Digitized by tine Internet Arciiive in 2010 witii funding from Tine Library of Congress littp://www.arcliive.org/details/mexicoinpeacewarOOruss MEXI In Peace and War [/ MEXICO In Peace and War y n D D A Narrative of Mexican History and Con- ditions from the Earliest Times to the Present Hour, Including an Account of the Military Operations by the United States at Vera Cruz in 1914 and the Causes that Led Thereto. By Thomas H. Russell, A.M., LL. D. Member of the American Historical Association, the National Geographic Society, Etc. Illustrated Reilly & Britton Syndicate Chicago Copyright, 1914 by Sumner C. Britton jL',*i "\\m N. B. — All the photographic illustrations used in this book are copy- right by their owners and all rights of reproduction are strictly reserved. 'CI,A3T6112 ^ f^ PREFACE It was never intended that " Mexico in Peace and War ' ' should be limited in scope to a mere ' ' war book, ' ' although many months ago it was thought that war was imminent, and quite probable, before a solution of exist- ing difficulties could be brought about, or before this vol- ume could go to press. For several years the eyes of the civilized world have been directed toward Mexico because of the revolution of the masses against certain classes which had been fiercely waged. The American public seemed eager for details of this civil war, and such details were furnished by the daily press. Then came a demand for all kinds of information about Mexico. What seemed necessary to the situation was a popular, readable book that would embrace all the facts concern- ing this land of conquest, revolution and treasure. Such a history must necessarily be authentic and comprehensive. It was part of the plan that should war actually take place between the United States and Mexico ere its publi- cation, allowance would be made in this history for the incidents and causes leading up to and into the beginning of such a war. In the event of conflict it would be only reasonable to expect that whether or not the opposing forces should be in actual conflict, or in a position of armed belligerency pending peaceful settlement, the ulti- mate solution would be long drawn out ; and to postpone the volume for a " last word " of war developments would be to deprive the public of an immense fund of information never before issued in popular form. There- fore, in the make-up of this history the first four chapters 5 6 PREFACE wore reserved for eventualities, and thus the actual facts concerning the present situation in Mexico are to be found in most interesting sequence in the front of the book, fully illustrated with the very latest pictures to be had from the seat of trouble. This volume has been in preparation for many months. All facts and figures concerning Mexico have been secured from most reliable sources and may be depended upon. The chapters concerning social and economic conditions refer mainly to those which prevailed throughout the land just prior to the outbreak of the revolution which followed the last election of President Diaz. His regime was the golden age of Mexican peace and prosperity and it is therefore only logical to believe that, with the re- establishment of constitutional government, a new era of progress and development will dawn for our southern neighbor. Acknowledgment is freely made of assistance rendered during the preparation of the work by Mrs. Reau Campbell and Mr. Franc Campbell, manager of the Reau Campbell Tours and son of the noted traveler and author- ity on Mexico, the late Mr. Reau Campbell, whose com- prehensive " guide " is by the far the best work of its kind extant. Many of the illustrations of Mexican life and scenery are from the collection of Mr. Campbell and the great majority are printed for the first time in these pages. The editor is also indebted to the Bureau of American Republics and to the works on Mexico of Alfred R. Conkling, LL.B., Ph.B., former United States Geolo- gist; Arthur Edward Noll, author of " From Empire to Republic," and Francis Aug-ustus MacNutt, translator and editor of " The Letters of Cortez " and author of '' Fernando Cortez and the Conquest of Mexico," etc.; also to Mr. Hugh Miller and Mr. Keith Jones for timely contributions of available copy. T. H. R. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Peeface 5 Intkoductoey 11 I. Occupation of Veea Ceuz 17 Landing of United States Forces — Shelled by Small Guns — The Casualties — Admiral Fletcher's Warn- ing — How the First Man Died — General Maas Sum- moned to Surrender — A Contest of Rifles — Defenses of Vera Cruz — The City Cleaned Up — U. S. Troops Take Charge. II. The Tampico Incident 41 Americans Taken from a Naval Boat — A Salute De- manded — Matter Referred to Huerta — He Refuses American Demands — President Wilson Before Con- gress — An Ultimatum — Fleet Ordered to Seize Vera Cruz — Both Sides of the Case — Events from Day to Day. III. Mediation by Diplomats 59 South American Republics Offer Their Services — Ac- ceptance by President Wilson — Huerta Accepts tha Principle of Mediation — An Armistice Agreed Upon — Carranza Refuses to Suspend Hostilities Against Huerta Government. IV. The Eevolution OF 1910-14 77 Resignation of President Diaz — Madero as President — Active Revolt Begins — The Ten Days' Fight in Mexico City — Intervention Proposed — Fall of Madero — His Death — Succession of Huerta — Not Recognized by the United States — The Carranza Revolt — The Constitutionalist Program — An Unsat- isfactory Election — John Lind's Mission, 8 CONTENTS CHAPTER . PAGE V. The Mexican War of 1846-7 97 Result of a Bounchuy J)ispute — The Revolt of Texas — International Boundaries Defined — General Zaeh- ary Taylor's Operations in Texas — Congress Declares War — Battle of Monterey — Battle of Buena Vista — General Scott's Campaign — Surrender of Vera Cruz — On to Mexico City — Battle of Cerro Gordo — In the Valley of Mexico — Scott's Strategy Wins — Battle of Chapultepec — In the City of Mexico — Santa Anna in Exile — The Treaty of Peace. VI. Early History of Mexico 114 The Seven Tribes — Arrival of the Toltecs — Origin of Pulque — The Aztecs in the Valley — Legend of the Eagle — Empire of the Montezumas — Conquest by Cortez — In the Aztec Capital — Discovery of the Treasure — Rule of the Viceroys. VII. '' The Sorrowful Night " 125 Cortez Leaves the City — A Midnight March — Attack by the Aztecs — Victims Seized for Sacrifice — Wlien Cortez Wept — Character of Cortez. VIII. The Revolutionary Wars 131 Modern History of Mexico — The First Constitution — Fate of Patriotic Chieftains — Last of the Viceroys — Iturbide as Emperor — Rise of the Republic — The Era of Maximilian — Presidents Down to Diaz. IX. Juarez, the Indian President 136 a Patriot and Honest Man — Elected President — His Re-election — " The Man in the Black Coat " — Death of Juarez. X. The Constitutional Struggle 141 Earliest Efforts for Representative Government — The " Governmental Council " — The First Congress — Iturbide as Emperor — The Constitution of 1824 — Fundamental Law of 1836 — A Military Plan — The Constitution of 1857. XI. Mexico Under Diaz 150 Diaz Proclaimed President — A Man of Action — His Liberal Administration — Tributes to Diaz. CONTENTS 9 CHAPTER PAGE XII. Government and Constitution 153 The Supreme Federal Power — Legislative, Executive and Judicial Branches — Revenues — Terms of the Constitution. XIII. The City of Mexico 158 Origin of the Name — The Federal District • — The Na- tional Palace — Mexico's Liberty Bell — Many Mag- nificent Churches — The Great Cathedral — The Parks and Plazas — The Paseo — Old Aqueducts — A World-Famed Statue — Schools — The Death Rate. XIV. Around the Valley 181 Beautiful Chapultepec — Palace of Montezuma — Mo- lino del Rey — Churubasco — The Ancient Capital — Mexico's Monte Carlo — La Viga Canal — The Vil- lage of Santa Anita. XV. A Mexican Bullfight 191 The Most Popular Amusement ■ — Form of the Ring — Duties of the President — A Thrilling Scene — - Order of the Procession — Coming of the Bull — Interesting Features — The Star Performer — Death of the Bull. XVI. Ranches and Ranching 201 The Mexican Table-lands — Many Vegetable Products — Conditions of Labor — American Managers' Meth- ods — ■ Payment for the Crops — One Result of Rais- ing Wages — Peon Slavery in the South — The Hene- quen Kings — " Enforced Service for Debt " — Break- ing the Yaqui Spirit. XVII. Industries and Manufactures 216 Wonderful Resources Lying Dormant — The Cattle Industry — Hides and Skins — Hammock Making — Cotton and Woolen Fabrics — The Silk Industry — Distilleries — Tobacco — Ironf oundries — Jewelry. XVIII. Mines and Mining 226 Mines Exempt from Taxes — The Metalliferous Belt — Great Mining Centers — A Silver State — Quarries of Onyx — The Patio Process — The Lixiviation Process. 10 CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XIX. Coal and Oil Deposits 237 Discovery of Coal — States Seek Development of Mines — Great Oil Deposits. XX. Land Laws of Mexico 242 The Three Regions — Public Lands — Terms of the Law — The Denouncer's Rights — Long Leases to Foreigners — Title of an Alien. "XXI. The Legend of Guadalupe 248 Holiest Shrine in Mexico — A Miraculous " Sign " — Legend Sanctioned by the Church — A National Holi- day — The Church of Guadalupe. XXII. Social Conditions in Mexico 259 Two Classes of Society — Peons Used as Pack Ani- mals — Their Faithful Service — All Gradations of Caste — A Veritable Feudal System — Cost of Living — Rents — Public Porters — Costumes. XXIII. The Alcabala System 271 a Peculiar Method of Taxation — Reforms of 1830 — Official Interpretation of the Tax. XXIV. Bandits and Their Work 275 The Rurales or Country Police — Weapons of an Iron Hand — Rise of Bandit Leaders — A Typical Case of Brigandage — Other Exciting Experiences — An Attack of Zapatistas. XXV. Facts About Mexico 284 Area and Population — People, Religion and Education — Principal Cities — Rivers and Lakes — Flora and Fauna — States and Their Area — Music — The National Hymn — Transportation — The Police. XXVI. Chronology of Mexican History SOS INTRODUCTORY Steaming majestically south through the Gulf of Mex- ico and the Bay of Campeche toward the ancient port of Vera Cruz, a service squadron of modern gray war- ships proudly bore at the masthead the flag that waves over a hundred million free and independent people in the world 's greatest republic — the flag that should com- mand universal respect and insure the lives and liberty of all, at home or abroad, who claim the protection of its starry folds. But the bright emblem of their nationality borne by the warships had been treated with contumely in a foreign port. Their flag had been flouted — and the service squadron steamed steadily on. Aboard the ships was a fighting force of patriotic, resolute men. Young men they were, for the most part, filled with the fire and fervor of youth and eager for a sight of the enemy they sought ; but held in perfect con- trol by their commanders, thoroughly trained and dis- ciplined, expert in the arts of peace and of war, accus- tomed to use head as well as hand in all their pursuits, fit for any duty, and ready to go anywhere in the defense of their flag. Sixteen years had elapsed since the young men of America had last been called to active service under the Stars and Stripes, but these men, sailors and marines of the great gray vessels on their way to Central Amer- ica, were all of the same stamp and animated by the same spirit as their brothers who followed the flag to Cuba in 1898, and of whom it was well said by a British officer U 1-2 INTRODUCTORY that '* every man seemed fit to command a company." But, ' ' Theirs not to reason why — Theirs but to do or die." With grim, set face the admiral paced the bridge of his flagship. His orders were plain and his purpose adamant. It was his duty to secure satisfaction for an affront offered to the American flag and nothing could turn him from his task. He was bound for the principal port of the offending country — the port that had once before been occupied by an invading American force in its advance upon the Mexican enemy's capital, and that had been the scene, nearly 400 years before, of Fernando Cortez' landing in his career of conquest. But what a difference in the appearance and strength of the advancing squadron of 1914 and that which cov- ered the landing of Winfield Scott in 1847, to say nothing of its contrast with the ships of Cortez, which he burned behind him in the harbor of Vera Cruz in 1519, ere he advanced upon the capital — that being the great com- mander's answer to the mutinous complaints of his men. These mighty masses of floating steel, with their strange network of fighting masts and protruding teeth in the form of 14-inch guns, dwarfed into complete insignificance any naval force that had ever been seen in these waters and boded ill for those who had failed in respect for the flag they bore. The great guns of this squadron were capable of blowing a city about the ears of its defenders while standing almost out of sight at sea, and the smallest guns carried by the transports that accompanied the battleships would have been more than a match for the ships of war that sailed all seas in the days when Santa Anna sought vainly to prevent General Scott's triumph- ant progress from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. The story of what followed the appearance of the American squadron before Vera Cruz — of how, in spite INTRODUCTORY 13 of the prevalence of a " norther," one of those heavy winds locally known as el norte that regularly threaten the exposed harbors of the Atlantic coast of Mexico, a strong force was landed and the city occupied, pacified, cleaned up and administered, first by the navy under Admiral Fletcher, and subsequently by the army forces under General Funston, is told in detail hereinafter. The relations between the United States and Mexico, or rather between the United States and the de facto government of Mexico headed by General Victoriano Huerta, had been strained almost to the breaking point for more than a year. President Taft in the closing days of his administration had refused to recognize Huerta, and had sent a large force of American troops to occupy the strategic points along the border between the two countries. The violent deaths of the deposed president and vice-president, Madero and Suarez, in the City of Mexico shortly before the accession of President Wilson at Washington, had created a bad impression in the United States and recognition of Huerta was positively refused by the Wilson administration, both before and after the unsatisfactory presidential election in Mexico in October, 1913. Clashes between the American troops along the Rio Grande River and bodies of Mexican fed- eral soldiers were often narrowly averted and sometimes indeed shots were fired in anger across the international boundary. The condition of American residents in Mexico, in the cities as well as in the rural districts, where they were subjected to the outrageous demands of banditti, had grown intolerable and all American citizens had been advised to leave the country. The climax came with what is now generally known as *' the Tampico incident." An unbearable affront was offered to the American flag and after a prolonged period of anxious waiting, the patience of the authorities at Washington was finally exhausted and drastic action 14 INTRODUCTORY was decided upon. Efforts to secure reparation from Huerta for the insult to the flag having failed, President Wilson appeared before Congress on the afternoon of Monday, April 20, 1914, and sought and obtained author- ity to employ the army and navy of the United States to enforce respect for the flag in Mexico. At that time the service squadron of the Atlantic fleet, under Rear Admiral Frank F. Fletcher, was already nearing Vera Cruz, of which it took possession on the following day. Meanwhile William Jennings Bryan, secretary of state, had been making untiring eiforts at Washington to secure a settlement of the difficulties between the two governments without resort to arms. Himself a strong advocate of international peace, he enlisted the services of all who could possibly help in a peaceful solution of the problem. Senators and representatives in Congress were divided as to the necessity for war, though they as a body supported the president in his determination to secure redress for the Tampico incident. Throughout the country a strong war sentiment soon developed. In anticipation of a call for troops for service in Mexico, volunteers by the thousand tendered their services in every state of the Union and the scenes that preceded our declaration of war against Spain in 1898 were repeated in all the large cities of the country. The American casualties at Vera Cruz served to fan the flame of martial ardor. War was indeed imminent and its declaration before many days seemed certain when, on Saturday, April 25, it was announced at Washington that the proffer of the services of Argentina, Brazil and Chile in an effort to settle the difficulty by mediation had been accepted by President Wilson. A few days of diplo- matic exchange of views with General Huerta were fol- lowed by his acceptance of the principle of mediation and by the armistice which exists as these words are penned. What the outcome will be, it is impossible to predict with any hope of accuracy. The downfall of Huerta, or at INTRODUCTORY 15 any rate his elimination as a potent factor in Mexican politics and government, seems assured, since it is the fixed policy of the Washington administration to withhold consent to his continuance in any position of influence whatever. The attitude of the Constitutionalist leaders in Mexico, flushed as they are with many victories over the federal troops supporting Huerta, is in grave doubt, and the diplomats of the South American republics, who have undertaken to solve the problem and secure peace with honor for all concerned, are confronted by no easy task. Any solution that does not include practical pro- visions for the pacification of Mexico, so that it will once more become safe for American citizens and all other for- eigners to dwell within its borders and reap the rewards of their industry and enterprise in peace, unmolested by either revolutionists or banditti, will not be satisfactory or pernianent — and the present temper of the American people is to insist upon a permanent settlement of Mex- ican affairs, and to insist upon it now. The forces of the United States occupy the city and port of Vera Cruz and it is altogether probable that they will remain in possession until the slow methods of diplomacy have borne fruit. Both sides to the con- troversy are resting on their arms, but active prepara- tions for possible eventualities go on apace in both countries. The United States does not desire war with any nation, least of all with a weaker sister republic, already torn and distracted by internal strife. But it will not long fail to insist upon respect for its flag and protection for its citizens, their lives and their property, wherever they may be. > CHAPTER I OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ For the second time in history the Mexican port of Vera Cruz was occupied by the United States on the morning of Tuesday, April 21, 1914, when a force of marines and bluejackets from the warships Utah, Florida and Prairie landed at 11:10 o'clock and seized the Custom-house without opposition. The marines were under the command of Major Smedley Darlington Butler, son of Representative Thomas S. Butler of Penn- sylvania, senior Republican member of the United States House of Representatives. Leaving a guard at the entrances to the Custom-house, the American forces took up positions commanding the streets leading toward the central square of the town, the Plaza de la Constitucion. Machine guns and field guns were placed in position to cover all the streets con- verging on the square. The commanding officer of the American fleet was Rear Admiral Fletcher, and his orders were that the landing forces should occupy these positions and make no attack on the Mexican troops unless they were attacked them- selves. [N. B. — ^The United States having been on the verge of war with Mexico, although the South American Republics had inaugurated their efforts at mediation and an armistice prevailed at the time this edition of "Mexico in Peace and War" went to press, the most recent incidents of the difficulty with Gen. Huerta and his government have been treated thus prominently, out of their chronological order, on account of the wide- spread interest in the present situation and the demand for a permanent record of recent events.] 17 18 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ The scene in the harbor of Vera Cruz as the men of the iiavj proceeded amid cheers to the landing at the custom- liouse wharf was an unparalleled and inspiriting one. Nearest the shore of all the warships lay the transport Prairie, from which came the majority of the landing force. Farther out lay the great gray masses of the battleships Florida and Utah, their crews crowding to their sides watching developments and envying their com- rades ordered to duty ashore. In the outer harbor, too, were the British cruiser Essex, the French cruiser Conde — named after the historic admiral of France, and the Spanish gunboat Carlos V., all intensely interested and sjrmpathetic witnesses of the American operations. Before twenty hours had elapsed the scene before the ancient city was destined to become even more interesting from both the naval and the international standpoint. Rear Admiral Badger, commanding the North Atlantic fleet of the United States navy, was rapidly approaching Vera Cruz, leading a fleet composed of the first-class bat- tleships Arkansas, flagship, New Hampshire, Louisiana, Vermont, New Jersey and North Dakota ; also the South Carolina, Michigan, Tacoma and Nashville, with a total force of 7,700 sailors and 500 marines. On the arrival of these war vessels, with their accompanying supply ships, there were in all twenty-one ships of the United States navy lying in their gray war paint in and outside the port to insure the capture and safekeeping of the city. The actual landing of the naval force ordered ashore by Admiral Fletcher in pursuance of his orders was unopposed. Sweeping in to the wharf under the guns of the Prairie, the ships' boats and power launches, crowded to the gunwales with sailors and marines, made fast and debarked their loads of fighting men without the firing of a hostile shot. But the white-clad Americans had no sooner gained the center of the city and secured the approaches to the Plaza, than opposition developed and active hostilities began. OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 19 Scarcely had the troops placed the guns in position when Mexican soldiers appeared on the housetops over- looking the square. Two shots rang out and within a few minutes three volleys came from a Mexican force several hundred yards from the positions occupied by the Americans. These volleys were returned immediately by the sailors and marines and soon the firing became general. GUNS OF THE PEAIEIB OPEN FIKE When Rear-Admiral Fletcher was informed of the attack on his men by the Mexicans he ordered the guns of the armed transport Prairie to open fire on the posi- tions occupied by the enemy. Captain William R. Rush of the battleship Florida was in general command of the landing force soon located a large force of Mexicans firing on the United States troops from the tower of the Benito Juarez light- house and ordered his men to open fire on this point. Several three-inch guns were trained on the lighthouse and the tower was struck three times, silencing the enemy's fire. Captain Rush signaled to the transport Prairie, on board of which was Admiral Fletcher, as follows : " Am being attacked from the right and rear north of the round- house; shell that district." At the same time it was noticed that sharpshooters lined the roof of the Mexican Naval Academy and were *' sniping " the bluejackets. A three-inch gun of the Prairie was trained on the academy and the Mexicans were forced to abandon their position. The shooting by this time had become general all over the city. At 3 o'clock the United States Consulate had been struck by several bullets. TWO MAEINES AND TWO SAILOES KILLED Two sailors of the Florida and two marines were killed and nearly a score wounded. Under the heavy fire from 20 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ the warships the Mexicans were driven from the center of the city to the eastward, where they attempted to make a stand. The Prairie, which was lying in the harbor about a quarter of a mile from the harbor front, turned her guns to the point where the Mexicans were gathering and forced them to take refuge in the narrow streets thereabout. UTAH SENDS MORE SAILORS ASHORE At 2 *clock several boatloads of sailors from the battle- ship Utah were landed east of the Custom-house. As the boats drew near the wharf, several volleys were fired on them from large warehouses and box cars along the water front. These places were shelled by the guns of the Prairie and the sailors were able to land without losing a man. Among the American wounded were two signalmen who were operating on the roof of the Terminal Hotel near the water front. About 5 o'clock the resistance of the Mexicans began to dwindle appreciably. Firing from the towers and the housetops, from which the heaviest rain of bullets came at the beginning of the fighting, died away. The marines and bluejackets made no attempt to pur- sue the flying Mexicans, firing only whenever one of the enemy showed himself in the streets. FLETOHEB WAENS GARRISON COMMANDER Captain H. McLaren P. Huse, Rear-Admiral Fletcher's chief of staff, went ashore in the midst of the fighting to try to get into communication with General Gustavo Maas, commander-in-chief of the Mexican garrison. He carried a warning from the American commander to the effect that his patience was exhausted and that if the Mexicans continued to resist, the fleet would shell the city. When William W. Canada, the American consul, noti- OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 21 fied General Maas on Tuesday morning that marines were about to be landed and requested him to cooperate with the American forces to maintain order in the city, the Mexican commander replied that this was impossible. Mexican resistance in the presence of such an over- whelming force, said an observer, can be explained only on the ground that they desired to save their faces by making a show of fight, however futile. A cargo of war munitions for the Federal government aboard the German steamer Ypiringa, which had arrived in the morning, was captured by the United States land- ing force. It consisted of 250 machine guns, 20,000 rifles and 15,000,000 rounds of ammunition. Captain Huse tried to ascertain the whereabouts of General Maas, so that he could send a flag of truce to propose an armistice and inform the Mexican commander that the purpose of the landing of United States troops had been accomplished by the capture of the Ypiringa *s cargo. A New York newspaper man volunteered to take a flag of truce to General Maas, but Captain Huse declined the offer, saying that the mission was too dangerous. ADMIRAL FLETCHEE's REPOET The following despatch was sent by wireless to the Navy Department by Admiral Fletcher: ** Tuesday — In the face of an approaching norther I landed marines and sailors from the battleships Utah and Florida and the transport Prairie and seized the Custom-house. The Mexican forces did not oppose our landing, but opened fire with rifle and artillery after our seizure of the Custom-house. The Prairie is shelling the Mexicans out of their positions. Desultory firing from housetops and in the streets continues. I hold the Cus- tom-house and that section of the city in the vicinity of the wharves and the American Consulate. Casualties, four dead and twenty wounded." 22 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ The Americans killed in the first day 's fighting at Vera Cruz were as follows : Haggerty, Daniel Aloysius, private, Eighth Company, Second Advance Base Regiment, United States Marines. Marten, Samuel, private. Sixteenth Company, Second Advance Base Regiment. Poinsett, George, seaman, United States ship Florida. Schumacher, John F., coxswain. United States ship Florida. HOW THE FIRST MAN DIED According to eyewitnesses, Seaman George Poinsett was shot by a Mexican sharpshooter while raising the flag on the Plaza following the first landing of marines. No other shots had been fired. As Poinsett tied the flag to the halyards and raised it, there was a puff of smoke from the tower of a church nearby and he fell with a bullet through his heart. Immediately after his fall came the first resistance by the Mexicans to the invasion of United States troops. Thomas G. Parris, formerly principal of the Pastorius public school, of Philadelphia, which Poinsett attended, spoke highly of him as he had known him. *' George died as he would have chosen. He always wanted to join the navy. His grandfathers were both naval officers in the Civil War." EULOGIZED IN CONGRESS Poinsett was eulogized in the House of Representatives at Washington April 22 as '^ the Worth Bagley of the Mexican trouble." Representative Moore, of Pennsylvania, in calling attention to the fact that Poinsett was the first man killed in the intervention in Mexico, declared that ^' whether we have entered upon this war wisely or unwisely, we have at least demonstrated our wisdom as a nation in being prepared for war. OCCUPATION OF VEEA CRUZ 23 a A father who yielded to his boy's desire to serve his country has been bereft of a son, but the nation has added the name of that boy to its roll of heroes. ' ' PRESroENT WILSON 's REGRETS Letters expressing the profound sorrow of President Wilson and Secretary of the Navy Daniels at the death of the four sailors and marines first killed at Vera Cruz were dispatched on April 22 by the Secretary of the Navy to the parents of the men. The letters were addressed to William Poinsett, of Philadelphia, Pa. ; Mrs. Isabella McKinnon, of Brooklyn, N. Y., mother of Coxswain Schumacher; Mayer Marten, of Chicago, and Michael Haggerty, of Cambridge, Mass. Mr. Daniels wrote to each as follows : *' This morning's dispatches from Vera Cruz convey- ing the distressing news that your son was in the first line to give his life for his country saddens all America as the tragedy brings gloom into your home. '' My feeling and the feeling of the president to you in this sad hour was expressed by President Lincoln, when, on November 21, 1864, he wrote to Mrs. Bixby, of Boston, whose five sons gave their lives fighting under the American flag : " ' I feel how weak and fruitless must be any words of mine which should attempt to beguile you from a loss so overwhelming. But I cannot refrain from tendering to you the consolation that may be found in the thanks of the republic they died to save, I pray that our Heav- enly Father may assuage the anguish of your bereave- ment and leave you only the cherished memory of the loved and lost and the solemn pride that must be yours to have laid so costly a sacrifice upon the altar of freedom.' " The navy department arranged to bring to the United States the bodies of the Vera Cruz victims, and either forward them to relatives or make final interment in a 24 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ j national cemetery. Their final disposition rested with the families. GENERAL MAAS WITHDRAWS Such was in brief the story of the memorable day on which the Stars and Stripes was once more planted on Mexican soil. The big guns of the service squadron were not used, and the Mexican defense of the city was desultory, General Maas, the Mexican commander in the city having withdrawn his main force, but remaining in the vicinity. The following account of the operations was given by an eye witness : Those watching from the ships observed through their glasses a large force of Mexicans moving over the hills in the western outskirts of the city, apparently with the intention of flanking a battalion of marines in the railway yards and along Montesinos street, which runs east and west not far from the American consulate. Instantly the five-inch guns of the Prairie let go, break- ing the Mexican formation and causing a hasty retreat. This ended the flanking movement. Only a few minutes before the three-inch guns of the Prairie were used effectively near shore. A small detach- ment of Mexicans had gained positions near the custom house and their concealed marksmen were causing some trouble. A few shots from the Prairie's guns served to silence the position. From time to time the same guns played their shells along the line of the shore, keeping that territory comparatively free of sharpshooters. ASKS MAAS TO SURRENDER With all the eastern side of the city occupied and also the tracks of the railway as far west as the roundhouse near the western edge on the northern side and with the Mexicans unable to do more than keep up an annoying but ineffective fire from house tops, Capt. Rush at 4:20 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 25 o'clock sent under a flag of truce a messenger chosen from among the natives to Gen. Maas, or whoever hap- pened to be in command, to ask if he was not ready to surrender. Unless the Mexicans yielded Capt. Rush had his choice of continuing the fighting under the tactics he was using or of charging all positions or calling on the warships for a bombardment. He was loath to resort to a bombardment and on the other hand did not desire to lose any more of his men by charges. He recognized that the tactics of the Mexicans might leave the housetop fighters in their position indefinitely and that it was not impossible that those who were ** sniping '* from the roofs might be reinforced by others of their kind during the night. The messenger was told to remind Gen. Maas that while there were ashore at that time only a few more than one thousand men, there would be available for the American forces by morning some 10,000. It was left to Gen. Maas to draw his own inference from this message, but no attention was paid to it and the desultory firing continued until all the Mexican sharpshooters had been killed or dislodged. A CONTEST OF EIFLES There was no cannon firing from the Mexican side, and it is supposed their artillery pieces were taken from the city early in the day. With the exception of a few shots from the light field pieces of the bluejackets and a few from the Prairie, it was a contest of rifles. Bravery was shown everywhere among the Americans. The youngsters wearing the bluejackets of their vessels behaved as well under fire as the marines, who along the line comported themselves like veterans. Some of the marines had seen service before in Central America and other places. In the earlier part of the engagement small detachments of the Americans who were guarding the 26 OCCUPATION OF VEKA CRUZ approaches to the central part of the city stood without flinching while bullets from the rifles of the Mexicans sang about their ears. The Mexican loss on April 21 was estimated at between 150 and 200 killed. MAKEUP OP LANDING FORCE Rear Admiral Fletcher limited his first landing party to 1,000 bluejackets and marines. Opposed to this force were 900 Mexicans under the command of Gen. Maas. The following was the approximate strength of the naval forces available for shore duty : From the battleships Florida, Utah, Connecticut, and Minnesota — 240 marines, 1,860 bluejackets. From the cruisers San Francisco and Chester — 400 marines, 250 bluejackets. From the transports Prairie and Hancock — 1,684 marines. CONSUL Canada's eeport U. S. Consul Canada's report of the day's operations was as follows: ''Marines and bluejackets landed at 11 :30 this morning, immediately taking possession of cable office, postoffice, telegraphic offices and custom house, also railroad terminals and yards with rolling stock. Notwithstanding firing from housetops we are masters of the situation so far without use of heavy guns. " Our men are simply defending themselves. Some resistance from naval vessels soon silenced by guns on Prairie. At this time reported four of our men killed and twenty wounded. American newspaper men and several other Americans in consulate. " Several Americans including some women who refused to go aboard refugee ship are now marooned in hotels within firing line. Trains from Mexico City did not arrive. " OCCUPATION OF VEEA CRUZ 27 PEOCLAMATION TO PEOPLE OF VEEA CRUZ On April 22, Admiral Fletcher issued a proclamation to the mayor, chief of police, and citizens of Vera Cruz, as follows: " It has become necessary for the naval forces of the United States of America now at Vera Cruz to land and assume military control of the customs wharves of Vera Cruz. Your co-operation is requested to preserve order and preserve life. ''It is not the intention of the United States naval forces to interfere with the administration of the civil affairs of Vera Cruz, more than is necessary for the pur- pose of maintaining a condition of law and order and enforce such sanitary conditions as are needed to meet military requirements. "■ It is desired that the civil officials of Vera Cruz shall continue in the peaceful pursuit of their occupations. Under these conditions full protection will be given to the city by the United States naval forces. "It is enjoined upon all inhabitants and property owners to prevent firing by individuals from the shelter of their houses upon United States forces, or upon any one else. Such firing by irregulars not members of an organized military force is contrary to the laws of war; if persisted in it will call for severe measures. '' F. F. Fletcher, Rear- Admiral, U. S. N. ** Commander Detached Squadron U. S. Atlantic Fleet." PRESIDENT WILSON PHONED THE ORDER The story of how President Wilson ordered the cus- tom-house at Vera Cruz to be seized was revealed in Washington on April 22. The president had gone to bed on Monday night while the senate was debating the joint resolution to approve of the use of the army and navy, and had determined to withhold action until the resolution passed, although 28 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ feeling that in an emergency the executive had ample authority to act. At 4 o'clock Tuesday morning Secretary Bryan received a cablegram from Consul Canada, telling of the approach of a German vessel with a tremendous cargo of ammunition for Huerta. Locomotives and cars were in readiness to rush the arms to Mexico City. Mr. Bryan telephoned Secretary Tumulty, who decided to awaken the president. He telephoned the White House. The servants were timid, but Mr. Tumulty insisted. Finally the president came to the telephone, and while Secretary Tumulty was explaining the situation Secre- tary Daniels called up and was put on the same line. He, too, had a dispatch about the ammunition. Rear Admiral Fletcher had sent a wireless that 15,000,000 rounds of ammunition and 250 machine gnins would be landed from the German vessel by noon that day. The president listened in silence. * * What shall we do I " asked Secretary Daniels. * * Tell Fletcher to seize the custom house, ' ' replied the president, without hesitation. * ' Good night, ' ' said the secretary. The telephone con- ference ended and in a few minutes wireless dispatches were on their way to Rear Admiral Fletcher. He received the message at 10 A. M., and an hour later American marines had landed and taken possession of the custom house. The ammunition went back to its shippers in Europe. THE SECOND DAY's FIGHT Fighting was renewed in the City of Vera Cruz on Wednesday, April 22, when soldiers, citizens and convicts released by the Huerta officials fired down from roofs and windows on the American forces. The small guns on the warships in the harbor battered down some of the buildings they occupied. The Mexican loss was heavy and before nightfall the United States landing force had OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 29 obtained absolute control over the city and port. Two more Americans were killed and ten wonnded, bringing the total for the two days' fighting to six dead and thirty wonnded. After the general advance began in the morning, Mex- ican snipers on the roofs put up a stubborn resistance. There was one brisk action, the guns of the Prairie and Chester assisting in silencing a heavy fire from the Naval College, shells from the Prairie finally shattering the walls. The paymaster of the British cruiser Essex, Albert W. Kimber, was wounded on board his ship by a sniper ashore. British bluejackets crowded to the bows and vociferously cheered the American marines as they pro- ceeded inshore for the landing. The flags on the Essex and Fort San Juan de Ulna were half-masted when the dead were carried to the boats. Marines and bluejackets during the day occupied every important point in the city, including the Plaza de la Constitucion, where the Mexicans made their only real stand in the fighting the day before. Marines searched all houses from which shots were fired in the morning, and all Mexicans with arms in their hands were made prisoners and sent to the United States mine ship San Francisco. Some of the Mexicans were thoroughly frightened, apparently expecting that the Americans would shoot their prisoners. CITY THOKOUGHLY PATEOLLED Admiral Fletcher took up his headquarters at the Ter- minal Hotel. The entire city was strongly patrolled, and quiet prevailed at night. Admiral Fletcher took com- mand of the land operations, while Rear Admiral Badger, commander-in-chief of the Atlantic fleet, who had arrived with several battleships during the night, brought his flag into the harbor