' s THE CHEMISTRY OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE ?&&&• THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO THE CHEMISTRY OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE BY HARRY SNYDER, B.S. THIRD REVISED EDITION Neto gorfe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1913 All rights reserved Copyright, 1903, By HARRY SNYDER. Copyright, 1903 and 1913, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. First published elsewhere. New edition set up and electrotyped. Published December, 1903. Reprinted December, 1905; October, 1907; January, 1909. Third revised edition, September, 1913. Nortoooti ^rfgg J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. >CI.A35410.* PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION This book is the outgrowth of instruction in chem- istry given in the School of Agriculture of the Univer- sity of Minnesota. At first the classes were small, and individual work with blackboard exercises and ref- erences to the literature in the school library was possible. With increased number of students, mimeographed notes were supplied, until finally the size of the classes and the volume of the notes have necessitated their publication in book form. The work was first given, in 1 891, to a class of seven students, while in 1903 they numbered 150. The students to whom this instruction has been given have been mostly earnest workers who attended school mainly from personal choice and who desired to make as much progress as possible. Numerous questions have been asked by them relating to the application of chemistry to farm and everyday life, and for a number of years the author kept a box in which were placed the more important of these questions together with notes of the difficulties experienced in the laboratory : and in develop- ing the work from year to year these questions and diffi- culties have been considered. This work was originally outlined as Agricultural Chemistry, but as special features have been developed and published, as "Soils and Fertilizers," and "The Chemistry of Dairying," this part of the subject has gradually developed into " The Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," and includes the composition of plant and VI PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION animal bodies, the chemistry of the plant and of its food and growth, the chemistry of human foods and animal nutrition, the digestibility and value of foods and the laws governing their economic use. A few topics of an in- dustrial nature but closely related to plant and animal life are also included. Before taking up the parts relating to the chemistry of plant and animal bodies, the elements and the simpler compounds present in plants and animals, together with the laws governing their combinations, are considered so as to prepare the way for a more intelligent study of the subject, and to show the relation which exists between chemistry and plant and animal life. Laboratory practice forms an important feature, and questions are asked in connection with each experiment. Many of the experi- ments and problems are given to illustrate some special phase of the composition of plant and animal bodies. The illustrations, with the exception of a few as noted, are original. It has been the aim throughout to present the topics in such a way that they would be easily understood and to develop the reasoning powers of the student so that he would be able to make the best use of his chemistry in everyday life affairs. HARRY SNYDER. St. Anthony Park, St. Paul, Minn. First edition, March i, 1903. Second edition, Nov. 11, 1903. PREFACE TO' REVISED EDITION In revising this work it has been the aim to retain the individuality as expressed in the preface of the first edition, with such changes and additions as are in accord with recent investigations. It has been deemed best to make a sharper division between the first part, which deals with the elementary principles of chemistry from an agricultural viewpoint, and the second part, dealing more distinctively with the chemistry of plant and animal life. Many colleges in which this subject is taught give more extended courses in general chemistry than is presented in Part I of this work, in which case the student is already prepared, with a special review, to begin Part II. In other institutions the time allotted to chemistry is so limited as to necessitate a brief course, and then Part I or its equivalent should be given before undertaking Part II. The problems, laboratory practice, and collateral reading as suggested, are essentials of the work, and suffi- cient time should be allotted in the curriculum, to permit a rational study of the subject. It should be the aim to master the principles which form the basis of the sub- ject so as to intelligently apply them to the solution of the new problems which continually present themselves. HARRY SNYDER. Minneapolis, Minn. May, 19 1 3. vii CONTENTS INTRODUCTION Chemistry in its relation to plant and animal life ; Relation to other sciences ; How to study chemistry ; Reference books and how to use them ; Importance of chemistry. Pages xix-xxii. PART I CHAPTER I Composition of Matter. — Physical and chemical changes ; Inde- structibility of matter ; Molecules ; Atoms ; Elements ; Com- pounds ; Chemical affinity ; Mechanical mixtures ; Chemical anal- ysis and synthesis ; Summary. Pages 3-8. CHAPTER II Properties of Elements and Compounds. — Physical properties ; Chemical properties ; Symbols of the elements ; Formulas of com- pounds ; Atomic weights ; Molecular weights ; Law of definite pro- portion ; Valence ; Combination of elements ; Problems on com- bination of elements; Experiments and questions. Pages 9-18. CHAPTER III Laboratory Manipulation. — Importance of laboratory practice ; Names and uses of apparatus ; Cutting glass tubing ; Bending glass tubing ; Perforating corks ; Weighing ; Measuring liquids ; Obtain- ing reagents from bottles ; Filtering ; Laboratory notebook ; Breakage of apparatus ; Care of sinks and plumbing ; How to ac- complish the best results in the laboratory. Pages 19-29. CHAPTER IV Oxygen. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Importance ; Problems, experiments, and questions ; Part taken in plant and ani- mal life. Pages 30-35. ix CONTENTS CHAPTER V Hydrogen. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Impor- tance ; Problems, experiments, and questions ; Part taken in plant and animal life. Pages 36-40. CHAPTER VI Nitrogen. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Importance ; Problems, experiments, and questions ; Part taken in plant and animal life. Pages 41-44. CHAPTER VII Carbon. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Coal ; Allotro- pism ; A reducing agent ; Combustion ; ' Spontaneous combustion ; A decolorizer and deodorizer ; Products of combustion ; Com- pounds of carbon ; Importance ; Experiments and questions ; Part taken in plant and animal life. Pages 45-53. CHAPTER VIII Water. — Chemical composition ; Physical properties ; Water of crystallization ; Natural waters ; Impurities and relation to dis- eases ; Location of wells ; Mineral impurities ; Contamination of drinking water ; Methods of improving drinking waters ; Water filters ; Experiments and questions. Pages 54-62. CHAPTER IX Air. — A mechanical mixture ; Carbon dioxid ; Ammonium com- pounds ; Moisture ; Atmospheric constituents present in small amounts ; Liquid air ; Organic impurities and ventilation of rooms ; Air, a source of plant food ; Sources of contamination of air ; Ex- periments and questions ; Importance of air in plant and animal life. Pages 63-68. CONTENTS XI CHAPTER X Acids, Bases, Salts, and Neutralization. — Classification of ele- ments ; Acids ; Bases ; Salts ; Radicals ; Naming of acids ; Naming of bases ; Naming of salts ; Double salts ; Acid salts ; Basicity of acids ; Two series of salts. Pages 69-75. CHAPTER XI Hydrochloric Acid, Chlorin, and Chlorids. — Occurrence ; Prepara- tion ; Properties ; Preparation of chlorin ; Properties ; The chlorin group of elements ; Chlorids ; Problems ; Experiments and ques- tions. Pages 76-81. CHAPTER XII Nitric Acid and Nitrogen Compounds. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Importance ; Ammonia ; Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Uses ; Oxids of nitrogen ; Anhydrids ; Law of multiple proportion ; Utilization of atmospheric nitrogen ; Importance of the nitrogen compounds ; Problems ; Experiments and questions. Pages 82-88. CHAPTER XIII Phosphorus and its Compounds. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Properties ; Oxids ; Phosphoric acid and phosphates ; Compounds of phosphorus ; Importance of phosphorus and its compounds ; Problems; Experiments and questions. Pages 89-91. CHAPTER XIV Sulfur and its Compounds. — Occurrence ; Preparation ; Proper- ties ; Uses ; Sulfur dioxid ; Sulfuric acid ; Properties of H 2 S0 4 ; Sulfates ; Sulfids ; Problems ; Experiments and questions. Pages 92-97. CHAPTER XV Silicon and its Compounds. — Occurrence ; Preparation and prop- erties ; Silicic acid ; Dialysis ; Silicates ; Importance of compounds of silicon ; Problems; Experiments and questions. Pages 98-101. Xll CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI Oxids of Carbon, Carbonates, and Carbon Compounds. — Carbon dioxid ; Carbon monoxid ; Marsh gas ; Hydrocarbons ; Petroleum ; Use of gasoline ; Illuminating gas ; Mineral oils ; Oil of turpentine ; Creosote ; Benzene or benzol ; Aliphatic and aromatic series of com- pounds ; Carbon disulfid ; Cyanids ; Carbids ; Fuels; B. T. U. value of fuels ; Foods ; Production of organic compounds in plants ; De- cay of organic compounds; Experiments. Pages 1 02-1 14. CHAPTER XVII Writing Equations. — Importance ; Common errors in writing equations ; Impossible reactions ; A knowledge of reacting com- pounds and products necessary ; Equations for classroom work. Pages 1 15-120. CHAPTER XVIII Potassium, Sodium, and their Compounds. — Occurrence of po- tassium ; Potassium hydroxid ; Potassium nitrate ; Potassium car- bonate ; Potassium chlorate ; Potassium sulfate ; Miscellaneous po- tassium salts ; Occurrence of sodium ; Sodium chlorid ; Sodium nitrate ; Sodium carbonate ; Sodium hydroxid ; Sodium phosphate ; Miscellaneous sodium salts ; Experiments. Pages 1 21-127. CHAPTER XIX Calcium, Magnesium, and their Compounds. — Occurrence of cal- cium ; Calcium carbonate ; Calcium oxid ; Calcium hydroxid ; Cal- cium sulfate ; Calcium chlorid ; Bleaching powder ; Calcium phos- phate ; Mortar ; Glass ; Occurrence of magnesia ; Magnesium salts ; Experiments. Pages 128-132. CHAPTER XX Iron, Aluminum, and their Compounds. — Occurrence of iron ; Reduction of iron ores ; Wrought iron ; Steel ; Rusting of iron ; Iron Compounds ; Occurrence of aluminum ; Alums ; Pottery ; Ex- periments. Pages 133-140. CONTENTS X1U CHAPTER XXI Copper, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Arsenic, Mercury, their Compounds and Alloys. — Commercial importance ; Occurrence of copper and its metallurgy ; Copper sulfate ; Bordeaux mixture ; Occurrence of zinc ; Compounds of zinc ; Galvanized iron ; Occurrence of tin ; Tin salts ; Occurrence of lead ; Oxids of lead ; Lead carbonates ; Lead salts ; Uses of lead ; Occurrence of arsenic ; Paris green ; Occur- rence of mercury ; Compounds of mercury ; Experiments. Pages 141-146. PART II CHAPTER XXII The Water Content and Ash of Plants. — Water ; Dry matter ; Plant ash ; Form of the ash elements ; Amount of ash in plants ; Importance of ash elements ; Water culture ; Sand culture ; Occur- rence and function of ash elements ; Potassium ; Sodium ; Calcium ; Magnesium ; Aluminum ; Iron ; Phosphorus ; Sulfur ; Silicon ; Chlo- rin ; Experiments; Problems. Pages 149-167. CHAPTER XXIII The Non-nitrogenous Organic Compounds of Plants. — Organic matter ; Non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous organic compounds ; Classification of non-nitrogenous compounds ; Carbohydrates ; General characteristics ; Cellulose ; Occurrence ; Physical proper- ties ; Chemical properties ; Function and value ; Food value ; Amount of cellulose in plants ; Crude fiber ; Starch ; Occurrence ; Physical properties ; Chemical properties ; Function and value ; Food value of starch ; Amount of starch in plants ; Dextrin ; Struc- tural formulas ; Sugar ; Classification of sugars ; Occurrence of sucrose ; Physical and chemical properties of sucrose ; Milk-sugar ; Maltose ; Inversion of sucrose ; Refining of sugar ; Occurrence of dextrose ; Chemical and physical properties ; Levulose ; Miscel- laneous sugars ; Optical properties of sugar ; Sugar-beets ; Food value of sugar ; Gums ; Pentosans ; Pectin bodies ; Nitrogen-free extract ; Fats ; Presence in plants ; Physical properties ; Chemical composition ; Stearin ; Palmitin ; Olein ; Miscellaneous fats ; Sa- XIV CONTENTS ponification ; Fatty acids ; Waxes ; Food value of fat ; Amount of fat in plants and foods ; Ether extract ; Organic acids ; Occurrence in plants ; Tartaric acid ; Malic acid ; Succinic acid ; Oxalic acid ; Citric acid ; Tannic acid ; Function and food value of the organic acids ; Essential oils ; General properties ; Occurrence ; Chemical composition and properties ; Essential oils of agricultural crops ; Synthetic production of essential oils ; Amount of essential oils in plants ; Food value ; Miscellaneous compounds in plants ; Relation- ship of non-nitrogenous compounds of plants ; Food value of the non-nitrogenous compounds ; Experiments and questions. Pages 168-203. CHAPTER XXIV Nitrogenous Organic Compounds of Plants. — Amount of ni- trogenous matter in plants ; Different terms applied to nitrog- enous compounds ; Complexity of composition ; Classification of nitrogenous compounds ; Proteids ; General composition ; Occur- rence ; Physical properties ; Chemical properties ; Classification of proteids ; Albumins ; Globulins ; Albuminates ; Peptones and proteoses ; Insoluble proteids ; Food value of proteids ; Amount in plants ; Crude protein ; Albuminoids ; Composition ; Nuclein ; Gelatin ; Mucin ; Elastin ; Food value of albuminoids ; Amides and amines ; Composition and properties ; Formation and Occurrence in plants ; Formation and occurrence of amides in animals ; Food value ; Amount in foods ; Protein production and disintegration ; Alkaloids ; General composition ; Plant alkaloids ; Animal alka- loids ; Food value and production ; Mixed nitrogenous compounds ; Lecithin ; Nitrogenous glucosides ; General relationship of the nitrogenous organic compounds of foods ; Problems and experi- ments. Pages 204-223. CHAPTER XXV Chemistry of Plant Growth. — Seeds ; Ash ; Non-nitrogenous compounds ; Nitrogenous compounds ; Chemical changes during germination ; Change of starch to soluble forms ; Change of fats to starch ; Change of insoluble proteids to soluble forms ; Germina- tion of seeds and digestion of food compared ; Necessary conditions for germination ; Heavy- and light-weight seeds ; Movement of CONTENTS XV plant juices ; Joint action of chemical and physical agents ; Poros- ity of tissues ; Osmosis ; Chlorophyl and protoplasm ; Chemical action in leaves of plants; Production of chlorophyl; Function; Production of organic matter; Experiments. Pages 224-234. CHAPTER XXVI Composition of Plants at Different Stages of Growth. — Composi- tion and stage of growth ; Assimilation of mineral food by the wheat plant ; Assimilation of nitrogen by the wheat plant ; Clover ; Rapidity of growth ; Flax ; Rapidity of growth ; Maize (corn) ; Importance ; Roots ; Stalks ; Leaves ; Tassel ; Husks ; Ripening period. Pages 235-244. CHAPTER XXVII Factors which influence the Composition and Feeding Value of Crops. — Seed ; Soil ; Climate ; Stage of maturity ; Method of preparation as food ; Improving the feeding value of forage crops. Pages 245-249. CHAPTER XXVIII Composition of Coarse Fodders. — Coarse fodders ; Straw ; Timothy hay ; Hay similar to timothy ; Oat hay ; Hay similar to oat hay ; Bromus inermis ; Clover hay ; Alfalfa and fodders similar to clover ; Rape ; Pasture grass ; Corn fodder and stover ; Silage. Pages 250-258. CHAPTER XXIX Wheat. — Structure of kernel ; Proteids of wheat ; Relation of nitrogen in wheat to nitrogen content of flour ; Influence of ferti- lizers upon composition of wheat ; Variations in composition of wheat ; Storage in elevators ; Manufacture of flour ; Composition of unsound wheat ; Composition of different varieties ; American and foreign wheats ; Wheat as animal food ; As human food ; Experi- ments and questions. Pages 259-272. XVI CONTENTS CHAPTER XXX Maize (Indian Corn). — Structure of the kernel; Composition; Proteids ; Nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous corn ; Varieties ; Moisture content of corn ; Corn products ; Corn as a food ; Experi- ments. Pages 273-278. CHAPTER XXXI Oats, Barley, Rye, Buckwheat, Rice, and Miscellaneous Seeds. — Structure of the oat kernel ; Composition of oats ; Oats as human and animal foods ; Barley ; Rye ; Rice ; Buckwheat ; Millet seed ; Peas and beans ; Grading of grains ; Experiments. Pages 279-290. CHAPTER XXXII Mill and By-products. — Sources ; Wheat by-products ; Wheat bran ; Wheat shorts ; Wheat germ ; Wheat screenings ; Linseed meal ; Cottonseed cake and meal ; Oat feed ; Gluten meal ; Malt sprouts ; Miscellaneous by-products ; Inspection of feeding stuffs ; Problems and experiments. Pages 291-298. CHAPTER XXXIII Roots, Tubers, and Fruits. — General composition ; Potatoes ; Car- rots ; Parsnips ; Mangel wurzels ; Apples ; Oranges ; Lemons ; Strawberries ; Grapes ; Olives ; Dried fruits ; Miscellaneous fruits ; Food value. Pages 299-303. CHAPTER XXXIV Fermentation. — Insoluble ferments ; Soluble ferments or en- zymes ; Aerobic and anaerobic ferments ; Conditions necessary for fermentation ; Soil ferments ; Ferments in seeds ; Ferments in bread- making ; Ferment action and food digestion ; Ferments and food preservation; Ferments in butter- and cheese-making; Disease- producing organisms; Beneficial organisms; Experiments. Pages 304-310. CHAPTER XXXV Chemistry of Digestion and Nutrition. — Digestion, a biochemical process ; Digestion experiments ; Caloric value of foods ; Available CONTENTS XV11 energy of foods ; Net energy of foods ; Digestion of proteids ; Di- gestion of the carbohydrates ; Digestion of fats ; Oxygen necessary for digestion ; Factors influencing digestion ; Mechanical condi- tion ; Combination of foods ; Amount of food consumed ; Palata- bility; Individuality; Miscellaneous factors influencing digesti- bility ; Application of digestion coefficients ; Digestible nutrients of foods; Problems. Pages 311-327. CHAPTER XXXVI Rational Feeding of Animals. — Balanced rations ; A maintenance ration ; Standard rations ; Food requirements of animals ; Food supply at different stages of growth ; Food requirements of horses ; Selection of food for horses ; Foods required for beef production ; Selection of foods for beef production ; Food requirements of dairy cows ; Selection of foods for dairy cows ; Food requirements of swine ; Food requirements of sheep ; Calculation of balanced rations ; Nutritive ratio ; Comparative cost and value ; Caloric value of rations ; Sanitary conditions ; Problems. Pages 328-347. CHAPTER XXXVII Composition of Animal Bodies. — Water and dry matter ; Mineral matter ; Fat ; Nitrogenous matter ; Proteids of meat ; Albumin ; Myosin ; Syntonin ; Hemoglobin ; Insoluble proteids ; Peptones ; Keratin ; Albuminoids ; Gelatin ; Influence of food upon the com- position of animal bodies ; Composition of human body. Pages 348-355- CHAPTER XXXVIII Rational Feeding of Men. — Similarity of the principles of human and animal feeding ; Dietary standards ; Amount of food con- sumed per day ; Calculating a balanced ration ; Comparative cost and value of foods ; Factors influencing digestibility ; Requisites of a ration ; Dietary studies ; Chemical changes in the cooking of foods ; Refuse and waste matters ; Loss of nutrients in the prep- aration of foods ; Mineral matter in a ration ; Digestibility of foods ; Digestibility of animal foods ; Digestibility of vegetable foods ; Relation of food to health ; Tables of composition of human foods. Pages 356-380. XVI CONTENTS CHAPTER XXX Maize (Indian Corn). — Structure of the kernel; Composition; Proteids ; Nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous corn ; Varieties ; Moisture content of corn ; Corn products ; Corn as a food ; Experi- ments. Pages 273-278. CHAPTER XXXI Oats, Barley, Rye, Buckwheat, Rice, and Miscellaneous Seeds. — Structure of the oat kernel ; Composition of oats ; Oats as human and animal foods ; Barley ; Rye ; Rice ; Buckwheat ; Millet seed ; Peas and beans; Grading of grains; Experiments. Pages 279-290. CHAPTER XXXII Mill and By-products. — Sources ; Wheat by-products ; Wheat bran ; Wheat shorts ; Wheat germ ; Wheat screenings ; Linseed meal ; Cottonseed cake and meal ; Oat feed ; Gluten meal ; Malt sprouts ; Miscellaneous by-products ; Inspection of feeding stuffs ; Problems and experiments. Pages 291-298. CHAPTER XXXIII Roots, Tubers, and Fruits. — General composition ; Potatoes ; Car- rots ; Parsnips ; Mangel wurzels ; Apples ; Oranges ; Lemons ; Strawberries ; Grapes ; Olives ; Dried fruits ; Miscellaneous fruits ; Food value. Pages 299-303. CHAPTER XXXIV Fermentation. — Insoluble ferments ; Soluble ferments or en- zymes ; Aerobic and anaerobic ferments ; Conditions necessary for fermentation ; Soil ferments ; Ferments in seeds ; Ferments in bread- making ; Ferment action and food digestion ; Ferments and food preservation ; Ferments in butter- and cheese-making ; Disease- producing organisms; Beneficial organisms; Experiments. Pages 304-310. CHAPTER XXXV Chemistry of Digestion and Nutrition. — Digestion, a biochemical process ; Digestion experiments ; Caloric value of foods ; Available CONTENTS XV11 energy of foods ; Net energy of foods ; Digestion of proteids ; Di- gestion of the carbohydrates ; Digestion of fats ; Oxygen necessary for digestion ; Factors influencing digestion ; Mechanical condi- tion ; Combination of foods ; Amount of food consumed ; Palata- bility; Individuality; Miscellaneous factors influencing digesti- bility ; Application of digestion coefficients ; Digestible nutrients of foods ; Problems. Pages 311-327. CHAPTER XXXVI Rational Feeding of Animals. — Balanced rations ; A maintenance ration ; Standard rations ; Food requirements of animals ; Food supply at different stages of growth ; Food requirements of horses ; Selection of food for horses ; Foods required for beef production ; Selection of foods for beef production ; Food requirements of dairy cows ; Selection of foods for dairy cows ; Food requirements of swine ; Food requirements of sheep ; Calculation of balanced rations ; Nutritive ratio ; Comparative cost and value ; Caloric value of rations; Sanitary conditions; Problems. Pages 328-347. CHAPTER XXXVII Composition of Animal Bodies. — Water and dry matter ; Mineral matter ; Fat ; Nitrogenous matter ; Proteids of meat ; Albumin ; Myosin ; Syntonin ; Hemoglobin ; Insoluble proteids ; Peptones ; Keratin ; Albuminoids ; Gelatin ; Influence of food upon the com- position of animal bodies ; Composition of human body. Pages 348-355- CHAPTER XXXVIII Rational Feeding of Men. — Similarity of the principles of human and animal feeding ; Dietary standards ; Amount of food con- sumed per day ; Calculating a balanced ration ; Comparative cost and value of foods ; Factors influencing digestibility ; Requisites of a ration ; Dietary studies ; Chemical changes in the cooking of foods ; Refuse and waste matters ; Loss of nutrients in the prep- aration of foods ; Mineral matter in a ration ; Digestibility of foods ; Digestibility of animal foods ; Digestibility of vegetable foods ; Relation of food to health ; Tables of composition of human foods. Pages 356-380. INTRODUCTION Plant life and animal life are dependent upon the changes which are continually taking place in nature. The laws of nature, as far as they are known, are set forth in the various sciences, among which chemistry occupies a prominent place. In everyday life affairs, chemistry takes an important part because it is the science which treats of the composition and uses of substances found in nature. Plant and animal foods which are essential for life are simply mechanical mixtures of various forms of matter which are constantly undergoing changes and exemplifying the laws of chemistry. In agriculture, chemistry takes an important part, the term Agricultural Chemistry being applied to that branch of the science which concerns itself with the practical application of the laws of chemistry to the science of agriculture. In the cultivation of the soil, production of crops, feed- ing of animals, manufacture of farm products, prepara- tion and use of human foods, and in all life processes, numerous chemical changes take place, and it is in part the province of chemistry to investigate these changes so as to assist nature in rendering the plant food of the soil more available, and to produce crops of the highest nu- tritive value, as well as to indicate ways in which the best possible use can be made of farm products in the feeding of animals and men. Before these subjects can xix XX INTRODUCTION be considered in an intelligent way, a fundamental knowl- edge must be obtained of some of the basic principles and laws of chemistry, since they are as essential to future work along special lines as is a good foundation to a building, or a scaffold during its construction. In the household, arts, industries, and professions, constant use is made of products formed from the soil, air, and water. In order to understand more perfectly the nature of the substances dealt with so as to make the most intelligent use of them, it is necessary to have a practical knowledge of some of the laws of chemistry and of the properties of the elements and the compounds which enter into the composition of plant and animal bodies. To the student who begins the study of chemistry, it is imperative that the first part of the subject should be thoroughly mastered. Chemistry is different in its nature from many subjects. It cannot be studied in discon- nected parts, but must be undertaken systematically. It cannot be absorbed by listening to lectures, but must be studied. If the first part of the work is neglected, failure is almost inevitable. If particular attention is given to the elements and their combinations, to the composition of matter, to laboratory manipulations, and to the classi- fication of the elements, and if the experiments are per- formed regularly, the student experiences a keen enjoy- ment in the subject, the work ceases to be drudgery and becomes a pleasure. Should it be desired to begin the laboratory practice with the classroom study, Sections 15 to 21 of Chapter 2 may be deferred or studied with Chapters 4, 5, and 6. The student should make an effort to learn how to study ; the memorizing of chemical formulas and equa- tions is not studying chemistry; he should master the INTRODUCTION XXI principles governing the combination of elements and then the memorizing of chemical formulas becomes un- necessary. In the preparation of the lessons, there are a number of reference books which should be consulted occasionally. For example, if difficulty is experienced with the subject of valence and radicals, the interesting chapter upon these topics in Ellen H. Richards' " Chemis- try of Cooking and Cleaning " should be read. Remsen's " Chemistry," Hart's " Chemistry for Beginners," Storer and Lindsay's " Elementary Manual of Chemistry," as well as many others, will be found valuable. In study- ing the parts relating to foods, crops, and animal feeding, Henry's " Feeds and Feeding," Jordan's " Feeding of Farm Animals," Armsby's " The Principles of Animal Nutrition," Johnson's " How Crops Grow," and " How Crops Feed," and the bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and of the several stations should be avail- able. The student should early acquire the habit of con- sulting other works, as frequently a topic is presented more clearly in one work than in another. He who studies chemistry from the professional point of view, as medical chemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, or agricultural chemistry, should remember that because of the limited time for the subject in professional schools, he is receiving at the best only a very abridged course in the science. Hence the necessity of supplementing it by collateral reading and study ; otherwise he comes in contact with but one phase of the subject, and while he receives a technical education, he may obtain only a limited and narrow view of the science of chemistry. In the study of the " Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," it is the aim to bring the student into close contact with nature. This is one of the requisites for perfect agri- XX11 INTRODUCTION culture. Although not all of the laws relating to the chem- istry of plant and animal life have been discovered, many of those relating to soils and foods, particularly human foods, are known and can be applied, to everyday life affairs. PART I CHAPTER I Composition of Matter i. Physical and Chemical Changes. — All substances in nature are subject to change in form and composition. At a low temperature water is converted into ice, and by the application of heat, into steam. The three forms which water assumes, solid, liquid, and vapor, are merely the different conditions in which it is capable of exist- ing. When water is changed to steam or ice, noth- ing is added to or taken from the particles of water, simply a change of form or a physical change takes place. When, however, an electric current is passed through water, the water is decomposed and two gases are pro- duced. When such a change occurs the water par- ticles are subjected to a change in composition called a chemical change. Limestone may be pulverized until it is as fine as wheat flour, and when examined with a microscope, each frag- ment is in all respects like the original piece, except in size. The crushing has resulted merely in dividing the limestone into a large number of particles. If, however, a piece of limestone is burned in a lime kiln, the product is entirely different in its properties from the original lime rock. When water is added to burned lime, the lime slakes, heat is generated, and steam is given off, while, when water is added to lime rock, no appreciable change takes place. Changes which affect the form but not the composition 3 4 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY of matter are known as physical changes. The produc- tion of steam from water, the freezing of water, the pul- verizing of limestone, and similar changes which do not affect the composition of the material are physical changes. When milk sours, fruits decay, or wood is burned, a different kind of change takes place. The smallest particles of which the material is composed undergo change in composition. The products formed are entirely different in character from the original sub- stances. Such changes affect the identity or individuality of a material, and are chemical changes. 2. Physics is the science which concerns itself with the changes which matter undergoes when the ultimate par- ticles of a material retain their identity or individuality. Animal and plant life are to a great extent dependent upon the physical changes which take place in the soil. Rain is the result of the action of physical agencies, as is also the pulverization of rocks and soils. In all manu- facturing operations, and as the result of all kinds of manual labor, particularly upon the farm and in the workshop, physical changes are continually taking place. 3. Chemistry is the science which deals with the changes which matter undergoes when the ultimate par- ticles lose their identity or individuality, and the prod- ucts formed are entirely different from the original mate- rial. Chemical changes are continually taking place, and plant growth and animal life are dependent largely upon the chemical changes as well as upon the physical changes which occur in the soil and in the air. Life processes are inti- mately associated with chemical changes. Chemical and physical changes are closely related ; a chemical change is often dependent upon a physical change, and a physi- COMPOSITION OF MATTER 5 cal change is, in turn, often dependent upon a chemical change. A chemical change necessarily brings about a physical change. While the sciences of chemistry and physics are, to a certain extent, closely related, each nevertheless deals with a different phase of change which matter undergoes. 4. Indestructibility of Matter. — When either a chem- cal or a physical change takes place, no matter is destroyed or produced. It is not possible either to create or destroy matter. This is known as the law of indestructibility of matter. Whenever a chemical change takes place, the parts which make up the substance are rearranged in a new and different way, or they are combined with other materials. When wood is burned, it is changed into gaseous prod- ucts and ashes ; the materials which composed the wood are not lost to nature, they simply assume a different form. The law of indestructibility of matter is one of the foundation principles of chemistry. It was believed, at one time, that metals, as copper, could be changed to gold, and other substances to different forms of matter. After many centuries of experimenting, it was found that this could not be done, and as the result, the law of indestructibility of matter was established. 5. Molecules. — It is possible, by mechanical means, as pulverizing, to reduce substances to a very fine state of division, and it is believed that if this division could be carried on by more refined methods, particles of mat- ter could finally be obtained that would not be suscepti- ble to further division by purely physical methods. The smallest particle of a material that can exist and have all of the properties of the original material is called a mole- cule. Molecules, however, have never been separated as 6 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY individuals. All forms of matter are composed of mole- cules. The proof that matter is composed of molecules is founded upon the laws of physics. The reasons for the acceptance of the molecular structure of matter can- not profitably be studied by the student of elemen- tary chemistry, but properly form a very important part of advanced chemistry. The molecular structure of matter has been sufficiently well established to warrant the use of the term molecule by the student of elemen- tary chemistry. 6. Atoms. — Whenever a chemical change takes place, the molecule is changed in composition. When an elec- tric current is passed through water, the molecules of water are split up into simpler forms of matter. It is evident that the molecule is not the simplest form of mat- ter, and that while the molecule is the smallest part of a substance, it is, in fact, made up of still smaller parts. These parts of matter which form a molecule are called atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an elementary substance that can enter into combination to form a molecule. Atoms never exist in nature in a free or un- combined state, but unite to form molecules, and mole- cules unite to form masses. 7. Elements. — The simplest forms of matter, as iron, copper, and sulfur, from which it is impossible to extract or obtain simpler bodies, are called elements. The ele- ment is the simplest form in which matter can exist. All substances found in nature, as plant and animal bod- ies, rocks and soils, are composed of compounds which, in turn, are composed of elements. There are about 74 of these elementary forms of matter, although only about 18 take any important part directly or indirectly, as far as is known, in either plant or animal life processes. COMPOSITION OF MATTER 7 There are a few substances found in nature in elementary form, as iron, copper, gold, and sulfur, but most of the elements are in combination with others, forming com- pounds. 