read person should be familiar, and the annals of those nations ■which we find in existence at the present time. Before we have begun the history proper we have introduced a few sec- tions drawn from the beautiful and complicated system of mythology which these nations accepted as true and with which the Christianity of the early Church had to contend for supremacy in the old Roman empire. This had become so far interwoven with their very existence as nations that many events and ceremonies connected with them cannot be understood without some knowledge of the myths upon which they rested. Their system of law and government, their social life, and even their relations with tribes, nations and empires were all more or less modified by these current beliefs drawn from the legends and tales of their gods and demi-gods. More than this, their mythology has left its traces upon every department of literature and art in all the modern nations of Europe. For this reason we believe that our read- ers will appreciate our effort to give, in a brief compass, the principal points of value in the history of these classic lands. The following pages are based upon Gibbon's Rome and the popular histories of Charlotte M. Yonge. THE nations of Greece and Rome which rose to such a wonderful height of power and civilization under the leadership of their lawgivers, generals, statesmen and philos- ophers had no true revelation of the great God, but their wisest men were left to guess out the best idea they could by the light of reason and nature. They had many strange stories and legends, part of which arose from disconnected old beliefs brought from the east, and a part from the method of speaking of the different operations of nature — the sky, sun, moon and stars, clouds, wind, rivers and seas — as if they were performed by real beings. They also spoke of good and bad actions as if they were persons rather than qualities. So these stories came to be the basis of their belief, and the system, as a whole, was regarded as their national religion. Beautiful poems were written by their great poets and their artists executed the most perfect statues of the gods and god- desses. So it has come to pass that no one can understand art or literature without a knowledge of this system of mythology. 8 HISTORY OF GREECE. There is upon the frontiers of Thessaly and Macedonia a lofty mountain called Olympus. Its highest peak is nine thousand seven hundred and fifty-four feet above the level of the sea ; its top is covered with snow for about nine months in the year. It was regarded by the ancient Greeks as the principal abode of the gods, and they believed that the palace of the chief god was built upon its broad summit. It was said in one legend that at first Olympus was connected with Ossa, but by an earthquake a passage was formed through the narrow vale of Tempe to the sea. Those who lived at a distance from this mountain thought that it rose into the sky far above the clouds, and that the gods and goddesses lived upon its top. But those who lived near by and knew that this was not the case believed that these celestial beings dwelt in the sky above the mountain. The Greeks held that there were twehe greater gods and goddesses who dwelt in Olympus. The chief of these gods, who was styled the father of gods and the king of men, was called by the Greeks, Zeus, and by the Romans, Jupiter. Because all things are born of Time, so the sky god, or Jupiter, was said to have been born of Kro'^os — Time — or, as the Latins call him, Saturn. As Time consumes all things, Saturn is said to have devoured his own children as fast as they were born. Jupiter w4s preserved from his father, Saturn, by a cunning device of his mother, Rhea. She gave her husband a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, and while Saturn was biting this hard morsel Jupiter was saved. And afterward two other sons were born, Neptune, the god of the sea, and Pluto, the god of the world of spirits. These were saved from the power of Saturn, because Time can have no impression upon the sea or the realm of the dead. The ancients thought that the reign of Saturn was the golden age of the world. They said that there had been four ages, the golden age, the silver age, the brazen age, and the iron age. They believed that the people were growing worse in each succeeding age. After his reign on earth, Saturn was obliged to go into retirement with only his star, the planet called by his name, left to him. Jupiter, the sky god, was reigning on Olympus over the twelve greater gods and goddesses while the iron age was in progress among mortals below. His star was much larger and brighter than that of Saturn. The Greeks describe him as a majestic man, in full strength, with thick hair and beard, holding the bolts of lightning in his right hand. Vulcan was the god of fire, and the son of Jupiter, who forged his thunderbolts. His smithies were in the volcanoes, so called from his name. The workmen were the Cyclops, or Round Eyes, the giants with one eye in the center of the forehead. A horrible race of monsters called Titans, the worst of whom was Briareus, who had a hundred arms and hands, had attempted to scale the heights of heaven by piling mountains on top of each other, and then hurl Jupiter from his throne. Jupiter, when he was beset the hardest by them, felt a severe pain in his head and ordered Vulcan to strike it a blow with his hammer ; instantly Minerva, GAY'S CHRONOL SHOWING A CONNECTED HISTORY OF THE WORLD.I 2800-1707 B.C. CHINA. 8800— The Hla Dynasty founded ; First Historical CHALDEA, ASSYRIA, AND 8234— First authentic date ; beginning of Chaldean astronomy. 1850— Assyria conquered. EGYPT. 2717— ThurUe Dynasty founded. 2122— Hieroglpyhics invented. 2120— Pyramids built. 1822— Egyptian alphabet invented. 1707— JOSEPH and family in Egypt. 1707— 1491— Egyptian bondage. THE HEBREWS. 1996— Birth of ABRAHAM. 1729— JOSEPH sold. SYRIA. PHCENICIA. 2800— Pheenicla said to be peopled by the children of ANAK. PERSIAN EMPIRE. Persian history enveloped in fable until the lime of CYRUS the Great. GREECE. 1856— Kingdom of Argos founded. CHART I. FROM 2800-501 B.C. 1706-901. Period. BABYLONIA. 1500— Arabians conquer Chatdea ; a new dynasty established. 1250— Assyria absorbs Chaldea, or Early Babylonia. 1150-BabyIon (NEBUCHADNEZZAR I.) invades -Assyria. 1491— Departure of the Hebrews. 1671-MOSES bom. 1491— Exodus from Egypt. 1461— The nation led into Canaan by JOSHUA. 1413— To 1136 B.C. the Hebrews undergo six (>eriods of bondage. 1016— Beath of DAVID. 1012— SOLOMON begins the Temple. 976-Death of SOLOMON; Ten Tribes revolt; kingdom of Israel established. 971— The Egyptians pillage Jerusalem. 901— Syrians besiege Samaria. 1040— King DAVID subdues the Syrians. 975— Independence of Syria recovered at death of SOLOMON. 901— Syrians defeated in war with the Israelites, 1497— AGENOR first historical king of Phoenicia. 1060— Tyre the leading city. 1493-CADMUS founds Thebes. 1453— Olympic games introduced. 1313— Kingdom of Mycenae founded. 1 193— Trojan War. ROME. : Designed for Gay's Standard Histories, by ■WTLLIAM GAT >GICAL CHARTS, .NCIENT AND MODERN, FROM 2800 B.C. TO 1884 A.D. 900—604. 820— Babylon becomes subject to Assyria. 750~Babylon regains independence. 709— Babylon conquered by SARGONof Assyria. 645— Indopeudenec of Babylon ; SARDANAPA- LUS burns tiimsclf and palace. T81— Saite Dynasty founded. 686— Kgypt divided between twelve kings. 610— One hundred and twenty thousand men lost attempt to cut Suez Canal. 741— Jerasalem besieged. T21— Xen Tribes carried into captivity ; their kingdom destroyed. 710 — Judaea invaded by Assyrians ; one hundred and eighty-five thousand Assyrians slain in the night by the Destroying Angel. 603—501. 598— NEBUCHADNEZZAR conquers the Jews and takes away King JEHOIAKIM. 587— Jerusalem surrenders. 539— BELSHAZZAR king of Babylon. 638— CYRUS turns the course of the Euphrates and en- ters Babylon, which becomes subject to Persia. ^ 535— Egypt subject to CYRUS the Great. I 892— Syrians besiege Samaria. 1 740— Syria subject to Assyria. 604— NEBUCHADNEZZAR subdues Syria. 870— Tbe Assyrians conquer Phoenicia, 850— Cartbage founded. 723— Invasion by Assyrians. I 642— CYAXARES founds Kainite Dynasty. 640— Scytbians subjugate the country. 884-liCgl8latlon of LYCURGUS at Sparta. 776— Earitest authentic date in Greek history; the Olympiads commence. 743 — Sparta victorious in Messenian wars. 683— CREON' becomes first archon of Athens. 621— Braeonlan laws. 753-Rome founded by ROMULUS (legendary). 716-As8asslnaUon of ROMULUS. 715-NUMA POMPILIUSking. 61 6— Tbe Capital begun in honor of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. 696— Syria under Persia for nearly three centuries WSi 587— Invasion by Babylonians. 536— The country subdued by CYRUS the Great. 559— CYRUS founds a mighty empire. 543— Asia Minor annexed. 538— Babylon conquered by CYRUS. 525— Egypt conquered byCAMBVSES. 508— DARIUS subdues Macedon and Thraje:.: - , ^ ;.. . ^ ^X^J^■'^ 590— The Seven Wise Men of Greece flourish. 660— PISISTRATUS tyrant of Athens. 678— First coinage. 666— First census, eighty-four thousand seven hundred inhabitants. 634— SERVIUS assassinated by his daughter TULLIA ; TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS reigns. 610— Kapeof LUCRETIA ; the Tarquins banished; republic founded ; L. JUNIUS BRUTUS and L. TARQUINIUS COLLATINUS consuls. 501— TITUS LAERTIUS dictator. ;0., 256 Chapel St., New Haven, Conn. COPTEIGHT 1883. OLYMPUS AND ITS INHABITANTS. 9 the goddess of wisdom, leaped forth, fully armed, from the brain of Jupiter. She had shining, piercing eyes, and was clad in a full suit of armor. By the wisdom of her counsels she enabled her father to cast down the Titans and cover them with their own mountains, /Etna, Ossa and Pelion, to keep them down. Whenever there was an earthquake the people thought that the giants were struggling to get free. There is in this fable an indication of some remembrance connected with the tower of Babel. The sister and wife of Jupiter was Juno, the white-armed, ox-eyed queen of heaven and earth. Her bird was the peacock. This is the way the peacock came to have the eyes in his tail. There was a shepherd named Argus who had a hundred eyes. Juno once engaged him to watch a beautiful cow called lo, who was in truth a lady in this disguise of whom she was jealous because Jupiter loved her. Argus performed his task until Mercury, the messenger of the gods, at the instigation of Jupiter, came and lured the shepherd to sleep with soothing music, and thus gave lo a chance to escape from her watcher. Juno was so angry that she took the hundred eyes away from Argus and gave them to her peacock. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, is said to have been born early in the morning in a cave. After he had slept awhile he came forth, and finding the shell of a tortoise with some of the entrails stretched across it, he began to play thereon, and this was the first lyre. He was as swift as the morning wind, and for this reason was made the messenger of Jupiter. He was pictured as having wings on his cap and sandals. He was regarded not only as the god of music, but also of thieves and liars. This would seem to be natural if we regard Mercury as the morning wind. For the wind not only makes music, but blows things away and hides them from sight. So we see as long as these myths are parables they are beautiful and often grand, but when the ■gods become to be regarded as men they are absurd and often wicked. Mercury also had his star, but a very small one, and so near the sun that it can only be seen just after sunset or before sunrise. There was another messenger for the gods, but she went only on errands of mercy and love. She was the beautiful Iris, the rainbow, and was the especial attache of Juno. There may be in this a remembrance of the bow that appeared after the flood. The twelve gods and goddesses who dwelt on Olympus were named Jupiter, the king, and his wife, Juno ; Vulcan, the god of fire, and his wife, Venus, the goddess of beauty ; Apollo, the god of day, and his sister, Diana, the queen of the night ; Neptune, the god of the sea ; Latona, the mother of the twins Apollo and Diana ; Minerva, or Pallas, who sprang from the brain of Jupiter, and had the owl as her attendant ; Mercury, the messenger of Jupiter ; Vesta, the goddess of the home, and Ceres, the goddess of the harvest. These twelve had their palaces on the mountain, or, as some thought, in the sky above the mountain, but Neptune was only a visitor, because his home was the sea which he ruled with his trident, and where he 10 HISTORY OF GREECE. had a whole host of lesser gods and nymphs, tritons, and sea-horses to attend him. The gods met every day in the hall of Jupiter to feast on ambrosia, a kind of food that made them immortal. They drank nectar from golden cups. Their first cup-bearer was Vulcan, but as he was lame and crooked backed he stumbled and hobbled about so awkwardly that the gods appointed Hebe, the goddess of youth, in his place. After a time she became careless, and one day fell down and dropped the golden cup with its nectar. This displeased them, and they sent an eagle to seize a beautiful youth as he was watching his flocks on Mount Ida. His name was Ganymede, to whom they gave ambrosia to make him immortal, and then installed him as their cup-bearer. Beside such food and drink as this, the people supposed that their gods delighted to feed on the smoke and smell of the animals, and sometimes the human beings, which were offered to them in sacrifices, or the incense and perfume of the libations poured out in their honor. There was a whole host of gods and goddesses beside these we have mentioned. They were of all sorts or degrees in power and dignity. Every river and stream had its divinity. Every mountain and wood was filled with its company of nymphs. And over all nature was a god whose name was " Pan." The quietest and best of all the goddesses was Vesta, the goddess of the home. She was connected with no intrigues, engaged in no disturbances, and remained pure and good. A fire was kept burning in her honor in every city, and never suffered to go out. No one could attend it but those who remained good and pure. Such were the notions the ancient Greeks and Romans had of their deities. We will now relate a few of the many stories of their gods and demi-gods, so far as these are connected with the histories of Greece and Rome. DAY AND NIGHT. The twin brother and sister, Apollo and Diana, were said to have been born in the island of Delos, which arose out of the sea to save their mother, Latona, when she was pursued by the monstrous serpent. Python, who wanted to devour her. Apollo was the god of the light and the real god of music. Diana was the queen of night and of the chase. The people of these nations of whom we are writing thought their gods and goddesses were born in full strength, so they said that the first thing that Apollo did was to slay the serpent which had pursued his mother. Apollo found him at Delphi and slew him with his arrows. This may be a hint of the old promise that " the seed of the woman shall bruise the serpent's head," or may suggest the manner in which light slays the dragon of darkness. These twins, brother and sister, were represented as pure and bright as the conceptions of men could make them, and were regarded as always young. Their arrows were the rays of light which they shed. The moon belonged to Diana, and was her chariot. The sun belonged to Apollo, who had a driver, Helios, the sun-god, who OLYMPUS AND ITS INHABITANTS. ir drove it for him. The conceptions of the ancients in regard to geography and astronomy were very crude and imperfect. They thought that the world was a flat surface, the center of which was Delphi, and all around the land was the ocean. In the east the beautiful Aurora, the goddess of the dawn, opened the gates with her rosy fingers, and the golden car of the sun came forth drawn by glorious white horses, guided by the charioteer Helios. He was attended by the Hours, scattering dew and flowers in his path. In this way the sun was driven each day along- the arch of the sky until it came to the great Western Ocean, where Aurora, clad in fair colors, met it, unharnessed the horses and fed them until they started upon their journey the ne.xt day. Aurora married a mortal named Timotheus, and gave him ambrosia to eat so that he might become immortal. But she could not prevent him from growing old, and he dwindled in size until he became a grasshopper, till at length only his voice was left, which can be heard chirping at sunrise and sunset. Helios had a mortal for a wife, by whom he had a son whose name was Phaeton. He beset his father to allow him to drive his horses for only one day. After a time Helios yielded to his entreaties ; but as Phaeton had neither strength nor skill to guide the strong steeds in the right curve of the sky there followed a fearful disaster. One moment the angry horses rushed so near the earth as to scorch the trees and dry up the rivers, and the next moment they flew so high into heaven that they would have burned high Olympus if Jupiter had not hurled his thunderbolts at the unskillful driver and cast him into a river where he was drowned. The sisters of the unfortunate youth wept until they were turned into poplar trees, and their tears changed to drops of amber. Apollo was the real god of music and poetry, and Mercury gave him his lyre. There were nine Muses under the charge of Apollo ; these Muses were the daughters of Memory and dwelt upon Mount Parnassus. They inspired mortals wath all noble and heroic song, and to the graceful music and dancing with which they celebrated their feasts. They also inspired hymns of praise to the gods and heroes, and taught men the science of astronomy. Diana, the beautiful twin sister of Apollo, was a huntress, and the especial patroness of hunters. She spent her time in the woods attended by her nymphs. She was modest and chaste, bold and fearless. Once when an unfortunate traveler, by chance, came where the goddess and her nymphs were bathing, she splashed the water into his face, and changed him into a stag. This poor man, Acteron, was thereupon pursued by his own hounds, who thought him a stag, and in this form killed him. There are traces of cruelty in the character of Apollo and Diana, for the darting rays of the sun and moon injure as well as bless mortals, and so they are the senders of all sharp and sudden strokes. There was once a beautiful queen who had six sons and daughters, who were so bright and lovely that their mother boasted that they were more beautiful than Apollo and Diana. This made Latona, the mother of the twins, so angry that she sent her son 12 HISTORY OF GREECE. and daughter to slay the children of Niobe with their darts. This unhappy- mother, punished for her impiety by the loss of her beautiful family, wept a river of tears till she was turned into stone. Apollo, Diana and Pallas, or Minerva, were the gods of all that was noble, pure, good and lovely. The highest type of spiritual and intellectual beauty was represented by them. But the Greeks and Romans also believed in the powers of evil, and they had a goddess who was the impersonation of mere prettiness and charms of physical beauty with nothing high and noble. Her name was Venus, and she was said to have risen out of the sea just as the sunshine was touching the waves. Her golden hair was still wet with the spray as she came from the water in all the perfection of physical beauty. Venus was drawn in a beautiful coach by doves, attended by the three Graces and a multitude of little winged children who were called Loves. There was one special son of hers called Love ; Cupid was his Latin name and Eros his Greek. He carried a bow and quiver. When he wished any one to fall in love with one of the opposite sex he shot arrows tipped with gold, and when he wished to cause hatred he shot leaden tipped arrows. The groves of myrtle were the favorite resorts of Venus, but she married the ugly Vulcan who forged the thunderbolts of Jupiter. This may signify that as the ornaments of beauty are the result of hard work in the forge and on the anvil, the god of the forge is wedded to the queen of beauty. But she never behaved well to him unless she wished to get something that his skillful hands could produce. She was especially fond of Mars, the god of war, another evil divinity, who was cruel, violent and fierce, and scattered war and strife wherever he went. He had a horrid and bloodthirsty daughter called Bellona. His star is the " blood-red planet Mars," but Venus had the beautiful star called by her name, which is the morning or evening star, according as it can be seen by mortals at sunrise or sunset. Venus was fickle in her friendships and untrue to her lovers. Her conquests were not confined to the immortals, but she also fell in love with human beings. There was one beautiful youth, named Adonis, who died from a wild boar's thrust, and while his life was ebbing away some of the blood which flowed from the wound gave a beautiful crimson stain to the flower pheasant's eye, which is still called by his name. The death of her favorite made Venus so wretched that her entreaties finally persuaded Jupiter to decree that he should come back and live on earth one half of the year, but the other half he must live in the realm of Pluto under the earth. This represents the fact that the plants and flowers are beautiful for one half the year and then die down to rise again in the spring. There is another version of the same story, which we think is much finer and prettier than this, but it has much the same signification as the above. You remember that Ceres was the grave and matronly goddess of corn who presided over harvests and all the fruits of the earth. She had one fair and beautiful daughter, Proserpine — or the Greek Perserphone — who was one day playing with her maidens near Mount Ida, in the meadows where the flowers OLYMPUS AND ITS INHABITANTS. 13 were growing. Pluto, the god of the lower world, saw her and became enamored with her beauty. He seized her and dragged her away to make her his bride. The bereaved mother, Ceres, did not know what had become of her daughter and refused to eat or drink. In this condition she wandered up and down the world, lamenting her loss and searching for her darling. She became perfectly exhausted and at last was taken in and cared for by Celeus, the king of Eleusis, who thought that she was a poor woman, and appointed her nurse to his infant son, Triptolemus. The kingdom of Eleusis at once was blessed with abundant harvests of grain and fruits, but no rain would fall and no crops would grow for the other famishing nations on the face of all the earth outside its domain. Iris, the messenger of mercy, and then all the motley family of the gods and goddesses, came to Eleusis and besought Ceres to relent of her cruel purpose ; but she would not grant their request unless her beautiful daughter, Proserpine, were returned to her. Finally Jupiter sent Mercury to bring her home from the domain of Pluto ; but he would permit her to remain on earth only on one condition, namely,, that she had not eaten any kind of food while in the under world. Pluto, who knew of this condition, compelled her to eat one-half a pomegranate, and because of this she could not remain with her mother in the upper world. The tears of Ceres prevailed so much with Jupiter that her darling was- permitted to spend the summer in the upper world, but she must return to her husband Pluto in the winter. It is related that while Ceres was acting as a nurse to the little Trip- tolemus, the son of Celeus, she became so fond of him that she desired to make him immortal. As she had no ambrosia with her she could do this only by putting him on the fire night after night until the mortal part should be wasted away. One night, as she was doing this, the mother of the infant looked in, and shrieked so loudly when she saw the cruel operation that she prevented the efforts of Ceres to make her son immortal. All that could be done for the child was to give him grains of wheat and a dragon car, in which he traveled around the world teaching the people to sow seed and raise harvests. Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, seemed to be contented in the home of her husband, Pluto, where she reigned with him. These domains were supposed to be under the volcanic grounds of Southern Italy, and could be entered through the Lake Arvernus. The entrance to these regions was guarded by the famous three-headed dog, Cerberus, and the River Styx flowed between the upper world and the home of the shades. The spirits of all who had died during the day were conducted by Mercury every night to the banks of the river, and taken over by the ferry- man, whose name was Charon. The spirits of all who had been buried with funeral rites were ferried over upon their paying Charon a small bit of money. For this purpose a small coin was placed upon the tongue of the corpse when buried. But the souls of all who had been drowned in the sea, or had fallen in battle and remained unburied, were compelled to flit about begging 14 HISTORY OF GREECE. in vain to be taken across the river. After the spirits had crossed over they were judged by three judges, and if they had lived wicked lives they were sent over a river of fire to the regions of Tartarus to be punished for their sins. The three furies, Alecto, Megara, and Tisiphone, whose hair was composed of writhing snakes, tormented them with scourges made of serpents. If the men had been brave and virtuous during life, their souls were permitted to dwell in the Elysian fields, where Pluto and his wife Proserpine reigned. They walked in beautiful groves amid unfading flowers, and enjoyed the most pleasant things. But the notions which the ancients had of an after life seem sad and imperfect beside those of the nations who believe in the truth. It seems as if these spirits were always uneasy and desired to return to the upper air. In the under world dwelt the three Fates, who were superior even to Jupiter himself. They were always spinning the threads of human life. Clotho held the distaff, Lachesis drew out the thread, and Atrophus, with her shears, cut it off when men died. Jupiter was all powerful among the gods and men, but nothing could happen contrary to Fate, which was therefore stronger than he. MEN AND WOMEN. You will remember that we spoke of the race of giants called Titans, who rebelled against Jupiter, and whom he overcome by the wisdom of Minerva. They were confined under the mountains which they intended to pile upon each other so that they could scale the sky. But there was one of them who was so noble and good that he did not rebel with the rest, and prevented his brother from doing so. His name was Prometheus, or Forethought, and his brother was Epimetheus, or Afterthought. After the defeat of the rebels, Jupiter commanded Prometheus to make men out of mud, and com- manded the winds to blow the breath of life into them. Prometheus loved the beings he had made, and taught them the way to live, till the soil, and use the animals for labor. He taught them to sail the sea and study the sky and stars. But Jupiter became so jealous for fear that the men would become too powerful that he refused to allow them to have any fire. Their bene- factor, Prometheus, climbed up the sky and stole fire for them, which he trought down in a hollow reed. This incensed the gods, who thought it was time to put a stop to this. So they sent a beautiful woman adorned with all -charms by Minerva to the earth. She was given a box filled with all kind of pains, woes, and troubles, and nothing good but hope, which was put in the bottom of the box. Her name was Pandora, or All Gifts. She came to the home of the two giants when Prometheus was away, and his brother Epimetheus, seeing how beautiful she was, and listening to her sweet voice, trusted her, and opened the box. Then all the pains, griefs, woes and evils which afflict humanity came out and flew over the world ; only hope was left inside, to which man may cling amid all the evils which beset him. After awhile there came better spirits, who were called Prayers ; but they were OLYMPUS AND ITS INHABITANTS. 15 lame, and came after the evils which trouble men, showing that man is not accustomed to pray till some harm or evil has befallen him. At this time the gods agreed to receive the sacrifices of men, and by a trick of Prometheus Jupiter was induced to accept the fat and inward parts of the animal instead of the flesh and bones. All these acts which Prometheus had done for the good of men so angered Jupiter that he resolved to punish him. Because he ^^■as immortal he could not be killed, therefore he was chained to a rock on Mount Caucasus, and Jupiter sent an eagle to continually tear out a part of his liver as fast as it should grow. But in all his agony Prometheus kept up hope, for he knew that some time deliverance would come. He still remained the friend and counselor of all men who came to him. When men became so wicked, owing to the evils from Pandora's box, that Jupiter resolved to drown them in a flood, Prometheus warned his mortal son, Deucalion, to build a ship and store it with all kinds of food. When the flood came, Deucalion and his wife, Pyrrha, floated about in their vessel for nine days, until all other men and women had been drowned ; and when the waters had subsided they landed on Mount Parnassus. By offering sacrifices to Jupiter he was appeased, and sent Mercury to ask Deucalion what favors he would like bestowed upon him. His prayer was that the earth might be re-peopled, upon which the god told the man and his wife to walk up the hill, .and cast behind them the bones of their grandmother. Now they knew that the earth was said to be the mother of the Titans, and Prometheus, the good Titan, was his father, so they considered the stones as the bones of their grandmother. Therefore, as they went up the hill they threw the stones which they picked up behind them, and those which Deucalion threw became men, those which his wife, Pyrrha, threw became women. And so the land ■of Greece was peopled after the flood. Deucalion had a son whose name was Hellen, and this son was the father of three brothers, y^iolus, Dorus and Xanthus. .