on the Minnesota. Admiral Badger had not decided whether to proceed to 30 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ Tampico, and it was believed his departure would be delayed, pending further orders from Washington. Detachments of men of the signal corps were posted on all the advantageous positions in the city to keep watch on the Mexican troops, and a reconnaissance was made by marines under Major Butler along the line of the railway to Mexico City. A GENERAL ADVANCE Rear Admiral Fletcher at 8 :30 o 'clock in the morning ordered a general movement for the occupation of all the town. A column of bluejackets advanced, and passed the uncompleted market place and Naval College. When they had reached the walls of the college a terrific rifle fire was poured in all directions from the roof and windows. The bluejackets were helpless to return the fire against the stone walls, and scattered. The Prairie, Chester and San Francisco then opened with their five and six-inch guns, and shattered the walls. The bluejackets re-formed and advanced against the fire, which had diminished greatly. By 10 o 'clock there was only desultory firing from the inshore side of the tower. Battalions of bluejackets had made their way along the water front to the southern end of the town, and cleared several streets, but the sniping from houses continued at intervals. The scout cruiser Chester pounded buildings on the outskirts with six-inch shells, firing over the heads of the men ashore and showing almost perfect marksmanship. The general movement from all the positions taken on Tuesday began in the direction of the main plaza. The marines under Lieutenant-Colonel Wendell C. Neville moved to the southward along parallel streets toward the center, while those under Lieutenant Commander Buch- anan, of the Florida, and Lieutenant Commander Arthur B. Keating, of the Arkansas, were ordered from their positions east of the center toward the plaza. OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 31 The two forces swung forward with a rush for three blocks. The machine gun and rifle fire was supplemented by shell fire from the smaller guns of the Prairie and Chester. The ships' guns supported the movement of clearing the roofs to the south and east, occasionally dropping a shell a few hundred yards in advance. There was absolutely no organized resistance, but from the beginning of the advance a smart fire came from the defenders on the house tops, which invariably drew a merciless fire from the advancing parties. The machine guns sounded their '" tap tap " in all quarters, and American sharpshooters, posted at street corners and other points of vantage, picked off any man who appeared to be acting suspiciously. Reinforcements were landed under the protection of the guns of the warships, bringing the total force ashore up to 3,000. MESSAGE TO THE MAYOR Julio Franco, a Mexican chosen by American Consul Canada to be the bearer of the warning from Admiral Fletcher, was unable to communicate with any of the Federal officials and only the mayor, Robert Diaz, could be located. When Franco tried to communicate with the mayor he was refused admission by Mexican guards stationed at the door. Franco then crawled over the roof of an adjoin- ing building into the court of the Diaz residence, but did not succeed in seeing the mayor. Senor Diaz refused to leave his bedroom, so the mes- senger shouted the contents of Admiral Fletcher's note to the mayor, and personally appealed to him to yield to save the city from bombardment, reminding him of the grave risk to the families of Mexicans and others in the city. GEN. MAAS' DEPARTUEB It was ascertained during the day that General Gustavo 32 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ Maas, commander of the garrison, left the city in a car- riage at noon on Tuesday, half an hour, after the first boatload of American marines landed. The commander's family followed him in another carriage. It was also stated that the Mexican troops forming the garrison of Vera Cruz were turned loose as soon as it was seen that the Americans were about to land, and were told to act as they saw fit. Very few of their officers remained with the Mexican soldiers, whose operations were carried on without any one to direct them. Some of the Mexican troops obtained a considerable supply of intoxicants by looting two stores. As a result, many were in a condition which made them equally dan- gerous to natives and foreigners who came within their range. Colonel Cerrillo was one of the few officers who remained. He was the commander of the Nineteenth bat- talion and was wounded in one arm early in the fighting. The Mexican troops had one seventy-five millimeter gun, which they used. Among the citizen element offering opposition to the American force were many prisoners who had been released by General Maas before he evacuated the city. Many of these criminals inaugurated their liberty by becoming intoxicated and then found a convenient outlet for their enthusiasm by joining the fighters on the house- tops. BOMBABDMENT WAS AVEETED. The principal reason for Admiral Fletcher's hesitation to bombard was that hundreds of non-combatants, includ- ing many women and children who had been unable to get out of the central part of the city, were crowded into the Diligencia Hotel building, from which most of the firing was done by the Mexicans. As the Americans advanced through the city for the purpose of clearing away any further possibility of resist- Mexicans pressed into service to remove dead and wounded at Vera Cruz A detail of bluejackets seeking the wounded after the second day's fight at Vera Cruz ^ -u CS Mh 'Zl O) CS >— 1 TS Iliierta Blanquet \'ictoiiaiio Huerta and General Blanquet, his minister of war OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 33 ance there were many pitiful scenes when women with children in their arms besought mercy in the belief that they were about to be put to death. Special trains which left Mexico City Tuesday night with Americans aboard failed to arrive at Vera Cruz and it was feared the lines had been cut. Great uneasiness was felt regarding the Americans in the capital. It was believed, however, that General Huerta would take all possible steps to protect foreigners. The captain of the German steamer Ypirango readily acquiesced in the order of the American commander not to attempt to land the large cargo of munitions of war consigned to President Huerta, and placed his vessel at the disposal of Admiral Fletcher. He promised not to leave the harbor unless a norther compelled him to seek safety in the open sea. All the American women and children in the city went aboard the Ward liners Esperanza and Mexico by order of Admiral Fletcher. CAERANZA HEAED FROM The sensation of the day at Washington was a message from General Carranza, chief of the Constitutional rebels in the north of Mexico, demanding that the United States promptly evacuate the city of Vera Cruz. From the com- mencement of the Huerta regime President Wilson had supported Carranza, as the best hope of relief from the usurper. Now, at the first instant of American action, it appeared likely that the Constitutionalists would make common cause with Huerta against the Washington gov- ernment. On the following day, however. General Fran- cisco Villa, fighting head of all the Constitutional rebel forces in the north of Mexico, gave out an interview expressing his friendship for the United States and declaring that nothing could force him to take part in a war with his neighbors to the north. He expressed his full confidence in his chief, Carranza, and explained that 34 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ no offense to America was intended by the note of the latter. He referred to the usurper as that '* drunken little ass, Huerta." EXCITEMENT IN MEXICO CITY When news of the occupation of Vera Cruz reached Mexico City the excited people made attacks on some American buildings, tore down the statue of George Washington, and threatened the United States Embassy, which was guarded by a squad of Huerta soldiers. A trainload of American and other foreign refugees was sent to Vera Cruz, where they arrived safely after con- siderable delay en route. GEN. HUERTA 's ATTITUDE On receiving news of the occupation of Vera Cruz, General Huerta gave out the following statement in Mexico City: '' Mexico is defending not only her national sover- eignty, but that of all Latin America as well. This is not a war between the Mexican and American peoples, but between Mexico and the government of the United States, which is controlled by men who have forced this situation upon us in spite of our efforts to the contrary. ^' We shall have 400,000 men in the field in twenty days." General Huerta also assured Charge 'Shaughnessy personally and in the friendliest tone that he and all Americans in Mexico City would be defended against all attack. General Huerta also made the following declaration in El Imparcial : * * In the port of Vera Cruz we are sustaining with arms the national honor against the outrage which the Yankee government is committing against a free people, as is and always will be that of this Republic. This action will pass on to history, which will put Mexico and the govern- OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 35 ment of the United States each in the place where it belongs." THE MAEINE COMMANDER Major S. D. Butler, who commanded the marines that landed in Vera Cruz, participated in the international expedition to Peking during the summer of 1900. At the fighting around Tientsin he was wounded and assisted from the field by Maj. Harry Leonard, U. S. M., who has since retired. As a result of his experience in the Chinese rebellion Maj. Butler was advanced in rank for ** eminent and conspicuous conduct in battle with the Peking relief column." He was appointed to the marine corps from civil life in 1899. The marines under Maj. Butler's command were those previously constituting the marine contingent in the Isthmian canal zone, regarding which Secretary of War Garrison remarked that they were the finest body of sol- diery he had ever seen, despite the fact that they wore the stars of a rival service. During their stay in the zone these marines had been assigned to duty in operating railroad trains and repair- ing tracks and bridges. PEAIEIE SIXTEEN "JEAES IN NAVY The United States navy transport Prairie was pur- chased from private owners in 1898. Previous to its incor- poration into the United States navy it had been a pas- senger and express steamer of the Morgan line, plying between New York, Galveston, and New Orleans. It was rechristened the Prairie upon entering the naval service, and was a sister ship of the Yankee and the Dixie. The Prairie, now classed as an armed transport, par- ticipated throughout the Spanish- American war as a con- verted cruiser of the second class. It has a displacement of 6,620 tons ; and is authorized to carry a complement, in addition to the naval officers and seamen, of twenty-three 36 OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ marine officers and 750 marines. It is armed with twelve rapid fire guns of small caliber. MEXICO 'S BEST PORT There are very few towns in the Republic of Mexico that have such an interesting history as the city of Vera Cruz. Owing to its mercantile movement, it is the first port of the Republic. Vera Cruz has more than 33,000 inhabitants. It is 264 miles from Mexico City by the Mexican railroad. The road was commenced in the year 1842, and the construc- tion took place during a period of thirty-four years. The works necessary for dredging the bay and the breakwaters for securing the safety of the port were under construction for more than three years. The com- plete area is about 570 acres, and now the port is in a condition to receive steamers of deep draft and heavy tonnage. The construction of the port works cost the federal government $26,704,782.85. The improvements were inaugurated on March 6, 1902, and have made Vera Cruz one of the most beautiful ports on the Mexican coast, and where steamers of large draft can enter and be securely sheltered during great storms. Vera Cruz is distinguished from the other towns of the Republic on account of its crooked streets and narrow lanes which run from the broad streets constructed sym- metrically at right angles. In the commercial part of the city the houses are of two and three stories and well constructed. Among other edifices may be mentioned the municipal palace, the par- ish church, the market, the Dehesa theater, the Hospital Zamora, the Cantonal school, and the Church of San Francisco, to which is joined the public library, from whose ancient tower shines the famous Juarez light. The inhabitants of the port are occupied with the busi- ness of exportation, importation, and the commission OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 37 business. There are also cigar and cigaret factories, match, soda water, ice and furniture factories. During the war between Mexico and the United States Gen. Scott, with an army of about 12,000, landed in the vicinity of Vera Cruz on March 9, 1847. He immediately invested the city, which, together with the castle of San Juan de Ulua, contained a garrison of about 4,500. On March 22, assisted by a fleet under Commander Perry, he began a terrific bombardment, which continued almost unabated for four days. On March 29 the Mex- icans surrendered. The Americans lost 11 killed and 56 wounded and the Mexicans fully 1,000 in killed alone. TJ. S. WAKSHIPS IN MEXICO The United States warships in Mexican waters April 23 were distributed as follows : Tampico— Connecticut, Des Moines, Dolphin, Solace, Cyclops. Vera Cruz— Arkansas, Florida, Utah, Vermont, New Jersey, New Hampshire, South Carolina, Minnesota, Han- cock, Prairie, Chester, San Francisco, Orion, and the destroyers Fanning, Beale, Jarvis, Jenkins, Jouett, Hen- ley, Drayton, McCall, Warrington, Patterson, Spalding, Ammen, Burrows and Trippe. Guaymas — Justin. Mazatlan— California, Raleigh. Topolobampo— Glacier, Yorktown. Salina Cruz— Annapolis en route from Acapulco, Den- ver en route from Corinto. GUAKD APPEOACHES TO THE CITY On Thursday, April 23, the American forces in Vera Cruz moved their lines some miles outside the city limits to guard the railroad and bridges on the road to Mexico City. In these movements three more Americans were killed and twenty-five wounded. It was reported that Carranza had refused offers from 38 OCCUPATION OF YE^BA CRUZ the Huerta forces to make common cause with them against the Americans. The following days were devoted to cleaning up the city of Vera Cruz and establishing a civil government with Robert J. Kerr, of Chicago, an attorney-at-law who happened to t>e in the city, as temporary governor. The old fortress prison of San Juan de Ulua was closed by Admiral Fletcher, on account of its dirty and insani- tary condition. Many political prisoners held captive there were set at liberty. Admiral Fletcher also made arrangements for the exchange of Mexican prisoners and American refugees from the capital and other interior points, and the exchange was effected at a point on the railroad some miles from Vera Cruz. News of the mediation plan pro- posed at Washington reached the city on Sunday. General Funston and the soldiers of the Fifth Brigade, United States Regulars, arrived late on Monday night, April 27, off the port, but no attempt was made to land pending a conference between Admiral Fletcher and the general, which occurred next day. On Wednesday, General Funston 's soldiers, 4,000 strong, were landed and it was announced that on Thurs- day they would take over the control of the city. Next day occurred, with most impressive and inspiring ceremonies, the transfer of the city of Vera Cruz from the navy to the army. The men of the navy went back to their ships, leaving behind them only the marines who went to Mexico on the transports and who remained ashore to support the army in policing the city and the surrounding territory. The people of the city had already begun to feel the good effects of American occu- pancy in the way of greater security to life and property and better sanitary conditions. FEEKOE FIGHTING AT TAMPIOO From Tampico came reports of fierce fighting about the OCCUPATION OF VERA CRUZ 39 city, the rebels pushing their advance as far as possible. Carranza gave a shock to the adherents of the peace plan by issuing an order for 12,000 additional troops to go to the aid of the rebel forces. Rear-Admiral Howard, in command of the United States fleet on the Pacific coast, reported that the rebels were active in their attempts to capture Mazatlan and other western cities. A MILITAEY GOVEENMENT Orders sent to General Fnnston May 1 from Washing- ton instructed him to set up a complete military govern- ment over the city of Vera Cruz and this he proceeded to do, the civil governor, Robert J. Kerr, relinquishing his office. Bodies of Huertistas were seen in the vicinity of Vera Cruz during the week ending May 1, but no organized attack came from them, though many desultory shots were fired at the American outposts. On May 2 a com- pany of General Maas' troops appeared at the water- works pumping station outside the city and demanded the surrender of the marine guard. Their demand was of course refused and General Funston promptly sent strong reinforcements to guard the waterworks. An armistice between the American and Huerta forces was understood to exist May 1, pending the result of mediatory efforts, although the Constitutionalists under Carranza refused to agree to any truce in their war upon Huerta and continued a fierce attack upon Tampico. But, despite the armistice. General Funston believed that more troops were needed at Vera Cruz and on May 5 it was announced at Washington that another brigade of approximately 4,000 troops would be despatched to the Mexican city forthwith. It was also announced at Washington that no definite arrangements had been made with Huerta for a truce and that General Maas, who was said to be gathering a 40 OCCUPATION OF VERA CEUZ force of 13,000 Federals at Saltillo, might attack Vera Cruz at any time. Carranza's refusal to agree to a general armistice had relieved General Maas from any obligation to notify General Funston of the termination of the tacit armistice which had existed for some days. He was at liberty under the rules of The Hague conven- tions and international law to attack whenever he saw fit. Under these circumstances the situation at Vera Cruz was regarded as critical. The American forces under General Funston had been distributed at strategi- cal points inside and outside the city, and a strong guard was maintained at the waterworks, nine miles distant. A number of Americans were reported held prisoners by General Maas outside of Vera Cruz and six hundred American refugees in the City of Mexico were endeavor- ing on May 5 to secure transportation to the coast. There was daily fighting at Tampico between the Constitutional- ist and Federal forces, the latter holding the city, and grave fears were entertained for the safety of the oil wells in the vicinity. At the National Palace in Mexico City, May 5, Huerta denied reports of his intention to resign and said: *' What the people gave to me I will not relinquish." There were persistent reports at Vera Cruz of con- spiracies against Huerta at the capital. General Maas endeavored to secure the cooperation of General Villa, the Constitutionalist leader, in an attack upon the United States troops at Vera Cruz, but Villa positively refused to consider any alliance with the Huerta forces. CHAPTEE II THE TAMPICO INCIDENT The causes that led to the occupation of Vera Cruz by the United States were of a cumulative character. Trouble with the Huerta government had been foreseen for months, as it was surely brewing in consequence of repeated acts of an unfriendly character by Huerta officers and troops and the generally hostile treatment of Americans resident in Mexico. A climax was reached in the city of Tampico on the afternoon of Thursday, April 9, 1914. An American squadron under Rear-Admiral Mayo lay in the harbor, and a paymaster and boat's crew were sent from the Dolphin to another vessel. Their boat was a gasoline launch, and after completing their errand they landed to secure a supply of gasoline. A Mexican Federal officer arrested the paymaster and part of the boat's crew in the streets soon after their landing and two of the men who had been left as boatkeepers were ordered out of the boat, at the stern of which flew the United States naval flag, and also placed under arrest. They were marched through the streets under guard and locked up in jail by officers of the Huerta forces occupying Tampico. When they were released and allowed to go back to their ship Rear-Admiral Mayo, in command of the United States fleet in the harbor, made prompt demands for reparation on General Zaragoza, in command of the Huerta forces. 41 42 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT A SALUTE DEMANDED An apology for the outrage, punisliment of the offend- ing officers, and a salute of twenty-one guns to the stars and stripes, to be fired within twenty-four hours, was the admiral's ultimatum. The matter was referred to General Huerta, at the capi- tal. He disavowed the act of his subordinates, made apology, and stated that the officer responsible for the arrest should be duly subjected to discipline. This might seem to have closed the incident, but an incident of this kind is usually concluded by the firing of a salute, indica- tive of respect for the sovereignty of a country which, through its uniformed forces, has been treated with i-ndignity. Admiral Mayo demanded such a salute, but for some reason, General Huerta and his governmental and military chiefs decided to refuse to salute the flag of the United States, except under conditions not deemed appropriate by our authorities. For example, a full salute as closing a grave diplomatic incident requires the firing of twenty-one guns. The Mexicans, however, pro- posed to minimize the affair by a salute of five guns. All of which, in view of a vast country swept by the almost incredible horrors of civil warfare, seemed, in the words of a current writer, " very much like trifling over points of etiquette in the presence of death and destruction. ' ' Huerta had just persuaded the banks of Mexico City to advance him $5,000,000 a month to pay his expenses, and this probably influenced his action, stiffening his resolve to resist all demands by the United States in order, if possible, to unite the Mexican people. Federals and Con- stitutionalists, in face of a foreign opponent. Villa, fighting man of the Constitutional rebels of the north, had ordered all the Spanish residents out of his territory and his chief, Carranza, had answered with a snub the protest of the United States government. John THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 43 Lind, President Wilson *s unofficial envoy in Mexico, had returned to Washington to make a final report of prac- tical failure in his mission. He was decidedly embittered against Huerta, and naturally so. AN" INTOLERABLE SITUATION" By this time the entire Mexican situation had become intolerable. If not the arrest of the Dolphin's boat crew, some other trifle must have brought the crisis. In the meantime, as if to add emphasis to the first insult, the mail orderly of the United States fleet in the harbor at Vera Cruz, going ashore in full uniform to get his mail, was arrested by the Mexican police. These unavenged insults to the flag deeply incensed President Wilson at Washington. Acting on his instruc- tions. Charge 'Shaughnessy in Mexico City notified the Huerta government that Admiral Mayo's demands must be complied with in full. Through his foreign minister, Huerta replied that an apology and the punishment of the offending officers was sufficient reparation and all that he would grant. When Mr. 'Shaughnessy made a sec- ond attempt to see Huerta he was bluntly informed that he would not be received. WAESHIPS OEDEEED TO MEXICO On Tuesday, April 14, after two conferences with his cabinet and with navy officials. President Wilson ordered the entire Atlantic and Pacific war fleets of the United States to concentrate in Mexican waters. That started fifteen battleships and about twenty-five auxiliary vessels for the eastern coast of Mexico, and fifteen cruisers and minor vessels for the west. Meanwhile Villa and his rebels won a big battle at San Pedro de Los Colonias, forty miles from Torreon, wiping out a force of 3,500 Huertistas. Later Villa captured Torreon. Next day there were many conferences in Washington, with the purpose of getting the army ready to aid the 44 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT forces of the navy in Mexico. President Wilson con- ferred with the foreign affairs committee of the Senate and an official statement was issued setting forth that the outrages at Tampico and Vera Cruz were only two of many insults offered by the Huerta government to the government of the United States. Among the most seri- ous of these were the holding up by Huerta censors of official dispatches sent by the State Department to Charge 'Shaughnessy in Mexico City. huekta's vacillation Alarmed by the developments and by the defeat of his troops at San Pedro, Huerta, on Thursday, April 16, announced that he would obey the demand of the United States government and salute the flag by firing twenty- one guns at Tampico. The decision of the dictator was received with relief by the Wilson administration, which had been striving to avoid anything approaching hostili- ties. But the battleships kept on steaming toward Mexi- can waters. Overnight came another sudden change on the part of Huerta. The dictator announced that he would fire the salute demanded only on condition that each of his guns should be answered by an echoing shot from a United States battleship. It was announced at Washington that as soon as the ships reached Mexico they would seize the Huerta gun- boats guarding the harbor of Tampico and thus allow the forces of Villa and Carranza to take that city from Huerta. And the battle fleets were rapidly nearing the Mexican coasts. PKESIDENT WILSON 's ULTIMATUM On Saturday, April 18, President Wilson announced in" Washington that unless Huerta fired the salute of twenty- one guns by 6 o 'clock on Sunday evening he would on the following Monday personally lay the matter before Con- ij THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 45 gress and ask for authority to use the land and naval forces of the United States against Huerta. It was said that the presidential plan was to declare and enforce a ** pacific blockade " against all the ports of Mexico. At 8 o'clock on Sunday evening, April 19, the final reply came from Huerta. He would not agree to fire the salute demanded, and even denied that the United States flag was flying from the launch in Tampico 's harbor when the sailors were taken from it. President Wilson left Washington to spend Sunday, out of the city. American refugees from Mexico City began to arrive in large numbers at Vera Cruz. It looked like war and in many parts of the United States war meetings were held and volunteers offered themselves to the government. THE PEESIDENT BEFOEE CONGEESS On Monday, April 20, President Wilson appeared before Congress and asked for approval of his proposed action in using the army and navy against Huerta and his adherents. He disclaimed any possibility of making war on the Mexican people, or any idea of aggression or selfish aggrandizement. Following is the full text of the president's message, delivered in person: PEESiDENT Wilson's appeal to congeess Gentlemen of the Congress : It is my duty to call your attention to a situation which has arisen in our dealings with Gen. Victoriano Huerta at Mexico City, which calls for action, and to ask your advice and co-operation in acting upon it. On the 9th of April a paymaster of the U. S. S. Dolphin landed at the Iturbide bridge landing at Tampico with a whale-boat and boat's crew, to take off certain supplies needed by his ship, and while engaged in loading the boat was arrested by an officer and squad of men of the army 46 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT of Gen. Huerta. Neither the paymaster nor any one of the boat 's crew was armed. Two of the men were in the boat when the arrest took place and were obliged to leave it and submit to be taken into custody, notwithstanding the fact that the boat carried, both at her bow and at her stern, the flag of the United States. The officer who made the arrest was proceeding up one of the streets of the town with his prisoners when met by an officer of higher authority, who ordered him to return to the landing and await orders, and within an hour and a half from the time of the arrest orders were received from the commander of the Huertista forces at Tampico for the release of the paymaster and his men. APOLOGIZE AFTER RELEASE The release was followed by apologies from the com- mander and later by an expression of regret by Gen. Huerta himself. Gen. Huerta urged that martial law obtained at the time at Tampico; that orders had been issued that no one should be allowed to land at the Itur- bide bridge, and that our sailors had no right to land there. Our naval commanders at the port had not been notified of any such prohibition, and, even if they had been, the only justifiable course open to the local authorities would have been to request the paymaster and his crew to with- draw and to lodge a protest with the commanding officer of the fleet. Admiral Mayo regarded the arrest as so serious an affront that he was not satisfied with the apologies offered, but demanded that the flag of the United States be saluted with special ceremony by the military com- mander of the port. I CANNOT BE DEEMED TRIVLLL '* The incident cannot be regarded as a trivial one, especially as two of the men arrested were taken from THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 47 the boat itself — tliat is to say, from the territory of the United States. But had it stood by itself it might have been attributed to the ignorance or arrogance of a single officer. Unfortunately, it was not an isolated case. A series of incidents have recently occurred which cannot but create the impression that the representatives of Gen. Huerta were willing to go out of their way to show dis- regard for the dignity and rights of this government and felt perfectly safe in doing what they pleased, making free to show in many ways their irritation and contempt. A few days after the incident at Tampico an orderly from the U. S. S. Minnesota was arrested at Vera Cruz while ashore in uniform to obtain the ship 's mail and was for a time thrown into jail. An official dispatch from this government to its embassy at Mexico City was withheld by the authorities of the telegraphic service until per- emptorily demanded by our charge d'affaires in person. So far as I can learn, such wrongs and annoyances have been suffered only to occur against representatives of the United States. I have heard of no complaints from other governments of similar treatment. Subsequent explanations and formal apologies did not and could not alter the popular impression, which it is possible it had been the object of the Huertista authorities to create, that the government of the United States was being singled out and might be singled out with impunity for slights and affronts in retaliation for its refusal to recog- nize the pretensions of Gen. Huerta to be regarded as the constitutional provisional president of the republic of Mexico. DANGER OF THE SITUATION The manifest danger of such a situation was that such offenses might grow from bad to worse until something happened of so gross and intolerable a sort as to lead directly and inevitably to armed conflict. It was neces- sary that the apologies of Gen. Huerta and his repre- 48 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT sentatives should go much further, that they should be such as to attract the attention of the whole population to their significance and such as to impress upon Gen. Huerta himself the necessity of seeing to it that no further occasion for explanations and professed regrets should arise. I, therefore, felt it my duty to sustain Admiral Mayo in the whole of his demand and to insist that the flag of the United States should be saluted in such a way as to indicate a new spirit and attitude on the part of the Huertistas. Such a salute Gen. Huerta has refused, and I have come to ask your approval and support in the course I now purpose to pursue. CAN 't be FOECED INTO WAB This government can, I earnestly hope, in no circum- stances be forced into war with the people of Mexico. Mexico is torn by civil strife. If we are to accept the tests of its own constitution, it has no government. Gen. Huerta has set his power up in the City of Mexico, such as it is, without right and by methods for which there can be no justification. Only part of the country is under his control. If armed conflict should unhappily come as a result of this attitude of personal resentment toward this government, we should be fighting only Gen. Huerta and those who adhere to him and give him their support, and our object would be only to restore to the people of the distracted republic the opportunity to set up again their own laws and their own government. But I earnestly hope that war is not now in question. I believe that I speak for the American people when I say that we do not desire to control in any degree the affairs of our sister republic. GENUINE FEIEND OF MEXICO Our feeling for the people of Mexico is one of deep and genuine friendship, and everything that we have so Rear Admiral Mayo, U. S. N., in command of squadron at Tampico, who demanded satisfaction for insult to American flag Bio- guns of the battleship '■ New York" In readiness for action — main battery of the " Wyoming " . NELSON O'SHAUGHNESSY United States chargg d'affaires at Mexico City during controversy with Huerta, who handed him his passports with expressions of personal regret 2 "" be en "W: THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 49 far done or refrained from doing has proceeded from our desire to help them, not to hinder or embarrass them. We would not wish even to exercise the good offices of friendship without their welcome and consent. The people of Mexico are entitled to settle their own domestic affairs in their own way and we sincerely desire to respect their right. The present situation need have none of the grave complications of interference if we deal with it promptly, firmly and wisely. No doubt, I could do what is necessary in the circum- stances to enforce respect for our government without recourse to the congress and yet not exceed my constitu- tional powers as president ; but I do not wish to act in a matter possibly of so grave consequence except in close conference and co-operation with both the senate and the house. TO TJSE FOKCE AGAINST HTJEBTA I, therefore, come to ask your approval that I should use the armed forces of the United States in such ways and to such an extent as may be necessary to obtain from Gen. Huerta and his adherents the fullest recognition of the rights and dignity of the United States, even amid the distressing conditions now unhappily obtaining in Mexico. There can, in what we do, be no thought of aggression or of selfish aggrandizement. We seek to maintain the dignity and authority of the United States only because we wish always to keep our great influence unimpaired for the uses of liberty, both in the United States and wherever else it may be employed for the benefit of mankind. DEBATE IN CONGEESS In the House of Representatives there was sharp debate before the final passage at a night session of the resolu- tion which ' ' justified the use of the armed forces of the United States in enforcing certain demands against Vic- 50 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT toriano Huerta. ' ' It was supported by practically all the Democrats, by most of the Progressives, and opposed by thirty Republicans. The final vote was 337 in favor of the resolution and 37 against it. DELAY IN THE SENATE In the Senate there was some delay. Republican sen- ators and some of the Democrats insisted that so serious a step ought not to be taken without giving to the world a more complete justification than the mere statement that Huerta had insulted the flag. Then Senator Lodge introduced a substitute reso- lution declaring that a state of anarchy had long existed in Mexico, that American citizens had been murdered and their property destroyed, and that, disclaiming any hos- tility against the Mexican people, the United States was justified in using its armed forces for the protection of its people and the enforcement of its rights. In the hope of hastening action. President Wilson per- sonally visited the capitol Monday evening and conferred with his supporters. Shortly after midnight the Senate adjourned without completing the debate or passing any resolution. Huerta issued a proclamation declaring that all aliens in his capital would be safeguarded. American merchant vessels were ordered to leave the port of Vera Cruz, and there was a rush of refugees from Tampico, Vera Cruz, and Mexico City. On Monday night President Wilson, without waiting for the passage of the Senate resolution, sent orders to Rear- Admiral Fletcher to seize the custom house at Vera Cruz and hold it with a detachment of sailors and marines. The result was as described in the preceding chapter. In the Senate at Washington a hot debate raged all day Tuesday over the wording of the resolution author- izing the use of armed force. Senator Root led the fight THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 51 for making the resolution express more than merely the indignation of the United States at insults to its flag and uniform. He and his adherents succeeded in cutting the name of Huerta out of the resolution. It finally passed by a vote of 72 to 13, after an all-night session, in the early hours of Wednesday morning. The text of the Senate substitute resolution, which was promptly accepted by the House, was as follows : ** In view of the facts presented by the president of the United States in his address delivered to the Congress in joint session the 20th day of April, 1914, in regard to certain affronts and indignities committed against the United States in Mexico, be it *' Resolved, That the president is justified in the em- ployment of the armed forces of the United States to enforce his demands for unequivocal amends for affronts and indignities committed against the United States ; be it further ** Resolved, That the United States disclaims any hos- tility to the Mexican people or any purpose to make war upon them." SENATOE boot's EEASONS In the course of his speech on the resolution Senator Elihu Root said : *' Lying behind the insult to the American flag are the lives of Americans destroyed, Americans reduced to poverty because of the destruction of their property. Lying behind it is a condition of anarchy in Mexico, a condition which makes it impossible to secure protection for American life and property. It is that which makes necessary the demand that public respect be paid the flag of the United States. '' There is our justification. It is a justification lying not in Victoriano Huerta or in his conduct alone, but in the universal conduct of affairs in Mexico and the real object to be attained by the course which we are 52 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT asked to approve is not the gratification of personal pride; it is not the satisfaction of a government or of an admiral, it is the desire of the United States to pro- tect its citizens under these conditions. ** If we omit from this resolution that we are to pass here tonight, the matters included in the substitute pre- amble we omit the real reasons behind the action. On the facts in the resolution as reported by the committee we would be everlastingly wrong. On the facts in the substitute we could rest before the world, and before history, secure. ** Ah, Mr. President," he said in a voice that sank almost to a whisper, and the galleries leaned forward breathlessly to hear; " the capture of Vera Cruz, the death of our American marines, the wounds and the suffering of those who live there tonight, demand some- thing more, far more, than a formal insult, for justifica- tion. The recitals of the substitute preamble are weak in the face of death and suffering in Vera Cruz tonight. The substitute preamble is weak, but it gives formal, adequate grounds, for the great formidable movement of the great naval and military power of this govern- ment ; it gives the justification that is needed." It developed in Washington that Special Envoy John Lind had predicted to the committees of Congress that Vera Cruz and Tampico could be occupied without blood- shed and that the Carranza forces would approve such occupation. O 'SHAUGHNESSY HANDED PASSPOETS On "Wednesday, April 22, the day after the American forces landed at Vera Cruz, Mr. Nelson 'Shaughnessy, United States charge d'affaires in the City of Mexico, was handed his passports. They were accompanied by a note from the Huerta secretary for foreign affairs, of which the following is a verbatim translation: *' Mr. Charge d 'Affaires: Assuredly your honor THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 53 knows that the marines of the American ships of war anchored off the port of Vera Cruz, availing themselves of the circumstance that the Mexican authorities had given them access to the harbor of the town because they considered their presence was of a friendly character, disembarked yesterday with their arms and uniforms and possessed themselves by surprise of the principal public buildings without giving time for the women and children in the streets, the sick, and other noncombatants, to place themselves in safety. '' This act was contrary to international usages. If these usages do not demand, as held by many states, a previous declaration of war, they impose at least the duty of not violating humane consideration or good faith by people whom the country which they are in has received as friends and who therefore should not take advantage of that circumstance to commit hostile acts. " These acts of the armed forces of the United States I do not care to qualify in this note, out of deference to the fact that your honor personally has observed toward the Mexican government and people a most strictly cor- rect conduct, so far as that has been possible to you in your character as the representative of a government with which we have been in such serious difficulties as those existing. *' Regarding the initiation of war against Mexico this ministry reserves to itself the right of presenting to other powers the events and considerations pertinent to this matter, in order that they as members of the concert of nations may judge of the conduct of the two nations and adopt an attitude which they may deem proper in view of this deplorable outrage upon our nation's sovereignty. " The president of the Republic of Mexico has seen fit to terminate, as I have the honor to communicate to your honor, the diplomatic mission which your honor has until now discharged. You will have the goodness to retire from Mexican territory. To that end I inclose your pass- 54 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT port, at the same time informing you that, as is the diplomatic custom on such occasions, a special train will be at your disposal with a guard sufficient to protect your honor, your family, and your staff, although the Mexican people are sufficiently civilized to respect even without this protection your honor and those accompanying you.j * ' I take this opportunity to reiterate to your honor the] assurances of my highest consideration. *' (Signed) Jose Lopez Portillo y Rojas.'