8. Compounds. — The substances found most abun- dantly in nature are compounds. A compound is formed by the chemical union of two or more elements. All compounds are made up of a definite amount, by weight, of separate elements which unite according to the laws of chemical combination. Water, for example, is a com- pound formed by the union of two elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Sugar is a compound of three elements, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. When elements unite to form a compound, the elements lose their identity and the compound that is produced has entirely different and distinct chemical and physical properties from those of the elements of which it is composed. 9. Chemical Affinity. — The force or power which causes elements to combine to form compounds is called chemical affinity, and about this comparatively little is known. Whenever a compound is separated into its ele- ments, chemical affinity or the force which holds the elements together is overcome. When elements com- bine to form compounds, it is because of the chemical affinity which the elements have for one another. Some elements have a stronger affinity for certain elements than for others. 10. Mechanical Mixtures. — When two or more sub- stances mix, but fail to unite chemically, a mechanical mixture is obtained. When iron and sulfur are mixed, a mechanical mixture is the result, and the iron and the sulfur can, by purely physical methods, be separated. If, however, a mixture of iron and sulfur is heated, a 8 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY chemical change takes place and it is impossible by physi- cal methods, as by the use of a magnet or by solvents, to separate the iron from the sulfur. Compounds as well as elements may form mechanical mixtures. ii. Chemical Analysis and Synthesis. — Whenever a substance or a compound is separated into simpler com- pounds or elements, the process is called chemical analy- sis. When only the kinds of elements or simpler com- pounds are determined, the process is called qualitative analysis. If the percentage amounts are determined, it is called quantitative analysis. When elements or simpler compounds are united, the process is called synthesis. Synthesis and analysis are directly opposite processes. When substances are produced in the laboratory from simpler elements or compounds, it is called a synthetical process. Many useful compounds are produced syntheti- cally. 12. Summary. — Substances may undergo either phys- ical or chemical changes. A physical change does not destroy the identity or change the composition of the molecule. When a chemical change occurs, the atoms are combined in a different way and a new molecule is produced. The molecule is the smallest particle of mat- ter that can exist and retain its identity or individuality. Compounds are composed of molecules, and molecules are composed of atoms. Atoms never exist free, but unite to form molecules. If a substance contains in its mole- cule atoms of only one kind, it is an element. If there are present atoms of more than one kind, it is a com- pound. Physics and chemistry are closely related sciences, but each deals with a different kind of change. Life processes are dependent largely upon the physical and chemical changes continually taking place in nature. CHAPTER II Properties of Elements and Compounds 13. Physical Properties. — In order to determine the value of any element or compound, a knowledge of its chemical and physical properties is necessary, and it is important that a clear idea be obtained as to what is meant by the terms chemical and physical properties of elements and compounds. Each element and compound has its own characteristic properties, which are different in a number of ways from those of other elements and compounds. The physical properties of a substance in- clude : 1. Form or state of the material, as solid, liquid, or gas, which depends upon the temperature to which the substance is subjected. Many substances which are solid under ordinary conditions are, at higher temperatures, converted into liquids or vapors ; and substances which are gases are in turn converted into liquids and solids at low temperature and under high pressure. 2. Weight or specific gravity. The weight or specific gravity of a material depends upon its molecular struc- ture and upon the character of its individual molecules. Some of the elements and compounds have molecules of greater weight than have others. Liquids and gases are characterized as light or heavy according to their weight, compared with some material taken as the standard. 3. Color. The color of a compound is a physical prop- erty which is due to its chemical composition. Many of 9 10 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY the elements, as copper, silver, and gold, have character- istic colors. Some compounds owe their value entirely to their color, and are used for paints and dyes. 4. Odor and taste. Odor and taste of an element or a compound are physical properties which are character- istic of the element or compound. 5. Electrical characteristics. Elements and compounds have definite electrical properties. They are either good or poor conductors of electricity, and offer a large or a small amount of resistance to the passing of an electric current. The way in which a substance responds to pressure, water, heat, and cold depends upon its physical proper- ties, and the physical properties in turn are modified by these agencies. In a study of the elements and their compounds, the physical properties are also included because our knowl- edge of chemistry would be incomplete without consider- ing the physical as well as the chemical properties of substances. 14. Chemical Properties. — In addition to the physical properties, each element and compound has definite chem- ical properties. This is because the molecules of the different elements are unlike in character, and some of the elements and compounds are more readily affected by chemical agencies than are others. The molecules of compounds are made up of atoms of different kinds which impart different properties to the molecule. Copper, for example, has different chemical properties from gold. It will dissolve more readily in acids, tarnish in the air, and be acted upon more rapidly by other bodies than will gold. When iron is exposed to moisture and air it rusts, while aluminum is not readily affected by these agents. This is because iron and aluminum have different chem- ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS II ical properties. The chemical properties of a substance include the way in which it combines or produces chem- ical change when brought into contact with other ele- ments or compounds. Some elements are characterized as chemically active or inactive. An active element is one that readily unites or combines with other elements, while an inactive or passive element is one that does not readily unite or combine. Some elements are active under certain conditions and with some of the elements, and inactive under other conditions and with other ele- ments. The various elements require different conditions for producing chemical changes. In studying an element, the way in which it deports itself in producing chemical changes, the ability with which it combines with other elements, and the products which are formed as the re- sult of the chemical changes are some of the important chemical properties considered. A study of the chemical and the physical properties of elements and their compounds is important in many ways, as the value of a substance depends entirely upon its properties. In the growing and cultivation of crops, the production, preparation, and the economic use of foods, the treatment of diseases, and ;n all manufacturing opera- tions, as the smelting and refining of metals, the chemical and physical properties of the elements and their com- pounds are constantly made use of. 15. Symbols of the Elements. — In the study of chem- istry, a characteristic system of notation is used. The name of an element, as oxygen, is not written in full, but a symbol or sign, denoting the element, is employed. In the case of oxygen, the symbol is 0. The symbol of an element is either the first letter of the name of the ele- ment, or the first with some characteristic letter, as CI 12 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY for chlorin. In some cases, the symbols are derived from the Latin names of the elements, as Fe (Ferrum) for iron. By use, the student soon becomes familiar with the sym- bols most commonly used. Name Symbol Aluminum Al Antimony Sb Arsenic As Barium Ba Bismuth Bi Boron B Bromin Br Calcium Ca Carbon C Chlorin CI Chromium Cr Cobalt Co Copper Cu Fluorin F Gold Au Hydrogen H Iodin I Iron Fe Lead Pb Lithium Li Magnesium Mg Manganese Mn Mercury Hg Nickel Ni Nitrogen : N Oxygen O Phosphorus P Platinum Pt Potassium K Silicon Si Silver Ag Sodium Na Sulfur S Tin Sn Zinc Zn Approximate Va- Kind of atomic weight lence element 27 3 Base-forming I20.5 3, 5 75 3, 5 137-5 2 Base-forming 208 3, 5 11 3 Acid-forming 80 1 Acid-forming 40 2 Base-forming 12 2, 4 Acid-forming 35-5 1 Acid-forming 52 4, 6 59 2, 4 Base-forming 64 i, 2 Base-forming 19 1 Acid-forming 197 3 Base-forming 127 1 Acid-forming 56 2, 3i 4 Base-forming 207 2, 4 Base-forming 7 1 Base-forming 24 2 Base-forming 55 2, 4, 6 200 1, 2 Base-forming 59 2, 4 Base-forming 14 3. 5 Acid-forming 16 2 Acid-forming 3i 3. 5 Acid-forming 195 4 Base-forming 39 1 Base-forming 28 4 Acid-forming 108 1 Base-forming 23 1 Base-forming 32 2, 4 Acid-forming 119 2, 4 Base-forming 65.5 2 Base-forming ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS 13 16. Formulas of Compounds. — Since compounds are composed of elements, it is possible, by means of combi- nation of symbols, to express the formula of a compound. The formula of a compound denotes the number and kinds of elements contained ; as, for water, the formula H 2 designates that the compound is composed of the two elements hydrogen and oxygen ; and for sugar, the formula C12H22O11 denotes that the compound is made up of three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The formula always expresses the composition. In the for- mulas of compounds, figures are made use of, as 2 in H 2 0, at the right of the H and partially below the line. In this formula, the 2 indicates that there are two atoms of H in the molecule. In the case of sugar, the figures used mean that in one molecule of sugar there are 12 atoms of C, 22 atoms of H, and n of O. The formula of a com- pound always represents one molecule of the compound unless some figure is placed to the left of the formula, as 2 H 2 0. When placed in this position, the 2 shows that there are two molecules of water. Figures placed at the left of a formula and on the same line indicate the number of molecules, while figures at the right of the in- dividual element represent the number of atoms of ele- ments in each molecule. Hence the formula of a com- pound always designates the composition of the molecule, and the number and kind of atoms contained. Further study of the formulas of compounds will show that addi- tional facts, as composition by weight and volume, are also represented. Exercise. — Name the elements, the number of molecules, and the number of atoms in each molecule in the following formulas : NaCl, CaCl 2 , 2 KC1, 2 K 2 S0 4 , A1 2 3 , 5 N 2 5 , H 2 S0 4 , NaOH, HPO3. 14 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 17. Atomic Weights. — An atom is the smallest part of an element present in a molecule. Atoms have definite properties, as weight. Hydrogen is the lightest material known. An atom of hydrogen, or the smallest part of hydrogen which can enter into chemical combination, is considered as having a weight of 1. The weight of the atom of any element is the number of times heavier that atom is than hydrogen, which is the standard. Oxygen, for example, has an atomic weight of 16 ; that is, an atom of oxygen weighs 16 times as much as an atom of hydro- gen. Carbon has an atomic weight of 12; that is, an atom of carbon is 1 2 times as heavy as an atom of hydro- gen. The way in which the atomic weights are obtained cannot, at this stage of the work, be profitably considered. Atomic weights are, however, obtained with a high de- gree of accuracy, and while the individual atoms and molecules are not susceptible, at the present time, to sep- aration and weighing, the comparative weight, or the number of times heavier or lighter a definite number of molecules is than a similar number of molecules, in other forms of matter, can be accurately determined. While the absolute weight of a molecule or atom cannot be determined, its comparative weight can be. When chlo- rin, for example, combines with hydrogen, it is known that 35.45 times as much, by weight, of chlorin as of hydrogen has entered into combination. Hence the smallest part by weight of chlorin which can combine must weigh at least 35.45 times as much as the weight of the smallest particle of hydrogen which enters into com- bination. The atomic weights of the more common ele- ments are given in the table on page 12. 18. Molecular Weights. — Since the molecules of com- pounds are composed of a definite number of atoms of ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS I 5 elements, and each atom has a definite weight, it neces- sarily follows that a molecule has a definite weight. In the case of water, the formula H 2 represents one mole- cule of water, composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. As the atoms have definite weights, the weight of the molecule H 2 is the sum of the weights of the atoms in the molecule. Since hydrogen is taken as the standard and weighs i, and there are two atoms of hydrogen, and one atom of oxygen weighing 16, the weight of the molecule will be 2 + 16 or 18 ; that is, the molecule of water, H 2 0, is 18 times heavier than one atom of hydrogen. Exercise. — Compute the molecular weights of the compounds given in the exercise following the formulas of the compounds, Sec- tion 16. 19. Law of Definite Proportion. — A study of the com- bination of elements shows that when elements unite to form compounds, a definite weight of each element enters into the composition. This is known as the law of definite proportion. Chemical combination always takes place between definite weights of the elements, and a chemical compound always contains the same elements in exactly the same proportion by weight. The law of definite proportion is one of the fundamental principles of modern chemistry, and has enabled the chemist to deter- mine the composition of bodies. This law is founded upon fact independent of any hypothesis, and the accu- racy of the law has been demonstrated by many investi- gators. The theories relating to the composition of matter, par- ticularly to atoms and molecules, are in harmony with this law of definite proportion. It is believed, since chemical combination occurs between definite masses 1 6 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY of elements, it must also occur between the smallest particles of the substances. Since the smallest particles which enter into chemical composition are the atoms, then chemical combination must take place between the atoms. The atoms all possess definite weights. Hence it can readily be understood why chemical combination takes place between definite weights of the elements. The next step in the study of the composition of matter is the way in which the elements combine, or the power of com- bination ; this is known as valence. 20. Valence. — The valence of elements is the power which an atom of one element has of holding in chem- ical combination a definite number of atoms of other ele- ments. Carbon, for example, has the power of uniting with or holding in chemical combination four hydrogen atoms ; carbon is said, therefore, to have a valence of 4. Elements which have power to hold only one atom of hydrogen in combination are called monovalent. Hydro- gen is a monovalent element. Bivalent, trivalent, tetra- valent, and pentavalent elements are those whose atoms have the power of uniting with 2, 3, 4, and 5 atoms of hydrogen or other monovalent elements. The valence of an element is spoken of as its combining power. Some of the elements have more than one valence. The va- lences of some of the elements are given on page 12. 21. Combination of Elements. — The combination of two elements to form compounds is always governed by the valence of the elements. When calcium and chlorin combine, the combination takes place in a definite way ; calcium has a valence of 2 ; chlorin has a valence of 1 ; hence, in order to make a chemical combination, it will take one atom of Ca, having a valence of 2, to combine with two atoms of CI, each CI atom having a valence ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS 1 7 of i. CaCl 2 is the formula. Calcium could not combine with three atoms of chlorin, because compounds com- posed of two elements are always formed according to the valence of the elements. The valence of calcium, 2, lim- its the number of atoms of chlorin with which it can com- bine. If one of the elements, as oxygen, has a valence of 2, and the other element, as carbon, has a valence of 4, 2 atoms of oxygen, each atom having a valence of 2, will be required to combine with 1 atom of carbon, hav- ing a valence of 4. The formula is CO2. In the for- mulas of compounds, the valences of the atom's uniting are always balanced or satisfied. When two elements combine, and one of them has an odd valence, as phosphorus, which has a valence of 3, two atoms of the element with the odd valence are always required for combination. For example, two phosphorus atoms, each having a valence of 3, making a total valence of 6, require, in order to combine with 0, whose valence is 2, three atoms of 0, which make the valence of 6. The two atoms of phosphorus combine with the three atoms of oxygen, making a balanced compound, and the va- lences of the phosphorus and oxygen are satisfied. The compound is P2O3. Combine according to the lowest valence the following elements, and give the formulas of the compounds pro- duced : Zinc and oxygen Sulfur and oxygen Calcium and oxygen Sodium and chlorin Tin and oxygen • Potassium and chlorin Iron and oxygen Carbon and oxygen Potassium and oxygen Phosphorus and oxygen Silicon and oxygen Iron and sulfur Potassium and sulfur Manganese and sulfur 1 8 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Phosphorus and hydrogen Calcium and chlorin Aluminum and oxygen Phosphorus and oxygen Problem i. — How much hydrogen is required to combine with 20 grams of to form H 2 ? When hydrogen and oxygen unite to form water, the combination takes place according to valence, as follows : 2 atoms of H + 1 atom of equal 1 molecule of water, or 2H + O = H 2 0. An atom of weighs 16 times as much as an atom of H. Two atoms of H and 1 atom of O weigh 18 times as much as an atom of H. The molecular weight of water is 18. Six- teen of these 18 parts, by weight, are 0, or jf are oxygen, which is 88.88 per cent; T 2 g, or 11.12 per cent, being H. In the pro- duction of water, H and O always unite in this proportion. If, for example, 20 grams of and 2 grams of H were brought together, only 16 grams of would enter into chemical combination with the 2 grams of H, and 4 grams of would be left uncombined. The amount of H required to combine with 20 grams of would be obtained from the following proportion, — 2 : 16 : : x : 20, or x = 2.5 grams of H. Problem 2. — (1) Calculate the per cent by weight of C and O in C0 2 . (2) Calculate the per cent of Fe and in Fe 2 3 . (3) Cal- culate the per cent of in KCIO3. CHAPTER III Laboratory Manipulation 22. Importance of Laboratory Practice. — Laboratory practice is an essential part of the study of chemistry. It assists in developing more perfect ideas in regard to the composition of substances, and many of the important facts and laws of chemistry may be demonstrated by the student. The hand, the eye, the nose, and, to a less extent, the ear are all called into use in the laboratory, and this results in a balanced education of the senses. Neatness is absolutely necessary for success in laboratory work. An experiment performed in a slovenly way, with dirty and poorly connected apparatus, and poor mechanical manipulation, fails to give the right impres- sion or result. When laboratory work is in progress it should receive the student's entire attention. The directions for the experiments should be carefully followed. The appara- tus should always be put together as directed, and be- cause of the danger of accident, the student should never take the risk of connecting apparatus in an original way, or of using for the experiment materials other than those directed. The student should never attempt to experi- ment for himself in combining chemicals. 23. Names and Uses of Apparatus. — The various pieces of apparatus used in the experiments are shown in Plates I and II. Number 21 shows the common Bunsen burner, and, at the right, the wing-top attachment, used 19 20 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY in bending glass tubes. Number 24, Plate II, is an iron ring stand with three rings, and No. 25 is a single clamp. The iron stand with rings is used for supporting appara- tus, particularly the sand bath (19) in which there is a thin layer of sand. Evaporating dish (5), beaker (12), and flask (26) are all supported in the various experi- ments upon the sand bath and iron ring stand. In cutting glass tubes and perforating corks, the two files (1 and 2) are employed. Test tube (13) is used extensively in the laboratory, and when heated, is supported with the test- tube clamp (18). This test-tube clamp is held in the hand. The test tube is cleaned with the test-tube brush (17), and when not in use is placed in the test-tube rack (14). When solutions are filtered, the funnel (15) is used, and is supported in the wooden stand (21). Sub- stances are pulverized or mixed in the mortar (16), which is supplied with a pestle. The various gases, as oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, are collected in the small cylinder (10), and in some of the experiments the large cylinder (11) is used. The iron spoon (8) is used for ignition of substances. Crucible tongs (3) are for handling pieces of apparatus when hot. Other pieces of apparatus, Woulff bottle (7), water bath (4), tripod (22), Hessian crucible (20), wide-mouthed bottle (9), and ground glass plate with hole, are used in various ways in the different experiments. Glass rods, thistle tube, pneumatic trough (27), of galvanized iron with pocket to receive excess of water when cylinders are filled with gas, and small squares of plain glass complete the set of apparatus. A few pieces, used only occasionally, are obtained from the instructor or supply clerk at the time the experiments are performed. The student should take an inventory of his apparatus ¥^ ^? LABORATORY MANIPULATION 21 as soon as assigned a place in the laboratory. In case any of the pieces are broken or missing, the attention of the instructor should be called to them. Always, at the close of each day's work, the apparatus should be cleaned, placed in the desk, and the desk locked. The apparatus and desk should be kept in a neat and orderly condition. Untidiness is a frequent cause of failure in laboratory work; neatness and careful attention to details are necessary to success. 24. Cutting Glass Tubing. — Lay the glass tubing on the top of the desk or on any other flat surface. Draw a sharp three-cornered file across it two or three times, always on the same place at which it is to be broken, until a scratch is made through the annealed surface of Fig 1. — Breaking glass tubing. the tubing. Take the tubing in the hands with fingers and a thumb on each side of the scratch (see Fig. 1). The scratch should be nearly between and on the side opposite the thumbs. Pull the hands toward the body as if bending the tubing and at the same time press out- ward with the thumbs. This causes a square break of the tubing. The cut ends of the tubing should then be held in the outer portion of a flame until the rough edges are fused. 22 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 25. Bending Glass Tubing. — Place the wing- top at- tachment on the burner. Hold the tubing in the upper part of the flame as shown in the illustration (Fig. 2), Fig. 3. — Bent tube. Fig. 2. — Bending glass tubing. and rotate so that all parts are heated alike. When the tubing becomes pliable it can be bent in almost any form desired, but if overheated it becomes too soft and collapses. It is always best to bend with- out removing from the flame. A little practice with pieces of old tubing will soon give the necessary experience. Avoid twisting or rapid bending of the tube. Make all bends on the same plane and aim to make well-rounded joints as shown in Fig. 3. 26. Perforating Corks. — Select a cork of suitable size for the test tube or flask used. New corks should always be rolled in the cork press. With the small pointed end of the round file make a hole through the center of the cork, or a little to one side if directed to do so. This hole should be perpendicular to the surface of the cork. In making a hole, the cork should be held in the left hand, and the larger end should be placed against the edge of LABORATORY MANIPULATION 27, the desk. The file should be held in the right hand, and only enough pressure exerted to perforate the cork. The opening thus made may be enlarged with the round file until the desired size is obtained. The hole should be a suggestion smaller than the tube it is to receive, which can be inserted easily if well annealed and wet. When inserting a tube in a cork, never push the tube toward the palm of the hand, or use too much pressure, as severe cuts may be received from breaking the glass. Hold the cork in Fig. 4. — inserting glass the left hand as shown in Fig. 4, then with the right hand carefully insert the tube. Perforated rubber stoppers of the requisite size may be used in nearly all of the experiments in place of cork stoppers, and while the initial cost is more, a saving of time is effected. 27. Weighing. — In this work, the metric system is employed, and it is taken for granted that the student is familiar with the system ; if he is not, he should review the subject as given in any ordinary arithmetic. Note. — 1 kilo = 2.2046 lbs. (avoirdupois). 1 oz. = 28.45 g ms - 1 lb. = 453-59 gms. 1 liter = 1.05708 U. S. quarts. 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters. 1 meter = 39.3808 inches. The small balance used for weighing materials in these experiments is shown in Fig. 5. In case 5 grams of a material are to be weighed, prepare counterpoised papers, about 3 by 4 inches in size ; that is, two pieces of paper of exactly the same size to be placed on opposite sides of the balance. If they do not weigh alike, remove 24 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Fig. 5. — Balance. small pieces of the paper from the heavier pan, until the needle moves nearly as many divisions on one side of the scale as on the other. Then place, with the forceps, the 5- gram weight on the right-hand pan of the balance. Do not handle the weights with the fingers. By means of the scoop or spoon provided for the pur- pose, add to the paper in the left-hand pan of the balance enough of the material that is to be weighed to counterpoise the 5 -gram weight. If any of the substance has been spilled, it should be cleaned up at once. The weight should be replaced in the weight box and the forceps returned to their proper place. No sub- stance except a piece of metal, as copper or lead, should ever be placed in direct contact with the balance pan. Liquids are never weighed, but always measured. Too much care and neatness can- not be exercised in weighing. 28. Measuring Liquids. — For purposes of measuring, cylinders or graduates are em- ployed (Fig. 6). A large test tube, when filled with water, holds from 60 to 65 cc. In a measuring cylinder or graduate (Fig. 6), measure out 5 cc. of water, and transfer to a large test tube. Note the quantity, and then pour it out. Now draw water directly into the test tube until you have ap- proximately the same amount, then measure it. Re- peat this operation until you can judge with a fair I- 'i — n Fig. 6. — Measuring cylinder. LABORATORY MANIPULATION 25 degree of accuracy the part of a test tube filled by 5 cc. Repeat the operation, using 10, 15, 20, and 25 cc. portions, until the eye has become reasonably fa- miliar with the approximate and relative amounts ; so that, if at any time a graduate is not at hand, the amounts can be estimated with the eye accurately enough for practical purposes. 29. Obtaining Reagents from Bottles. — Take the bottle from the shelf, remove the stopper, holding it between the first and second fingers of the right or left hand (Fig. 7). Hold the test tube or vessel that is to receive the reagent in the other hand. Pour the liquid slowly until the de- sired amount is obtained. Because of danger of con- taminating the reagents, it is always better to pour the liquid slowly and secure the right amount at first rather than to pour back from the receiving vessel. Replace the test tube in the stand or receiver on the desk ; then, before inserting the stopper, touch it to the neck of the bottle to catch the few drops on the edge, to prevent them from dripping down the sides of the bottle, and on to the shelf. Be sure to replace the bottle on the shelf in its proper place. Much annoyance and delay are caused by not returning the bottles to their proper places. 30. Filtering. — Place the funnel on the arm of the wooden stand. Fold a filter paper so as to make a semi- Fig. 7. — Pouring liquid from bottle. 26 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY circle (see Figs. 8 and 9). Fold the paper again, forming a quadrant (Fig. 10). Then open it as shown in Fig. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Folding filter paper. Fig. id. 11. Place the filter paper in the funnel, using a little water to make it adhere to the sides. Place a beaker or cylinder under the funnel so as to collect the nitrate, or liquid which passes through the filter paper (Fig. 12). Pour the material to be fil- tered into the filter paper in the funnel. Do not fill the filter too full. An eighth of an inch or so should always be left between the surface of the liquid and the edge of the paper. The stem of the funnel should touch the side of the Fig. 11. — Folded filter paper. Fig. 12. — Filtering. LABORATORY MANIPULATION 27 beaker or cylinder so as to avoid spattering. The mate- rial left on the filter paper is called the precipitate or residue. 31. Laboratory Notebook. — Each student should keep a careful record of his laboratory work. The note- book should be complete and should represent the student's individual work. With each experiment a number of questions are asked, and the record of the ex- periment should embody the answers to these questions. Do not make short answers, as " yes " and "no," but make a complete statement, giving an intelligent answer to the question. Do not copy the laboratory directions into your notebook, but state briefly and concisely, (i) what the experiment is about, (2) the materials used, (3) the apparatus employed, (4) what you have observed in mak- ing the experiment, (5) the chemical and other changes that have taken place, and finally what the experiment proves. In writing up the notebook, it is not necessary to separate the topics, but all the questions should be numbered and answered in the order asked. Write out each experiment at the time it is performed, and while the work is in progress, watch it and think about it. Do not leave or neglect an experiment. When the experi- ments are performed as called for from day to day, the labor of preparing the daily recitation is considerably lessened, and less effort is required to obtain a clear idea of the subject. The notebook should be kept in a neat and orderly way. Careful attention should be given to spelling, English, and punctuation. Always have the notebook in condition for examination if the books are called for without notice. The instructor will mark all errors, and the student should correct them. A note- book with errors that have been corrected, representing 28 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY the student's individual work, is much to be preferred to a notebook copied from some other student, and having but few errors. Each student has an individuality which always marks his work, and whenever copying of experiments is resorted to, it can be detected by the instructor. The student who copies from some one else only cheats himself, and usually fails to pass his exam- inations. 32. Breaking of Apparatus. — If due care is taken in performing the experiments, there will be but little breakage of apparatus. In case an accident occurs, clean up the broken pieces at once and place them in the waste jar. If a liquid is spilled, wipe it up with a sponge, using plenty of water. If a strong acid is spilled, a little dilute ammonia should be used in the final washing. No combustible materials should be placed in the desk, and the student should throw burned matches and splinters into the receptacles provided for the purpose. 33. Care of Sinks and Plumbing. — Do not throw waste matter of any description, as paper, glass, matches, etc., into the sinks. Large waste jars, for such materials, are provided under every sink and elsewhere. Everything liable to clog the drains must be thrown into these jars. Liquids containing acids may be safely thrown into the sinks, provided a stream of water is kept running at the same time to dilute and wash down the acids. When acids are poured into the sinks, care should be taken to prevent spattering of the liquid, as severe burns are sometimes received when the liquid is not properly poured from the vessel. If directions are followed, no accidents can occur. Do not fill the sinks too full. The water should never be allowed to come to within 2 inches of the top of the LABORATORY MANIPULATION 2Q sinks. If the sinks overflow, they cause much damage to the rooms below. Students who disregard the regula- tions in regard to plumbing and the use of sinks will be held responsible and must pay for any damage caused by carelessness or negligence. 34. How to Accomplish the Best Results in the Lab- oratory. — In order to accomplish the best results, the student, while in the laboratory, should endeavor to use his time profitably and economically. He should obtain a clear idea of what he is to do, and then do it to the best of his ability. If the experiment is not a success, repeat the work. Never pass over an experiment that offers difficulties in performing. Much valuable time can be saved by a brief study of the day's work before going into the laboratory. While the work is in progress, the student should give it undivided attention, and make an effort to learn as much as possible from the experiments performed. CHAPTER IV Oxygen 35. Occurrence. — Oxygen is the most abundant ele- ment in nature. About seventy-seven per cent of the air, by weight, is free or uncombined oxygen. It enters into the composition of water, rocks, and minerals, ana plant and animal bodies. Eight ninths of water and one half of the solid crust of the earth are oxygen in combination with other elements. Oxygen is also present in all animal and plant tissue, making up a large portion of the weight of these bodies. 