(Eolus was the ancestor of the .^Eolian Greeks, and is supposed to be the same j^olus who was regarded as the god of the winds and lived in the Lipari Islands. He confined the winds in a cave, and let them out to blow over the sea. The winds were : Boreas, the cold north wind ; Auster, the rainy south wind ; Eurus, the chilly east wind ; and Zephyr, the gentle west wind. The truth is, the .(^iolians did really inhabit the islands and the region about Corinth. One of the sons of yEolus is said to have cheated Jupiter, and for his crime was doomed to Tartarus, where he was punished by continually rolling a stone up a steep hill, which, as soon as it was near the top, rolled back, and Sisyphus — for that was his name — had to roll it up again. Dorus was the ancestor of the Dorians, but Xanthus had a son, Ion, after whom the lonians were named. One more story of the peopling of Greece and a strange one will sufifice for the present. A fair lady, whose name was Europa, was sporting in the meadows which skirted the Phcenician coast. Suddenly a beautiful white bull came up to her, allowed her to wreathe his horns with flowers, lay down beside her, and seemed to invite her to mount his back. When she ventured i6 HISTORY OF GREECE. to do so, he arose, ran into the sea, and swam away with her out of sight. He took her to the island of Crete, where she gave birth to a son, whom she named Minos, who became so good and just a king that after his death Pluto appointed him, with two others, to be the judges in the lower world. Europe was named after this lady, Europa, because the people of Asia who grieved for her loss came over in search of her. Her father, mother and brother went everywhere in search of their lost Europa. Cadmus, the brother, with his mother, went far and wide, till the mother died, and Cadmus came to Delphi. He was told by the oracle to cease his search for his sister, and follow a cow until she fell from loss of strength, and on that spot build a city. He followed the animal as directed, and came into Boeotia, where she fell down. He made preparations to offer up the cow ; but when he went to a fountain near by to get water a fierce dragon came out, and after a severe struggle Cadmus over- came the monster. Minerva, who had aided him, advised Cadmus to take the dragon's teeth and sow them in the ground. These dragon teeth sprang up as equipped warriors, who at once began to fight each other ; but five of them made friends and aided Cadmus in building the city of Thebes. After all this wild story we may be surprised to hear that Cadmus brought in the use of letters and taught writing. Bacchus was the grandson of Cadmus. He was an orphan, who was brought up by the nymphs and Mercury. When he grew to be a man he became a mighty conqueror, and traveling to India and Egypt he taught the people to plant the vine, and how to use wine. He was at last the god of wine and drunkenness. Bacchus was constantly attended by an old fat man named Silenus, and by other creatures called fauns and satyrs, who were like men, but having goats' ears and legs. He had a crown of ivy, and was drawn in his chariot by leopards. He was finally admitted to Olympus, and as a god received the homage of men and women. The better class of men and women would not worship him because his rites were celebrated with most shameful ceremonies by Bacchanals, or young women frenzied with wine. Such are some of the myths connected with the histories of Greece and Rome. Many of them are beautiful and grand when they typify the opera- tions of nature ; but when they are clad with the attributes of men and women they become objects of ridicule or disgust. Indeed, many of their acts were puerile, and even wicked. With all their lofty conception of what is beautiful and lovely in form and feature, their conception of moral and spiritual excellence was far from rising to the heights of Christian teaching. ■ TA'^'.i^t'x''/^, -■.-'jy-^i'iiiljM- SHOWING A CONNECTED )0-400 B.C. SYRIA. Subject to Persia nearly three centuries. PHOENICIA. 466— Defeated by the Greeks while aiding Persia; battle of Eurymedon. GREECE. 490— Ionian War; the rebellion pul down. 4!)^— MARUONIUS, witha Persian fleet, wrecked. 490— Seoolld Persian invasion ; battle of Marathon ; I'ersians defeated by the Greeks. 480— TUlrd invasion of Persians under XERXES ; battles of Artttnesium, ThermopylEe and Sala- mis. 479— Battles of Mycale and Plataea. 47T— Athens becomes chief Greek State. 464— Xliird Messenian war ; Sparta defeats Messenia. 445— Tlllrty years truce between Athens and Lace- demonia. 443— HERODOTUS flourishes. 440— PERICLES defeats the Samians. 431— Peloponneslan War, ending in the defeat of Athens by the Spartans. 415- Invaslonof Sicily by the Athenians. 400— Death of SOCRATES ; retreat of the Ten Thousand under XENOPHON. ROME. 494— Patricians secede ; tribunes of the people appointed. 493— Independence of the Latins. 49I-COR10LANUS banished. 489— The Volscians and CORIOLANUS besieges Rome. 488— CORIOLANUS withdraws at his mother's en- treaty ; the Volscians slay him. 484— First Agrarian law proposed. 471— Election of plebeian magistrates given to the Comitia Tributa. 4.58— CINCINNATUS dictator; defeats the .Equi. 457— Decemviri govern (Council of Ten) ; they in- stitute the Ten Tables (Code of Laws). 449— VIRGINIUS kills his daughter VIRGINIA to save her from CLAUDIUS ; deceravirate abol- ished. 440— Terrible famine in R«me. 407 — The Volscians defeat the Romans. GAUL (France and Germany). Very little is known about the Gauls until the lime of JULIUS C/HSAR (Gauls in Germany and France 587 b.c). PERSIAN EMPIRE. 492— Greece invaded by MARDONIUj, who is de- feated. 485— Kelgn of AHASUERUS (XERXES I.). 165— Death of XERXES I.; ARTAXERXES reigns. 449— Persians defeated at Salamis by Greeks. 4'e5— XERXES II. reigns. r4«l— CYRUS rebels; he is defeated and slain. GAY'S CHRONC HISTORY OF THE WORLD, 39»— 300. 333— ALEXANDER the Great conquers Syria. 343— A Dynasty founded by SELEUCUS I. 300— Antioch becomes the capital. 352 -Revolt from the Persians. 331 -The country subdued by Al EXANDER. 323— Anneiea to Egypt. 395- 388- 387- 385 378- 372- 356- 346 339- 338- 336- 335 323 300- -Corinthlan War begins ; Corinth, Athens, Ar- gos, Thebes and Thessaly against Sparta. -PLATO founds Athenian Academy. Close of Corinthian War. Sparta subdues the Olynthians. -Union of Thebes and Athens against Sparta. Treaty between Athens, Sparta and the Allies. Third Sacred War. -Athens makes peace with Macedon. Fourth Sacred War, between PHILIP of Mace- don and the Athenians. Battle of Cha^ronea; PHILIP victorious. Accession of ALEXANDER the Great. Athens submits to ALEXANDER. Samlan War; ANTIPATER victorious. -Athenian democracy restored. 396 391- 390 389 376- 362- 350- 343- 340 332- 321 312- -The dictator CAMILLUS captures Veil. -CAMILLUS impeached and e.xiled. -Battle of Allia ; Romans defeated ; Rome burnt. -Gauls expelled and city rebuilt. -Civil war between patricians and plebeians ; law passed that one consul should be plebeian. -CURTIUS leaps into a gulf to save Rome. The Gauls defeated. Fifty Years' War with Samnites. War with Latins; Romans victorious. Treaty with ALEXANDER the Great. Romans terribly defeated by Pontius. The Via Appia completed (a great militarj' road)* 340— Ganis in Greece 394— Persians and Athenians defeat Spartans. 351 — Sidonlans revolt and burn their city. 331— Persians defeated by ALEXANDER the Great. 330— .Assassination of DARIUS III.; Persia made part of the Macedonian empire. Designed for Gay's Standard Histories, by 'WILLIAM GAY :OGlCAL CHARTS, NCIENT AND MODERN, FROM 2800 B.C. TO 1884 A.D. 299—101. 846— Egypt conquers Syria. 198— Independence reRained. 170— Jerunalcm captured by ANTIOCHUS EPI- PHANES. it«:--.-;rV.;.-'BiJtvW*i*w^«»ai^.^>j:2^-;-: i«jtZa«i*/t-w^i^ -^'^^y 268-ANTIGONUS of Macedon takes Athens. 211— Treaty concluded with the Romans against PHILIP V. of Macedon. 200— Tlie Alhes attack Macedon and defeat PHILIP. 196— Creece declared free from Macedon. 146— Greece becomes a Roman province- '''^ v'Sfif\.-.^i'y^^"* '^*y^'' 295- 266- 264- 256- 250- 241- 23.5- 218- 217 216- 202 201 197- 192- 168- 149- 146- 134- 121- 111- 106 102- 101- -QUINTUS FABIUS defeats the Etruscans, Gauls and Samnites. -All Italy subject to Rome. -First Punic War ; Carthage disputes Rome's em- pire. -'*"i»'»l ^ictory over the Carthaginians by REG- -REGULUS slain at Carthage. -End of First Punic War ; Sicily a Roman prov- ince. -Invaxlonof Gauls ; Gauls defeated. -Second Punic War ; HANNIBAL defeats SCIP- -FLAMINIUS defeats HANNIBAL. -Battle of CannK ; Romans defeated, -SCIPIO AFRICANUS defeats HANNIBAL. £.nd of Second Punic War. -PrilLIPof Macedon defeated. War with ANTIOCHUS of Syria; peace con- cluded B.C. i88. -Battle of Pydna ; PERSEUS killed and Macedon subject to Rome. Third Punic War ; SCIPIO invades Africa ■I'arthage destroyed. Servile War ; Sicilian slaves rebel ; conquered and slain b.c. 112. rivIlWar; CAIOS GRACCHUS killed. JTiigurthlni War. JUGURTHA defeated and Numidia subjected. Servile War in Sicily. MARIUS and CATULLUS defeat the Cimbri. ALBION (Britain). Believed to have been a part of the Continent • English Channel dug by King UTOPAS (Bru- tus), the Colonizer, whose name the island bear- eth (legendary). The Britains were known as telts; Druidism exists; the priests called Uruids. 283— CauU conquer Roman army at Arctium. 279-«a«il« near Delphi. i?>a\7?.""'iJr ^"^<:ked by EUMENESand ATTALUS. 109-101— War with Romans. ERIN (Iri;i..\m.). NEMEDH is said to have come to Ireland 2000 B.C. He was followed by the Firbolgs ■ they by the Twatha de Danans. and they by the Milesians of Scoti (legendary). During this period there is no authentic history of Ireland, although It was inhabited by a people in a good degree of civilization. 100—3. 65— Syria becomes subject to Rome. 57— Many devastated cities restored. 47— The liberties of the cities confirmed by JU- LIUS C^SSR. ' 63— Absorbed in the province of Syria. 86— Sylla besieges and reduces Athens. 21— AUGUSTUS CiESAR founds confederacy of Laconian cities. 91-Soclai War ; the Marsians. at first successful, are defeated B.C. 89. 88- mithridatic War. 87— Civil War between SVLLA and MARIUS ; MA- RIUS slain. 82 — SYLLA becomes dictator 79— Abdication of SYLLA Z5~5,"'^'*''"'^<^US leads revolt of the slaves, i;.c. 71 63-Coiisplracy of CATILINE suppressed by ( 60-Fir»t Triumvirate ; JULIUS CESAR, POM- PEY and CRASSUS. ?l~~*-'^'*° ''^"'*''='': C/ESAR invades Gaul 48— Battle of Pharsalia; C.HSAR defeats POM- PE V . 46— CAESAR becomes dictator; suicide of CATC) 44— Assassination of JULIUS CESAR. 43— Second Triumvirate; OCTAVIUS, ANTONY .. . „ ""'' LEPIDUS j CICERO put to death. 42-BsUtle of Philippi ; defeat and death of BRU- TUS and CASSIUS. 41- War between ANTONY and OCTAVIUS end- o.T .r.. ed by marriage of ANTONY and OCTAVIA. 32-ClvlI War of ANTONY and OCTAVIUS 31— Defeat and death of ANTONY. 27— OCTAVIUS becomes emperor under tiUe of AU- 25— Pantheon erected. 4— BIRTH of JESUS CHRIST. 55 -JULIUS CESAR invades Britain; Roman laws and customs introduced. 58-Warwith C/ESAR begins. 51— Can! subjugated ; Gaul a province of Rome. 11-3— Teutons and Cimbri invade Gaul. CHART II, FROM 500 B.C. TO THE BIRTH OF CHRIST. o., 256 Chapel St., New Haven, Conn. COPYRIGHT 1883. n. THE AGE OF THE HEEOES. THE EXPLOITS OF PERSEUS. HE Greeks thought that many of their ancestors had performed wonderful deeds of daring in spite of numer- ous trials and difficulties, and after they had accompHshed their destiny they were raised to dwell among the gods. They styled these men heroes, which means a great and glorious man who has accomplished some noble action entitling him to honorable mention in history. We will now tell the story of one of these men by the name of Perseus. His mother was Danae, the daughter of one of the kings of "Argos. His eyes were bright and his golden hair was like the morning. While he was still an infant he and his mother were out at sea in a storm which cast them upon the Here a fisherman, named Dictys, took care of A cruel tyrant, Polydectes, desired to make Danae his fi r isle of Seriphos. J^ them. i'l^^ wife, and because she would not give him her consent he con fined her in prison and declared that she could not come out until her son should bring him the head of the horrid Gorgon Medusa. There were three of these Gorgons who were sisters, two were immortal and the other one. Medusa, was mortal. She was so beautiful that she boasted of being fairer than Minerva. This goddess, to punish her presumption, turned the hair of Medusa to serpents, and caused that any one looking upon her fair, sad face should turn into stone. Young Perseus resolved, for the sake of freeing his mother, to undertake the perilous adventure. His bravery was applauded by the gods, who under- took to aid him. Minerva came to him the night before he set out and held up to him the image of the three Gorgons. She pointed out to him the face of the one who was mortal and bade him not to pay any attention to the other two. She also gave him a polished mirror to reflect the image of Medusa, for he must not look upon her real self or he would be turned into stone. Mercury gave him an invincible sword and lent him his winged sandals, and bade him go to the sisters of the Gorgons, the nymphs of the Graiae, and compel them to show him the way. The young hero started upon his western journey and came to where the giant, Atlas, was holding up the sky on his shoulders. On the shores of this mighty ocean which flows around the world, in the misty land of twilight, he found the three sisters, the Graiae, who were born gray- 2 i8 HISTORY OF GREECE. haired and had but a single eye and tooth between them. This single eye and tooth they passed from one to another when they had use for them. When the first had caught a sight of this noble youth she passed the eye to her next sister that she might also see him. But Perseus was too quick and grabbed the eye away from her. He told the poor old nymphs that he did not intend to hurt them, but they must show him the way to the Gorgons before he would return it. So they told him the way, and, moreover, gave him a mist-cap, or helmet, that would make him invisible whenever he put it on. They also gave him a bag in which to put the Gorgon's head. With this information and the arms which had been furnished him he traveled to the ends of the world, holding the wonderful mirror before him. Perseus came upon the Gorgons while they were sleeping. These horrible mon- sters had necks covered with scales like those of snakes, at least two of them, their teeth were like boars' tusks, their hands were of brass and their wings of gold. He could see all of them reflected in the mirror which he held before him. With one blow of his trusty sword he cleft off the head of Medusa, the only one who could be slain, and, putting it in the bag which the nymphs had furnished, he hastened away. The sisters awoke and darted after him, but, putting on his invisible cap, he escaped from them on the winged sandals of Mercury. On his way to the East he heard a voice asking him if he had really slain the Gorgon. It was Atlas, the old giant who held up the heavens on his shoulder. Perseus told him that he really had killed her, but Atlas would not believe him until he was shown the head of Medusa. The first sight of the awful head turned the giant into stone, and there he has stood ever since on the west coast of Africa. All the maps of the world are named after him. But the adventures of Perseus were not yet ended, for as he was return- ing on his way by the Lybian coast he heard the sound of wailing. Here he found Andromeda, the lovely daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, king and queen of Ethiopia, who was chained to a rock to be devoured by a sea monster that thus the anger of Neptune might be appeased. Perseus hastened to her rescue and bade her be quiet until the sea monster came up to devour her. He waited until he heard the monster coming, and, command- ing Andromeda to shut her eyes, he held up the Gorgon's head before the monster and instantly he changed into stone. Thereupon the hero released the maiden and took her with him to Seriphos. Polydectes had thought that Perseus had been destroyed and he had attempted to compel Danae to become his wife by force, but she had fled to the temple, where she was safe, because the people believed that the gods punished any one who dragged their suppliants from the temple where their altars were built. The young hero came at the right time, when the tyrant was at a feast. Telling him that his commands had been obeyed he held up the Gorgon's head before the king, and at once the tyrant and his whole court were turned into stone. Then Perseus offered the head to Minerva and gave back the sword, cap and sandals to Mercury. AGE OF THE HEROES. 19 Our hero then went to Argos, where in a game of quoits he had the misfortune to kill his grandfather, the king. He was called to the throne and lived happily with his wife, the beautiful Andromeda whom he had rescued. He kept out the foul worship of Bacchus from his domains. At last he changed kingdoms with another king and afterward built the city of Tiryas. The whole family were translated to the stars and assigned to a position around the north pole. You can find them in the sky any night when it is not cloudy. Perseus is the bright cluster of stars which seems to be climbing up to save Andromeda, who is changed to the bright stars in the form of a square. Cassiopeia is seated in her chair. Cepheus is there too, but he is smaller and not so easy to find. They are all in the north around the Great Bear. This story is an old one, told by many nations in many forms. HERCULES AND HIS LABORS. Jupiter boasted one morning among the gods that a son would be born that day in the line of Perseus who would rule over all the Argives. This made Juno, who presided over the birth of children, so angry that she con- trived to hinder the birth of the child whom Jupiter had in mind, and hastened that of another grandson of the Perseus of whom we have just written. So the great Jupiter was obliged to let this child, Eurystheus, become the king of Argos, Sparta and Mycenae. The boy whom he intended for this honor was endowed with wonderful courage and physical strength, but was kept in subjection by the jealousy of Juno. His name was Hercules, and with his wonderful strength was united a kind and generous nature that always made him ready to help those who were weak and in trouble. The hatred of Juno began while he was yet an infant in the cradle, for she sent two cruel serpents to destroy him. The young giant crawled from his cradle and strangled the two monsters, one in either hand. He was entrusted to the care of the chief of the Centaurs, by the name of Chiron. The Centaurs were a wonderful race of beings, who had the legs and body of a horse and the breast, shoulders and arms of a man. Most of these Centaurs were fierce and savage, but their chief, Chiron, was gentle and wise. Jupiter made him immortal and he acted as tutor to many of the old Greek heroes. Hercules was educated by this Chiron. When he was about eighteen two maidens, one representing Vice and the other Virtue, appeared to him and asked him to decide between them. He wisely chose the maiden Virtue ; and it was well that he did, for Jupiter had sworn as compensation for the cheat of Juno that if Hercules would accomplish twelve labors or tasks which should be imposed upon him he should be raised to dwell among the gods. Little did Eurystheus know when he imposed the severe labors upon his cousin Hercules that it was in the course of his destiny, and would aid him 20 HISTORY OF GREECE. in attaining a position on Olympus. The first task was to kill a bear in the valley of Nemea. This bear could not be wounded with any weapon which Hercules could use and he was obliged to strangle the beast in his hands. In this fierce encounter the hero lost a finger. But the king was so much fright- ened at the sight of the dead beast that he commanded Hercules to leave the beast outside the gates of Argos. The second labor was awaiting the hero, and he was sent to slay the nine-headed Hydra whose den was in the marsh of Lerna. As fast as one head was cut off another sprang up in its place, and to annoy him Juno sent a crab to pinch his heels. Hercules called his friend lolaus to burn the necks of the hydra as fast as the heads were cut off, and in this way the monster was slain. But the king would not allow that this was a fair victory, because Hercules had been helped. There was a stag who had golden horns and brazen hoofs, sacred to Diana, which frequented the Arca- dian woods. Hercules was sent to chase this stag, and pursued it a whole year before he captured it. Then he had great difficulty in appeasing Apollo and Diana, whom he had offended. This was his third labor. The fourth was to catch alive a horrid wild boar who roamed on Mount Eurymanthus. Hercules chased the beast through a dense swamp and finally caught him in a net and brought him to Mycenae. The fifth labor was a difficult and peculiar one. Augeas, the king of Elis, was rich in horses and herds. But his stables were kept in a fearful state of filth. Eurystheus thought that he would disgust Hercules or cause his death by the unwholesomeness of the task, so commanded him to cleanse these stables. Hercules went to Augeas, and, without telling him that it was a labor assigned by Eurystheus, offered to cleanse the stables if he would give him one from every ten of his herd. Augeas promised to do this and con- firmed it with an oath. The hero then dug a canal and turned the water of two mighty rivers through the stables, cleansing them of their long accumulating filth. But when Augeas heard that this task had been assigned to the young giant he endeavored to cheat him out of his pay, and Eurys- theus would not count it as one of the twelve tasks because Hercules had received pay for it. He was ordered off at once to drive the Harpies away from the woods near Lake Stymphalis. These Harpies were horrid birds that had brazen beaks and claws, ready-made arrows for feathers, and fed upon the flesh of human beings. They gave forth a disagreeable and unhealthy stench. Minerva gave the hero a brazen clapper, with the noise of which he caused the monster birds to rise out of the forest and then shot them with poisoned arrows. Many of them were killed and the others driven away from the forest, and so the sixth labor was accomplished. Minos, the king of Crete, had made a vow to the gods that he would sacrifice anything that should rise out of the sea. The first thing that appeared was a beautiful white bull coming from the water, but he was so fine that the king was tempted to neglect his vow. To punish him the gods caused the bull to go mad and injure many of the people. Eurystheus thought it would be a great task to have Hercules bring this mad bull to AGE OF THE HEROES. 21 Mycense. After a time he subdued the enraged animal and brought it to his cousin on his shoulder. He was then given a much harder task than the last. It was no less than to capture the fierce mares of Diomedes. These were wild, unmanage- able beasts who fed on the flesh of men. Hercules overcame the grooms of these beasts and drove them away, but he was pursued by their owner, Dio- medes. While our hero was engaged in fighting the tyrant and his people, he left the mares in the charge of his friend. After he had slain Diomedes he went back to find that the mares had eaten up his friend. He gave them the body of their master to eat, which made them tame and manageable. Then they were driven to Mycenae. On the banks of the Euxine, or Black Sea, dwelt a race of female warriors called Amazons, under the leadership of their queen, Hippolyta. She was the bravest of them all, and as reward for her valor had received a beautiful girdle. The daughter of Eurystheus desired to have this girdle, and Hercules was sent to obtain it. When Hippolj-ta saw how honest, hearty, and good- natured Hercules was, she was easily persuaded to part with it. But Juno, who was never happy unless she was engaged in some mischief, assumed the form of an Amazon and came down among the female warriors. She persuaded them that their queen had been deceived and stolen away by a strange man. So as they rushed down on their horses to rescue her, as they supposed, from her captor, Hercules thought that he had been led into a snare, and slew the queen, took her girdle, and escaped with it to Eurystheus. There was a three-headed giant called Geryon, who lived in the little island of Erythria far out in the west, where the ocean flowed around the world. He had a herd of wonderful purple oxen, which was guarded night and day by a two-headed dog. When one of these heads slept the other was awake, and so he could keep a strict watch all the time. Hercules was sent to get these oxen. After he had passed by Lybia he came to the end of the Mediterranean Sea, where he made a passage to the Great Ocean by dividing the land asunder and setting up the two mountains, one on either side. Mount Calpe in Europe and Mount Abyla in Africa ; these are called the pillars of Hercules. In his wrath at the rays of the sun, which scorched him, he fired at it with his arrows, when Helios, instead of being angry, admired his boldness, and gave him a golden bowl in which to cross the ocean which stretched to the west. Oceanus, the king of the Great Sea, lifted up his hoary head to frighten our hero by shaking the bowl and tossing it about, but the bowl was large enough to hold Hercules and all the o.xen. He killed the watch dog with the two heads, the herdsmen, and the three-headed giant, and brought the giant away. Then he returned the bowl to Helios and carried the oxen to Eurystheus, who offered them in sacrifice to his patroness Juno. Hercules was forced to take another journey to the end of the world. This time he was to bring home the golden apples which were growing in the garden of the Hesperides. These Hesperides were the daughters of the sky- 22 HISTORY OF GREECE. bearing Atlas, and dwelt in the land Hesperus, the evening star. They, together with a dragon, guarded the tree which bore the golden fruit and grew in the garden. This time Hercules took a roundabout course by the way of the north. While traveling on this journey he fell in with the fearful giant Antaeus, with whom he was compelled to wrestle before he could go forward. Every time the giant was thrown to the ground he rose up twice as strong as he was before, until Hercules found that the only way he could overcome him was to lift him in the air above the earth and squeeze the breath out of him. This he did and then came on his journey to Mount Caucasus, where Prometheus had been chained to the rock, and aiming his arrow at the eagle which .was tearing away the liver of his victim slew the tormentor of the Titan, and then set him free from his chains. As a return for this kinduTjss Prometheus gave him much good counsel, and accompanied him on his journey as far as where Atlas was holding up the sky on his shoulders. According to this account Atlas was still able to move, and promised to go to his daughters and get the golden apples if Hercules would hold up the sky while he was gone. Hercules did so, and presently old Atlas returned with three of the apples, but said that he would take them to Eurystheus himself and Hercules must remain until he returned. Prometheus bade our hero say that he could hold the sky no longer without a pad to rest upon his shoulder, but when Atlas took the sky while the pad could be put on Hercules grabbed up the apples and left the old giant to bear his load forever. But one labor now remained to complete the twelve, and for this Eurystheus commanded him to bring the three-headed watch dog, Cerberus, from the lower regions. On this journey our hero was attended by both Mercury and Minerva, and he was led alive among the Shades, all of whom fled from him except the shade of Medusa whom he had slain, and one brave youth. Hercules gave them the blood of an ox to drink, and then went to Pluto, the god of the lower world, and asked his permission to take Cerberus to the upper world. Pluto gave him his consent if he would overcome the monster without any weapons but his hands. He then contended with the dog, having no protection but his lion skin, and overcoming him dragged him to the light. Some of the blood which flowed from one of the three mouths of the beast produced the plant called aconite, or hellebore, which is dark and poisonous. Hercules then carried the body to Eurystheus and showed it to him. He then safely returned the dog to the under world, and thus completed his twelve great labors. He was now entitled by the oath of Jupiter to a seat among the gods. JASON AND THE GOLDEN FLEECE. Pelias had seized the kingdom of the rightful heir, his brother vEson, and was reigning as a usurper. One day as he was driving a mule chariot through the market-place he saw a youth of manly strength and beautiful AGE OF THE HEROES. 23 form, carrying two spears and having only one sandal. Now it had been foretold that Pelias should be slain by a man wearing a single sandal, and the king was terror stricken when he saw this youth, whose name was Jason, and the son of his own brother .