^ MR. o'sHAITGHNESSY's STORY Here is Nelson O'Shaughnessy's own story of the nego- tiation with Huerta in the Mexican capital, following the Tampico incident, as he told it on his arrival at Vera Cruz, April 27, after being handed his passports by the provisional government : " It became apparent early in the developments aris- ing from the Tampico flag incident that the situation was fraught with ominous possibilities, although it was my opinion almost to the last minute that Huerta would recede from a position that made it impossible for Wash- ington to adjust matters as Huerta wanted them adjusted. ** You must understand that had Huerta waived his insistence upon a return salute to the Mexican flag by the United States — which act would have implied a recognition by our government — the Tampico incident would have been unquestionably closed. HUERTA LOSING PRESTIGE ' * The situation was rapidly getting worse in the coun- try and Huerta was growing less able to resist success- fully the rebels, to say nothing of making headway against them. * ' The loss of Torreon was a great blow to the Federal government, although it tried its best to minimize its importance. But it hurt, and hurt badly. ** When I received the first information of the arrest THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 55 of the Dolphin's sailors and of Admiral Mayo's demands — which, by the way, came to me first through the Mexi- can foreign office, which had been communicated with by General Zaragoza before my information from Washing- ton reached me — it was too late to do anything. * ' That was Friday, April 10, and according to the time limit fixed by Admiral Mayo, satisfaction had to be given by 6 o'clock that night. PIFDS DIOTATOB ASLEEP " Everyone who has had experience in dealing with Mexican officials knows how difficult it is to stir them to quick action under the most favorable conditions. " After several hours' search I finally caught up with Huerta at his house, where he was taking a siesta. Not even my strongest representations of the extremity and urgency of the case could induce his aids to arouse him, so I was forced to go away and return again in an hour. ** When I finally did see Huerta, we discussed the Tam- pico incident most amicably. His expressions indicated a considerable displeasure that the arrest of the Dolphin 's people should have been permitted. *' He gave me the impression that he was much incensed at the stupidity of the officer who was responsible for it, and who had added to Huerta 's troubles by his blunder- ing step. FEAKED OPEN BKEAK " It is interesting to note that, in spite of his frequent public explosions against our policy toward him and hia outward attitude of defiance and indifference to anything we might do, Huerta was always very careful to allow nothing to be done that would bring about an open break between Washington and his government. ** Huerta sent for me and we talked for a long time. I went away with a distinct impression that he had receded from his position regarding recognition and that 56 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT he would come to a satisfactory understanding with my government, and I so communicated to Washington. ' ' Later I ascertained that I had apparently misunder- stood what Huerta had said. This threw negotiations back to the original status ; so we got nowhere. THOUGHT UNITED STATES WAS BLUFFING * ' I firmly believe that Huerta was skeptical that "Wash- ington would press matters to the point of armed occu- j pation of either Tampico or Vera Cruz, I think he had ' probably the mental reservation that, if things grew too cloudy, he would draw back at the last moment. '' Palpably, he had not the slightest appreciation of the considerations which had prevented Washington from taking decisive steps in Mexico before this point had been reached. ' * TROOPS OEDERED TO VERA CRUZ On Thursday night, April 23, President Wilson, yield- ing to the earnest appeals of the navy and army officers, ordered that the Fifth Brigade, United States Regular Infantry, should embark at Galveston for Vera Cruz. Four army transports were lying in Galveston harbor and the work of loading the 4,500 men and their equip- ment into the ships was begun at once. Brigadier Gen- eral Frederick Funston was assigned to command the troops. The transports sailed from Galveston at 5 o'clock Fri- day evening, carrying only the soldiers, their ammuni- tion, and sufficient equipment for active service in the field. Thursday evening Secretary of War Garrison sent orders to stop the delivery of ammunition and arms to the forces of Carranza and Villa across the Texas border. This order President Wilson, in his desire to confine hos- tilities to the Huerta sphere of influence and anxious not to offend Carranza, was inclined to cancel. He finally, THE TAMPICO INCIDENT 57 however, yielded to the military officials and allowed the embargo to stand. It developed that some 7,500 rifles and a large amount of ammunition stood ready for deliv- ery to the rebels. A resolution appropriating $500,000 to aid American refugees from Mexico, which was passed by the Senate on Thursday, was signed by President Wilson. AMERICANS IN DANGER The Huerta forces evacuated Nuevo Laredo, the Mexi- can town across the Rio Grande from Laredo, Tex., burn- ing the city and making several attempts to destroy the international bridge across the river. There was some firing between the retiring Mexicans and troops and citi- zens on the American side of the river. Reports came from Mexico City and from various points along the railroad that citizens of the United States had been taken from trains and were being held as hostages by order of Huerta. Secretary of State Bryan had word that one party of twenty, including one British citizen, had been dragged from a train at Tierra Blanca by Huerta soldiers and were in imminent danger of execution. All day April 25, there were reports from many parts of Mexico that Americans were being prevented from leaving the country — in some instances dragged from trains and locked up in jail under orders from the Huerta government. Fresh reports were received of riots in Mexico City. It was declared that in every large city in the Republic Americans were being detained as hostages. At Wash- ington it was announced that Major-Greneral Leonard Wood had been ordered to the Texas frontier to take general charge of operations. Late in the afternoon of April 25 the ambassador from Brazil and the ministers from Argentina and Chile called on Secretary of State Bryan in Washington. The casual 58 THE TAMPICO INCIDENT announcement was made in a bulletin from the national capital and attracted little attention. But a few hours later official announcement was made that President Wilson * * had accepted the offer of Brazil, Argentina, and Chile to use their good offices in an attempt to bring about a peaceful and friendly settlement of the difficulty between the United States and Mexico." I CHAPTER III MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS A surprise was in store for those who regarded war as inevitable, when on April 25 it was announced at Wash- ington and immediately telegraphed broadcast over the country that President Wilson had accepted the good offices of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile for the mediation of the differences existing between the United States and '* those who speak for the several elements of the Mexi- can people. ' ' Although the offer made by the three South American countries did not reveal their plans, it was learned that they contemplate a broad settlement of the Mexican prob- lem through the elimination of Huerta, upon which the United States had insisted from the beginning. The note of acceptance, while agreeing to the sugges- tion, reservedly pointed out that an act of aggression by the military forces of Mexico or hostile demonstration toward Americans might upset hopes of iromediate peace. The offer of mediation, addressed to Secretary of State Bryan, was in the following terms : * ' With the purpose of subserving the interest of peace and civilization in our continent and with the earnest desire to prevent any further bloodshed to the prejudice of the cordiality and union which have always surrounded the relations of the governments and the people of Amer- ica, we, the plenipotentiaries of Brazil, Argentina, and Chile, duly authorized hereto, have the honor to tender to your excellency's government our good offices for the 59 60 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS peaceful and friendly settlement of the conflict between the United States and Mexico. " This offer puts in due form the suggestions which we have had occasion to offer heretofore on this subject to the secretary, to whom we renew our highest and most distinguished consideration. '* DoMicio Da Gama, Brazil. " RoMXJLo S. Naon, Argentina. *' Eduakdo Suakez Mujica, Chile." KEPLY OF PRESroENT WILSON" To the above President Wilson promptly returned the following reply : i i Tjjg government of the United States is deeply sens- ible of the friendliness, the good feeling, and the generous concern for the peace and welfare of America manifested in the joint note just received from your excellencies offering the good offices of your governments to effect if possible a settlement of the present difficulty between the government of the United States and those who now claim to represent our sister republic of Mexico. ** Conscious of the purpose with which the proffer is made, this government does not feel at liberty to decline it. ** Its own chief interest is in the peace of America, the| cordial intercourse of her republics and their people,' and the happiness and prosperity which can spring only out of frank, mutual understanding and the friendship which is created by common purpose. i i rpiie generous offer of your governments is therefore accepted. * ' This government hopes most earnestly that you may find those who speak for the several elements of the Mexican people willing and ready to discuss terms of satisfactory and therefore permanent settlement. If you should find them willing, this government will be glad to take up with you for discussion in the frankest and most MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 61 conciliatory spirit any proposals that may be authorita- tively formulated, and will hope that they may prove feasible and prophetic of a new day of mutual co-opera- tion and confidence in America. " This government feels bound in candor to say that its diplomatic relations with Mexico being for the present severed, it is not possible for it to make sure of an unin- terrupted opportunity to carry out the plan of inter- mediation which you propose. '' It is, of course, possible that some act of aggression on the part of those who control the military forces of Mexico might oblige the United States to act to the upset- ting of the hopes of immediate peace, but this does not justify us in hesitating to accept your generous suggestion. ** We shall hope for the best results within a brief time, enough to relieve our anxiety lest most ill con- sidered hostile demonstrations should interrupt negotia- tions and disappoint our hopes of peace." WHY THE PLAN WAS ACCEPTED President Wilson accepted mediation for the following reasons : 1. It offered a hope of peace. 2. It showed the world that we are sincere in the effort to avert war. 3. It might modify the sentiment of South America, now strongly against the United States, even if no prac- tical results flowed from it. 4. As the United States and Mexico are both signa- tories of The Hague conventions, it was incumbent on this government to observe the terms of those conven- tions. 5. It is imposed upon this government by the treaty of 1848 between the United States and Mexico, which pre- scribes that in case of any difference a resort shall not be made to reprisals, aggression, or hostility of any kind 62 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS without recourse to arbitration either by a commission composed of citizens of both countries or by a friendly power. AMERICAN TERMS DEFINITE Prior to the formal acceptance of the mediation pro- posed there was a conference at the White House between the President, Secretary of State Bryan, Senators Stone and Shively, Democratic members, and Senator Lodge, Eepublican member, respectively, of the Senate foreign relations committee, and Eepresentatives Flood and Cooper of the House foreign affairs committee. At this conference it was determined : 1. That the mediation should not be limited to General Huerta, but should be extended to General Carranza, Gen- eral Villa, and General Zapata. 2. That, as a condition of the cessation of warlike measures by the United States : (a) Huerta should be required to resign. (b) An orderly government should be set up. (c) Peace and order should be established in Mexico. (d) Suitable reparation must be made for all insults to the American flag. PROPOSAL SENT TO HUERTA The Brazilian, Argentine, and Chilean envoys trans- mitted the United States V acceptance of their proposal to the Spanish ambassador, who immediately sent it by cable to the Spanish legation at Mexico City for presenta- tion to General Huerta. General Carranza, head of the Mexican Constitution- alists, was also informed of it through his representatives at Washington. The three diplomats announced that no further steps would be taken by them until replies had been received from the leaders of the Mexican factions. ! MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 63 AEMY PLANS NOT STOPPED Coincidently witli the acceptance of the offer of media- tion, administration officials announced there would be no cessation of preparations by the army and navy for future emergencies and no orders would be issued to the naval forces at Vera Cruz or the ships at sea changing original plans. ACCEPTANCE BY HUEKTA On Sunday, April 26, it was announced in Washington by the Spanish ambassador that he had received unofficial advices from Mexico that Huerta would accept the offer of good offices from the ambassador of Brazil and the ministers of Chile and Argentina, which had already been accepted by President Wilson. It was later learned that Huerta accepted the *' principle " of the mediation proposed. On the same day came word that United States Consul Hanna had been arrested and locked up by Huerta adher- ents at Monterey, Mexico, while 2,700 American refugees from Tampico and Vera Cruz reached Galveston, Tex., by steamer. They told stories of being insulted and robbed by Mexicans, both federals and rebels, threats and tor- ture being used in some instances to force the production of more money. The news that President Wilson had accepted the offer of the three republics was received with much gratifica- tion all over Latin America. The administration was assured that it would have the support of Congress in its efforts to prevent war. Eeports from Mexico City that the foes of Huerta were active in his capital were the chief developments of Mon- day, April 27. It was even rumored that the dictator, frightened by threats of assassination, had taken refuge in one of the foreign embassies and that his government was in imminent danger of an uprising. 64 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS Hundreds of American refugees sailed from Vera Cruz for various ports in the United States. On April 29 it was reported that General Carranza, chief of the Mexican rebels, had accepted in principle the offer of arbitration. But later in the week he balked at the plan, refusing to cease his activities against Huerta or to entertain any plan of mediation that involved even temporary recognition of the Huerta government. Euro- pean powers were reported to be bringing great pressure to bear on Huerta to force him to retire permanently. On Thursday, April 30, word was received at Wash- ington that Huerta, in answer to the request of the South American arbitrators, was willing to agree to an armis- tice pending the result of the negotiations. On May 1 Carranza positively declined to entertain the idea of an armistice or even of a temporary truce. The mediators therefore planned to continue their negotiations despite the recurrence of hostilities between the Mexican federal forces and their Constitutionalist opponents. It was announced by Secretary of State Bryan on May 5 that the three mediators would meet at Niagara Falls, Can- ada, May 18, to confer with representatives of the parties to the controversy. THE POLICY OP MEDIATION" Late in 1913 the co-operation of the three Latin Ameri- can republics was urged as the only feasible means of establishing stable conditions in Mexico. Representative Kahn, of California, was the originator of the sugges- tion. On August 10, 1913, he said : ' ' The Mexican situa- tion is the concern of every patriotic American citizen. The formulation of a definite policy by the administration is eagerly awaited by the civilized world. At this junc- ture the republics of Brazil, Argentina and Chile should be asked to co-operate with us in whatever steps we may take to bring about a condition of peace in Mexico. ' ' On October 24, 1913, in Rio de Janeiro, Theodore Rear Admiral Badger, U. S. N., in command of North Atlantic Fleet when Vera Cruz was occupied Using the heliograph for signaling l^J^ 5^B^M . * -; ^ fi ^•iSi^it Wm {;» * • ,| ^r ..^H .r-lii ill} w ilsfis; • s§,^S 1^;^^ ^■1 9; ^2»* ■ : J^':^;» B S^^?«L m IK ffcf 1" >, f r ^pk ^- -'5^ rnm^ 9.,«M«« m^.. ' ^ - ••^'WRJSP'* •'W Sending a wireless message from the field MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 65 Eoosevelt gave the policy world-wide significance in his address before the University of Brazil. He said: " The United States does not wish the territory of its neighbors. It does wish their confidence. If ever, as regards any country, intervention does unfortunately become necessary, I hope that wherever possible it will be a joint intervention by such powers (Brazil, Argen- tina and Chile), without thought of the selfish aggrandize- ment of any of them, and for the common good of the western world. ' ' POLICY OF THE UNITED STATES President Woodrow Wilson on his inauguration in 1913 issued a formal statement of the policy which the administration proposed to follow with respect to the republics of Central and South America. The state- ment follows : *' One of the chief objects of my administration will be to cultivate the friendship and deserve the confidence of our sister republics of Central and South America and to promote in every proper and honorable way the interests which are common to the peoples of the two continents. I earnestly desire the most cordial under- standing and co-operation between the peoples and leaders of America and therefore deem it my duty to make this brief statement. *' Co-operation is possible only when supported at every turn by the orderly process of just government based on law, not upon arbitrary or irregular force. We hold, as I am sure all thoughtful leaders of republican government everywhere hold, that just government rests always upon the consent of the governed and that there can be no freedom without order based upon law and upon the public conscience and approval. '* We shall look to make these principles the basis of mutual intercourse, respect and helpfulness between our sister republics and ourselves. We shall lend our influ- 66 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS ence of every kind to the realization of these principles in fact and practice, knowing that disorder, personal intrigue and defiance of constitutional rights weaken and discredit government and injure none so much as the people who are unfortunate enough to have their common life and common affairs tainted and disturbed. We can have no sympathy with those who seek to seize the power of government to advance their own personal interests or ambition. We are the friends of peace, but we know that there can be no lasting or stable peace in such circum- stances. As friends, therefore, we shall prefer those who act in the interest of peace and honor, who protect private rights and respect the restraints of constitutional pro- vision. Mutual respect seems to us the indispensable foundation of friendship between states, as betw^een individuals. '' The United States has nothing to seek in Central and South America except the lasting interests of the peoples of the two continents, the security of govern- ments intended for the people and for no special group or interest, and the development of personal and trade relationships between the two continents which shall redound to the profit and advantage of both and interfere with the rights and liberties of neither. " From these principles may be read so much of the future policy of this government as it is necessary now to forecast, and in the spirit of these principles, I may, I hope, be permitted with as much confidence as earnest- ness to extend to the governments of all the republics of America the hand of genuine disinterested friendship and to pledge my own honor and that of my colleagues to every enterprise of peace and amity that a fortunate future may disclose. ' ' THE MONROE AND DRAGO DOCTRINES The *' Monroe Doctrine " was enunciated by President Monroe in his message to congress, December 2, 1823. I MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 67 Eeferring to steps taken to arrange the respective rights of Eussia, Great Britain and the United States on the northwest coast of this continent, the president went on to say: *' In the discussions to which this interest has given rise, and in the arrangements by which they may termin- ate, the occasion has been deemed proper for asserting, as a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American con- tinents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power. We owe it, therefore, to candor and to the amicable relations existing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any por- tion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the governments who have declared their independence and maintain it, and whose independence we have, on great consideration and on just principles, acknowledged, we could not view any inter- position for the purpose of oppressing them or con- trolling in any other manner their destiny by any European power in any other light than as the manifesta- tion of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." THE DEAGO DOCTEINE When in the winter of 1902-03, Germany, Britain and Italy blockaded the ports of Venezuela in an attempt to make the latter country settle up its debts. Dr. L. F. Drago, a noted jurist of Argentina, maintained that force cannot be used by one power to collect money owing to its citizens by another power. Prominence was given to the contention by the fact that it was officially upheld 68 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS by Argentina and favored by other South American republics. The principle embodied has become generally known as the " Drago doctrine." STEENGTH OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY AND NAVY MAECH 20, 1914 Regular Army: Officers, 4,933; enlisted men, 92,426. Philippine Scouts: Officers, 180; enlisted men, 5,732. Militia : Officers, 9,142 ; enlisted men, 112,710. Eegular Navy: Officers, 3,293; enlisted men, 49,854. Marine Corps: Officers, 345; enlisted men, 9,921. Naval Militia: Officers, 615; enlisted men, 7,185. In the regular army the infantry consists of thirty regi- ments of three battalions each, and each battalion falls into four companies. The cavalry has fifteen regiments of three squadrons. The field artillery comprises six reg- iments, each of six batteries ; of these two regiments are light artillery, two mountain artillery, one field artillery, and one horse artillery. To each battery are allotted four guns firing a 15-pound shell, and eight wagons. The militia is a body of voluntary state troops which the president can call out for service within the country or outside of it. MEXICAN ARMY AND NAVY At the present time (May, 1914) the Mexican army has only a paper strength, as a considerable part of the regu- lar army in the north has gone over to the Constitutional camp. The official figures on the organization of the army are : Peace Strength: 107 generals, 6,236 officers, 49,332 men. War Strength : Estimated at from 50,000 to 84,000 of all ranks. The army consists of 30 battalions of infantry, 18 regiments of cavalry, 1 regiment of horse artillery, 2 regiments of field artillery, and 1 of mountain guns, etc. C..XXU. virontler; 1838-39 l',500 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 69 Each artillery regiment consists in time of peace of four batteries, in time of war raised to six. The national guard is practically without training or organization and would be very difficult to mobilize. Mauser rifles (1901 model) are used by the regular infantry and cavalry, but the reserves use the old Rem- ington 1893 model. The artillery is fairly well supplied with Schneider-Canet quick-firing guns. Recently, the Mexican government has made heavy purchases of guns, chiefly rifles, in Japan. Most of the ammunition used is made in Mexican arsenals. The navy is almost a negligible feature. There were until July, 1913, five gunboats, but one of these was destroyed by the Constitutionalists in the harbor of Guaymas. FOECES ENGAGED IN" UNITED STATES WAES The military and naval forces employed by the gov- ernment since 1775 have been as follows: War Date Total Revolution 1775-83 309,791 Northwestern Indian 1790-95 8,983 France 1798-1800 4,593 Tripoli 1801-05 3,330 Indian (Harrison) 1811-13 910 War of 1812 1812-15 576,622 Creek Indian 1813-14 13,781 Seminole 1817-18 6,911 Winnebago (Wis.) 1827 1,416 Sac and Fox (111.) 1831 Black Hawk 1832 6,465 Cherokee removal 1833-39 9,494 Seminole (Fla.) 1835-42 41,122 Sabine Indian 1836-37 4,429 Creek (Ala.) 1836-37 13,418 *' Patriot " (frontier) 1838-39 1,500 70 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS War Date Total Seminole (Fla.) 1842-58 .... Mexico 1846-48 112,230 Cayuse Indian (Ore.) 1848 1,116 Texas Indian 1849-56 4,243 Apache (Utah) 1849-55 2,561 California Indian 1849-55 265 Utah Indian 1851-53 540 Oregon Washington Indian 1851-56 5,145 Comanche 1854 502 Seminole 1855-58 2,687 Civil War 1861-66 2,778,304 Spanish- American 1898-99 312,523 Philippine 1899-1902 140,038 Pekin (China) Expedition 1900-01 6,913 Total 4,371,839 The total in this table includes re-enlistments. The total number of individuals is estimated at 3,304,993, of whom 2,213,363 served in the Civil War. AMEKICAN LOSSES IN SPANISH AND PHILIPPINE WAKS FROM WOUNDS OE DISEASE Officers Men May 1, 1898, to June 30, 1899 224 6,395 June 30, 1899, to July 1, 1900 74 1,930 July 1, 1900, to June 30, 1901 57 1,932 SHIPS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY The following are the vessels of the United States navy available for foreign service, coast defense, etc.: First Class Battleships Alabama, 11,552 tons; Arkansas, 26,000; Connecticut, 16,000; Delaware, 20,000; Florida, 21,825; Georgia, 14,948; Idaho, 13,000; Illinois, 11,552; Indiana, 10,288; MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 71 Iowa, 11,346; Kansas, 16,000; Kearsarge, 11,520; Ken- tucky, 11,520; Louisiana, 16,000; Maine, 12,500; Massa- chusetts, 10,288; Michigan, 16,000; Minnesota, 16,000; Mississippi, 13,000; Missouri, 12,500; Nebraska, 14,948; New Hampshire, 16,000 ; New Jersey, 14,948 ; North Da- kota, 20,000; Ohio, 12,500; Oregon, 10,288; Rhode Island, 14,948; South Carolina, 16,500; Utah, 21,825; Vermont, 16,000; Virginia, 14,948; Wisconsin, 11,552; Wyoming, 26,000. Also, just completed, the New York, 27,500 tons ; Oklahoma, 27,500; and Texas, 27,000. Each of these is armed with ten 14-inch and twenty-one 5-inch guns. Armed Cruisers Brooklyn, 9,215 tons; California, 13,680; Colorado, 13,680; Maryland, 13,680; Montana, 14,500; North Caro- lina, 14,500; Pittsburgh, 13,680; Saratoga, 8,150; South Dakota, 13,680; Tennessee, 14,500; Washington, 14,500; West Virginia, 13,680. Protected Cruisers Albany, 3,430 tons; Baltimore, 4,413; Boston, 3,000; Charleston, 9,700; Chattanooga, 3,200; Chicago, 4,500; Cincinnati, 3,183 ; Cleveland, 3,200 ; Columbia, 7,350 ; Den- ver, 3,200; Des Moines, 3,200; Galveston, 3,200; Milwau- kee, 9,700; Minneapolis, 7,350; New Orleans, 3,430; Olympia, 5,865 ; Raleigh, 3,183 ; San Francisco, 4,083 ; St. Louis, 9,700; Tacoma, 3,200; Topeka, 2,255. Unprotected Scout Cruisers Birmingham, 3,750 tons ; Chester, 3,750 ; Salem, 3,750. Unprotected Cruisers Marblehead, 2,072 tons ; Montgomery, 2,072. Torpedo Boat Destroyers Bainbridge, Barry, Cassin, Cummings, Henley, Jarvis, Maynart, Ammen, Beale, Burrows, Chauncey, Dale, De- catur, Drayton, Fanning, Flusser, Hopkins, Hull, Jenkins, 72 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS Jouett, Lamson, Lawrence, Macdonough, McCall, Mona- glian, Patterson, Paulding, Paul Jones, Perkins, Perry, Preble, Preston, Reid, Roe, Smith, Sterett, Stewart, Terry, Trippe, Truxtun, Walke, Warrington, Whipple Worden. The destroyers range in tonnage from 420 to 742 tons. COAST DEFENSE VESSELS Monitors Amphitrite, 3,990 tons ; Cheyenne, 3,225 ; Miantonomoh, 3,990; Monadnock, 3,990; Monterey, 4,084; Ozark, 3,225; Tallahassee, 3,225; Terror, 3,990; Tonopah, 3,225. Torpedo Boats Bagley, Bailey, Barney, Biddle, Blakely, Craven, Davis, Dahlgren, DeLong, DuPont, Farragiit, Foote, Fox, Golds- borough, Gwin, Mackenzie, Manley, Morris, Rodgers, Shubrick, Somers, Stockton, Stringham, Thornton, Tin- gey, Wilkes. Other Vessels Besides the vessels named there are in the United States navy over 30 gunboats of varying tonnage up to 1,710 tons, wooden cruisers, transports, supply ships, hos- pital ships, a number of converted yachts, and nearly 30 colliers, mostly of very large tonnage. In addition to the above, there are under construction and authorized 4 battleships, 17 torpedo boat destroyers, 26 submarines, 3 gunboats, 2 colliers, 3 tenders to torpedo vessels, 1 transport and 1 supply ship. STEENGTH OF U. S. MILITIA The present strength of the organized militia of the United States, including officers and men, is approxi- mately 120,000, according to the latest returns from adjutants general of the different states to the war department. These civilian soldiers are divided as follows : MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 73 Alabama 2,569 Arizona 522 Arkansas 1,359 California 3,612 Colorado 1,446 Connecticut 2,641 Delaware 482 District of Columbia 1,646 Florida 1,220 Georgia 2,898 Hawaii 465 Idaho 840 Illinois 5,914 Indiana 2,476 Iowa 2,981 Kansas 1,824 Kentucky 2,013 Louisiana 1,142 Maine 1,448 Maryland 1,972 Massachusetts 5,793 Michigan 2,750 Minnesota 2,942 Mississippi 1,443 Missouri 3,576 Montana 610 Nebraska 1,172 New Hampshire 1,252 Nevada (mustered out) 1,906 New Jersey 4,392 New Mexico 648 New York 15,957 North Carolina 2,568 North Dakota 629 Ohio 6,140 Oklahoma 952 Oregon 1,467 Pennsylvania 10,534 Rhode Island 1,358 South Carolina 1,909 South Dakota 679 Tennessee 1,834 Texas 2,561 Utah 354 Vermont 845 Virginia 2,699 Washington 1,238 West Virginia 1,383 Wisconsin 2,903 Wyoming 688 THE PANAMA CANAL A dispatch from Panama April 20 stated that only in case of urgent necessity could battleships use the Panama Canal in proceeding to the blockade of the Mexican Pacific ports. This was made plain by Governor Goe- thals. But he declared that if the United States govern- ment insisted he could speed up the work on the Cuca- racha slide in order to obtain a forty-five foot channel. He could, he said, also demolish the Empire Bridge across the canal and tear out the railway trestle at 74 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS Paraiso, so as to make the canal available for the largest vessels of war in a very short time. DEFENSES OF VERA CRUZ Prior to the occupation of Vera Cruz by the United States, the defenses of that city and Tampico were described as follows : In the event that the United States fleet had been forced to bombard the ports of Tampico and Vera Cruz the latter city will be the only Mexican port on the Gulf which could properly defend itself against such an attack. The batteries which lie hidden in the ancient niches of the fortress on the island of San Juan de Ulua, which guards the outer portions of the harbor of Vera Cruz, would be the only means of keeping an enemy from suc- cessfully taking the Bay of Vera Cruz, which would give the invaders entrance to the city and start an army on its way to Mexico City. San Juan de Ulua was built originally by the Spaniards and stands at the present day a cluster of white stone buildings marked by hurricane winds and former battles. The low white buildings which spread out about a quarter of a mile north and south about a mile from the mainland are individually pointed out by the natives, who tell ter- rible stories of the dungeons and of the fierce penalties inflicted on the military prisoners and felons sent there. Porfirio Diaz, Madero and Huerta always found it advisable to keep San Juan garrisoned with good guns and loyal troops. During all the rebellions either the Bravos, the Morelos or the Zaragoza, the only three ships of any importance which the Mexican navy can boast of, kept a permanent station close by the island. The north- ern end of the island is taken up by a signal station which commands a view of all incoming steamers many miles out. Here, also, the government has located a local observatory. The maximum of the batteries which mount San Juan MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS 75 do not exceed three ten-incti guns which command the outer harbor entrance, and several smaller cannon, with perhaps half a dozen rapid fire land pieces, and usually from 500 to 800 men. The second fortification lies about half a mile from the Custom-house wharf off toward the southwestern part of the city of Vera Cruz and is known as Baluarte de Santiago. This fortress, which also remains from the days of Spain in Mexico, is always kept in the trim con- dition that the island fortress knows. In case of an attack it could, along with the outer defenses, give a pretty fair fight before the city would finally surrender. Baluarte de Santiago was built originally for the purpose of with- standing a land attack upon Vera Cruz, but in the last three years the Mexican government has deemed it more advisable to strengthen its defenses. THE CHANNEL AT TAMPICO Tampico would quickly fall into the hands of a strong naval force. Persons familiar with the port point out only one highly improbable incident which might turn the tables for the Mexicans if the fleet steamed up on the city with the intention of a bombardment. In order to get into the roadstead off Tampico all steamers inward bound have to pass through a channel typically Mexican which leads into the Panuco River. This channel, which is guarded on either side by a small lighthouse, is scarcely a quarter of a mile in width, and during the season of the norther, which lasts until the early part of May, steamers are compelled to ride out the storm at sea rather than to chance or risk attempting to run the channel, which on such occasions cannot be depended upon for depth with large steamers. Often the storm lasts several days, with a wind blowing 100 miles per hour, kicking up an immense sea. The only possible way, some critics point out, to destroy the 76 MEDIATION BY DIPLOMATS American ships would be to destroy the lights and depend on a norther. It is recounted among shipping men at Tampico that the only steamer which ever came through the channel safely in a storm was manned by an American crew and skipper. This was about two years ago, when Captain Michael O'Keefe of the Ward liner Seguranca took the vessel through in a raging storm and the Mexicans talked about his feat for months after. A German vessel which followed went aground on the beach. PRESIDENT MC KINLEY ON MEDIATION President McKinley's reply to the ambassadors of Europe, who, on April 6, 1898, tendered their good offices to bring about peace between Spain and the United States was as follows : *' The government of the United States recognizes the good will which has prompted the friendly communica- tion of the representatives of Germany, Austria- Hungary, France, Great Britain, Italy and Russia, as set forth in the address of your excellencies, and shares the hope therein expressed that the outcome of the situation in Cuba may be the maintenance of peace between the United States and Spain by affording the necessary guar- antees for the re-establishment of order in the island, so terminating the chronic condition of disturbance there, which so deeply injures the interests and menaces the tranquillity of the American nation by the character and consequence of the struggle thus kept up at our doors, besides shocking its sentiment of humanity. ** The government of the United States appreciates the humanitarian character of the communication now made in behalf of the powers named and for its part is con- fident that equal appreciation will be shown for its own earnest and unselfish endeavors to fulfill a duty to human- ity by ending a situation the indefinite prolongation of which has become insufferable. ' ' i CHAPTEE IV THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 Eecent events in Mexico since the outbreak of what is generally known as the Revolution of 1910 have been of an intensely dramatic character and followed one another in rapid succession. When General Porfirio Diaz was elected president of Mexico in June, 1910, his opponents began to plan his overthrow, and in November of that year they organized a revolution and began fighting both in the south and the north. Francisco I. Madero was active among the rebels and on November 23 proclaimed himself *' provisional presi- dent of Mexico." Fighting continued until May 25, 1911, when President Diaz resigned and went to Europe. Francisco de la Barra was made provisional president and served until October, when Madero was elected to the office of president. Madero represented the opposition to the autocracy of Porfirio Diaz. But he himself had enemies who charged him with using the same methods as his predecessor. Among them were General Pascuel Orozco, Emilio Vas- quez Gomez, General Geronimo Trevino and General Felix Diaz, a nephew of the deposed president. These men kept the country in a generally disturbed condition, though Madero appeared to have control of the situation. On October 16, 1912, General Felix Diaz with 500 men took possession of Vera Cruz, but within a week he and his men were captured, without a struggle, by the Federal troops. Two of his officers were tried by court- n 78 THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 martial and shot, and he was condemned to meet the same fate. Sentence was suspended, but he remained in prison until released by a military uprising in the City of Mexico, February 9, 1913. The name of Diaz, by the way, has retained a good deal of potency in Mexico and throughout the revolu- tionary days of the last few years there have been recur- rent rumors of a possibility of the recall of Porfirio Diaz from his refuge in Paris to bring peace to his dis- tracted country. But the age of the former president and his probable antipathy to re-engage in internecine strife have brought all such proposals to naught. His nephew, Felix, has figured at intervals throughout the revolution down to the present time. The mutiny in the City of Mexico was led by students from the military school at Tlalpam, a suburb. They took possession of a powder magazine early in the morn- ing of February 9, and then went to the prisons. where General Felix Diaz and General Bernardo Eeyes were confined and released them. Accompanied by these leaders, and followed by crowds shouting '' Death to Madero! " the mutineers proceeded to the Plaza de la Constitution in front of the National Palace. Here they were joined by portions of several cavalry and infantry regiments. In front of the palace about 500 troops loyal to Madero were drawn up and firing began as soon as the mutineers appeared. DEATH or GENEKAL REYES One of the first to fall was General Reyes, who was killed by a rifle ball through the head. Soldiers sta- tioned on the roof of the palace and in its windows kept up a fusillade, while machine guns were also brought into play against the mutinous troops. The palace being thus strongly defended, General Diaz, who had taken command of the mutineers, withdrew and with his men THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 79 marclied to the Arsenal, distant about a mile west from the National Palace. The Arsenal was attacked and soon surrendered to the rebels and they took possession of the Madero gov- ernment's reserve artillery, many rifles and large quan- tities of ammunition. The Arsenal was then used as the headquarters of General Diaz. Belem prison, near the Arsenal, was also seized and the prisoners turned loose. The artillery from Tacubaya came in at this time and joined the rebels. General Villar, military commander of the capital, remained loyal to Madero. He was wounded at the National Palace, and was replaced by General Victoriano Huerta, who had charge of President Madero 's forces until February 18. On that date Huerta arrested Madero and was himself proclaimed provisional president of the Republic. The first day's fighting in the city resulted in the death of over 500 persons, including 170 women and 200 private citizens who were killed in their houses or in the streets. THE TEN days' EIGHT On February 10, the day following the outbreak, the city was comparatively quiet. But the next day fight- ing was resumed and did not cease except at short inter- vals until February 19. In that time, so far as known, nearly 3,000 persons were killed and about 7,000 wounded. Several Americans, including two women, lost their lives. The period is generally known as ' ' the ten days ' fight." Most of the victims were non-combatants — men, women and children — who were unable to escape from the zone of danger. Nearly all parts of the city were in the line of fire, as the projectiles from modern, high- powered guns reached everywhere. The situation was unique. The opposing forces occu- 80 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 pied two large buildings about a mile apart, and fired at each other across the center of the city. The finest business district and also a part of the best residence district were in the line of fire and few buildings escaped serious damage. Business houses, schools, churches, convents, public structures and private homes were pierced by shells and bullets. The American embassy building w^as frequently struck and its occupants, includ- ing the American ambassador, had narrow escapes from death. The American consulate suffered even more than the embassy and finally had to be abandoned. All large buildings became conspicuous targets. Some of them, like the unfinished National Theater at the east end of the Alameda, the Young Men's Christian Asso- ciation building near the Arsenal, and the Mutual Life Insurance building, were frequently struck by shot and shell. Many of the victims met their death in the Ala- meda, the beautiful park at the east end of the Paseo de la Eeforma, which is one of the famous streets of the w^orld. The American Club was riddled with bullets and shells and all but demolished. The cable office was also struck frequently, but the operators remained at their places throughout the whole of the fighting and continued to send the news and commercial despatches though their lives were in danger. FIGHTING IN THE STEEETS Most of the shooting was done from the shelter of the Arsenal, the National Palace and other buildings, but skirmishes in the streets were frequent. The rebels com- manded all the approaches to the Arsenal and also had outposts in the western part of the city to prevent attacks from the rear. The Federals planted batteries in the Zocalo, the Alameda, the Paseo de la Reforma, and at other points to the east and north. Detachments of 'ISH ^■i^HK."