36. Preparation. — Oxygen can be prepared from a number of materials, as oxid of mercury and potassium chlorate. When made in small amounts in the laboratory, it is generally prepared by heating potassium chlorate, a compound composed of the elements potas- sium, chlorin, and oxygen. The oxygen is separated by means of heat, the process being as follows : Fig. 13. — Delivery tube. Experiment 1. — Fuse the end of a piece of glass tubing, 2\ or 3 feet long. Make a bend nearly at right angles to the tube, about 3 inches from one end. Then make a second bend of 2\ or 3 inches on the opposite end of the tube nearly at right angles, and 30 OXYGEN 31 in an opposite direction from the first bend (Fig. 13). Fit to the test tube a cork, as directed in Section 26, and insert the delivery tube. Fill the pneumatic trough nearly full of water, and place in it the free end of the delivery tube (Fig. 14). Weigh out 5 grams each of potassium chlorate (KC10 3 ) and manganese dioxid (Mn0 2 ). Mix Fig. 14. — Preparation of oxygen. Pneumatic trough. on a sheet of paper, and place the mixture in a test tube. See that the test tube is perfectly dry, both inside and out. Fill the cylin- ders with water, cover with glass plates, and place them inverted on the shelf of the pneumatic trough. With a medium-sized flame, apply heat cautiously to the test tube. The flame should be moved from time to time, and not allowed to strike just one part of the test tube, otherwise the glass will melt, and the test tube collapse. As soon as bubbles of gas are given off freely from the water, place the end of the delivery tube so that the gas is collected in one of the cylinders. When a cylinder is filled, cover it with a glass plate, while the mouth of the cylinder is still under water. The cylinder can then be placed upright upon the desk, and another filled with O. After collecting three or four cylinders of gas, remove the end of the delivery tube from the water, and then remove the flame. Do not remove the flame while the end of the delivery tube is under water, or a vacuum will be formed, and the water will rush back into the test tube. Tests should be made with O as follows : (1) Light a splinter and place it for a moment in one of the cylin- ders of oxygen (see Fig. 15) ; remove it; extinguish the flame, and while the splinter is still glowing, thrust it again into the cylinder. Observe the result in each case. (2) Put a small piece of sulfur, a little larger than a grain of wheat, into the iron or deflagration 3 2 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY spoon ; ignite in the flame, and thrust into the second cylinder of O. Observe the result. (3) Take a piece of bright fine iron wire or watch-spring, and make it into a spiral with a loop at one end. Warm the wire by holding it near the flame, then hold the loop for an in- stant in the flame and dip it into some sulfur which has been placed on a piece of paper. Hold again in the flame for a moment and then place at once in the third cylinder of O. In order to insure the success of this experiment, the wire should be very fine, free from rust, and held in the flame only long enough to start ignition, and then placed in the cylinder. Questions. — (1) Where does the in the cylinder come from? (2) What caused it to separate from the compound ? (3) What is the appearance of O ? (4) Compared with air, is it a light or a heavy gas ? (5) What caused the splinter to burn and to rekindle ? (6) What product was formed when the splinter was burned? (7) What caused the sulfur to burn ? (8) What product was Fig. 15. — Testing oxygen with burning splinter. Fig. 16. — Preparation of oxygen, using sink in place of pneumatic trough. formed when the S was burned ? (9) Why do these materials burn differently in than in air ? (10) What caused the iron to burn, and OXYGEN 33 what was formed ? (n) Is O combustible ? (12) Is O a supporter of combustion ? (13) What compounds are always formed by the union of O with an element? (14) Give the properties and char- acteristics of O as observed from this experiment. The oxygen in potassium chlorate is not held in firm chemical combination, and when the substance is heated, first a part, and finally all, of the oxygen is given off. Manganese dioxid is used because of its physical action upon potassium chlorate, enabling the oxygen to be given off more easily. The change which takes place is expressed by the equation : KC10 3 = KC1 + 3 O. The products of the reaction are potassium chlorid and oxygen. The oxygen is collected in the cylinders, while the potassium chlorid remains with the manganese dioxid in the test tube. 37. Properties of Oxygen. — Physically considered, oxygen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas, about 16 times as heavy as hydrogen. It is slightly soluble in water, and, when subjected to low temperature and high pressure, it is liquefied. Chemically, oxygen unites with all common elements to form oxids. It is not com- bustible, but is a supporter of combustion. When the burning splinter was thrust into the cylinder of oxygen, the carbon and hydrogen of the wood united with the oxygen in the cylinder, forming carbon dioxid and water. When substances unite with oxygen they are oxidized; that is, oxygen is added to the material. An oxid is a compound of oxygen and any other element. When sul- fur is burned, it unites with oxygen, forming sulfur dioxid, S0 2 . Other elements, as phosphorus and iron, also unite with oxygen, forming oxids. Different elements unite with oxygen at different temperatures. Phosphorus and sulfur combine with oxygen at a comparatively low temperature, while carbon and iron require a higher temperature. The sulfur and the splinter of wood burned more brilliantly in the oxygen than in the air because air 34 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY is diluted with other gases and elements and is not pure oxygen. Oxygen is more active at a high than at a low temperature. Oxidation of some of the elements and compounds results in the production of light and heat, and this is commonly called combustion, although it does not necessarily follow that when a substance contains oxygen it is combustible, because it may be the product of com- bustion, as carbon dioxid or sulfur dioxid. Oxygen forms stable compounds with many of the elements. It has such affinity for some elements, as aluminum and carbon, that it is separated from them with difficulty. With other elements it forms less stable compounds. When an element, as oxygen, enters into chemical combination, it loses its identity or individuality as an element. The oxygen in the minerals forming the crust of the earth, and in plant and animal tissues, is not free, but combined with other elements. 38. Importance. — Oxygen takes an important part in life affairs, and is necessary to the existence of plant and animal bodies. The combustion of wood, coal, and other fuel is due to the oxygen of the air. The production of heat in the body is due to oxidation of food, and many of the chemical changes which take place in the soil are dependent upon this element. Because of its wide distri- bution in nature, it is not given such economic considera- tion as are other elements, but it is one of the most im- portant, and is as necessary for life as other food. Problem 1. — How many pounds of oxygen are required to com- bine with 25 pounds of pure carbon ? When carbon is burned, 1 part of C (called an atom) unites with 2 parts of O (2 atoms of O) to form the compound C0 2 . This is expressed by the equation C + 2 O = C0 2 . The atomic or least combining weight of carbon OXYGEN 35 is 1 2 and of O is 16 ; one part by weight of C weighing 1 2 unites with 2 parts by weight of O, each part weighing 16; or 12 parts by weight of C unite with 32 parts by weight of O. If the parts are designated pounds, then 25 pounds of C will require proportionally as much O as do 12 pounds of C. This amount can be determined by a simple proportion. C:0::C:0 12 : 32 : : 25 : x By solving this proportion, x, or the required amount of O to com- bine with 25 pounds of C, is found to be 66f . In the solving of chemical problems some of the most common errors are: (1) Failure to write properly the formulas of the compounds used, or the equation repre- senting the chemical reaction that takes place. This error causes the wrong number of parts of elements or compounds to be taken in the proportion. (2) Failure to make proper use of the combining weights of the ele- ments. (3) Failure to combine properly the weights so as to form a true proportion. It should be remembered that after the writing of the equation and weights, the problem becomes simply one of arithmetic. Problem 2. — How many pounds of C0 2 are produced when 25 pounds of carbon are burned ? Problem 3. — How many pounds of carbon are necessary to com- bine with 25 pounds of O in forming C0 2 ? CHAPTER V Hydrogen 39. Occurrence. — Hydrogen is found in nature in com- bination with other elements, entering into the composi- tion of water, animal and plant tissues, and some min- erals. It is never in a free state, except as given off in traces with volcanic gases. Hydrogen is an essential part of all acids and of many other compounds. 40. Preparation. — In the laboratory, hydrogen is usually prepared by treating a metal with an acid which contains hydrogen ; the metal replaces the hydrogen of the acid, and the hydrogen is then liberated as a free gas. When zinc and hydrochloric acid are employed, the reac- tion which takes place is as follows : Zn + 2 HC1 = ZnCl 2 + 2 H. Two molecules of hydrochloric acid are required in the reaction because zinc has a valence of 2 and whenever zinc enters into chemical combination, it must take the place of two monovalent atoms. The compound, ZnCl 2 , zinc chlorid, contains one atom of zinc and two atoms of chlorin. Experiment 2. — Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 17. Use a small two-necked Woulff bottle, and in one of the necks in- sert a tight-fitting cork with a thistle tube. In the other neck insert a cork carrying a delivery tube. Place about 20 grams of zinc, Zn, and 25 cc. of water in the Woulff bottle. The thistle tube should pass below the surface of the water to prevent the escape of gas. Fill two or three cylinders with water for collecting the gas. The corks carrying the delivery tube and the thistle tube should fit tightly, otherwise the H is easily lost. When all is ready, add, 36 HYDROGEN 37 through the thistle tube, about 15 cc. concentrated hydrochloric acid (HC1), and then sufficient water to carry the acid out of the trap of the thistle tube. Do not apply any heat whatever. Do not collect any gas until the generator has been going for about two minutes, and do not attempt to light the gas as it issues from the generator. Col- lect one or two cylinders of gas, adding more acid if necessary, always keeping the cylinders covered, mouth downward, because Fig. 17. — Apparatus for preparation of hydrogen. H is a light gas, and will readily escape if the cylinders are placed right side up. When working with hydrogen in the laboratory, the student should always exercise care, because mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen are very explosive. Only a spark or a near-by flame is necessary to bring about an explosion. Make the following test with hydrogen : Thrust a burn- ing splinter into the mouth of the cylinder of hydrogen, as shown in Fig. 18. Questions. — (1) What is the color of H? (2) Odor? (3) Is it a light or heavy gas ? (4) Does it support combustion ? (5) Is it combustible ? (6) What is formed when H is burned ? (7) How do you know that this product is formed ? (8) From what com- 38 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY pound was the H obtained ? (9) What caused the H to be liberated from this compound? (10) Why are mixtures of H and O very- explosive ? (11) What other acids could be used in the preparation of H ? (12) What other metals could be used in the preparation of H ? (13) Give the equation for the reaction of Zn and HC1. (14) What do these tests prove in regard to the character and properties of the element H ? Fig. 18. — Thrusting burning splinter into hydrogen. 41. Properties. — Physically, hydrogen is characterized as a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It is the lightest in weight of any of the elements, and for that reason is taken as the standard for the atomic weights. At a low temperature, and under pressure, hydrogen can be liquefied, with greater difficulty, however, than any other element. Hydrogen is 14.43 times lighter than air. A liter of hydrogen, under standard conditions of tempera- ture and pressure, weighs 0.08961 gram. Chemically, HYDROGEN 39 hydrogen is characterized as combustible, but not a sup- porter of combustion. It readily combines with many other elements, particularly oxygen, with which it forms water. When hydrogen and oxygen unite to form water, a reaction takes place which causes a contraction in vol- ume. Two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxy- gen unite to produce two volumes of water vapor or steam. When hydrogen and oxygen unite, there is always an explosion, due to contraction in volume. That water is pro- duced when hydrogen is burned, can be dem- onstrated by placing a dry test tube over a flame of hydrogen. The interior of the test tube will become covered with moisture. Hydro- gen does not unite with all elements as readily as does oxygen. When hydrogen is burned, the flame is nearly colorless Fig. io. — Preparation of hydrogen, using a because Combustion is wide-mouthed bottle and sink in place of com plete, and there are a Woulff bottle and pneumatic trough. in the flame no solid particles heated to incandescence. Hydrogen produces a very hot flame, and, when mixed with oxygen in the right proportion, as in the oxyhydrogen blowpipe, a high tem- perature is secured. 42. Importance. — Hydrogen is one of the essential elements for the formation of compounds in plant and animal tissues, but because of its extreme lightness it never makes up a large portion by weight of a material. As a free element, it takes no part in life processes, but 4° AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY when combined with water, and in other forms, as in food materials where it is united with carbon and oxygen, it is an essential part of compounds which are of much importance for animal and plant life. Problem i. — How many pounds of H will ioo pounds of Zn liberate when it is acted upon by H 2 S0 4 ? Problem 2. — How much ZnCl 2 is formed when 100 pounds of Zn are acted upon by HC1 ? CHAPTER VI Nitrogen 43. Occurrence. — Nitrogen occurs abundantly in a free state in the air, nearly 23 per cent by weight being uncom- bined nitrogen. It also forms a part of some of the com- pounds which make up animal and plant tissues, where it is in chemical combination with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Nitrogen is present also in the soil, forming a part of the decaying organic matter. It is one of the ele- ments of ammonia gas and ammonium compounds, and is in combination with other elements, as in nitrates. 44. Preparation. — Nitrogen is usually prepared from air by removing the oxygen with which it forms a me- chanical mixture. Since air is composed of both oxygen and nitrogen, if the oxygen in a given volume of air, as in a cylinder, is chemically united with phosphorus or carbon, forming soluble products, there is a residue of nitrogen left in the cylinder. Nitrogen produced in this way is not pure, but contains traces of other elements and compounds. For experimental purposes, it may, how- ever, be considered nitrogen. Nitrogen can also be produced from its compounds, as by the removal of the hydrogen from ammonia gas. The method of prepara- tion in the laboratory is as follows : Experiment 3. — Insert a long pin through the center of a large flat cork. Fasten a short piece of candle to the cork by means of the pin. Nearly fill the pneumatic trough with water. Light the candle and float it upon the surface of the water. Invert a large cylinder over the candle, having the mouth of the cylinder just 4i 42 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY below the surface of the water, as shown in Fig. 20. After the candle is extinguished, remove it with the hand, reaching through the water into the cylinder without admitting any air. While the cylinder is still under water, cover it with a glass plate and remove from the trough. Then make the following tests : (1) Insert a burning splinter into the cylinder of N. Observe the result. (2) Place a little sulfur in the deflagration spoon, ignite, and insert in the cylinder of N. Observe the result. (3) With a Fig. 20. — Preparation of nitrogen. ruler, measure the height of the cylinder and the amount of water left in the cylinder. Questions. — (1) What is the color of N ? (2) Odor? (3) Com- pared with air is it a heavy or a light gas ? (4) Is it combustible ? (5) Does N support combustion ? (6) Is N an active element ? (7) What portion of the cylinder is filled with water in the prepa- ration of N ? (8) What portion of the cylinder is filled with N ? (9) What portion of the cylinder did the O occupy? (10) What becomes of the products of combustion of the candle? (11) What do these experiments prove in regard to the element N ? (12) Com- plete the following table : Color. Taste. Combus- Supporter of Where found. Name of Svmbol Combin- element. y * ing wt. »-«"»■ tible. combustion. Oxygen Nitrogen Hydrogen When the candle is burned, the oxygen of the air in the cylinder unites with the carbon and hydrogen from the candle and forms NITROGEN 43 carbon dioxid and water. The C0 2 is soluble in water, and the gas that is left is mainly nitrogen. The combination of the oxygen with the carbon causes a partial vacuum to form, and this results in the water rising in the cylinder. If great care is taken in per- forming the experiment, it will be found that the water fills about one fifth of the cylinder, occupying the space of the oxygen which has been combined with the carbon. When all of the oxygen in the cylinder is combined with the carbon, the candle is extinguished because of lack of oxygen for 'combustion. 45. Properties of Nitrogen. — In general, the physical properties of nitrogen, except weight, are somewhat like those of hydrogen and oxygen, inasmuch as when pure, it is colorless, tasteless, and odorless. It is about 14 times as heavy as hydrogen, and only slightly soluble in water. At a low temperature and under pressure, it is liquefied, and at a still lower temperature and under higher pressure, it is solidified. Chemically, nitrogen is unlike either hydrogen or oxy- gen. It is an inactive gas ; it is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. When in the free state, it is one of the most inactive of all the elements, and will com- bine directly with only a few. When nitrogen enters into combination with other elements, particularly with carbon and hydrogen, forming the organic compounds, it has a tendency to make a weak link in the combination, and will readily split off to form simpler products. In the air, it serves the purpose of diluting the oxygen. No other element could perform this function so well as nitrogen. If the air were composed of pure oxygen, all combustion would be carried on in a rapid and wasteful manner. Nitrogen is not a poisonous gas, but if an animal were compelled to breathe pure nitrogen, it would die for need of oxygen. Some of the compounds of nitrogen decompose with violence, causing explosions. Nearly 44 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY all the explosives, as gunpowder, nitroglycerin, and gun- cotton, are compounds of nitrogen. 46. Importance. — The compounds of nitrogen take an important part in animal and plant life. In combination with carbon, hydrogen, and other elements, nitrogen forms the nitrogenous compounds of plant and animal bodies. These compounds are called organic nitrogenous compounds because they are capable of undergoing combustion, and they produce volatile and gaseous products when burned. In the study of foods, and of soils and fertilizers, the element nitrogen is given a prominent place. This is because it is one of the most expensive elements in com- mercial fertilizers, and foods which contain nitrogenous compounds are the most expensive. Although nitrogen is found uncombined in the air, it is made use of as a plant food by only a limited number of plants, and then in an indirect way. Nitrogen forms a large number of important compounds, as ammonia, nitrates, nitrites, amids, and the complex organic compounds, proteids. Some of these will be studied more in detail in future chapters. To the agricultural student, nitrogen is one of the most important elements because of the role which it plays in plant and animal economy. Problem 1. — Calculate the per cent of N in NaNC>3. Problem 2. — Calculate the per cent of N in NH 3 . Problem 3. — Calculate the per cent of N in (NH^SO^ CHAPTER VII Carbon 47. Occurrence. — Carbon is found in the free state in limited amounts only, but is mainly in combination with other elements. With the metals and oxygen, it forms carbonates, such as calcium carbonate or limestone. With hydrogen and oxygen, and a few other elements, it forms a large number of compounds of which plant and animal tissues are composed. All substances which char or blacken when burned contain carbon in combi- nation. Diamonds, coal, and graphite are forms of this element in various degrees of purity. With oxygen, it is present in the air in small amounts as carbon dioxid. About half of the dry substance of wood and animal tissue is carbon. It occurs in nature in a great variety of forms. 48. Preparation. — In the form of charcoal, carbon can be prepared from wood, by application of heat in the absence of air or oxygen, when a change known as destructive distillation takes place. The hydrogen, oxy- gen, and nitrogen of the wood are expelled, and a black mass of impure carbon and mineral matter is left. To make charcoal, wood is piled and burned in suitable pits, which, after the combustion is well started, are covered with turf to protect the burning mass from the air. Char- coal can be produced on a small scale in the laboratory, in the following manner : 45 4 6 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Experiment 4. — Place two or three small pieces of wood in a Hessian crucible, and cover with sand. Heat the crucible until smoking ceases (see Fig. 21). Remove and examine the charcoal. Questions. — (1) What are the principal elements in wood? (2) What becomes of these various elements when the material is heated ? (3 ) Why was sand used in this exper- iment ? (4) What becomes of the ash or mineral matter in the process of charcoal making ? (5) What is charcoal, and of what element is it prin- cipally composed ? (6) Does charcoal have a crys- talline structure ? (7) What would be the result if sand were not used in the experiment ? (8) Give the equation for the combustion of carbon. (9) How can charcoal be made on a large scale ? Particles of carbon may also be obtained from a gas, candle, or lamp flame, by holding a piece of cold porcelain a little above the flame. Carbon, in the form of soot, is deposited in chimneys when fuel is burned with a poor draft. When combus- tion is complete, the carbon is oxidized, forming carbon dioxid. If a fire gives off a large amount of dense black smoke, the carbon is not com- pletely oxidized, and consequently there is a loss of fuel value. Fig. 21. — Prepara tion of charcoal 49. Properties. — Carbon is found in three forms in nature : as diamond, graphite, and amorphous carbon. The diamond is a pure form of crystallized carbon. It can be burned like any other form of the element, and produces carbon dioxid. Diamonds of small size are produced artificially by the cooling of graphite from molten iron. Graphite also is a crystalline form of carbon, but the crystals are of different shape and color from diamond crystals. Graphite is soft, and is used extensively as a lubricant. As it does not burn as readily as other forms of carbon, it is used, too, for making crucibles and for the linings of furnaces. It is a natural product and also is produced artificially by dissolving carbon in iron. CARBON 47 There are a great many uncrystallized or amorphous forms of carbon, as lignite and soft coal, lampblack, and charcoal. 50. Coal. — All the conditions under which coal has been produced are not known. It is supposed to be the result of the joint action of heat and pressure upon pre- historic forms of vegetation. Hard or anthracite coal is the purest form known, and yields the least ash and unoxidized volatile products. Bituminous or soft coal is less pure, as more of the carbon is in chemical combina- tion with the other elements, and when burned, the carbon is not as completely oxidized under ordinary conditions as is that of hard coal. Coal may contain a number of impurities, as sulfur and mineral matter. Cannel coal is a variety which contains a large amount of mineral oils. Lignite is vegetable matter which has only partially undergone the coal-forming process. It is less pure than soft coal, and is supposed to be an intermediate stage in its formation. Peat is vegetable matter which has undergone chemical changes under water. It has a lower fuel value than lignite. 51. Allotropism. — An element which has the power to take on so many different physical forms as has carbon is called an allotropic element. Only a few elements have the properties of allotropism. 52. Carbon as a Reducing Agent. — Carbon is used extensively for the reduction of minerals. It unites with the oxygen of minerals and ores to form carbon dioxid. In the reduction of iron ore, the oxide of iron is heated with carbon in the form of coke. The ore is reduced by giving up its oxygen to the carbon. When reduc- tion takes place oxygen is removed by a reducing agent, while oxidation is the chemical union of oxygen 4 8 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY \\4th a substance. The action of carbon as a reduc- ing agent may be observed from the following experi- ment : Experiment 5. — Mix thoroughly 2 or 3 grams of copper oxid # (CuO) and an equal bulk of charcoal (animal charcoal). Place the mixture in a small test tube and apply heat. Observe the result. Questions. — (1) What is the bright red material produced in the test tube ? (2) What was the source of this material ? (3) What caused the O to be separated from this compound ? (4) What did it unite with ? (5) What was formed as the product ? (6) Write the reaction. (7) Why is carbon called a reducing agent ? (8) What kind of an agent would CuO be called ? (9) Why is carbon useful in separating minerals from their ores ? ^d&SLSUBgg 53. Combustion. — Combustion, in the ordinary sense, is simply the union of carbon with oxygen, and, as a result, light and heat are given off. If the process is A slow, and heat without / 1 light is evolved, it is ^==znr~~ slow oxidation, and the total amount of heat generated is the same as if the material underwent direct combus- tion. An example of slow oxidation is the rusting of metals. The regulation of drafts in stoves to influence the combustion of fuel so as to obtain the largest amount of heat, is based upon the simple laws of the combustion of carbon. A candle or gas flame well illustrates the laws of combustion. The outer portion of the flame is a non -luminous envelope of gases undergoing perfect com- bustion ; within this is a layer of gases undergoing partial combustion, and constituting the light-giving part of the Fig. 22. — Com- bustion. CARBON 49 7 A flame ; while in the center is a zone which is more perfectly cut off from the air, and little or no combustion is taking place. The combustion of a gas or candle flame may be studied from the following experiment : Experiment 6. — Structure of the flame. Unscrew the top of a Bunsen burner and make a drawing showing how the burner works, and the workings of the ori- •_^== ^ fices at the bottom of the burner. Replace the parts of the burner, open the air- holes at the base, and light the gas. Hold a sheet of paper back of the flame and try to distinguish the three parts: (i) the outer non-luminous en- velope of perfect combustion; (2) the inner lumi- nous zone of partial combustion ; (3) the central blue cone of unburned gas. Make a drawing of the flame. Press a piece of card board or paper down upon the flame for an instant and remove it before it takes fire. Observe the result. Hold a piece of wire close to the burner and observe that at first the wire does not become red at the center of the flame. Thrust the head of a match into the center of the flame for an in- stant and then remove it. If this is done quickly, the match can be removed before combustion takes place. Place a piece of wire gauze above the flame as shown in Fig. 23. Observe the result. Extinguish the gas. Hold the wire gauze about an inch above the burner, then light the gas above the gauze (Fig. 22). Questions. — (1) Why was a charred circle formed when the piece of paper was pressed down upon the flame ? (2) Why did the wire first redden near the outer portions of the flame and not at the center ? (3) Why did the flame refuse to burn above the wire gauze when the gauze was pressed down upon the flame ? (4) When the gas was lighted above the gauze, why did it refuse to burn below ? (5) What is kindling temperature ? (6) What are the three con- ditions necessary for combustion ? (7) What condition was lacking when the gauze was placed in the flame ? (8) Why does a flame give light when air is excluded from the burner, and give but little light when the air vent is open ? (9) Does the amount of light which E Fig. 23. — Com- bustion. 50 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY a flame produces indicate the amount of heat produced ? Why ? (10) What causes a flame to give light ? (n) Why do some mate- rials, when burned, produce more flame than others? (12) What is spontaneous combustion ? (13) Explain how it is possible for clover or fodder to undergo spontaneous combustion in a barn. (14) What can be done to prevent spontaneous combustion ? (15) Carbon, when burned, produces heat ; limestone, CaC0 3 , contains carbon ; why is it not possible to use limestone for fuel ? 54. Spontaneous Combustion. — In order for a sub- stance to undergo combustion, it is not always necessary for a match or a flame to be applied to it. As soon as it is heated to its kindling temperature, that is, the tem- perature at which it unites with oxygen, if in the presence of air, combustion takes place, called spontaneous com- bustion. Clover, when stored in a damp condition, may undergo spontaneous combustion. The fermentation which takes place produces combustible gases which, at suitable temperature, ignite, and the burning gases, in turn, ignite the carbon of the material. Substances containing a great deal of oil and materials of low kindling temperature, as carbon bisulfid, phosphorus and sulfur, under suitable conditions of tem- perature and air, readily undergo SpOntan- FiG. 24 .-Candle eQUS com b US tion. flame. 3. Non- luminous cone. In case of fire, the laws governing com- 4. Luminous fortiori should be taken advantage of. If line. 5,6. Outer . & non-luminous the fire is a small one, cut oft the supply of envelope. a i rj anc [ ^he -Q re [ s extinguished. This can be accomplished by the use of sand, wet blankets, or any material that will cut off the supply of air. In order for spontaneous combustion to take place, there must be (1) a combustible substance, which (2) is heated CARBON 51 to its kindling temperature, (3) in the presence of air. 55. Carbon a Decolorizer and Deodorizer. — Wood and animal charcoal have the power of absorbing gases and coloring materials from solutions. In the manufacture of sugar, a part of the impurities are removed by bone- black or animal charcoal filters, and in purifying water, charcoal filters are often used. The power of carbon to abstract gases and coloring matter is largely a physical property. In the soil, the carbon compounds decay and produce humus, which has some of the power of charcoal to absorb gases and soluble bodies. Experiment 7. — Place in a cylinder 2 grams of animal charcoal and about 1 cc. cochineal solution diluted with 10 cc. water. Cover the cylinder with a glass plate and shake ; then pour the contents of the cylinder into a filter. If the first of the filtrate is not clear, pass it through the filter a second time. Repeat the experiment, using 2 cc. potassium sulfid solution, 2 cc. hydrochloric acid, and 10 cc. water in place of the dilute cochineal solution. Questions. — (1) What effect did the animal charcoal have upon the color of the solution ? (2) What property of animal charcoal does this show ? (3) What was the result of filtering the potassium sulfid solution ? (4) What property of animal charcoal does this show ? 56. Products of Combustion. — The carbon dioxid gas given off from either a candle or a gas flame can be col- lected by arranging an apparatus like that shown in Fig. 25. A metal funnel is connected with a delivery tube which passes near the surface of a solution of lime water, Ca(OH) 2 , in a test tube. The carbon dioxid given Fig. 25. — Collecting carbon dioxid from candle. 52 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Fig. 26. — Obtaining unburned gas from candle. off from the flame passes into the lime water, and, by form- ing calcium carbonate, causes it to become cloudy. Ca(OH) 2 + C0 2 = CaC0 3 + H 2 0. The carbon comes from the gas, which under- goes combustion, and is com- bined with hydrogen as hydro- carbons. That a candle pro- duces its own combustible gases can be proved by collect- ing some of the gas with a glass tube and rubber bulb as shown in Fig. 26. This gas can then be burned as in- dicated in Fig. 27. The hy- drogen of gas or a candle forms H 2 during combustion, and can be collected by passing the products of combus- tion through suitable absorbents. If a dry test tube is held above the flame, a little mois- ture will collect on the sides of the test tube. 57. Compounds of Carbon. — Chemi- cally, carbon forms a very large number of compounds, more, in fact, than any other element. The carbon compounds in plant and animal tissues are studied in a divi- sion of chemistry known as organic chemistry, while those compounds of car- bon which are in combination with the mineral elements, as calcium, sodium, and potassium, are studied in a division termed inorganic chemistry. No well-defined bound- ary line, however, can be established between these two divisions of chemistry. Fig. 27. — Com- bustion of gas from candle. CARBON 53 58. Importance of Carbon. — The carbon compounds take a very important part in animal and plant growth. And commercially, they are of great importance, as they are found in foods, fuels, and in all animal and plant products. Carbon is present in plant and animal bodies in larger amounts than any other element. Carbon is the element essential for the production of heat when fuels and foods are oxidized. Carbon is in the air in the form of carbon dioxid in sufficient amounts for the production of crops. It is also in human and animal foods in large amounts ; but because of its abundance, and its distribution in balanced form, it has not been considered of so much importance economically in the production of plants as nitrogen. It is, however, equally important, although its natural distribution is such that it does not require so much effort, on the part of man, to obtain it as it does other forms of plant food materials. Nevertheless, the carbon compounds, particularly in food materials, should not be disregarded or considered of little or no importance because of their abundance. In studying foods and soils and fertilizers the student will find some of the compounds of carbon considered more in detail. CHAPTER VIII Water 59. Chemical Composition. — That water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in approximately the proportion of 2 volumes of H to 1 of O can be demonstrated by pass- ing a current of electricity through water and collecting the escaping gases. Oxy- gen is liberated at the positive electrode, while hydrogen is liberated at the nega- tive electrode. That water is composed of 16 parts, by weight, of oxygen, to 2 parts, by weight, of hydrogen, can be demonstrated by passing hydrogen gas over copper oxid heated in a tube. The reaction which takes place is CuO + 2 H = H 2 + Cu. If suitable provisions are made for weighing the oxid of copper used, and the water produced, it will be found that the weight of the water bears definite relation to the amount of oxid of copper reduced. For every loss of 16 grams of oxygen from the copper oxid, 18 grams of water are obtained, showing that water is eight ninths, by weight, oxygen. Fig. 28. — Electrol- ysis of water. Experiment 8. — Distillation of water. Connect flask A (Fig. 29) with the bent tube B to the condensing apparatus issued for this experiment. Place the distilling flask upon the sand bath and in position as shown in Fig. 29. Fill the tank of the distilling apparatus, and half fill the flask, with water. Apply heat to the 54 WATER 55 flask, and reject the first portion of water that is distilled. Distil about 25 or 30 cc. of water. Tests. — (1) Thoroughly clean your porcelain evaporating dish, if necessary using a little white sand for scouring, rinse with dis- tilled water, and then by placing the evaporator upon a sand bath, evaporate some of the distilled water to dryness. Carefully regulate the heat so that as the water evaporates there will be less and less heat. This is to prevent the breaking of the evaporating dish by too much heat at the close. Examine the evaporating dish. See if there is any residue. (2) Evaporate to dryness a similar amount of ordinary water, and observe the residue Questions. — (1) Why do the contents of flask A become cloudy after boiling and cooling? (2) Why was the residue obtained by one test and not by the other? (3) What became of the residue when the water was distilled ? (4) How could you distil water on a larger scale for drinking purposes, if necessary to do so ? Fig. 29. — Distillation of water. 