^son. The father of Jason, fearing that the king would slay his son, had sent him to the good Centaur, Chiron, to be educated and preserved. He had now grown to be a young man and started out on his fortunes. On his way to the city he had lost his sandal in carrying an old woman across the river. But this old woman was really the goddess Juno, who had come down from Olympus in this disguise to test the kindness of men. This act of Jason's made her his friend forever. The next day after the youth made his appearance in the market the usurper sent for him and asked Jiim what he would do if he knew a man were fated to kill him. " I would send him to bring the Golden Fleece," replied Jason. "Then go and bring it," said Pelias. This was the fleece of the golden-wooled ram which had been sacrificed to Jupiter, and its fleece hung up in the grove of Mars. The legend of the ram is this. You remember that we have said that Cadmus founded the city of Thebes. His daughter Ino had married yEolus as a second wife, but proved to be a cruel stepmother to his two children, Helle, the daughter, and her brother Phryxus. This cruel woman persuaded her husband, King ^olus, that he ought to sacrifice his son to Jupiter. When he was engaged in this and had prepared his victim for the altar, suddenly there came down from the sky a golden-fleeced ram, who took the two children on his back and started away through the air with them to carry them to Europe. On the way thither the girl Helle fell off into the sea and was drowned. The sea was called the Hellespont, or Helle's Sea. Her brother Phryxus came in safety to the shores of the Black Sea, where he was kindly received by the king ALetes, who sacrificed the ram to Jupiter and hung up the fleece, where it had remained to the time of Jason. When this young man had received the command of the king he set about preparing a ship for his voyage, and proclaimed all around Greece the fact of his under- taking, and called for noble and adventurous youths to join him. Many of the most noble of all the country who had been brought up with Jason in the school of Chiron flocked to his aid to the number of fifty. We can speak of only a few of them. Hercules, of whom we have written, was one, Theseus was another. This hero had already performed many wonderful acts, and his prowess was well nigh equal to Hercules'. He had slain the white bull "which Minos had neglected to sacrifice to Jupiter. This bull had also left a monster offspring, half man, half beast, which had committed many ravages upon the people of Greece. Theseus had slain him. He also killed the famous robber Procrustes, and performed many other exploits. Theseus had Taeen a great friend of Hercules and had gone with him to the land of the Amazons. There also came two brothers, Castor and Pollux. Their mother was Lcda, queen of Sparta. They had two sisters, Helena and Clytemnestra. It was said that all the four were hatched from two eggs ; Castor and 24 HISTORY OF GREECE. Clytemnestra were from one egg, and Helena and Pollux were from the other^ These loving brothers had been pupils of Chiron, and also Peleus of yEgina.. He had wedded Thetis, one of the fifty Nereids, by whom he had a son Achilles, whom his mother endeavored to make immortal by dipping the child into the river Styx, and making him invulnerable, all but the heel by which she held him. He was at this time a boy, but we will learn more of him hereafter. There was one other of the company which came to Jason to join in his enterprise of whom we will speak. He was Orpheus, the son of the muse Calliope. He was regarded as the most glorious musician in all- Greece. All the fifty who started with Jason were noble youths of brave and fearless spirit. The ship which Jason had built to carry them was named the Argo, and from this the company were called the Argonauts. The ship- had fifty oars, and a piece of her keel came from the great oak of Dodona. All things were ready and the leader, Jason, stood on the poop of his ship' and poured out a rich libation to the gods from a golden cup. He prayed to Jupiter, to the Winds, to the Day and the Night, and to mighty Fate to give them a prosperous voyage. Old Chiron came down to the shore to see them, off, and he also prayed to the gods for their safe return. The oars kept time to the music of Orpheus as he played on his harp, and thus they set sail from- home upon their undertaking. They met with many adventures of a perilous and severe nature. After they had passed through the Hellespont they came to the Propontis, which- we call the sea of Marmora. Here they found an island called Bear's Head, where dwelt a race of giants with six arms. They were all slain by the Argonauts. On the coast of Mysia a youth, by the name of Hylas, went on shore to obtain water, but the nymphs of the fountain caught him and would not let him return. Hercules went in search of the youth, and neither of them returning the Argo sailed without them. But Hercules found his way back to Argos. They then came to where a wise king named Phenias lived. He was blind and beset by the horrid Harpies, who snatched away his food whenever he attempted to eat. Jason had among his crew two of the- winged sons of Boreas, who pursued these harpies and drove them far out into the Mediterranean Sea. Phenias then gave the Argonauts many wise coun- sels and sent them on their way. There were two huge rocks, the Symple- gades, which were floating in the sea. They would strike together and then float apart, leaving a channel between them. Phenias told Jason to send a dove between them, and if she flew through safely the ship might follow. Jason did so, and the dove escaped with the loss of her tail feathers. The Argo followed, each one rowing with all his strength, aided by Minerva and Juno, and just as they got through the rocks came together and broke off the- brass ornaments on the stern of the vessel. The rocks then became firmly- fixed, for Fate had decreed that when once a vessel had sailed safely through between them the moving rocks should stand still forever. The Argonauts met the old foes of Hercules, the birds of Stymphalis,. AGE OF THE HEROES. 25 and after their encounter with them came in safety to the mouth of the river Phasis. Jason now sent to yEetes the king and demanded the golden fleece. To this he was told that he might have it if he would yoke the brazen-hoofed bulls who breathed flame, and with them plow a piece of ground and sow it with dragon teeth. Medea, a wicked witch, the daughter of the king, aided Jason after he had taken an oath to marry her. She gave him an ointment with which to rub himself, his shield and sword, and this would make him invincible for a whole day, so that neither fire nor sword could harm him. With this precaution he was able to master the bulls and make them draw the plow, after which he sowed the land with dragon teeth that Cadmus had given .^etes the king. These teeth sprang up as armed men, like those which Cadmus had sowed, and when they began to attack Jason he threw a stone among them which caused them to turn against each other. Then Jason could easily overthrow those who were left after the fight among them- selves. But after this the treacherous king would not give up the fleece, but plotted how he might burn up the Argo and kill her crew, when Jason, warned by Medea in time to save his vessel, was led by her to the tree where the fleece was nailed. Orpheus put the dragon who kept guard over it to sleep with his music while Jason carried it away. Medea carried off her little brother and went with Jason. The father pursued them, and the cruel Medea cut up her brother little by little as they were fleeing and strewed his limbs on the stream of the Phasis, so that her father, stopping to gather them up, was hindered and the Argonauts had time to sail away. They went home by another route, sailing away to the north, and came to the island of the goddess Circe, who purified Jason and Medea from the blood of the poor boy whom she had slain. They then came to the island where the Sirens dwelt. They were fair creatures, who stood on the shore and sang so sweetly as to lure the sailors to land. But the moment any one touched the shore the Sirens seized and strangled them and sucked their blood. Medea told Orpheus to play and sing so loud as to drown their song and thus elude them. They came into the Mediterranean somewhere near Trinacria. Here they had to pass between two lofty cliffs. In a cave under one of these cliffs dwelt a monster who had twelve limbs and six long necks with heads like a dog which would seize as many sailors out of every vessel that came within reach. This monster was named Scylla. On the other side was the monster Charybdis, who sucked down whole vessels with all their crew, so of the two evils the way by the side of Scylla was the safer. Perseus, the husband of Thetis, one of the nymphs, was on board of the Argo, and for his sake the fifty sisters of Thetis aided the ship safely past the danger. They now reached lolcus, the place from which they set out, having been gone but four months. Jason then gave the golden fleece to his uncle Pelias and offered the Argo as a sacrifice to Neptune, the god of the sea. After Jason had returned home from his journey after the golden fleece he found that his father .^son had grown very old, but his wife, Medea, the enchantress, agreed to make him young again. She gathered a number of 26 HISTORY OF GREECE. herbs by the light of the moon, put them in a caldron over the fire, and then cut up the body of ^son and seethed it in the herbs all night. In the morning the old man appeared as a strong, black-haired youth, no older than his son Jason. When the daughters of the king Pelias desired to do the same for their father the treacherous Medea told them how to boil him in the caldron over night, but she did not tell them the right herbs to use, and in consequence they failed to accomplish their design and only slew their father. This so angered the sons of Pelias that they drove Jason and his •wife out of the kingdom, who went to Corinth and there lived for ten years. Then Jason became weary of his wife and put her away, so that he might take Creusa, the king's daughter. Medea was so angry at this that she gave the bride a poisoned robe, which killed her, and then slaying all her own children she fled away to the East in the chariot drawn by winged serpents, where she gave birth to a son, Medus, from whom the Medes descended. As for Jason, one hot day he fell asleep under the shade of the ship Argo where it was drawn up on the sands close by the temple of Neptune, and as he was sleeping a piece of wood broke off the prow and fell on his head. This killed him. Orpheus, the skillful musician, the son of Calliope the muse, went to Thessaly after his return in the Argo. There he taught the people music and softened their manners by his art. He was married to a lovely maiden, Eurydice, with whom he lived happily until she died from the bite of a snake. The wretched man went down to Hades in search of his wife armed with nothing but his lyre. He prevailed on Pluto to allow him to take her back to the upper air. The grim old king of the world of shades permitted Orpheus to play on his lyre, and by this means induce Eurydice to follow him, but he must not look back to see if she was coming after him. She followed him until, when they were nearly out of the world of Pluto, he looked back for an instant and at once he had lost her forever. From this time his song became sad and mournful, and at last the Bacchanals tore him to pieces because he would not join in their foul ceremonies in. STORIES FEOM CLASSIC LAIS. '^^ THE PEOPLE OF GREECE. '\ FTER we have read the preceding stories of my- thology which the people of Greece accepted as true we know that they are only the cunning inventions of the imagination. The Greeks loved to regard themselves as having sprung from the superior beings whom they gyT::^^^^^_^ called gods, demi-gods and heroes. But all learned men ^^ ■ J))^ know that they, like all the other nations of Europe, as well as the Persians and Hindoos, sprang from the same common stock. They were of the family of Japhet and called Arians. A tribe which were called Pelasgi were the first who came and settled in Asia Minor, Greece and Italy. After them arose the Hellenes, who were quicker and more intelligent and overcame them. The people we call Greeks were a mixture of the two and composed three lesser tribes, called ..-Eolians, Dorians and lonians. The old name of Greece was Hellas, from which came the name Hellenes. The old heroes of whom we have been writing lived, if they ever existed, about the time the judges were ruling in the land of Canaan. There is no doubt that a city once existed called Troy, and that it was destroyed in the time of Saul, the first king of Israel. There is hardly anything, either histor- ical or mythical, told of the Greeks for three hundred years after this time. We know that they were divided into petty States, each independent of the others, but all regarding themselves as descended from a common stock and claiming relation with their kindred in the yEgean Islands, on the coast of Asia, and in Sicily and Italy. For a long time after the heroic age there were numbers of poets who wandered from place to place and sang of their gods and heroes. These poets composed a great mass of hymns and lono- poems in which they delighted to tell of the wonderful things that happened in the ages before, but they mixed up so much that was true and false in their productions that it is now impossible to distinguish between them. One of the greatest of these poets was the blind Homer. His songs of the wrath of Achilles and the wanderings of Ulysses were loved and sung by every one. The story of the golden fleece and the siege of Troy, with the wonderful adventures of their forefathers, the Greeks, who united in some common 28 HISTORY OF GREECE. enterprise, were grand productions of human genius. Seven cities have laid claim to being the birthplace of the blind poet. These great poems and the common religion did much to bind the people of Greece together. Everybody went to Delphi to consult the oracle there. Hercules established the national games, which drew the noble youth together from every city and State of Greece to contend in the foot and chariot races, boxing and wrestling matches, throwing the quoits and heavy weights, and to engage in the singing and reciting of poems. These games were celebrated at Olympia, where there was a great festival held every five years. These became of such importance as to form the date of the year to record any event or to make a reckoning of time. The method of recording this was to say that it happened in such a year of such an Olympiad. The first of these is fixed at the year 776 B.C., which was two thousand six hundred fifty-eight years ago. There were other games celebrated every third year on the isthmus near Corinth and called the Isthmean games. It was regarded the highest honor to win the prize at one of these games, and the fortunate victor was regarded by the people as a hero. At the first a family grew into a clan, then into a tribe, and afterward into a nation that settled in some region and kept up its tribal and clan divisions. This was the way with all the nations which came from the east. The father of the family ruled over his house and was the chief of a clan or tribe that descended from him. Then the strongest chief would lead the nation in war and become its king. But the States of Greece seemed to have dropped this arrangement and to have had a council of the chief men of each tribe, called Amphictyons, who arranged all the matters pertaining to religious and civil affairs. There was a great Amphictyonic council from all parts of Greece, which came together to consult about general matters and to receive oracles at Delphi once a year. The chief heads of families were called aristoi, while those who were not admitted into the councils, but who had the right to choose their own governors and vote on all important matters, were called demos, or the people. Our words aristocracy and democracy came from these two words. The cities of Greece were usually beautiful places built in valleys, and each one had several temples to the gods. These were furnished with a shrine of elaborate workmanship for the image of the divinity, and an altar for sacrifices. There was a colonnade of stone pillars and an ascent of stone steps leading to this. Every city had its market-place, where the people also- assembled to decide public affairs, and here the fires of Vesta were kept burning. The noblest and best man had charge of these fires, and whenever a colony went to a new place to settle they took a lighted brand with them to light the vestal fire upon the new altar to be erected there. Their houses were built around an open court, in which was a fountain and an altar to the ancestor of the owner of the house. The rooms were used only as sleeping rooms, for the men lived in the cloister or pillared walk built around the house. The women were more retired. The men tilled their farms by the aid of slaves, and the women spun wool and flax, making them inta STORIES FROM CLASSIC LANDS. 29 •garments for themselves and their husbands and family. The warriors were clad in a helmet and carried a breastplate. They used swords, spears, daggers, and sometimes bows and arrows. They did not use chariots because the country was full of hills and mountains, but were sometimes mounted on horseback. They had a wide sea-coast and understood how to build vessels for war and used them skillfully. They were also extensively engaged in commerce of all kinds. But the highest distinction of the Greeks was their power of thought and their conception of all that was graceful and lovely in art and literature. They had men who were always in search of truth and beauty whom they called philosophers. So it came to pass that nearly all the arts and sciences began with them, and arose to the highest state of perfection. Their poems and histories were so well written that they are the standard of classic literature for all time. Although Greece was so small a country and divided up into so many petty States, her cities •contained the most wonderful works of art, and her men became the most renowned in the world. The whole of these States would not be as large as •some of the States in the American Union, yet her history was the most wonderful of any nation except that of the Jews. The history of the Jews illustrates what Providence can do for men ; the history of Greece displays what men can do for themselves. There were twenty little States which composed Hellas, or all Greece, the chief of which were Thessaly, Corinth, Boeotia, Attica, Doris and Epirus, Laconia, Messenia, Argolis and Elis. In these States there was some chief city which arose to distinction and obtained control of the •entire State, so that their rulers, kings, or archons, were the rulers of that State. For example, Sparta was the chief city of Laconia, and the Spartan kings and laws governed that State. Athens was the chief city of Attica and decided her fortunes. The chief city of Argolis was Argos. LYCURGUS AND THE SPARTAN LAWS. When the sons of Hercules returned with their Dorian followers, who •called themselves Spartans, they became rulers of the land and allowed the original Greeks to remain free, all but the natives of one city, Helos, who revolted from them and were forced to the condition of slaves. They were called Helots. One of these Spartan kings had twin sons, who reigned together, and their sons after them, so there came to be two kings reigning at the same time in Sparta. One line was termed Agids, from Agis, its •second king, and the other Eurypontids, from Eurypon, the third king. In the third generation from Eurypon the affairs of State had fallen into a sad •condition. The king of this line had been killed, and his wicked queen, now a widow, offered to slay her infant son if her husband's brother, Lycurgus, would marry her, so that she would still be queen. Lycurgus advised her to send the child alive to him that he might dispose of it, but instead of slaying him he took him to the council and had him crowned 30 HISTORY OF GREECE. by the name of Charilaus, king of Sparta. The people who thought that Lycurgus had killed the child murmured against him, and after he had placed the boy in safe keeping he started to travel around the world, that he might study the laws and ways of other countries. At Crete he learned the laws of Minos, and in Asia Minor he is said to have seen and talked with Homer. Then he went to Egypt and India, where he obtained an insight into the Brahmin philosophy. On his return to Delphi he prayed to Apollo until he received an answer that his laws should be the best and the State which obeyed them the most famous in all Greece. He then came back to Sparta, where thirty- brave men bound themselves to aid him in enforcing his reform. But his nephew at first supposed that it was a league against him, and fled into the temple of Minerva. Lycurgus told him that their only intention was to make laws by which the Spartans should become wise and brave. These laws would apply only to the real Spartans. First there was to be an equal division of all the land. No money was to be used in the State except the base iron coin, which was so bulky as to be useless for hoarding. No one could use gold or ivory or any luxuries. The men were to become highly disciplined soldiers, and for this purpose were obliged to live in public barracks and eat at a common table. Their fare was of a coarse and simple nature. The boys were admitted to this training as soon as they were old enough, and were told upon their first entrance by the eldest man present: " Look you, sir ; nothing said here goes out there." Words were used sparingly, and hence came the term " laconic." The chief point was to make good soldiers, and every family tie and social instinct had to bend to this. The Spartan soldier must never turn his back to his foe, and when the youth went forth to battle each mother gave her son one of the long shields and said, " With it, or on it." The bodies of those who had been slain were carried off by their comrades on the shield, and no man dared return home without the shield he carried away with him. The women were trained to athletic exercises, and all classes from the king and nobles to the common people were compelled to endure the same hardy exercise and discipline. There were five men termed ephors, or judges, who acted as high-priests and chief captains, and made peace and war. They had more authority than the king. This was the rigid system which Lycurgus introduced, and which in time made the Spartan race so renowned for their simple manners and great bravery. At first these laws displeased the people, and while the lawgiver was proposing them a young man by the name of Alcander struck him a blow on the face with his stick and put out his eye. The citizens were shocked, and left Alcander in the hands of L}'curgus to be punished. He spared the young man, who afterward became his warmest friend and waited upon him while eating. When he had established his laws and taught the Spartans to observe them he told the people that he was about to make another journey, and extorted an oath from them that they would observe his laws until his STORIES FROM CLASSIC LANDS. 31 return. Then Lycurgus went away to die and never returned. The Spartans kept these laws in force until they became a nation of brave and hardy soldiers and the news of a war was delightful to them. The Helots, or the enslaved natives of Helos, were compelled to do all the hard work on the farms, and were kept down by cruel power. The Spartans would sometimes make them drunk and show the Spartan youth how disgusting drunkenness would make men. In fact the whole system of Lycurgus was harsh and unfeeling, and transformed men into mere fighting machines. The first great Spartan war was with the neighboring State, Messenia, which fought bravely, but was reduced in 723 B.C. to the condition of Helots; only a brave band who fled to other States remained free. A noble youth, Aristomenes, was born among them, and he afterward collected all the boldest Messenians, and with the aid of Argos, Arcadia and Elis endeavored to wrest their country from the Spartans. Several battles were fought with varying success till at last the war turned against him, and in a battle on Spartan territory he was stunned with a blow from a stone and taken prisoner. With fifty others he was condemned to be hurled from a high rock into a pit. All the others were killed by the fall, but Aristomenes found himself alive in the pit with all his friends around him dead. He escaped by the aid of a fox and made his way back to his countrymen. To the great amazement of his foes he came again to give them battle, in which he gained the victory and compelled the Spartans to make a truce. But he was treacherously thrown into prison, from which he was liberated by a maiden to whom he gave his son in marriage. At length his chief city, Eira, was betrayed by a foolish woman, while Aristomenes was laid aside by a wound. In spite of this, he fought for three days against the Spartans, and then collecting his women and children in a hollow square of soldiery demanded a free pass through the enemy's lines. They were struck with such bravery, and allowed them to pass by untouched, and they came to Arcadia. The chief made one other attempt to conquer Sparta, but was again betrayed by a traitor. He waited in Arcadia until Damagetus, king of Rhodes, who had been told by the Delphic oracle to marry the daughter of the best of the Greeks, asked for the daughter of Aristomenes, and persuaded him to finish his life in peace and honor in Rhodes. SOLON, THE LAWGIVER OF ATHENS. The Ionian State of Attica jutted out into the ^figean Sea, north of the Peloponnesus. The chief city was Athens, named for its tutelary goddess, Pallas Athenae. She had caused the olive tree to grow, which was judged to be the best gift for mortals, and her bird was the Athenian owl. The Athenians claimed that their greatest king and first lawgiver was Theseus. After the death of the king Codrus, who gave himself for his country, the Athenians would not have another king, for they said that they would 32 HISTORY OF GREECE. never permit a man less noble than he to sit on his throne. They therefore appointed magistrates, whom they called archons, to rule instead of kings. A state of misrule and disorder followed, and the people called upon one of their philosophers, Draco, to draw up a code of laws for them. These laws were very good, but so strict that the least crime was punished by death. It was said that " the laws of Draco were written in blood." Nobody could keep them, and they fell into disuse. Confusion again followed, until another wise lawgiver, named Solon, undertook to draw up a new code for the city. He was one of the seven wise men of Greece. The others were Thales, Bion, Pittacus, Cleobulus, Chilo, and Periander. Solon was an Athenian by birth, and descended from the old royal line. He had served in the army, and afterward had traveled to study and learn the customs of other lands, when his fellow countrymen called upon him to make these new laws for them. His code was not so unnatural as that of Sparta, nor so bloody as that of Draco. It would be difficult to explain all the system, and not to our purpose. The principal points to be remembered are these : At the head of the government were nine archons, who were to be changed every three years. There was a council of four hundred aristoi to aid the archons. These were the nobles. When peace or war was to be decided upon the whole people, or demos, had a right to vote, and whenever a man was considered to be dangerous to the public welfare he could be sentenced to be banished by a vote of the demos. They voted according to their tribes. The name of the obnoxious man was written on an oyster shell, and if they amounted to a certain number the man was said to be ostracised and forced to leave. Sometimes this was unjustly done ; but upon the whole it acted for the benefit of the State in getting rid of men who became wealthy and overbearing, and kept tyrants from rising over the people. The citizens were permitted to establish themselves in families, but they were compelled to send their youth to the schools to be taught the sciences, and to be trained in athletic exercises. So there arose from the system of Solon, and from the national character, a race of the greatest philosophers and artists that the world had ever known. Solon was a good as well as a wise man, and hated all deception and cheating. He once said to the great actor, Thespis, that it was a shame for him to speak so many falsehoods on the stage. The actor replied that it was all in sport. " Oh," said Solon, bringing his staff down on the ground, " but he who lies in sport will soon lie in earnest." Solon visited his friend Thales, and went from there to Lydia. The king of this country at this time was Croesus, •who was exceeding rich, and lived in splendid style, while Solon was simple in his habits and straightforward in his speech. Croesus welcomed the philosopher and showed him all his splendor. Some time after this he asked Solon "whom he regarded as the happiest man he ever knew." Solon said, " An honest man named Tellus, who was neither rich nor poor, had good children, and died bravely for his country." Croesus was chagrined, but asked "whom he thought the next happiest." "Two brothers named Cleobis and Bito," said Solon, " who were loving and dutiful to their mother, THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. 