^VnBi . '4 * ^r^ ■^"~--' .' i American lociuits in practice drill at Furt Bliss. Tex. City of Mexico students and business men drafted by Huerta in his dire emergency, caused by fear of American invasion ^^^^^^A^^MnJ=i^^^^^^^^^^ ' ;"'^^ >'■ n^^ PIBki^Bi^ ^' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^ ^ ' • ^T'^i^B ^^^^^'^' THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 81 rurales were sent by Madero against the rebels, but could make no headway against their machine guns. General Diaz' riflemen and artillerists proved to be expert marksmen. They were well supplied with range- finders and had an ample supply of ammunition. No general attack was made by either side, because neither of the opposing forces felt able to rush the other with- out incurring great loss of life and the risk of utter disaster. CITIZENS EEMAINED QUIET During the bombardment there was no rioting and no crowds appeared in the streets. Order was maintained as usual and few robberies were committed. The gen- eral sympathy of the people, however, was with the mutineers and against Madero. On February 14 and 15, efforts were made to secure the resignation of President Madero, but he refused to listen to any suggestions to that effect, saying that he was willing to arbitrate or do anything that a man might do honestly and properly to bring peace to his country, but he would not act the part of a coward, and resign in the face of personal danger. Many conferences were held in the American Embassy between members of the diplomatic corps and also between United States Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson and representatives of the Madero government, as well as of the rebels. Ambassador Wilson was a dominating influence in the legation quarter and did much to assure the safety not only of the Americans but of all foreigners resident in the city. After the overthrow of Madero he was per- sonally visited by Generals Huerta and Diaz and con- sulted upon important matters. He kept also in con- stant touch with Washington, where the authorities main- tained a close watch over the situation. 82 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 INTERVENTION PROPOSED The intervention of the United States was urged in many quarters, but President Taft and his advisers adhered to the policy they had followed from the out- break of the revolution in Mexico in 1910. Their posi- tion was explained by President Taft in a message sent in reply to a communication from President Madero protesting against possible intervention. The message, dated February 16, asserted that the military and naval measures taken by the United States were merely pre- cautionary, and concluded as follows: * ' I feel it my duty to add sincerely and without reserve that the course of events during the last two years, cul- minating in the present most dangerous situation, cre- ates in this country extreme pessimism and the convic- tion that the present paramount duty is the prompt relief of the situation." While they refused to intervene in Mexico, President Taft and his cabinet made preparations to take that step should it become necessary. The battleships Georgia, Vermont and Nebraska were sent to Vera Cruz, the battle- ship Virginia to Tampico, the cruiser Colorado to Mazat- lan, and the cruiser South Dakota to Acapulco. These ships were authorized to receive and protect Americans whose lives were endangered and also to land armed forces if necessary. Three thousand marines were ordered to Guantanamo, Cuba, to be held in readiness for immediate service, and the developments of the singular situation were eagerly awaited by the American people. FALL OF MADERO On February 18, General Victoriano Huerta and Gen- eral Aureliano Blanquet, who up to that time had appar- ently given President Madero loyal support, suddenly turned against him. In the morning they fought the rebels with apparent vigor ; in the afternoon they arrested THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 83 Madero, forced him to resign the presidency and deprived him of his liberty. The president became a prisoner. General Huerta then assumed the powers of the presi- dency. The origin and development of the plot against President Madero were not made known. It was said that a group of senators had urged General Huerta to put an end to the fighting in the heart of the city and to remove the Madero family from control of public affairs. Another report was that General Blanquet, whose son was an adherent of General Diaz, was in reality opposed to Madero from the first and had only awaited a favor- able opportunity to compass his downfall. \ The actual arrest of Madero was accomplished under the direction of General Blanquet. He ordered into the city 1,000 men from his own command and stationed them near the National Palace, replacing the reserve troops who had been loyally fighting for Madero. The movement of these bodies of troops attracted much atten- tion and a considerable crowd gathered about the palace in the afternoon. Generals Blanquet and Huerta soon appeared and announced in brief speeches that the time had come when peace must be restored in the city and that they intended to secure it. General Blanquet then detailed twenty men under Colonel Riveroll to arrest President Madero. THE PRESIDENT AEKESTED The first intimation the president had of the new turn of affairs was when he entered the great *' Hall of Ambassadors,'^ which was guarded by soldiers standing with rifles at the '' ready." Madero was enraged and engaged in a scuffle with one of the guards. The sol- dier's rifle was discharged and a number of Madero 's own men came hurrying to protect him. A brief encoun- ter followed, resulting in the death of two of the guards and the wounding of several others. At the same time Colonel Riveroll was fatally wounded, dying a short 84 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 tinie afterward. It was officially charged that Madero himself fired the shot that killed Riveroll. When the president had been placed under arrest, his resignation was demanded and he complied with the command, writ- ing a resignation in formal terms. In the meantime other arrests were being made, includ- ing those of Vice-President Jose Pino Suarez, Governor Federico Gonzales Garza of the Federal District, and Gustave Madero, brother of the president. The latter was arrested in a restaurant, while in the company of General Huerta. Members of the Madero cabinet and other government officials were also placed under arrest, but these officials were soon released on parole. CONGRESS SUMMONED TO ACT Immediately after the arrests, at the instance of Gen- eral Huerta, the executive officers of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies summoned a special session of Con- gress to legalize the change of government and name a provisional president. It is said General Diaz knew nothing of these proceedings until they were completed. The first official act of General Huerta as de facto ruler was to send word to Ambassador Wilson, asking him to notify the other members of the diplomatic corps and to advise President Taft that the fighting was ended and that the foreigners in the city were safe. Huerta also asked permission to use the American embassy as a channel for communication with the insur- gents. Ambassador Wilson agreed to act as an inter- mediary, and an exchange of notes was begun which terminated in a complete agreement. The messenger of the United States Embassy received an ovation in the streets. As his automobile, bearing a white flag on one side and the American colors on the other, made its way through San Francisco street, the crowd, which had learned the nature of his errand, shouted, '' Viva Los Americanos! " THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 85 In the evening a large crowd assembled in the Zocalo and cheered for Diaz, Huerta and Blanquet. Banners bearing the words '' Peace " and ^' Liberty " were dis- played. At the same time there was some rioting. The office of the " Nuova Era," a Madero organ, was set on fire and burned by a mob, and Marco Hernandez, a brother of the minister of the interior, was shot and killed for shouting, ' ' Viva Madero ! ' ' DEATH OF GUSTAVE MADEEO Early on the next day, February 19, General Felix Diaz went to the American Embassy and formally ratified an agreement with General Huerta, bringing the crisis to an end. The execution of Gustave Madero, who, after his arrest, had been confined in the Arsenal, also occurred on this day. He was subjected to the so-called '' fugitive law," by which he was free to run under the rifle fire of his guards. He fell dead before he had proceeded many paces. Gustave Madero had been ' ' the power behind the throne " and was generally disliked. It was said that his personality and actions were largely responsible for the downfall of the administration. HUEETA NAMED AS PEESIDENT At a special session of Congress in the evening. Gen- eral Huerta was named as provisional president of Mex- ico. The first act of the Congress was to accept the resig- nation of President Madero; then Pedro Lascurian, as minister of foreign affairs, took the oath as president ad interim, and General Huerta, to make the succession legal, was appointed a cabinet minister. After these formali- ties had been complied with, he was duly elected, so that Mexico had three presidents within the space of about an hour. MADEEO MEETS HIS FATE The new government proposed to send Madero into exile, but other counsels prevailed and he was kept as a «6 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 prisoner of war in the National Palace until the night of February 22-23, when he and the former vice-president, Jose Pino Suarez, were ordered to be conveyed to the penitentiary at the eastern end of the city. They were placed in an automobile, which was followed by another car and escorted by 100 rurales under Commandant Fran- cisco Cardenas and Colonel Rafael Pimiento. An official account of what followed was given to the press by President Huerta. According to this account, the automobiles had traversed about two-thirds of the way to the penitentiary when they were attacked by an armed group and the escort descended from the machines to offer resistance. '' Suddenly the group grew larger and the prisoners tried to escape, ' ' said the official story. An exchange of shots then took place, in which two of the attacking party were killed and two were wounded. Both prisoners were killed and the automobile in which they were riding was badly damaged. Madero, it was found, had been shot through the head, the bullet entering at the back and passing out of the forehead. The body of Suarez showed many wounds, the bullets having entered from the front. Despite the official versions of the affair, considerable mystery surrounded it and it was generally supposed to be a case of another application of the " ley fuga " (fugi- tive law), to which Gustave Madero had already fallen a victim. Immediately after the deaths of Madero and Suarez, the members of the escort were placed under arrest and the government promised to have the whole matter made the subject of a rigid judicial inquiry. The investigation resulted in a decision that no one could be held legally responsible. The members of the diplomatic corps thereupon decided not to recognize the provisional government. In a state- ment issued February 24, Ambassador Wilson said that THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 87 in the absence of other reliable information he was dis- posed to accept the government version of the manner in which the ex-president and ex-vice-president lost their lives. " Certainly the violent deaths of these persons were without government approval," he said, '' and if the deaths were the result of a plot, it was of restricted character and unknown to the higher officers of the government. ' ' On the day before the killing of Madero and Suarez, the authorities at Washington ordered the 5th Brigade of the Second Army Division to proceed to Galveston, Tex., for possible service in Mexico. When the news of the tragedy in the Mexican capital became known, addi- tional troops were ordered south from various army posts and within a few days some 10,000 men, under the command of Major General William H. Carter, had assembled at Galveston and other points near the Mexi- can border. President Taft disclaimed any intention of intervening in Mexico, but deemed it prudent to prepare for emergencies. THE CAKRANZA REVOLT The election of General Huerta as provisional presi- dent failed to pacify the followers of Madero, many of whom assumed that he had been deliberately murdered. Furthermore, they saw in the election of Huerta a revival of the Diaz regime which they had overthrown in 1912. A leader arose in the person of Venustiano Carranza, gov- ernor of the state of Coahuila, and a friend of the dead president, who organized the Mexican Constitutionalist party and began an active military campaign in the northern half of the Eepublic. On March 26, some of the leading members of the new organization met at Guadalupe, Coahuila, and adopted a declaration, of which the following is a summary: *' 1. We repudiate General Victoriano Huerta as president of the Republic. 88 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 '* 2. We repudiate also the legislative and judicial powers of the Federation. ** 3. We repudiate the governments of the states which thirty days hence shall recognize the Federal authorities which form the present administration. ** 4. For the organization of the military forces neces- sary to enforce compliance with our purposes, we name as first chief of the party, which shall be called the Con- stitutionalist party, Don Venustiano Carranza, governor of Coahuila." THE CONSTITUTIONALIST PEOGEAM The principal reforms sought by the Constitutionalists were described as follows : * * The weeding out of the administration personnel and the reconstruction of the judiciary; honesty in the man- agement of the treasury ; equitable distribution of taxes ; legislation of better labor conditions, so as to develop better relations between capital and the working classes, especially in respect to the peasantry and the great land- holders ; establishment of agricultural banks ; legislation providing for extensive irrigation throughout the land; passing of necessary laws to make titles to real estate respected and easy of transfer; revision of civil laws; fair distribution of communal land; the breaking up of large estates by means of proper expropriation ; the bet- terment of the farming population; the construction of roads and turnpikes, and the imparting of public instruc- tion on a large scale." CIVIL WAE PEEVAILS The Constitutionalist movement, however, did not attract all of the Madero men. General Pascual Orozco, Sr., one of the noted leaders in the north, joined the Huerta forces, as did some of the Zapatistas in the south. Zapata himself refused to come to terms and preferred to continue his guerilla warfare. The Federals and Con- THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 89 stitutionalists were about equal in numbers. FigMing continued tbrougbout the year, but neither side could claim any decided advantage. In the central part of the Eepublic and the City of Mexico the Huerta forces were in control, but in the north they maintained possession of only a few places, including Laredo, Monterey, Saltillo, Juarez, Jiminez and Parral. Soon the contest took on all the aspects of civil war, with the addition of bandit operations. Life and prop- erty were threatened everywhere. Railroad communica- tion was paralyzed throughout the country, except be- tween the City of Mexico and Vera Cruz, and industry of all kinds was interrupted. Cases of robbery and vio- lence, in which Americans and other foreigners were fre- quently the victims, occurred in nearly all parts of the country, and thousands were compelled to flee to the United States for protection. PEESIDENT WILSON AND HUEETA President Huerta was short of funds and in May it was reported that he was seeking a foreign loan of $75,000,000 to carry on the government and that English and French bankers had promised to furnish the money, provided he could secure recognition from the United States govern- ment. But President Wilson, who had succeeded Presi- dent Taft March 4, 1913, held that Huerta had no consti- tutional or moral right to the presidency and refused to recognize him or his administration until after a presi- dential election, which had been announced for the latter part of October. On learning the attitude of the United States, General Huerta informed Ambassador Wilson that the American claims for damages which had been filed would not be taken up until after recognition had been accorded. Relations between the two countries soon became strained and grew more and more unsatisfactory as time elapsed. Many clashes between Mexican and American troops 90 THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 occurred on the border and the situation was not im- proved by the fact that some European nations were disposed to criticize the attitude of the Washington authorities toward Huerta. In July, Ambassador Wilson was called to Washington for a conference. He arrived in Washington July 26, and it soon became apparent that the views of President Wilson and the ambassador were not in accord. The latter, it was said, advised a partial recognition of Huerta, but his suggestion was not favorably received. As a natural consequence of this divergence of opinion, Ambassador Wilson presented his resignation August 4, to take effect October 14. *' The part which Mr. Wilson felt it his duty to take in the earlier stages of the recent revolution in Mexico," said Secretary of State Bryan, '' would make it difficult for him to represent now the views of the present administration. ' ' The Mexican Embassy was thus left in charge of the secretary. Nelson 'Shaughnessy, as charge d'affaires. JOHN LIND's mission On the same day that Ambassador Wilson's resigna- tion was accepted, the president directed Honorable John Lind, former governor of Minnesota and a leading and highly respected lawyer, to proceed to Mexico City as his personal representative, for the purpose of acting as adviser to the American Embassy. Mr. Lind arrived at the Mexican capital August 10. President Huerta had already announced that he would permit no foreign inter- ference in Mexican affairs, but Mr. Lind or any other for- eigner might pass through the country without fear of molestation. The following statement was issued August 6 by Manuel Garza Adalpe, acting minister of foreign affairs : '* By order of the president of the Republic, I declare. THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 91 as minister of foreign affairs ad interim, that if Mr. Lind does not bring credentials in due form, together with recognition of the government of Mexico, his pres- ence in this country will not be desirable. ' ' Washington officials declared that this statement was based on misinformation as to Mr. Lind's mission in Mexico and Mr. Lind was allowed to proceed. After his arrival in the capital he was informally received by the Mexican minister of foreign affairs, Senor Gamboa, and a series of conferences was held, but no agreement could be reached on the proposals of the Washington govern- ment, which included (1) the immediate cessation of fight- ing in Mexico; (2) the calling of an early and free elec- tion for president, all parties agreeing to take part in it ; (3) the consent of General Huerta to bind himself not to be a candidate for election as president of the Republic at this election; (4) agreement of all parties to abide loyally by the result of the election. Senor Gamboa maintained that the United States could best secure neutrality by refusing to aid the rebels, and that the suggestion that General Huerta pledge him- self not to be a candidate was strange and unwarranted. He declared that the United States government should recognize the Huerta administration because it was con- stitutional. In reply to this Mr. Lind proposed that only two of the conditions be complied with, namely, the holding of a constitutional election and the giving of an assurance by General Huerta that he would not be a candidate for president at that election. Mr. Lind also said : '' The president of the United States further author- izes me to say that if the de facto government of Mexico at once acts favorably upon the foregoing suggestions, then in that event the president will express to American bankers and their associates assurances that the govern- ment of the United States will look with favor upon the 92 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 extension of an immediate loan sufficient in amount to meet the temporary requirements of the de facto govern- ment of Mexico." FAILURE OP NEGOTIATIONS But Secretary Gamboa then declared that it was not necessary for General Huerta to pledge himself not to be a candidate, because under the constitution an ad interim president could not be a candidate at the ensuing election. The offer of a possible loan was repudiated as in effect a bribe. Negotiations having thus reached a deadlock, and neither party being willing to give way, Mr. Lind deemed that a further stay in the City of Mexico would be inad- visable. He left on August 26 for Vera Cruz, expecting to proceed forthwith to the United States. Developments both in Washington and the City of Mexico, however, caused him to postpone his departure. President Wilson held a conference August 25 with the members of the for- eign relations committees of the two houses of Congress and announced the policy which he had adopted. This he proposed to make public in a message to Congress on the following day. On August 26, a despatch was received from President Huerta requesting that the message be delayed for another twenty-four hours and this was agreed to. Nothing further was heard from Huerta and on August 27 the Senate and House met in joint session and Presi- dent Wilson read his message in person. After referring to the deplorable condition of affairs in Mexico, he said that the peace, prosperity, and contentment of Mexico meant more than merely an enlarged field for commerce and enterprise. *' We shall yet prove to the Mexican people," he said, ** that we know how to serve them without first thinking how we shall serve ourselves." President Wilson pointed out that things had grown worse instead of better and that those who claimed to THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 93 constitute the legitimate government of the Republic had failed to make good their claim in fact. War and dis- order, devastation and confusion, seemed to threaten to become the settled fortune of the country. Referring to Mr. Lind's mission to Mexico, the president detailed the instructions given to his envoy. These were that he " should impress upon those exercising authority in the City of Mexico the fact that the government of the United States did not feel at liberty any longer to stand inactively by, while it became daily more evident that no real progress was being made toward the establishment of a government which the country would obey and respect; that the situation in Mexico was incompatible with the fulfillment of the international obligations on the part of that country, and that all America cried out for a settlement. ' ' Mr. Lind had been further instructed that such a settlement seemed to be conditioned on the following points : *' An immediate cessation of fighting throughout Mex- ico — a definite armistice solemnly entered into and scru- pulously observed. * ' Security given for an early and free election in which all would agree to take part. *' The consent of General Huerta to bind himself not to be a candidate for election as president of the Republic at this election. *' The agreement of all parties to abide by the results of the election and to co-operate in the most loyal way in organizing and supporting the new administration.*' President Wilson declared that Mr. Lind had executed his delicate mission with singular tact, firmness and good judgment, but the proposals he submitted had been rejected in a note from the Mexican minister of foreign affairs. Meanwhile it was the duty of the United States to remain patient, to exercise self-restraint, and to wait for a further opportunity to offer friendly counsels. *' We should earnestly urge all Americans to leave 94 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 Mexico at once," the president continued, " and should assist them to get away in every way possible — not because we would mean to slacken in the least our efforts to safeguard their lives and their interests, but because it is imperative that they should take no unnecessary risks when it is physically possible for them to leave the country. ' ' In conclusion the president said: '' The steady pres- sure of moral force will, before many days, break the bar- riers of pride and prejudice down, and we shall triumph as Mexico 's friends sooner than we could triumph as her enemies — and how much more handsomely, with how much higher and finer satisfaction of conscience and of honor. ' ' In accordance with the announcement made in Presi- dent Wilson's message, the Americans in Mexico were warned to leave that country and were advised that to enable them to do so money and warships would be placed at their disposal. Steps were also taken to prohibit the shipment of arms to Mexico. HUEETA AGEEES TO AN ELECTION When the Mexican Congress met on September 16, General Huerta promised to spare no efforts to bring about the unrestricted election of a president and vice- president of the Republic in October. He deprecated the attitude of the American government, but declared that there was no unfriendliness between the American and the Mexican people. He also announced that French bankers had taken $30,000,000 of the $100,000,000 loan authorized at the preceding session of Congress. The sum of $24,900,000, he said, had been used in ** pacify- ing " the country. As the date set for the election approached, the Catho- lic party in Mexico nominated Federico Gamboa for pres- ident and General Eugenio Rascon for vice-president of the Republic. Manuel Calero and Flores Magnon were THE EEVOLUTION OF 1910-14 95 nominated by the Liberals. Other candidates for the presidency were also announced, among them being Gen- eral Felix Diaz. HUERTA AS DICTATOR On October 10, by order of President Hnerta, 110 mem- bers of the Chamber of Deputies were arrested for sign- ing resolutions of warning to him because of the sudden '' disappearance " of Senator Belisario Dominguez, of Chiapas, who had criticized the president. Both branches of the Congress were declared suspended and new elec- tions of senators and deputies were ordered for October 14. President Huerta also suspended all constitutional guaranties and declared himself dictator of the Eepublic. AN" UNSATISFACTORY ELECTION The presidential and congressional elections took place October 26. The vote cast was extremely small and the result was unsatisfactory. Huerta, who was ineligible and not a candidate, was declared to have received a majority for president. General Blanquet led for vice- president. Huerta had already been notified by Presi- dent Wilson that under the conditions created by the arrest of the deputies and the suspension of constitutional guaranties, a fair election could not be held, and that the United States government would refuse to recognize the men chosen. On November 2, acting under instructions from the State Department at Washington, Nelson 'Shaughnessy, charge d'affaires, notified General Huerta that he must resign the presidency of Mexico and that he must not leave as his successor General Aureliano Blanquet, his minister of war, or any other member of his official fam- ily. A week later. General Huerta announced that the newly-elected Congress would be installed in a few days and would pass upon the elections of president and vice- president. If this Congress declared the election of Octo- 96 THE REVOLUTION OF 1910-14 ber 26 void, new elections would be called. In the mean- time lie said he would continue in office and direct his effort towards the pacification of the country. President Wilson, through his personal representative, John Lind, notified General Huerta early on November 12 that unless he returned an answer that day to a demand that he must prevent the newly-elected Congress from being called into session and must make this action known to the diplomatic corps, the United States would have no further parleying with the Mexican government. Huerta made no reply, and Mr. Lind, who had been in the capital for some days, returned to Vera Cruz, saying that he would not set foot in the City of Mexico again until the new Congress had been dissolved. This was not done, but on the contrary, the Congress met and ratified the results of the election of October 26. Mr. Lind remained at Vera Cruz throughout the winter, watching events at the capital and in constant communication with President Wilson. His return to the United States was soon followed by the Tampico incident and the ultimatum to Huerta, the rejection of which led to the occupation of Vera Cruz, April 21, 1914. Typical scene in the City of Mexico during tlie ten days' figliting in tlie streets, preceding Madero's deatli Iron telegraph, pole smashed by shot from the arsenal Youth and Old Age. This aged peon woman is said to be over 112 years old General Blanquet, the man who arrested President Madero fcurr-t • „^ ^B ^^^^l^p»»in«L •-'^^ i^^P ^ i m^^- '""^m BP-^^il^ t^kJk "^^ 1^^^ Tf^ PM ^m -- Sssssaaaa^^*"™^ ^sgMlh -^ statue destroyed by gunfire near the National Palace Windows on third floor shattered by shell from Arsenal street crowd near National Palace viewina- a ruined statue In the line of fire during the ten days' fight CHAPTER V THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 Mexicans and Americans have faced each other in war in the past, the hostilities of April, 1914, at Vera Cruz being by no means the first between armed forces of the United States and the Spanish-Indian citizens of the southern Republic. Historians do not dignify the numerous engagements between the independent Texans and the Mexicans wiih the use of the word war. But the war of 1846-7, though insignificant in comparison with the civil war in the United States, nevertheless was of great consequence and far-reaching results. The war cost the United States $163,000,0QP and the lives of about 25,000 brave soldiers, one-fourth the actual number of American fighters who participated in the struggle. It left the United States with a debt of $85,000,000. But the cost to Mexico was so enormous that no attempt ever was made accurately to measure it in human lives and dollars. Thousands and thousands of Mexicans were slain by the more highly trained sol- diers of the United States, though the Mexicans fought bravely, gallantly and furiously on many memorable occasions. The war of 1846 was the result of a boundary dispute. Texas had belonged to Mexico, but the vast territory was peopled by Americans and but few Mexicans lived in Texas. Many Americans, among them the pioneer, Stephen Austin, for whom Austin County and the city of Austin, Tex., were named, had obtained land grants in Texas from the Mexican government. Colonists moved 91 98 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 in and the territory was dotted with thriving little com- munities. THE EEVOLT OF TEXAS The elemental differences between the Mexicans and Americans and the prejudices of religion and nationality could only lead to one result — disputes. When after years of virtual self-rule the Mexican government began to rule Texas harshly, the Texans rebelled in 1833, and in 1836 set up an independent government. The republic of Texas, which became the Lone Star State, was bom. When Santa Anna, the powerful Mexican chief, over- threw the government in one of the numerous revolutions from which Mexico was seldom free, Texas prepared to seek admittance to the Mexican confederation as a new state. Stephen Austin was the commissioner who went to the City of Mexico bearing the petition. It was ignored and Austin imprudently wrote back to the Texan leaders to go ahead and organize a state with- out waiting for the government's consent. His letter fell into the hands of Santa Anna and Austin was arrested and thrown into prison and placed in solitary confinement for a year. The indignity inflamed the Texans, but when Santa Anna sent General Cos into Texas to enforce an act passed in 1830 prohibiting immigration of Americans into Texas, and to demand the surrender of Lorenzo de Zavala, a refugee wanted because he had introduced a bill in the Mexican Congress directed against church property, the Texans prepared for resistance. The Mex- ican general took possession of the town of Antonio de Bexar. The Texans, on September 28, 1835, attacked and de- feated a small body of Mexicans at Gonzales, on the Eio Guadalupe, and the war and revolution of Texas was begun. The Mexicans met victory in most of the earlier engagements, but the Texans, aided by the United States in every possible way, finally defeated Santa Anna, who THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 99 was himself captured and his army destroyed. Texas was free, TEXAS BOUNDAKIES DEFINED The revolution closed with the battle of San Jacinto April 21, 1836, when General Samnel Houston was vic- torious and captured Santa Anna. Texan delegates had previously met at Washington, on the Brazos, March 2, and declared the independence of Texas, drew up a con- stitution and formed a government. Santa Anna was a captive and readily acknowledged the independence of Texas. The boundaries of Texas were then defined as ' ' begin- ning at the mouth of the Eio Grande, thence up the prin- cipal stream of said river to its source ; thence due north to 42° of north latitude ; thence along the boundary line, as defined in the treaty between the United States and Spain (February, 1819), to the beginning." Santa Anna's acknowledgment of Texas' independence and the treaty of peace which set the Rio Grande del Norte as the western boundary of Texas, were repudiated a little later, after President Bustamente took charge of the reins of Mexican government and recommenced the war with Texas, which was carried on in a desultory fashion until Texas was finally annexed by the United States in 1845. In 1844 President John Tyler negotiated a treaty of annexation secretly, but it was rejected by the Senate. That occurred in April of that year and the question of annexing Texas was thereby made a political one, by reason of the national nominating conventions meeting in May. James K. Polk was nominated by the Democrats on a platform of ** reannexation of Texas " and was elected the eleventh president of the United States. The result of the election was interpreted by President Tyler as expressing the will of the voters and he urged Congress to acquire Texas. Congress gave the president 100 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 authority to negotiate with Texas and he chose to submit it in the form of a joint resohition to Texas. Texas acc^epted the terms. That territory then was slave soil and it was arranged that four states to be free soil should be formed in that part of Texas north of 36 30' north latitude. BOUNDAKt- IS DISPUTED Texas claimed the Rio Grande River as her western boundary and Mexico claimed that the Nueces River was the line. The territory between those two rivers was disputed. Texas asked that the United States send an army to its defense and occupy the disputed strip. Accordingly General Zachary Taylor, then in command at Camp Jessup, was ordered to move his forces into Te?:as. He moved to Corpus Christi oi;i the Arranza Bay in the early part of August, 1845. In November of that year his forces aggregated 4,049 men, comprising a gen- eral staff of 24 officers, two regiments of dragoons, four of artillery and five of infantry. Mexico, hearing the reports of the annexation of Texas by the United States, announced that annexation would mean war. When General Taylor was ordered into Texas, Captain Stockton was ordered to proceed with a squadron to the Gulf of Mexico. General Winfield Soptt was the com- mander-in-chief of the army. Mexico, however, desired no war, and although the diplomatic relations of the two countries had been broken off, Manuel de la Pena y Pena, Mexican minister of for- eign affairs, acceded to a request to receive an envoy entrusted with full powers to adjust all differences be- tween Mexico and the United States. John Slidell was sent to Mexico City. His mission failed. GENEKAL, TAYLOR MOVES HIS ARMY On January 13, 1846, an order was issued to move General Taylor's army from Corpus Christi to the Rio THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 101 Grande and occupy the western border of the disputed territory. The army established its position at Point Isabel on March 25 and three days later had arranged itself within cannpn range of Metamoras. Official reports show that more than one-half of the United States army was in the corps of General Taylor. General Arista assumed chief command of