60. Physical Properties. — When water cools, it reaches its maximum density at 4 C. ; below this point, it expands, and hence ice has a lower specific gravity than water. All natural waters contain more or less im- purities in the form of mineral and vegetable matter and gases. Pure water can be prepared only by distillation. When a substance, as salt, is dissolved in water, a solu- tion is obtained. The particles of the material are sepa- rated in the process of solution, and every part of the solution, even though dilute, contains some of the dis- 56 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY solved substance. When a substance is dissolved, ions are produced. They are small parts of the material that have undergone changes due to the action of the solvent. The ions possess definite electrical properties. When a substance goes into solution, the process is both physical and chemical. In some cases a change of temperature occurs, as when ammonium nitrate solution is made. 61. Water of Crystallization. — Many substances con- tain, in chemical combination, water necessary for the formation of crystals. This is what is meant by water of crystallization. Without this water, crystals could not be formed. The amount of water required bears a definite relation to the composition of the crystals. When copper sulfate crystallizes, 7 molecules of water of crys- tallization are added to the substance. In purchasing some materials, as sulfate of soda, there is a large amount of water included, as this compound contains 10 molecules of water of crystallization. When the substance is heated in an oven to a sufficiently high temperature, usually above ioo° C, the water of crystallization is expelled and the anhydrous substance is obtained. Water of crystal- lization is entirely different from hydroscopic moisture or moisture absorbed from the air. Some chemical compounds, when exposed to the air, give up their water of crystallization. This is called efflorescence. Other com- pounds, as KOH and CaCl 2 , absorb moisture from the air. Such substances are called deliquescent. Water takes an important part in chemical reactions ; in fact, many of the reactions expressed in the form of equations could not take place without the presence of water. 62. Natural Waters. — Rain, spring, lake, river, and sea waters are some of the principal forms in which water is found in nature. Some waters contain enough dissolved WATER 57 salts to give them definite characteristics and are known as mineral waters. The most common impurities in water are lime, magnesia, potash, soda, and iron com- pounds. These substances give prop- erties to the water which cause them to be characterized as hard or soft, according to the nature and amount of minerals dissolved. All natural waters are liable to contamination, and the organic impurities serve as food for disease-producing organisms. The Fig. 30. — Typhoid sanitary condition of the water supply has an important bearing upon health. Typhoid fever, cholera, and other bacterial diseases are frequently caused by poor drinking water. The spores of the organisms present in the water are taken into the body, where they rapidly multiply. Surface wells, par- ticularly when near barns and dwellings, and in thickly settled regions, are frequently in an unsanitary condition. 63. Impurities in Water. — The nature of the impuri- ties in the soil through which water flows determines the kinds of impurities in the water. If a soil is polluted with decaying animal and vegetable refuse matter, the sol- uble portions of these, along with the countless organisms which they contain, become a part of the drinking water. The impurities in well waters are (1) organic matter and (2) mineral salts. When water is charged with an exces- sive amount of organic matter, the solids obtained by evaporating the water to dryness blacken when ignited. The carbon compounds in a liter of some waters require 20 mgs. or more of oxygen for oxidation. The organic matter may decompose and become harmless, but it is liable, in times of epidemics, to furnish food for disease germs. 58 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Water that is comparatively free from organic matter is not nearly so apt to convey disease germs as one that contains a large amount of such material, as this is the best kind of food for the development of the germs which cause many of the most fatal diseases. Vegetable matter, as a rule, is not as harmful in a water as animal matter. The organic refuse dissolved in waters is constantly decaying, and this decomposition is the result of the workings of minute organisms known as bacteria, which may be the disease-producing ones as well as the harmless kinds. The history of the water supply of large cities shows that a water which is comparatively free from organic matter is the best for household purposes. The source of the nitrogenous organic matter in drinking waters is often sewage or surface drainage, as from a swamp. Deep well waters are less liable to be contami- nated than surface wells, but a deep well is not above Fig. 31. — Well contaminated with drainage from swamp. suspicion, because the layers of soil are subject to changes in slope, and the water from a deep well may receive surface drainage from some distant place, as indicated in the illustration (Fig. 31). Although the soil would remove a portion of the impurities and the organic matter would be partially oxidized, the water would not be entirely free from contamination. 64. Location of Wells. — Wells should be remote WATER 59 from barns and cesspools. Large trees about wells are objectionable because the water is fouled by waste matter thrown off by the roots. The top of the well for 6 or 8 Fig. 32. — Construction of well. feet should be laid with cement. The well platform should be tight so that small animals are kept out. Drain water from the spout should be carried away from 6o AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY SAND iLUAILJi II UU LU ' ^ I" niiiiiiiiiiimuuumumw -RESERVOIR- the well platform, and the watering trough should not be directly over the well. The land should slope away from the well and the surfacing should be of clay. The well - should have ventilation, and should occasionally receive a cleaning. 65. Mineral Impurities. — Cal- cium carbonate, calcium sulfate, sodium chlorid, and sodium sul- fate are the most common min- erals present in water. In alkali waters the mineral impurities are sodium or potassium compounds, often in large amounts, and there is no way of improving such waters except by distillation. Different kinds of minerals, if in excessive amounts, may impart medicinal properties ; magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) acts as a purga- tive, while calcium sulfate causes costiveness. Strong alkaline waters can generally be detected by their salty taste. An excess of some forms of alkaline salts in waters renders them unsafe for irrigation purposes, as the salts are destructive to plant life. Limestone in waters is not so serious as are other minerals. Waters sometimes con- tain limestone to such an extent that when boiled they become cloudy, which is be- cause of the removal of the carbonic acid gas which causes the limestone to remain in solution. Some waters that contain limestone are not considered in- jurious to health, although they are not so satisfactory for Fig. ss. — Charcoal water filter. ==2?^ Fig. 34. — Un- glazed porcelain filter. WATER 6l cleaning purposes because the lime acts upon the soap and forms a scum of insoluble lime soap. A large amount of limestone, gypsum, etc., causes waters to be hard. Some waters contain iron compounds, as carbonate of iron which, upon contact with the air, forms hydrate of iron, and is deposited as a brownish red sediment. Sometimes there is so much mineral matter in waters that when used for generating steam they produce a large amount of boiler scale. This can often be partially prevented by the use of materials as trisodium phosphate, soda ash and graphite, which form a sludge instead of a hard scale. 66. Methods of Improv- ing Drinking Waters. — (i) By boiling, which de- stroys disease-producing organisms. Boiled or steril- ized water, however, is not free from the poisonous compounds which many organisms produce. In cases of pestilential dis- eases, water should always be boiled. (2) By filtering through charcoal or through disks of unglazed porcelain-like material, which results in removing a large part of the organic matter. Special care, however, should be taken to keep the filter clean, otherwise it will be a source of contamination. Boiling the water Fig. 35. — Pasteur water filter. 62 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY before filtering also improves its sanitary condition. One of the most efficient forms of water filters is the Pasteur filter, where the water passes through a series of tubes which present a large surface area for filtering. (3) By distilling, which removes all mineral impurities, and also purifies the water from organic matter. It is the best way of removing all kinds of impurities and rendering the water free from organisms, and safe for use. Chemical precipitation and filtration plants are often used for improvement of the water supply of cities. The suspended matter along with the dissolved organic im- purities are coagulated and precipitated by small amounts of iron and aluminum compounds, then enough lime or other substance is added to precipitate the excess of iron or aluminum salts. After precipitation the impur- ities are removed by filtration. Such plants are under supervision of chemists, and the reagents used vary with the amount and nature of the impurities contained in the water. Water of high sanitary quality can be secured by chemical precipitation and filtration methods. CHAPTER IX Air 67. Air a Mechanical Mixture. — Air is a mechanical mixture of a number of gases and compounds in about the following proportions: (1) nitrogen, 79 per cent; (2) oxygen, 20 per cent ; (3) carbon dioxid, 0.04 per cent ; (4) ammonium compounds in small amounts; (5) mois- ture; (6) ozone; (7) hydrogen peroxici ; (8) argon; (9) dust, organic matter, and microorganisms. That air is a mechanical mixture is shown by its not having a constant chemical composition, which is necessary for all compounds, and when nitrogen and oxygen are mixed in the same proportion as in air, there is no evi- dence of a chemical reaction, as change of volume or temperature. The air that is dissolved in water is of different composition from atmospheric air, due to the fact that oxygen is more soluble in water than is nitrogen. The occurrence of nitrogen and oxygen in the air, and the chemical and physical properties of these gases, have been discussed in Chapters IV and V. 68. Carbon Dioxid. — The amount of carbon dioxid in the air is small, about 0.04 per cent, and it is sup- posed to remain fairly constant. It is produced from : (1) combustion of carbon-containing materials, as fuels ; (2) decaying of organic matter ; and (3) respiration of animals. The carbon dioxid of the air serves as food for plants and is used for the construction of plant tissue. The amount produced and that used by vegetation 63 64 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY nearly balance each other, so that the carbon dioxid in the air remains fairly constant. While the percentage amount in the air is small, the total amount is quite large ; it is estimated that over each acre of the earth's surface there are about 30 tons of carbon dioxid at the disposal of plant bodies. Carbon dioxid itself is not such a poisonous gas, but it is usually associated in Fig. 36. — Ventilating board in window for obtaining fresh air. respired air with noxious and poisonous products thrown off by the lungs. Hence the carbon dioxid in a room is taken as the index of the completeness of ventilation, and when it exceeds 0.1 per cent, the poisonous products associated with it are considered to be too much for sanitary conditions. While carbon dioxid is a product of respiration, and is of no direct economic importance AIR 65 to animals, it is indirectly of great importance because of its serving as food for plants. It is a heavy gas, but in a room it diffuses and is quite evenly distributed. Its presence in pure and in respired air can be shown by the following experiment : Experiment g. — Pour 10 cc. of lime water (calcium hydrate) into a test tube, and blow through it, using for the purpose a clean glass tube. Observe the precipitate of calcium carbonate. Expose about 10 cc. of lime water in a beaker for twenty-four hours, and observe the result. The reaction which takes place between the lime water and the carbon dioxid of the air is as follows : Ca(OH) 2 + C0 2 = CaC0 3 + H 2 0. Questions. • — (1) What caused the precipitate to form ? (2) What was produced ? (3) Is CaC0 3 soluble in water ? (4) How do you determine whether or not a gas is C0 2 ? (5) How does the product from this experiment compare with that from the burning candle ? In the ventilation of dwellings, barns, and stables, it is necessary that the products of respiration be removed as completely as possible and not allowed to accumulate and endanger health. Pure air is as important as pure food or water. Impure air is frequently the cause of disease, and indirectly it may, by lowering the vitality of the individual, prepare the way for disease. When gasoline or kerosene is used as fuel, more thorough ventila- tion is necessary than when wood or coal is used, because the products of combustion from the gasoline and kerosene are given off into the room instead of being carried out through the chimney. The subject of ventilation, which forms a part of sanitary chemistry, is, as a rule, given too little attention. 69. Ammonium Compounds. — When nitrogenous or- ganic compounds decay, ammonia gas, NH 3 , is given off. Since nitrogenous animal and vegetable matters are con- 66 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY stantly undergoing decay, some ammonia is always in the air. The ammonia gas unites with the carbon dioxid and forms ammonium carbonate. In barns and stables where the ventilation is poor, abnormal amounts of carbon dioxid and ammonia are formed from the respiration and waste products of animals. When carbon dioxid forms to such an extent that it produces a white coating upon stones and boards, it shows enough ammonium carbonate to be injurious to animals. Nitrogen, in traces, in the form of ammonium nitrate and nitrite, is also present in the air. The amount of combined nitrogenous com- pounds in the air is small and not sufficient to furnish food for plants. 70. Moisture. — The amount of moisture in the air ranges between wide limits, from com- plete saturation to desert con- ditions. When the air contains all the moisture it can hold, it is said to be saturated. In temperate climates, the humidity, or per cent of saturation, ranges be- tween 60 and 85. The amount of moisture in the air has an influence upon plant growth, rather because it modifies the conditions of the atmosphere than because it furnishes moisture directly to plants. The humidity of the air also influences many farm operations, as the Fig. 37. — Ventilating flue in chim ney for removing foul air. AIR 67 curing of cheese, which is best effected in an atmosphere containing about 85 per cent of moisture. 71. Atmospheric Constituents Present in Small Amounts. — Ozone and hydrogen peroxid are oxidizing agents, present in the air only in traces. Ozone is a modified or allotropic form of oxygen. It is more active than ordinary oxygen. Hydrogen peroxid (H2O2) readily gives up one of its atoms of oxygen for oxidation purposes. H 2 2 = H 2 + O. Argon, krypton, neon, and penon are elements which are in the air in small amounts. Argon makes up about 1 per cent of the volume of the air, and is like nitrogen in many of its chemical character- istics, but is even more inactive and inert than nitrogen ; it is the most inactive element known. When argon is liquified it is not supposed to take any direct part in animal or plant life. 72. Liquid Air. — As both nitrogen and oxygen can be liquefied, and air is a mechanical mixture of these ele- ments, it necessarily follows that air can be liquefied. To accomplish this, air is cooled and then subjected to a pressure of 2500 pounds per square inch. Liquid air may vary in its nitrogen and oxygen content. It is a colorless liquid, and boils at — 19 1°. 73. Organic Impurities. — Dust, dirt, and impurities in the air vary with conditions, as rainfall, local influences, and sources of contamination. Fine particles of dust, containing decaying vegetable matter, are carried long distances by the wind. This decaying vegetable matter often contains spores of disease germs. The dust and impurities in the air can be observed when a beam of sunlight finds its way into a room ; then the particles of dust will be seen floating in the air. When the air in a room is not in motion, the dust particles separate and 68 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY settle very much as fine clay separates from water which is not disturbed. There are many different kinds of organic impurities in the air. The most objectionable are decayed refuse matters, particularly of animal origin. The air which passes over swampy, undrained land is often contaminated with impurities. 74. Air as a Source of Food. — In both animal and plant life, air plays an important role. It contains oxygen necessary for the existence of animals and carbon dioxid essential as food for plants. Over 90 per cent of the total food of our agricultural and useful plants is ob- tained from the air as carbon dioxid, or from rain which finds its way into the soil. Food which is oxidized in the body requires oxygen for combustion. Hence it will be seen that the air is the source of the larger portion of the total food of both plants and animals. CHAPTER X Acids, Bases, Salts, and Neutralization 75. Classification of Elements. — Elements are di- vided into two classes: (1) acid-forming elements, and (2) base-forming elements. This division is made accord- ing to the properties of the elements. The basic elements are commonly called metals : iron, copper, silver, and lead are examples. The basic elements form, with H and O, bases or hydroxids, as KOH and NaOH. A base is a compound composed of a metal in combination with OH, the hydroxyl radical. This radical can be replaced by an acid-forming element. An acid is a compound containing hydrogen which can be replaced by a metal. In the preparation of hydro- gen, the H of HC1 is replaced with zinc. The acid- forming elements, with hydrogen, and with H and O, form acids. Bases and acids are opposite in character and proper- ties. Acids color blue litmus red, bases color red litmus blue. For purposes of study, the different acid- and base-forming elements are subdivided into families and groups which have definite relationships and common characteristics. 76. Salts. — When an acid and a base are brought to- gether, a chemical reaction takes place, known as neutral- ization. The product is a salt. A salt is an acid in which the hydrogen has been replaced by a metal. It is formed by the union of acid- and base-forming elements. Salts are 69 70 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY neutral compounds. In the study of acids, bases, and salts, the character of the compound can always be deter- mined from the formula as Ca(OH) 2 . Calcium hydrate is a base because it contains the hydroxyl radical OH. CaCl2 is a salt because it is composed of the acid-forming element CI and the base-forming element Ca. HC1 is an acid because it is composed of hydrogen and the acid-forming element CI and the H can be replaced by a metal. Acids and bases do not exist as such to any ap- preciable extent in nature. Salts are neutral compounds and the materials most extensively found. In the table, Section 15, the characteristic properties of some of the elements, as acid- or base-forming, are given. A few elements, as will be discussed later, have both acid and basic characteristics. 77. Radicals. — A radical is a group of elements which enters into chemical combination like a single element. When three elements combine to form a compound the combination is made in the following way : Two of the elements first form a radical, and then this radical com- bines with the third element. Every radical has its own valence, which is independent of that of its separate atoms. A radical can exist only in chemical combination ; it cannot be separated. Its individuality as a radical exists only when in combination. The elements which unite to form a radical do not do so according to the law of valence. Example : When H, S, and O combine, the S and O first form a radical, S0 4 , which has a valence of 2. Two atoms of H combine with one S0 4 radical and form H 2 S0 4 . NH 4 is the ammonium radical, with a value of 1, and deports itself as a metal, forming ammonium salts with acid radicals as (NH 4 )2S0 4 . There are only a few of the more common radicals which require special study at this ACIDS, BASES, SALTS, AND NEATRALIZATION 7 1 stage of the work. Some of the more common n are : Radi- cal. Valence. Compounds formed with H. Compounds formed with metals. C0 3 2 Carbonic acid Carbonates C10 3 I Chloric acid Chlorates N0 3 I Nitric acid Nitrates P0 4 3 Phosphoric acid Phosphates OH 1 Water Hydroxids Si0 3 2 Silicic acid Silicates N0 2 1 Nitrous acid Nitrites S0 3 2 Sulfurous acid Sulfites S0 4 2 Sulfuric acid Sulfates 78. Naming of Acids. — Acids are named according to the characteristic acid element or radical present, as sul- furic acid, H0SO4, in which S is the characteristic acid element. The most common acids have the ending ic. Some acids have an ous ending, as H 2 S0 3 , sulfurous acid. The acid which has the smaller amount of oxygen has the ending ous, while the acid with the larger amount of oxygen has the ending ic. Name the following acids: HN0 3 , HN0 2 , H 2 S0 4 , H 2 S0 3 , H3PO4, H3PO3, H 3 As0 4 , H 3 As0 3 . 79. Naming of Bases. — Bases are named according to the characteristic base element which they contain. All bases are called hydroxids, as calcium hydroxid, Ca(OH) 2 , and potassium hydroxid, KOH. The rule in regard to the endings ic and ous applies in the case of bases as well as in that of acids ; that is, when an element forms two hydroxids, the ending ic is applied to the one with the larger amount of hydroxyl, and the ending ous to the one with the smaller amount. Name the following bases : Mg(OH) 2 , NH 4 OH, NaOH, Fe(OH) 2 , Fe(OH) 3 , Al(OH) 3 , CuOH, Cu(OH) 2 . 72 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 80. Naming of Salts. — Salts are named according to the acid and base elements which they contain, as K 2 S0 4 , potassium sulfate, composed of potassium, K, and the sulfate radical, S0 4 . Most salts have an ending ate. A few have an ending ite. The salts derived from the acids with the ic ending always have the ate ending, as sulfuric acid, which produces sulfates, phosphoric acid, phosphates, and nitric acid, nitrates. The acids ending with ous produce salts which end in ite, as nitrous acid produces nitrites, and sulfurous acid, sulfites. Salts that are composed of only two elements always have an ending of id, as sodium chlorid, NaCl, and sodium sulfid, Na 2 S. 81. Double Salts. — A double salt is one that is com- posed of two base elements in combination with one acid radical, as NaKS0 4 , sodium potassium sulfate. Double salts are formed from acids which contain two replaceable hydrogen atoms, as H2SO4, by replacing one of the H atoms with one base element and the remaining H atom with another base element. This is represented graphi- cally as follows : Hv Na v H 2 S0 4 = >S0 4 = >S0 4 . 82. Acid Salts. — An acid salt is one in which only a part of the H of the acid has been replaced. An acid salt always contains H, a metal, and a radical. HNaS0 4 is acid sodium sulfate, as only one H atom has been replaced with Na. A normal salt contains no replace- able H. 83. Basicity of Acids. — Acids with one replaceable H atom are called monobasic acids, as HC1 and HNO3. Acids with two replaceable H atoms are dibasic, as H 2 S0 4 , ACIDS, BASES, SALTS, AND NEUTRALIZATION 73 H 2 Si0 3 , and H2CO3. When an acid contains three replace- able H atoms, it is tribasic, as H3PO4. 84. Two Series of Salts. — When a base element has more than one valence, it forms two series of salts. For example, Fe has a valence of 2 and 3. The first series of salts is known by the ending ous. The second series has an ic ending. The one ending means that the compound is formed from the lower valence of the element, as FeCl 2 , ferrous chlorid, while FeCl 3 is ferric chlorid. There are two series of copper salts ; CuCl is called cuprous chlorid, and CuCl2, cupric chlorid. Name the following salts : FeCl 2 , FeCl 3 , FeS0 4 , Fe 2 (S0 4 ) 3 , Fe(N0 3 ) 2 , Fe(N0 3 ) 3 , Fe(OH) 2 , Fe(OH) 3 , HgCl, HgCl 2 , SmCl 2 , SnCl 4 , MnCl 4 , MnCl 2 . Experiment 10. — Neutralization and preparation of salts. Obtain two burettes for these experiments. Meas- ure out 5 cc. of concentrated HC1 and 95 cc. of water; after mixing, fill one of the burettes with this diluted HC1 (Fig. 38). Use your funnel for filling the burette, and then carefully wash the funnel. Prepare a dilute solution of NH 4 OH, using 90 cc. of water and 10 cc. of the shelf NH4OH. After mixing, fill the second burette with this prepa- ration of diluted NH 4 OH. Before using the solution in the burette, Fig. 38. — Burette. 74 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY it should be lowered to the zero point by carefully opening the pinchcock. Always allow the tip of the burette to be filled with the solution before beginning the experiment. Into a small beaker, measure from the burette exactly 20 cc. NH4OH, with 10 or 12 drops of cochineal solution, which is changed to a deep purplish color by the alkali ; then slowly add HC1 from the other burette, constantly stirring the solution in the beaker until a decided change in color is observed. When all of the NH 4 OH has been neutralized, the solution has a yellowish red color. Note the number of cubic centimeters of HC1 used for neutralizing the 20 cc. of NH4OH solution. Add a drop or two from the NH 4 OH burette and note if there is a change of color. When the solution is neutralized, one or two drops of HC1 or NH 4 OH should give a decided change of color. If too much acid has been used, add a measured amount from the NH 4 OH burette until the solution is neutralized. Finally note the total quantity of HC1 and NH 4 OH used. Repeat this experiment, using 20 cc. of the HC1 solution. Questions. — (1) What was formed When the HC1 neutralized the NH4OH solution ? (2) Write the reaction. (3) What would be the result if the neutralized solutions were evaporated to dryness ? (4) Calculate the amount of HC1 required to neutralize 1 cc. of NH4OH. Experiment 11. — Neutralization. Repeat Experiment 10, using dilute H2SO4 and NaOH solutions that have been prepared for this experiment. After completing the experiment, clean the . burettes thoroughly. Questions. — (1) What was formed when H 2 S0 4 neutralized NaOH ? (2) Write the chemical reaction. (3) What was formed as the products of this reaction ? (4) How can the salt product be obtained ? (5) In writing the reaction, why do we use 2 NaOH in- stead of NaOH ? (6) How does the product of Experiment 10 differ from the product of Experiment 11 ? (7) What other acids could be used for neutralizing NaOH and NH 4 OH ? (8) What other bases could be used for neutralizing HC1 and H 2 S0 4 ? (9) What is an acid ? (10) What is a base ? (11) What is a salt ? (12) Which do we find most abundantly in nature, acids, bases, or salts ? Why ? Experiment 12. — Preparation of a salt. Put 10 cc. dilute HC1 and 10 cc. water into an evaporator. Measure out 10 cc. of NaOH into a beaker and add 50 cc. water. Add this diluted NaOH to the ACIDS, BASES, SALTS, AND NEUTRALIZATION 75 Fig. 39. — Sodium chlorid crystals (com- mon salt). evaporator a little at a time until the solution is neutral to litmus paper. Do not dip the paper into the solution, but transfer a drop by means of a glass rod from the evaporator to the paper. In case too much NaOH has been used, add a drop or two of the acid. Bases or alkalies turn red litmus paper blue, while acids turn blue litmus paper red. When the solution is neutral, it has no perceptible action upon litmus paper. Place the evaporating dish upon the sand bath, and apply heat until the solution is evapor- ated to dryness. Carefully regulate the flame so as to avoid excessive heating. This will prevent spattering when the solution becomes concentrated. Questions. — (1) What is left in the evaporator ? (2) From what was it produced ? (3) Write the chemical reaction. (4) Taste some of the material in the evaporating dish. How is it possible for this material to be formed from two such unlike compounds as HC1 and NaOH ? (5) What is neutralization ? (6) Are definite amounts by weight of HC1 and NaOH required for neutralization ? (7) How many molecules of HC1 are required to neutralize one of NaOH ? (8) How much does a molecule of HC1 weigh ? (9) Of NaOH ? (10) How many parts by weight of each must be taken for neutrali- zation ? (n) How does this illustrate the law of definite proportion ? CHAPTER XI Hydroclhloric Acid, Chlorin, and Chlorids 85. Occurrence. — The element chlorin is never found in a free state in nature, but is always in combination with other elements, as with sodium, forming sodium chlorid. With hydrogen, chlorin forms hydrochloric acid. 86. Preparation. — Hydrochloric acid is produced by the action of H 2 SO on NaCl, the reaction being 2 NaCl + H2SO4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2 HC1. Heat is applied, and the hydrochloric acid gas is expelled and collected in water. In the preparation of hydrochloric acid, .the CI part of the compound is supplied by the NaCl, while the sulfuric acid furnishes the hydrogen. Hydrochloric acid can also be made by direct union of the elements hydrogen and chlorin. It is prepared in the laboratory in the following way : Experiment 13. — Preparation of hydrochloric acid. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 40. A sand bath, containing sand, is placed upon either the tripod or the large ring of the iron ring stand. Tube B connects flask A with Woulff bottle C, which con- tains 100 cc. of water. The tube is made from a piece of glass tubing 22 to 24 inches long, with one right-angled bend about 3 inches from the end, and another, parallel and about 6 inches from the first bend. This tube is connected with both flask A and the Woulff bottle by means of tight-fitting corks. Tube B passes into the bottle, but not below the surface of the liquid. Through a tight- fitting cork in the middle neck of Woulff bottle C passes a safety tube so adjusted that it dips just below the surface of the water in 76 HYDROCHLORIC ACID, CHLORIN, AND CHLORIDS 77 C. This safety tube is a straight piece of glass tubing, 9 or 10 inches long. Woulff bottle C is connected with a second Woulff bottle by means of a bent tube which passes below the water in the second bottle, but is above the water in the first bottle. The ap- paratus, as constructed, allows the gas which is generated in flask A to pass through into C and saturate the water. Some of the acid passes over into the second Woulff bottle. Since the delivery tubes in C do not pass below the sur- face of the liquid, and the pressure is equalized, no liquid can be drawn back into flask A. Place 15 grams so- dium chlorid (NaCl, common salt) and 30 cc. concentrated H 2 S0 4 in flask A. Apply heat to the flask, and after ten minutes remove the burner and test the liquid in both Woulff bottles with litmus paper. Then make the following tests : (1) Disconnect the delivery tube and test the escaping gas with wet litmus paper. (2) Collect a little of the gas in a test tube, and test it with a burning splinter. (3) Put 2 or 3 cc. of silver nitrate (AgN0 3 ) into a test tube and then a like amount of HC1 from the first Woulff bottle. Observe the result. (4) Leave the test tube and contents exposed to strong sunlight for a few minutes. (5) Put a small piece of zinc into a test tube and cover it with some of the acid from the first Woulff bottle. Observe the result. Questions. — (1) What chemical reaction took place when H2SO4 and NaCl were brought together? (2) Is HC1 a solid, liquid, or Fig. 40. — Preparation of hydrochloric acid. 78 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY gas? Why? (3) Color? (4) Is it soluble in water? Why? (5) What was formed when the HC1 was added to the test tube con- taining AgN0 3 ? Give the reaction. (6) Is HC1 combustible or a supporter of combustion ? (7) What is a chlorid ? (8) What effect would HC1 gas have upon plants ? 87. Properties. — Hydrochloric acid is a colorless gas, soluble in water. When exposed to the air, it combines with the moisture. The concentrated acid used in the laboratory is a solution of about 40 per cent HC1. Chem- ically, HC1 is an active acid, and is neither combustible nor a supporter of combustion. When it neutralizes bases, chlorids are always formed. Hydrochloric acid is distinguished from other acids by its reaction with silver nitrate, a white precipitate of silver chlorid being produced which is soluble in ammonia and is blackened in the sunlight. Hydrochloric acid is used extensively in the laboratory in the preparation of various compounds, and for the production of chlorin. 