33 and when she desired to go to the temple of Jujio, yoked themselves to her car and drew her thither to show their love, and then laid down there and died without pain or grief." "But what do you think of me?" asked the vain, rich king. " Ah! " replied Solon, '' call no man happy until he is dead." Croesus was much mortified at this rebuff, and afterward neglected the wise philosopher. This king was about to make war on the Persian king, Cyrus, and sent to the Delphic oracle to know what the issue should be. The reply was, that if he did go to war a mighty kingdom would be overthrown. He thought that this meant the Persian kingdom, but it really meant his own. The war began, Lydia was overcome, Sardis, the capital, was burnt, and Croesus was about to be slain, when he remembered the warning of the Athenian philosopher. He cried out, " Call no man happy till he is dead I O, Solon, Solon, Solon ! " Cyrus heard him and asked what he meant. The story so impressed the Persian king that he spared Croesus and kept him as a counselor until his death. IV. BATTLE OF MAEATHOi E pass rapidly along the connecting links which bring the history of Athens down to one of the famous battles of ancient times. Pisistratus, a kinsman of Solon, overthrew his system of government, and reigned for thirty-three years as king. He was wise and discreet, and the Athenians were contented under his reign. Then his two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, reigned afterhim, but were driven out in 510 B.C. This was regarded as the beginning of their freedom by the Athenians, and was called the expulsion of the Pisistratids. The laws of Solon then came into force again. Cyrus was now dead, but had left the great Persian empire to his successor. The Persians were overrunning all the world, and had come to the yEgean Sea. In the little island of Samos there was a king, Polycrates, who had been wealthy and prosperous. The Persian satrap sent for him to answer for displeasing the " great king," and when he came to Sardis to clear himself, hung him on the cross. Amasis, the king of Egypt, was a friend of the king of Samos, but had deserted him. The son of Cyrus, Cambyses, conquered Egypt, and soon after died. Darius then came to the Persian throne. This monarch had a Greek prisoner, who was a celebrated physician, named Democedes. When Darius had hurt his foot, and none of his doctors could cure him, this Greek slave effected a complete cure, and received many rich gifts. He longed for his home, and begged Darius to obtain Athenian and Spartan slaves. All the 3 34 HISTORY OF GREECE. Ionian Greeks were anxious to break away from the Persian yoke. Histi- aetus, who had been ruler of Miletus, and Hippias were anxious to stir up a revolt among the Greeks who had been conquered by the Persians. Histisetus had sent a letter to Aristagoras in a curious way, advising him to rise against the Persians. This message was written on the closely- shaven head of a slave with a hot iron, and when his hair had grown he was sent to Aristagoras as a present. This strange letter was read, and Aristagoras went to Sparta to induce the kings to aid him ; but on account of the warning from Gorgo, the eight-year-old daughter of Cleomenes, the king, who was at first inclined to listen to the messenger, refused to join in the enterprise. But the Athenians were induced to join with the Ephesians, Milesians, and other lonians. They attacked Sardis, which was held by the Persian satrap, Artaphernes. He threw himself into the citadel, but the Greeks burned the town, which was made of wicker work. Darius was furious when he heard of the burning of Sardis, but Histiaetus persuaded him that this would not have happened if he had been sent to Greece. So the king sent him home to put down the revolt, but he fled to the lonians, and remained till they were completely conquered. He then surrendered to the Persians, and was crucified by them. Darius longed to have Greek slaves, and thereupon he raised a vast army from all parts of his great empire to subjugate the little cities which held out against him and to punish them for their insolence. But he did not think that it was impossible to conquer a free people fighting for their homes by means of an army of slaves doing the bidding of a mere despot. The great battle was between the east and west, and decided the destinies of Greece for hundreds of years. Hippas, the exiled king, now an old man, was employed to guide the army of Darius to Athens, and thus betray his country into the power of the despot. The preparation for the war went on. The great Persian fleet, manned by Phoenician sailors, with a huge army were ready to overwhelm the little State of Attica, and then all Greece. As they came from island to island all the people submitted to them or fled at their approach. In all Attica there were only nine thousand fighting men to meet this great host. They sent to ask the aid of Sparta, but they could not march on the week before the full moon, because of some religious superstition, and in that time Athens might be in ruins. Only six hundred men from the small State of Plataea came to help them. This little army of less than ten thousand men were encamped near the temple of Hercules, overlooking the bay of Marathon. The vast army collected from all Asia, amounting to two hundred thousand men, lay on the plains below them in the shape of a horse shoe, surrounded with hills that slanted back toward the city. Miltiades was the best of all the ten generals, and by the advice of the wise Aristiades he was permitted to keep the command, even out of his order. He drew up his army in a line broad enough to cover the entire front of the Persian army, but not so deep, and when they came rushing down on the host at a full run they shouted their battle cry, " lo pcBan ! lo paan ! " The wings of the Persian army gave THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. 35 way, but the center, where the ranks were more soHd, stood firm. Then Miltiades gave orders for the wings of his line to close in on the Persian center and crush it between the two divisions. The Persians fled in a con- fused rout to their ships and attempted to sail away. The Athenians tried to hinder them, but they got away, and instead of sailing to Asia they started on the course that would bring them around the promontory Sunium, as if to attack Athens. Now all the fighting men of the city were in the army, and Miltiades left one thousand men to bury the dead and hastened back with the rest to defend the city. The Persians were warned or changed their minds and sailed away to Asia. The Spartans, who were brave but supersti- tious, came up after the fight was all over and greatly praised the bravery of the Greeks. This battle, which happened 490 B.C., saved the whole of Europe from the slavery of the East. The brave Athenians who had been slain on the plains of Marathon were all buried in one mound, and a monument erected over them by the State. The Plataeans had another mound and the Persians a third. The vast amount of treasure which was seized from the Persians was taken to the city and honorably divided among the families of living and dead. There was only one exception. A man, Kallias, who wore long hair bound with a fillet, was mistaken for a king by a poor Persian, who fell on his knees and showed him (Kallias) where a large sum was hid in a well. Kallias not only took the gold for himself, but killed the stranger. The Platseans were rewarded for their help by being granted the freedom of the city of Athens as well as their own city. A year or two after this Miltiades was brought before the council and ordered to defend himself for having failed to take the city of Paros, against which he had gone to punish its citizens for aiding the Persians. He was found guilty of wasting the people's money and sentenced to death. But in view of his services at Marathon the sentence was changed to a fine of fifty talents of gold. The old hero, who was suffering from his wounds, could not pay this heavy fine, and before he was able to raise it he died. His son Kimon put himself in prison until he could pay the money and release his father's corpse, which was afterward buried with the honors of war on the battle-field of Marathon, with a tomb recounting his glorious deeds. There were two chief citizens who were left after the death of Miltiades. One was Aristides the Just, who was an upright, unselfish and public-spirited man. The other was Themistocles, who was selfish and very crafty. He judged in favor of his friends and took bribes, while Aristides was impartial. Themistocles was a demagogue and sought the favor of the people, but both were able men. Aristides had been born of noble family, but was poor, and Themistocles contrived to turn the minds of the people against him. One day in the market-place when they were voting whom they should banish from the city Aristides saw a man who could not write trying to get some, one to write a name on his shell. " Whose name shall I write ?" asked he. '■Aristides," said the countryman. "Why, what harm has he done you?" asked Aristides. " No harm," said the man, " only I am sick of hearing him 36 HISTORY OF GREECE. called ' the Just. ' Aristides wrote the name, and there being six thousand votes against him he was ostracised. .i^ischylus was a great poet who wrote tragedies to be acted upon the stage. When he was a little boy he fell asleep and dreamed that Bacchus appeared to him and told him to make his festivals noble with tragedies. Now the worship of Bacchus had come to be celebrated in Athens, but not in the wild and shameful manner as in other places. There were songs and dances by persons with their heads covered with ivy leaves, and they sacrificed a goat in the midst of their feasts. The Greek word for goat was " tragos," and the dances came to be called tragedies. Thespis, whom Solon had reproved, was the first to arrange a dialogue and a chorus for the actors and singers, and represent a play acted on the stage. When /Eschylus became a man he wrote some of the grandest plays that have ever been composed. They show how the grand old Greeks were longing and feeling after the truth, like blind men groping in the dark. It was the custom to have three grave plays, or tragedies, followed by a droll one or a comedy, so called after the god Comos. There is one trilogy of ^schylus preserved for us, but the comedy that goes with it is lost. It represents the death of Agamemnon, the vengeance of Orestes, and his expiation when pursued by the Furies. V. THE EMITIOH OF lERIES. joins it The G of chie HE son of Darius, Xerxes, was far more impetuous and ambitious than his father, and no sooner had he come to the throne than he gathered a vast army to invade Greece. In the spring of 480 B.C. he led this army across the Hellespont on a bridge of boats. When a storm arose which delayed him he was so angry that in his rage he commanded the sea to be scourged, and fetters to be thrown in to show his power to subdue it to his will- It is said that a " million million of men " crossed over, and as the king saw all these men he wept to think how soon they would be all dead. Besides this army he had a large fleet of vessels manned by Phoenicians and Greeks from Asia Minor. Instead of taking the course that his father, Darius, had followed, he sailed by the north coast of the .^gean Sea. Mount Athos, which juts out into the sea, made it dangerous g^^" to sail around it, and he dug a canal across the neck which to the mainland. The remains of this canal are seen to this day. reeks were aroused to a sense of their danger now, and called a council fs from every city to meet on the Isthmus of Corinth. Their ships. THE EXPEDITION OF XERXES. 37 numbering two hundred and seventy-one, were collected in a bay on the north of the island of Eubrea. The Spartan captain watched and waited until he saw the beacon lights which told of the approach of the Persian fleet. He then took his position in the channel between the island and the mainland and waited for the enemy. Although a storm destroyed a number of their ships, still they had more than the Greeks, who ventured out on two days and fought a part of them, doing much injury. The large land force was marching on, and the only place that the Greek generals thought they could withstand such a host was in a narrow pass between Mount .lEtna and the sea, with an impassable marsh on the seaward side. There were hot springs here which gave the marsh and the pass the name of Thermopylae. They determined to send a brave band of Spartans under Leonidas to this point to defend the road. There were only three hundred of them, but they fortified themselves with a wall and waited for the immense army of Xer.xes to come on. They could see the host stretching far away on the plains beyond them, still they thought that they could hold the narrow pass where but few could come at a time. The Persians sent to them asking them to give up their arms, but they replied, " Come and take them." Xerxes saw how few they were and commanded his captains to bring them all alive to him, but for days he saw his best troops fall back before them, and hardly a Greek had fallen. There was a path over the mountain where Leonidas had placed a guard of Phocian soldiers, but the Persian did not know of this till the wretch, Ephialtes, pointed it out to them. If they could take this path and come on the Spartan band in the rear they would overcome them. The traitor pointed the way, and when attacked the Phocians fled. The foe came swarming over the path ; still there was time to retreat, but Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans with seven hundred Thespians would not leave their post, but stood ready to die for their country. The oracle at Delphi had said that either Sparta or a king of Sparta must perish. Leonidas and his men resolved to sell their lives as dearly as possible. The army of Xerxes were so afraid of these brave defenders of Greece that their captains forced them to fight by driving them with whips. The brave Spartans and their allies rushed out and fought with the Persians all day until the last one of the thousand was slain. When Xerxes saw the bodies of these noble men he asked if all the Greeks were like them. In after times the bones of the brave king were buried on the spot where he fell, and a mound erected over his warriors with these words engraved thereon : — "Go, passer-by, at Sparta tell Obedient to her laws we telU" Now that Thermopylae was lost there was no place where a stand could be made before coming to the Isthmus at Corinth. The council decided to build a wall here, but that would leave the whole of Attica outside, and the citizens of Athens held an anxious council to consider how to avert their 38 HISTORY OF GREECE. peril. Before the way to Delphi was cut off they had asked the oracle what they should do, and the answer came, " Pallas has prayed for her city, but it is doomed, yet a wooden wall should save her people, and at Salamis the women shall be made childless at seed time and at harvest." Themistocles declared that the wooden walls meant the ships, and the Athenians ought to sail away and leave the city to its fate. Some of the old men decided to remain, but the women and children were sent to their friends in the Peloponnesus, while all the rest joined the fleet which lay off Salamis and now numbered three hundred and sixty-six vessels. The Persians quickly overran the whole country and overcame the few old men who held the Acropolis, and then burned the city of Athens. The whole hope of Greece now lay in her fleet lying in the strait between Attica and the island of Salamis. The Persian fleet in all its splendor came up six days later, and Xerxes sat on a throne upon Mount ^galoes to see the contest. Aristides the Just, who had been banished, came to Themistocles and said to him, " Let us be rivals still, but let our strife be which can serve his country best. I come to tell you that your retreat is cut off; we are surrounded and must fight." Themistocles said that it was the best thing that could happen, and gave him a place in his council. The contest began. Ship was hurled against ship and their pointed beaks cut down the enemy's vessels. Two hundred Persian ships were destroyed, and only forty of the Greeks'. The Persian mothers were the ones made childless, and not the Grecian. An immense number of ships and prisoners were taken by the brave fleet of Themistocles. When Xerxes saw the utter ruin of his hopes from the mountain he gave up all thought of conquering such a brave people, and determined to take his army back to the Hellespont as fast as possible, for his fleet was all gone. VI. THE BATM OF PUTM-THE AGE OF PEDLES. YRUS led his routed army back to Sardis, but he left a satrap, named Mardonius, behind him in Thessaly with his best troops. This man failed in his efforts to induce the Athenians to desert the other Greeks, and then marched into Attica to overrun the whole country, where the Spartans, under their general, defeated him in =1/ ' the battle of PlatJea. The best troops of the Persian army, termed the immortals, were routed and much spoil was taken, a tenth part of which was given to the god Apollo. Another battle was fought on the same day at Mykale by the Ionian Greeks. This battle freed the city of Miletus from the Persians, and was the first step in driving them out of their possessions in Greece. Athens was rebuilt with a strong wall, and the Greeks were again prosperous. Aristides died in 475 B.C., very poor, but greatly honored, and was buried by the State. The Athenians said that there was but one other Greek as pure and noble as he. But the fate of the ■other two who aided him in driving out the Persians was far less honorable. Pausanias, the Spartan, proved a traitor and was starved to death in the temple of Neptune, where the Spartans had enclosed him in a wall when he had fled there for refuge. Themistocles deserted to the Persian king Artaxerxes, the son of Xerxes, and died rich but despised by all honest men. Athens and Sparta became rival States and never united except when a common great enemy opposed Greece. There were numerous revolts which broke out among the Grecian States, and the contest between them was often fierce and severe. A peace was declared in 445 B.C. and lasted thirty years. At this time Pericles was the greatest man in Athens and made it very beautiful with temples and statuary. When the Athenians were at the height of their glory a war broke out between them and the Corinthians, who were aided by the Spartans. This was known as the Peloponnesian war and lasted many years. Pericles died during the third year of this war, 429 B.C. His countrymen said of him, " Pericles had found Athens built of brick and he left her built of marble." After his death there was left no great general in Athens, but there was a noble youth growing up, called Alcibiades, who \vas destined to become a great general. Socrates and Plato and Xenophon were living in this age. Socrates was 40 HISTORY OF GREECE. the wisest philosopher of Greece, Xenophon was a general and a historian, and Plato a wise disciple of Socrates. Alcibiades led an expedition against the Greek colonies in Sicily which had espoused the cause of Sparta, but was recalled to Athens to answer for sacrilege in destroying the busts of the gods. He was sentenced to be banished and fled to Sparta, where he tried to get his revenge on his own city. The Spartans distrusted him and he fled from them to the Persians. The war was disastrous to Athens and ended by leav- ing Sparta the leading State in Greece. Thucydides has written the history of this long and cruel war. He was a brave Athenian soldier and statesman, and knew all the men and saw the events which he has described. The Athenians were in great distress and oppressed by the Spartans,, who became their masters in the long war of twenty-eight years, ending in 404 B.C. Thirty tyrants were appointed to keep Athens in subjection to the Spartan yoke, and in spite of the many brave statesmen and generals which- arose in Athens and other cities Sparta had all the power. After the land became quiet at the end of the Peloponnesian war, eleven thousand Greeks were hired by Cyrus, the brother of Artaxerxes Memnon, to come to Asia and aid him in taking the throne from the rightful heir. Induced by the rich promises of the Persian they went, and when the revolt was overcome by the king ten thousand Greeks were left in the heart of the eastern empire, with no general and no resources. Xenophon was with them, and binding, the captains by an oath to obey him he promised to lead them back to Greece. He succeeded in accomplishing the perilous undertaking, so far as to lead six thousand, all that were left, back to the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, where he delivered them over to a Spartan general who took charge of them. Xenophon returned to Athens after he had been absent two years and a half. He wrote the full history of this retreat, called the " March of the Ten Thousand," and it is now read as a text book in our colleges. Socrates, the philosopher, died the same year, 399 B.C. VII. THE BECLM OF GREECE HILIP of Macedon had arisen to great power and spread his kingdom over a large part of Greece and Asia Minor. Macedon lay to the north of the States of Greece, but the people were not regarded as real Greeks. Demosthenes, the great orator, delivered his most celebrated orations, called Philipics, against this Philip. But when he came to capture Athens, the orator, who had never been in a battle before, ran away. Mace- don gained the chief power over Greece and Philip was her chief man. Alexander the Great was the son of Philip and spread his domain over all the East, conquered the entire world and died at an early age. After his death the kingdom was divided into four parts and ruled by his four generals, who quarreled among them- selves. But as this is not intended to be a history of all the other nations of the world we will pass over this and come to the final struggle of Athens. The Greeks always hated the Mace- don yoke and hoped that Alexander would be lost in the wilds of Persia. After his death they were kept in subjection for a time by the threats- and bribes of Antipater, the governor of Macedon. The Athenians were anxious to rise against the Macedonians when they first heard of the death of the great general, but one of their wise men, Pho- cion, advised then to wait, " For," said he, " if Alexander is dead to-day he will be dead to-morrow and for all time, so we can take counsel at our leisure." The Athenians and the Thessalians formed a league and a young man, Leos- thenes, was given command of the army. He was brave but unwise in his counsels and Phoclon was afraid of him. Demosthenes, who had been ban- ished by the spite of his enemies, was now recalled to Athens in their great joy at the victory which had been gained over the Macedonians. After this. the Greeks were defeated with great slaughter, and each city was forced to make peace for itself. Antipater made it one of the terms of peace that the rebels who had advised the States to revolt should be given up. But they fled to different places, and men called exile-hunters were sent to pursue them and bring them to punishment. Demosthenes was captured in the temple of Neptune. He poisoned himself with a drug hidden in a reed, and when they dragged him out of the temple he bit off the end of the reed and thus died. Poor Athens was now 42 HISTORY OF GREECE. completely overcome and Phocion was doing his best to settle affairs, but after many attempts he was banished and fled to the village of Phocis, where he was taken prisoner. He was poisoned with hemlock as Socrates had been, but advised his son not to hold any grudge against the Athenians. He was regarded as the last of the Athenians, but his greatness was of a sad kind. At last the great empire of Alexander was broken up and there came a short time of prosperity to Greece, in which Epirus and then Sparta asserted some- thing of their former power under their kings. Phyrrhus, the king of Epirus, held his kingdom for fifteen years, and at last was killed, when forty-six years of age, while attempting to take the city of Argos. An Argive wounded him with a stone, and as he fell down a soldier struck off his head and carried it to Antigonus. After this came the Achaian league, by which the twelve cities of the Peloponnesus each governed itself and all joined together against a common enemy. Aratus became the greatest man in Greece and conquered many of the cities and induced others to join the league. Agis, a king of Sparta, had heard of the wonderful story of his fore- fathers, and he set out to live like an old Spartan and bring back the ancient rule, but he was overthrown by Leonidas, who sentenced him to death, together with all his family. Under this Leonidas Sparta retrieved 'her power to some extent, but she wasted her strength in fighting with Achaia instead of joining the league against the enemies of Greece. The States of Greece were engaged in fighting among themselves for several generations, and thus the strength of the country was wasted and her cities impoverished in a vain attempt to see who should have the mastery. There was a long list of philos- ophers, statesmen and generals, who each prided himself upon the renown of his particular State or city, and instead of working for the benefit of all Greece they were hastening her downfall. After the death of Philopoemen, who was styled the last of the Greeks, there was little spirit left in the Achaian league, and from this time there arose in all Greece no man after the old type of Philopoemen. Then the Romans came to take the country and quickly con- quered the whole of Greece, but left the cities to make their own laws and govern themselves, but in each city a Roman garrison was placed to preserve order. The Greek language and literature spread over all the world, and the sons of Roman nobles were sent to Athens to finish their education. So there came a time of peace which lasted five hundred years, but the freedom of Greece was gone. vm. GLANCES AT MODERN GREECE. HE Romans divided Greece into two provinces, Ma- cedon and Achaia, and sent a governor to rule over each province. The city of Corinth had been destroyed by the Romans for an insult offered to their ambassadors, and remained in ruins for nearly a hundred years, when it was rebuilt by command of Julius Caesar in the year 46 B.C., and again made the center of commerce and art. Athens still held the position as mistress of learning and philosophy. Christianity began to spread in the cities of Greece by the preaching of Paul and other teachers who came to Athens, Corinth, Phillipi, and the cities of Achaia. The wor- ship of the old gods was given up and their temples were O abandoned, but the philosophers considered the teaching of the )'^'2' resurrection from the dead as foolishness. In all parts of Greece there were Jewish colonies, and some converts from their ^'v^^Sf^^ numbers uniting \\-ith Gentile converts established churches in '^ S' nearly every place. For many years while Greece was held under Roman power there was quiet, but on the breaking up of the great empire whose center was at Rome the wild hordes of the North came down from the Danube and laid waste the beautiful cities. These rough warriors did not know the value of the works of art and the rich temples which they destroyed. After the bitter persecutions which came upon the Christians there was a long time of prosperity for them. When the empire was divided into the eastern and western the Church continued to be one, but a controversy arose about three words in the creed ; and at last, in the eleventh century, the Church was divided into two great factions, the Roman Church in the West and the Greek Church in the East. There is little to tell about Greece in these hundreds of years while this contest was going on. The Bulgarians, who had come in from the North, had become Christians, and all was quiet. But in the beginning of the thirteenth century the Moors and Saracens who had accepted the religion of Mohammed came in to rob and plunder the land of Greece, while from the "West came the fierce Northmen of Norway and Denmark, who laid waste the country. The poor, disheartened Greek had no courage to fight. The Venetians, who were refugees from Rome, built a city on the islands in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea. In time they flourished and joined in the 44 HISTORY OF GREECE. great crusades which were raised by the Christian nations of Europe to take the sepulcher of our Saviour from the hands of the Saracens, who then held held it. Disaster followed disaster, and finally the Turks conquered the whole of Greece as well as Central Europe. All the Christians made common cause against the Mohammedans, and attempted to drive them out. At the battle of Varna, in the year 1446, the combined armies of Christian nations were defeated, and Turkey held sway for more than two hundred years after this. Then came the Venetian conquest, which crippled the power of the Turks for a time and held the Morea. But they lost their spirit, and when one hundred thousand Turks came against them they yielded the city of Corinth and all the territory, after a short struggle of four days. Several attempts were subsequently made to wrest the country from the Turks, but all were unsuccessful, and Greece remained in a deplorable state until the year 18 15. But in all their bitter calamities there were some who had not lost all traces of the old Greek character. The merchants who had been successful in trade sent their sons to France and Russia to be educated. Here they learned of the deeds of their forefathers, and were fired with the patriotic spirit. A secret society was formed among these young men, called the Hetaria. To this society were joined many of the princes and nobles of the Peloponnesus, and they thought that if they could show the Christian nations that they were united and determined some of these powers would aid them to throw off the Turkish yoke. In i820' Ali Pasha, governor of Albania, rebelled and shut himself up in the town of Yanina. Here he incited the Greeks to fight on their own account, so the revolution began, under the leadership of Prince Ipsilanti, who had served in the Russian army. Ipsilanti was defeated and fled, but another leader was found in the person of a wild outlaw, named George the Olympian. This man was besieged by the Turks in an old convent at Secka, where he held out for thirty-six hours, and then blew up the convent with himself and his men in it. Many of the Greeks were too proud to join this man in his endeavor, because he had no rank among them. The next year there was a general uprising among all the Greeks. The Turks were driven out of Athens except the Acropolis, which they besieged,, but a Turkish army came to the relief of the garrison and raised the siege. The revolution went on with varying fortunes, until France, Russia and England decided to interfere in their behalf. The worst feature was that the Greeks quarreled among themselves. The Turkish fleet in the bay of Navarino was totally destroyed b^ the Greeks, and thus the Morea was freed from the hated rule in October, 1827. Just one year later the Peloponnesus was wrested from them. The allied powers thought it best to put a French garrison in the Morea, because the Greeks still quarreled among themselves. The Turks were pushed back to the North until all of Greece was taken from the Mussulmen. The great powers of Europe now took the kingdom of Greece in hand, and chose as the fittest man in Europe to take GLANCES AT MODERN GREECE. 