the Mexican army on April 25, 1846, and the same day a detachment of sixty-three dragoons was sent to watch the course of the river above Metamoras. Thirty miles from the camp they were surprised by the Mexicans, sixteen of them were killed and wounded, and Captain Thornton, in charge of the detachment, was compelled to surrender. General Arista treated his prisoners with great respect and kindness. Three days after the Thornton affair Captain Walker's Texas Rangers were attacked and several killed at a point between Point Isabel and Metamoras. General Taylor left a body of troops in charge of some unfinished field work and hurried with his main force back to Point Isabel, believing that that place would be attacked and the Mexicans would seek to cut him off in the rear. Major Jacob Brown was in charge of the work. The Mexicans thereupon decided it safe to attack Fort Brown. The batteries in Metamoras began a bombard- ment on May 3 and the siege was not raised until May 9, when General Taylor returned after winning victories over Mexican troops at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. General Taylor, in his report, stated that he believed General Arista had about 6,000 men and that the Aifier- ican army lost four men killed and thirty-seven wounded at Palo Alto and occupied the field, the Mexicans retreat- ing with a loss of about 100 killed. General Taylor's force in that battle did not exceed 2,300 men. On the next day — May 9 — he met and again defeated the Mex- ican force at Resaca de la Palma and they fled across the Rio Grande, many of them being overwhelmed in its 102 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 waters. General Taylor reported to the war department the loss of forty-three killed and about 100 wounded, and 300 Mexicans killed and a much greater number wounded. General La Vega was among those captured and refused a parole. He was sent to New Orleans. CONGRESS DECLAEES WAR As a result of these engagements, President Polk asked Congress on May 12 to declare war, and the next day Congress declared that war existed between Mexico and the United States, and voted $10,000,000, and a call for 50,000 volunteers was made. General Scott was called into consultation with the president and was informed he was to be assigned to command the army in Mexico at once. He then began plans for conquering Mexico. He said he wanted a special army of 30,000 effective men, but his force never reached that number. Actually, the regulars were less than 7,000 strong, and the twenty-four regiments of volunteers made about 18,000 men. Preparations for an advance into the interior of Mexico required several months, and differences of opinion among officials and between certain of them and General Scott caused further delay, so that the commander did not leave Washington until November, 1846. He reached the mouth of the Rio Grande in January, 1847, and called on General Taylor to send him 10,000 men. Although his force had been increased, General Taylor could ill afford to send General Scott any large number of men. He had occupied Metamoras after the battle of Resaca de la Palma and planned to push ahead against Monterey. BATTLE OP MONTEREY The march on Monterey began on August 20, 1846. The battle at that point did not commence, however, until the night of September 20. General Taylor moved his forces slowly, and although he had believed that General THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7 103 Pedro Ampudia, commanding the Mexicans in Monterey, had no more than 2,000 or 3,000, it later was discovered that the force was twice as strong. Monterey is situated in the valley of the San Juan River, which flows behind the city. The ridges of the Sierra Madre Mountains also rise behind the city. The army approached by the road from Marin. At the left of the road before Monterey the river bends along the highway. On the right the road to Saltillo leads up through the valley. On a prominence above the Saltillo road was the Bishop 's Palace and on other heights were fortifications occupied by the Mexicans. In front of the city was the citadel, with a strong garrison. On the night of September 20, General Taylor sent a division to turn the position at the Bishop's Palace, which was accomplished, the division remaining outside range of the Mexicans' guns. Howitzers and mortars were placed in position against the citadel and on the morning of the 21st the battle began. The lower part of the city was first attacked and the Americans found the enemy entrenched in the streets. They had little success that day. On the following day the heights above the Bishop's Palace were stormed and the next found the Mexicans concentrated in the heart of the city, fighting from the citadel and the Plaza. The Americans literally had to fight their way from house to house and so strong were the barricades that they dug through one house and barricaded street into the next. The citadel remained untaken and to have reduced it would have meant great loss of life. General Ampudio finally asked for terms of surrender, and on the night of August 23, General Taylor arranged an eight weeks' armistice with the Mexican commander. By those terms the Mexicans were allowed to evacuate the city with their arms. General Taylor, however, had received no wagon trains, and provisions were running low. 104 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 The American loss at Monterey was 400 killed and wounded. The news of the armistix^e was not favorably received in Washington and its cessation was ordered on October 13. General Taylor so announced to General Santa Anna, then conunander-in-ehief of the Mexican army, but when he suggested that an honorable peace might be arranged the Mexican general is said to have declared that there could be no peace so long as a North American remained on Mexican soil. The troops did not move again until November 12, when a march on Saltillo was made, and that point, Parras, and finally Victoria, were occupied without real opposition. The American forces occupied Victoria on December 29, arid Tampico being taken by Cj^mmodore Perry, the cam- paign of the Rio Grande, in which General Taylor and his men had signally honored themselves and their country many times, was substantially brought to a close. BATTLE OF BUENA VISTA The battle of Buena Vista, which was to decide whether or not the Americans would remain in command of the valley of the Rio Grande, was yet to be lought, however. General Taylor returned to Monterey from Victoria in January, 1847. He had left about 6,000 men, after sending three of his strongest divisions of regulars to Tampico to join General Scott's expedition against Vera Cruz, the most important port on the Gulf of Mexico. Santa Anna, with a magnificent force of more than 20,000 men, the best fighting men of Mexico, though many of them were, of course, volunteers and recruits, was at San Luis Potosi. He planned to go against General Taylor, then to hurry to the coast to attack General Scott and frustrate the assault on Vera Cruz. General Taylor learned of his approach and moved his force to Buena Vista, establishing his men in a strong mountain position. With his volunteers, he there calmly THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 105 prepared to await the coming of the Mexican troops, trusting to the strength of his position, the enthusiasm of his men and Providence to win a victory. When the contending forces met, the general again dis- tinguished himself; his sharpshooting volunteers never wavered and the Mexican loss was enormous. This battle was the crowning victory of the Rio Grande campaign. The American loss was 267 killed, 456 wounded and twenty-three missing. Santa Anna had been compelled to move his men across a desert country, but after the defeat he nevertheless set out resolutely to meet Scott. GENERAL SCOTT 'S CAMPAIGN General Scott planned to take 12,000 men in the expe- dition against Vera Cruz. He sailed from New York November 30, 1846, and went to New Orleans, thence to the mouth of the Rio Grande. He was joined by the troops sent on by General Taylor. New volunteers and a few regulars gathered from forts throughout the coun- try had made a rendezvous of the Island of Lobos, 125 miles northwest of Vera Cruz. The troops from the Upper Rio Grande were taken on board transports and taken to Lobos. On the morning of March 7, 1847, General Scott, on board the Massachusetts with Commodore Connor, reconnoitered and at sunset the troops which had been transported in the warships were landed opposite the Island of Sacrificios. They expected to be met by the Mexicans, but the latter did not appear. In full view was the city and the old castle of San Juan d'Uloa. The guns of the castle and city opened fire, but no Mexican troops appeared. In the days that followed numerous skirmishes occurred, but preparations for the siege continued, and in accord with General Scott's orders, prepared in advance, the line of siege was made five miles long. Heavy guns were landed from the ships 106 THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7 of war on the night of March 17 and on the 18th trenches were opened and the army gradually moved in upon the invested city. Surrender was demanded on March 22, but the gov- ernor of the castle refused. The heavy batteries imme- diately began their deadly fire. More guns reinforced the besiegers in succeeding days and the siege was furious day and night. Consuls of European governments sought a truce, but General Scott replied that they had had the opportunity to leave, with all women and children, and they had not availed themselves of that opportunity ; and that the exigencies of war demanded continuation of the siege. SUKEENDER OF VERA CRUZ The American shells made Vera Cruz a fiery furnace, and on March 26 the Mexicans made overtures of sur- render. Articles of capitulation were signed on the night of the 27th. On the morning of March 29, the American flag floated over the ancient castle and forts about the city. The city was taken with the loss of two officers and a few pri- vates. The Americans had protected themselves well in their entrenchments and the fire of the heavy guns from the ships of war was effective. The Mexican fire from the castle and forts, on the other hand, had little effect. Commodore Connor was given much credit for the assist- ance of the sailors and the heavy guns. By the terms of the capitulation General Scott obtained the surrender of 5,000 prisoners on parole, and all arms and munitions of war. The capture of the city left the way open toward the City of Mexico. It was just 328 years since Hernando Cortez had landed at Vera Cruz and begun his conquering march which sub- dued the ancient Aztecs and obtained for Spain the land of the Montezumas ; Spain having ruled Mexico until the country won independence in 1821. THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 107 ON TO MEXICO CITY General Scott found the way to Mexico City hard. His ranks became thinner and thinner. Many perished by disease. He never once planned to go back. For him the march to the capital would only be ended with com- plete victory. He left Vera Cruz April 8, after making General W. J. Worth governor of the city and castle. General Worth had successfully stormed the heights above the Bishop 's Palace at Monterey and proved one of the most distinguished aids to both General Taylor and Commander-in-Chief Scott. The army proceeded along the Jalapa road. Wagons arrived from the United States slowly, and there were great quantities of ammunition, arms and provisions to be moved. When they arrived the march began. In three days the foot of the mountains had been reached. BATTLE OF CEKRO GORDO Meanwhile General Santa Anna, with 15,000 men, had crossed the interior provinces and was ready to defend the heights of Cerro Gordo. General Twiggs, who also won fame for his participation in the Eio Grande cam- paign with General Taylor, was in advance with his division. He planned to attack the enemy in their almost impregnable position behind the fortifications of Cerro Gordo on April 13, but was persuaded to delay the attack until General Scott arrived from the rear. The commander-in-chief deemed a frontal attack sure to end in defeat. He ordered a road built around the base of the mountains that the army might reach the rear of the Mexican forces on the heights. His men accom- plished the herculean task. The Mexicans did not dis- cover the work in progress until three days had passed. Then they began firing, or April 17. That night General Scott ordered as f ollov ^ • " The enemy's whole line af entrenchments and bat- teries will be attacked in '^^ont, and at the same time turned, early in the day torr .^rrow." 108 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 The order was executed, the heights were stormed, the enemy routed, and a vigorous pursuit followed until Jalapa was in view. AVhen Cerro Gordo fell General La Vega and 3,000 prisoners were taken. General Scott scarcely knew what to do with them. Santa Anna and 8,000 men had escaped. They were pursued to Jalapa by General Worth's reserve division. General Scott lost 250 killed and wounded, the Mex- icans many more. He did not halt, but pushed on rapidly, taking Jalapa on April 19. On April 22 he took Perote. Moving slowly then, the army pushed on and on May 15 General Worth's men entered Puebla, encountering little opposition. Thus the campaign from Vera Cruz to Puebla in two months ' time was a procession of unbroken victories. Ten thousand prisoners had been taken, thousands of arms of all kinds seized, and General Scott became a greater popular idol than ever before in his great career. IN THE VALLEY OF MEXICO In Puebla he rested until August 7. Three days later he was within sight of the City of Mexico. Round about that city prosperity then appeared abundan^. There were fields of waving grain, which indicated that hus- bandry had been resumed in Mexico in spite of revolution and war. Agricultural pursuits had suffered great depression, but when General Scott's army of slightly more than 4,000 effective men, many ill, some wounded, and all tired and worn by the campaign, arrived on the borders of the Valley of Mexico, there were many indica- tions of labor and thrift. The native Mexican, however, was exactly as he had been 1,000 years before — and in this twentieth century many contend he is the same. Six miles from Puebla had stood the ancient city of Cholula, believed to have been once a city of 200,000 inhabitants. There Hernando Cortez had seen the spires of 400 idol temples. Not even ruins remained in 1847. THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 109 Only a huge pyramid, truncated at the top, believed to have been dedicated to the gods of the Aztecs, remained as a monument of the once proud city. After two months of delay, in which period illness, short rations and attacks of guerilla parties had harassed General Scott's forces, new regiments and supplies were forwarded, and in the early part of August, 1847, the commander-in-chief started for the City of Mexico sur- rounded by many strong positions and forts. His army had been augmented to slightly less than 11,000 men. The troops marched along the National road, ascended the Anahuac range of the Corderilla Mountains, and on the third day reached the pass of Rio Frio, 10,120 feet above sea level; and, a few miles farther on, reached the crest of the mountain and beheld the Valley of Mexico. On August 11, Ayotla, fifteen miles from the capital, was reached. Here a survey was made and General Scott determined that the fortifications directly in front of the city would prove extremely hard to take and that the effort would involve great loss of life. General Santa Anna had strongly fortified all the posi- tions around the city, but the National road, as the most common mode of ingress to the capital, was presumed to be the route which the invading army would follow. Gen- eral Scott, however, determined to send his men miles out of their way around Lake Chalco to the Acalpuco road west of the lake. On that highway San Augustine was selected as a depot. Between that point were San Antonio, Conteras and Churubusco, where successive engagements took place. SCOTT 'S STEATEGY WINS In sending the army around the south end of Lake Chalco, a route deemed impracticable by the Mexicans, it was necessary for the soldiers to cut another road for the artillery, even as they did about Cerro Gordo. It was done, and in three days General Scott's forces had 110 THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 reached the neighborhood of San Augustine after a march of twenty-seven miles. The first fortified point ahead was San Antonia. The commander-in-chief determined to pass around that point, take the strong fort of Contreras, west of San Antonia, passing around to the rear of the latter point and attack Churubusco. Batteries at San Antonia began firing on August 18, but no great damage was done, and by strategy three brigades were moved about Contreras on the night of the 19th, and taking position in a ravine the Americans were able to strike hard on the morning of AugTist 20. The Mexicans were surprised, having been unaware of the force in the ravine, and fled in a rout with large losses. They lost 700 killed, about 1,000 wounded and more than 800 were taken prisoners. One writer says, '' The actual conflict lasted but seventeen minutes! The pursuit for hours." Churubusco, situated four miles east, with formidable entrenchments, was next to be taken by the entire army, though several brigades were sent back to San Antonia and that point taken with no great difficulty. With two important victories, the army then marched on to Churu- busco, and in the third memorable engagement attacked the fortifications in two places simultaneously and car- ried them, though under deadly fire and with consider- able loss. It was here that several American deserters actually manned batteries for the enemy and fought desperately, killing many Americans. A number of the deserters were captured, twenty-nine were sentenced to be hanged and twenty of them were executed. A TRUCE AGREED UPON On the morning of August 21, following the memor- able engagements of the preceding day, General Scott advanced toward the City of Mexico. He was met by representatives of General Santa Anna and an armistice THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 111 proposed. He marched oiij however, to Tacubaya and slept that night in the Archbishop 's Palace near the great castle of Chapultepec. The next day the general met the representatives of Santa Anna and agreed on a truce. The impression had prevailed in the United States early in the year 1847 that Mexico wanted peace and Mr. N. P. Trist was sent from Washington as the envoy of President Polk to confer with representatives of the Mexican government. Negotiations failed, for Mexico was not ready to yield. BATTLE OF CHAPULTEPEC On September 7 of that year, after it was known the peace negotiations had been unsuccessful, General Scott prepared to resume hostilities. He determined to take the City of Mexico by assault. Less than a mile from his headquarters in the village of Tacubaya were the enemy's fortifications and the rocky hill of Chapultepec. Approach seemed only permitted from the forest covered slope on the west. At the base were the towered stone structure of El Molino del Rey and Casa de Mata, another strong stone building, with batteries between. On the morning of September 8 the battle began and in bloody engagements the victorious army, greatly out- numbered but intrepid and unconquerable, drove the Mex- icans from their fortified positions. Munitions were taken and destroyed and the enemy routed from those positions at the base of Chapultepec, but that apparently impregnable castle remained to be taken, for it com- manded the City of Mexico and the roads to the capital. After the double victory at the foot of Chapultepec the forces retired to Tacubaya and General Scott planned the final assault. Batteries were erected and began firing on the morning of September 12. The firing, intended to cripple the defenses, preliminary to storming the place, continued all day. On the morning of the 13th the col- 112 THE MEXICAN WAE OF 1846-7 umns cliarged and carried the castle and placed the American flag on its ramparts. IN THE CITY OF MEXICO The way was then open to the capital and with more fighting that night at the Belem and San Cosmo gates the Americans entered the outer districts of the city, where the soldiers and citizens fought from behind breast- w^orks and" from the roofs of houses. "Wlien morning came the ayuntamiento (city council) informed General Scott that the government and the army had evacuated, and at 7 o'clock that morning — September 14, 1847 — the American flag floated over the National Palace. The capital was taken with less than 6,000 men, while the Mexicans had 30,000 in the neighborhood when the Americans rounded Lake Chalco. General Scott reported his losses in the fighting of August 19 and 20 and Sep- tember 8, 12, 13 and 14, as 2,703 killed and wounded, including 383 officers. SANTA ANNA IN EXILE General Santa Anna escaped from the capital with some two or three thousand men and was next heard of when he attacked the city of Puebla, where a small garri- son had been left, on September 25. Before he could accomplish anything even against that small garrison his men deserted him and he became an exile. He formally resigned the supreme power October 18. Pena y Pena, president of the Supreme Court of Justice, took charge and called a congress of the states at Queretaro to pre- pare to restore a federal government and to arrange a treaty of peace with the United States. This was done in November, 1847, and one of the first acts of the new government was to appoint a commission to meet Mr. N. P. Trist and negotiate terms of peace. While General Taylor was conquering northeastern Effects of shell fire during the "Ten Days' Fight" U. S. battleship Florida cleared for rough weather Cubtuui House and Wliail', Tampico In the harbor at Vera Cruz Major General Leonard Wood, former chief of staff of the United States Army, named as commander-in-chief of forces in the field in case of war, Aicxieaii favalry oi llueitu's aniiy in ^Mexico City The rurales — a part of the Federal forces of Mexico THE MEXICAN WAR OF 1846-7 113 Mexico, General Stephen W. Kearney made a bloodless conquest of New Mexico. California was taken by Lieu- tenant John C. Fremont, the explorer known as '* the Pathfinder,'* and thus New Mexico and California were claimed for the United States. Commodore Stockton, with a fleet on the Pacific coast, made California safe for the American settlers who had set up the " Bear State Republic " because of Mexican depredations. THE TKEATY OF PEACE On February 2, 1848, a treaty of peace was signed by Mr. Trist and three Mexican commissioners. Although Mr. Trist 's powers as a commissioner had been with- drawn by President Polk, he nevertheless assumed to act. The terms of the document by which several million dollars were to be paid Mexico in return for New Mexico and California caused much controversy in Washington and throughout the United States. The treaty, with sev- eral important amendments, was finally ratified, however, by the United States Senate, March 10. Several weeks later the Mexican Congress ratified it, but it was not until June 19, 1848, that it was announced to the people of the United States that the treaty was complete and the country at peace with Mexico. TEEMS OF THE TEEATY By the terms of the treaty the United States was to retain New Mexico and California — an addition of 522,- 568 square miles — but Mexico was to be paid $15,000,000 for this territory. In addition, claims of $3,500,000 of citizens of the United States against Mexico were to be paid by the American government. Another treaty was made with Mexico in 1853, when the boundary line was changed so that by payment of $10,000,000 the United States acquired 45,535 square miles additional — generally called the '' Gadsden Pur- chase," after James Gadsden, the man who negotiated the agreement. CHAPTER VI EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO The history of the earliest development of Mexico is shrouded in what has been well called ' ' an impenetrable mist of fable. ' ' Scientific investigation and archeological researches have not yet lifted the veil sufficiently to dis- close the original inhabitants of the country. Ruins and hieroglyphics in different portions of the Republic reveal the story of a series of immigrations from the north towards the south, but the point from which the pere- grinations began has not been and never may be made known. Mexican historians generally agree, however, found- ing their theories on the interpretations of hieroglyphics and upon the ancient ruins, that the country was invaded by seven families, successively immigrating from the north, all speaking the same language, the Nahuatl or Mexican; but history does not reveal the starting point of these races nor disclose the mystery of the multiplicity of languages of so diverse a character spoken by the many tribes that followed them, nor the causes that impelled them to abandon their former homes. Accord- ing to the Mexican scholar, Pimental, not one of the one hundred and eight indigeneous tongues bears any analogy to Asiatic tongues, but certain resemblances to the lan- guage of the Esquimaux would indicate direct communi- cation between Asia and America. AEEIVAL OP THE TOLTECS The annals of the Toltecs have furnished a start- ing point for the history of Mexico. These composed a semicivilized nation who inhabited a country called 114 EARLY HISTOEY OF MEXICO 115 Huehiietlappallan, towards the north of the continent, where they built cities and temples, and were versed in agriculture, the arts, and the computation of time. Owing to civil disturbances, the Toltecs, with a number of their partisans and neighbors, in the year 544 A. D., were expelled from their country and began their wanderings southward, founding cities on their way. In 648 they arrived in Anahuac and one hundred and seventeen years after leaving their country they reached the present site of Tula (50 miles north of the City of Mexico, on the line of the Mexican Central Railroad), where they laid the foundation of their powerful king- dom. This tribe remained here until overthrown by the ' * lords of Jalisco, ' ' in 1116, eleven monarchs having reigned. OEIGIN- OF PULQUE There is a notable event in the history of the Toltecs which deserves mention, as it is well authenticated. It is the origin of the universal and famous Mexican bev- erage " pulque " in the reign of the eighth Toltec chief, Tepaucaltzin, in the latter half of the eleventh century. It is narrated that a noble named Papantzin discovered the method of extracting the juice of the maguey plant, of which it is made, and sent some of the fermented liquid to his chief by the hand of his daughter, the beau- tiful Xochitl, called the Flower of Tollan (Tula). The chief, enamored both of the drink and the maiden, retained the latter a willing prisoner, and she became the mother of his illegitimate son, who afterwards wielded the scepter. This incident inaugurated the troubles of the Toltecs. And pulque has been causing trouble ever since. After the dispersion of the Toltecs, a roving tribe, the Chichimecas, hearing of the former's overthrow, occu- pied the abandoned country, starting for it from the north in 1117. 116 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO Other tribes of the original seven successively descended from the north and spread themselves over the valley of Mexico, founding cities and erecting temples and palaces. THE AZTECS IN THE VALLEY The last tribe to reach the valley was the Aztec, or Mexican, whose annals claim the greatest interest in the history of Mexico. This tribe is supposed to have orig- inally come from the north of California, according to the historian, Clavijero, their country being called Aztlan. They reached Tula (50 miles north of the present City of Mexico) in 1196, remaining there nine years, and spending eleven in other parts of the valley. At the expiration of this time they arrived in Zumpango, 30 miles north of their future capital. Here they were received and the chief's son married a daughter of one of the Mexican families. Prom this marriage sprang the military chiefs of the Mexicans. LEGEND OF THE EAGLE After many wanderings they settled on the marshy islands near the western borders of Lake Texococo, and there, in the year 1325, was established the nucleus of the city first called Tenochitlan, derived according to some authorities from Tenoch, one of their priests and leaders. Other authorities claim that the name comes from Tenuch (prickly pear cactus), as there is an old legend that the leaders of the tribes of Mexicans wander- ing in search of a place to rest, saw an eagle standing upon a cactus strangling a serpent, on the site of the City of Mexico. This legend has been generally accepted and gave Mexico the design for its escutcheon. The present name of the City of Mexico finds its source in the name of the Aztec's god of war, Mexitli, also known as Huitzilopochtli. The name of the country dem- onstrates the hold the maguey plant had upon the ancient EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO 117 tribes. Mexican traditions, as preserved in the most ancient writings, relate that this god Huitzilopochtli was born of a virgin belonging to the noble family of Citli (free and ancestral) ; that his cradle was the heart of a maguey plant (metl), and hence the name of Mecitli, afterwards changed into Mexitli and finally into ''Mexico." THE FIRST AZTEC KING Here the Aztecs constituted their first government, which was theocratic and military under Tenoch, who died in the year 1343. Three years subsequent to his death the form of government changed, and in 1376 the first king was elected. Ten kings followed, during the reign of whom the Aztecs devoted themselves to the arts of peace and built a fine city, connecting it with the main- land by four causeways. The last of the Aztec monarchs was Cauhtemoc, whose conquest by Hernando Cortez brought an end to the Mexican dynasty. EMPIRE OF THE MONTEZUMAS The Montezumas established their empire about the year 1460 and continued to govern till the arrival of the Spaniards in 1521, when Montezuma II. was killed by the arrows of his own warriors when Cortez forced him to go upon the portico of his palace to quell, if possible, the rioting Aztecs, who under Cauhtemoc were attempt- ing his rescue. Cauhtemoc, the nephew of Montezuma, became his successor and was the last of the Aztec kings. CONQUEST BY CORTEZ Hernando Cortez, a famous Spanish officer, sailed from Santiago de Cuba for Mexico February 18, 1519. The fleet consisted of eleven ships, carrying 110 sailors, six- teen cavalry men with their horses, 553 foot soldiers, 200 Cuban Indians, a battery of ten small cannon and four falconets; with this army went two Indians as inter- preters, captured by Corboda in Yucatan two years previous. 118 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO On his ship Cortez raised the standard of the conquest, a black ensign, emblazoned with the arms of Charles V. of Spain, bearing the crimson cross borne in clouds, with the motto: Amici, sequam crucem et si nos fidem habemus vere in hoc signo vincemus — '* Friends, let us follow the cross, and if we have faith we will conquer. '* The first landing was on March 20, 1519, near the Rio Tabasco, where there was fighting with the natives and a number made captives, among whom was La Marina, a native of Jalisco, sold here as a slave. She understood the language of the uplands as well as the coast, and thus, through her, Cortez could communicate with the people. La Marina soon learned the Spanish language and became the interpreter, ally and wife of the conqueror. Cortez then sailed up the coast and dropped his anchors off Vera Cruz, April 21, 1519. Efforts to secure a peaceful reception on the part of the natives were unavailing. Discontent arose among the Spaniards. Cortez, acting with his customary decision, burned his ships, and on the 16th of August began his march toward the capital of the Aztecs. With little incident or opposition the brave band of adventurers reached the table-lands and after a fight with the Tlaxacalans secured them as their allies. The natives were completely terrorized by the cannon and fire-arms, and the horse and rider of the cavalry were regarded as almost a god, or at least one being, as they had never seen a horse, so the invaders proceeded on their march, unopposed, and entered the present City of Mexico, Tues- day, November 8, 1519. The Aztec king, Montezuma, came out to meet Cortez, tradition says, on the site of the present Hospital de Jesus, founded by him in commemoration of this meet- ing. The aggressions of the Spaniards, and their oppres- sion of the Mexicans soon turned their apparent friend- ship to hatred, and they drove them out of the city over the Tlacopan causeway, now called Tacuba, on the night EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO 119 of July 1, 1520, called la noche triste, or the Dismal or Sorrowful Night; retreating, Cortez fought another bat- tle at Otumba on the 8th of July, where the Tlaxacalans came to his rescue and turned the tide of war in his favor, and he halted in the city of these allies. While at Tlaxacala reinforcements came from Cuba, and pow- der for the cannon and small arms was made from the sulphur taken from the crater of Popocatepetl. Montezuma died on the 30th of June, the day before the Noche Triste, and his nephew, who, it is said, shot the arrow that caused Montezuma's death, was placed in command. The siege continued till the native garrison was starved into submission, and the Spaniards made their second and triumphal entry into the City of Mexico, August 13, 1521; but they found a different city than that when the meek Montezuma met them at the city gates. Almost all the treasure had been destroyed or concealed, and to extort the secret from Montezuma's nephew, Cortez cruelly put him to torture, but without avail ; the wealth of jewels, gold and precious stones had been thrown into the lake. Hernando Cortez, the conqueror, died in the town of Castelleja de la Questa, in Spain, December 2, 1547. IN" THE AZTEC CAPITAL No better description of the great market-place of the Aztecs has ever been written than that penned by Cortez to Charles V. of Spain. He was the first European who ever beheld that novel spectacle and said : " There is one square, twice as large as that of Sala- manca, all surrounded by arcades, where there are daily more than sixty thousand souls, buying and selling, and where are found all the kinds of merchandise produced in these countries, including food products, jewels of gold and silver, lead, brass, copper, zinc, stones, bones, shells, and feathers. Stones are sold, hewn and unhewn; adobes, bricks, and wood, both in the rough and manu- 120 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO factured in various ways. There is a street for game, where they sell every sort of bird, such as chickens, partridges, quails, wild-ducks, fly-catchers, widgeons, turtle-doves, pigeons, reed-birds, parrots, eagles, owls, eaglets, owlets, falcons, sparrow-hawks, and kestrels, and they sell the skin of some of these birds of prey with their feathers, heads, beaks, and claws. They sell rabbits, hares, and small dogs, which latter they raise for the purpose of eating. ** There is a street set apart for the sale of herbs, where can be found every sort of root and medicinal herb that grows in the country. There are houses like apothe- cary shops, where prepared medicines are sold, as well as liquids, ointments, and plasters. There are places like our barber shops, where they wash, and shave their heads. There are houses where they supply food and drink for payment. There are men who carry burdens, such as are called in Castile porters. There is much wood, charcoal, braziers made of earthenware, and mats of divers kinds for beds, and others very thin, used as cushions and for carpeting halls and bedrooms. There are all sorts of vegetables and especially onions, leeks, garlic, borage, nasturtium, water-cresses, sorrel, thistles, and artichokes. There are many kinds of fruits, amongst others cherries, and prunes like the Spanish ones. They sell bees ' honey and wax, and honey made of corn stalks, which is as sweet and syrup-like as that of sugar, also honey of a plant called maguey, which is better than most ; from these same plants they make sugar and wine, which they also sell. [The whitish, slippery, fermented liquor called pulque is extracted from the maguey and is still the popular drink in Mexico ; as it must be drunk fresh, special pulque trains daily carry supplies to towns along the railway lines. Flavored with pineapple, strawberry, and other fresh fruit juices, and well iced, it is a very good drink, wholesome, and only intoxicating if drunk immoderately.] EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO 121 ^' They also sell skeins of different kinds of spun cot- ton, in all colours, so that it seems quite like one of the silk markets of Granada, although it is on a greater scale ; also as many different colours for painters as can be found in Spain and of as excellent hues. They sell deer- skins, with all the hair tanned on them, and of different colours ; much earthenware, exceedingly good, many sorts of pots, large and small, pitchers, large tiles, an infinite variety of vases, all of very singular clay, and most of them glazed and painte'^ They sell maize, both in the grain and made into bread, which is very superior in its quality to that of the other islands and mainland ; pies of birds and fish, also much fish, fresh, salted, cooked, and raw; eggs of hens, and geese, and other birds in great quantity, and cakes made of eggs. " Finally, besides those things I have mentioned, they sell in the city markets everything else that is found in the whole country and which, — on account of the profu- sion and number, do not occur to my memory, nor do I describe the things, because I do not know their names. Each sort of merchandise is sold in its respective street and they do not mix their kinds of merchandise of any species; thus they preserve perfect order. Everything is sold by a kind of measure, and until now, we have not seen anything sold by weight. ''There is in this square a very large building, like a court of justice, where there are always ten or twelve per- sons sitting as judges, and delivering their decisions upon all cases that arise in the markets. There are other persons in the same square who go about continually among the people, observing what is sold, and the meas- ures used in selling, and they have been seen to break some which were false. '' This great city contains many mosques, or houses for idols, very beautiful edifices situated in the different precincts of it; in the principal ones of which dwell the religious orders of their sect, for whom, besides the 122 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO houses in whicli they keep their idols, there are very good habitations provided. All these priests dress in black and never cut or comb their hair from the time they enter the religious order until they leave it; and the sons of all the principal families, both of chiefs as well as of noble citizens are in these religious orders and habits from the age of seven or eight years, till they are taken away for the purpose of marriage. This happens more frequently with the first-born who inherit the property, than with the others. They have no access to women, nor are they allowed to enter the religious houses; they abstain from eating certain dishes, and more so at cer- tain times of the year than at others. ' * DISCOVEEY OF THE TREASURE The discovery by Cortez of the treasure-house of the Montezumas has been thus described by Mr. MacNutt: From the market-place Cortez went to the teocalli, or temple of the Aztecs, where Montezuma, who had been carried thither in his litter, awaited him. Six men were in readiness to spare him the fatigue of the ascent by carrying him up the steps, but, refusing their proffered assistance, he and his soldiers marched up the broad staircase to the top where the emperor received him. In reply to the courteous observation of Montezuma that he must be fatigued by the climb, Cortez answered, with a touch of bravado that was unusual to him, *' Nothing ever tires me or my companions." From the summit of the teocalli, towering as it did above the entire city, an extensive view of the capital and its surroundings was offered to the Spaniards, who gazed on the beauty of the scene with interest, increased by the sight of the system of canals and bridges, by which they might be completely cut off from retreat at Montezuma's pleasure. The first thought of Cortez, however, was to plant a Christian church on the teocalli. Fray Bartolome de EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO 123 Olmedo, who was present, objected and reasoned so earnestly against a step that was obviously premature and also dangerous, that the commander consented to refrain from mentioning his wish at that time. He asked permission, however, to see the interior of the sanctu- aries and, after consulting with the priests, Montezuma accorded his consent. The sight that met the eyes of the Spaniards was a horrifying one. The gigantic images of Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, and his com- panion deity Tezcatlipoca, decorated with gold and precious stones and splashed with human gore, stood within the dim sanctuary that reeked with the