88. Preparation of Chlorin. — Chlorin is made by the action of an oxidizing agent, as manganese dioxid, upon hydrochloric acid, manganese chlorid, water, and chlorin gas being formed as products. The reaction is Mn0 2 + 4 HC1 = MnCl 2 + 2 H 2 + 2 CI. In this reac- tion the valence of manganese is changed from 4 to 2, and as a result free chlorin gas is liberated. The method of preparation in the laboratory is as follows : Experiment 14. — Preparation of chlorin. It is preferable to set up the apparatus for generating chlorin under one of the hoods. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 41. Place 10 grams of Mn0 2 and 15 or 20 cc. of HO in flask A. By means of delivery tube B, and a tight-fitting cork, the CI gas, when generated, passes into the large cylinder, in which has been placed a green leaf, a piece of colored cloth, and paper upon which is some writing. The HYDROCHLORIC ACID, CHLORIN, AND CHLORIDS 79 Give the physi- Cl gas, odor, (2) What caused delivery tube passes through the hole in the ground-glass plate, without any cork. To generate the chlorin, apply gentle heat to the flask, and as soon as the cylinder is nearly filled with the CI gas, which can be observed by its color, remove the flame so as to prevent any of the gas from escaping into the room. Do not inhale any of the fumes, as they are irritating to the throat and lungs. Make the following tests : (1) Observe the effect which the chlorin gas has upon the cloth, paper, and leaf. (2) To the cylin- der, add 5 cc. water containing two or three drops of indigo solution. Observe the result. Questions. — (1) cal properties of weight, and color. liberation of the CI gas from the HC1? (3) Write the reaction. (4) What are some of the chemical properties of chlorin as observed from the changes which have taken place in the materials in the cylin- der? (5) What is a chlorid ? (6) Name five compounds contain- ing chlorin. (7) Why is CI gas employed as a disinfectant ? Ex- plain its action as a disinfectant. (8) What is bleaching powder, and how is it used as a disinfectant ? (9) NaCl is necessary for animal life ; CI is one of its elements and CI is destructive to animal life ; why can you not conclude that NaCl containing CI is de- structive to animal life ? 89. Properties. — Physically considered, chlorin is a heavy, greenish yellow gas, with a penetrating, suffo- cating odor. Chlorin gas is poisonous. Chemically, it is an active element and has strong affinity for nearly all other elements. It readily combines with metals, form- Fig. 41. — Preparation of chlorin. 80 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY ing chlorids, and light and heat are evolved during the reaction. Chlorin is an active bleaching reagent, as it changes the composition of vegetable dyes, thus destroy- ing their color. Bleaching powder is a mixture of cal- cium hypochlorite and calcium chlorid, and when used, chlorin is liberated. Chlorin is also a disinfectant and a germicide, for it is destructive to life, particularly to the lower forms. It is used extensively for both bleaching and disinfecting purposes. Chlorin takes no part directly in life processes, although its compounds, particularly sodium chlorid, are necessary as mineral food for animals. 90. The Chlorin Group of Elements. — Fluorin, chlorin, bromin, and iodin constitute a natural group of elements, known as the chlorin family. These elements are all closely related. They form similar acids with H, and similar salts with the metals. Some of the most important relationships and points of difference between members of the chlorin family will be observed in the following table : Physical Element. At. wt. conditions. H compound. Na compound. Fluorin 19 Light gas HF1 NaFl Chlorin 35-45 Heavy gas HC1 NaCl Bromin 79-95 Liquid HBr NaBr Iodin 126.85 Solid HI Nal 91. Chlorids. — Combined with the metals, chlorin forms chlorids. As a class, the chlorids are quite stable compounds, inasmuch as chlorin has strong affinity for nearly all of the metals. The properties of the different chlorids vary with the metal with which the chlorin is combined. The chlorids do not take such a direct part in plant as in animal nutrition. When present in either soil or water in any appreciable amount, the soil is sterile HYDROCHLORIC ACID, CHLORIN, AND CHLORIDS 8l and the water is not suitable for either drinking or irri- gation purposes. Sodium chlorid is found in nature most abundantly of any of the chlorids. Problem i. — How much H 2 S0 4 is required to combine with 2000 pounds NaCl in making HC1 ? Problem 2. — How much HC1 can be made from 2000 pounds of NaCl? Problem 3. — How much Na 2 S0 4 is produced when 2000 pounds NaCl are used for making HC1 ? CHAPTER XII Nitric Acid and Nitrogen Compounds 92. Occurrence. — Nitric acid does not occur in nature in a free state, but as nitrates or salts of nitric acid. Since all normal nitrates are soluble in water, they are never present in great abundance in soils. In regions of scant rainfall, where climatic conditions have been favorable for the formation of nitrates, deposits of nitrate of soda are occasionally found. The nitrifying organisms of the soil, when supplied with food, moisture, suitable temperature, and other requisite conditions, produce nitrates which are utilized as food by plants. The process of nitrification which takes place in the soil results in changing the inert and unavailable nitrogen to a soluble and available condition. 93. Preparation. — The same principle is applied in the preparation of nitric acid as in the preparation of hydro- chloric acid. Nitric acid is produced by the action of H2SO4 upon a salt ; when a chlorid is used, hydrochloric acid results, and when a nitrate is used, nitric acid is the product. The reaction with sodium nitrate is : 2 NaN03 + H 2 S0 4 = Na*S0 4 + 2 HNO3. Experiment 15. — Preparation of nitric acid. Special care should be exercised by the student in the preparation of nitric acid, be- cause if any is spilled on the hands, it causes painful burns and wounds that are difficult to heal. Provided the student is careful and follows the directions given, there is no danger. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 42. The delivery tube used in the preparation of NH 3 may be used for this experiment. A cork stopper should be used. If necessary, a brick or block may be placed under 82 NITRIC ACID AND NITROGEN COMPOUNDS 83 the cylinder. The delivery tube should pass into and nearly to the bottom of a test tube which is immersed in cold water in the cylin- der. Put 15 cc. concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and 10 grams of either sodium nitrate (NaN0 3 ) or potassium nitrate (KN0 3 ) into the flask and apply heat until about 4 or 5 cc. of HN0 3 are distilled and collected in the test tube. Do not remove the flame unless the end of the delivery tube is above the liquid in the test tube, otherwise the liquid will be drawn back into the flask. Make the following tests with HN0 3 . (1) Remove a drop of the acid by means of a glass tube, and apply it to a piece of either woolen cloth or silk. Observe the result. (2) Place a few drops of indigo solution in a test tube containing 5 cc. of water, then add about 2 cc. of HNO3. Observe the result. (3) Place a small piece of copper in the test tube containing the remainder of the acid. Observe the result. If no reaction takes place, add a little water. Do not pour the contents of the flask into the sink or waste jars until cool, otherwise the hot acid coming in contact with cold water may cause spattering of the acid. Questions. — (1) Why was H 2 S0 4 used in the preparation of this compound ? (2) What material supplied the N0 3 radical ? (3) Write the reaction which took place in the flask after heat was applied. (4) Is HNO3 a solid, liquid, or gas ? What is the proof ? (5) What caused the red fumes to be given off when the copper was added to the test tube ? (6) Does HN0 3 give off H when a metal is added to it ? Why ? (7) Why did the HN0 3 bleach the indigo solution ? (8) Why is ordinary HN0 3 colored yellow ? (9) Is HN0 3 an active or inert chemical ? (10) What is a nitrate ? a* Fig. 42. — Preparation of nitric add. 94. Properties. — When pure, nitric acid is a colorless liquid; the commercial acid has a yellow color because 84 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY of the presence of oxids of nitrogen. Nitric acid is an active oxidizing reagent, and when metais, as copper and iron, are dissolved in it, brown fumes of NO2 are given off because the hydrogen, as soon as liberated, is oxidized by the excess of acid, and N0 2 is formed. H + HN0 3 = H 2 + NO2. Nitric acid imparts a permanent yellow color to wool, silk, and all albuminous matter. 95. Importance. — In the laboratory nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent. Commercially it is employed in the dyeing of cloth, although it has a tendency to weaken the wool fibers. Salts of nitric acid are important because they are of much value as plant food, and particularly in the manufacture of commercial fertilizer, where they supply nitrogen. Potassium nitrate is used in the manu- facture of gunpowder. Nitrates are of great importance in agriculture. Ammonia 96. Occurrence. — Ammonium compounds are present in small amounts in the air, in rain water, and in the soil, and are produced from decaying nitrogenous organic matter. The chief source of the ammonia which serves as the basis for the preparation of ammonium salts is the ammonia water obtained in the process of purifying illuminating gas made from soft coal. The nitrogen compounds of the coal form ammonia gas, NH 3 , during the destructive distillation process. 97. Preparation. — In the laboratory, ammonia is usually prepared from ammonium chlorid by treatment with a strong base, as Ca(OH) 2 . The reaction is : 2 NH4CI + Ca(OH) 2 = CaCl 2 + 2 NH 4 OH. Experiment 16. — Preparation of ammonia. Arrange apparatus as directed for the preparation of HC1 (see Fig. 40). Into flask A, AMMONIA 85 place 10 grams each of dry ammonium chlorid, NH 4 C1, and powdered calcium hydroxid, Ca(OH) 2 , and 25 cc. water. Barium hydroxid, Ba(OH) 2 , may be used in place of the Ca(OH) 2 . When properly con- nected, apply heat to the sand bath from eight to twelve minutes. Tests for Ammonia. — (1) Test the gas with wet litmus paper. Note the result. (2) Test the water in both Woulff bottles with litmus paper, and note the result. (3) In an evaporator place 5 cc. HC1 and 10 cc. water. Disconnect the delivery tube from Woulff bottle C, and pass some of the fumes of the escaping gas over the acid in the evaporator. Avoid inhaling any of the gas. (4) Collect some of the gas in a test tube and then place the test tube inverted in a cylinder about one third full of water. (5) Add 5 cc. of the NH 3 solution from either of the Woulff bottles to 5 cc. of a solution of alum. Note the result. Questions. — (1) What material supplied the NH 4 part of the NH4OH ? (2) What caused the gas to be liberated from these ma- terials ? (3) What chemical reaction took place in flask A after the heat was applied ? (4) Why was water used in the Woulff bottle ? (5) What did the water and the N 3 H gas form ? (6) What reaction did the NH 3 gas and the N 4 HOH give with the litmus paper? (7) Why was not this gas given off into the room ? (8) Why was not N3H collected over water, like H, N, and ? (9) What caused the water to rise in the test tube ? (10) Why have you reason to believe that the N 4 HOH caused a chemical reaction when added to the solution of alum ? 98. Properties and Uses. — Ammonia is a colorless, non-combustible, pungent gas, which unites with water to form ammonium hydroxid, NH 4 OH, a basic compound. It is completely soluble in water, from which it is easily liberated by heat. The gas can be reduced to liquid form by cold and pressure. Liquefied ammonia reverts to a gas upon removal of the pressure, and in so doing, heat is absorbed from surrounding bodies. If this heat is absorbed from water, the temperature of the water is lowered sufficiently to produce ice. This property of liquefied ammonia is taken advantage of for the artificial 86 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY production of ice, and for refrigerating purposes. The transportation of perishable food materials is rendered possible by this method of refrigeration. In the laboratory, ammonium hydroxid is used exten- sively as a reagent for neutralizing acid solutions and precipitating insoluble hydroxids. Ammonium salts, ex- cept in very small amounts, are destructive to plants, (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 is less injurious than either NH 4 C1 or (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 , and may be used as a fertilizer. Dilute solutions of the ammonium compounds serve as food for plants, supplying them with nitrogen, which is used for producing, within the plant cells, complex nitrogenous compounds, as proteids. Ammonium com- pounds supply only one form of nitrogenous plant food. Because of its being a volatile alkali, ammonia is valuable as a reagent for softening water. 99. Oxids of Nitrogen. — Nitrogen forms five com- pounds with oxygen : N2O nitrogen monoxid or nitrous oxid. N2O2 nitrogen dioxid or nitric oxid. N2O3 nitrogen trioxid or nitrous anhydrid. N2O4 nitrogen tetroxid. N2O5 nitrogen pentoxid or nitric anhydrid. While the oxids of nitrogen do not serve either as plant or animal food, they are nevertheless important, and a study of them is necessary in order to understand the subject of nitrogen. 100. Anhydrids. — An anhydrid is an oxid of an acid element, or the product which is left after the elements which form water are abstracted from an acid. SO3 is sulfuric anhydrid, and is formed by abstracting H 2 from H 2 S0 4 . H 2 S0 4 = H 2 + S0 3 . N 2 5 is nitric anhy- drid, derived from two molecules of HNO3. 2 HNO3 = H 2 + N2O5. AMMONIA 87 Derive and name the anhydrids of the following acids : 2 H3PO4, H2CO3, H 2 Si0 3 , 2 HN0 2 , H 2 S0 3 . 101. Law of Multiple Proportion. — When nitrogen and oxygen combine, the number of parts of nitrogen in the various compounds is constant ; namely, 28 parts by weight in each compound. The number of parts of O is always a multiple of the first combination, N 2 ; that is, it is either 2, 3, 4, or 5 times as much in the other compounds as in the first. This is an example of the law of multiple proportion where two elements combine in more than one way. It is to be noted that the amount by weight of one of the elements remains constant in all the combinations, while the amount of the other element is always a multiple of the first combination. The law of definite proportion holds true for each in- dividual compound, while the law of multiple proportion applies to the entire series, and is a broader application of the law of definite proportion. 102. Utilization of Atmospheric Nitrogen. — When a current of nitrogen obtained from the air is passed through a mixture of lime and coal heated in an electric furnace, a chemical union of calcium, carbon, and nitrogen is effected, calcium cyanamid, CaCN 2 , being formed. This compound is used as a fertilizer, and supplies the element nitrogen to plants. By this process of manufacturing CaCN 2 , the inactive nitrogen of the air, is combined and made available for the production of crops. 103. Importance of the Nitrogen Compounds. — The compounds of nitrogen, particularly nitrates and ammo- nium compounds, are of importance in agriculture as they serve as food for plants. They are difficult to retain in soils because of their solubility and the volatility of ammonia. In human and animal foods, the nitrogenous 88 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY compounds are of importance in many ways and hence, in economic agriculture, they receive special consideration. Problem i, — How many pounds of HN0 3 can be produced from ioo pounds NaN0 3 ? Problem 2. — How much H2SO4 is required when 100 pounds HNO3 are made ? Problem j. — How much NH 4 OH can be produced from 10 pounds of NH4CI ? Problem 4. — What per cent of NH 4 OH is NH 3 ? CHAPTER .XIII Phosphorus and its Compounds 104. Occurrence. — Phosphorus is found in nature in combination with oxygen and other elements, forming phosphates, as Ca 3 (P0 4 )2- It is never found in a free or uncombined state. There is little in soils, but in many rocks and minerals, as apatite or phosphate rock, it is present in large amounts. It is also in the ash of plants, and in animal bodies, particularly as a constituent of bones. 105. Preparation. — It is prepared from bones, which are first freed from organic matter by burning. The bone ash is treated with sulfuric acid, producing acid phosphates, which, when roasted with charcoal, liberate free phosphorus. 106. Properties. — There are two forms of phosphorus : the yellow and the red. Yellow phosphorus is a solid which ignites at a low temperature. Red phosphorus is an allotropic form of the element produced by heating the yellow variety in a sealed tube. Yellow phosphorus more readily combines with oxygen than does the red, and is kept under water to prevent contact with air. 107. Oxids of Phosphorus. — When phosphorus is burned in a current of oxygen or dry air, phosphorus pentoxid, P2O5, is obtained. This material is a white flocculent mass which readily dissolves in water, forming metaphosphoric acid. When phosphorus is burned in a limited amount of air, it yields phosphorus trioxid, P 2 3 , 89 90 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY which after long standing dissolves in water, forming phosphorous acid. In fertilizer, soil, and food analysis, the amount of phosphorus is expressed in terms of P2O5. 108. Phosphoric Acid and Phosphates. — Ordinary phosphoric acid is produced by the action of H 2 S0 4 upon bone ash. 3 H 2 S0 4 + Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 = 2 H3PO4 + 3 CaS0 4 . Salts of ortho or ordinary phosphoric acid are the most common forms of the acid derivatives. Since this acid contains three replaceable H atoms, three salts are formed, as : Na 3 P0 4 , normal sodium phosphate ; Na 2 HP0 4 , disodium phosphate ; ' and NaH 2 P0 4 , monosodium phos- phate. The three calcium salts of phosphoric acid are : CaH 4 (P0 4 ) 2 , monocalcium phosphate. Ca 2 H 2 (P0 4 ) 2 , dicalcium phosphate. Cas(P0 4 ) 2 , tricalcium phosphate. In addition to the ordinary phosphoric acid, there are other derivatives, as : H 3 P0 4 = H 2 -f HPO3 (metaphosphoric acid). 2 H 3 P0 4 = H 2 + H 4 P 2 7 (pyrophosphoric acid). 109. Phosphate Fertilizers. — In deposits of phosphate rock, the phosphoric acid is mainly in combination with calcium as Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 , and is of little value as plant food until it is treated with H 2 S0 4 and converted into monocalcium phosphate, which is soluble and available as plant food. Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 2 H 2 S0 4 = CaH 4 (P0 4 ) 2 + 2 CaS0 4 . Large amounts of phosphates undergo this treatment in the manufacture of commercial fertilizers. Experiment 17. — In a beaker on a sand bath, dissolve § gram of bone ash in 10 cc. dil. HN0 3 + 20 cc. H 2 ; filter, and to the filtrate, while still warm, add 5 cc. ammonium molybdate, and then stir. Observe the precipitate, which is a compound of phosphoric acid, ammonium, and molybdenum. PHOSPHORUS AND ITS COMPOUNDS 91 Questions. — (1) What was the solvent of the phosphoric acid ? (2) Why was the solution boiled and filtered ? (3) Describe the color and properties of the precipitate. Experiment 18. — Dissolve \ gram of sodium phosphate in 10 cc. distilled water, then add 10 cc. of a solution containing \ gram CaCl 2 . Observe the result. Write the reaction. Repeat this ex- periment, using AICI3 or alum in place of CaCl 2 . 1 10. Compounds of Phosphorus. — Phosphorus forms a large number of compounds, as phosphates, metaphos- phates, and pyrophosphates. It also combines with H, CI, and I. With H it forms PH 3 , phosphine. Phosphorus also enters into combination with C, H, N, O, and S, forming complex organic compounds, as nucleo proteids and lecithin. It is an element which has a wide range of combinations. in. Importance of Phosphorus and its Compounds. — The compounds of phosphorus, particularly the phos- phates, are important in plant development, being forms of mineral food essential for crop growth. Agriculturally considered, phosphorus is one of the most important of the elements. It is stored in the seeds of grains ; and in combination with the elements which form the organic compounds of plants, it takes an important part in animal nutrition. Compounds of phosphorus are used in the manufacture of matches, and as poison for insects. Phos- phorus forms a large number of compounds, both with the metals and with the elements which enter into the organic compounds of plant and animal bodies. Problem 1. — How much P2O5 in a ton of bones, 80 per cent Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 ? Problem 2. — How much would the P 2 5 in a ton of Ca 2 H 2 (P04)2 be worth at 5 cents per pound for the P 2 5 ? Ca 2 H 2 (P0 4 ) 2 = P 2 5 + 2 CaO + H 2 0. CHAPTER XIV Sulfur and its Compounds 112. Occurrence. — Sulfur is found free, and in com- bination with other elements ; sulfids and sulfates are the compounds which occur most abundantly. Sulfur is also found in small amounts in combination with carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, forming the organic compounds of plant and animal bodies. 113. Preparation. — When taken from the mines, sulfur is mixed with impurities, as sand and clay, which are partially removed by heat- ing the sulfur, out of con- tact with air, much in the same way that charcoal is produced. Crude sulfur Fig. 43. — Crystals of sulfur. . « i , is refined by vaporizing and condensing the volatile sulfur upon the surfaces of brick chambers, the product being known as flowers of sulfur. By drawing off the molten sulfur into wooden molds, roll sulfur, or brimstone, is made. 114. Properties. — Like carbon and a few other ele- ments, sulfur has a number of allotropic forms. It may assume either an amorphous or several crystalline forms. It melts at a low temperature, and when molten sulfur is poured into water, a rubber-like, amorphous mass is obtained. Sulfur combines with oxygen ; and with the metals it forms sulfids. 92 SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 93 115. Uses. — Sulfur is used in the preparation of sulfuric acid, in the production of vulcanized rubber, in the manufacture of matches and gunpowder, and for bleach- ing and disinfecting purposes. A small amount in the form of sulfates is necessary as plant food. Experiment ig. — Properties of sulfur. Place 15 grams of sulfur in a test tube and heat slowly until it is a thin, amber- colored liquid. As the heat increases, notice that it becomes darker until black, and so thick and viscid that it cannot be poured from the test tube. Continue to apply heat until slightly lighter in color and again a liquid. Then pour the sulfur into an evaporating dish containing water, and, when cold, examine it and describe its proper- ties. Examine the sulfur product or crystals left in the test tube, and compare with the original sulfur, using a lens for the purpose. Questions. — (1) Are the crystals of sulfur formed by fusion like those of the original powdered form ? (2) How is it possible for sulfur to assume different physical forms ? (3) Is sulfur soluble in water ? (4) What is a sulfate ? Give the formula for one. (5) What is a sulfite ? Give the formula for one. (6) What is a sulfid ? 116. Sulfur Dioxid. — When sulfur is burned either in air or oxygen, SO2, a colorless, suffocating, non-combus- tible gas is produced. S0 2 combines with water, forming H2SO3, sulfurous acid. Sulfur dioxid is used in bleach- ing and for disinfecting purposes, as it is alike destruc- tive to organic coloring matter and to germ life. Experiment 20. — Sulfur dioxid. Fill the deflagration spoon half full of sulfur ; ignite, and then lower into a small cylinder contain- ing a piece of wet colored cloth and a piece of wet blue litmus paper. As soon as the sulfur ceases to burn, remove the spoon and cover the cylinder with a glass plate. Questions. — (1) What reaction does the S0 2 give with the litmus paper? (2) What effect did it have upon the cloth? (3) What does the S0 2 form with H 2 ? (4) Is S0 2 a heavy or a light gas ? (5) Is it a chemically active substance ? (6) Why does it act as a bleaching agent ? (7) Why is it valuable as a disinfectant ? 94 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 117. Sulfuric Acid. — Sulfuric acid cannot be produced from sulfates, as HC1 and HN0 3 are from their salts, because there is no acid or other material that can be used economically for the purpose. H 2 SO is made from its elements by the use of an oxidizing agent. The different steps in its production are : (1) Burning of sulfur, or roasting of some ore, as pyrites, which contains sulfur. The S forms with O, S0 2 . (2) Union of S0 2 and H 2 0, forming sulfurous acid, H 2 S0 3 . (3) Oxidation of H 2 S03 to form H 2 S0 4 . This is accom- plished by the use of N0 2 reduced to NO, which in turn is capable of uniting with the oxygen of the air, re-forming N0 2 . NO is used as a carrier of O ; hence the oxygen of the air is used indirectly for the oxidation of H 2 S0 3 . The different reactions take place simultaneously in lead-lined chambers : S0 2 + H 2 + N0 2 = H 2 S0 4 + NO. NO + O = N0 2 . Other and more complicated reactions also take place. The crude acid is then concentrated and purified. Sulfuric acid is extensively used in industrial opera- tions. There is scarcely a chemical product in the prepa- ration of which H 2 S0 4 is not used either directly or in- directly. H 2 S0 4 takes an important part in the manufac- ture of soda, which, in turn, is used for making glass, also in the preparation of commercial fertilizers, and of many food products. The amount of sulfuric acid which a country consumes is a fair index of the extent of its man- ufacturing industries. 118. Properties of H 2 S0 4 . — When pure, it is a colorless, heavy, oily liquid. It has a strong affinity for water, SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 95 with which it combines with evolution of heat. It will decompose organic materials containing C, H, and O, liberating the H 2 as water, with which it combines, while the carbon, which is partially oxidized, separates and blackens the acid. When sugar is acted upon by concentrated sulfuric acid, this change takes place. H2SO4 is used in the laboratory for drying gases, for drying the air in desiccators, and for oxidizing purposes, as in the determination of organic nitrogen in food mate- rials. It is one of the most useful and most extensively used of any of the reagents in the laboratory. Experiment 21. — Make the following tests with some of the sul- furic acid from the reagent bottles : (1) Put 2 or 3 cc. concentrated H2SO4 into a test tube ; thrust a splinter of wood into it and leave it there for a few minutes. Then remove the splinter from the test tube. Wash off the acid and examine the splinter. (2) Place in an evaporating dish 5 cc. water and 15 cc. H 2 S0 4 . Stir it with a small test tube containing 1 or 2 cc. NH 4 OH. Observe that the heat generated by the action of the H 2 S0 4 and water volatilizes some of the NH 3 . (3) Put 10 cc. of water and 1 cc. dilute H 2 S0 4 into a test tube. Then add 2 or 3 cc. of barium chlorid, BaCl 2 . Observe the result. Questions. — (1) Why is not H 2 S0 4 made from sulfates ? (2) Why- is heat produced when water and H 2 S0 4 are mixed ? (3) What use was made of this heat in test No. 2 ? (4) What caused the precipitate when BaCl 2 was added ? (5) Write the reaction. (6) What is the name of the product ? (7) What are some of the uses of H 2 S0 4 ? (8) How many kinds of salts does H 2 S0 4 form ? (9) Why is nitric oxid used in the manufacture of H 2 S0 4 ? (10) What are the physical properties of H 2 S0 4 ? (11) Of what agricultural value is H 2 S0 4 ? (12) Does H 2 S0 4 dissolve lead? (13) Why does commercial H 2 S0 4 often appear dark-colored or deposit a fine, white sediment ? 119. Sulfates. — Sulfuric acid is a dibasic acid, and hence may form two series of salts, as NaHS0 4 , primary 9 6 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY sodium sulfate (acid sodium sulfate) , and Na 2 S0 4 , second- ary sodium sulfate (normal sodium sulfate). The sul- fates of the metals form a large class of compounds which vary in chemical and physical properties according to the metal that is present. As a class they are fairly stable compounds. Some, as sodium and potassium sulfates, are soluble ; others, as calcium sulfate, are sparingly so, while barium sulfate is one of the most insoluble sub- stances in nature. Many of the sulfates contain water of crystallization. Calcium and potassium sulfates are valu- able as fertilizers, and copper sulfate is used as a fungicide. 120. Sulfids. — Sulfids are compounds of the metals with sulfur, as K 2 S, FeS, and CuS. When a sulfid, as FeS, is treated with a dilute acid, H 2 S, hydrogen sulfid, is liberated. FeS + 2 HC1 = FeCl 2 + H 2 S. The differences in solubility and other prop- erties of the sulfids are taken advantage of in the separation and identification of metals. H 2 S is formed when albuminous matter, as the white of an egg, decays. It is also one of the gases given off from sewers. It is a poisonous, suffocating gas. Experiment 22. — Hydrogen sulfid. (This experi- ment should be performed under the hood.) Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 44. The delivery tube and cork should fit tightly, and the delivery tube should pass into a test tube containing 10 cc. of Pb(N0 3 ) 2 solution. Test tubes containing 10 cc. respectively of NaCl and CuS0 4 solutions should be conveniently at hand. Place 5 grams of pulverized FeS in the generating test tube, add 10 cc. dilute HC1, and immediately connect with the delivery tube. After the gas has passed through the lead nitrate solution for two minutes, pass it through the sodium chlorid and copper sulfate solutions ; Fig. 44. — Hy- drogen sulfid generator. SULFUR AND ITS COMPOUNDS 97 then allow a little of the gas to escape into a cylinder containing water. Do not permit the free gas to escape into the room. With NaCl no insoluble sulfid is formed. Questions. — (i) What is the odor of the gas ? (2) Write the equation for its production. (3) What was formed when the gas was passed into Pb(N0 3 ) 2 ? Write the reaction. (4) What was formed when the gas was passed through Cu(N0 3 ) 2 ? Write the reaction. (5) Is H 2 S soluble in water ? (6) When albumin decays, from what is the H 2 S produced ? (7) Why was no precipitate formed when the gas was passed through NaCl ? Problem 1. — How much H 2 S0 4 can be made from one ton of sulfur ? Problem 2. — What per cent of H 2 S0 4 is SO3 ? Problem 3. — How much H 2 S0 4 is required to neutralize 500 pounds NaOH ? CHAPTER XV Silicon and its Compounds 121. Occurrence. — Silicon is found in nature in com- bination with oxygen as silica, Si0 2 ; and with oxygen and the metals as silicates. It is never free, but always in combination with other elements. Next to oxygen it is the most abundant element in nature. In the form of silicates it is the basis of the composition of nearly all rocks, and in the soil Si0 2 is present to the extent of from 60 to 90 per cent. It is in the ash of plants, and, to a slight extent, in animal bodies. 122. Preparation and Properties. — Silicon is separated from its compounds with difficulty. By treatment in an electric furnace, quartz, or Si0 2 , is reduced. Like carbon, silicon has crystalline and amorphous forms. Pure quartz, Si0 2 , and other forms of silicon, are insoluble in nitric, hydrochloric, and sulfuric acids. When acted upon by hydrofluoric acid, silicon tetrafluorid, a gas, is formed. Si0 2 Fig. 45. -Quartz + H p = Si p 4 _j_ 2 j^Q H p is used for crystal. . . the decomposition of silicates. 123. Silicic Acid. — When Si0 2 is fused with hydroxids or carbonates of potassium or sodium, potassium or sodium silicate is obtained : Si0 2 + K0CO3 = K 2 Si0 3 + C0 2 . Si0 2 + 4 KOH = K 4 Si0 4 + 2 H 2 0. 98 SILICON AND ITS COMPOUNDS 99 The silicates of potassium and sodium are soluble in water, and are commonly called water-glass. Some of the silicates are soluble in acids, but most of them are insoluble complex compounds difficult to decompose. When K 4 Si0 4 is treated with HC1, a gelatinous mass containing silicic acid is obtained : K 4 Si0 4 + 4 HO = H 4 Si0 4 + 4 KC1. H 4 Si0 4 is normal silicic acid. Upon exposure to the air it loses a molecule of water and forms ordinary silicic acid, H 2 Si0 3 , which is decomposed by heat and in the presence of acids forms H 2 and Si0 2 . In addition to the two silicic acids, H 2 Si0 3 and H 4 Si0 4 , there are other forms known as polysilicic acids, as : H 2 Si 3 7 , H 4 Si 3 8 , and H 2 Si 2 5 , obtained by removing water from the normal and ordinary silicic acid. 2 H 2 Si0 3 = H 2 Si0 5 + H 2 0. 3 H 4 Si0 4 = H 4 Si 3 8 + 4 H 2 0. 124. Dialysis. — In the preparation of silicic acid, the process known as dialysis is employed for dissolving and removing the impurities. Some sub- stances, as NaCl and HC1, dissolve and readily pass through animal membrane ; these are called crystalloids, while bodies like silicic acid, which do not penetrate animal membrane, or do so very slowly, are called colloids. The removal of the HC1 from the solution containing the gelatinous silicic acid is accomplished by means of the dialyzer, Fig. 46. This property of materials, readily or slowly to diffuse through animal membrane, is a physical characteristic, and is occa- sionally made use of for washing and separating compounds. Fig. 46. — Dialyzer. IOO AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 125. Silicates. — Since silican forms such a variety of acids, the number of silicates found in nature is very- large. The hydrogen atoms of silicic acid can be re- placed with different metals, forming double salts, as AlKSisOs, which is feldspar, or the double salt of trisilicic acid, H 4 Si 3 8 . This renders the composition of the sili- cates very complex. Many of the silicates contain also water of hydration as part of the molecule ; as aluminum silicate, Al 4 (Si0 4 )3 . H 2 0. Since rocks are composed mainly of silicates, and soils are formed from the decay of rocks, it follows that soils are practically a mechanical mixture of silicates with small amounts of other compounds. Hence, the importance of silicic acid and the silicates in agriculture. Unfortunately the structure and composi- tion of the silicates have not been determined as completely as of other salts and acids. Pure clay is aluminum silicate, formed from the disintegration of feldspar rock, a double silicate of potassium and aluminum. Mica, hornblende, and zeolites are all complex forms of silicates. 