45 charge of its affairs Prince Leopold, who declined to accept the throne. In 1832 they chose Otho, the second son of the king of Bavaria, then a lad of 17, to be king of Greece. He was sent with a council to aid him till he was of age. In 1843 the Greeks compelled him to send away his council and appoint Greek ministers in their stead. After a reign of about thirty years Otho resigned, and as he had no children the throne was offered to a number of persons before any one would accept it. At last, in 1868, the second son of the king of Denmark, George, accepted the crown and began his reign, which has continued up to the present time. One of the first things that happened in King George's time was the murder of three English gentlemen — Mr. Herbert, Mr. Lloyd, and Mr. Vyner — who had gone with a party to see the plain of Marathon. A gang of robbers came and seized upon them and carried them off to the hills, demanding a ransom. Lady Muncaster, who was of the party, was allowed to return to Athens with her husband, the robbers intending that the ransom should be collected ; but troops were sent out to rescue the prisoners, and in rage and disappointment the robbers shot them all three. The robbers were captured and put to death, and the young king was bitterly grieved at not having been able to prevent these horrors. The congress of the powers which met at tlie city of Berlin in 1878 recommended that the southern portions of Thessaly and Albania be added to the kingdom of Greece, but a complication of difficulties arose, growing out of the " Eastern question," which has deferred that desirable consummation. The latest census of Greece shows a population of one million si.x hundred and seventy-nine thousand seven hundred and seventy-five. The legislative power of the government is vested in one chamber of deputies consisting of one hundred and eighty-seven members, elected by popular suffrage for four years. The islands in the .iEgean Sea belonging to modern Greece are comprised in two groups. One group is called the Cyclades, a name derived from their circling around Delos when that island was made stationary for the birth of Diana and Apollo, as told in mythology. The other group is called the Sporades, from a word signifying scattered, or sown. Many of this latter group, however, are claimed by Turkey. The city of Syra is the principal sea-port of the modern kingdom and has become the center of a considerable commerce. The regular line of steamers up the Mediterranean call at this port. The chief production of this island is wine, large quantities of which are exported each year. Tenos, another island, is celebrated for its manufactures in marble. Naxos is the most productive and beautiful, as well as the largest of the Cyclades, which are mostly high and rocky along the coast, and all have the same general characteristics. The literature of modern Greece has as yet attained no decided promi- nence. Prior to the revolution which resulted in the establishment of the present kingdom in 1829, not a single prominent work had been produced by a Greek author for hundreds of years. Since that date, however, new life has been infused into the department. Dramas, lyrics, love-songs, and a 46 HISTORY OF GREECE. poem in imitation of Lord Byron's Cliildc Harold, have been written by- two brothers, Panagiotis and Alexander Soutsos. There is much merit in most of their writings. Tliree dramatic writers have attained a foremost place in literature : Neroulos, Rangavis and Charmouzis. As a historian, Perraevos has produced a valuable and well-written book entitled, Memoirs of Different Battles Fought Between the Greeks and Turks from 1820 to 1829. But the most excellent work yet produced by any modern Greek author is Tricoupis' History of the Greek Revolution. Its excellence consists in the reliability and accuracy of its statements and the purity and elegance of its style. Many years of good government, national industry and prosperity will be required, however, before modern Greece can again acquire that rank in the world's literature which the prestige of her name and the renown of ancient Greece might lead her to anticipate. The language of modern Greece, for the greater part, is that which is properly called Neo-Hellenic. This bears a very close resemblance to the classic Greek taught in our schools and colleges. Great effort has been made in recent years to prune this new Greek of all barbarisms and foreign words, so that it has come to be written with such purity that good scholars in the ancient Greek can have but little trouble in reading the work of Tricoupis, to which we have referred, or even an Athenian newspaper. This author, who has done so much to restore the literature of Greece, was born in 1791 and died in 1873. He was the friend and comrade of Lord Byron and delivered the celebrated funeral oration in the cathedral of Missolonghi a few days after the death of the English poet. This was at once translated into all the languages of modern Europe. His personal history was connected with all the vicissitudes of the nation until 1862, when on account of ill health he retired from public life. Schools are doing what they can, and the Greeks are very quick-witted, and learn easily. They are excellent sailors, clever merchants, and ready linguists, and get on and prosper very fast ; but till they learn truth, honesty, and mercy, and can clear their country of robbers, it does not seem as if anything could go really well with their kingdom, or as if it could make itself be respected. Yet we must recollect that the old Eastern Empire, under which they were for many centuries, did not teach much uprightness or good faith ; and that since that time they have had four hundred years of desperate fighting for their homes and their creed with a cruel and oppressive enemy, and that they deserve honor for their constancy even to the death. Let us hope they will learn all other virtues in time. WONDEEFDL MEN Al EVENTS. THE LAND OF ITALY. WE will next write about the most famous nation which has ever risen. There is a peninsula to the westward of Greece which appears on the map something in the shape of a human leg with the toe of the foot extended toward Sicily, and terminating in a heel to the east of the Gulf of Taranto. The Apennine Mountains stretch like a bone from the Alps southward, and bend to the east. This peninsula forms the land of Italy. Around the streams which flow from the mountains through the verdant valleys many different tribes settled before there is any history to explain the time or manner of their coming. It is plain that they were descended from a common stock with the Greeks, and spoke a language which sprang from the same source as the Greek tongue. This language came to be polished in time and took the form of the Latin, so named after the tribe with which we are most familiar in history. The river Tiber runs from the Apennines 48 HISTORY OF ROME. to the sea about midway of the western coast of Italy. Here the great Roman power grew from small beginnings until it overran the whole ■world. The truth of the founding of this city, called Rome, has been covered with so much that is mythical that it cannot be certainly ascertained. We know that there were a number of nations living around the several hills which form the spurs of the mountain range ; the Etruscans, Sabines and Latins were the principal ones. They seem to have dwelt in the fertile valleys, which they cultivated, and where they fed their flocks ; but they had fortified the hills and made them strong, and within these fortifications they fled when attacked by their enemies. The Etruscans built many strong walls and drained their cities skillfully. The remains of their works are visible to this day. Their monuments have been opened and found to contain the tombs of their kings, with curious pottery in red and black from which we may learn something of their lives. They spoke a different language from what became the Latin, and had another form of religion. They thought that there was one great "Soul of the world," and believed in rewards and punishments after death. But we know little about them except that their kings were called Lucumos, and they once had an extensive sway, but lost it before history came to be written. They were called by the Romans Tusci, and the name Tuscany remains to the present. The Latins and the Sabines were more alike and resembled the Greeks. In the southern parts of Italy there were many Greek colonies, and these two nations learned much from them. They believed it a multitude of ■gods, and every house had its own guardian, called Lares, or Penates. These were represented under the figures of little dogs lying on the hearth. Whenever the master of the house began a meal he poured out a libation to the Penates and to his own ancestors. The family pride and social ties were strong, and all members of the family had the same name, like our surname. The name of the male members ended in 7is and that of the female members in a. The men had separate names, but the daughters were only numbered. For example, if the family name was Appius, the son whose name was Claudius would be known as Appius Claudius, the family name coming first. The first daughter would be called Appia Una and the second Appia Duo. The old Grecian mythology and tales of the heroes were not known to the Latins at first, but learned from the Greeks. Each city had its guardian god, each stream, fountain and wood its nymph, and there was a god for nearly everything in nature. The fields and crops were sacred to Saturn. Pomona was the goddess of gardens, and Vertumnus the god of fruits. Saturn first taught husbandry in Italy during the golden age when there were no slaves, and the Latins had a festival every year in his honor, •called Saturnalia, corresponding to our Christmas, when for a week all the slaves were allowed to act as if free, and engage in any diversion they wished. In our "Stories from Mythology" we have used the Latin names. The WONDERFUL MEN AND EVENTS. 49 Latins regarded their gods as graver, higher beings, who were removed from them, and not so fanciful and capricious as the Greeks thought them. Indeed they were a harder, graver, tougher, fiercer and more substantial race than the Greeks. They were not so intelligent and quick, but a more sterling race of men. Rome, the name which made- this race well known, is said to signify famous, and was at first a mere cluster of houses with forts on the hills to defend them. There was a temple to Jupiter, in which he and Juno and Minerva were worshiped together on the Capitoline hill. Janus, the two- faced god of the gates, had his temple on the Janicular hill. There were seven hills in all ; the other five were, the Palatine, the Esquiline, the Arventine, the Ccelean and the Quirinal. Those who dwelt in these villages were called Quirites, or spearmen, and they made war on their' neighbors. After many years they built a wall about the seven hills and enclosed them in one cit)-, with open places between them where they had built no houses. Their history seems to have been written backward, in which the old songs and legends were woven to explain the manners and customs that were found among them. These tales and songs were worked up into a history by one Titus Livius after they had grown to be a powerful people, and had learned many Greek notions. It is needful to know these stories which used to be believed as true before we come to the established facts of the history, so we will commence with the one told by the poet Virgil to the Emperor Augustus Csesar. THE WANDERINGS OF ^NEAS. The city of Troy had been taken and destroyed by the Greeks after a siege of ten years. Among the Trojan youth there was one named jEneas, whose father was Anchises, a cousin of Priam, and his mother was the goddess Venus. When he saw that the city was lost he rushed back to his home and brought away his aged father on his back, who held the household gods in his hand. He led his little son lulus, and his wife Creusa followed on behind ; while all the Trojans who could get their arms together joined him. They then made their escape to Mount Ida, but in the confusion Creusa became separated from the company and ^neas went back to thi city in vain to find her. On account of his care of his father and the Penate. he is called pious ^Eneas. He built a fleet of ships from the wood on Mount Ida and sailed witl; his followers to seek a new home, to which his mother promised to lead him. In his journeying around the Mediterranean he met with many adventure- and hardships. When he had landed on one of the Strophades, a cluster o' islands belonging to the Ionian group, he was one day feasting with his mcr on the flesh of some of the many goats which they found there. T... 4 so HISTORY OF ROME. horrid Harpies came upon them while eating their food and snatched it away with their hooked hands, and what they could not use they defiled. These harpies had the faces of women with a horrid beak and feathers of brass. The Trojans drove them away but could not harm them, for the arrows glanced off their feathers. All flew away but one, who sat on a high rock and told the Trojans that they should be tossed about on the sea until they came to Italy, and then not be able to buikl their city until they had been compelled to eat their dishes for food, as a punishment for molesting the harpies. From thence they sailed to the coast of Epirus, where .^neas found his cousin Helenus, son of Priam, reigning over a little Troy, and married to Andromache, the sister of Hector. Helenus was a prophet who gave his cousin much good advice, and told him how he might know the place where the gods intended that he should build his city. He told /Eneas when he came to Italy and found a sow lying under the holly-trees by the side of a river, surrounded with her litter of thirty pigs, there to found his city. Following his advice the pious chieftain coasted to the south of Sicily, and thereby avoided the dangerous strait between Scylla and Charybdis. As they were passing around the coast just below Mount .(Etna they saw on the shore an unfortunate man, who came running down to the beach and begged to be taken on board. He was a Greek who had been left behind when Ulysses had escaped from the one-eyed Cyclop, Polyphe- mus, and had made his way to the forest, where he had lived ever since. The Trojans took him on board just as the giant came down from the mountain, with a pine tree for a staff, to wash the hollow of his lost eye in the sea water. They rowed away in great terror. Soon after this Anchiscs died, and while his son was mourning for him, Juno, who hated the Trojans, went to the cave of yEolus, and induced him to let the winds loose on the sea. There came a fearful tempest, which drove the Trojan fleet to the south and destroyed one of their ships , but they came into a beautiful bay just as the storm went down. Tall cliffs with overhanging woods were on either side, and within the bay was a fountain of clear water. /Eneas with his weary companions landed, and while they were resting he went in search of food. A stag was slain, and furnished a good meal for the hungry wanderers. Then ^-Eneas, with a trusty companion, went out to explore the country. Coming out of the forest they were surprised to see on the plain before them a greal multitude of people building a city, erecting walls, houses and temples. The two entered one of these temples, and to their utter surprise they found the walls sculptured with all the scenes of the siege of Troy, with so perfect representations of their friends as to cause them to shed tears. While they were gazing upon these pictures a beautiful queen, attended by her troop of maidens, came into the temple. She was Dido, the wife of Sichseus, who had been king of Tyre until he was slain by his brother Pygmalion. The murderer of the king intended to marry the queen and seize the kingdom, but she fled, with a band of faithful Tyreans, taking all her WONDERFUL MEN AND EVENTS. 51 husband's treasure, and came to the northern coast of Africa. Here she begged of the chief of the country as much land as she could surround with a bull's hide. He readily gave it to her, but the crafty woman cut the hide into narrow strips and enclosed land enough to build the city of Carthage. Dido accosted ^-Eneas most kindly and recei\'ed all his men into her city, hoping to keep them forev-er and induce ^'Eneas to become her husband. In a great feast given in the honor of the Trojans their leader recounted all the events of the destruction of Troy and the wanderings of himself and his companions. ,'\fter this the queen did all in her power to induce yEneas to join in a common city, and he was so contented and happy that he forgot all the plans and prophecies he had heard for his future. Jupiter sent his messenger, Mercury, to warn him and arouse his zeal to .fulfill his great destiny. He secretly made arrangements for his departure, and Dido was so unhappy that %he caused a funeral pile to be built, and lying upon it stabbed herself with the sword that j^ineas had given her. The Trojans saw the smoke and flame of the funeral pile without knowing the cause of it. After a time yEneas arrived at a place in Italy called Cum;e. One of the sybils dwelt here. They were remarkable virgins, whom Apollo had endowed with great wisdom. The Trojan leader went to this Cumasan sybil to consult her about the future, and she told him that he must go to the realm of Pluto in the under world to learn his fate. He was at first obliged to go to a forest and obtain a certain golden bough, which he was to take in his hand when he went to the land of Pluto. He sought long and faithfully, until at last two doves, the birds of his mother, Venus, went fl}'ing before him to show him where he could find the tree with the golden bough. It was growing on a tree like mistletoe. With this to protect him, after he had offered a rich sacrifice to the gods, he went, with the sybil as a guide, to a gloomy cave on the banks of Lake Avernus and came to the river Styx. Here he found the shades of all those who had remained unburied flitting arounci the shore, in vain begging that Charon would take them over the river. The sybil induced this boatman to take the hero across, but the boat strained and creaked under the weight of its unusual load of human flesh and bones. They came to where the three-headed dog, Cerberus, stood on guard. The sybil threw him a cake made of honey and some stupefying drug, and he lay asleep while JEneas passed on. Here he found a myrtle grove, where were collected all the spirits of those who had died for love. To his surprise our hero saw the ghost of poor Dido, whom he had forsaken at Carthage. A little further on he found the souls of the old Trojan warriors whom he had known, and there he learned much of the future in converse with his friends. He passed by the brazen gates of the abode of the wicked, and came to the Elysian fields full of laurel groves and meadows of asphodel. Here he found Ins father, Anchises, and with him was allowed to see the souls of all their descendants yet unborn, who should rise to great distinction. They are described by the poet Virgil, up to the very time of Augustus Csesar, for whom Virgil was writing. He tells us that /Eneas came to Italy just as his 52 HISTORY OF ROME. old nurse, Caieta, died, and he named the place Gaeta. After she had been buried with funeral rites they found a grove, where they sat down to eat, using large cakes, or biscuits, in the place of plates to eat their food upon. All at once Ascanius, the little son of /Eneas, cried out, " We are eating our very tables," and then he remembered the harsh prophecy of the Harpies, and thus he knew that his journeying was over. After this the Trojans found on the bank of a river, in a beautiful spot, the sow and her litter of thirty pigs, as had been prophesied by Helenus. Then they knew that this was the place to build their city. THE BUILDING OF ROME. Latinus, the king of the country, at first made friends with ^Eneas and promised to give him his daughter Lavinia in marriage, but there was an Italian prince, named Turnus, who had been a former suitor of the maiden. He made war on the Trojans, and after much hard fighting he was slain. On the spot where the sign had been seen they built the city of Alba Longa, where /Eneas and his wife, Lavinia, reigned in peace and contentment until he died. His descendants through the two lines of his sons, Ascanius, or lulus, and ^Eneas Silvius, reigned after him for fifteen generations. Amulius was the last of the fifteen. He took the throne from his brother Numitor, whose daughter, Rhea Silvia, was a vestal virgin. These virgins guarded the sacred fire of Vesta and were not allowed to marry on pain of death. The people were very angry when she became the mother of twin sons, and claimed that the god Mars was her husband. This claim did not prevent her from being buried alive, and the two boys were put into a trough and left to float on the Tiber and perish. The Tiber had overflown its banks and the trough floated upon the dry land, and when the waters subsided a she wolf came down from the hills and fondled the babes, and fed them as if they were her own cubs. At last they were found by a shepherd, who took them home to his wife. She named them Romulus and Remus, and they were brought up as her own children, to become shepherds. After the boys had become men, at one time there arose a dispute between the shepherds of Amulius and Numitor which resulted in a severe fight. In this contest Romulus and Remus did such brave exploits that they were brought to Numitor. Upon inquiry, the deposed king learned from their foster father the story of their being found by him, and seeing the trough in which they had laid, and which the shepherd had preserved, he knew that they were his grandsons. On finding out the fact of their birth, they collected an army of shepherds and others and drove out Amulius, and restored the throne to their grandfather, Numitor. Then they concluded to build a city for themselves on one of the seven low hills beneath which flowed the yellow Tiber, but they could not decide upon which hill to build. Remus wished to locate on the Aventine hill, and Romulus on the Palatine. They agreed to watch the omen of the flight of WONDERFUL MEN AND EVENTS. S3 birds, as their grandfather had advised them. Remus was the first to see a flock of six vultures flying over, but Romulus saw twelve, and for this reason the Palatine hill was chosen for the city and Romulus was made king. His brother was angry, and when the mud wall which was to enclose the city was being raised he leaped over it in derision. Romulus in his wrath slew him, saying, "So perish all who leap over the wall of my city . '* The city was built and called Rome. From this the Romans dated their existence as a nation and marked the date of any year " A.U.C.," which stand for the Latin words anno urbis conditio, from the year of building the city. The date of this is fixed at 773 B.C. The youth who joined Romulus could not many any of the daughters of the nations around them, for they regarded these upstarts as robbers. The .Sabines lived nearest the Romans, and they looked with eager eyes upon the Sabine ladies, till at last Numitor advised Romulus to hold a great feast in honor of the god Neptune, with many games and dances. All the people of the country around came to this festival, and when it was at its height each of the Roman youths seized a Sabine maiden and carried her to his home. Si.x hundred and eighty-three maidens were thus taken to make wives for the Romans, and the next day Romulus married them all to his men in the fashion which was ever after observed in Rome. Romulus took the maiden Hersilia to be his own wife. The Sabines, under their king Tatius, under- took to get their daughters back. Romulus drew up his troops in the Campus Martins, just beneath the fort on the Saturnian hill, and marched against the Sabines. While he was gone, Tarpeia, the daughter of the governor of the fort, promised to admit the Sabines if they would gi\'e her what they wore on their left arms, meaning their bracelets, but they hated her treason while they were willing to profit by it. No sooner were they inside the gates than they pelted her with their shields and slew her. The hill where she died has ever since been called the Tarpeian rock, and became the execution place for criminals. When Romulus with his army attempted to retake the citadel and the battle was going against him, all the Sabine women, who had now been Roman wives for more than a year, came out with their infants in their arms and their hair flying, and besought their husbands and fathers not to kill each other. This led to a peace, and the Sabines and Romans became one nation, over which Romulus and Tatius ruled together. Tatius dwelt on the Tarpeian rock and Romulus on the Palatine, with a \-alley between them called the Forum. This was the market-place where they met for trade, and also the spot v;here the people gathered jn public meetings. Tatius was killed five years after this and Romulus reigned alone, until he was caught up in a thunder storm and became a god, whom the Romans worshiped under t'.ie title of Ouirinus. Some said that Romulus had been caught up by Mars, and others claimed that he had been murdered. It matters little which waj- we tell it for it is no more true than the story of yEneas, but the Romans believed both, and told the two stories as real history. The chief families of 54 ^ HISTORY OF ROME. Rome were called Querites, from the name under which Romulus was worshiped, and the she wolf and twins were favorite badges of the empire. Many of the names given to the places in this story are still retained about Rome. There was such a king as Romulus, and he was regarded by the Romans as the founder of their city. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RELIGION. There was an understanding between the Sabines and the Romans that the king should come in turn from each nation. Therefore when Romulus disappeared a Sabine, Numa Pompilius by name, was chosen king. He had married a daughter of Tatius, who was called Tatia, but she had died leaving one daughter. After his wife died Numa went about from one fountain and grove to another, making sacrifices to the gods and goddesses in each place. The people loved him for his gentle character and great wisdom. In a grove not far from Rome there was a fountain presided over by tl.c nymph Egeria. Numa came here to consult the goddess, and he received from her much instruction in regard to government which made his reign peaceful and prosperous. The people doubted if Egeria was really a goddess, and to convince them, once when there were a number of guests at the house of the pious king, suddenly the dishes of earthen ware were changed to gold before their eyes and filled ^vith daint\' food. She also gave her patron a brazen shield, which would keep Rome safe as long as it was preserved in the city. Numa had eleven other shields made like it and hung them all in the temple of Mars, and every j-ear a number of men dedicated to this office carried them through the streets of the city with songs and dances. All peaceful and religious customs were said to have sprung from this king, just as warlike ones had been instituted by Romulus. Numa is said to have fixed the calendar and given the names to the months. He built an altar to Fides, or Faith, and taught his people to keep their pledges to each other and to other nations. He also dedicated the bounds of each estate to the Dii Termini, or the gods of the Landmark, in whose honor he established a yearly festival. He induced Jupiter to do away with human sacrifices. In fact, all the better and humanizing things in the Roman system are said to have come from Numa. There was a god of the gates, or Janus, who had a temple on the Janicular hill. He had two faces looking either way, and held the keys of the city. When there was any war in the land the temple of this god was open, but if there was peace it was closed. The reign of Numa was counted the first of the three times in which the temple was shut during the long time of Roman history. Num i reigned for thirty-eight years and then gradually faded away, and was placed in a stone coffin to be buried with all the books he had written, as he had requested. The nymph Egeria wept for him until she became a fountain, and so ended the golden age of Rome. WONDERFUL MEN AND EVENTS. 