blood of recent sacrifices and the heavy fumes of copal incense. On a golden salver lay human hearts. Revolted by this ghastly spectacle, Cortez spoke to Montezuma through La Marina, saying, '* My lord Montezuma, I know not how so great a sovereign and so wise a man as Your Majesty should never have perceived that these idols are no gods, but the things of evil, called devils." He further asked for permission to cast out the idols, cleanse the temple, and erect there a cross and a statue of the Blessed Virgin that Montezuma had already seen. The consternation and anger provoked by this demand were very great and Montezuma answered with offended dignity, '' Had I thought, Senor Malintzin, that you would offer such an insult as you have thought well to utter, I would not have shown you my gods ; we hold them to be very good, for they give us health, rains, good harvests, victory, and all we desire; hence we are bound to adore them and offer them sacri- fice. I beg you to dishonor them no further. ' ' Even Cortez saw that he had gone too far and, chang- ing his tone, he took leave of his host, who remained behind to placate the outraged deities with fresh sacrifices. The Spaniards, with the emperor's consent, fitted up a chapel in one of the rooms of the palace they occupied, 124 EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO where mass was celebrated as long as the limited supply of wine held out. The soldiers said their prayers before the altar, with its statue of the Blessed Virgin and the symbol of the cross, and all assembled there for the Angelus. While the altar in this improvised chapel was being erected, the carpenter discovered a masked door which, on being opened, was found to lead to a vast hall that served as a treasury. In the center of the floor was a great pile of gold and precious stones, while the walls round-about were hung with rich stuffs, mantles of costly feather-work, shields, arms and numerous orna- ments of gold and silver exquisitely worked. This hoard was the treasure left by Montezuma's grandfather, the Emperor Axayacatl. After inspecting the secret treasure-house, Cortez ordered the door to be sealed up and the discovery never to be mentioned. BULE OF THE VICEROYS Under the name of New Spain, Mexico was ruled from 1521 to 1821 successively by five governors, two royal commissioners (audencias), and sixty- two viceroys, the last of whom, Juan 'Donoju, did not assume control. During the administration of the first viceroy Don Antonio de Medoza, who ruled from 1535 to 1550, dis- coveries were actively prosecuted in the north, the first money was coined in Mexico, the University of Mexico and several colleges were founded and the first press in the New World was introduced. The School of Mines, which is still standing and yearly graduating talented men, was founded by the viceroy, the Marquis of Branci- f orte. The construction was begun in 1797 and the build- ing was completed in 1813. Its total cost was over $1,600,000. CHAPTEEVII " THE SORROWFUL NIGHT " Among the dramatic episodes of Mexican history there is none more interesting than that of ' ' la Noche Triste ' ' or the Sorrowful Night when Cortez and his men evacu- ated the City of Mexico with their treasure, July 1, 1520. The following graphic description is given by Mr. Francis Augustus MacNutt, in his able work on ' ' Fernando Cor- tez and the Conquest of Mexico ": '* The decision to leave the city silently and as secretly as possible, under cover of night, having been agreed to by most of the captains, preparations for flight were at once undertaken. The accumulated treasure that had already cost such rivers of tears and blood was piled in a room of the palace and, the royal fifth being first care- fully separated, the remainder was divided amongst the officers and men according to the provisions already stipulated. The quantity, however, was so great that it was impossible to carry it away, and the men were cau- tioned against loading themselves down with heavy weights that might prove their destruction. The wiser among them chose pearls and precious stones, with only such a small quantity of gold as they could easily carry ; the more avaricious could not turn their .backs on the shining heap of metal, but weighted themselves until they could hardly move. The hour fixed for departing was midnight on the thirtieth of June. " To Gonzalo de Sandoval was assigned the vanguard, composed of two hundred foot-soldiers and twenty horse- men. They were charged with one of the most important duties of the march, namely, the laying down of the port- 125 126 '' THE SORROWFUL NIGHT " able bridge wherever the ditches in the causeway had not been filled in. This bridge was carried by four hun- dred Tlascalans, who were under the protection of fifty soldiers commanded by a captain, Magarino. Cortez took command of the centre division of his forces. Two hundred and fifty Tlascalans, protected by forty shield- bearers, dragged the artillery in this division, in which were the baggage, the treasure, the prisoners, and the women. The latter comprised Marina and two of Monte- zuma's daughters who were placed under a guard com- posed of thirty Spaniards and three hundred auxiliaries ; two sons of Montezuma, the young King of Texcoco, and a few others who had escaped the general execution that afternoon, were among the prisoners. The rear-guard was composed of the main body of infantry and most of the force of cavalry. LEFT THE SLEEPING CITY " The night was dark with a drizzling rain. Leaving fires lighted, the troop cautiously emerged at the hour of midnight into the deserted streets of the sleeping city, making its way as silently as possible along the street leading to the Tlacopan causeway. Magarino and his men had placed their bridge over the first ditch and the vanguard and artillery had passed safely over when, out of the darkness, was heard a cry of alarm that was quickly taken up by other Mexican sentinels, and in a moment the city was roused. The priests, keeping watch at the sacred fires on the teocalli, began to beat the sacred drum, whose lugubrious roll could be heard for miles. From all sides the Aztec warriors fell upon their escaping foes, the surface of the lake on both sides of the cause- way became alive with light canoes, darting hither and thither, from which volleys of arrows and sling stones were discharged into the now disordered mass of panic- stricken fugitives. The bridge, upon which their safety so greatly depended, was found to be wedged fast and '" THE SORROWFUL NIGHT " 127 immovable after the passage of so many horses and heavy guns, while at the second ditch, the people in the fore were being driven into the water by the pressure of the oncoming multitude from behind. Terror banished dis- cipline and the retreat became a mad scramble for safety, in which each one thought only of himself. VICTIMS SEIZED FOR SACRIFICE '' The second ditch became quickly choked with guns, baggage, dead bodies of men and horses, over which the later comers sought to struggle to the opposite side. Cortez, leaving those of his own people who had managed to cross the second ditch, returned to the scene of con- fusion to lend what assistance he might to the rear-guard. Many of those who fell into the water met a more terrible fate than mere drowning, being seized by the Mexicans and carried off in their canoes to die on the stone of sacri- fice. The third ditch was still spanned by a single beam, over which some of the more agile of the first to reach it were able to cross, but the onrush from behind was too great and the attack of the enemy too fierce to allow many to profit by this narrow road to safety. The com- mander's voice, giving orders and seeking to calm his people, was lost in the uproar of battle, the shrieks of the drowning, and the wild shouts of the assailants; the scene of confusion at the second ditch repeated itself. It was at this ditch that Alvarado is alleged to have made his incredible leap, one of the exploits of the conquest so firmly rooted in three centuries of tradition and popu- lar folklore that no proof, however lucid, of its entirely apocryphal character will ever dislodge it. The last of the baggage and treasure was here abandoned, and the Mexicans allowed themselves to be diverted from further pursuit by their desire to collect the rich spoils. WHEN CORTEZ WEPT '' The dawn that broke after the Sorrowful Night found the remnant of the army at Popothal, a village situated 128 '' THE SORROWFUL NIGHT " on the shore of the lake. And what a sad remnant! Forty-six liorses were dead, the artillery no longer existed, hardly a musket had been saved, the treasure was lost, all the prisoners had fallen and the few men who filed before the commander, as he sat on the steps of a temple with unaccustomed tears rolling down his cheeks, were soaked to the skin, destitute of arms, and so caked from head to foot with mud and the blood of their wounds, as to be scarcely recognizable. (The site is still pointed out and a venerable tree standing there is known as the Arbol de la Noche Triste, or ' Tree of the Sorrowful Night.') '' The actual number of the dead cannot be positively known, for the figures given by different writers are hope- lessly conflicting. Prescott, whose judgment it is safe to follow, adopted the estimate of Gomara, according to which four hundred and fifty Spaniards and four thou- sand of their Indian allies perished during the retreat. Cortez, in his letter to the Emperor, reduces these fig- ures to one hundred and fifty Spaniards and two thou- sand Indians, but his tendency throughout his reports was to minimize his losses. Oviedo, quoting Juan Cano, one of the gentlemen present, states that eleven hundred and seventy Spaniards and eight thousand Indians were killed and missing. Cano's estimate was made in Tlas- cala, and included all who fell during the whole of the retreat from Mexico until safety was reached inside the loyal republic, but his authority is questionable. He it was who invented the tale that two hundred and seventy men of the Spanish garrison, who were ignorant of the plan to march out of the city, were left behind in the quarters where, after surrendering to the Mexicans, they were all sacrificed. He does not explain how these men were kept in ignorance, while their comrades departed with the artillery, baggage, and all of the treasure they could carry. In Herrera's account of the plan to escape from Mexico by night, the historian records that Ojeda Loading maiines ou transport at Philadelphia Marines in New York Harbor en route to Mexican waters Detachment of the Fifteenth U. S. Cavalry at Fort Bliss, Tex. The same detachment in a practice drill The " Texas " at sea on her way to Mexico The '■ Texas " approaching Vera Cruz '' THE SOEEOWFUL NIGHT " 129 was particularly charged by Cortez with the care of the wounded and to see that no one was left behind in the hurried preparations. *' The Spaniards who remained behind were either unwilling to relinquish the gold collected in the quarters or, failing to cross the first bridge, found themselves driven back by the crowd of Mexican warriors that cut them off from joining their comrades. The latter ex- planation seems the more probable. Herrera fixes their number at one hundred; Acosta mentions the fact but gives no figures. Those unfortunates managed to hold out for three days, at the end of which time they were forced by hunger to make terms with the Mexicans. Although there is nowhere an authentic record of their end, there is little doubt as to their fate. Deplorable as were the losses, the condition of those who survived the Sorrowful Night and reached Tacuba was hardly less discouraging, for so broken and exhausted were they that not even in defense of their lives did they seem able to raise a hand, while their horses could scarcely stand on their trembling legs, much less carry their riders." CHAEACTEB OP COETEZ. Few, if any, of the companions of Cortez understood him, says Mr. MacNutt. His admirers, who were ready to follow him anywhere, were attracted by the magnetism which, as a born leader, he exercised powerfully over just such men as they. He was their alter ego, in whom they beheld reflected their own daring aspirations, but united to powers of command as alien to their inferior abilities as they were necessary to the success of their wild under- takings. Cortez was indeed daring, but he was never rash. His seemingly spontaneous decisions were, in reality, the result of plans carefully formed, of cautious calcula- tions that seemed to take cognizance of every emergency, to forestall every risk. In the execution of his designs 130 " THE SORROWFUL NIGHT '» he was relentless, lience the unmerited reputation for cruelty that has obscured his really kindly instincts and many generous deeds. Both his resolution and his per- severance were implacable, and those who did not will- ingly bend to his will were made to break. " Be my friend, or I kill you," not inaccurately describes his atti- tude to those who crossed his path. His equanimity was never disturbed by misfortune, and, as he sustained suc- cess without undue elation, so did he support reverses with fortitude; defeat might be a momentary check but was never accepted as final. Besides being compared with Julius Cesar as a general, he has been ranked with Augustus and Charles V. as a statesman, nor does he unduly suffer from such lofty comparisons, for he unques- tionably possessed many of the qualities essential to greatness, in common with them. He ruled his motley band with a happy mixture of genial comradeship and inflexible discipline and hence succeeded, where an excess of either the one or the other would have brought failure. He knew when and whom to trust and, though he was ready with his friendship, he avoided favoritism, with the consequence that his men were united by the bond of a common trust in their commander. CHAPTER VIII THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS The modern history of Mexico and the commencement of the almost continuous internecine wars may be said to date from the ' ' grito de Dolores ' ' on the night of the 16th of September, 1810, by the parish priest of Dolores, Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who gathered about him many trusty followers under his banner to the cry of " Long live religion! Long live our Most Holy Mother of Guadalupe! Long live America, and death to bad government! *' This cry is what is known as '^ el grito de Dolores." Several efforts to cause rebellion against the Spanish authorities had been made previous to this date, in fact ever since 1798, during the incumbency of the forty-fifth viceroy, Miguel Jose de Azanza, but they were all suppressed. Hidalgo marshaled a considerable force and was vic- torious in several engagements, but he and his lieuten- ants, Allande, Aldama, and Jimenez, were captured and put to death in 1811, the first on the 31st of July and the three last named on June 26. The bullets that crashed through these patriotic breasts terminated the first stage of the war for independence. One of the greatest figures in Mexican history then came to the front, Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon, the par- ish priest of Caracuaro, who by his audacity, valor, and military sagacity was acceded a position at the head of the leaders of the cause of independence. After many notable engagements, in which he was almost always vic- 131 132 THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS torious, he captured Acapulco on April 12, 1813, thus ending his second campaign. On the 14th of September, 1813, in the town of Chilpamcingo, the first Mexican Congress was installed, which two months later (Novem- ber 6) issued the declaration of independence and decreed the emancipation of the slaves. The first provisional constitution w^as adopted October 22, 1814. Morelos was eventually overcome by being betrayed by a deserter from his ranks named Carranco, was taken to Mexico, tried, and sentenced to be shot. The sentence was carried out at San Cristobal Ecatepec on the 22nd of December, 1815. FATE OF PATRIOTIC CHIEFTAINS But the cause of independence was still sustained by many leaders in different parts of the Republic, among them being Francisco Javier Mina, a Spanish officer, who resolved to do battle for the independence of Mexico. He disembarked at the port of Soto la Marina on April 15, 1817, with 500 men recruited in the United States, and marched rapidly into the interior, gaining many victories. He was apprehended at the ranch called Venadito, and was shot on the 11th of November, 1817. Many other patriotic chiefs arose to lead the independent movement, but most of them met the fate of their predecessors. Among these was Guerrero, who, after many hazardous exploits and brilliant achievements, finally, on the 10th of January, 1821, held a conference with Augustin Itur- bide, brigadier-general in command of the royalist forces, at Iturbide's request and the two leaders agreed to pro- claim independence. The latter proclaimed what is known as '* The Plan of Iguala " on February 24, 1821. Iturbide, then assuming command of the forces, marched on Mexico, making Valladolid (now Morelia), Queretaro, and Puebla, capitulate on the way. On reach- ing Mexico the Viceroy Apodaca was deposed July 5, 1821. THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS 133 LAST OF THE VICEEOYS. The sixty-second and last viceroy, Juan O'Donoju, arrived at Vera Cruz on the 30th of July, and, upon hear- ing of the condition of affairs, issued a proclamation and entered into communication with the independents. Iturbide went to Cordoba, where a conference was held, resulting in the treaty of Cordoba, which, with slight modifications, confirmed the plan of Iguala and Spanish domination in Mexico, which had lasted 300 years, closed forever when, on the 27th of September, 1821, Iturbide made his triumphal entry into the capital. ITURBIDE AS EMPEROR The second Mexican Congress, the first after securing independence, met on February 24, 1822, and elected Iturbide emperor on the 19th of May of the same year. He was crowned and anointed with great pomp and cere- mony in the great cathedral of the capital on the 21st of June following as Augustine I., Emperor of Mexico. His reign was short. The people who had been warring so long could not settle down to peaceful pursuits. Am- bitious leaders thirsted for high places, and the smoke of the battles for independence had scarce lifted before General Santa Anna headed a revolutionary movement in Vera Cruz, proclaimed a republican form of govern- ment and compelled Iturbide to abdicate and leave the country. He became desirous to revisit it, and returning to Mexico, was arrested immediately upon disembarking, taken to Padilla, brought before the legislature of Tamau- lipas in session there, and by that body condemned to death. He was shot July 19th, 1824, just five days after landing. RISE OP THE REPUBLIC The Federal Republic was established on the ruins of the Empire. The third Mexican Congress assembled November 7, 1823, and proclaimed on October 4, 1824, a republican constitution, which was patterned closely upon 134 THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS that of the United States. The first president of Mexico, the patriot General Guadalupe Victoria, took the oath of office on October 10. Congress was dissolved Decem- ber 24, 1824, and the first constitutional Congress con- vened January 1, 1825. During this year England and the United States formally recognized Mexico. Independence being secured, two parties came into existence: The Spanish, which became the Centralists, and the Republicans, who became Federalists. To this division is due the constant internal disturbances and agitations in Mexico from 1828 to 1846. During this period five radical organic changes swayed the people between centralism and federation. The two parties succeeded each other in power, mostly through revolutions, until 1847, when the war with the United States, which had commenced the year previous, ended and the latter nation acquired more than two-fifths of the Mexican territory. After the declaration of peace between the two countries the Mexican Liberal party remained in power (except from 1853 to 1855, when Gen- eral Santa Anna governed as dictator), carrying out its theories of government. In the year 1857 the constitu- tion now in force in Mexico was framed by a constitu- tional assembly. THE EKA OF MAXIMILIAN" In 1861 England, Spain, and France formed an alliance to declare war against Mexico, but the alliance had been scarcely perfected when the two first-named powers with- drew and France was left alone in the enterprise. War between the two nations lasted from 1862 until 1867 with- out the French gaining any decided foothold. Possessing themselves finally of the capital, they estab- lished an empire, aided by a number of disaffected Mex- icans, and placed the crown upon Maximilian of Haps- burg. Archduke of Austria. The archduke arrived in the City of Mexico on June THE REVOLUTIONAEY WAES 135 12, 1864, accompanied by his wife, Carlotta, daughter of Leopold I., king of the Belgians. These two unfortunate beings were crowned emperor and empress of Mexico with great solemnity in the cathedral and ruled a portion of the country until 1867, when the perfidy of Bazaine and the cowardice of Napoleon III. destroyed the life of Maxi- milian and the reason of Carlotta. Maximilian, bereft of the aid and protection of the French, intrenched himself in Queretaro, where he was made prisoner by the Republicans and shot, together with the Imperialist Generals Miralon and Mexia, on the Cerro de las Campanas, on the 19th of June, 1867. Benito Juarez, of Indian birth, and possessed of great ability, patriotism, and energy, was the president of the Republic during the turbulent times of the reformation and the war with France. He entered the capital vic- torious on the 15th of July, 1867, and retained the presi- dency until his death in 1872, being the only Mexican who died during the occupancy of that office. His imme- diate successor was Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada, who re- tained the office until 1876, when he was unseated by the revolution of Palo Blanco. General Porfirio Diaz suc- ceeded Lerdo de Tejada in May, 1877, and was followed by General Manuel Gonzalez in 1880. In 1884 General Diaz was elected to a second term, and was continued at the head of the government until 1910. His administra- tion was attended with great progress and prosperity. CHAPTER IX JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT Benito Juarez stood out conspicuously in the history of Mexico as a thoroughly honest and incorruptible man. He was thus placed in striking contrast with the repre- sentatives of some of the European nations with whom he was called upon to treat in 1862, says Mr. Arthur Howard Noll in his story of the struggle for constitu- tional government in Mexico. Not the least difficult of the tasks which confronted Juarez in his public career, and in his efforts to estab- lish constitutional government, was that of maintaining a high standard of morality in his administration. The public men of Mexico, who had been trained in the old Spanish school of politics, or in the later school of Santa Anna, were accustomed to no such distinctions between right and wrong as the new constitution presupposed or as Juarez in his government made. They were incapable of appreciating the nice distinctions between honesty and fraud being constantly made by their Indian president. Juarez was a patriot. Love of country, and the desire to set her far forward toward the realization of the des- tiny which he felt to be hers by nature and by the will of Providence, actuated his whole life and engaged all his energies of body and mind. It took strange forms sometimes — as, for example, at the breaking out of the war with the Interventionists, when he refused all offers of foreign troops for his army, declaring that he would invite no foreigner to shoot down men who, though in 136 JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT 137 rebellion against Mexico, were yet citizens of that nation. Simple in his tastes, not personally ambitious, depre- cating pomp or display, Benito Juarez gave his life to the effort to set law above force in Mexico, and served his country in honorable poverty in the chief magistracy for thirteen years, the greater part of the time an exile from his capital. JUAEEZ ELECTED PKESIDENT In August, 1867, Juarez called for a general election for members of Congress and for president. The election was to determine the propriety of his action in continuing in the presidency in Paso del Norte after the expiration of his former term of office. He was elected over Sebas- tion Lerdo de Tejada and Porfirio Diaz, and his action at Paso del Norte was thereby fully sustained. He began a new constitutional term in the presidency, upon his installation in that office in December. It might seem that the country had now had its fill of revolutions and pronunciamentos, and was ready to co- operate with the president in an effort to maintain peace and constitutional government. But the administration of Juarez was much disturbed by revolutiojiary attempts made by those who were still under the spell of the ancient Spanish methods of ** practical politics." Santa Anna entered the Republic with no very honorable intentions, we may be sure. He was taken prisoner and sentenced to be shot, but was allowed to escape, and returned to the place of his former exile. Probably the measure by which Juarez himself would have preferred that his administration of the government from 1867 to 1871 should be best known was his decree of general amnesty. Under its provisions, even Santa Anna was enabled to return to Mexico and spend the remainder of his days at the capital. 138 JUAEEZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT JUAKEZ RE-ELECTED As the electoral campaign of 1871 approached, Juarez was advised by many of his best friends to decline a re-election. They urged that, inestimable as was the value of the services he had rendered in securing the constitution and in maintaining the government of Mex- ico thereunder during the period of stress and storm from 1861 to 1867, he was not a pronounced success in the administration of the presidency. His pre-eminent quality — adherence to a great principle in the face of opposition — did not especially fit him for the task of building upon the foundation he had laid. He was blind. to the actual needs of the nation, it was said. His mind was giving way, some alleged — and such might have been the case in one who had passed through all that he had suffered. He remained, however, firm in the belief that his presence in the administration was neces- sary for the continuance of the effort to maintain good government in Mexico, and prevent a suspension of the constitution which had been established at so much cost. He therefore entered as a candidate against the same opponents as four years previously. The contest was an exciting one, and his election was extremely close. Con- gress met on the sixteenth of September, and it was not until the twelfth of October that Juarez was officially declared elected by the vote of a plurality of the states. Pronunciamentos followed, but Juarez, with indomitable energy, confronted every attempt to overthrow the con- stitution and return to the former methods of governing the country by force. DEATH OF JUAEEZ On the seventeenth day of July, 1872, he who had never before known more than a day's sickness, was JUAEEZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT 139 taken suddenly ill with heart disease. Near midnight on the eighteenth he died. Two days later the body was taken to the national palace, where it lay in state, under guard of government officials, and was visited by throngs of Mexicans of all classes. On the twenty-second it was borne through the streets of the capital, followed by five thousand people, and laid to rest in the Panteon of San Fernando. There, over the dust of Benito Juarez, now rests an exquisitely sculptured marble group represent- ing the grief of Mexico over the death of her great national hero. Thither, on the eighteenth of July every year, lovers of constitutional government go to rehearse the story of his noble and devoted life, and of how through his eif orts the constitution of Mexico came into being. *' THE MAN" IN" THE BLACK COAT " Benito Juarez was short of stature, but of powerful frame, like most of the Zapotecans, and had small hands and feet. His was a ** very dark complexioned Indian face, which was not disfigured, but on the contrary made more interesting, by a very large scar across it. He had black piercing eyes, and gave the impression of a man reflecting much and deliberating long and carefully before acting." His dress was that of the Mexican student or professional man — plain black broadcloth, unrelieved by any official or military insignia. This placed him in such striking contrast with the brilliant dress affected by other Mexican officials, who were, almost to a man, military officers, and with the foreign diplomats with whom he came in contact, that he was known in semi- diplomatic language as " The President in the Black Coat." While other public men in Mexico had military titles, he preferred to be known simply as Ciudadano — Citizen. They were greatly mistaken who supposed him defi- 140 JUAREZ, THE INDIAN PRESIDENT cient in mental acquirements. He was able to write French with ease; and could read English, though he never attempted to speak it. He was well read in consti- tutional law. History was his favorite study. He re- ceived the degree of doctor of civil law from his alma mater, and the honor was worthily conferred. His state papers were models of clearness and exact style. CHAPTER X THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE In seeking independence the Spanish colonies in America were moved by the democratic doctrines of France and by the example of the United States. Their long submission to Spanish rule, however, had given rise to traditions which tended to keep them loyal to monarchy. But when Ferdinand VII. fell into the hands of Napoleon the bond of attachment to Spain was weak- ened and signs of revolt appeared. The open struggle for independence, which began in 1810 and lasted with occasional interruptions till 1824, stands in marked con- trast with the efforts of the English colonies. It had many characteristics of a civil war, on account of the large number of those who advocated continued depend- ence on Spain, while the more complete unity of purpose in the English colonies gave their war for independence the character of a struggle against a foreign enemy. An early suggestion of a national representative gov- ernment for Mexico appeared in the proposition made by the ayuntamiento (city council) of the City of Mexico to the viceroy that he should call a national assem- bly composed of representatives of the provinces. The proposition was favored by the viceroy, but was opposed by the audencia, who represented the spirit of Spanish possession and dominion. The higher clergy, moreover, as holders of great power, opposed all attempts at inde- pendence, while the lower clergy, to which Miguel Hidalgo Costilla belonged, became the earliest champions of the movement. 141 142 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STEUGGLE THE ** GOVERNMENTAL COUNCIL " After the overthrow of Hidalgo's forces and the cap- ture of the leader it became evident to the patriots that they ought to be represented by some formally consti- tuted government. An assembly, composed principally of officers of the army, was therefore convened. In ac- cordance with its decree a governmental council was established, consisting at first of three members and later of five, whose collective title was the ' ' Supreme Govern- mental Council of America." In the exercise of their new authority they cited the military officers, the governors, and alcaldes of the Indian pueblos of the vicinity to take the oath of obedience and fidelity to the council, which governed in the name of King Ferdinand VII. The use of the king's name was clearly an act of policy, through which the council hoped to gain forces at the expense of the enemy, and to turn to the cause of free- dom those who desired independence, but who halted at the idea of fighting against the king. The attempt on the part of the council to make an agree- ment with the viceroy only led him to reject with indig- nation the project of an independent power in Mexico. Strictly speaking, the council was an illegal body, deriv- ing authority neither from a popular election nor from any existing legitimate source. It was feared, however, by the Spanish party that it might gain recognition and exercise the functions of a legitimate government. A price was therefore set on the head of each member, but its subsequent dissolution was due rather to internal dis- sension than to external attack. THE FIRST CONGRESS On the first of September, 1813, a Congress constituted by popular election was assembled in Chipancingo. This body proclaimed anew the independence of Mexico, and THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE 143 agreed upon a republican constitution, whicli was pub- lished in Apanzingan in October, 1814. This constitution was also short-lived, being set aside by the adoption of the Spanish constitution of 1812 in so far as it was applicable to Mexico. Between 1815 and 1820 Mexico was little disturbed by military operations, but finally the cause of independence was revived, and on the 24th of February, 1820, the plan of Iguala was published. By this instrument an inde- pendent limited monarchy was erected in Mexico, and the throne was to be offered to Ferdinand VII., and in case of his refusal to other princes designated. The Roman Catholic faith was declared to be the sole religion of the state, and the equality of all social classes was proclaimed. The plan of Iguala, a compromise between political independence and religious intolerance, found very general favor; even the new viceroy, O'Donoju, accepted it with only slight modifications, and recognized the new Imperio Mejicano. A provisional governmental council was then formed, which was charged with the legislative authority until the Cortes should be installed. The executive power was temporarily intrusted to a regency of three persons, who should exercise it till the accession of the prince. In carrying out the provisions of the plan of Iguala, as modified by the agreement at Cordova between 'Dono ju and Iturbide, it was discovered that the scheme was not approved by either the king or the Cortes of Spain, and that in Mexico itself there were many repub- licans dissatisfied with it. ITUEBIDE PKOCLAIMED EMPBEOR In this condition of affairs Iturbide, supported by a portion of the army, was proclaimed emperor. But his conduct in his temporary use of power only increased the opposition which he had encountered in the begin- ning, and, finding it impossible to maintain an independ- 144 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE ent imperial government in Mexico, he abdicated and went into exile. The Congress, taking advantage of the departure of Iturbide, declared that his administration had been a rule of force and not of right, and that all of his acts were illegal and subject to revision. It then placed the execu- tive power in the hands of a triumvirate composed of Negrete, Bravo, and Victoria, representing the Spanish, the monarchical, and the republican parties. THE CONSTITUTION OF 1824 A new Congress was installed on the 7th of November, 1823, and on the 3rd of December it began the discussion of a project for a fundamental law, which was approved January 31, 1824, and *' in thirty-six articles contained the basis of the future political constitution." Through the adoption of this constitution the nation acquired a popular representative, federal, republican government. But this was only a provisional government, and was set aside on the adoption of the definitive constitution of 1824, which in many particulars was a copy of the consti- tution of the United States. FUNDAMENTAL LAW OF 1836 The constitution of 1824 remained in force eleven years, but during these years Mexico was not without internal disturbances, and in 1833, by a revolution, General An- tonio Lopez de Santa Anna was made president. After a temporary retirement a reactionary movement restored him to power in 1834. Having allied himself with the Clericals and Centralists, he dissolved the Congress on the 31st of May, set aside the liberal decrees which that body had passed, made the vice-president, Gomez Farias, resign, and broke openly with the Federalists. The new Congress, which was installed in January, 1835, under- took to reform the constitution of 1824, and in 1836 a new fundamental law was issued, which rejected the fed- eral principle and established a centralized government, _bJD a Inspecting the bluejackets on the "Texas"' just before sailing- Shore leave detail from the battleship "New York^ Machine gun platoon of United States Regulars at El Paso, Tex. Machine gun in readiness for action THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE 145 the whole territory of the Republic being divided into departments instead of the pre-existing states, the depart- ments into districts, and these again into partidos. By thus enlarging the functions of the central government, the grounds of party separation were made more con- spicuous. Every adherent of federalism became an oppo- nent of the new order of things, and in the next decade Mexico was without an effective constitution. Power rested with the most successful military leader. In 1847, however, the Congress passed an act which brought into force again the constitution of 1824 with certain amend- ments. A MILITAEY '* PLAN" " Without attempting to note the numerous * * pronuncia- mentos " made and the ^' bases " promulgated, attention may be called to the ' * plan ' ' promulgated by the garri- son of Ayutla. According to this plan Santa Anna was to be deprived of the power which he exercised arbi- trarily, an ad interim president was to be appointed, and a constitutional convention convened. The garrison of Acapulco seconded this plan with slight modifications, and Ignacio Comonf ort became the leader of the new rev- olution. On the 8th of August, 1855, Santa Anna left the presidency, and a few days later went into exile. On the 13th of the same month the garrison of the capital also adopted the plan of Ayutla. The 4th of October General Alvarez was elected ad interim president, and in February, 1856, the constituent Congress, or constitu- tional convention, was assembled. Comonfort, who had become president on the resignation of Alvarez, now issued, in accordance with authority conferred upon him by the plan of Ayutla and Acapulco, an ^' Estatuto or- ganico provisional de la Republica Mejicana." The estatuto was a quasi-constitution, in 125 articles, which organized completely the executive and judicial powers in accordance with the principles of centralism, and which 146 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE detailed with much method and in liberal sense the civil and political rights of the Mexicans; but which oblit- erated all this, as with one dash of the pen, by Article 82, conceived as follows: " The President of the Eepublic shall be able to act discretionally, when, in the judgment of the council of ministers, this shall be necessary in order to defend the independence or the integrity of the territory, or to maintain the established order, or to pre- serve the public tranquility: but in no case shall he be able to impose the penalty of death, nor those penalties prohibited by Article 55." THE CONSTITUTION OF 1857 The new constitution, which was formulated in the meantime by the constitutional Congress, was finally adopted on the 5th of February, 1857. But this consti- tution, by abolishing the ecclesiastical and military priv- ileges, excited vigorous opposition. As a result of this opposition, the nation found itself, in 1858, in civil war, with Benito Juarez as leader of the Constitutional party, while General Zuloaga, and later General Miramon, led the Revolutionary forces and took possession of the cap- ital. Juarez, in accordance with Article 29 of the consti- tution, received extraordinary powers to suspend the individual guarantees recognized by this law. During the same year, 1861, the Revolutionary party entered into certain foreign alliances against the Constitutional party, led by Juarez, and from these alliances proceeded the series of events which constitute the imperial episode of Maximilian's reign. While Maximilian, backed by the power of France, was attempting to establish an imperial government in Mexico, the forces of the Constitutional- ists were scattered on the frontiers. Three months after the withdrawal of the French troops, in obedience to the demands of the United States, the Imperialists were undone, Maximilian, Miramon, and Mejia had been shot. THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE 147 and the way was once more open to the Constitutionalists. The constitution of 1857 became again effective funda- mental law of the land, and, with a number of subsequent amendments, has continued in force to the present time. AN" OPTIMISTIC VIEW After the retirement of General Diaz in 1910 and the assumption of power by President Madero, the optimistic business men of Mexico looked forward with great con- fidence to the future. One well-known writer expressed their views as follows : ' ' New times and manners have come to Mexico. New figures of national importance have stepped upon the stage to direct the destinies of the land which the clear- headed, unenthusiastic scientist, von Humboldt, called * The Treasure House of the World.' " New policies and processes of government have been inaugurated; although new to Mexico, they have stood the test of practice in the other great republics. By this proved standard they may be depended upon to impart fresh vigor and irresistible impetus to the progress and development of Mexico. ** The events which prefaced the administrative changes in Mexico were revolutionary. History records few important steps in the advancement of any nation which were not conceived and born in revolution. Instances are far less common wherein righteous and successful revolutions have not purified the national life- streams and made for political, social and economic well- being. '' Mexico was at peace for thirty-five years. Neither foreign wars nor domestic turmoil had disturbed her tranquility and interrupted the wonderful material development fostered by the establishment and inflexible maintenance of law and order. ** This gave her unique distinction among the nations. 