126. Importance of Compounds of Silicon. — The com- pounds of silicon, as silicon dioxid, SiC>2, and of the sili- cates, are used in the manufacture of glass, porcelain, and brick. The element itself takes no direct part in animal or plant life, but indirectly is important, for it is in com- bination with many elements which serve as plant food. Some of the simpler and more soluble silicates are capable of being acted upon by decaying animal and vegetable matter and undergoing chemical changes which prepare them for plant food. Since silicon forms the principal acid element which enters into the composition of rocks, soils, building stones, glass, brick, and porcelain, and is associated with the elements in the soil which serve SILICON AND ITS COMPOUNDS IOI as plant food, it follows that it is an important element in industrial operations and in agriculture. Experiment 23. — To about 5 cc. of sodium silicate in a test tube add a few drops of HC1 and observe the result. Then add NaOH and observe the result. Add more HO, and evaporate the material to dryness in the evaporating dish. When cool, test the solubility of the residue in water. Questions. — (1) What was formed when HC1 was added to so- dium silicate ? Write the reaction. (2) What was the appearance of the product ? (3) What effect did the NaOH have, and what was formed ? (4) What was formed when the material was evapo- rated to dryness ? (5) What can you say as to the solubility of the product ? Problem 1. — What per cent of Si0 2 in clay, Al 4 (Si0 4 )3 . H 2 ? Problem 2. — How much silicic acid is formed when 10 grams of HC1 act upon K 4 Si0 4 ? CHAPTER XVI Oxids of Carbon, Carbonates, and Carbon Compounds 127. Carbon Dioxid. — Carbon dioxid is obtained from the combustion of carbon and also from the treatment of a carbonate with an acid. A carbonate is a salt of car- bonic acid, M2CO3, in which M represents any mono- valent metal, as K or Na. Calcium carbonate, CaCC^, is the most abundant carbonate found in nature. When a carbonate is treated with an acid, CO2 is liberated, and a salt is formed, as CaCOs + 2 HC1 = CaCl 2 + C0 2 + H 2 0. Experiment 24. — Preparation of carbon dioxid. Arrange the apparatus as for the preparation of hydrogen. Put 10 grams of marble, CaC0 3 , into the Woulff bottle, and sufficient water to cover the end of the thistle tube. Fill 2 or 3 cylinders with water for collecting the gas, which is only slightly soluble in water, then add slowly, through the thistle tube, about 20 cc. concentrated HC1. Allow a little of the first gas generated to escape into the room and then collect 2 or 3 cylinders of C0 2 . Remove the cylinders from the pneumatic trough and place them on the desk, right side up. Now remove the delivery tube from the pneumatic trough and allow the gas to pass into a test tube containing about 10 cc. of clear lime water, Ca(OH) 2 . If necessary, add through the thistle tube a little more acid to the generator. Observe the white precipi- tate formed in the test tube. Let the gas pass through the lime water for several minutes, until the solution becomes clear. Now boil the solution and observe the reappearance of the white precipi- tate. Test some of the escaping gas with a burning splinter. Pour a receiver of the gas over a candle or a low gas flame, and observe 102 OXIDS OF CARBON, CARBONATES, ETC. IO3 the result. Thrust a burning splinter into a cylinder of CO2. Ob- serve the result. Add 5 cc. water to the cylinder in which the splinter was placed, and then a little lime water ; shake, and observe the result. Questions. — (1) Write the reaction for the preparation of CO2. (2) What is a carbonate? (3) Is CaC0 3 soluble in pure water? (4) Is it soluble in water containing C0 2 ? (5) What caused the precipitate to from when the C0 2 gas was passed through the lime water ? (6) What is this precipitate ? Write the reaction. (7) What caused this precipitate to disappear when more gas was passed through the solution ? (8) What caused it to reappear when the solution was boiled ? (9) What caused the candle to be extinguished when a receiver of C0 2 was poured over the flame ? (10) O is a supporter of combustion ; C0 2 contains O ; why does C0 2 not support combustion ? (11) Is C0 2 a heavy or a light gas, and what tests indicate that it is heavy or light ? (12) What other carbonate could be used for making C0 2 ? (13) What other acid could be used for making CO2 ? 128. Carbon Monoxid. — Carbon monoxid is formed when carbon is only partially oxidized because of an in- sufficient supply of air. In a coal stove, for example, there is not a perfect supply of air in the interior of the burning mass ; carbon monoxid is formed there and passes to the surface, where it burns as a blue flame. If the draft is imperfect, a large amount of carbon monoxid is formed. When a coal stove gives off gas, the carbon monoxid is not oxidized, but is thrown into the room. Carbon monoxid is a light, colorless, combustible, poison- ous gas, and can be produced by subjecting highly heated carbon to the action of steam. The reaction is C + H 2 = CO + 2 H. Both CO and H are combustible, and when they are enriched by some of the hydrocarbons, thus introducing materials that give light when burned, they may be used for illuminating purposes, and the product is called water gas. Carbon monoxid is pro- 104 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY duced in furnaces from the coke which is mixed with ore, and in the smelting and refining of ores, it is an important reducing agent ; in fact, the main reducing agent of the blast furnace. 129. Marsh Gas (Methane, CH 4 ). — When vegetable matter decays under water, where the supply of air is incomplete, methane, CH 4 , is one of the products formed. It is given off in bubbles from the surface of stagnant pools. It often collects in coal mines, and is there called fire damp. CH 4 can be prepared in the laboratory in a number of ways, and is a colorless, combustible gas, which with air forms an explosive mixture. 130. Hydrocarbons. — A compound, as methane, com- posed of hydrogen and carbon is called a hydrocarbon. There are a large number of such compounds, forming series in which the members differ from one another in composition by a definite number of C and H atoms, as methane, CH 4 , and ethane, C 2 H 6 . The 'next mem- ber is propane, C 3 H 8 ; CH 2 being the common difference between the members of this series. By oxidation, re- duction, and substitution, in which a part of the H is re- placed with equivalent radicals, a large number of de- rivatives, as alcohols, aldehydes, ethers, and organic acids, are formed. 131. Petroleum. — Petroleum is an oily liquid obtained in some parts of the world by boring wells into the rock strata, where it is found as a natural product. It is a mechanical mixture of various liquid and solid hydro- carbons, often accompanied with gaseous hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons distilled at low temperature, ranging from 8° to 68° C, are the gasoline and benzene products, while those which distil between 175 and 215 C. are the various grades of kerosene. In the preparation of gaso- OXIDS OF CARBON, CARBONATES, ETC. I05 line, benzene, and kerosene, the separation of the various grades of hydrocarbons is not complete ; kerosene, for example, may contain traces of gasoline or paraffin prod- ucts. Kerosene should have a flashing point not below 44 C. (in° F.), in order to render it safe for illuminating purposes. The flashing point of kerosene may be approxi- mately determined in the following way : Experiment 25. — Testing kero- sene. Pour into a small porcelain crucible some kerosene ; place the crucible upon a water bath, and suspend a thermometer in the kerosene. Do not allow the water in the bath to come in contact with the crucible or the thermometer to touch the bottom. Cautiously heat the water until the ther- mometer registers 40 C, then re- move the lamp and draw a lighted match across the surface of the kerosene. If it flashes, note its temperature ; do not let it burn ; should this occur, remove the thermometer and cover the cru- cible. If the kerosene does not flash, repeat the test, and if nec- essary apply more heat until the flashing point is reached. Calculate the corresponding tempera- ture on the Fahrenheit scale. Fig. 47. — Testing kerosene. 132. Use of Gasoline. — Gasoline is safe for use as a fuel, provided precautions are observed: (1) Never use io6 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY a gasoline stove when there is but little gasoline in the tank, because the last gas generated is mixed with air, and is liable to form an explosive mixture. (2) All joints and connections about the stove should be tight to prevent escape of gasoline into the air. Lack of care in this respect is the most frequent cause of fires. (3) The gasoline can should be well corked and stored in a cool place. (4) The stove should be kept clean, and no de- posit of carbon should be allowed to collect upon the burners. (5) Do not fill tank while stove is lighted. 133. Illuminating Gas. — Illuminating gas is made from soft coal and petroleum by destructive distillation. The gases formed are washed and separated from ammonia Fig. 48. — Illuminating gas plant for producing gas from gasoline. A, weight to ai pump, B. D, carburetor or generating tank into which air is forced. and coal tar, and consist of various hydrocarbons which are used for illuminating purposes. The coal, after being deprived of its gaseous products, is converted into coke, OXIDS OF CARBON, CARBONATES, ETC. 107 which bears the same relation to coal which charcoal bears to wood. Ammonia and coal tar are recovered as by- products. Various coloring matters are made from coal tar. If air is forced through gasoline in an inclosed chamber, or if gasoline is vaporized, it will burn like ordinary coal gas. Gasoline can be vaporized on a small scale, and machines suitable for the purpose are made for illuminat- ing dwellings. Five gallons of gasoline will produce about 1000 feet of gas or vapor. The illuminating power of gas, and of flames in general, is expressed in terms of candle power. A sixteen candle-power light is one that gives sixteen times as much light as a standard candle, composed of spermaceti, and burned at the rate of 120 grains per hour, the comparison being made by means of a photometer. In some localities, hydrocarbons, due to decomposition of organic matter, are given off from the earth as natural gas in amounts sufficient to be used for illuminating and fuel purposes. 134. Mineral Oils. — The heavier products obtained in the distillation of petroleum, after removal of the gasoline, benzene, and kerosene, are used for lubricating purposes, and are called mineral oils. They have a boiling point from 250 to 350 C. 135. Oil of Turpentine (Ci Hi 6 ). — Oil of turpentine is obtained by distilling the resinous material which exudes from incisions in certain species of pines. Resin is ob- tained in the retorts. Oil of turpentine is inflammable, and dissolves readily in ether, alcohol, and naphtha. It is a valuable solvent, extensively used in the preparation of varnishes and paints, and as a solvent for caoutchouc. Turpentine belongs to the class of compounds known as essential oils. 108 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 136. Creosote. — When wood tar is distilled, various products are obtained which, after treatment with chemi- cals for purification, are called wood-tar creosote. This is a yellowish liquid with a smoky odor. It is a power- ful antiseptic, and is the preservative employed in the preparation of " smoked meats," as hams and fish. It has no marked action on albuminous matter, and in small amounts is not poisonous. Because of its antiseptic powers, wood creosote is used for the preservation of wood, as it prevents decay. When some kinds of wood, as beech wood, are burned, the wood tar condenses in the chimney. 137. Benzene or Benzol (C 6 H 6 ). — When coal tar, ob- tained in the manufacture of illuminating gas, is sub- jected to fractional distillation, commercial products are obtained known as coal tar, naphtha, middle oil, heavy oil, anthracene oil, and pitch or artificial asphaltum. The naphtha or light oil consists of a mixture of hydrocar- bons, benzene being among the number. Benzene is used as a solvent for fatty bodies. It is very inflam- mable. 138. Aliphatic and Aromatic Series of Compounds. — In organic chemistry benzene occupies an important posi- tion, as the direct treatment of benzene and its deriva- tives produces the aromatic series of compounds, which form one of the two main divisions of the subject. The other series is obtained from methane and its derivatives, and constitutes the aliphatic series. The alcohols, ethers, glycerides, fatty acids, organic acids, carbohydrates, and amids are members of the aliphatic series, while essen- tial oils, coloring matters, and mixed nitrogenous compounds are members of the aromatic series. In or- ganic chemistry a study is made of the formation, rela- OXIDS OF CARBON, CARBONATES, ETC. IO9 tionship, structure, and properties of all these compounds. Hence the importance of this branch of chemistry. 139. Carbon Disulfid. — With sulfur, carbon forms car- bon disulnd, CS 2 , a clear liquid with a characteristic odor. It readily burns and is easily vaporized. It is a solvent for fats, resins, sulfur, and iodin, and is used for the destruction of insects, particularly those infesting grains, and for killing small burrowing animals, as gophers. 140. Cyanids. — In the presence of metals carbon unites indirectly with nitrogen, forming cyanids, as KCN. When mercuric cyanid is heated, cyanogen gas and metallic mercury are formed : Hg(CN) 2 = Hg + 2 CN. Cyano- gen and the cyanids are very poisonous. With H, cyano- gen forms hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid), which is used for the destruction of scale insects and in the preparation of pigments. Traces of this compound are found in a few plants ; some owe their poisonous properties to its presence in excessive amounts. 141. Carbids. — With some of the metals, notably cal- cium, carbon forms carbids, as CaC 2 which is produced by the fusion of coke and limestone in electric furnaces. In the presence of water CaC 2 is decomposed, forming acetylene gas, C 2 H 2 , and calcium hydroxid. CaC 2 + 2 H 2 = C 2 H 2 + Ca(OH) 2 . Acetylene generators are made for illuminating dwell- ings. Acetylene, like all gaseous hydrocarbons, as methane and benzene, forms an explosive mixture with oxygen. All illuminating gases should be dealt with as highly combustible and explosive materials. 142. Fuels. — There are three forms of fuel: (1) gas, (2) liquid, and (3) solid. Natural gas, coal gas, and gas IIO AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY generated from gasoline and naphtha are the principal forms of gas fuel ; kerosene, gasoline, and crude petro- leum are liquid fuels ; while coal, coke, lignite, peat, and wood are the chief forms of solid fuel. The composition of coal, coke, lignite, and peat is discussed in Chapter V. Wood is composed largely of cellulose, and contains, when dry, about 50 per cent carbon, 6 per cent hydrogen, and 43 to 44 per cent oxygen. Air-dried wood contains from 10 to 15 per cent moisture. Different kinds of wood vary in density between wide limits ; for example, a cord of dry pine weighs about 3000 pounds, while a cord of dry maple or other hard wood weighs from 4500 to 5000 pounds, or more. Hence the same volume (as a cord) of soft wood yields less total heat than a cord of hard wood, but a pound of the different kinds of wood of equal moisture content gives nearly the same amount of heat. The amount of heat which a material produces when burned is measured in the calorimeter, and is given in terms of calories or heat units. A calorie is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilo of water 1 centigrade degree. The presence of water in fuels generally lowers the caloric value, because it requires heat to evaporate and expel as steam the moisture before com- bustion can take place. At a high temperature (above noo° C.) the water in fuel is converted into com- bustible gases by the action of heated carbon, as explained in Section 128, in which case the loss in fuel value is reduced to a minimum. 143. Comparative Value of Fuels. — The heat-pro- ducing value of fuels is also expressed as British thermal units, B. T. U., the heat required to raise 1 pound of water i° F. B. T. U. per pound are changed to calories per kilo by dividing the number of B. T. U. by 1.8. OXIDS OF CARBON, CARBONATES, ETC. Ill B.T.U. Hard coal 13,000 Soft coal, Hocking 1 1,800 Soft coal, Pocahontas 13,000 Soft coal, Splint 1 2,500 Lignite with 30 per cent water 7,000 144. Foods. — The materials used as human and animal foods are mechanical mixtures of various organic com- pounds, as starch, sugar, fat, albumin, etc., together with various mineral salts. The composition of the or- ganic compounds of foods forms a part of the study of organic chemistry, while their economic value and the uses made of them by the body are studied in physiological chemistry. Knowledge in regard to the composition and uses of foods, particularly of human foods, is somewhat limited, although along this line many facts and laws of economic and sanitary importance have been discovered. The subject of foods is treated more fully in the chapters relating to the chemistry of foods. Vegetable foods and fuels are alike in chemical com- position, and serve somewhat the same functions, but in different ways. Food is used as fuel by the body, and also for the renewal of old and the production of new tissues. The heat produced from food is transformed into muscular and other forms of energy ; the heat from the combustion of fuel is converted into chemical energy, which is utilized for mechanical purposes. 145. Production of Organic Compounds in Plants. — The carbon dioxid of the air is the source of the carbon used by plants for the production of the various organic compounds found in vegetable substances, and since about 50 per cent of the ash-free tissue of plants is carbon, it follows that the carbon dioxid of the air is an important factor in plant growth. Hydrogen and oxygen are 112 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY obtained from the water of the soil which is received from the air. The production of the various organic com- pounds of plants takes place in the cells of the leaves and is the result of chemical changes induced by life Plant food from air V>7-/- , /-'/^f7 plant FOOD from soil INCRal CiO SO, MATTER P,0, N»,0 M$0 CI Fig. 49. — Production of organic compounds in plants, showing sources of plant food. processes. In order to promote cell activity, sunlight and a suitable temperature are necessary. The sun's rays take an important part in promoting chemical changes in the leaves of plants. In addition to carbon dioxid, water, heat, and sunlight, various mineral elements in the form of compounds of potassium, calcium, phos- phorus, nitrogen, iron, magnesia, sulfur, and possibly a few others are required as plant food. Without these essential elements and requisite conditions, the growth of crops cannot take place. It often happens that soils are unproductive because of the absence, in available OXIDS OF CARBON, CARBONATES, ETC. 113 ss ;3 »* ■& form, of some of the elements essential for plant life. The production in the leaves of plants of the various or- ganic compounds, as cellulose, starch, sugar, fat, albumin, etc., and a few of the complex chemi- cal changes which take place, are discussed in the second part of this work. 146. Decay of Organic Com- pounds. — All organic compounds, particularly those found in the tissues of plants and used for food, are subject to the chemical change commonly called decay. Such change is nearly always produced as the result either of the action F i?- s ° of organized ferments, or of the chemical products known as chem- ical or soluble ferments. Fermen- tation changes and decay take place whenever cell activity becomes feeble or ceases ; then the material becomes food for microorganisms. Many chemical changes occur as the result of fermentation ; some of these are necessary in plant and animal nutrition. If the chemical changes, coordinate with fermentation, are uninterrupted, the organic materials are decomposed until carbon dioxid, water, ammonia gas, and hydrogen sulfid are obtained as the final products, and the mineral matter combined and associated with the organic matter is left as non- volatile material. In economic agriculture, it is the aim to conserve and return to the soil the essential elements, as nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium, which are frequently unavail- able or present in soils in scant amounts, so that the 1 Decay of wood. Note that the decay is more rapid near the moist surface where the supply of air is greater. 114 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY fertility will not be impaired. The elements in plant and animal bodies pass through a cycle of chemical changes ; they are never lost to nature, but appear in different chemical compounds, as exemplified by the law of inde- Ostructibility of matter. A. Elements of plant growth in soil B and air. B. Elements from soil and air elabo- rated into plant tissue. A C. Elements in plant tissue elabo- Fig. si. rated into animal tissue. The elements in either plant or animal bodies may pass back to A, and then pass again through the same cycle of chemical changes. CHAPTER XVII Writing Equations 147. Importance. — A chemical equation expresses con- cisely the changes which take place when two or more compounds are brought together so as to react, or when a material is acted upon by any agent which causes a chemical change. When chemical equations are under- stood by the student, they are of great assistance, as they necessitate a knowledge of the laws of valence, of the power of replacement, and of the properties of the ele- ments and their compounds. 148. Common Errors in Writing Equations. — Some of the more common errors in writing equations are : (1) Failure to use correct formulas. (2) Failure to use the correct number of parts of com- pounds, radicals, or elements. (3) Failure properly to balance the equation. (4) Failure to form reasonable compounds or products. If the correct formula, or the right number of mole- cules, is not used, the equation is incorrect, it cannot be balanced, and the principle represented by the sign of equality is violated. There should be as many atoms of an element on one side of an equation as on the other. In order properly to balance an equation, as many mole- cules of the compounds on the left of the equation should be taken as are needed to satisfy the valences of the reacting elements and radicals. In the equation AgN0 3 + HC1 = AgCl + HNO3, "5 n6 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY ~&L H' z£ t AS' no: B z: ^ CI' / z: H' NO' Fig. 52. Graphic illustration of a chemical reaction. only one molecule each of AgN0 3 and HC1 is necessary, because all of these elements and radicals are monova- lent. A simple exchange takes place in which the H of the acid is replaced by the metal Ag. If the elements H and Ag were to ex- change places, they would occupy, after the exchange, the posi- tions shown on the right-hand side of the equation. This ex- change is represented graphically in Fig. 52 ; A represents the order before, and B after, the reaction. Blocks of wood marked to represent the elements and radicals can be used, the block marked H being replaced by the equivalent block marked Ag. When difficulty is experienced in writing chemical equations, this method of illustration will be found helpful. In an equation as 2 NaCl + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2 HC1, where both monovalent and bivalent elements and rad- icals are present, it is necessary to take two molecules of NaCl because there are two H atoms to be replaced. H and Na have the same valence, viz., 1, and S0 4 has a valence of 2. In order to obtain two atoms of Na, it is necessary to take 2 NaCl ; then two atoms of Na replace two of H. The products are Na 2 S0 4 and 2 HC1. S0 4 is a radical with a valence of 2 and requires 2 Na atoms in order to form a compound. A similar reaction is repre- sented graphically by the use of blocks in Fig. 53. A represents the arrangement before, and B the arrange- WRITING EQUATIONS 117 s A' r H' so; I H' ^z5Z K 1 K' no: no: B / X K' so: K' ment after, the reaction. Observe that in this equation there is the same number of atoms of each element on each side of the equa- tion. After writing an equation the stu- dent should always ob- serve whether or not it is properly balanced, and that reasonable products are formed. The valences of the elements and radicals are given in Sections 15 and 77. There are always as many parts by weight of the elements on one side of an equation as on the other. That is, the sum of the weights of the atoms and molecules on one side is equal to the sum of those on the other, as : + H' no; H' no; Fig. 53. Graphic illustration of a chemical reaction. 2 NaCl 2 Na = 46 2 CI =71 + + 117 Na 2 S0 4 . 2 Na = 46 S =32 4O =64 142 H 2 S0 4 = 2 HC1 2H = 2 2H = 2 S =32 2 CI =71 4 O = 64 — — 73 98 117 + 98 = 215. 73 + 142 == 215. In the case of trivalent and bivalent elements and radi- cals, as in the reaction between H3PO4 and Ca(OH) 2 , it is necessary to take 2 H3PO4 and 3 Ca(OH) 2 , in order to make the equation balance. The Ca and H atoms ex- change places ; there are three H atoms to be replaced. Ca has a valence of 2 ; 1 Ca cannot replace 3 H, but Il8 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 6 H(2 H3) can be replaced by 3 Ca, because 2H3 has a total valence of 6 and so has 3 Ca. 2 H3PO4 + 3 Ca(OH) 2 = Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 6 H 2 0. 3 Ca atoms replace the 2 H 3 and form Ca3(P0 4 ) 2 , a bal- anced compound, because P0 4 is a radical having a valence of 3, and if taken twice, its total valence is 6, with which 3 Ca atoms can combine. The remaining H and atoms form 6 H 2 0. 149. Impossible Reactions. — Not all chemical com- pounds when brought together give a chemical reaction. Whether or not a reaction takes place can be determined only after a careful study of the elements and their prop- erties ; this often involves a more exhaustive knowledge of chemistry than can be obtained from an elementary study of the subject. In the case of BaS0 4 + 2 HC1, no reaction can take place, although an apparently correct reaction can be written : BaS0 4 + 2 HC1 = BaCl 2 + H 2 S0 4 . This is because BaS0 4 and HC1 are the products of the reaction BaCl 2 + H 2 S0 4 = BaS0 4 + 2 HC1. In the equations given at the end of this chapter a reac- tion takes place in each case. 150. A Knowledge of Reacting Compounds and Prod- ucts Necessary. — In order that the writing of chemical equations may become more than a mere mechanical oper- ation, the student should study the character and prop- erties of the compounds used and of the products formed. If one of the compounds is an acid and the other a base, the subject of neutralization is illustrated. If one of the WRITING EQUATIONS HO compounds is an acid and the other a metal, the re- placement of the H of the acid occurs. Should one of the compounds be an acid and the other a salt, an equiva- lent amount of the H is replaced by the metal or basic element of the salt. Other principles and laws should be observed by the student in writing equations. The character of the compounds, as acid, base, or salt, with their names, forms a part of equation work, which is an essential feature of elementary chemistry. 151. Equations for Classroom Work. — The student should write the following equations : 1. CaCl 2 + Na 2 C0 3 = 2. CaCl 2 + Na 2 S0 4 = 3. Ca(OH) 2 + H 2 S0 4 = 4. CaC0 3 + HC1 = 5. MgC0 3 + HC1 = 6. KNO3 + H0SO4 = 7. CaCl 2 + Na 3 (P0 4 ) = 8. Pb(N0 3 ) 2 + 2 HC1 = 9. AICI3 + NH4OH = 10. Ba(OH) 2 + H 2 S0 4 = 11. BaCl 2 + H 2 S0 4 = 12. Pb(N0 3 ) 2 + H 2 S0 4 = 13. Na 2 C0 3 + H 2 S0 4 = 14. Na 3 P0 4 + H 2 S0 4 = 15. Ca(OH) 2 + Na 2 S0 4 = 16. Fe(OH) 3 + H 2 S0 4 = 17. (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 + Ca(OH) 2 = 18. NH 4 N0 3 + H 2 S0 4 = 19. (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 + HC1 = 20. NH 4 C1 + H 2 S0 4 = 21. NH 4 C1 + Ca(OH) 2 = I20 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 2 2. NH4CI + NaOH = 23 . NH4CI + Ba(OH) 2 = 24. NH4NO3 + Ca(OH) 2 = 25. NH4OH + HC1 = 26. NH4NO3 + KOH = 27. FeCl 2 + NaOH = 28. FeCl 2 + NH4OH = 29. AgCl + H 2 S = 30. Na 2 C0 3 + Ba(OH) 2 = 31. Na 2 C0 3 + HC1 = 32. NaOH + FeCl 2 = 33. AgN0 3 + NaCl = 34. AgN0 3 + HC1 = 35. Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 + 3H 2 S0 4 = 36. CaC0 3 + heat = 37. CaO + C0 2 = 38. Ca(OH) 2 + C0 2 = 39. K + H 2 = 40. A1K(S0 4 ) 2 + 3 KOH = 41. A1NH 4 (S0 4 ) 2 + NH4OH = 42. CaCl 2 + (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 = 43. CaCl 2 + H 2 S0 4 = 44. Na 2 Si0 3 + HC1 = 45. CaSi0 3 + Na 2 C0 3 = 46. C + CuO = 47. CuCl 2 -f H 2 S = 48. C 6 Hi O 5 + 12 O = 49. AICI3 + H 3 P0 4 = 50. AlCls + NH4OH = CHAPTER XVIII Potassium, Sodium, and their Compounds 152. Occurrence of Potassium. — Potassium is found in nature largely in combination with silicon and other ele- ments forming silicates, which undergo slow disintegra- tion with liberation of potassium salts which become food for plants. Potassium is in the ash of all plants and food materials and is one of the elements required by crops. In some " alkali " soils, small amounts are found in the form of potassium salts. Deposits of various double salts of potassium, supposed to have been formed by crystallization from sea water, are found at Stassfurt in Prussia, and are commonly known as Stassfurt salts. These are the chief sources of the potassium compounds, some of which are extensively used for fertilizer. The element potassium is most typical of all the base elements as a class. It is never found in nature in a free state, but always in combination with other elements, from which it is separated with difficulty. It is a light substance with a metallic luster, and in the laboratory is kept from contact with air and water, with which it readily reacts. 153. Potassium Hydroxid. — This is a strong basic compound extensively used in the laboratory and in manufacturing operations. It is prepared by treating K2CO3 with Ca(OH) 2 , the reaction being K 2 C0 3 + Ca(OH) 2 = CaC0 3 + 2 KOH. CaC0 3 is insoluble and can be separated by filtering from KOH, which is soluble. 121 122 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Fig. 54. — Prepara- tion of KOH. KOH, commonly called caustic potash, is a white, brittle substance which readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxid from the air. Experiment 26. — Preparation of KOH. Dissolve 5 grams po- tassium carbonate, K 2 C0 3 , in an evaporating dish containing 15 cc. of water. Add a mixture of 3 grams Ba(OH) 2 and 10 cc. of water. Heat on the sand bath for five minutes. Filter off the solution. Ob- serve the precipitate. Evaporate some of the solution to dryness in the evaporator. Questions. — (1) Write the reaction which takes place between K 2 C0 3 and Ba(OH) 2 . (2) What is the insoluble white material left on the filter paper ? (3) Is the KOH soluble or insoluble ? (4) What other material could be used in place of Ba(OH) 2 ? (5) If Na 2 C0 3 were used instead of K 2 C0 3 , what product would be formed ? Write the reaction. (6) What reaction does K 2 C0 3 give with litmus paper ? (7) What reaction does NaOH give ? (8) What are some of the uses made of KOH ? (9) What would result if the KOH in the evaporator were left exposed to the air for a day or more ? 154. Potassium Nitrate. — This salt is found in small amounts in fertile soils where conditions have been favor- able for nitrification processes (see Section 92). It is extensively used in the arts, and is prepared from sodium nitrate deposits which occur as natural products known as Chile saltpeter. It is an oxidizing agent and is one of the ingredients of gunpowder, which is a mixture of sulfur, carbon, and potassium nitrate. Potassium nitrate, in small amounts, is occasionally used for the preserva- tion of meats. 155. Potassium Carbonate. — When wood ashes are leached, potassium carbonate is the chief alkaline salt extracted, and this product is called potash, which, by POTASSIUM, SODIUM, ETC. 1 23 the removal of impurities, furnishes pure K 2 C0 3 . Potas- sium carbonate is prepared from the chlorid in the same way that sodium carbonate is prepared from its chlorid as explained in Section 162. 156. Potassium Chlorate is prepared by the action of chlorin gas upon potassium hydrate. It is used in the laboratory as an oxidizing agent, and for the preparation of oxygen. It is one of the ingredients of safety matches. 157. Potassium Sulfate is found in nature in the form of double salts, in the Stassfurt deposits and elsewhere. It is employed in the preparation of alum and other com- pounds. There are two sulfates of potassium : primary or acid potassium sulfate, KHS0 4 , and secondary or normal potassium sulfate, K2SO4. 158. Miscellaneous Potassium Salts. — Potassium forms a large number of salts, as KC1, KBr, KF, Kl, KCN, K 2 S, KN0 2 , many of which are very valuable in medicine, in the arts as photography, and in the labora- tory for the preparation of other compounds. The salts of potassium vary in chemical and physical properties according to the acid elements or radicals with which the potassium is combined. All of the common salts of potas- sium, except the double silicates, are soluble in water. 159. Occurrence of Sodium. — Sodium and potassium are very much alike in general properties, and form analo- gous salts and compounds. Sodium is not so strong a type of basic element as is potassium, and can be sepa- rated from its compounds more readily, although it is not easily replaced by other elements or by simple chemical forces. Sodium and its compounds are less expensive than potassium and its compounds. In industrial opera- tions sodium salts are more extensively used, but to the agricultural student potassium is of greater importance 124 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY because sodium takes little or no part in plant nutrition. In animal life, however, sodium chlorid plays an impor- tant role. Sodium is never found in nature in a free state, sodium chlorid being one of the most abundant of its salts. Sodium is also found as silicates and in small amounts in other forms. 1 60. Sodium Chlorid. — Extensive deposits of this salt are found in nature. In some places it is mined, the prod- uct being known as rock salt. It is in sea water in large amounts, from which it is occasionally obtained in an impure form along with a number of other salts. When pure, sodium chlorid forms colorless, transparent cubes. Much commercial salt is obtained by evaporation of water from salt springs. In some localities, water is forced into and through deposits of salt, which it dissolves, and it is then pumped out and evaporated to dryness. Sodium chlorid is extensively used for the preparation of sodium carbonate and other compounds, as hydrochloric acid. It is not found to any appreciable extent in ordinary agricultural plants, but in some alkali plants there are quite large amounts. When sodium chlorid contains impurities, as calcium chlorid and lime salts, the material readily absorbs moisture from the air, while other com- pounds cause it to form lumps and hard cakes. Hence a salt which readily absorbs moisture or forms hard lumps is not pure. Sodium chlorid takes little or no part in plant life, but is necessary for animal life. 161. Sodium Nitrate. — Extensive deposits of sodium nitrate are found in Peru, Chile, and other South Ameri- can countries. It is commonly called Chile saltpeter. As stated in Section 154, it is used for the preparation of potassium nitrate and in the manufacture of nitric acid and commercial fertilizers. Sodium nitrate is commer- POTASSIUM, SODIUM, ETC. 1 25 cially and agriculturally an important product. The value of nitrogen in fertilizers is usually based upon the selling price of sodium nitrate. Small amounts of this salt, formed by the process of nitrification, are found in soils of high fertility. Because of its solubility, however, it never accumulates in soils. 162. Sodium Carbonate. — Commercially, this salt is known as soda, and is one of the most useful chemicals manufactured. It is used in the making of soap and glass, and in other commercial operations. It is prepared by two processes, one known as Le Blanc process, and the other as ammonia or Solvay process. By Le Blanc process, it is prepared from sodium chlorid treated with sulfuric acid, which produces Na 2 S0 4 . 2 NaCl + H 2 S0 4 = Na 2 S0 4 + 2 HC1. The sodium sulfate is heated with charcoal; which pro- duces sodium sulfid. Na 2 S0 4 + 2 C = Na 2 S + 2 C0 2 . When heated with calcium carbonate, sodium sulfid forms sodium carbonate and calcium sulfid, the latter product being insoluble in water, while sodium carbonate is solu- ble in water and hence is readily separated by filtration. The process of manufacture usually consists in mixing coal and calcium carbonate with sodium sulfate, the prod- uct being known as crude soda, which is refined, and from which calcined and crystallized soda are obtained. In the Solvay process, (NH 4 ) 2 C03 is employed, which forms, with sodium chlorid, HNaC0 3 , which when heated yields Na 2 C0 3 , C0 2 , and H 2 0. 