55 The king who came after Numa was of Roman descent, Tullus by name. He was a warlike man and fought witla the Albans. At length the two cities were joined together and became one, as the Sabines and Romans had become. There arose a fierce dispute as to which city should be chief, and to decide it a combat was fought between three champions on each side. Now there were in each city three brothers born at one birth, and the mothers of each family were sisters. Both sets were of the same age. These six were to fight together and thus decide the fate of the city to which each belonged. Horatius was the name of the Roman family and Curiatius the name of the Alban. Two of the Roman brothers were slain and all three of the Albans were wounded, while the last Horatius was unharmed. He turned to run and his cousins followed him until they became separated on account of their wounds. Horatius turned and slew the first one who came up and then the next. When the last came up to him Horatius said, "To the glory of Rome I sacrifice thee also," and slew him. When the Alban king saw that the contest was thus decided against him he turned to Tullus Hostilius, and asked him what his commands were. " Only to have the Alban youths ready when I sliall need them," said the Roman king. Horatius came in triumph to the city crowned as a victor. But when his sister me-t him she was so overcome with the news of the death of the Cu- riatii, to one of whom she had been betrothed, that she burst into tears. Her brother struck her dead in his wrath, saying, " So perish every Roman who mourns the death of an enemy of his country." Horatius was brought before the king for this murder and was sentenced to death. The entreaty of the people to spare their champion resulted in the king's sparing his life, but he was sent under the yoke, which was made of two spears set up like a door- way, and this was regarded as a great disgrace. Tullus Hostilius was harsh and presuming, and although he gained many victories over his neighbors he offended the gods, and Jupiter sent a bolt of lightning to destroy him and all his family. The people then chose Ancus Martius, the son of Numa's daughter, who ruled in the same spirit as his grand- father. He built the first bridge across the Tiber and named it the Subli- cian. During his reign a Corinthian family who had settled in an Etruscan town called Tarquinii came from thence to Rome. Tarquin, as the family name was now known, was the first man to teach writing in Italy, and he introduced the Greek letter made in a more simple form, which are the same as the Roman letters we now use. His eldest son, finding that his foreign birth prevented him from rising to any honor in Etruria, came to Rome with his wife, Tanaquil, and his little son Lucius Tarquinius. As they were entering the city an eagle flew down and snatched off the cap of little Tarquin and then put it back again. From this omen his mother thought that he would become a great kincf. When King Tullus died his son was too young to come to the throne, and the people chose the man Lucius Tarquinius to be their king. He was the first one to wear a purple robe and a golden crown in Rome. He made a 56 HISTORY OF ROME. circus in the valley between the Palatine and the Aventine, and built a stone wall about the city instead of the old mud wall. There was a slave girl in his family who was offering cakes to the household god, Lar, when he appeared before her in bodily form. She was told that the god wished to make her his bride, and thereupon she dressed herself in bridal costume and became his wife. From this marriage sprang a boy whom they called Servius Tullus. After Tarquin had been killed this boy was called to the throne. He was married to one of the Tarquins. n. THE EMLSION OE THE TAEQDINS. IeRVIUS tullus made laws for the Romans and '"^ arranged their civil affairs, as Romulus had established the- military, and Numa had regulated the religious matters for the people. The Romans were all in great clans or fami- lies, all those with one name, and these were classed in tribes. These who could trace their line from the old Trojan, Latin and Sabine families were styled patricians, name was derived from pater, a father, because they the fathers of the nation. The others were known as plebeians, from plcbs, the people. The senate or council was composed of the patricians, all of whom rode on horseback, but the plebeians fought on foot. The soldiers were armed with spears, round shields and pointed swords. Tullus fixed how many could be called for war from each tribe and established the laws in relation to debt, and many other civil matters. The Sabines and Romans were constantly contending for the mastery, but the Romans obtained control by one of their characteristic tricks. The two sons of Servius were married to their cousins, the young Tarnuins. Tullia was a fierce woman, but her husband, Aruns Tar- quin, was gentle and quiet. While the mild and lovely Tullia was wedded to the proud and imperious Lucius Tarquin, Tullia, the proud daughter, tried to induce her husband to seize the throne, but he would not. So she agreed with Lucius that she would kill her husband if he would slay his wife and marry her. The plot was carried out, and when old Servius saw what a wicked pair they were he proposed that the senate should change the form of government, and appoint two consuls in the place of a king. This so incensed Lucius that he stood upon the throne to address the patricians, who hated Servius because he was the friend of the plebeians. As he was telling them that this proposition of the king would be the ruin of their greatness, Servius stood in the doorway and ordered him to come down. Tarquin THE EXPULSION OF THE TAR';:UIXS. 57 sprang upon him and threw him down the stairs and killed liim. The wicked Tullia was driving along in the street and her horses sprang back at the sight of the dead body. She then asked whose it was. and being told that it was her father," Drive on," she said, and this heartless deed caused the street to be called " Sceleratus," or the wicked. The plebeians mourned for Servius, but the patricians made the cruel Tarquin king. He was harsh and tyrannical and was called Tarquinius Superbus, or Tarquin the Proud. He captured the city of Gabii by treachery. His son, Sextus Tarquinius, fled to Gabii, where he complained of ill- usage and showed the marks of scourging. The Gabians believed him and trusted him so much that they gave him the command of the city. Sextus caused the chief men to be exiled or put to death, at the bidding of his father. Then the city fell an easy prey to the Romans. The two sons of Tarquin were sent to consult the Delphic oracle for their father. The}- had witla them their cousin, Lucius Junius, who was called Brutus, the fool, for that is the meaning of the word. His foolishness was put on because he feared the jealousy of his cousins. After they had performed their errand, the brothers asked who should rule Rome after their father. The reply was, " He who shall first kiss his mother after his return." They agreed to keep this secret from their elder brother, Sextus, who was not with them. When they came to Rome both rushed to the women's rooms to find their mother, but Brutus fell on the ground and kissed the earth, for he guessed the meaning of the oracle. He was still thought a fool, but he patiently waited his time. Some time after this some of the patricians in the arm}' which was besieging Ardea v/cre disputing who had the best wife, and to decide the question they agreed to ride home at night and see what their wives were doing. The}- came and looked in at the windows of their homes, and saw some idling away their time, some scolding, some dressing and som.e asleep. But at Collatia, tlie farm belonging to one of the Tarquin famil}-, the}' found the beautiful wife of Collatinus spinning the wool of her flocks. All agreed that she was the best. Sextus Tarquinius wanted to steal her away, and went secretly to induce her to leave her lord, but when she \\-ould not li:-ten to him he abused her shamefully. The next morning she sent for her father and her husband and told them all her trouble, and then plunged a dagger into her heart and died before their e}'es. Lucius Brutus had gone to Collatia, and while the young husband stood horror-stricken he called on th.em to avenge the crime. Then snatching the dagger from the body of Lucretia he galloped to Rome and collected all the people in the Forum. He held up the bloody dagger and asked them if the\' would an}- longer endure such tyranny. They rose as one man and chose Brutus and Collatinus to be their consuls; then they shut the gates of the city and would not open them to the Tarquins. Thus ended the kingdom of Rome b}' the expulsion of the Tarquins. = 8 HISTORY OF ROME. THE END OF THE TAROUIN FAMILY. Tarquin fled to Etruria and tried by plotting to get back to Rome. The two young sons of Brutus were drawn into the plot and were discovered. Their father asked them what they had to say in defense, but they only wept. The senators and the other consul said, " Banish them, banish them ! " but Brutus said they must be put to death. The whole senate were shocked to hear him judge his sons so harshly^ Collatinus wanted to put off the sentence, hoping that his colleague would relent and spare his sons, but Brutus said, if the other consul did not join in the sentence he had already- executed them himself by his right as a father, and would leave the rest to the voice of the people. The Romans applauded Brutus, but thought that the consul Collatinus was weak and sentenced him to be banished. Tarquin advanced to the very walls of Rome, cut the growing corn in the Campus Martins and threw it into the river, where it caught in a heap, around which an island was in time formed. Lars Porsena, the Etruscan king, came with an army to help Tarquin and restore him to the throne. He advanced to the Janicular gate and drove the Romans across the bridge. They placed three men to guard the further end until they could destroy it and prevent Porsena's army from crossing. Three men against a whole army, but they defended it bra\'ely until, the weapons of two of them, Lartius and Her- menius, were broken, and the third one, Horatius, ordered them to flee back over the tottering timbers of the ruined bridge and save themselves while it would bear their weight. He fought on till the bridge fell and he was wounded in the thigh. Then he sprang into the river and swam across to his friends. You can find the beautiful poem describing this event which was written bj' Lord Macaulay in many of the reading books used in the common schools. The Romans raised a monument to his honor, and bestowed large gifts upon him. Porsena blockaded the city and attempted to starve them out. When they were nearly famished he sent word to them if they^ would receive their old masters he would raise the siege, but they sent back answer that hunger was better than slavery^ and held firm. A young Roman went to the camp of Porsena to attempt to kill him and thus relieve the city, but he slew a richly dressed councilor by mistake. He w^as then brought to the Etruscan king to be judged, and said that his name was Caius Mucius, and he was ready to do and dare anything for Rome. They threatened to put him to torture, and to show his contempt for pain he thrust his hand into the burning coals on a brazier near by and allowed it to burn off without flinching, at the same time bidding Porsena see what a Roman thought of suffeiing. Porsena was struck with his daring, and gave him his freedom and even his dagger. Then he said that there were three hundred Roman youths who had sworn to take the life of the Etruscan king unless he left Rome to herself. Porsena believed this lie, which was told for the good of Rome, and began at once to make THE FABLE OF MENENIUS AGRIPPA. 59 peace, and for this purpose a truce was proclaimed. This truce was violated b\- the Tarquins, which so enraged Porsena that he gave up their cause and left Rome to herself. There was one more attempt to restore Tartjuin, in which the Latins joined against the Romans. The decisive battle was fought near Lake Regulus. Aulus Posthumius was commander, and Rlarcus Valerius was general of the Roman cavalry. He had vowed to erect a temple to Castor and Pollux if the Romans gained the victory. It was a severe contest, but the two brothers. Castor and Pollu.x, appeared on horseback and helped the Romans. Titus Tarquinius and the Latin army were completely broken up and routed. Two noble youths rode into the Forum and told the people that same night of the great victory, and when the messenger sent by all speed from Posthu- mius .came the next day the citizens of Rome had no doubt that the two gods had appeared to them the night before. Tarquin never made another attempt to return to Rome, but died in exile at Cumse. This ends the legendaiy historj' of Rome, and after this we have a solid basis of fact upon which to build the stories that follow. m TEE FABLE OF lENElOS AGBIPFA. E come down to the year 494 B.C., when we begin to find something like well authenticated history. From ]|^^^ what we learn of this time we are sure that the ,j.^ Romans had had kings which they had driven out_ and many of the current stories of their ancestors had some foundation in fact. They had a well organized system of government, religious observances, mili- tary code and civil laws. It will be necessary to explain these briefly. The people of Rome were in two great classes, as we have said, the nobles, or patricians, and the commons, or plebeians. The patri- cians had a council or senate and their whole assembly was called comitia. Out of the rich patricians a body of knights was formed, although all of them rode on horseback. The plebeians in Rome were divided into six quarters, and each quarter into six tribes; over each tribe was a tribune to watch over and lead it to battle. There was another division of all the people made once in five years. This was on the basis of their wealth, by which they were divided off into centuries or hundreds and had votes in questions of peace and war, by persons whom they should elect to cast them. This was called the comitia, in which the patrician centuries had the most power as they were the most numerous. There were two consuls who took the place of kings for the time being, but 6o HISTORY OF ROME. wore no crowns. Under them were two prjetors, or judges, two questors, who attended to public meetings, and two censors, who regulated the registration and numbering of the whole people. The army was under the joint command of the consuls, but when the necessity of the case required it one single leader was chosen and then he was called dictator. All the priests were patricians and were under a chief termed Pontifex Maximus. The Romans paid great attention to their religion and had many temples, altars and shrines, which required a large number of priests. The Roman city dress was a white woolen garment with a purple border, wrapped around the body so as to leave one arm bare. Onl)'" a free born Roman might wear it, and he never must go to any public business without it. The persons seeking any office wore this toga entirely white, and were therefore called candidates, from candidiis, white. The consuls wore purple togas with embroidered edges, and all senators and persons who had ever been magistrates wore theirs with a broader purple border. The boy wore a short tunic, and a hollow ball, called a bulla, hung from his neck; v,?hen he was seventeen years old a great feast was made to the household gods, and then his bulla was taken off and the toga put on. He then had the choice of a prsenomen, or first name chosen out of fifteen from which he might select. After this he was liable to be called out to fight. A certain number were called by the tribune from each tribe. These were divided into centuries and a centurion appointed over each. Si.x thousand men constituted a legion, from lego, to choose. The standard of the legion was a bar across the top of a spear, on which were the letters S. P. Q. R., which stand for the words scuatiis popnlus que Romaniis, the Roman senate and people. Beneath this was a purple flag and some device above, like an eagle, the wolf and twins, or some other image dear to Rome. The legions marched on foot, but troops of knights and patrician horsemen were attached to each legion. The Romans all came to the city to worship. The women \\-ere good and noble and the highest praise they sought was " douiuiii inaiisit, lanain fecit " — she stayed at home and spun wool. The father was absolute in his family and his authority was exercised even over his grown up sons. The Romans were brave and obedient to their fathers, their ofificers, magistrates, and, as they thought, to their gods. There was a long struggle between the two Roman orders, the patricians and the plebeians, which continued for many years. The latter were poor, and to improve their lands were obliged to hire money of the patricians at high rates of interest. The Roman law was hard on the poor debtor and his lands could be taken from him and he sent into prison. When Appius Claudius and Servilius v/ere consuls there was one of these debtors in prison. He had been famous for bravery as a centurion, and was highly esteemed by all the people. He escaped from his prison and ran into the Forum, clad in rags and having chains on his hands and feet. He aroused the people by showing his wrongs, and asking if this was the right usage for a man who had committed no crime. One of the consuls, Appius Claudius, was a harsh, cruel man, and so THE FABLE OF MENENIUS AGRIPPA. 6i were all his family ; this also angered all the people. At this time the Vol- sciaiis, a warlike tribe, broke into the Roman lands and there was a call to arms, but the plebeians refused to move until their wrongs had been righted. But the other consul promised if they would march out to meet the enemy a law should be passed against imprisonment, or the selling of children for debt. Then they assembled, marched against the Volscians and defeated them, taking great spoil. Servilius gave all the booty to his troops, but the senate would not keep his promise, and even appointed a dictator to keep the plebeians down after the danger from the foreign enemy was averted. The plebeians thereupon collected outside the walls of Rome in a strong band and were about to make ^var on the patricians. The wise old man, Menenius Agrippa, was sent out to pacify them. He told them this fable. Once upon a time all the limbs of a man's body became disgusted because they were forced to wait upon the bell)'. The feet and legs had carried it around, the arms and hands worked for it and brought it food, which the mouth ate for it, and so on. They concluded that it was too hard to toil for it, and therefore resolved to do nothing more to clothe or feed it. After a little while they all began to grow weak and starve, and came to the conclu- sion that it was better to toil for this inactive belly rather than all starve together. Agrippa told them that all ranks and conditions of society depended upon one another and could not exist without each other, for unless they worked in harmony they would all perish together. He informed them th;;t although the senate had not changed the law in regard to debt they had passed a law for the benefit of the plebeians, by which they would have two tribunes in time of peace as well as in war. These tribunes were to be of their own number and elected by them. No one could harm a tribune during his term of ofifice on the penalty of being accursed and forfeiting his property. They could prevent the passing of any obnoxious law by saying, Vc/o — I forbid. They were to be called tribunes of the people, in distinction from the military tribunes who commanded the legions. The whole matter was thus settled on the Mons Sacer, and these new laws were therefore called /(•gcs sacraria;, or sacred laws. Here they built an altar to Thundering Jupi- ter to consecrate the peace thus established ; and in gratitude for the great service rendered by Agrippa he was held in honor during life and at his death had a public funeral. Many times after this the Romans pro\'ed the truth of Agrippa's fable. The Roman land — agri, or acre, as it was called in Latin — had at first been divided equally among all, so it was said, while the State held the title to it. As the years passed by some persons came into possession of more of it than others, until those of spendthrift or unfortunate families were without anj'. Then there was a demand that, as the land belonged to the State, it should be taken back and divided over again, but the patricians regarded the land which they had held so long as their own, and would not consent to the plan. Upon this issue arose the long contest over the agrarian laws, as they were called. Spurius Cassius, who had been three times consul, did all ^- HISTORY OF ROME. he could to have these laws passed, but though he succeeded in ^ettin- the laws passed he could not enforce them. The patricians hated him, for'thev said he was trymg to gain the good will of the common people to have them choose him kmg. This caused the plebeians to regard him as a traitor to their interests, and he was condemned to death by the assembly of the whole people. After his death the people saw their mistake and mourned for him as a friend. In the consulship of Ka:so Fabius the people saw that there wa'= no hope of getting the laws of Cassius enforced. The plebeians would not fight in the next war for fear that their consul would gain the honor. The members of the i, CIPIO returned to Rome, had a triumph and was surnamed Africanus. After this the Romans began to spread their conquest to Greece and Asia. A younger brother of Scipio became renowned in the Asiatic wars. Lucius Scipio received the surname of Asiaticus, and the two brothers returned to Rome ; but they had been too generous and merciful to the conquered to suit the grasping spirit that began to prevail at Rome, and directly after his triumph icius was accused of having taken to himself an undue share the spoil. His brother was too indignant at the shameful rusation to think of letting him justify himself, but tore up accounts in the face of the people. The tribune, Na;vius, ;reupon spitefully called upon him to give an account of the Doil of Carthage taken twenty years before. The onh' reply he gave was to exclaim, " This is the day of the victory of Zama. Let us give thanks to the gods." No one durst say a word more to him or his brother. Corinth and Carthage fell into the hands of the Romans the same year, 179 B.C., but in the last city they gained little but a heap of burning ruins, for in their utter desperation the men forged their household implements into weapons and fought from street to street, while the women wove their hair into bow strings and were as brave as the men. But after all the city fell never to regain its former power. A man by the name of Gracchus has married a daughter of Scipio Africanus, but while he was away in Spain, fighting with the army, he died quite young, and Cornelia, his widow, devoted herself to the cause of his three children, refusing to be married again, which was very uncommon in a Roman lady. When a lady asked her to show her her ornaments, she called her two boys, Tiberius and Caius, and their sister, Sempronia, and said, " These are my jewels ; " and when she was complimented on being the daughter of Africanus, she said that the honor she should care more for was to be called "the mother of the Gracchi." It was not, however, one of her sons tliat was chosen to carry on their grandfather's name and the sacrifices of the Cornelian family. Probably Caius was not born when Scipio died, for his choice had been the second son of his sister and of Lucius .(Emilius Paulus (son of him who died at Cannae). This child being adopted 74 HISTORY OF ROME. [B.C. 179 by his uncle was called Publius Cornelius Scipio ^milianus, and when he grew up he was to marry his cousin Sempronia. Young Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, the eldest of Cornelia's jewels, had been sent to Spain in 137 B.C. As he passed through Etruria he was surprised at the dreariness and desolation where once had been fertile farms and vine\-ards. The poorer class of Romans lived in the city and these wide fields belonged to the rich, who trusted slaves to till them while they were at the wars. The laws which had been passed to divide the land were still standing but they were disregarded, so that out of four hundred thousand citizens there were only two thousand landholders. While Tiberius was serving in Spain he decided on his plan. As his family was plebeian he could be a tribune of the people, and as soon as he came home he stood and was elected. Then he proposed reviving the Licinian law, that nobody should have more than five hundred acres, and that the rest should be divided among those who had nothing, leaving, however, a larger portion to those who had many children. There was, of course, a terrible uproar, the populace clamoring for their rights, and the rich trying to stop the measure. They bribed one of the other tribunes to forbid it ; but there was a fight, in which Tiberius prevailed, and he and his young brother Caius, and his father-in-law, Appius Claudius, were appointed as triumvirs to see the law carried out. Then the rich men followed their old plan of spreading reports among the people that Tiberius wanted to make himself a king, and had accepted a crown and purple robe from some foreign envoy. When his year of office was coming to an end he sought to be elected tribune again, but the patricians said it was against the law. There was a great tumult, in the course of which he put his hand to his head, either to guard it from a blow or to beckon to his friends. " He demands the diadem," shouted his enemies, and there was a great struggle in w hich he was killed. But the law had been passed and the people demanded that it should be enforced. Caius Gracchus was nine years younger than his brother, and was elected tribune as soon as he was old enough. He was full of still greater schemes than his brother. His mother besought him to be warned by his brother's fate, but he was bent on his objects, and carried some of them out. He had the Sempronian law reaffirmed, though he could not act on it ; but in the mean time he began a regular custom of having corn served out to the poorer citizens, and found work for them upon roads and bridges , also he caused the State to clothe the soldiers, instead of their doing it at their own expense. Another scheme which he first proposed was to make the Italians of the countries now one with Roman territory into citizens, with votes like the Romans themselves ; but this again angered the patricians, who saw they should be swamped by numbers and lose their power. He also wanted to found a colony of plebeians on the ruins of Carthage, and when his tribuneship was over he went to Africa to see about it ; but when he came home the patricians had arranged an attack on him, and he B.C. 109] CAIUS MARIUS AND CORNELIUS SULLA. 