3^ile Mexico's sword was sheathed, the United States, 148 THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE | England, France, Germany, Eussia, China, Japan and Spain, wasted billions of gold and sacrificed thousands of lives in wars. ** A hundred-fold more men and money than the revolu- tion in Mexico cost, were expended by the United States since 1876 in Indian wars alone. *' What has occurred in Mexico was an anti-climax. Like most contingencies which are viewed in anticipation with profound apprehension, the prospect of the passing of the old regime in Mexico and the commencement of the new, when it became a reality, presented itself in far less ominous guise than it assumed when it was merely a vague, much debated possibility. *' It was an anti-climax because it came prematurely and unexpectedly. So swift was the march of events in the six months which compassed the duration of the revolution that the country was spared most of the pros- tration and disorganization that come with armed political movements. " When the transfer of authority came, the vital ele- ments of the government were substantially unimpaired. The federal treasury was intact; the cash reserves had not been drained to finance a long and costly war ; busi- ness was interfered with but slightly; the country had not been stripped of able-bodied men; the lines of com- munication had been interrupted, but not destroyed, or even seriously damaged; the national credit continued high; federal revenues had fallen off to a surprisingly small extent, and the damage to public and private prop- erty in the cities and towns of consequence was limited. ** In the foreign money markets confidence in the national stability of Mexico and in her possession of inherent vital power to survive political shocks that would cripple a less wealthy, resourceful country, was shown in impressive fashion. * * The public funds and many of her standard railway, banking and industrial securities were not seriously THE CONSTITUTIONAL STRUGGLE 149 affected, and in a majority of cases either maintained their price, or were given higher quotations. A month after peace was declared London was buying National Railway securities at from $2.25 to $2.50 higher than the prices quoted before the revolution. " In every fibre of her being Mexico, in 1911, is a thousand times stronger and better buttressed to main- tain and enhance her financial, political and industrial respectability and place than she was in 1876, when Porfirio Diaz came to government. Now she has every- thing with which to do. Then she had virtually nothing, save her inexhaustible natural resources, which were sparsely developed. " Thirty-five years of peace and prosperity have sped her too far along the road of progress to warrant fair- minded, competent critics in assuming that she will retro- grade, or that her affairs will not be patriotically, com- petently and profitably administered. Mexico will press on." CHAPTER XI MEXICO UNDER DIAZ In an election under the Constitution of 1857, held in 1871, four years after the City of Mexico had surren- dered to General Diaz after the execution of the Emperor Maximilian, the opposing candidates were the then President Benito Juarez, Lerdo de Tejada, and Porfirio Diaz. Juarez was elected December 1, 1871, and took his seat for the third time, the result of which was a slight revolution, occurring in various parts of the coun- try. These were headed by Porfirio Diaz on his hacienda of La Noria, in Oaxaca. A manifesto was issued propos- ing a convention and assembly of notables, to reorganize a government with Diaz as commander-in-chief of the army, until the establishment of such government. The movement was interrupted by the death of Juarez and the succession of the president of the Supreme Court, Lerdo de Tejada. The administration of Lerdo was peaceful, and he was elected president December 1, 1872, continuing in office for three years, during which time the railroad between Vera Cruz and the City of Mexico, called the Mexican Railway, was opened on January 1, 1873. DIAZ PROCLAIMED PRESIDENT Another revolution occurred in Oaxaca, January 15, 1876, and once more the country was in the midst of a strife. Lerdo was forced to leave the country, and Gen- eral Diaz entered the City of Mexico November 24, 1876, and was proclaimed president ; on the 6th of May, 1877, he was declared constitutional president, in which office he remained until November 30, 1880, during which time ISO MEXICO UNDER DIAZ 151 he put down small revolutions and executed nine revolu- tionists on June 24, 1879. On the 25th of September, 1880, Congress elected Gen- eral Manuel Gonzales president. During the administra- tion of General Gonzales the celebrated Nickel riots of 1883 occurred, the common people refusing to accept nickel coin in the place of silver and copper, entailing on them considerable loss. The national debt of Mexico was also greatly increased, and his administration was practically a financial failure. General Diaz was again elected president and took the oath of office December 1, 1884, and at each recurring election to 1910 succeeded himself. A MAN" OF ACTION On taking the office in 1884, says the noted authority on Mexico, Mr. Reau Campbell, Diaz found an absolutely empty treasury and a country without credit. It was a condition and not a theory that confronted Diaz — a con- dition that theories alone could not ameliorate. Urgent and immediate action was the only remedy for the deplor- able state of the country. General Diaz was the man of action, man of the hour, and delayed not till the morrow. To perceive a need, with him, was to act at once, and to promote the prosperity and peace of his country was his only aim. The railroads and the telegraphs had only been proposed; the commerce of the country was in a state of lethargy. Diaz' quick, restless, active disposi- tion called it to life, and his liberal, wise and efficient administration of the government made it possible to complete the enterprises of communication and com- merce, and it so promoted the internal improvements in every direction that his own acts have placed President Diaz among the foremost statesmen of the world. A patriotic Mexican writer says : ** With the restless, inconstant character of our race, the long tenure of office by one man is one of the greatest dangers of the peace 152 MEXICO UNDER DIAZ of tlie nation. Yet, notwithstanding, General Diaz has succeeded in avoiding shipwreck on this shoal, making himself all but indispensable to the completion of the reconstructive and conciliatory work of which he is the true and only author. The work of pacification accom- plished by General Diaz has consisted in the strengthen- ing of the central power, and the discreet use of his personal prestige and influence for the purpose of secur- ing in all the states of the Mexican Union the election of governors attached to him personally, and resolved to second him at any cost in the task of assuring to the country the supreme benefit of peace, as the most im- perious necessity of the Mexican people. The patriotic conviction of the urgency, for a nation bleeding and weak- ened as ours has been, of a convalescent political regime to enable us to recuperate our shattered strength, has facilitated the insensible and voluntary creation of a system of governmental discipline wherein the federated units, like the wheels of an immense machine, receive without shock the impulse of force which is conveyed to them from the great central motor. ' ' Even the Encyclopedia Britannica pays its tribute of respect to Diaz, when it says : '* His term of office marks a prominent change in the history of Mexico; from that date he at once forged ahead with financial and political reform, the scrupulous settlement of all national debts, the welding together of the peoples and tribes (there are 150 different Indian tribes) of his country, the establishment of railroads and telegraphs, and all this in a land which had been upheaved for a century with revolutions and bloodshed, and which had fifty-two dictators, presidents, and rulers in fifty- nine years.'* CHAPTER Xn GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION The government of the Republic of Mexico is repre- sentative, democratic and federal. The seat of the supreme power of the federation is the capital of the republic, which is also the capital of the federal district. The supreme federal power is divided into three branches, legislative, executive and judicial. The legislative power is lodged in the general congress, which is divided into two bodies, the senate and the cham- ber of deputies. The members of the chamber of deputies are elected by popular vote of the Mexican citizen every two years, one deputy for each 40,000 inhabitants. The senate is composed of two senators from each state and the federal district. Senators are elected indirectly, half of the body being renewed every two years. The salary of deputies and senators is $3,000 a year. Congress has two regular sessions every year, the first commencing on the 16th of September (the national holiday) and end- ing on the 15th of December. It may be extended thirty days longer. The business of this session is the general regulation and conduct of the federal government. The second session begins April 1 and ends May 31, but may be prolonged fifteen days. Its business primarily is auditing the accounts of the previous fiscal year and mak- ing appropriations for the fiscal year to come. The executive power is vested in the *' President of the United Mexican States." He is elected by electors chosen by popular vote every four years. He is inaugurated and enters upon his administration on the 153 154 GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 1st of December. In the discharge of his high duties the president is assisted by seven secretaries or ministers, whom he may appoint and remove at will. The secre- taries are : Of foreign affairs, of home affairs, of justice and public instruction, of colonization, industry and com- merce, of the treasury and public credit, of war and the navy, and of communication and public works. All of these secretaries authenticate with their signatures the regulations, proclamations, and decrees of the president, and have charge of the several departments of the gov- ernment designated by their respective titles. The salary of the president is $30,000 a year and of the secretaries $8,000. The judicial power is lodged in the supreme court of justice and in the district and circuit courts. The supreme court consists of one chief justice, eleven asso- ciate justices, four alternate justices, an attorney-general, and a public prosecutor. These several officers are chosen by indirect popular vote and their term of office is six years. Formerly in the event of a vacancy occurring in the presidency by reason of death or cause other than limitation, the duties of the president devolved upon the chief justice. By amendment to the constitution. Congress, on October 3, 1882, vested the presidential succession in the president and vice-president of the senate and the chairman of the standing committee of Congress successively. The same amendment prescribes that these functionaries must be native-born citizens of Mexico. The jurisdiction of the federal courts extends to all cases arising (1) from laws or acts of any authority infringing on individual rights; (2) from laws or acts of the federal authority violating or limiting the sover- eignty of the states, and (3) from laws or acts, the latter eignty of the states, and (3) from laws or acts of the latter made from the district courts to the supreme court of justice. GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 155 The political organization of the states is similar to that of the general government. REVENUES The federal government is sustained by import duties, the stamp tax, internal revenue taxes, and by the " fed- eral contribution," which is an additional duty levied on all taxes collected by the states. There are other sources of revenue, such as export duties, mint duties, and the taxes on nationalized property. The governments of the states were sustained by excise duties levied on all foreign and domestic merchandis'e, and by certain direct taxes, but the system of state taxa- tion has recently been reorganized, so as to abolish the taxation of imported merchandise. The city governments are sustained by direct taxes, and in some cases they receive besides a percentage of the duties collected by the state. THE CONSTITUTION" The present constitution of Mexico was adopted Feb- ruary 5, 1857. By virtue of this instrument the Republic is formed of states, free and sovereign, so far as regards their internal affairs, united under a federal government. The population necessary to entitle a territory to state- hood is 120,000 inhabitants at least. The national power resides primarily and exclusively in the people, from whom all public authority emanates and by whom it is exercised through the channels of the state and national governments, with the reservation, so far as state author- ity is concerned, that state laws shall not conflict with those of the nation. All persons born on the soil are free, and slaves become free by entering the Republic. Freedom of education, freedom to exercise the liberal professions, freedom of thought and the inviolable freedom of the press are guar- anteed — this last with the restriction that private rights and the public peace shall not be violated. 156 GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION No person can be obliged to work against liis will or without proper compensation. The rights of petition and lawful association are recognized. The right to carry arms for lawful self -protection and defense, and to freely enter, and leave, and travel over the Republic without passport is guaranteed. Titles of nobility, hereditary honors, and prerogatives are not recognized, neither are the judgments of privi- leged tribunals. Ex post facto laws and the concluding of treaties for the extradition of political offenders and the search with- out warrant of the competent authority are all prohibited. Imprisonment for debt of a purely civil nature is abolished. Arrest is prohibited except for offenses meriting cor- poral punishment, as is also detention without trial for a longer period than three days. The rights of accused persons are guaranteed. The application of penalties, other than those purely correctional is limited exclusively to judicial authority. Whipping, branding, mutilation, torture, or other infamous punishment is prohibited. The death penalty is limited to high treason, highway robbery, arson, paricide, and willful murder. In criminal actions three appeals only are permitted. A second trial after acquittal on the same charge is prohibited. The inviolability of private correspondence as well as the right of private property is recognized. In case of condemnation of private property for public uses previous indemnity under prescribed forms is guaranteed. The quartering of soldiers in time of peace upon the property of individuals is forbidden, as it is in time of war, save under the regulations established by law. Civil and ecclesiastical corporations are not permitted to acquire landed estates. GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION 157 Monopolies are prohibited save the government monop- olies of coinage and the postal service, and the limited monopoly enjoyed by patentees of useful inventions. The president, with the concurrence of his cabinet and the approval of congress, or, during its recess, the con- gressional standing committee, may suspend all consti- tutional guarantees in case of invasion, grave internal disorder, or serious disturbance endangering the state. All children born in the country or abroad of Mexican parents, foreigners naturalized under the laws of the federation, and foreigners acquiring real estate in the Republic, or begetting children by Mexican mothers, are regarded as Mexican citizens unless a distinct claim of citizenship elsewhere is avowed in due legal form. As such they are liable to military service and taxation and are guaranteed all the rights and privileges enjoyed by Mexican citizens. All persons within the Republic, citi- zens or foreigners, are guaranteed the protection afforded by the constitution and the laws. Article 33 of the constitution treats of foreigners, and contains among its provisions one empowering the presi- dent to expel any '^ pernicious foreigner." The congressional committee referred to in the con- stitution is composed of twenty-nine members, fifteen deputies and fourteen senators, appointed by their respeo- tive chambers on the eve of closing their session. The amendments to the constitution adopted Septem- ber 25, 1873, establish the independence of church and state ; deprive congress of the power to make laws which establish or suppress any religion whatever; insti- tute marriage as a civil contract; substitute affirmation for religious oath; prohibit the existence of monastic orders, without regard to domination or object ; prohibit the clergy to wear their clerical garb except when performing religious offices, and expressly exclude ecclesiastics from eligibility to the presidency. CHAPTER XIII THE CITY OF MEXICO The City of Mexico derives its name from Mexitli, the great war-god of the Aztecs. Its original name was Tenochtitlan, from ** tunal," a cactus on a stone, and had reference to the legend preserved on the banner of Mexico, already related in these pages. The city is in the midst of a broad plain completely surrounded by high mountains forming the rim of a bowl or basin, from which there is no natural outlet for the streams that rise in the hills, hence the accumulation of waters that may have, at one time, covered the entire face of the plain, and since the establishment of the city great inundations have occurred as in 1552 and again in 1629, flooding the streets and drowning thousands of the inhab- itants. To prevent the recurrence of the floods and con- sequent disaster the dyke of San Lazaro was built in 1552, and a canal, called the Tajo de Nochistongo, was commenced in 1607, but neither served the purpose of the drainage of the vaUey and the city is subject to the rise of the waters in the very wet seasons, but inunda- tions will be prevented in future by the great tunnel com- pleted in 1896, bored through the hills of the eastern rim of the bowl. The tunnel is connected with the lakes by canals, which makes a perfect drainage of the city and of the valley. THE FEDERAL DISTRICT The city is in what is called the Federal District, cov- ering an area of some four hundred and fifty square miles — the government of the district like the District 158 THE CITY OF MEXICO 159 of Columbia is directed by the national legislature, administered by the ayuntamiento, or city council, the city and district being presided over by a governor ap- pointed by the president of the Eepublic. The popula- tion of the district is in round numbers nearly 700,000, and of the city proper about 470,000. The great Lake of Texcoco is eastward of the city, Xochimilco and Chalco to the southeast, Zumpango and San Cristobal to the north. It is probable that before the filling up by the building of causeways, and the made- lands from the grading, both for the old city of Tenoch- titlan and the newer City of Mexico, these lakes were all one immense body of water, completely surrounding the ancient cities. The altitude of the City of Mexico, 7,349 feet above the level of the sea at Vera Cruz, -only 200 miles away, gives it a most delightful climate and a most even temperature. The average mean range of thermometer from October to April is 56 degrees and from May to September 63 degrees ; practically the only difference between summer and winter is that it never rains in the winter and it does almost every day in the summer — but only in showers, and never with long periods of rainy weather — and the only cold weather results from a norther that blows up from the Gulf and lasts not more than a few hours or a day. With the clean, well-kept streets and delightful climate, the Mexican capital is a most delightful city, whether the sojourn be in the winter or summer months. THE NATIONAL PALACE Mexico City abounds in public buildings of great his- toric interest and of architectural beauty. Foremost among these is the National Palace, or Palacio Nacional, on the east side of the Plaza Mayor. This historic building is the capitol of the Republic of Mexico, as it was the vice-regal palace when the coun- try was a province of Spain, and before that period was 160 THE CITY OF MEXICO the site of a palace of Cortez, and the property of the Conqueror; the land fell to his share when the city lots of Tenochtitlan were divided among the Spaniards. At that time the site was occupied by what was known as ** the new palace " of Montezuma, which, being de- stroyed, Cortez built in its place a house flanked with towers. The estate was confirmed by the king of Spain to Cortez in 1529 and remained in the possession of his heirs till 1562, when it was bought by the crown for the residence of the viceroy, and remained as the vice-regal residence until 1692, when the house was destroyed in the riots of that year. KEBUILT IN 1692 The present building was begun in 1692 and from time to time has been added to until it extends over the entire east side of the Plaza Mayor, having a frontage of 675 feet, extending down the side streets proportionately, the whole surrounding an immense patio or court, with accommodations for the various departments of the fed- eral government, the executive offices. Senate chamber, treasury, and barrack room for several regiments. The presidential apartments are in accord with the high office and the dignity of the government, magnifi- cently appointed and splendidly decorated. It is not the presidential residence, only the offices of the president and of the government. The most noted room is the Hall of the Ambassadors, an apartment of regal dimensions and adornment. It extends its elegant proportions along the palace front, the immense windows looking out upon the Plaza. The walls are hung with portraits of the illustrious men of the country's history, including the martyrs of the War of Indep'^ndence, Hidalgo, Allende, Morelos, Matamoros and others ; Iturbide, and Presidents Arista, Juarez and Porfirio Diaz; there is also a fine portrait of George "Washington. The largest guns of the largest battleship afloat — • the " New York ■ I ■»-, m ^-i^fr^^^^M Sailors and marines line up on a fourteen-inch gun •^ .^^^Mt ''|R3flHfefeHflRf 7; f ^~j^' Twentieth U. S. Infantry on the march Fifteenth U. S. Cavalry patrol ing the Kio Grande .... , g , 1 H i^"*v" j|isyj 1 ilil '-^^ 1 ^^^^^1 ^ Submarines at the Charleston Na\v Yard Huerta gives hind to obtain recruits — the lots are at the bottom of a lake THE CITY OF MEXICO 161 Mexico's libeety bell On the 16tli of September, 1896, there was placed over the main gateway of the National Palace the bell from the tower of the church of Dolores, in the State of Gua- najuato, rung by Hidalgo incidentally to call the people to mass, but in reality to call them to arms for the cause of independence; hence, it became the Liberty Bell of Mexico. In the old tower of the little church at Dolores, over a hundred years ago on that September night when the stars shone bright, rang out the clear tones of a bell. The people listened and wondered at its ringing at such an hour, but well knew that it rang not except upon the order of the faithful padre, the good Father Hidalgo, and came from their homes quickly to answer the sum- mons and hear what he might say. Assembled there under the dim light of the flickering candles of the altar, the patriot priest told his people that the hour of inde- pendence was at hand and that they should follow him and march then to do battle for their country and against the Spanish king. "With the banner of Guadalupe taken from the little church of Atotonilco as their standard, the people followed Hidalgo, they knew not where, they only followed Hidalgo, and thus was born the Bell of Liberty in Mexico. Long ago the banner of Guadalupe of Atatonilco was placed in the National Museum of the capital of the Ee- public, but the Liberty Bell of Mexico was but recently placed above the gates of the National Palace, and on the night of the 16th of September, 1896, rang out again as it did in that night of 1810 for liberty and independ- ence. It is in history that the hour when this bell first rang, except for mass or matin, was at eleven o 'clock, and forty minutes of the night between the 15th and 16th of Sep- tember, 1810, then Hidalgo rang it in the call to arms and liberty, and when the people answering, assembled 162 THE CITY OF MEXICO under the darkonin^^' shadows of its tower he pronounced the Grito of Mexican independence. It has long been the custom of the president of Mexico to go upon the balcony over the main gateway of the National Palace at the same hour and there pronounce again the Grito as Hidalgo said, and now he may ring the bell that Hidalgo rang and all the people shout their vivas now, as did the little band of patriots in 1810. The bell had remained in the towers of the church at Dolores since Hidalgo rang it on that eventful night, says Mr. Reau Campbell in his well-known work on Mexico, but on Independence Day of 1896 it was brought to the capital, and on the 16th of September, with all the pomp and circumstance of state, was carried in grand procession and placed over the palace gate. The tri- umphal car bearing the bell, the central figure of a glit- tering pageant, rolled on golden wheels, whose spokes were trimmed with flowers. An eagle with outspread wings on the front of the car seemed to fly before the precious relic as if to lead the way. In the shadow of the eagle's wings rested an old brass cannon, cast by Hidalgo. The bell and the cannon were surrounded by trophies of the War of Independence, muskets, swords, cannon, sponges, picks and pikes; the entire group sur- mounted with a wreath of laurel and oak, ending in a background of tropic trees, entwined with the colors of Mexico. The car was drawn by six magnificent horses, mounted by postilions and guarded by an escort of rurales; the grand procession following was composed of the digni- taries of state, civic and military, the army and the peo- ple. The lookers-on in Mexico were massed to the walls on the sidewalks, every window and balcony was filled and so were the housetops, from whence came showers of flowers and serpentines in green, white and red, and the vivas drowned the music of the band, as the people cheered the bell on its progress to the home of the nation. THE CITY OF MEXICO 163 When the car arrived on the Plaza in front of the Palace, the bell was removed and hoisted over the central gate, in the facade of the Palace, and as it reached its final resting-place a thousand doves with tricolor bands about their necks rose up from the archway, circled around and flew away to the four quarters, carrying the glad news. The president and his cabinet watched the hoisting of the bell from a pavilion, and when the work was com- pleted it was formally received from the commission that had brought it from Dolores Hidalgo. The patriotic speeches of presentation and reception were received with wild applause and the ceremony continued till the evening. All day long the crowds had not left the Plaza, only thinned out a little now and then, and when night came it was packed again until the hour of eleven drew on and there was a solid mass of humanity within the walls of the great square. At 11:35 o'clock President Diaz came from the Hall of the Ambassadors to the balcony where, till now, he had only pronounced the Grito, took the rope in his hand, a silence fell on the multitude till the hands of the clock crawled to forty minutes past, and he gave the bell four lusty strokes, and a mighty shout went up and re-echoed to the surrounding hills ; then rang all the bells in every tower. A star of electric fire surrounded the bell and cascades of colored fires poured down from the cathedral towers and the Palace walls, bands played and people shouted, and almost wept from patriotic joy. The inde- scribable scene may not be written in the words of any language. Great was the boon of him who saw the dedi- cation of Mexico's Liberty Bell. MANY MAGNIFICENT CHUECHESI " It was a marvelous time of original and beautiful work that covered Mexico with churches, and set up in 164 THE CITY OF MEXICO all the remote and almost inaccessible villages towers and domes that match the best work in Italy, and recall the triumphs of Moorish art, ' ' writes that ardent student of Mexico, Mr. Charles Dudley Warner. *' The beauty and originality is wholly in the exterior. AVhile nearly all the towers, domes, facades, and outside walls are original in form and color and decorations and have a special charm, the interiors are strikingly alike and gen- erally commonplace. This uniformity is the more remarkable in a people that build their interior domestic courts and decorate them with so much variety. It should be said, however, that some of the interiors of the churches were very rich in silver and gold decorations prior to the sequestration of church property. " Except in the general form of these churches, there is nowhere any repetition of design. The artists seemed to have had free play to express their love of beauty in towers, domes and facades. Nothing is commonplace; nothing is vulgar. Towers and domes, any one of which I should like to see in the United States, are common in the Republic ; but it seemed to me that in this part of Mexico they expressed a feeling not common elsewhere — not Italian (which one encounters in so many lovely cloisters and towers), nor yet exactly Spanish, but rather, I should say, Saracenic. At least this was the impression strongly made upon me. The domes always reminded me of the tombs of sheiks, of the califs, and so on, as one sees them in all Moslem lands, and the slender towers recalled the graceful minarets. These two forms in com- bination, so constant and so varied, suggested always the Saracenic spirit in the artist. * * It may be only a fancy, but it is not unreasonable to believe that the Spanish architect who designed them was strongly influenced in his work by the Saracenic forms with which he was so familiar three centuries ago. There is another fancy about the facades of many of the best old Mexican churches which I may have mentioned THE CITY OF MEXICO 165 before. It is a peculiarity wHcli one sees in many vil- lage churches, and even in the City of Mexico, and in such suburban towns as Coyoacan and Tacubaya. " While the churches were evidently designed by Spanish architects, the workers who executed the facades were evidently Indians; and in the strange stone-work designs, unlike any other architectural decoration that I know, and very difficult for us to interpret or enter into the spirit of — we have the Indian traditions of a prehistoric art and ornamentation. Much of this work, untranslatable into our terms, has more in common with the carving on the prehistoric temples than with that on any Christian edifices. The subject is one, however, that a layman is incompetent to deal with. It is much to be desired that trained artists should study and describe the old churches of Mexico. Many of them, like the noble edifice of Churubusco, with its interior wealth of old Spanish tiles, are already going to ruin. NO TWO TOWEES ALIKE ^ ' The fascination in pursuing the study of the towers and domes is that there are no two alike. There was no slavish copying from book designs. The style is the same, but each architect followed his own genius in con- structing an object of beauty. The edifices are not always simple; the roof masses are bold and grand, often; and there is an effect of solidity, of grandeur, with all the airy grace of form, and the satisfaction of the eye with color. i i There is a touch of decay nearly everywhere, a crum- bling and a defacement of colors, which add somewhat of pathos to the old structures ; but in nearly every one there is some unexpected fancy — a belfry oddly placed, a figure that surprises with its quaintness or its position, or a rich bit of deep stone carving, and in the humblest and plainest facade there is a note of individual yielding to a whim of expression that is very fascinating. The 166 THE CITY OF MEXICO architects escaped from the commonplace and the con- ventional; they imderstood proportion without regular- ity, and the result is not, perhaps, explainable to those who are only accustomed to our church architecture. But most of ours, good as it occasionally may be, is uninteresting; whereas you love this, in all its shabbi- ness of age, and do not care to give a reason why. ' ' THE GREAT CATHEDRAL On the very foundations of the greatest pagan temple of the continent is erected the most ambitious house of the Christian Church in the western world — the Cathe- dral. The Holy Metropolitan Church of Mexico is built on the site of the great teocali of the Aztecs. The bishopric of Mexico was established in 1527 by Pope Clement VII., and on the 12th of December of that year Fray Juan de Zumarraga, at the instance of Charles V. of Spain, was made bishop, but it was not until a year later that he arrived in the City of Mexico, and on the 2d of September, 1530, was confirmed as bishop-elect and protector of the Indians. The archbishopric of Mexico was created by Pope Paul II. on the 31st of January, 1545, with Bishop Zumarraga as archbishop. When the Aztec temples that were in the center of the city of Tenochtitlan were destroyed by the Spaniards in 1521, the space was set apart for the building of a Christian church, as before the walls of the teocali were razed to the ground the sign of the cross and the image of the Virgin were shown above the pagan altars, and at the throwing down of the heathen gods and idols, as a consecration of the ground, and when the ruins had been cleared away, the first church in the City of Mexico, the little church of the Asuncion de Maria Santisima, was built where the temple stood. This church, finished about three years after the con- quest, was replaced soon after by the first cathedral, and THE CITY OF MEXICO 167 was preserved until tlie larger one could be built. It stood in the open court in front of the present cathedral, the first stone of which was laid just beyond the north wall in 1573. BEGUIT IN" 1573 The corner-stone of the present cathedral was laid in 1573; the foundations were completed in 1615, and the walls were well under way; the roof over the sacristy was finished in 1623, the first service held in 1626. The great inundation of 1629-35 greatly hindered the work, so that the dedication did not take place till 1656, Febru- ary 2, and even then the building was still incomplete, and it was not until eleven years later, on the 2nd of February, 1667, that the final dedication occurred. The towers were completed in 1791, and the bells placed in position in 1792. The cost of the towers was nearly $200,000, and the great bell called Santa Maria de Guadalupe, twenty feet from the top fastenings to the tongue, cost $10,000. The larger bell, in the other tower, called Dona Maria, cost nearly as much. The estimated cost of the Cathedral, from the laying of the corner-stone to the hanging of the bells, is put at $2,000,000 — but that does not represent a tithe of the actual cost if the labor had a fair value put upon it, and the material had been bought at market prices. From north to south the building is over 400 feet in length, the interior measuring 387 feet. From west to east the interior width is 177 feet, the height from roof to the tiles of the floor is 179 feet. The towers are 203 feet 6 inches high. The material of the walls and towers is stone, the roof is in arches of brick and cement. The front is to the south, the facade richly carved and with friezes, statues, etc., in white marble between the two great towers, with their bell-shaped caps and crosses in stone, make it one of the handsomest in the world. On the cornices are 168 THE CITY OF MEXICO statues of saints and great men of the cliurcli and religious orders. In the center of the facade is the clock, and below it the arms of the Republic. Surmounting the whole is the magnificent dome and lantern of graceful proportions, by the architect Tolsa. The entire Cathe- dral was from the architectural plans of Alonzo Perez Castaneda. AN IMMENSE EDIFICE The immensity of the great church is apparent imme- diately upon entrance. It is Gothic and Doric, with a cold simplicity. Twenty massive fluted columns of stone separate the nave from the aisles and support the vaulted roof, that under the lofty dome is shaped in the form of a Latin cross. The dome is handsomely painted in pictures of sacred history, among which is the Assumption of the Virgin. There are fourteen chapels in the Cathe-^-al, seven in each aisle, dedicated to the various saints, each decorated in its own particular style with pictures of scenes from the lives of the respective saints. These chapels were formerly inclosed with hand- somely carved wood railings. Now they are behind iron gratings, where there are constantly burning candles and tapers in front of the images of the saints. The most noted of the chapels is that of San Felipe de Jesus, where are preserved some relics of this saint, and in front of which is the font in which he was baptized. In this chapel rest the remains of the first emperor of Mex- ico, Aug-ustin Iturbide, beneath a monument erected to the honored memory of ' ' The Liberator. ' ' Another chapel is that of Las Reliquias, containing pictures by Herrera of the holy martyrs. In another, that of San Pedro, lies buried the first bishop and arch- bishop of Mexico, Juan de Zumarraga, and also the remains of Gregorio Lopez, the Mexican Man with an Iron Mask, supposed to have been a son of Philip the Second of Spain. THE CITY OF MEXICO 169 The choir is enclosed within a high railing of richly- carved woods, and in the center of this enclosed space is a large octagonal stand of highly polished dark wood for the music books, that have their notes so large that they can be read from the seats around the railing. Two immense organs, also in carved wood, rise almost to the arches of the roof. From the choir, leading up the nave, is a passageway to an altar, inclosed between railings of tumbago, a metal composed of gold, silver and copper. In the rear of the choir is the Altar of Pardon (del Perdon), where at any time may be seen the devotees kneeling in crowds about the base of the altar. Here are two fine paintings, one by the great woman artist, La Sumaya, a San Sabastian, and a Candalaria, by Echave. The main altar, erected in 1850, was designed by Lorenzo Hidalgo, and cost a fortune in its ornamenta- tions, gilding and carving. The fine Altar of the Kings (de los Reyes) is the most imposing in the building, of magnificent proportions. Its top reaches to the arches of the roof. The altar was by the artist who made the Altar de Los Reyes in the Cathedral of Seville in Spain. The rich carvings and gildings are the especial admira- tion of the Indians. A noted Mexican artist, Don Juan Rodriguez Juarez, greatly added to the beauty of the altar by his images and pictures, among which are the Assumption and the Epiphany. Beneath the Altar of the Kings are buried the heads of the patriots Hidalgo, AUende, Aldama and Jimenez, brought from Guanajuato in great state and pomp after independence was secured. In the sacristy are some magnificent pictures that com- pletely cover its walls: The Entry into Jerusalem, the Catholic Church and the Assumption, by Juan Correa; the Triumph of the Sacrament, Immaculate Conception, and the Glory of St. Michael, by Villalpando. In the Meeting Room is a Last Supper and Triumph of Faith by Alcibar, and a collection of portraits of all the arch- 170 THE CITY OF MEXICO bisliops of Mexico by various artists. In the Chapter Room is a fine Murillo, the Virgin of Bethlehem, a Virgin by Cortona, and another by an unknown artist repre- senting John of Austria imploring the Virgin at the battle of Lepanto. — Campbell's Guide to Mexico. In all this great Cathedral and its adjunct churches and chapels are concentrated the pomp and circumstance of the church of Rome, that for centuries was the power of the land, and within the walls was made much of the country's history. CHUECH OF SAN FKANCISCO The churches of Mexico City are so numerous that it is impossible to describe more than one or two of them here, though they are all interesting. But the old Church of San Francisco deserves more than passing notice. The original church and monastery was the greatest in all Mexico, and its name is closely identified with the great events of the country's history, from Cortez to Comonfort and Juarez. Established by the Twelve Apostles of Mexico and Fray Pedro de Gante, who came to Mexico City three years after its occupation by Cortez, the first church was built in the grounds that had been the wild beast garden of Montezuma. The building material was taken from the great teocali, or temple of the Aztecs, in what is now the Plaza Mayor, Cortez con- tributing the building fund. The grounds covered three great squares in the very center of the city, bounded on the north by First San Francisco Street, on the south by the Calle de Zuleta, on the east by Calles Coliseo, and Colegio de las Ninas, and on the west by San Juan de Letran, an estate that would now be worth more than ten millions of dollars for the ground alone, which is now occupied by the Hotels Iturbide, San Carlos and Jardin, and the adjoining stores and residences, an estate worth some more millions. The history of this great house of Franciscans from THE CITY OF MEXICO 171 the zenith of its power to its downfall would fill volumes with its incidents, Cortez heard masses from its altars, and within its walls his bones were entombed. In this church the viceroys attended mass and lent their pres- ence at the great festivals. Here was sung the first Te Deum of Mexican Independence, General Augustin Itur- bide being in the assemblage, and here he, too, was buried. '* The church flourished," says Reau Campbell, " the brothers went about doing good, and they prospered until the evil day came when they thought to put the state under the rule of the church. A conspiracy tending to the overthrow of government was discovered and it was reported to President Comonfort the 14th of Sep- tember, 1856, that the Franciscans were at the head of a revolt and that the blow was to be struck on the 15th, Independence Day. The president, acting with his accus- tomed promptness, sent his troops to the monastery early on the morning of the 15th, arrested the entire commu- nity of monks, and took possession of church, monastery and grounds. On the 16th a decree was announced open- ing a new street called Independencia that cut the grounds from east to west. Two days later another decree cited the treason of the Franciscans and sup- pressed the monastery. '' The decree of suppression was rescinded in the fol- lowing February, and, although shorn of its greatness and some of its real estate, the monastery was restored and continued in a feeble way till the entry of the army of Juarez, on the 27th of December, 1860, when the great monastery was closed forever. The ornaments, jewels and paintings were taken to the Academy of Fine Arts, the interior decorations were defaced and the altars removed. In April another street was opened through the property, with the scant satisfaction to the Francis- cans that the street was called Gante, in honor of the greatest of their order. 