163. Sodium Hydroxid. — This base is prepared in the same way as KOH ; Na 2 C0 3 being used in place of K 2 C0 3 . NaOH is extensively used in the manufacture of soaps. 126 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 164. Sodium Phosphates. — Sodium forms three phos- phates : primary sodium phosphate, secondary sodium phosphate, Na 2 HP0 4 , and tertiary or normal sodium phos- phate, Na 3 P0 4 . Phosphates of soda are not found to any appreciable extent in soils, because phosphoric acid forms, with iron, alumina, and calcium, which are always present, insoluble compounds. 165. Miscellaneous Sodium Salts. — Like potassium, sodium forms a large number of salts, as Na 2 S0 4 , NaHS0 4 , NaBr, NaCN, Na 2 S and Na 2 0. Sodium compounds are all soluble except the silicates and a few of the more com- plex salts. As previously stated, salts of sodium are similar to the corresponding salts of potas- sium. The sodium com- pounds are among the most useful and important com- pounds found in nature. Experiment 27. — Fill a cylin- der about two thirds full of water, and place upon the surface of the water a piece of Na about half as large as a pea, using forceps for the purpose. If there is no small piece of Na in the bottle, one may be cut by means of a knife with- out removing the Na from the naphtha which surrounds it. Ob- serve the result when the Na is placed upon the water. The appa- ratus can be arranged and the escaping hydrogen collected as shown in Fig. 55. (The test tube should be filled with water and the Na wrapped in a piece of filter-paper.) Fig. 55. -Decomposition of water by the use of sodium. POTASSIUM, SODIUM, ETC. 1 27 Questions.— (1) Give the reaction which takes place between Na and H 2 0. (2) What gas is liberated ? (3) What becomes of Na in the experiment ? (4) Is this product soluble or insoluble ? (5) Test the liquid in the cylinder with litmus paper and observe the result. (6) Is Na a light or heavy metal ? Why ? (7) Is it active or inert ? (8) Why is Na always kept in a bottle containing naphtha or kero- sene ? (9) Since NaCl is found in sea water, why does not Na of the NaCl decompose sea water as the element Na did the water in this experiment ? CHAPTER XIX Calcium, Magnesium, and their Compounds i 66. Occurrence of Calcium. — This element is found widely distributed in nature in the form of calcium car- bonate, CaC0 3 , calcium phosphate, Ca 3 (P0 4 )2, and cal- cium sulfate, CaSCU, and is a yellowish metal which readily oxidizes and decomposes water. It enters into the composition of both plant and animal bodies and takes an important part in life processes. Its compounds are useful in the industries, lime, cement, and mortar being some of the forms in ^ which it is employed. Calcium is not easily separated from its compounds. 167. Calcium Car- bonate. — This com- pound, in the form of limestone and marble, is found exten- sively. It is somewhat sol- uble in water charged with carbon dioxid, and hence many waters, as stated in Section 65, owe their hardness to its presence. Calcium carbon- ate is used principally for the preparation of quicklime, 128 Fig. 56. Sec' ion of lime kiln. CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, ETC. 129 in the manufacture of glass, and in the refining of some metals, where it is employed as a flux. 168. Calcium Oxid. — When calcium carbonate is sub- jected to heat, as in lime kilns or specially constructed furnaces, the carbon dioxid is separated and the oxid obtained. Layers of limestone and wood are placed alter- nately in the lime kiln, as shown in Fig. 56. The combus- tion of the wood furnishes the necessary heat for the decomposition of the carbonate. Calcium oxid or quick- lime readily combines with both the carbon dioxid and the moisture of the air,, forming air-slaked lime. During this process of slaking, there is a material increase in volume, often resulting in the bursting of the barrels in which the lime is stored. Calcium oxid is used for the preparation of calcium hydroxid and mortar. 169. Calcium Hydroxid. — When water is added to cal- cium oxid or quicklime, the material undergoes the slak- ing process, and calcium hydroxid, Ca(OH) 2 , is produced. CaO + H 2 = Ca(OH) 2 . Calcium hydroxid or slaked lime readily absorbs carbon dioxid from the air and forms calcium carbonate. Ca(OH) 2 is somewhat soluble in water, forming what is commonly called lime water. When carbon dioxid is passed into lime water, the solution becomes turbid, due to the formation of CaC0 3 . This reaction furnishes a means of testing for carbon dioxid. If a small amount of any material supposed to contain carbonates is placed in a test tube with a little water, and then a small glass w Fig. 57. 13° AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY tube or loop tube containing a few drops of lime water is inserted in the test tube, after the gas is liberated by hydrochloric acid, the drop of lime water becomes turbid, due to the formation of CaC0 3 (see Fig. 57). 170. Calcium Sulfate. — Deposits of this salt known as gypsum, CaS0 4 . 2 H 2 0, are found abundantly in some localities. Gypsum or land plaster is used as a fertilizer and also for the preparation of plaster of Paris. The " setting " of plaster of Paris is due to the fact that when the water of crystallization has been expelled, the sub- stance is again capable of taking up water, expanding, and forming a hard mass. 171. Calcium Chlorid. — This salt is not found in nature to any appreciable extent. It is employed in the labora- tory in desiccators and for the drying of gases. 172. Bleaching-powder is made by passing chlorin into a solution of lime water. The chlorin is held in chemical combination, forming calcium hypochlo- rite, Ca(C10) 2 , which readily gives up its chlorin and is extensively used for bleach- ing and disinfecting purposes, as ex- plained in Section 89. 173. Calcium Phosphate. — Deposits of this material are found in nature in various physical forms as soft phos- phate, and in crystalline form, as apatite rock, see Fig. 58. Calcium phosphate is extensively used for the preparation of commercial fertilizers, as ex- plained in Section 109. 174. Mortar. — When quicklime is slaked and mixed with sand, it forms at first a mechanical mixture. When it is placed upon the walls of buildings, a chemical change, Fig. 58. — Apatite rock. CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM, ETC. 131 known as the hardening or setting process, takes place. When this change occurs, the moisture is expelled and the carbon dioxid of the air changes the calcium hydroxid to calcium carbonate. In the slaking of lime and the setting of mortar, the following reactions take place : (1) CaO + H 2 = Ca(OH) 2 . (2) Ca(OH) 2 + C0 2 = CaC0 3 . When magnesium carbonate and aluminum silicate are present, forming part of the composition of the original lime rock, hydraulic cement is produced, which has the property of setting under water. Experiment 28. — Testing quality of lime. Place about 40 grams of lime, CaO, in an evaporating dish and moisten with water warmed to about 350 C. Note the reaction. Good lime readily undergoes the slaking process. Place some of the slaked lime in a bottle, add about 100 cc. of distilled water, shake vigorously and leave the lime in contact with the water for four hours or longer, then filter some of the solution of lime water, and test it by forcing respired air through it as explained in Experiment 24. Place about one half gram of the slaked lime in a test tube, add 10 cc. of water and then a few drops of HC1. When action ceases, add more HC1, a little at a time, and heat. The material which fails to dissolve usually consists of insoluble silica and clay. Lime of a high degree of purity contains less than 10 per cent of acid- insoluble impurities. Questions. — ( 1 ) Was any heat evolved when the lime was slaked ? Why ? (2) Did any noticeable change take place in volume during slaking? (3) What is lime water? (4) What is shown by forcing respired air through the lime water of the test tube ? (5) Write the reaction which took place. (6) Write the reaction when HC1 was added to Ca(OH) 2 . 175. Glass. — Glass is a double silicate of calcium and sodium, produced by fusing pure sand, sodium carbonate, and lime. To make Bohemian or hard glass potassium 132 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY carbonate is substituted for the sodium salt. Other kinds and varieties of glass are made by introducing other substances and giving different mechanical treat- ment to the material during its preparation. 176. Occurrence of Magnesia. — This element does not occur as extensively in nature as calcium, which it resem- bles in many respects. It is found mainly associated with calcium in the mineral dolomite, which is a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium. Magnesium is found in both plant and animal substances, as is calcium, but is separated from its compounds more readily than calcium. In some plants, and in some parts of the plant, as in the seeds of grains, it is found, more abundantly than calcium. It is generally considered an essential element of plant food. The compounds of magnesium resemble those of calcium in many respects, but differ materially from the calcium salts in both chemical and physical properties. 177. Magnesium Salts. — Magnesium carbonate and magnesium sulfate (Epsom's salt) are among the most common of the magnesium compounds. Magnesium chlorid, MgCl 2 , and MgS0 4 are found as double salts in the Stassfurt deposits. Magnesium oxid is obtained by combustion of magnesium. Magnesium forms also other compounds, as nitrates, phosphates, silicates, etc. Experiment 2Q. — Hold a piece of magnesium ribbon about an inch long in the forceps and apply a lighted match to the ribbon. Examine the product. Questions. — (1) What are some of the chemical properties of the element as observed from this experiment ? (2) What product was formed ? Write the reaction. (3) Which would weigh more, the original magnesium ribbon or the white powder obtained from its combustion ? Why ? (4) Why does magnesium produce such an intense light ? CHAPTER XX Iron, Aluminum, and their Compounds 178. Occurrence of Iron. — Iron is found in nature mainly in the form of its oxids, hematite, Fe 2 3 , and magnetite, Fe 3 4 . It also occurs as carbonate, FeC03, pyrite, FeS 2 , and brown iron ore or basic hydroxid. In the soil it is in combination with silicon and other elements, forming double silicates. It enters into the composition of all plant and animal bodies and has an essential part in plant growth and animal life. Some waters contain carbonate of iron which, like calcium carbonate, is soluble in the presence of carbon dioxid. Upon exposure to the air, the iron is precipitated as hydroxid, forming a brown deposit. Iron takes an important part in industrial operations, and its chemistry has been more extensively studied than that of any other element. 179. Reduction of Iron Ores. — Only iron ores of high degree of purity are in condition, as mined, for the blast furnace. Magnetic iron ore is concentrated and separated from its impurities by magnetic concentrators. The blast furnace used for the production of cast iron is con- structed of brick ; a type of it is shown in Fig. 59. Ore, coke, and flux, usually limestone, are mixed in the right proportions and introduced into the top of the furnace. The flux is used to separate the impurities, forming a fusible slag which is largely calcium silicate. Hot air is forced into the furnace by means of blowing engines, through tuyeres. The carbon dioxid produced is first 133 134 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Fig. 59. — Blast-furnace (after Hart). IRON, ALUMINUM, ETC. 135 reduced to carbon monoxid, which passes over the heated ore in the upper part of the furnace, and is the main re- ducing agent of the blast furnace. The carbon monoxid given off at the top of the furnace is collected and used for heating the blast. The furnace is constructed to utilize the heat to the best advantage so the blast can act effi- ciently. The slag which carries a large portion of the im- purities of the ore, being lighter than the molten iron, collects on the surface and is removed from time to time. The molten iron is run off from the bottom of the furnace into molds ; iron that is produced in this way is known as pig iron. It contains a number of impurities, as phos- phorus, carbon, silicon, and sulfur. 1 80. Wrought Iron. — Wrought iron is produced from cast iron by two processes: (i) puddling, which consists of oxidizing the impurities by means of a blast of hot air passed over or blown through the iron, and known as the Bessemer process ; and (2) cementation, by which the cast iron is mixed with iron ores reasonably pure and heated to a high temperature so that the oxygen of the ores may oxidize the carbon, phosphorus, and sulfur of the cast iron. Wrought iron is the purest commercial form of iron. It usually contains about 0.5 per cent of carbon, and melts at about 2000 C. The nature of the impurities determines the character of both wrought iron and steel, as any increase in the amount of carbon de- creases its malleability and other desirable properties. 181. Steel. — This form of iron contains less carbon than cast iron, but more than wrought iron. It is pre- pared by oxidizing the impurities of iron with a blast of hot air. The cast iron is heated in converters and then there is forced through it a blast of hot air which oxidizes most of the impurities. By adding cast iron, steel con- 136 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY IRON, ALUMINUM, ETC. 137 taining almost any desired amount of carbon can be ob- tained. Iron and steel wire are made by drawing rods through hardened steel plates, the material being properly tempered during the operation. The thin coat of oxid formed on the surface is removed by dipping the wire into a bath of dilute sulfuric acid. 182. Rusting of Iron. — Iron in all of its forms readily undergoes oxidation and rusting, due to the joint action of oxygen and water, and results in the production of a basic oxid of iron. When the surface of iron is pro- tected, as by painting, oxidation and rusting are pre- vented. When iron is heated to its kindling temperature, it readily oxidizes, as in Experiment i. In welding iron, oxidation is prevented as far as possible by manipulation and occasionally by the use of some material, as borax, to remove the thin coating of oxid. Iron is readily acted upon by all acids, forming a large number of salts. 183. Iron Compounds. — Iron forms two series of salts : ferrous and ferric. Ferrous sulfate, FeS0 4 , commonly called copperas, is used most extensively of any of the iron salts, especially in the dyeing of cloth, and to some extent as a disinfectant. Experiment 30. — Dissolve 0.5 gram of ferrous sulfate in 20 cc. of water. Filter if the solution is not clear, and divide the filtrate into two portions. To the first portion, add a few drops of am- monium hydroxid until a precipitate is obtained. To the second portion, add about 5 drops of strong nitric acid. Heat to boiling ; when cool, add ammonia to neutralize the acid and precipitate the iron. Nitric acid oxidizes iron and changes it from the ferrous to the ferric state. Compare the two precipitates. Questions. (1) What was formed when NH 4 OH was added to FeS0 4 ? Write the reaction. (2) Give the color and other physical properties. (3) What change did the HN0 3 produce ? (4) What change did you observe in the color of the solution during the boil- ^8 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY ing ? (5) What was produced when NH 4 OH was added to Fe 2 (S0 4 )3 ? Write the reaction. (6) Give the color and some of the physical properties. (7) How does this last precipitate differ from the first one obtained ? Experiment 31. — Dissolve 1 gram tannic acid in 25 cc. of hot water. Dip a piece of cotton cloth into this solution. Dry the cloth and then dip it into a solution of ferrous sulfate (1 gram per 25 cc. of water). After the cloth has dried, see if the color can be removed by washing. Add 5 cc. of ferrous sulfate solution to 5 cc. of tannic acid solution. Observe the result. The FeS0 4 forms, with the tannic acid, iron tannate. Questions. — (1) Would the FeS0 4 alone give the same color to the cloth ? Why ? (2) Was the color a permanent one ? (3) Tea contains tannic acid ; why does tea prepared in an iron kettle give a black infusion? (4) What was produced when the solution of FeS0 4 was added to the tannic acid ? 184. Occurrence of Aluminum. — Aluminum is a gray- ish white metal much lighter than iron and of greater tensile strength, and is found mainly as one of the constitu- ents of clay (Al 4 (Si0 4 ) 3 + 4H2O) that is formed from the disintegration of feldspar, AlKSi 3 8 , a double silicate of potassium and aluminum. It is also found in other com- binations, as in mica and cryolite (Na 3 AlF 6 ), and is present in nearly all soils and in small amounts in plant substances, although it takes no part as plant food. Aluminum is not easily isolated from its compounds. It can be pro- duced by treatment of its chlorid with sodium, but is now extensively prepared by electrolysis. When pure, it is not so readily oxidized or acted upon by acids as is iron. Aluminum forms a large number of compounds and also alloys with many of the metals. 185. Alums. — In industrial operations, alum is used most extensively of any of the compounds of aluminum. An alum is a double sulfate of aluminum. It has the general composition of MA1(S0 ) 2 i2 H 2 0, in which M represents IRON, ALUMINUM, ETC. 1 39 any monovalent metal, as potassium. The Al can also be replaced by a trivalent element. Alum is used in the tanning of leather, in the manufacture of paper, and in the coloring of cloth as the basis of the mordant or material for making the dye permanent. Alum is also used occasionally in the preparation of baking powders. Experiment 32. — Add a few drops of alum solution to a test tube containing 5 cc. of water, and then add a few drops of tincture of logwood and 2 cc. (NH 4 )2C0 3 . Observe the result. Mix about 2 grams of flour in a dish with water containing a few drops of alum. Add a few drops of logwood and the same amount of ammonium carbonate solution ; mix well, and observe the result. Repeat the test, using a baking powder, and test for the presence or absence of alum. In the presence of alum, a blue color is always obtained with tincture of logwood and ammonium carbonate solution. Experiment 33. — To a solution of egg albumin, add a few drops of alum solution and observe the result. Questions. — (1) Does the alum cause a precipitate ? (2) Of what is the precipitate composed ? (3) How would alum act in the diges- tive tract in the presence of soluble albuminous compounds ? (4) Why is alum an undesirable ingredient in baking powders and foods ? 186. Pottery. — Pure clay or kaolin is used for the manufacture of the best grades of porcelain and pottery. The plastic clay is modeled into the desired form and then dipped into a bath containing feldspar and other materials which, when fused, form the glaze. Ordinary earthenware is made from impure clay which contains compounds of iron and other elements. Brick and tile are also made from clay, the physical properties, as color, hardness, wearing qualities, etc., depending upon the amounts of iron, lime, magnesia, and alkalies present. As or- dinarily found in the soil, clay is mechanically associated 14 ° AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY with a large number of other substances, many of which contain the elements essential to plant life, as potassium and calcium. Pure clay itself contains no plant food but clay soils are usually among the most fertile because' along with the disintegration of feldspar and other rocks' various minerals that impart fertility are made available and are associated with the clay. CHAPTER XXI Copper, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Arsenic, Mercury, and their Compounds and Alloys 187. Commercial Importance. — The compounds of copper, zinc, lead, tin, and arsenic, while they do not enter into the composition of either plant or animal bodies, are of value in agriculture because of their presence in many useful materials. 188. Occurrence of Copper and its Metallurgy. — Copper is found in the free state and also in combination with oxygen as CuO and Cu 2 0, with sulfur as Cu 2 S, and with iron and sulfur as copper pyrite, Cu 2 S . Fe 2 S 3 . The ores of copper are first roasted, and if iron is present in large amounts, it is removed as a silicate. The " matte," as it is called, thus produced is subjected to further re- fining. Copper is also separated by electrolysis. 189. Copper Sulfate. — This salt is used the most ex- tensively of any of the copper compounds, and is produced by the action of sulfuric acid upon either metallic copper or its sulfid. It crystallizes with 5 molecules of water of crystallization. It is commonly called blue vitriol, and is extensively used in the preparation of pigments, for the preservation of wood, for copper-plating, and for the treat- ment of fungous diseases of plants, as in the Bordeaux mixture, where it is the principal ingredient. Experiment 34. — Dissolve 6.2 grams of copper sulfate, 3.50 grams of sodium potassium tartrate, and 2§ grams KOH in 100 cc. of water. This is Fehling's solution. Dissolve 0.1 gram of glucose 141 142 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY in 5 cc. of water, add 5 cc. of alkaline copper sulfate solution and heat to boiling. Observe the brown precipitate of Cu 2 0. The amount of Cu 2 produced is proportional to the amount of glucose present, and when the work is carefully done and the copper weighed or determined by other means, the per cent of glucose in a material can be determined. A hot alkaline solution of copper sulfate (Fehling's solution) is reduced to CU2O in the presence of glucose and a few other organic compounds. 190. Bordeaux Mixture. — In this preparation, the copper is present as an insoluble hydroxid. To prepare the Bordeaux mixture 12.5 pounds of copper sulfate are dissolved in about 2 gallons of hot water; 3.5 pounds of lime are slaked in 2 gallons of water, and strained into a barrel through a coarse cloth to remove any large pieces. The solution of copper sulfate is then poured into the barrel and well stirred. The reaction which takes place is Ca(OH) 2 + CuS0 4 = Cu(OH) 2 + CaS0 4 . In preparing the Bordeaux mixture, just sufficient lime should be used to combine with all of the copper. 191. Occurrence of Zinc. — This metal is found in nature mainly as zinc carbonate, ZnC03, and to a less ex- tent as the sulfid. Small amounts are in other forms. Zinc is separated from its ores by roasting with charcoal, which volatilizes. It is then collected as zinc dust, purified, and prepared for various purposes. 192. Compounds of Zinc. — Zinc forms a large number of compounds, as ZnCl 2 , Zn(OH) 2 , ZnS, and ZnSCV Some of the zinc salts are used in the preparation of paints, while the metal itself is employed in many ways, as in making alloys, solder, and galvanized iron. 193. Galvanized Iron. — Iron is galvanized by being covered with a layer of zinc. Galvanized iron is exten- COPPER, ZINC, LEAD, ETC. 143 sively used for water pipes because it does not rust so readily as ordinary iron. When heated, however, the zinc coating is removed. 194. Occurrence of Tin. — Tin is found in nature largely in the form of the oxid, Sn0 2 , and, to a less extent, in combination with other metals. The oxid is heated in a furnace with charcoal, and the molten tin cast into bars. 195. Tin Salts. — Tin forms two series of salts, stan- nous and stannic. In the former, the element is bivalent, and in the latter, it is tetravalent. Stannous and stannic chlorid, the sulfid, oxid, and hydroxid are among the more common tin salts. They are used in the arts in various ways as pigments and as mordants in the coloring of cloth. Tin forms a number of alloys and is extensively used for roofing and for other purposes. Ordinary tin- ware is simply iron coated with a layer of tin. 196. Occurrence of Lead. — Lead occurs principally in the form of sulfid (galena). It is also found in combi- nation with silver and other metals, and, in the process of refining silver, is separated as a by-product. 197. Oxids of Lead. — There are four oxids of lead ; namely, lead monoxid, PbO, lead peroxid, Pb0 2 , lead suboxid, Pb 2 0, and lead sesquioxid, Pb 2 3 . The sub- oxid, Pb 2 0, is produced when lead is exposed to the air. In a pure condition, it is a black powder. Lead oxid, PbO, is a yellow powder which, if heated, produces litharge, a yellowish red material obtained largely in the separation of lead from silver. Lead peroxid, Pb0 2 , is an oxidizing agent, and in some respects resembles man- ganese dioxid. Red lead or minium, Pb 3 4 , is made by heating lead oxid, and is used as a pigment. 198. Lead Carbonates. — The normal carbonate, PbC0 3 , is occasionally found in nature. The basic car- 144 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY bonate, Pb(OH) 3 . 3PbC0 3 , is common white lead so exten- sively used as a pigment. It is produced by different methods from litharge and other compounds of lead, as well as by treatment of the metal itself. 199. Lead Salts. — Lead nitrate, Pb(N0 3 )2, is produced by the action of nitric acid on lead ; and lead sulfate, by the action of a sulfate upon a soluble lead salt. Lead chlorid, PbCl 2 , is precipitated whenever hydrochloric acid or a chlorid is added to a solution containing a lead salt. The salts of lead are more insoluble than those of many other metals. 200. Uses of Lead. — Lead is used for making water pipes, in the preparation of solder and many alloys, and for lining tanks, particularly those in which sulfuric acid is stored. Lead is insoluble in most waters, although the salts and organic matter in some waters may cause enough to dissolve to render the use of lead pipes objec- tionable from a sanitary point of view. 201. Occurrence of Arsenic. — This element occurs in the free state to a limited extent, but is usually in combina- tion with other elements, as oxygen, iron, and sulfur. In some of its properties, arsenic resembles phosphorus, and forms similar compounds, although arsenic has weaker acid properties than phosphorus. It forms a large number of compounds, among which are the arsenates and arsenites, which are salts of arsenic and arsenious acids. In the presence of a strong base element, arsenic deports itself as an acid, while with a strong acid element, it exhibits basic properties. Other elements, particularly antimony and bismuth, and to a less extent aluminum, have this same property of acting both as acid- and base-forming elements. Some of the compounds of arsenic are extensively used as pigments and insecticides. COPPER, ZINC, LEAD, ETC. 145 202. Paris Green. — Pure Paris green is an aceto- arsenite of copper and has the following composition : Copper oxid, 31.29 per cent, arsenious oxid, 58.65 per cent, acetic acid, 10.06 per cent. Some of the commercial grades of Paris green contain an excess of soluble forms of arsenic, while others are adulterated with lime and in- soluble silicates. The arsenic should be practically insoluble and have no injurious effect upon vegetation. In case much soluble arsenic is present, the foliage is destroyed. Pure Paris green should completely dissolve in hydrochloric acid. If silica is a constituent, an insoluble residue appears when the material is treated with hydrochloric acid. London purple and various arsenates and arsenites are occasionally used for insec- ticides. London purple contains soluble arsenic. In case of accidental poisoning with Paris green, hydroxid of iron is usually employed as an antidote. 203. Occurrence of Mercury. — Mercury is found in nature mainly in the form of the sulfid, HgS, commonly called vermilion, which, when roasted, yields S0 2 and Hg. Mercury is extensively used in the preparation of alloys and amalgams. 204. Compounds of Mercury. — Like copper, tin, and many other elements, mercury forms two series of salts, the mercurous and mercuric compounds. Mercurous and mercuric oxids, Hg 2 and HgO, mercurous and mercuric chlorids, HgCl and HgCl 2 , and the nitrates and sulfids are among the more important compounds of mercury. Mercuric chlorid is employed as an insecticide and also as a germicide. It is very poisonous and very destructive to all forms of animal and plant life, and is frequently used for the treatment of fungus diseases of plants. 146 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY *0 ■ • *400SCt fR out a paoduc «0 J o PHOOuC Aftno, Fig. 61 u 2.na\ot v Experiment 35. — Replacement of metals. Place, in separate test tubes, (1) 5 cc. of silver nitrate, (2) 5 cc. copper nitrate, and (3) 5 cc. of lead nitrate. To the first test tube, add a piece of cop- per foil, to the second, a small piece of lead, and to the third, a piece of zinc. After a few minutes, ex- amine the contents of the various test tubes and ob- serve the results. Copper has the power of replacing silver in solution, lead has the power of replacing copper, and zinc has the power of replacing lead. The more electropositive elements replace those which are less electropositive. Observe in these experiments that the copper is coated with silver, the lead with copper, and the zinc with lead. Write the following reactions which have taken place : (1) AgN0 3 + Cu = (2) Cu(N0 3 ) 2 + Pb = (3) Pb(N0 3 ) 2 + Zn = Questions. — (1) Which element is the most positive ? (2) What elements can zinc replace ? (3) Why does copper replace silver ? (4) Why does lead replace copper ? (5) What does this experiment show as to the relative properties of the three elements, copper, silver, and lead ? PART II CHAPTER XXII Water Content and Ash of Plants 205. Water. — There is water in all food materials, and in many cases it makes up a large portion of the weight of a substance. In vegetables, in milk, and in the juices of meat, water is present to such an extent as to be per- Fig. 62. — Water oven. ceptible to the senses. Substances like flour, meal, and starch, which appear to be perfectly dry, are not free from water, but contain from 9 to 12 per cent. This 149 *5° AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY hydroscopic water, as it is called, is held mechanically by the particles of which the material is composed, and the amount thus held depends upon the extent of the pre- vious drying of the material and the hydroscopic condi- Fig. 63. — Analytical balance. tion of the air. Inasmuch as there is always some water in the air, it necessarily follows that all substances exposed to the air must likewise contain some water. In order to remove the last traces of water from a WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 151 substance, it is dried either in a water or a hot-air oven at a temperature of ioo° C, — the boiling point of water. This converts all of the water in the material into steam, which is then expelled. A water oven (see Fig. 62) has double walls, the space between the walls being partially filled with water, which is kept boiling by means of a gas burner placed below the oven. The substance to be dried is weighed in a suitable dish and then dried in the water oven until the weight is reasonably constant, the loss of weight being considered water. The determination of water in foods, although appar- ently simple, is a difficult and troublesome chemical pro- cess, because many foods, when heated to ioo° C, suffer changes, and give off volatile organic compounds along with the water ; or the organic matter may undergo change in composition, as oxidation. For determining the absolute moisture content of foods, the chemist em- ploys a drying bath of different pattern from that shown, and the material is dried in a current of some neutral gas, as hydrogen, to prevent ^--^N^ oxidation of the substance. All dishes A- ;-.._ 'v\ in which substances are placed, during V, ^| jS analysis, are dried and cooled in desic- Ji~2SJiL__. cators out of contact with air, so as to ^S^^^** 1 ^ remove all traces of hydroscopic mois- „ _ . . . Fig. 64. — Desiccator. ture. The weighings are made on ana- lytical balances which are scales of extreme accuracy (see Fig. 63). Determination of the water is one of the most difficult parts of the analysis of plant or animal substances. 206. Dry Matter. — The dry matter of a material is the portion which is left after all of the water has been re- moved. Dry matter, as the term implies, is the dry material free from all traces of hydroscopic moisture, and 152 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY "Lt the amount is determined by subtracting the per cent of water from ioo. For example, if flour contains 12 per cent water, there will be 88 per cent of dry matter. The amount of dry matter in substances ranges between wide limits, as 7 per cent or less in some fruits to 99 per cent in granulated sugar. Experiment 36. — Determination of water in potato. Carefully weigh an aluminum dish (Fig. 65). Cut thin slices from different parts of a potato and reduce them to f-inch cubes. Weigh in the dish some of these pieces, forming a layer not more than two deep. Record the weight, place in the dish a small piece of paper with your initials, then set the dish in the water oven (Fig. 62), and Flp ' 65- allow it to remain twenty-four hours, or until the next exercise. After drying, weigh again, and from the loss of weight calculate the per cent of water in the potato. (Weight of potato and dish before drying, minus weight of potato and dish after drying, equals weight of water lost. Weight of water divided by weight of potato taken, mul- tiplied by 100, equals the per cent of water in the potato.) Experiment 37. — Water in flour. In the same manner, determine the per cent of water in flour, using about 10 grams of flour, and noting the exact weight before and after drying. Experiment 38. — Water in milk. Weigh a watch glass and place it on the water bath (see Fig. 66). Measure with a pipette 3 cc. of milk into the watch glass. Evaporate to dryness on the water bath, completing the process in the water oven. When dry, weigh, and from the loss of weight, calculate the per cent of solids. Sp. gr. of milk, 1.032. 1 cc. H 2 = 1 gram. 1 cc. milk = 1.032 grams. If skim milk is used, the sp. gr. is 1.035. Kg. 66. WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 1 53 Experiment jp. — Water in clover. Weigh an aluminum dish. Take three or four large clover plants and cut linely with shears or knife. Weigh a portion in the dish ; dry, and weigh again as in Experiment 36. Determine the per cent of water in clover. Questions. — (1) How did the potato, after drying, compare in appearance and volume with the material before drying ? (2) How does the percentage amount of water which you have obtained compare with the figures given in the tables of analyses ? (3) In the determination of water in milk, what was the appearance of the milk solids ? (4) What classes of compounds are present in milk solids ? (5) How does the amount of water obtained in Experiment 3 7 compare with the amount given in the tables of analyses ? (6) What would be the shrinkage in weight of a barrel of flour if 2 per cent of moisture were removed, and what would be the in- crease in weight if 2 per cent of moisture were absorbed from the air ? (7) How does the amount of water obtained in Experiment 39 compare with that obtained from the other materials ? (8) How much water is present in a ton of green clover ? 