75 was insulted by the lictor of the consul Opimius. The patricians collected on one side, the poorer sort around Caius on the other, but Caius was over- come. He fled with one slave, whom he compelled to slay him that he might not fall into the hands of his enemies. Poor Cornelia, heart-broken at her loss, retired to a country-house ; but in a few years the feeling turned, great love was shown to the memory of the two brothers, statues were set up in their honor, and when Cornelia herself died her statue was inscribed with the title she had coveted, " The mother of the Gracchi." YIII. CAIDS MAIS Al COIELIDS SDLLA. (B.C. 109-B.C. 78) had obt > of any peasant, who had risen to distinction in the army of 'f- UGURTHA, the grandson of Massinissa, king of Numidia. had obtained the kingdom, although he had the least right lllii'ffes* °^ ''■'^y °^ those who claimed it. Caius Marius, a free born 1 11- Roman peasant, who he 1f.'l\ Scipio /Emilianus, was sent to fight against Jugurtha. He "l^- was married to Julia, a Roman lady of high rank from the family of the Caesars, who were said to be descended from ^neas ; and though Marius was much disliked by the senate, he always carried the people with him. When he received the province of Numidia, instead of forming his army only of Roman citizens, he ofTered to enlist whoever would, and thus filled his ranks with all sorts of wild and desperate men. Jugurtha maintained a wild war in the deserts of Africa «ith Marius, but at last he was betrayed to the Romans by his friend Bocchus, another Moorish king, and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Marius' lieutenant, was sent to receive him — a transaction \vhich Sulla commemorated on a signet ring which he always wore. Poor Jugurtha was kept two years to appear at the triumph, where he walked in chains, and then was thrown alive into the dungeon under the Capitol, where he took six days to die of cold and hunger. Marius was elected consul for the second time, even before he had quite come home from Africa, for it was a time of great danger. Two fierce and terrible tribes, whom tne Romans called Cinibri and Teutones, had come down to Italy from the north, and Marius was called home to fight against them. He was elected consul a third and fourth time. A terrible battle was fought with the Teutones at Aqus Se.xtia:, where they were all destroyed and left unburied. The place is called the Putrid Fields until this day. The Cimbri had gone to the eastward and the other counsul, Catulus, could not withstand them, so Marius hastened into Italy and met his colleague 76 HISTORY OF ROME. [109 e.c. on the Po retreating from them. The Cimbri demanded hands in Italy for them- selves and their allies the Teutones. " The Teutones have all the ground they will ever want, on the other side of the Alps," said Marius ; and a terrible battle followed, in which the Cimbri were as entirely cut off as their allies had been. Marius was made consul a sixth time. As a reward to the brave soldiers who had fought under him, he made one thousand of them who came from the city of Camerinum Roman citizens, and this the patricians disliked greatly. His excuse was, " The din of arms drowned the voice of the law ; " but the new citizens were provided for by lands in the province \\hich the Romans said the Gauls had lost to the Teutones and the}^ had reconquered. It was very hard on the Gauls, but that was the last thing a Roman cared about. The Italians, however, were all crying out for the rights of Romans, and the most far-sighted among the Romans would, like Caius Gracchus, have granted them. Marcus Livius Drusus did his best for them ; he was a good man, wise and frank-hearted. But he was murdered in the streets of Rome; and the people said, " When will Rome see so good and true a man again ? " Then arose what is called the social war, and after a long struggle, though the consul Lucius Julius Caesar, brother-in-law to Marius, gained some victories, the revolt was so widespread that the senate felt it wisest, on the first sign of peace, to ofTer citizenship to such Italians as would come within sixty days to claim it. Citizenship brought a man under Roman law, freed him from taxation, and gave him many advantages and openings to a rise in life. But he could only give his vote at Rome, and only there receive the distribution of corn, and he further became liable to be called out to serve in a legion, so that the benefit was not great after all, and few Italians applied for it. The chief foe of Marius was almost always his second in command, Publius Cornelius Sulla, one of the men of highest family in Rome. He had all the high culture and elegant learning that the rough soldier Marius despised, spoke and wrote Greek as easily as Latin, and was as well read in Greek poetry and philosophy as any Athenian could be; but he was given up to all the excesses of luxur}' in w hich the wealthy Romans indulged, and his way of life had made him frightful to look at. His face was said to be like a mulberry sprinkled with salt, with a terrible pair of blue eyes glaring out of it. In 93 he was sent to command against Mithridates, king of Pontus, who had become powerful and rich. In the midst of the social war this king had caused eighty thousand Romans in Asia Minor to be slain, and Sulla was sent to punish him. Marius, who had been six times consul, raised a revolt before Sulla had left Italy, and he turned back to meet Marius and to rescue his friends with six newly-raised legions, and Marius could only just contrive to escape from Rome, where he was proclaimed a traitor and a price set on his head. He was now seventy years old, but full of spirit. First he escaped to his own farm, whence he hoped to reach Ostia, where a ship was waiting for him ; but a party of horse- 78 B.C.] CAIUS MARIUS AND CORNELIUS SULLA. -j-j men were seen coming, and he was hidden in a cart full of beans and driven down the coast, where he embarked, meaning to go to Africa ; but adverse winds and want of food forced him to land at Circa;um, whence, with a few friends, he made liis way along the coast, through woods and rocks, keeping up the spirits of his companions by telling them that, when a little boy, he robbed an eyrie of seven eaglets, and that a soothsayer had then foretold that he would be seven times consul. At last a troop of horse was seen coming toward them, and at the same time two ships near the coast. The only hope was in swimming out to the nearest ship, and Marius was so heavy and old that this was done with great difficult}'. Even then the ships were so near the shore that the pursuers could command the crew to throw Marius out, but this they refused to do, though the}' only waited till the soldiers were gone to put him on shore again. He was taken and the council decided that he must die, but when an old soldier was sent to slay him the old hero gazed at him and said, "Barest thou kill Caius Marius?" The man was so frightened that he ran away, crying out, " I cannot kill Caius Marius." The senate of Minturnae took this as an omen, and remembered besides tliat he had been a good friend to the Italians, so they conducted him through a sacred grove to the sea, and sent him off to Africa. On landing, he sent his son to ask' shelter from one of the Numidian princes, and while v.aiting for an answer he was harassed by a messenger from a Roman officer of low rank, forbidding his presence in Africa. He made no reply till the messenger pressed to know what to say to his master. Then the old man looked up, and sternly answered, " Say that you have seen Caius Marius sitting in the ruins of Carthage" — a grand rebuke for the insult to fallen greatness. Hut the Numidian could not receive him, and he could onl)' find shelter in a little island on the coast. There he soon heard that no sooner had Sulla embarked for the east than Rome had fallen into dire confusion. The consuls, Caius Octavius and Publius Cornelius Cinna, were of opposite parties, and had a furious fight, in whicli Cinna was driven out of Rome, and at the same time the Italians had begun anew social war. Marius saw that his time was come and he gathered a party of his friends and five hundred sla\-es and joined Cinna. They came to Rome and the senate admitted the consul Cinna, but when he took his seat old Marius was by his side clad in rags. They were bent upon terrible revenge, beginning with the consul Caius Octavius, who had disdained to flee, and whose head was severed from his body and displayed in the Forum, with many other senators of the noblest blood in Rome, who had offended either Marius or Cinna, or any of their fierce followers. Marius walked along in gloomy silence, answering no one ; but his followers were bidden to spare only those to whom he gave his hand to be kissed. The slaves pillaged the houses, murdered many on their own account, and everything was in the wildest uproar, till the two chiefs called in Sertorius with a legion to restore order. Then they named themselves consuls, without even asking- for an ;8 HISTORY OF ROME. [1C9E.C. election, and thus Marius was seven times consul. He wanted to go out to the east and take the command from Sulla, but his health was too much broken, and before the year of his consulate was over he died. The last lime he had left the house, he had said to some friends that no man ought to trust again to such a doubtful fortune as his had been ; and then he took to his bed for seven days without any known illness, and there was found dead, so that he was thought to have starved himself to death. Cinna put in another consul, named Valerius Flaccus, and invited all the Italians to enroll themselves as Roman citizens. Then Flaccus went out to the east, meaning to take away the command from Sulla, who was hunting Mithridates out of Greece, which he had seized and held for a short time. But Flaccus' own army rose against him and killed him, and Sulla, after beating Mithri- dates, driving him back to Fontus and making peace with him, was now ready to come home. Sulla marched on toward Rome, furious at the resistance he met with, and determined on a terrible vengeance. He could not enter the city till he was ready to dismiss his army and have his triumph, so the senate came out to meet him in the temple of Bellona. As they took their seats they heard dreadful shrieks and cries. "No matter," said Sulla; "it is only some wretches being punished." The wretches were the eight thousand Samnite prisoners he had taken at the battle of Praeneste, and brought to be killed in the Campus Martius; and with these shocking sounds to mark that he was in earnest, the purple-faced general told the trembling senate that if they sub- mitted to him he would be good to them, but that he would spare none of his enemies, great or small. .\nd his men were alread\- in the city and coun- try, slaughtering not only the party of Marius, but every one against whom aiy one of them had a spite, or whose property he coveted. Marius' body, which had been buried and not burned, was taken from the grave and thrown into the Tiber ; and such horrible deeds were done that Sulla was asked in t:i3 senate where th^ execution was to stop. He showed a list of eighty more who had yet to die ; and the ne.xt day and the next he sent in two hundred and fifty more each. These lists were called proscriptions. Both consuls were slain and all the country laid waste, for the country suffered more than the cit\'. So he set to work to put matters as much as possible in the old order. So many of the senate had been killed that he had to make up the numbers by putting in three hundred knights ; and, to supply the lack of other citizens, after the hosts who had perished, he allowed the Italians to go on coming in to be enrolled as citizens ; and ten thousand slaves, who had belonged to his victims, were not only set free, but made citizens as his own clients, they taking the name of Cornelius. He also much lessened the power of the tribunes of the people, and made a law that when a man had once been a tribune he should never be chosen for any of the higher offices of the State. By these means he sought to keep up the old patrician power, on which he believed the greatness of Rome depended ; though, after all, the grand old 70 B.C.] CxM.-EUS POMPEIUS.— JULIUS C.-ESAR. patrician families had mostly died off, and half the senate were only knights made noble. After this Sulla resigned the dictatorship, for he was growin" old, and had worn out his health by his excesses. Wnen he died he ordered his body to be burned that it might never be insulted as that of Marius' hatl been. The most promising of the men who were growing up and comin" forward was Cnaeus Pompeius, a brave and worthy man, who had while quite \'Oung gained such a victory over a Numidian prince that Sulla himself o-ave him the title of Magnus, or the Great. He was afterward sent to Spain, where Sertorius held out for eight years against the Roman power with the help of the native chiefs, but at last was put to death by his own followers. Things were altogether in a bad state. IX. (70 B.C.-44 B.C.) N.'EUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS and Lucius Licinius Crassus Dives were consuls together in the year 70 but Crassus, though he feasted the people at ten thousand tables, was envied and disliked, and would never have been elected but for Pompeius, who was a great favorite ^,^___^- with the people, and so much trusted, both by them and I tjSSf^i^v*^ the nobles, that it seems to have filled him with pride, for he gave himself great airs, and did not treat his fellow-consul as an equal. When his term of office was over, the most pressing thing to be done was to put down the Cilician pirates. In the angle ^ formed between Asia Minor and Syria, with plenty of harbors formed by the spurs of Mount Taurus, there had dwelt for ages past a horde of sea robbers, whose swift galleys darted on the merchant ships of Tyre and Alexandria ; and now, after the ruin of the Syrian kingdom, they had grown so rich that their state galleys had silken sails, oars inlaid with ivory and silver, and bronze prows. To enable Pompeius to overcome these pirates he was given the entire command of the Mediterranean Sea and fifty miles inland for three years. He divided the sea into thirteen commands and sent a party to fight the pirates in each. In forty days they were all driven out of the west end of the gulf. Then he defeated them in a sea fight, and when they came to terms he scattered them in small companies among the distant cities. A new war broke out with Mithridates and Pompeius was sent to finish the war which the consul Lucius Lucullus had began. He completed the conquest and drove the old king beyond the Caucasus and then marched into Syria, where he overthrew the last of the Scleucian kings, Antiochus, and made So HISTORY OF ROME. [70 B.C. Syria and Phcenicia into a Roman province. He then marched into Palestine to aid one of the Maccabees, and after besieging Jerusalem for three months took it on the Sabbath when the Jews would not fight. Pompeius insisted on going into the Holy of Holies but found it dark and empty. He did not plunder the treasur}' of the Temple, but the Jews remarked that, from the time of this daring entrance, his prosperity seemed to fail him. Before he left the East, however, old Mithridates, who had taken refuge in the Crimea, had been attacked by his own favorite son, and, finding that his power was gone, had taken poison ; but, as his constitution was so fortified by antidotes that it took no effect, he caused one of his slaves to kill him. The son submitted to the Romans, and was allowed to reign on the Bosphorus ; Pompeius had extended the Roman Empire as far as the Euphrates ; for though a few small kings still remained, it was only by saffrance from the Romans, who had gained thirty-nine great cities. Egypt, the Parthian kingdom on the Tigris, and Armenia in the mountains, alone remained free. While all this was going on in the East there was a very dangerous plot contrived at Rome by a man named Lucius Sergius Catilina, and seven other good-for-nothing nobles, for arming the mob, even the slaves and gladiators, overthrowing the government, seizing all the offices of state, and murdering all their opponents, after the example first set by Marius and Cinna in the previous century. Happily such secrets are seldom kept ; one of the plotters told the woman he was in love with, and she told one of the consuls, Marcus Tullius Cicero. Cicero was one of the wisest and best men in Rome, and the one whom we really know the best, for he left a great number of letters to his friends, which show us the real mind of the man. He was of the order of the knights, and had been bred up to be a lawyer and orator, and his speeches came to be the great models of Roman eloquence. He was a man of real conscience, and he most deeply loved Rome and her honor ; and though he was both vain and timid, he could put these weaknesses aside for the public good. Before all the senate he impeached Catilina, showing how fully he knew all that he intended. Nothing could be done to him by law till he had actually committed his crime, and Cicero wanted to show him that all was known, so as to cause him to flee and join his friends outside. Catilina tried to face it out, but all the senators began to cry out against him, and he dashed away in terror, and left the city at night. Cicero announced it the next day in a famous speech, beginning, " He is gone ; he has rushed away ; he has burst forth." Some of his followers in guilt were left at Rome, and just then some letters were brought to Cicero from Gaul which involved them in guilt, and nine of the worst were condemned to die. Cicero saw them executed and then went out to the people and said. " They have lived." Catilina collected an army of half-armed men, to the number of twenty thousand, and was met by the newly returned proconsul, Metellus, while the other consul was recalled from Macedonia with his army. As he was a friend of Catilina he did not choose to fight with him, and gave up the command to -44 B.C.] CN^US POMPEIUS.— JULIUS C.-ESAR. 8r liis lieutenant, by whom the wretch was defeated and slain. His head was cut off and sent to Rome. THE RIVALRY OF POMPEIUS AND CyESAR. Pompeius was coming home to receive a magnificent triumph after liis conquests in the East. Julius Cffisar, who was married to the sister of Pompeius, had divorced her, because he said that Caesar's wife must be above suspicion, and this caused the triumphant general to have an unkindly feeling toward Ccesar. The triumph was the most magnificent that Rome had ever seen and lasted two days. From this time the two became rivals, but Caesar knew that it would not do to make a move now. He would serve his consulate, then get a province as proconsul, and have time to gain a strong army. After he had served a year in Spain as propraetor Caesar came back and made friends with Pompeius and Crassus, giving his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompeius, and forming what was called a triumvirate, or union of three men. Thus he easily obtained the consulship, and showed himself the friend of the people by bringing in an agrarian law for dividing the public lands in Campania among the poorer citizens, not forgetting Pompeius' old soldiers ; also taking other measures which might make the senate recollect that Sulla had foretold that he would be another Marius and more. After this, he took Gaul as his province, and spent seven years in subduing it bit by bit, and in making two visits to Britain. He might pretty well trust the rotten state of Rome to be ready for his interference when he came back. Clodius had actually dared to bring Cicero to a trial for having put to death the friends of Catilina without allowing them to plead their own cause. Pompeius would not help him, and the people banished him four hundred miles from Rome, when he went to Sicily, where he was very miserable ; but his exile only lasted two years, and then better counsels prevailed, and he was brought home by a general vote, with great rejoicing. While affairs were going on with advantage to Rome in the provinces, at the city there was much confusion and strife. Pompeius had taken Spain for his province, but ruled it with a deputy. Crassus had been killed by the Parthians. Cassar was in Gaul. At Rome the civil strife continued, and Pompeius was chosen sole consul to put down the anarchy , and this he did for a short time, but all fell into confusion again while he was very ill of a fever at Naples, and even when he recovered there was a feeling that Cassar Wcis wanted. But Caesar's friends said he must not be called upon to give up his army unless Pompeius gave up his command of the army in Spain, and neither of them would resign. Caesar advanced with all his forces as far as Ravenna, which was still part of Cisalpine GauL and then the consul, Marcus Marcellus, begged Pompeius to protect the commonwealth, and he took up arms. Two of CjEsar's great friends, Marcus Antonius and Caius Cassius, who were tribunes, forbade this ; and when they were not heeded they fled to Caesar's camp asking his 6 82 HISTORY OF ROME. [70 B.C. protection. So he advanced. It was not lawful for an imperator, or general in command of an army, to come within the Roman territory with his troops except for his triumph, and the little river Rubicon was the boundary of Cisalpine Gaul. So when Caesar crossed it, he took the first step in breaking through old Roman rules. Though Caesar's army was but small, his fame was such that everybody seemed struck with dismay, even Pompeius himself, and instead of fighting he carried off all the senators of his party to the South, even to the extreme point of Italy at Brundusium. Caesar marched after them thither, having met with no resistance, and having, indeed, won all Italy in sixty days. As he advanced on Brundusium, Pompeius embarked on board a ship in the harbor and sailed away, meaning, no doubt, to raise an army in the provinces and return — some feared like Sulla — to take vengeance. Caesar was appointed dictator, and after crushing Pompeius' friends in Spain he pursued him into Macedonia, where Pompeius had been collectings all the friends of the old commonwealth. There was a great battle fought at Pharsalia, a battle which nearly put an end to the old government of Rome, for Caesar gained a great victory ; and Pompeius fled to the coast, where he found a vessel and sailed for Egypt. He sent a message to ask shelter at Alexandria, and the advisers of the young king pretended to welcome him, but they really intended to make friends with the victor ; and as Pompeius stepped ashore he was stabbed in the back, his body thrown into the surf, and his head cut off (48 B.C.). JULIUS C^SAR. The name of Caesar was now the greatest at Rome, and Cato and others thought that he would prove to be a second Marius. But he did not at once return to the city. He remained in the East to settle matters there and collect some money from the tributary States. He conquered Egypt and Pharnaces, and wrote his celebrated laconic letter: "Vent, vidi, vici" — I came, I saw, I conquered. He was appointed dictator a second time, and came home to settle matters in Rome, but he did not make any proscriptions, as Marius had before done, although he took away the property of those who opposed him. There was still a party of the senators and their supporters who had followed Pompeius in Africa, with Cato and Cnaeus Pompeius, the eldest son of the great leader, and Cffisar had to follow them thither. He gave them a great defeat at Thapsus, and the remnant took refuge in the city of Utica. They would have stood a siege, but the townspeople would not consent, and Cato sent(Off all his party by sea, and remained alone with his son and a few of his frier^s, to die by his own sword ere he came. So rejoiced was Romero fear no proscription, that temples were dedi- cated to Cjesar's clemency, and his image was to be carried in procession with those of the gods. He wasj named dictator for ten years, and was received witli four triumphs — over the Gauls, over the Egyptians, over Pharnaces, and 44 B.C.] ■ CN.^US POMPEIUS.— JULIUS CESAR. 83 over Juba, an African king who had aided Cato. Foremost of the Gauhsh prisoners was the brave Vercingetorix, and among the Egyptians Arsinoe, the sister of Cleopatra. A banquet was given at his cost to the whole people, and they were amused with all kind of shows. Caesar was now made dictator for ten years and consul for five and imperator of an army which was not to be disbanded. He saw that so vast an empire could not be ruled by two consuls changing every year. He made many changes in the form of government and admitted many new citizens. He made arrangements for a great survey of the provinces, governments, and tribute ; and he began to have the laws drawn up in regular order. In fact, he was one of the greatest men the world has ever produced, not only as a conqueror, but a statesman and ruler ; and though his power over Rome was not according to the laws, and had been gained by a rebellion, he was using it for her good. He was learned in all philosophy and science, and his history of his wars in Gaul has come down to our times. As a high patrician by birth, he was Pontifex Maximus, or chief priest, and thus had to fix all the festival days in each year. Now the year had been supposed to be only three hundred and fifty-five days long and the Pontifex put in another month or several days whenever he pleased, so that there was great confusion, and the feast days for the harvest and vintage came, according to the calendar, three months before there was any corn or grapes. To set this to rights, since it was now under- stood that the length of the year was three hundred and sixty-five days and six hours, Cssar and the scientific men who assisted him devised the fresh arrangement that we call leap year, adding a day to the three hundred and sixty-five once in four years. He also changed the name of one of the summer months and named it for himself. He did much to add to the glory of Rome and refused the royal crown when his flatterers offered it to him. But he did many things contrary to law, and these shocked the old Roman feelings and sense of right. He was preparing to lead an army to the extreme east where no one but Alexander had dared to go, but there were plotters at work ready to strike when the time should come. Caius Cassius, a tall lean man who recently had been praetor, was the chief of these conspirators, and with him was Marcus Junius Brutus, a descendant of him who overthrew the Tarquins, and husband to Porcia, Cato's daughter, also another Brutus named Decimus, hitherto a friend of Cssar, and newly appointed to the government of Cisal- pine Gaul. These and twelve more agreed to murder Caesar on the 15th of March, called in the Roman calendar the ides of March, when he went to the senate-house. Rumors got abroad and warnings came to him about that special day. His wife dreamt so terrible a dream that he had almost yielded to her entreaties to stay at home, when Decimus Brutus came in and laughed him out of it. As he was carried to the senate-house in a litter, a man gave him a writing and begged him to read it instantly ; but he kept it rolled in his hand without looking. As he went up the steps he said to the augur 84 HISTORY OF ROME. [zH B.C Spurius, " The ides of March are come. ' ' " Yes, Cassar," was the answer ; " but they are not passed." A few steps further on, one of the conspirators met him with a petition, and the others joined in it, clinging to his robe and his neck, till another caught his toga and pulled it over his arms, and then the first blow was struck with a dagger. Cfesar struggled at first as all fifteen tried to strike at him, but when he saw his friend among them he said, " Et tu Brute," and drew his toga over his face and fell dead at the foot of Pompey's statue. X. (44 B.C.-19 A.D.) 'HE murderers of Caesar had expected the Romans to hail them as deliverers from a tyrant, but his great friend Marcus Antonius, who was together with him consul for that year, made a speech over his body as it lay on a couch of gold and ivory in the Forum ready for the funeral. Antonius read aloud Caesar's will, and showed what benefits he had intended for his fellow- citizens, and how he loved them, so that love for him and wrath against his enemies filled every hearer. The army, of course, were furious against the murderers ; the senate was terrified, and granted everything Antonius chose to ask, provided he would protect them, whereupon he begged for a guard for him- f-D self that he might be saved from Caesar's fate, and this they gave him; while the fifteen murderers fled secretly, mostly to Cisalpine Gaul, of which Decimus Brutus was governor. C'jJ' Caesar had no child but the Julia who had been wife to ^ Pompeius, and his heir was his young cousin Caius Octavius, who changed his name to Caius Julius Caesar Octavianus, and, coming to Rome, demanded his inheritance, which Antonius had seized, declaring that it was public money; but Octavianus, though only eighteen, showed so much prudence and fairness that the senate looked with more favor on him than on Antonius. Cicero made a set of speeches against Antonius and denounced him as Demosthenes had done Phillip. Like these remarkable orations of the Greeks they were the last flashes of spirit in a sinking state. But it was too late ! The rotten institutions of his country were doomed. Octavius saw that it was for his interest to make friends with Antonius and another friend of Cjesar, Marcus .(Emilius Lepidus. They first pursued Decimus Brutus, and he was delivered up to Antonius and put to death. Soon after, Antonius, Lepidus, and Octavianus all met on a little island in the river Rhenus and agreed to form a triumvirate for five years for setting things to rights once more, all three enjoying consular power together; and. I9A.D.] THE TRIUMVIRATE.— THE EMPIRE. 