172 THE CITY OF MEXICO * ' Soon the construction of dwelling houses began, and stores were built, the monastery became a hotel, and the refectory, where there was room for five hundred broth- ers to sit together at the table, became a stable — and the church, after an almost royal existence of three hun- dred and thirty years, became a Protestant Cathedral with scarcely a memory of its Catholic glory. ' ' DEDICATED IN 1716. The main church of San Francisco, as it existed up to 1860, was dedicated December 8, 1716. It was a magnifi- cent structure, 60 feet wide by 230 feet long, with a dome and lantern over a hundred feet high; the great walls were covered with pictures, and thousands and thou- sands of dollars were expended in decorations, the silver tabernacle over the altar costing $25,000. Eather than a church there was a group of seven churches, called by different names, but all were San Franciscan. The only remaining one of the group is that of Nuestra Senora de Aranzazu, and that is now known as San Felipe de Jesus. The entrance is on First San Francisco Street, where a new facade has been built that is joined to the old walls whose corner-stone was laid in 1683, on the 25th of March. Many of the elegant interior decorations remain. In walking around the block bounded by the streets of San Francisco, San Juan de Letran, Independencia and Gante remains of the facades of the old churches may be seen. The Hotel Jardin was the infirmary and lodging house of the mon- astery. Across the garden is the old refectory, now a livery stable. The Iturbide Hotel is on grounds intended for a convent, and the San Carlos is within the line of the walls of old San Francisco. In 1869 the great church was sold to the Protestant Church of Jesus in Mexico, but it has since been resold' to the Catholic Church. Trinity (Methodist Episcopal) Church was constructed from a portion of the old walls, THE CITY OF MEXICO 173 and Christ Church, Church of England, occupied another part. Dwellings, stores, shops, hotels, restaurants, are built on the grounds of the ancient church and monastery. CHURCH OF JESUS NAZAKENO The church now called Jesus Nazareno was founded by Cortez immediately after the permanent occupation of the city; by his will he left ample endowment for its building and support, but it was nearly a hundred years before it reached an era of prosperity, and the church whose building commenced in 1575 was not dedicated till ninety years after, when the name was changed from the original one of Nuestra Senora de la Purisima Concep- cion to Jesus Nazareno, from the miraculous image of Jesus of Nazareth that came into its possession through the death of a pious Indian woman to whom it had belonged. The church has suffered little from modern repairs and renovations. The handsomely carved wooden roof remains, but the doors and other woodwork were renewed in 1835. The old altars and the large tabernacle are still in place. Another notable image is that of Nuestra Senora de la Bala, that was once the property of a poor Indian of Ixtapalapan, who, the legend says, took his gun with the intent of shooting his wife. The terrified woman fell down before the image and implored the protection ot the Virgin — and when the shot was fired it was found that the old man was not a particularly good marksman, and that the ball had lodged in the image, after which husband and wife became reconciled as they perceived that a miracle had been performed. The image was kept in the church of San Lazaro for two hundred years and brought to Jesus Nazareno in 1884. The bones of Cortez rested in this church for awhile. The Conqueror directed that should he die in Spain his bones should, after ten years, be taken to Mexico and 174 THE CITY OF MEXICO placed in the Convent of La Concepcion, that it was his intention to bnikl, but which never was built. Cortez died in Castelleja de la Questa, in Spain, December 2d, 1547. The body was deposited in the tomb of the Dukes of Medina Sidonia, and ten years later was taken to Mexico and placed in the Church of San Francisco, in Texcoco, where it remained till 1629. On the 30th of January of that year his grandson, Don Pedro Cortez, died, the last of the male line. It was concluded to remove the remains of the conqueror and bury them with the grandson in the Church of San Francisco, in the City of Mexico, which was done with great pomp and ceremony, and here his bones reposed for one hundred and sixty-five years. On the 2d of July, 1734, the bones were removed again and placed in a magnificent marble mausoleum in the Church of Jesus Nazareno, remaining there for nearly thirty years. During the revolutionary times of the war for independence the hatred of the people for the Span- iards threatened even the bones of the great soldiers of the conquest, and on the night of the 15th of September, 1823, they were removed and secreted in another part of the church, and later taken out secretly and sent to Spain, and were finally laid to rest in the tombs of the Dukes of Monteleone in Italy. His bones having crossed the Atlantic twice, were interred six times in as many different places, and finally have rested neither in the land of his birth, nor in the country he conquered. — Campbell. THE PAEKS AND PLAZAS The Alameda is the fashionable park of the City of Mexico, and is so called from the fact that it was first planted with alamos, or poplars. Every city, town and village has an alameda, but this is the alameda of Mexico. In 1592 a petition was made to the city council to set THE CITY OF MEXICO 175 apart certain ground for a park of recreation, and the old Indian market, the Tianquis del San Hipolito, located on a part of the present Alameda, was selected, and a little later the Plaza del Quemadero, the place of the stone altar on which the victims of the Inquisition were burned, was added. The Quemadero was removed by order of the Viceroy Marquis de Croix, and the Alameda attained its present size and shape. By his order to remove the Quemadero the viceroy, it is said, incurred the displeasure of the bigots of the church, and this same Quemadero came near being his own funeral pyre. The Viceroy Revillagigedo, famous for his energetic reforms and municipal improvements, inclosed the Alameda with a high board fence in 1791, which was replaced in 1822 by the stone wall that had done duty on the Plaza Mayor in inclosing the unfortunate statue of Charles IV. A trench was outside the wall of the Alameda, but these were all obliterated in 1885. The Alameda is the resort of the fashionables, and here they congregate Sundays and feast days to enjoy the music of the military bands. The magnificent trees, the flowers and the fountains make the Alameda a most beautiful park. THE PLAZA MAYOB The Main Plaza, or Plaza Mayor de la Constitucion, is in the city's center, where stood the great teocali, the temple of the Aztecs, and where stands the Cathedral, and facing it the National Palace. When the Aztec tem- ples were destroyed and the city being built, an open space was left here that soon became a market place and filled with shops and booths. These were destroyed by fire, after the royal order of January 18, 1611, creating the space a public plaza, only to be rebuilt and subse- quently destroyed in a riot in 1692, the fire destroying the building of the Ayuntamiento (city council) and injur- 176 THE CITY OF MEXICO ing the palace, with a loss of valuable records, a portion only being- saved through the efforts of Don Carlos de Siguenza y Gongora, the custodian. Afterward an elegant stone building, called the Parian, was erected by the municipality, and was rented to mer- chants of a high class, who brought here their wares, and it became the bazaar of fine trade, but the fruit sellers and vegetable venders surrounded it with their huts again and remained for many years. The coming of the Conde de Revillagigedo, the viceroy, in 1789, marked the beginning of the present plaza. The hucksters and peddlers were driven off to the Volador market, the open ditches were covered into sewers, the panteons removed or obliterated, and in 1830 the founda- tion was laid in the plaza for the equestrian statue of Charles IV., that was afterward removed and which now stands at the entrance of the Paseo de la Eeforma. The Parian was looted during the revolution of 1828, and later, in 1843, the building torn down and the site included in the plaza. In the center of the plaza is the Garden of the Zocalo, which derives its name from the zocalo, or foundation, for a monument that w^as never built, a monument to Mexican independence. From this the plaza is often called the Zocalo. A music stand is built on the founda- tion, and a military band plays here evenings and Sun- days for the middle and poorer classes. On two sides of the Plaza Mayor are the portales, an extension of the buildings over the sidewalks that are supported by columns with arches between, under which are some of the finest stores in the city. On the east side the National Palace extends almost its entire length ; on the north the great Cathedral, with its towers, flanked on one side by the flower market and on the other by the Plaza del Seminario, which is only a part of the main plaza. Here is a monument to Enrico Martinez, the noted engineer of his day, who was A sanitary American camp — The Second Division, U. S. A., Camp at Texas City, Tex. An unsanitary camp of the Villa revolutionists United States warsliips at tlie Charleston Navy Yard Taking' aboard ainniunition for the ileet in iJoston Harbor A practice charge of the Sixteeiitli Infantry at Fort Bliss, Tex. Sham Ught between U. S. infantry and cavalry on the Mexican border B^l i rJiSj^ •14^?''^%'"^ ^j^P^^ ' 1 ■»• « ^P*^ -^ "^Hil 1 ^B '"^ '^Bl INiiP i'K'"- ,-'■ ■.r'-'^^T^'^ ■■--■■-■>' Wm IH >« "^'^^^1 Farewell tango on the '' North Dakota " at the Brooklyn Navy Yard Sweethearts' farewell just before the sailing for. Vera Cruz THE CITY OF MEXICO 177 responsible for the Nochistongo canal, for the drainage of the city. Bronze figures, inlaid in a marble shaft, show standards of measurement and the level of the lakes at different times. From the Plaza Mayor street cars for all parts of the city and the suburbs start, and here the salutes are fired, and the troops reviewed on national days, the 16th of September, 5th of May, 2d of April and other days of national celebration. THE PASEO The Paseo de la Eeforma extends for almost three miles from the city to Chapultepec, commencing at the glorieta of the statue of Charles IV., running in a direct line to the gates of the park at the foot of the Hill of the Grasshopper. It is a broad, smooth, and very beautiful boulevard, shaded by splendid trees, as are the wide walk-ways on each side; along the curb and between the promenades, at certain intervals, are erected statues to the illustrious men of Mexico, presented by the various states of the Republic; massive stone seats are along the promenade under the trees. The Paseo widens into circles, here and there, called glorietas, in the center of which are splendid statues, one of Columbus and one of Cuautemoc, the Aztec warrior, nephew and successor of Montezuma. Other statues are to be erected in all the six glorietas. In the glorieta at the entrance of the Paseo is the statue of Charles IV. of Spain. The Aztec statues once here have been removed to the Paseo de La Viga. The Paseo was established during the empire of Maximilian, and became at once the fashionable drive of the Mexican capital, and a more beautiful one does not exist in Europe or America. Here in the late afternoon of every day, greatly increased in brilliancy on Sundays and feast days, is a magnificent display of carriages and equipages of every style, and a more splendid review does not exist anywhere. The fine array passes up one 178 THE CITY OF MEXICO side and down the other, a cordon of cavalrymen in the center keeping the procession in line, and adding to the brilliancy of the scene. There are other paseos in the city, but the Paseo de la Eeforma is the paseo. THE OLD AQUEDUCTS Aqueducts for the city's water supply began to be built more than two centuries ago, but their usefulness has passed, they have given way to the more prosaic iron pipes, and the ancient waterways have been torn down and the material used for street repairs. There were two aqueducts bringing water to the southern part of the city, one from a spring near the Desierto, about twenty miles distant. This aqueduct formerly came to the center of the city, passing by the west side of the Alameda, where it served as a position of advantage for those wishing to see the burning of the victims of the Inquisition. It now ends in San Cosme. Formerly there were nearly a thousand arches of stone and brick, but the whole work cost less than $200,000. The building covered a period from 1603 to 1620. The other aqueduct brought the water from the spring in the park at Chapultepec, ending in the beautiful foun- tain called El Salto del Agua, which is still preserved, and the remaining arches may be seen from the street cars of the Tacubaya line. At certain intervals are some beautiful shrines artistically sculptured. An inscription on the fountain of El Salto del Agua says that this aque- duct was completed March 20, 1779, during the viceroy- alty of Bucareli, and that it was built on the line of an ancient aqueduct of the Aztecs, built in the time of the Emperor Chimalpopoca, who obtained the right to take the water of Chapultepec from the king of Atzcapatzalco, to whom the Aztecs owed allegiance until their inde- pendence, in the time of Itzcohuatl, in 1422 to 1433. The more modern iron pipe brings water from the THE CITY OF MEXICO 179 springs near Guadalupe to the northern portion of the city. The aguador still does business, carrying water from the fountains to residences. The water coming from the springs is exceptionally pure, as it comes from the hills, and there is no contamination by contact with sewage. A WOELD-FAMED STATUE The statue of Charles IV. of Spain is the most notable of the many in the city of Mexico. It is of heroic dimen- sions, being the largest single piece of bronze in the world. It is located at the entrance of the Paseo de la Eef orma, but was originally in the Plaza Mayor, opposite the National Palace, where, before the casting a wooden model of the statue, gilded, was placed on the pedestal pending the molding of the bronze work. A royal order by the king of Spain was made November 30, 1795, per- mitting the building of the statue. The cast was made August 4, 1802, at six o'clock in the morning, after two days had been spent in melting the bronze, under the direction of Don Salvador de la Vega, from the model of Don Manuel Tolsa, the work being done under the administration of the Viceroy Branciforte, paid for by the city and private contributions. The statue was not completed until 1803, when it was unveiled with great ceremony on the 9th of December of that year. The statue remained in the Plaza Mayor until 1822, when the feeling against the Spaniards became so bitter that its destruction was threatened, and a great wooden globe was constructed about it and painted blue to pro- tect it from patriotic missiles thrown by the now inde- pendent Mexicans. But the blue globe was not thought to be a complete safeguard, and the statue was removed to the patio of the university, where it remained until 1852, when the animosity against Spain had in a measure subsided, and the great bronze horse with his royal rider was placed in its present position. The height of horse 180 THE CITY OF MEXICO and rider is fifteen feet nine inches, and the statue weighs 60,000 pounds. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SCHOOLS There were in 1908, 353 government schools in the city, including 13 professional and technical schools, and nearly 200 private schools ; a geographical society, a geo- logical society, an association of engineers and archi- tects, a society of natural history; also a national library dedicated in 1692, of upwards of 225,000 volumes. There are over 150 manufacturing establishments, including ironworking shops. By rail the city is 264 miles northwest of Vera Cruz. It is laid out with almost unbroken regularity. The name of a street changes with almost every block, accord- ing to old Spanish custom. DEATH EATE IMPROVING Though the climate is so favorable and Mexico City is 7,415 feet above the sea, yet, with a wet, undrained subsoil, and many thousands of Indians and half-breeds living in crowded quarters, the death rate has been notoriously high — 46 to 56 per thousand. Of late years, however, drainage works, underground sewers, and san- itation have tended to improve these conditions. CHAPTER XIV AROUND THE VALLEY BEAUTIFUL CHAPULTEPEC In all the lovely Valley of Anahuac, none of the hills embrace so many beauties as cling to Chapultepec, the beautiful Hill of the Grasshopper, where, the legends say, under the grateful shades of the giant ahuehuetls, was the home of Montezuma and the Aztec tzins. When the summer days were long they came from old Tenochtitlan, over the long causeway, the emperor, in palanquin borne, the first in the royal pageant, with the princess attended by plumed and feathered warriors, and sat them down to rest ere they commenced the climb of rugged rocks. Attending slaves rested too their waving fans, when the cooling zephyrs from the trees fell more softly on the monarch's brow, till, less languid now, before the ascent began to be half way done, the Aztec lord one day left his palanquin, when he had bade its carriers put it down, and entered a cavern that is there; and while the tzins waited his return they heard his voice from the rocks high above them, and it seemed their king was a very god, since none knew but Montezuma how to pass thus, through the earth from the valley to the hill-top, and all the people shouted in adoration of their ' ' fair god. ' * PALACE OF MONTEZUMA It is in the legends that the palace of the Montezumas was on the Hill of the Grasshopper, called Chapultepec, and here the Spanish viceroy, Don Matias de Galvaez, commenced in 1783, and his son Don Bernardo com- 181 182 AROUND THE VALLEY pleted in 1785, the palace that stands there to-day, but since each recurring viceroy, emperor and president has proceeded further with its completion, adding, each one, to its size and cost, until it is now a palace indeed, the home of the president of Mexico and the seat of the National Military Academy. A SUPERB SITE The site is a superb one, reached by a winding carriage road on one side and a steep foot-path on another, while the other sides are precipitous, with almost perpendicular cliffs. The carriage road and foot-path from the gates end at the broad esplanade at the top, where the sentinels of the cadet corps are always on guard, and beyond which guard there is no passing, except by permit from the governor of the National Palace. The card of the gov- ernor is not taken up by the guard, as it is necessary to present it to the attendant in charge to gain admittance to the palace. The view from the esplanade is beautiful indeed. Tacubaya, almost hidden by trees, is in the middle dis- tance, and beyond, on the rising hills, other towns and villages; and still beyond the mountains are the great snow-capped peaks of Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl. If you agree that the vista from the esplanade is very beau- tiful, pass through the garden to the overhanging gallery on the other side, and look out over the broad spreading plain of the valley. To the right is the field of Churu- busco, and farther on to the east sheltering mountains. In front, the magnificent city, with its hundreds of towers ; the tallest overshadowing all the others, are the Cathedral's. Beyond the city's spreading squares you can see the hill and church of Guadalupe. Following the range of vision round to the left there is the suburb of Tacuba, the hill of Los Remedios; and nearer to where you stand is the battleground of Molino del Rey. The magnificence of the picture baffles all description; it is AEOUND THE VALLEY 183 wondrous to behold, and the memory of it lives with you always. Far below your feet the tall cypresslike trees shade the modest monument erected to the memory of the cadets who fell in the defense of the castle from the assaulting Americans in '47. The names on the shaft tell of those whose lives went out in the merciless fire of a superior army. A monument was not needed except in their honor, says Mr. Reau Campbell in his guide, for the memory of these brave boys lives in the hearts of their countrymen. There are fresh beauties in this hang- ing garden filled with pretty flowers, in the galleries, adorned in Pompeiian color, but these do not detain, — there is too much grandeur in the view, — and you wander again to the terrace and gaze over the valley to the blue rim of the mountains melting into the lighter blue of the sky, and are loth to leave even for the magnificence of the interior of this splendid palace. The salons and apartments of the Castle of Chapul- tepec have the appointments of regal magnificence, since they are a heritage from the viceroys of olden times and a latter-day emperor; and the luxurious beauty of the decorations is due to none more than '' poor Carlotta," though all that was indicative of the empire has disappeared, and the monogramed '* R. M." appears everywhere to remind you that it is the palace of the Republic of Mexico. MOLINO DEL KEY The field of the battle of September 28, 1847, at Molino del Rey, is near Chapultepec, and may be seen from the palace terrace. The battle of Molino del Rey was declared by General Grant to have been one of the unnecessary battles of an unholy and unjust war. CHUEUBUSCO One of the engagements during the siege of the Mex- ican capital by the Americans, was fought August 20, 184 AEOUND THE VALLEY 1847, at Churubusco, under the American Generals Smith, Worth and Twiggs. A gallant defense was made by the commander of the Mexican forces. General Don Pedro Maria Anaya, who, in answer to an inquiry by General Twiggs after the battle as to the whereabouts of the ammunition, gallantly replied: '' Had I any ammunition, you would not be here. ' ' A monument com- memorative of the battle is in the village plaza. In Aztec times the city of Huitzilopocho, with its tem- ple to the god Huitzilopochtli, stood on the site of the now straggling village of Churubusco. The old city had a bad name as the abode of evil spirits and demons that made night hideous with their bowlings, but when the monks built a temple to the true gods the demons of Huitzilopochtli vanished. The Church of Santa Maria de los Angeles, the name also of the primitive church, was completed in 1678, May 2d, under the patronage of Don Diego del Castillo, a silver merchant, and his wife Dona Helena de la Cruz, whose images carved in wood are still preserved in the church. Although almost a ruin, the church is one of the most interesting in Mexico, and there are still remains of its former great beauty. The pretty decorations of tiles are rapidly disappearing, and the richly carved organ is falling into decay. There are several curious pictures, among which is a fine Assump- tion of the Virgin. THE ANCIENT CAPITAL, The town of Coyoacan was once the capital of Mexico and is older than the City of Mexico, since Cortez estab- lished the seat of government there August 17, 1521, and from Coyoacan laid out the plans and directed the found- ing of the city, and there were the feasts celebrating the victories of the conquest. On the north side of the plaza stands the house in which the conqueror lived for many days with La Marina, his faithful gTiide and interpreter. The coat of arms of Cortez is over the doorway. Near ABOUND THE VALLEY 185 this house is another with a garden, where Cortez also dwelt, and in the garden a well in which he drowned his wife, who lies beneath the cross on the mound in a near-by churchyard. The Church of San Juan Bautista was built in 1583, founded at the same time with the Dominican monastery in 1530 by Fray Domingo de Vetanzos. The stone cross on the mound in the churchyard was placed there by Cortez. Mexico's monte caklo Tacubaya is the prettiest place in the valley of Mex- ico, with its beautiful gardens, parks and shaded streets, lovely flowers and luxuriant trees everywhere, so that it is no wonder that here is the place of the summer homes of the wealthiest people in the Mexican capital. The location of the little city, on the slope of the hills back of Chapultepec, is so advantageous that it was con- templated at one time, after the great inundation of the City of Mexico in 1629 and '34, to make this the site of the national capital. At that time Tacubaya was called Atlacoloayan, the '' place in the bend of the stream;" but after its settlement by the Spaniards it became known as Tacubaya de los Martires. The principal church is that of San Diego, but the parish church and the old monastery of the Dominicans are worthy of a visit. The one-time palace of the Arch- bishop of Mexico was afterwards used as the National Astronomical Observatory. The palace was built in 1737 by the Archbishop and Viceroy Vizarron. Before its removal to Chapultepec the National Military Academy occupied this palace. The Alameda and the Plaza de Cartagena are pretty places, with trees, flowers and fountains. In the west part of the city are the quaint old mills of Santo Domingo, and near them the Arbol Benito, '' the blessed tree." The story goes that a monk passing that way was wearied and so rested was he under the grateful shade that he 186 AROUND THE VALLEY blest the tree and bade it be always green. Immediately there came from its roots a spring of cold clear water. That this is true, you may see that the tree is ever green, and the brook goes on forever. Tacubaya has been called the Monte Carlo of Mexico, and not inaptly so. There was gambling there by gam- blers of all sorts, sizes, ages and conditions, on the streets, under the white umbrellas, in booths under the trees, where you may wager a penny or a peso. In the gardens were games that savor of Monte Carlo indeed. There were tables for monte, rouge et noir, or any game you please. The tables were crowded all the time, particu- larly in the evening ; ^vhen the stakes were high, as much as twenty and thirty thousand silver dollars were on the tables at one time. There are dozens of rooms in one garden, for games, refreshment, music and dancing, while the gardens are lighted with many colored lights that make the scene one of enchantment. Bull fights and cock fights are the other attractions of this intensely interesting town. LA VIGA CANAL The Canal of La Viga is a navigable waterway for traffic between the city and the outlying towns and vil- lages on the shores of Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, flowing from those lakes to Lake Texcoco, and does not, as is popularly supposed, take in any drainage or sewer- age from the city; the water coming from the south to the eastern district of the city passes northeasterly to Lake Texcoco; it is a murky-looking water, but is not nearly so murky as it looks; taken up in the hand or vessel, it is as clear as it comes from the lake. The boats of La Viga are different from the boats of any other canal, and there are different styles of boats on La Viga, ranging from the dug-out canoe of the Chinampas to the flat-bottom freight boat propelled by poles in the hands of strong arms, a sort of Armstrong motor, and side- AROUND THE VALLEY 187 wheel steamers of antiquated design. All classes carry- passengers, with their donkeys and dogs, these latter being indispensable accompanists to the passenger, since each is an owner of part of the cargo of wood, charcoal or garden truck, and must have the burro to make a delivery at the port of destination, and the dog — well, the dog just goes along from force of habit, or an innate aversion to being left behind, and alone, because the family comes to town with its head and the house is closed till they return. One of these long, low, rakish craft from the other shores of Chalco and Xochimilco is a sight to see, at once a freighter and a floating menag- erie, as there are other live stock besides the dogs and donkeys, in the shape of goats, sheep, ducks, and chickens. The boats bring the provender for man and beast in a city of nearly half a million of people, and largely supply the city with fuel, the boats bringing it to the landing places and the burros making the delivery throughout the city. But there are boats for passengers, and for tourists to Santa Anita, Mexicalcingo, San Juanico, Ixtacalco, and las chinampas, the floating gardens. These boats are a Mexican edition of the gondola, and with a Mexican gondolier in the bow, using a pole instead of a paddle. These gondolas are as picturesque in a way as the Venetian sort, not as graceful, perhaps, but sui generis, in a class of their own, a wide, flat bottom batteau, like an old-fashioned country ferryboat; there are low seats on each side running lengthwise, from end to end, under a canopy with gaudy-colored curtains. The start on the voyage does not impress favorably, but as it proceeds it grows interesting, especially after passing the Garita, where the municipal duties were collected from incoming freighters ; thence the wide, open canal is alive with queer little craft, the long, narrow canoes darting here and there among the larger ones, the little pleasure boats with their passengers squatted under 188 AROUND THE VALLEY the grass-woven canopies, and the larger boats coming from or going to Xochimilco and Chalco with their car- goes of men, women, children, burros, dogs, wood, char- coal and garden truck; then there are little bumboat canoes with dusky '' Little Buttercups " to come along- side your boat, with the cleanest-looking baskets covered with the whitest of drawn-work cloths, under which are the native sandwiches, tortillas, tamales, con came or con dulce, that, no matter how they may have seemed else- where, here look temptingly toothsome. Any day will do for the voyage to Santa Anita and much will be seen that you never saw before, but on a Sunday or a feast day there will be more life on the canal and in the villages. VILLAGE OF SANTA ANITA Santa Anita is a straggling village of thatched houses, a relic of primitive times almost under the shadow of the towers of the metropolitan city, a pleasure resort of the middle and lower classes, where every house is an open one, fonda, restaurant or pulque shop, with thatched bowers over the seats and tables of the revellers. " When your boat is anchored under a great tree at Santa Anita," says Mr. Reau Campbell, '' go ashore and pass up the street from the canal to the little old church and beyond to a forlorn little plaza, where there are some swings and some more f ondas and pulque shops, and you will find the canoes to take you through the sluices of the floating gardens. These gardens have no walks and must be floated through, which would entitle them to their name, even if they were not really floating gardens, as they were in the olden times when the chinampas grew the fruits and flowers for Montezuma and the Aztec tzins; now they are flower and vegetable beds to supply the city markets. It is worth the while of the trip if it were only to see the acres and acres of poppies, whence the natives garland themselves and their ABOUND THE VALLEY 189 houses on feast days, and of which yon may bring away a boat load for a real. " On the going or the retnrn trip a stop should be made at the hacienda of Juan Corona. While he lived, Don Juan's house was yours; his was a hospitable roof, and it remains to-day in happy memory with open doors. Don Juan was a great man in his day, as valiant as he was good and charitable, not a soldier, nor yet padre or a missionary; his life was full of brave deeds and good works. Don Juan was a bull-fighter on Sundays and feast days, and a philanthropist all the week, as if he would make six days of charity balance his account of questionable sport on Sunday. His pleasure was the care of the children of the poor, till he was called the father of the destitute, when he established a school for his wards that is still maintained in one of the rooms of his house. The old Don's hobby was less of tauromachy than the collection of curios, and his house is a monu- ment to the memory of that hobby; every room is a museum in itself. Pass through the open door ; no invita- tion is needed, and there is none to stop your way. "Within the patio of trees, flowers and climbing vines is a stone stairway leading to an upper gallery; the curios com- mence on the stairway and continue through all the house. Pass around the gallery to the far side of the patio and enter through the kitchen, the quaintest, clean- est kitchen in the world; then through the dining-room, bed chamber and parlor, coming out again onto the gallery at the stairs, where you may enter the school- room and see a school wholly unlike any other. As a visitor enters, the bright little beneficiaries of Corona's bounty rise in respectful salutation and welcome. The school has not the ample means it had in the life of good old Don Juan, and any offering is not only to a worthy charity, but a tribute to the memory of a good man. ** It will take longer to see all in the quaint old house than to write it down, since it is impossible to do it com- 190 AEOUND THE VALLEY pletely. In the kitchen is the old-fashioned cooking- place built of brick, around it and on all the walls are the utensils of earthenware, and in the dining-room the table and its appurtenances are as quaintly curious. But it is in the other rooms where are the curios and relics, of every age and era of Mexico's history back to prehis- toric times; idols from the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon at San Juan Teotihuacan ; weapons, plumes, shields and war dresses of the Aztecs, a cigar case, pistol and sword of the patriot-priest Hidalgo; the bed in which General Santa Anna died; some pieces from the table service of the Emperor Maximilian and one of the mus- kets with which he was shot ; the rifle of General Miramon used at Queretaro ; a fine collection of chicaras, chocolate cups painted by the Indians of Michoacan: very curious and ancient costumes of the bull-ring, among which is one used by the Spanish matador, Bernardo Gavino, when he was killed in the ring at Texcoco ; ancient Chinese and Japanese armor; paintings of religious subjects and scenes from the bull ring ; portraits of Don Juan and his wife and of Mexican celebrities ; a collection of bird eggs, stuffed animals, two immense bowls or platters with the portraits of Maximilian and Carlotta ; old tapestries and silken shawls; rugs of the skins of wild beasts, and a thousand and one other curious things collected in a long lifetime, of which no complete list or description may be made, but each article is in its place just as Don Juan left them when he died." CHAPTER XV A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT Bullfighting is still by far the most popular amusement of Mexico. The spirit of tauromachy inherited from old Spain lives in the modern bull ring or Plaza de Toros, according to Mr. Reau Campbell, the noted traveler, whose graphic description of the methods of the '' cruel sport " is reproduced below. An honest effort has been made by the government to stop the sport by the enactment of laws interdicting the functions in the federal district and other metropolitan localities, but the laws were repealed as often as enacted, so great was the pressure of popular demand from the masses, and notwithstanding the influence and example of non-attendance of the best people, the Plaza de Toros is easily the most liberally patronized amusement in Mexico. ** The better the day the better the deed " may not be a Mexican maxim, but the better days are given over to the bull fight. Sundays and feast days are chosen, and on no other day are the plazas open. The Plaza de Toros is the bull ring — a great circular building of stone or wood with an interior that is an immense amphitheater seating thousands of people. The seats are in tiers rising to the top where the private boxes are, and as there is no roof except over the outer circle shading the boxes, there is a shady side called ^' sombra " and a sunny side, *' sol," with prices in accordance with the location, from 25 to 50 cents in the sun and $1 to $3 in the shade, the private boxes with 191 192 A MEXICAN BULLFIGHT eight to ton chairs cost from $12 to $20, according to the reputation of the company giving the performance, ?is they vary greatly as the stars and support in a theatrical troupe, and what may be the price when only local talent is on the bills will be largely increased when a star matador and his company are underlined. Tickets may be bought at the gates, but it is always best to buy them in advance, usually at some cigar store frequented by the toreadores or at the city offices of the bull ring, the loca- tions of which are announced in the advertisements. rOEM OF THE BING The ring itself is an arena about a hundred feet in diameter encircled by a strong board fence about five feet high with a foot rail on the inside two feet from the ground. This is to assist a torero too closely pursued by the bull to escape by a leap over the fence to the passageway that extends around the ring between the fence and the seats. But it is not always an escape, since the bull often leaps the barrier in pursuit of his tormentor or to get away from him, and at intervals in the passage- way short barriers are placed just far enough from the wall to admit the body of the man and not wide enough for the bull's horns. There are gates that open into the ring and at the same time close the passage and thus the bull is forced to return to the ring. There is a '* president " to preside at each corrida, or performance, to direct the details and to decide all differ- ences of opinion between the people and the performers. There are always questions to be decided, and the presi- dent, usually a state or municipal officer, must be a man of executive ability and well posted in tauromachy. His seat is in a gorgeously decorated box near the center of the shady side, and when he enters, with a staff of high-up, well-known lovers of the sport, it is the signal for much cheering, especially so if he is a president whose decisions have been favorable to the people. Plaza at Guanajuato, with La France Hotel in background Flower Market in the Plaza Mayor, Mexico City Hull of the Petrilicd I\Iuniniic'!s in the Catacombs, Guanajuato A hall in the National Museum, City of Mexico Play of the Capes — Typical scenes in the Plaza de Toros. City of Mexico Enia