85 as they had the command of all the armies, there was no one to stop them. Lepidus was to stay and govern Rome, while the other two hunted down the murderers of Csesar in the East. But, first, there was a deadly vengeance to be taken in the city upon all who could be supposed to have favored the murderers of Csesar or had opposed their schemes. They agreed to write out a list for proscription, each one devoting one of his own friends to death. Octavianus tried to save Cicero the orator, but Antonius insisted on his death. He was slain and his head given to Antonius, whose wife, Fulvia, thrust her bodkin through his tongue which had spoken so eloquently against her husband. Antonius and Octavianus went to Greece, where Marcus Brutus had been kindly received and was regarded as a hero. He had had a statue erected in his honor at Athens, and it was set up beside that of Harmodius and Aristo- geiton, the slayers of Pisistratus. Cassius had plundered Asia Minor, and the two met at Sardis. It is said that the night before they were to pass into Macedonia, Brutus was sitting alone in his tent, when he saw the fieure of a man before him. " Who art thou?" he asked, and the answer was, " I am thine evil genius, Brutus; I will meet thee again at Philippi." And it was at Philippi that Brutus and Cassius found themselves face to face with Antonius and Octavianus. Each army was divided into two, and Brutus, prevailed against Octavianus, but Cassius was overcome and died by his own hand. Brutus joined the remnants of the two armies and held out for a time, but at last in despair fell upon his own sword and died. His wife killed herself when she heard of it. After this, Octavianus went back to Italy, while Antonius stayed to pacify the East. When he was at Tarsus, the lovely queen of Egypt came, resolved to win him over. She sailed up the Cydnus in a beautiful galley, carved, gilded, and inlaid with ivory, with sails of purple silk and silvered oars, moving to the sound of flutes, while she lay on the deck under a star- spangled canopy arrayed as Venus, with her ladies as nymphs, and little boys as cupids fanning her. Antonius was perfectly fascinated, and she took him back to Alexandria with her, heeding nothing but her and the delights with which she entertained him, though his wife, Fulvia, and his brother were struggling to keep up his power at Rome. He did come home, but only to make a fresh agreement with Octavianus, by which Fulvia was given up, and he married Octavia, the widow of Marcellus and sister of Octavianus. But he could not bear to stay long away from Cleopatra, and, deserting Octavia, he returned to Egypt, where the most wonderful revelries were kept up. After Octavianus and Lepidus had overcome Decimus, Lepidus endeavored to conquer Octavianus and take the whole government, but failed and was defeated and banished. Octavianus was a man of mild disposition and did not like to shed blood when he could avoid it. Now that he was alone in Rome he won the hearts of all by his gracious ways, while the scandals which came from Egypt turned all against Antonius. Octavia tried to win her husband back, but she was a grave, virtuous 86 HISTORY OF ROME. [44 B.C. Roman matron, and coarse, dissipated Antonius did not care for her compared with the enticing Egj'ptian queen. It was needful at last for Octavianus to destroy this dangerous power, and he mustered a fleet and army, while Antonius and Cleopatra sailed out of Alexandria with their ships and gave battle off the cape of Actium. In the midst, either fright or treachery made Cleopatra sail away, and all the Egyptian ships with her, so that Antonius turned at once and fled with her. They tried to raise the East in their favor, but all their allies deserted them, and their soldiers went over to Alexandria, where Octavianus followed them. Then Cleopatra betrayed her lover, and put into the hands of Octavianus the ships in which he might have fled. She had poisoned herself with the sting of asps that were brought to her in a basket of figs. Octavianus was now left alone in the government, and though the old framework that had been standing for generations was still preserved, Octavi- anus had gathered all the functions of the magistrates in one. He was prince of the senate, which gave him command of the city ; praetor, which made him judge and gave him a special guard of soldiers, called the prstorian guard, to execute justice ; and tribune of the people, which made him their voice ; and even after his triumph he was still imperator, or general of the army. This word becomes in English, emperor, but it meant at this time merely com- mander-in-chief. He was also Pontifex Maximus, as Julius Caesar had been ; and there was a general feeling that he was something sacred and set apart as the ruler and peace-maker; and, as he shared this feeling himself, he took the name of Augustus, which is the one by which he is always known. He did not, however, take to himself any great show or state. He lived in his family abode, and dressed and walked about the streets like any other Roman gentleman of consular rank, and no special respect was paid to him in speech, for, warned by the fate of Julius, he was determined to prevent the Romans from being put in mind of kings and crowns. He was a wise and deep-thinking man, and he tried to cany out the plans of Julius for the benefit of the nation and of the whole Roman world. He had the survey finished of all the countries of the empire, which now formed a complete border round the Mediterranean Sea, reaching as far north as the British Channel, the Alps, and the Black Sea, as far south as the African desert, as far west as the Atlantic, and east as the borders of the Euphrates , and he also had a univer- sal census made of the whole of the inhabitants. It was the first time such a thing had been possible, for all the world was at last at peace, so that the temple of Janus was closed for the third and last time in Roman history. There was a feeling all over the world that a great deliverer and peaceful prince was to be expected at this time. One of the Sybils was believed to have so sung, and the Romans, in their relief at the good rule of Augustus, thought he was the promised one ; but they little knew why God had brought about this great stillness from all wars, or why He moved the heart of Augustus to make the decree that all the world should be taxed — namely, I9A.D.] THE TRIUMVIRATE.— THE EMPIRE. 87 that the true Prince of Peace, the real deHverer, might be born in the home of his forefathers, Bethlehem, the city of David. He tried to bring back better ways to Rome, which was in a sad state, full of vice and riot, and with little of the old, noble, hardy ways of the former times. The educated men had studied Greek philosophy till they had no faith in their own gods. Learning was much esteemed in the time of Augustus. He and his two great friends, Caius Cilnius Maecenas and Vipsa- nius Agrippa, both had a great esteem for scholarship and poetry, and es- pecially the house of Maecenas was always open to literary men. The two chief poets of Rome, Publius Virgilius Maro and Quintus Horatius Flaccus, were warm friends of his. Vi.-gil wrote poems on husbandry, and short dialogue poems called eclogues, in one of which he spoke of the time of Augustus in words that would almost serve as a prophecy of the kingdom of him who was just born at Bethlehem. By desire of Augustus he also wrote the yEnctd, a poem on the war-doings of vEneas and his settlement in Italy. Horace wrote odes and letters in verse and satires, which show the habits and ways of thinking of his time in a very curious manner ; and there were many other writers whose works have not come down to us ; but the Latin of this time is the model of the language, and an Augustan age has ever since been a term for one in which literature flourishes. We have come down the line of Roman history to the birth of Christ, and find Augustus Caesar reigning over the whole world. The Greek language was spoken in all nations as the language of commerce and literature. General peace and prosperity prevailed, and Augustus was reverenced almost as a god. At length the peace was broken by the German tribes, and after Drusus, surnamed Germanicus, for his victories over them, had died, his brother, Tibe- rius, went to fight the Germans under their brave leader, Arminius. Under the proconsul. Varus, the Roman army was defeated, and Tiberius returned to Rome to tell the sad news, while Varus fell back and fortified the river Rhine. This was in the year 9 A.D. The news ofthis disaster was a terrible shock to the emperor. He sat grieving over it, and at times he dashed his head against the wall, crying, "Varus, Varus! give me back my legions." His friends were dead, he was an old man now, and sadness was around him. He was soon, however, grave and composed again; and, as his health began to fail, he sent for Tiberius and put his affairs into his hands. When his dying day came he met it calmly. He asked if there was any fear of a tumult on his death, and was told there was none ; then he called for a mirror, and saw that his gray hair and beard were in order, and, asking his friends whether he had played his part well, he uttered a verse from a play bidding them applaud his e.xit, bade Livia remem- ber him, and so died (19 A.D) in his seventy-seventh year, having ruled fifty-eight years — ten as a triumvir, forty-eight alone. XI. THE EMPEKORS AFTER AllJSTIJS, (19 A.D.-312 A.D.) HEN Augustus Caesar had died, the people and senate gave all the power which he had held to his step-son, Tiberius Claudius Nero, who had also the right to the name of Julius Csesar Augustus. Tiberius had been a grave, morose man ever since he was deprived of the wife he loved, and had lost his. brother; and he greatly despised the mean, cringing ways round him, and kept to himself; but his nephew, called Germanicus, after his father, was a person whom all loved and trusted. Germanicus earned his surname over again by driving Arminius back; but he was more enterprising than would have been approved by Augustus, who thought it wiser to guard what he had than to make wider conquests; and Tiberius was not only one of the same mind, but was jealous of the great love that all the army were showing for his nephew, and this distrust was increased when the soldiers in the East begged for Germanicus to lead them against the Parthians. He set out, visiting all the famous places in Greece by the way, and going to see the wonders of Egypt, but while he was gone he sickened and died. The people at Rome thought that their favorite had been poisoned by a spy sent after him by the emperor. It is strange to remember that while such dark deeds were being done at Rome, came the three years when the true Light was shining in the darkness- It was in the time of Tiberius Caesar, when Pontius Pilatus was propraetor of Palestine, that our Lord Jesus Christ spent three years in teaching and work- ing miracles ; then was crucified and slain by wicked hands, that the sin of mankind might be redeemed. Then he rose again from the dead and ascended into heaven, leaving his Apostles to make known what he had done in all the world. At length Tiberius fell ill, and when he was known to be dying he was smothered with pillows as he began to recover from a fainting fit, lest he should take vengeance on those who had for a moment thought him dead. He died A.D. 37, and the power went to Caligula, properly called Caius, who was only twenty-five, and who began in a kindly, generous spirit, which pleased the people and gave them hope ; but to have so much power was too much for his brain, and he can only be thought of as mad, especially 3I2A.D.] THE EMPERORS AFTER AUGUSTUS. 89 after he had a severe illness, which made the people so anxious that he was puffed up with his own importance. He recovered and put all to death who had offended him. Everybody was in danger, and at last a plot was formed for his death ; and as he was on his way from his house to the circus, and stopped to look at some singers who were going to perform, a party of men set upon him and killed him with many wounds, after he had reigned only five years, and when he was but thirty years old. Then Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was made emperor. He was kind to the people in the distant provinces and gave the Jews a king, Herod Agrippa, and did much to restore Rome to quiet. He was unfortunate in his wives, and at last his own niece poisoned him that her own son might be emperor. This was in the year 54 A. D., — after the birth of Christ. This son took all the names of the two families, Claudian and Julian, but is commonly known as Nero. Rome was so vile and wicked that it almost seems that they deserved such a tyrant as Nero. He reigned till the year 68 A.D. and perished in a most miserable manner by the hand of a slave. In his life the great per- secutions against the Christians began, and raged with much fury. Saint Paul and Saint Peter, with an immense number of early Christians, perished by command of this cruel tyrant. He was the last of the Julian line. Otho, a soldier, became emperor, but the legions in Gaul marched against him and he slew himself to prevent bloodshed. When the Eastern army heard of these changes, they declared they would make an emperor like the soldiers of the West, and hailed Vespasian as- emperor. He left his son Titus to subdue Judea, and set out himself for Italy, where Vitellius had given himself up to riot and feasting. There was a terrible fight and fire in the streets of Rome itself, and the Gauls, who chiefly made up Vitellius* army, did even more mischief than the Gauls of old under Brennus ; but at last Vespasian triumphed. Vitellius was taken, and, after being goaded along with the point of a lance, was put to death. There had been eighteen months of confusion, and Vespasian began his reign in the year 70. It was just then that his son Titus, having taken all the strongholds ia Galilee, though they were desperately defended by the Jews, had advanced to besiege Jerusalem. The holy city was taken and the temple was burned, against the command of Titus, who desired to save the wonderful building. The city was utterly overthrown and sown with salt, and such treasures as could be saved from the fire were carried in the triumph of Titus when he returned to Rome. Vespasian was an upright man, and though he was stern and unrelenting his reign was a great relief after the capricious tyranny of the last Claudius. He and his eldest son, Titus, were plain and simple in their habits, and tried to put down the horrid riot and excess that were ruining the Romans, and they were feared and loved. They had great successes too. Britain was subdued and settled as far as the northern hills, and a great rising in Eastern Gaul subdued. Vespasian was accused of being avaricious, but Nero had left the treasury in such a state that he could hardly have governed go HISTORY OF ROME. [19A.D. without being careful. He died in the }-car 79, at seventy years old. When he found himself almost gone, he desired to be lifted to his feet, saying that an emperor should die standing. He left two sons, Titus and Domitian. Titus was more of a scholar than his father, and was gentle and kindly in manner, so that he was much beloved. Titus' reign was short, for he died the next year, and Tacitus, the historian, lays the blame of this on Domitian, who succeeded to the throne. He reigned until the year 96 A. D., detested by his people and afraid that they would conspire against him. He put so many people to death that he grew fright- ened lest vengeance should fall on him, and he had his halls lined with polished marble, that he might see as in a glass if any one approached him from behind. But this did not save him. His wife found that he meant to put her to death, and contrived that a party of servants should murder him. Domitian is called the last of the twelve Caesars, but the other emperors after him took the name. THE SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY. The next emperor was an upright old senator named Cocceius Nerva, who ruled in the old Roman spirit and persecuted the Christians in his zeal to restore the ancient religion and customs. Julius Trajanus, whom Nerva adopted, and who began to reign after him in 98, did not persecute actively, but there were laws in force against the Christians. When Pliny the younger was proprcetor of the province of Pontica in Asia Minor, he wrote to ask the emperor what to do about the Christians, telling him what he had been able to find out about them from two slave girls who had been tortured ; namely, that they were wont to meet together at night or early morning, to sing together, and eat what he called a harmless social meal. Trajan answered that he need not try to hunt them out, but that if they were brought before him the law must take its course. Trajan was so good a ruler that he bears the title of Optimus, the Best, as no one else has ever done. He was a great captain, too, and conquered Dacia, the country between the rivers Danube, Theiss and Pruth, and the Carpathian Hills ; and he also conquered the Parthians. He was on his way back from the East when, in 117, he died at Cilicia, leaving the empire to another brave warrior, Publius yEtius Hadrianus, who took the command with great vigor, but found he could not keep Dacia, and broke down the bridge over the Danube. He came to Britain, where the Roman settlements were tormented by the Picts. There he built the famous Roman wall from sea to sea to keep them out. Hadrian did not persecute the Church, and listened kindly to an explana- tion of the faith which was shown him at Athens by Quadraturus, a Christian philosopher. Before his death, in 138, he had chosen his successor, Titus Aurelius Antoninus, a good, upright man, a philosopher, and 52 years old : for it had been found that youths who became emperors had their heads 3I2A.D.] THE EMPERORS AFTER AUGUSTUS. 91 turned by such unbounded power, while elder men cared for the work and duty. Antonius was so earnest for his people's welfare that they called him Pius. He avoided wars, only defended the empire ; but he was a great builder, for he raised another rampart in Britain, much further north, and set up another column at Rome, and in Gaul built a great amphitheater at Nismes, and raised the wonderful aqueduct which is still standing, and is called the Pont du Gard. His son-in-law, whom he adopted and who succeeded him, is commonly called Marcus Aurelius, as a choice among his many names. He was a deep student and Stoic philosopher, with an earnest longing for truth and \-irtue, though he knew nothing of Christianity. Once his army was perishing with thirst when a whole legion, all Christian soldiers, knelt down and prayed. A cloud came up, a welcome shower of rain descended, and was the saving of the thirsty host. It was said that the name of the Thundering Legion was given to this division in consequence. After this there was less persecution, but every sort of trouble — plague, earthquake, famine and war — ■ beset the empire on all sides, and the emperor foiled in vain against these troubles, writing, meantime, meditations that show how sad and sick at heart he was, and how little comfort philosophy gave him, while his eyes were blind to the truth. He died of a fever in his camp, while still in the prime of life, in the year 180, and with him passed away the good emperors. The son of Aurelius indeed succeeded him, but he was a foolish, good-for- nothing youth named Commodus, and held the throne for only a short time. So completely had the old Roman spirit been lost that the senate offered the throne to him who would pay the highest price for it. A vain, old, rich sena- tor, named Didius Julianus, was at supper with his family when he heard that the praetorians were selling the empire by auction, and out he ran, and actu- ally bought it at the rate of about i^200 to each man. The emperor being really the commander-in-chief, with other offices attached to the dignity, the soldiers had a sort of right to the choice ; but the other armies at a distance, who were really fighting and guarding the empire, had no notion of letting the matter be settled by the praetorians, mere guardsmen, who stayed at home and tried to rule the rest ; so each army chose its own general and marched on Rome, and it was the general on the Danube, Septimus Severus, who got there first ; whereupon the praetorians killed their foolish emperor and joined him. Severus made an able emperor, and ruled until 211 A.D. His wife was named Julia Domna, and he left two sons, usually called Caracalla and Geta, who divided the empire ; but Geta was soon stabbed by his brother's own hand, and then Caracalla showed himself even worse than Commodus, till he in his turn was murdered in 217. Elagabus ruled after him and was a harsh coarse man. After him came Alexander his cousin, whom he had adopted, and who took the surname Severus. Alexander Severus was a good and just prince, whose mother is believed to have been a Christian, and he had certainly learned enough of the divine 92 HISTORY OF ROME. [19 a.d. law to love virtue, and be firm while he was forbearing. He loved virtue,^ but he did not accept the faith, and would only look upon our blessed Lord as a sort of great philosopher, placing his statue with that of Abraham, Orpheus, and all whom he thought great teachers of mankind, in a private temple of his own, as if they were all on a level. He never came any nearer to the faith, and after thirteen years of good and firm government he was killed in a mutiny of the praetorians in 235. These guards had all the power, and set up and put down emperors so rapidly that there are hardly any names worth remembering. In the unsettled state of the empire no one had time to persecute the Christians, and their numbers grew and prospered ; in many places they had churches, with worship going on openly, and their bishops were known and respected. The Emperor Philip, called the Arabian, who was actually a Christian, though he would not own it openly, when he was at Antioch joined in the service at Easter, and presented himself to receive the Holy Communion ; but Bishop Babylas refused him, until he should have done open penance for the crimes by which he had come to the purple, and renounced all remains of heathenism. He turned away rebuked, but put off his repentance ; and the next year celebrated the games called the Seculje, because they took place every seculum or hundredth year, with all their heathen ceremonies, and with tenfold splendor, in honor of this being Rome's thousandth birthday. All the while the new religion was spreading, and people of every rank were embracing it. With many vicissitudes the praetorian guard kept up its influence, making and killing emperors so rapidly that we can not give a list of them, until at last the power of the praetorians was broken by Diocletian, who divided the empire and placed a soldier of great courage but ignoble birth over the western part. His name was Maximian. Diocletian was esteemed the most just and kind of the emperors; Maximian, the fiercest and most savage. He had a bitter hatred of the Christian name, which was shared by Galerius ; but on the other hand, the wife of Diocletian was believed to be a Christian, and Helena, the wife of Constantius, was certainly one. However, Maximian and Galerius were determined to put down the faith. Maximian is said to have had a whole legion of Christians in his army, called the Theban, from the Egyptian Thebes. These he commanded to sacrifice, and on their refusal had them decimated — that is, every tenth man was slain. They were called on again to sacrifice, but still were staunch, and after a last summons were, every man of them, slain as they stood with their tribune, Maurice, whose name is still held in high honor in the Engadine. Diocletian was slow to become a persecutor, until a fire broke out in his palace at Nicomedia, which did much mischief in the city, but spared the chief Christian church. The enemies of the Christians accused them of having caused it, and Diocletian required every one in his household to clear themselves by offering sacrifice to Jupiter. His wife and 3I2A.D.] THE EMPERORS AFTER AUGUSTUS. 93 daughter yielded, but most of his officers and slaves held out, and died in cruel torment. Diocletian wished to resign, and he persuaded Maximian to retire from the government with him in 305 A.D., appointing Constantius and Galerius emperors in their stead. The Franks, one of the Teuton nations, were constantly breaking in on the eastern frontier of Gaul, and the Caledonians on the northern border of the settlement of Britain. Constantius opposed them gallantly, and was much loved, but he died at York, 305, and Galerius passed'' over his son Constantine, and appointed a favorite of his own named Licinius. Constantine was so much beloved by the army and people •of Gaul that they proclaimed him emperor, and he held the province of Britain and Gaul securely against all enemies. Old Maximian, who had only retired on the command of Diocletian, now came out from his retreat, and called on his colleague to do the same ; but Diocletian was far too happy on his little farm at Salona to leave it, and answered the messenger who urged him again to take upon him the purple with—" Come and look at the cabbages I have planted." However, Maximian was accepted as the true emperor by the senate, and made his son Maxentius, Caisar, while he allied himself with Constantius, to whom he gave his daughter Fausta in marriage. Maxentius turned out a rebel, and drove the old man away to Marseilles, where Constantine gave him a home on condition of his not interfering with government. He could not, and finally Constantine was forced to put him to death. Galerius died soon after this in great remorse at his cruelties to the Christians. Then there began a great struggle between Maxentius, who had seized the government at Rome, and Constantine. The latter marched to Italy, and is said to have seen a bright cross of light at midday with the words " In hoc signo viiiccs "—by this sign you may conquer— around it. He became a Christian, and from this time promised the Christians his favor and protection. He entered Rome and was proclaimed as emperor of the West. XII. MODERN EOME ADD THE CIEGH, (312-1884.) »HE first gteneral council, or, as it is called, CECumenical council, was called by Constantine, who was now sole emperor of the whole Roman empire at Nicea, a city in Asia Minor. He paid the expense of all the bishops, who came from every part of the world. A creed was here drawn up which is known as the Nicean Creed. Three hundred bishops at once set their seals to it, and of those who at first refused all but two were won over, and these were banished. It was then that the faith of the Church began to be called catholic, or universal, and orthodox, or straight teaching ; while those who attacked it were called heretics, and their doctrine heresy, from a Greek word meaning to choose. After this Arius went to Constantinople to ask the emperor to insist on his being received back to communion. He declared that he believed that which he held in his hand, showing the creed of Nicea, but keeping hidden under it a statement of his own heresy. " Go," said Constantine ; " if your faith agree with your oath, you are blameless; if not, God be your judge;" and he commanded that Arius should be received to communion the next day, which was Sunday. But on his way to church, among a great number of his friends Arius was struck with sudden illness and died in a few minutes. The emperor, as well as the Catholics, took this as a clear token of the hand of God, and Constantine was cured of any leaning to the Arians, though he still believed the men who called Athanasius factious and troublesome, and therefore would not recall him from exile. This was the establishment of the Roman Catholic Church, which came at last to control all the destinies of those kingdoms and empires which made up what is called Christendom. After the time of Constantine, with the exception of the reign of Julian, the apostate, all the emperors of Rome were friendly to Christianity, and by the aid of missionaries the new religion spread to the barbarous nations lying to the north and eastward. The fierce Goths came from beyond the Alps and devastated the country of Rome, destroying the last vestige of the old Roman religion, burning the temples 1884] MODERN ROME AND THE CHURCH. 95 and overthrowing the altars, and these were never rebuilt. The division between the East and West came, in which the Greek Church threw off the supremacy of the Roman pontiff and established their capital at Constanti- nople, as we have said in the " History of Modern Greece." The kings of France and Germany took the part of the popes or contended with them, as their interests might seem to dictate, until at last the temporal power of the pope was acknowledged as binding upon all nations. The pope, for the time being, was superior to king or emperor, and each was obliged to receive his crown from the hands of the Roman pontiff. Large revenues were collected for the Church, and her coffers were filled with the wealth of Europe. The Catholic religion was enforced by law upon all people. Wars arose between nations, but the popes interfered on one side or another, and compelled peace upon the terms they dictated. All this becomes a part of the history of modern Europe, and upon this much information will be found in the three histories contained in this work. At length came the reformation of Luther the German, and the nations, aroused from their sleep of centuries, began to throw ofi the chains of Rome. Protestantism was established and gradually the popes lost their temporal power till they had possession of ten small States in Italy with Rome as their capital. They held the city of Rome for more than a thousand years. This long history of a thousand years is filled with deeds of blood and persecution in the name of religion, in which all sides were at fault. These form the annals of medieval history, and during this time many nations had risen and many had fallen. Northern Italy had been formed into the kingdom of Lombardy, and Southern Italy had endeavored to regain her liberty. At last Pope Pius IX., in 1848, had left Rome in fear of his life, because the Italians had risen against him, led by the king of Sardinia. The French army was sent to restore him, and the Italians were sadly disappointed. But Rome was retaken from them, and Pius IX. was restored to his throne in the Vatican, upheld by the strength of French arms. Thus he continued as a temporal prince and the spiritual head of the Church until after the defeat of the French emperor, Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.), by the Germans in 1 87 1, when the French troops were withdrawn from Rome, and the Italians at once were ready to assert their rights and rise against him. Victor Emanuel, who had been proclaimed king of Italy in 1861, was admitted into the city of Rome, and acknowledged as its king. Pius IX. was thus deprived of the last vestige of his temporal power but allowed to retain his position as the head of the Church, but he retired to the Vatican and chose to regard himself as a prisoner until his death, on the 7th of February, 1878. On the 20th of the same month the new pope was elected, forty-five votes being given for him out of a total of sixty cast by the cardinals. The choice of this majority fell upon Cardinal Joachim Pecci, a,rchbishop of Perugia, who was crowned at St. Peter's on the 3d of March, 1878, under the title of Leo XIII. Of the life of the pope but a few facts need be stated. He is a native of the pontifical States, bom at Carpineto, March 2d, 18 10. 96 HISTORY OF ROME. [1884 Having developed superior ability as a delegate, he was appointed nuncio to Jielgium, an honor which preceded his promotion to the archbishopric of Perugia, on the 19th of March, 1846. Subsequently, as cardinal as well as archbishop, he became eligible to the popedom, and was elected as before stated. His first official act as pope was to restore the hierarchy in Scotland. In April, 1878, he issued his first encyclical letter. His relations with the Italian government have been essentially the same as those of his predecessor. His negoti- ations with the governments of Germany and Switzerland have had for their object the im- provement of the relations of the Roman Catholic Church with them, with the view to the better condition of the Church in those countries. They are considered to have been undertaken and conducted with diplomatic wis- dom and skill, and to have been successful to a degree. The visitor to modern Rome can find many things of great interest in art, science , and history connected with the different phases of its wonderful past. If he walk the streets 1 Eo XIII. filled with their rich associations and studies the wonderful buildings there, he may dwell on the old or the new, the pagan or the Christian, as his mind leads him, or else on that strange middle time when idolatry and Christianity were struggling together. LP'^jl :"8