207. Plant Ash. — The ash of a plant, or of any ma- terial, is that portion which remains after the substance is burned at the lowest temperature necessary for com- plete combustion. It is sometimes spoken of as the mineral or inorganic part, also as the non- volatile part, and includes all of the materials, with the exception of water and nitrogen, which the plant takes from the soil during growth. The term ash as used in chemistry differs from the term as ordinarily used in that the chem- ical ash is pure ash, free from particles of carbon, and also contains elements, as sodium, chlorin, sulfur, and phos- phorus, traces of which are volatile at a high tempera- ture. Crude ash is obtained by burning a substance until all of the carbon is oxidized. Experiment 40. — Determination of ash. Weigh to the second decimal place in grams a dish given out for this experiment. Then weigh into the dish about 2 grams of dry clover or other hay, 154 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY place in the muffle furnace, and let it remain until there is no charred material left. Cool on an asbestos mat. Weigh again and deter- mine the per cent of ash from the material taken and the weight of the ash obtained. Calculate the per cent of organic matter. Save the ash for future experiments. [The 500, 200, and 100 mg. weights are to be recorded as 0.5, 0.2, and 0.1 gram ; the 50, 20, and 10 mg. weights as 0.05, 0.02, and 0.01 gram. If one used a 10-gram weight, a 500-mg. weight, and a 20-mg. weight, the weight would be written 10.52 grams.] 208. Form of the Ash Ele- ments. — None of the ele- ments in the ash of plants ever exist there in the ele- mentary or free state, as free Fig. 67.— Muffle furnace used for sodium Or free silicon, but determination of ash. ,1 1 • -u they are always m chem- ical combination, forming salts, or are combined with the elements which con- stitute the organic part of the plant. The ash elements are never pres- ent in the form of free acids or free bases, although, in chemical analyses, they are ex- pressed as acid or basic oxides. Phosphorus, Fig. 68. — Weights for balance. for example, never ex- ists in the plant as free phosphorus or as phosphoric acid, WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 1 55 but either as a phosphate or combined with some of the elements which constitute the organic part. 209. Amount of Ash in Plants. — While the amount of ash in plants is fairly constant, it varies with the stage of growth, climatic conditions, and nature of the soil. In mature agricultural plants, the ash rarely exceeds 10 per cent of the dry weight of the material. Clover grown in different localities is found to contain from 6 to 8.5 per cent ash; other crops also show limited varia- tions. The ash is not evenly distributed throughout all parts of a plant ; the leaves, for example, contain more than the seed. In the case of corn, the amount of ash in different parts is as follows : Per cent. Mature plant 5.8 Roots 3.5 Leaves 8.1 Stems entire 6.6 Grain 1.4 As previously stated, the ash elements of a plant, together with the nitrogen and water, represent all of the material which is taken from the soil. In 100 parts of the dry matter of any crop, from 5 to 10 parts are derived from the soil, while 90 to 95 parts are supplied either directly or indirectly from atmospheric sources. 210. Importance of Ash Elements. — Plant ash is composed of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and chlorin compounds. These, with a few others in small amounts, as aluminum and occasionally manganese, boron, etc., are the elements which make up the mineral matter of plants. Some of the ash elements, as potassium and phosphorus, are absolutely necessary for the life of the plant, while others, 156 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY as aluminum and silicon, are, so far as known, unnecessary. The essential ash elements are potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus, and sulfur. The non- essential elements are sodium, silicon, chlorin, and alumi- num. Although in some alkali and sea plants, sodium, chlorin, and other elements usually considered non- essential are needed for growth. Chemically considered, the elements found in the ash of plants are divided into two classes : (1) Metals or base-forming (2) Non-metals or acid-forming elements. elements. Potassium K Phosphorus P Sodium Na Sulfur S Calcium Ca Silicon Si Magnesium Mg Chlorin CI Iron Fe Aluminum Al To the above list must be added other elements in small amounts occasionally found in the ash of plants, and also oxygen, which is in chemical combination with all of the above elements. The essential ash elements are absolutely necessary for the normal growth and development of plants. They take a direct part in the production of plant tissue. The function of each ash element in plant growth has been known only, for a comparatively short time. At one time it was believed that the ash elements were largely acci- dental, that plants in taking up water from the soil could not well keep out soluble earthy substances, but sand and water culture experiments have demonstrated the necessity and the functions of the various ash elements. 211. Water Culture. — In water culture experiments the seed is germinated, and then the roots are suspended in water containing small amounts of the different ash WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 157 elements. The roots are protected from the light, and the solution is frequently changed. In case it is desired to learn what effect the absence of an element has upon the growth and development of the plant, all of the elements are supplied in known amounts except the one in question, which is withheld altogether. The development of the plant is observed, and if it reaches maturity and produces fertile seeds, it is con- cluded that the element withheld is not nec- essary to plant growth, while on the other hand, if the plant does not develop nor- mally, the element withheld is considered necessary. By eliminating the ash elements in order, conclusions may be drawn as to the part which each element takes in plant nutrition. After repeated experiments with Fig. 69.— Water various modifications, aided by chemical and microscopical examinations of the plant, the functions of an element are determined. When a plant develops under normal conditions, there is a definite part which every essential element performs during growth. In fact, a plant may be fed, and the effects of the food be ob- served as accurately as in the case of the feeding of men or animals. 212. Sand Culture is essentially the same in principle as water culture. Pure sand is treated with strong acids, washed with distilled water and ignited, and when thus properly prepared, furnishes a perfectly sterile medium to which is added, as desired, known amonuts of the various ash elements in the form of neutral salts. The sand serves physically as soil, and the salts supply the plant food. 158 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Occurrence and Function of Ash Elements 213. Potassium. — Potassium is one of the most im- portant and least variable of all the elements found in the ash of plants. It is quite evenly distributed through- out the growing plant and generally occurs in the entire plant in the largest proportion of any of the essential ash elements. It is taken from the soil in the early stages of plant growth and is always present to the greatest extent in the active and growing parts, as in the leaves, where the production of plant tissue occurs. Potassium is one of the ele- 'k: ments most essential for the plant's develop- ment. The function of potassium is apparently to aid in the production and transportation of the carbohydrate compounds, as starch and sugar, and thus indirectly in the forma- tion of all organic matter. In sugar- and starch-producing crops, as sugar beets and potatoes, potassium takes an important part ^ in the growth and development. It doubt- less has much to do in the way of regulat- ing the acidity of the sap by forming organic salts, such as potassium bitartrate in grapes. At the time of seed formation there is a slight retrograde movement of the potash, in some cases a small part being returned to grown with and the soil. The supply of available potash in without potash. ^ e so ^ ^ ias g rea £ influence upon the vigor of plant growth. Weak and sickly plants are often deficient in potash. Some crops require more for growth than do others, and some experience difficulty in obtain- WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 1 59 ing it. Some plants contain such large amounts of potash that they are called " potash plants." Experiment 41. — Alkalinity of ashes. Weigh 2 grams unleached hard wood ashes into a beaker containing 100 cc. H 2 0. Heat over a sand bath until it boils; filter. To one half of filtrate, add 10 drops of cochineal solution; from the burette (see Fig. 38), add dilute HC1 (1 cc. acid, 40 cc. H 2 0) until the solution is neutral. The alkali in wood ashes is mainly K 2 C0 3 , which is neutralized with HC1. Write the reaction. Repeat the experiment, using leached ashes. Note number of cubic centimeters HC1 used in each case. What do the results indicate ? 214. Sodium. — This element, which resembles potas- sium in its chemical deportment, is not absolutely neces- sary for agricultural plants and does not occur in the plant ash in such large amounts as potassium. Nearly all agricultural plants are brought to maturity without its aid, except for the small amount in the seed. Plants require so little, if any, that it is not sufficient to take into consideration. It is supposed to be an accidental ingre- dient, because sodium chlorid is universally present in the soil, in water, and occasionally traces of it are in the air ; hence plants could not very well exclude it. Some alkali plants require and store up large amounts of sodium compounds. Unlike potassium, sodium is not so evenly distributed through the plant. It has no special move- ment, but is found mostly in the lower parts of the plant. Seeds contain but little of it, more being in the straw and stems. 215. Calcium. — This element is always present in the ash of plants. None of the higher plants can reach maturity without a normal supply. Some, like clover, beans, peas, and lucern, require so much for their develop- ment that they are called " lime plants." Accumula- l6o AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY tions of lime are found in many leafy plants, particularly clover, where crystals of calcium oxalate may be observed. In leaves, it appears to have the special function of aiding in the construction of the cell walls. No new plant cells can be produced without the aid of calcium. From the culture experiments of various investigators, calcium appears to take a prominent part in the produc- tion of new tissue. Whenever it is withheld, the growth of the plant is restricted. Some plants, after their growth has been checked by withholding calcium, will show increased vigor within a few hours after it is supplied. Calcium is assimilated in the early stages of plant develop- ment. In wheat, for example, 80 per cent is assimilated before the plant heads out. Calcium assists in imparting hardiness to crops. It does not accumulate in the seeds to such an extent as do other elements. Only about one tenth of the total amount removed in grain crops is in the seeds, the remaining nine tenths being present in the straw. Crops grown on lime soils are usually well nourished, and are more capable of withstanding unfa- vorable climatic conditions, as drought and early frosts, than are crops not so liberally supplied with lime. Experiment 42. — Lime, CaO, in plant ash. Transfer the ash from Experiment 40 to a beaker containing 5 cc. HC1 and 50 cc. H 2 ; heat ten minutes, filter, and divide into two portions. Save portion for Experiment 44. Make one portion neutral with am- monia, NH4OH. Add 5 cc. NH4CI solution. To the solution, add 5 cc. ammonium oxalate, (NH 4 )2C 2 4 ; note the precipitate which is calcium oxalate, CaC2C>4. Into a separate test tube put 0.1 gram CaCl2, add 5 cc. H 2 and a little HC1 until acid ; then nearly neutralize with NH 4 OH and add NH4CI and (NH 4 ) 2 C20 4 . Compare this precipitate with that from the clover ash. Observe, in this second test, that you have taken a pure calcium salt, and that the same precipitate was given WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS l6l as by the plant ash. Write the following reactions which have taken place : CaC 2 4 + Heat = ? CaC0 3 + HC1 = ? CaCl 2 + (NH 4 ) 2 C 2 4 = ? 216. Magnesium is also an essential element. It occurs in all plants and farm crops in somewhat smaller amounts than calcium, but in the seeds of grains it is stored up three times more liberally. Magnesium is assimilated more slowly than calcium ; in fact, it is assimi- lated, as a rule, more slowly than any other ash element. The plant does not require magnesium until the approach of seed formation, although a small amount is necessary for perfect leaf action as it enters into the chemical compo- sition of the chlorophyll. When plants are grown with an incomplete supply of magnesium, the seeds are frequently sterile. In culture experiments, the absence of magne- sium is not observed so much in the first stages of growth as near the time of seed formation, when its absence is followed by restricted development. 217. Aluminum is found in the ash of many plants, as wheat, peas, beans, and rice, although it occurs in very small amounts and, so far as known, is not essential for plant growth. Most soils contain traces of soluble sili- cates of aluminum, and hence plants cannot well be free from this element. 218. Iron is necessary for plant growth. It occurs in about the smallest amount of any of the ash elements, but is always present in pjants. When plants are unable to obtain their requisite supply of iron, the production of chlorophyll does not take place and they fail to develop a normal green color. The function of the iron is to assist in the formation of chlorophyll, the coloring matter of plants. It is not known whether iron enters into the chemical composition of M 162 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY the chlorophyll, or is simply organically associated with it. 219. Phosphorus, in the form of phosphates, is found in all parts of plants. It is one of the essential elements for plant growth. Its function is to aid in the produc- tion and transportation of the proteid bodies. The phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are closely associated in the work of producing proteids, which can take place only in the plant cells. The proteid compounds produced in the leaves of plants are finally transported to the seed. Many proteids which are insoluble in water are soluble in the pres- ence of phosphate compounds. The phos- phates are essential in the early stages of the plant's development. In the case of wheat, 80 per cent is assimilated in the first fifty days, and in other crops, the assimilation is equally rapid. The phos- phates accumulate to a greater extent in the seeds of grains than in the leaves and stems. From 60 to 75 per cent of the total phosphates are removed in the seeds. The loss of phosphates from one of the reasons why soils decline in Fig. 71. — Plants grown with and without phosphoric acid. the farm is fertility. Experiment 43. — Phosphoric acid in seeds. Crush 25 kernels of wheat in a mortar. Place the crushed wheat in a small Hessian crucible and ignite ; when cool, transfer the charred mass to a small beaker. Add 10 cc. concentrated HN0 3 and 50 cc. H 2 0, and boil ten minutes. Break the charred particles with a stirring rod during the boiling. If the beaker shows signs of becoming dry, add WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 1 63 a little hot water. Filter. To half the filtrate add 3 cc. ammo- nium molybdate. The yellow precipitate is ammonium phospho- molybdate. See Experiments 17 and 18. 220. Sulfur also is an essential element of plant and animal bodies, but occurs in plant tissue in comparatively small amount. It enters into the composition of albu- min and other proteids. Sulfur is used by plants only in the form of sulfates. It takes a part in plant life, as there must be a supply of sulfur for the proteid com- pounds which always contain this element in chemical combination. Culture experiments show that in its absence no growth results. As sulfur forms a part of the volatile products when a plant is burned, that present in the ash represents only a portion of the sulfur taken by the plant from the soil. Experiment 44. — Sulfur as sulfates in plant ash. To the second portion of the filtrate from Experiment 42 add 2 cc. barium chlorid, (BaCl 2 ), observe the result, and write the reaction, assuming S0 3 to be in the form of K 2 S0 4 . In a second test tube, add a few crystals of Na 2 S04 or K2SO4 to 10 cc. H 2 containing a few drops HC1. When dissolved add BaCl 2 and compare with precipitate obtained in first part of experiment. 221. Chlorin is not an essential ash element. It accu- mulates mainly in the lower part of the plant, and its presence appears to be accidental, it having no decided functions to perform. The statements made about sodium, its occurrence, distribution, and importance apply also to chlorin, with which it is combined, forming sodium chlorid. 222. Silicon occurs in all plants. It is found in largest amounts in the dense and older parts, as the stalk and straw, where there is less activity. In some of the lower plants, as diatoms, there is so much silica that when the 164 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY organic matter is removed by burning, a skeleton of silica is left. It was formerly supposed that silica gave the stems of grains and grasses their stiffness. Perfect wheat, however, with normal strength of straw has been grown in the absence of silica, except for the small amount originally present in the seed. Lawes and Gilbert have shown that the lack of silica is not the cause of grain lodging. Some authorities claim that silica takes a part in plant economy and is necessary in seed formation. Whatever its function, it is not an important element as plant food, and there is always an abundance in the soil for crop purposes. In the living plant, the mineral elements are not in the same form or combination as in the plant ash. During growth, many of the ash elements are combined with the organic compounds, for example phosphorus, which forms phosphorized proteids and fats. The ash forms a part of the plant tissue. When the plant is burned, the organic compounds are volatilized, while the ash elements, which are non- volatile, are left. The essential ash elements are absolutely necessary as food for the growth and development of all crops, and plant growth is frequently arrested because of the lack of a sufficient supply for purposes of nutrition. The food requirements of indi- vidual farm crops are discussed in " Soils and Fertilizers." WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 165 Summary Table. Plant ash elements. + 1 Function. Assists in formation of starch, carbohy- drates, and in plant growth in general, and makes plants vigorous No function Assists in formation of plant cells, and makes plants hardy Aids in seed formation Aids in chlorophyll for- mation No function No function Leaf action and for- mation and move- ment of proteids Production of proteids No apparent function No apparent function Problem 1. — How many pounds of potash are removed from an acre of soil yielding 150 bushels of potatoes ? The potatoes weigh 60 pounds per bushel. 150 X 60 = 9000 pounds, total yield of potatoes. The potatoes contain 24 per cent dry matter (see Table). This dry matter contains 3.8 per cent ash. Hence 2160 pounds dry matter contain (216 X 0.038 = 82.08) 82.08 pounds ash. 60 per cent of this ash is potash ; or (82.08 X Metals. cd Occurrence. 3 CxJ V ^ c Pn Potassium K 2 + Mainly in the ac- tive growing parts of plant leaves and stems Sodium Na 2 — Stems and roots Calcium CaO + Leaves and stems Magnesium MgO + Seeds and leaves Iron Fe 2 3 + Leaves and stems Aluminum A1 2 3 - Lower parts of plants Manganese Mn 2 3 Lower parts of plants Non-metals. Phosphorus P2O5 + Seeds Sulfur S0 3 + Silicon Si0 2 — Stems and leaves Chlorin — Lower parts 1 66 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 0.60) 49.25 pounds are potash. Therefore, 150 bushels of potatoes remove from the soil 49.25 pounds of potash. In the same way, the amount of each separate element removed from the soil may be calculated. Problem 2. — Calculate the pounds of total ash, K 2 0, CaO, MgO, and P2O5, removed in 25 bushels of wheat. Problem 3. — Calculate the same ingredients removed in 1500 pounds of wheat straw. Compare these with the corresponding elements removed in the grain (Problem 2). Problem 4. — Calculate the CaO, MgO, K 2 0, and P 2 5 removed in 50 bushels of oats weighing 32 pounds per bushel. Problem 5. — Calculate the same for 40 bushels of barley weigh- ing 48 pounds per bushel. In what respects does the mineral food of barley differ from the mineral food of wheat ? Problem 6. — How much P2O5 is removed in 15 bushels of flax ? WATER CONTENT AND ASH OF PLANTS 167 ? £ o £, trq P GO m w a Cfl air dry, approximately 87 per cent approximately 90 S per cent h3 OoOo Oo ca M tn On4^ On m 00 O On^J Ooto4^0oMtotoOoN> ^ O 00 00 Oo M Oo m 00 M 00 Mtn OOO On-^j Ca On4^ O On m O rt OOO onMvr O 0(« 0\ to ca to to OjOj Omu<3 h nOj 85 cr ^(A 0> tO N> M OO tO 4». 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CD cr V! ■* <* M 'sjaqiuy VO M 0) Ph CU vO co 00 CI o cs o o -h h d fo i 1 CO ^o vo ro ro 00 o . o w £ £ o c o Ih ■a c Ch o o KD Ph CO cu ^rl Ih O a -h Pin CHAPTER XXVII Factors which influence the Composition and Feeding Value of Crops The main factors which- influence the composition and feeding value of crops are : (i) seed, (2) soil, (3) climate, (4) stage of maturity, (5) method of preparation as food, and (6) combination with other foods. 360. Seed. — The composition and individuality of the seed influence the composition and feeding value of the forage crop. Heavy-weight seeds are usually more mature and contain a larger amount of reserve plant food than those of light weight (see Section 338). Experi- ments by Hellreigel show that the heavier the seed, the more vigorous the young plant. When there was not an overabundance of plant food in the soil, the difference in vigor of plants was discernible even up to the time of harvest. Experiments show that by careful selection of seed corn, the percentage amount of nitrogenous matter in the grain may be increased from 0.5 to 1.25 per cent. Not all of the cereals respond as does corn to the influence of seed selection to produce variations in chemical composition. The care and storage which the seed receives prior to planting also influence its vitality. When seed corn is stored in a damp or poorly ventilated place, the excessive amount of moisture results in injuring the vigor of the germ. Seed wheat is often injured by being stored in elevators where bin-burning caused by fermentation takes place. Sound, heavy seeds of full maturity always give the best crop returns. Forage crops are more susceptible to seed influ- 245 246 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY ences than are grain crops, because the leaves and stems of plants are less constant in composition than is the seed. 361. Soil. — The condition of the soil as to available plant food has a material influence upon composition, and in promoting a balanced crop growth. Experiments conducted at the Connecticut Experiment Station (Storr's Annual Reports, 1898, 1899) show that fodder crops grown with a liberal supply of nitrogen have a tendency to contain more of the nitrogenous compounds than similar crops grown with a scant supply. The nitrogen and available mineral matter increase the activity of the protoplasm and chlorophyll in the production of all of the organic compounds. With a larger amount of available plant food, particularly nitrogen, a larger amount of foliage is produced. All foliage crops grown upon rich soils have larger leaves and a higher nitrogen content than those grown on poor soils. The condition of the soil influences the composition of leaves and stems to a greater extent than it does the com- position and character of the seeds because they are more constant in composition. The selection of seed corn has a greater influence upon the composition and feeding value of corn fodder than it has upon the grain. Fodder crops, produced upon fertile soils and under favorable climatic conditions, have the highest feeding value. The condition of the soil, as to acidity or alkalinity, also influences the character and composition of crops. Crops produced upon acid soils have a different appearance from those grown upon mildly alkaline soils. An unbalanced condition of plant food in the soil produces an unbalanced crop growth. It is not possible, however, by the use of manures or the selection of seeds, to entirely change the composition of crops. In the extensive experiments by FEEDING VALUE OF CROPS 247 Lawes and Gilbert (Rothamsted Memoirs, Vol. Ill), the continued use of nitrogen and mineral manures for a period of twenty years showed no material increase in the amount of nitrogenous matter in the wheat. In similar experiments with potatoes, in which nitrogenous manures alone were used, there was an increase of 0.05 per cent of nitrogenous matter. The sugar-beet has been greatly changed in composition by cultivation. The content of sugar has been increased from 8 to 16 per cent. Wheat and other grains show material differences in weight and composition when grown upon different types of soil. Experiments have been made where wheat grown from one lot of seed under different climatic and soil conditions showed a difference of 18 bushels per acre in yield, and 8 pounds per bushel in weight (Minn. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 2$). Forage crops produced upon soils of high fertility have a higher feeding value than crops grown upon poor soils. At the Minnesota Experiment Station, timothy and corn fodder grown on land that had been manured and rotated, and similar crops grown on unma- nured land, showed the following amounts of protein : Timothy hay grown on Corn fodder grown on manured unmanured manured unmanured land. land. land. land. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Crude protein (dry matter basis) .. . 8.75 6.45 8.85 6.32 362. Climate. — In the early stages of plant growth, the nitrogenous compounds are produced more abundantly than are the non-nitrogenous (Section 351). If the growing season is in any way cut short, the crop has a slightly larger amount of nitrogenous matter than if normal conditions prevail. Any shortening of the grow- ing period or forcing of the crop to maturity lessens the 248 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY per cent of dry matter, increases the nitrogenous com- pounds, and decreases the carbohydrates. The composi- tion of grains is influenced by climatic conditions, particu- larly at the time of seed formation, when growth is often checked before all of the compounds have been trans- ferred from the leaves to the seeds ; shrunken or immature grain is the result. Such grain contains less starch and more nitrogenous compounds than that which has fully matured. Experiments with potatoes by Lawes and Gilbert show that they too are, to a slight extent, influ- enced in composition and starch content by climatic conditions ; the longer the growing period, the larger the amount of starch. A short and favorable growing season, together with a fertile soil, has the tendency to produce crops of high nitrogen content. 363. Stage of Maturity. — Since all crops at first produce nitrogenous compounds in larger amounts than at later stages, it follows that early cut crops contain proportionally more nitrogen than those cut later. This increase in nitrogenous matter is, however, at the expense of the total dry matter in the crop. If crops are cut too early, that is, before early bloom, too much of the nitro- gen is in the form of amides, some of which are changed to proteids at a later stage. Early cutting results in securing a smaller yield per acre of dry matter, more concentrated in nitrogenous compounds. When fodder crops are cut at early or full bloom, the nutrients are more evenly distributed than at maturity, when some of the proteids and carbohydrates have been transferred from the leaves to the seeds, leaving stems and leaves with a larger amount of fiber and less protein. The composition and comparative feeding value of clover cut at different stages of growth are given in Section 351. FEEDING VALUE OF CROPS 249 364. Method of Preparation as Food. — The method of curing and preparing fodder affects its food value. Over- drying causes mechanical loss of leaves, which gives the fodder different composition and feeding value than when the leaves are all secured. Bleaching results in partial destruction of the chlorophyll and a loss of the essential oils that impart palatability. Other chemical changes which have a tendency to make the fodder less digestible also take place. Mechanical loss of leaves and exposure to leaching rains result in a loss of nutritive value. The materials extracted are the most soluble and digestible. A heavy, leaching rain may extract 10 per cent or more of the nutrients, making the leached fodder less digestible and less palatable. The method of storing and the mechanical condition of a fodder also influence, to a limited extent, the avail- ability of the nutrients. The influence which the com- bination of fodders has upon digestibility and food value is discussed in Chapter XXXV. 365. Improving the Feeding Value of Forage Crops. — The main factors, as seed, fertility of soil, stage of maturity, and care which the fodder receives, are all under the control of the farmer, climate being the only factor that is not directly controllable. Lack of moisture in dry seasons can, however, in part, be overcome by shal- low cultivation. By careful selection of seed, conserving the fertility of the soil, and suitable methods of cultivation and storage, it is possible not only to increase the yield but also to change the chemical composition and feeding value of forage crops. As yet, experiments have not demonstrated the extent to which all crops are susceptible to these influences. CHAPTER XXVIII Composition of Coarse Fodders 366. The Term Coarse Fodders is applied to animal foods which usually contain large amounts of crude fiber, and, while bulky in nature, are essential foods, many of them having high nutritive value. A coarse fodder may be either green or field-cured ; pasture grass, timothy hay, and corn fodder are all examples of coarse fodders. The proteid content ranges from 4 per cent and less, in straw, to 12 per cent and more, in clover and legumes. Coarse fodders may be classed as : Low protein content 2 to 5 per cent. Medium protein content 5 to 9 per cent. High protein content 9 per cent and upwards. 367. Straw. — The straw from wheat, oats, barley, and rye contains from 36 to 38 per cent of crude fiber, and less than 4 per cent of crude protein, oat straw being the rich- est in protein. The amount of fat in straw is small, rarely exceed- ing 1.5 per cent. The water content is usually from 6 to 9 per ETHtR EXT WHEAT STRAW Fig. 84. — Composition of a bale of wheat straw. cent. The pentose compounds make up a large portion of the nitrogen-free extract. Straw is a food poor in protein, fat, and digestible carbohydrates, and contains a high per 250 COMPOSITION OF COARSE FODDERS 251 cent of ligno-cellulose, pentose, and ash materials. Straw- may produce some heat in a ration, but for the production of muscle or the repair of proteid matter, it occupies about the lowest place in the list of animal foods. The various factors which influence the composition of plants (see Chapter XXVII) affect the composition of the straw. That from immature grain has higher feeding value than from grain fully ripened, because in the unripe state less of the nutrients has been removed for seed formation. The greener the straw, the higher its food value. 368. Timothy Hay. — Timothy hay has more protein, but in other respects the same general characteristics as straw. The per cent of fiber usually ranges from 28 to 32 per cent or more, which is from 6 to 10 per cent less than in straw. The crude protein ranges from 5.5 to 9 per cent according to the condi- tions under which the crop was grown. Aver- age timothy hay con- tains 7.5 percent, which is about twice as much as found in straw. The amount of ether extract is about 2.25 per cent, of which a large portion is non-fatty material. As in the case of straw, the nitrogen-free extract of timothy consists largely of pentose bodies ; there is also a small amount of soluble carbohydrates. While timothy hay is not rich in protein, it is a valuable fodder, particularly when one of fair energy-producing power is desired, as for feed- ing work horses. Mixed timothy and clover hay have more protein than timothy alone. timothyha? Fig. 85. - Composition of a bale of timothy hay. 252 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 369. Hay Similar to Timothy. — Millet, blue grass hay, and the numerous varieties of native prairie hay have about the same general composition and feeding value as timothy hay. Each, however, differs from timothy to a slight extent, both in chemical composition and structure of parts, some being preferable to others for feeding certain kinds of animals. These hays are classed as coarse fodders containing low to medium amounts of crude protein, and they vary in protein content from 6 to 9 per cent according to the conditions under which they are grown and other factors which affect their composition. 370. Oat Hay. — When oats are cut at the heading-out stage and cured as hay, they make a valuable fodder which compares favorably with the best grades of timothy hay, and usually contains slightly more protein than timothy, or hays of similar character. Oat hay should be cured for fodder while the nutrients are evenly distributed, and before they are transported and stored up in the grain. 371. Hay Similar to Oat Hay. — Wheat and other cereals, cut at the right stage, have a similar compo- sition and feeding value to oat hay. In localities where the climatic conditions do not admit of the growth of perennial grasses, these forage crops are grown. 372. Bromus Inermis varies in composition and feed- ing value according to the stage when cut. When over- ripe, its protein content is between that of straw and timothy hay. If cut or pastured while young, it has a high feeding value. In this crop, the non-nitrogenous compounds, particularly fiber, are formed at a rapid rate in the last stages of growth. 373. Clover Hay is characteristically rich in crude protein, containing nearly twice as much as poor grades of timothy. There is less crude fiber and more ether extract. COMPOSITION OF COARSE FODDERS 253 f ETHER EXT CLOVER HAY Fig. 86. — Composition of a bale of clover hay. The large amount of crude protein and other nutrients makes it one of the most valuable fodders that can be produced for growing, fattening, or milk-giving animals. There is no coarse fodder, except alfalfa, that has so high a protein content as clover when grown and cured under the best conditions. Clover ash is of differ- ^£s£f: ent composition from timothy ash. It con- tains a small amount of silica and a large amount of lime, while timothy ash contains more silica and less lime. The nitrogen-free extract of clover is largely pentose materials. The composition and comparative feeding value of early- and late-cut clover are given in Section 351. In curing clover hay, it should be the aim to prevent mechanical loss of leaves during handling of the crop. When clover hay is fed to stock, less grain and milled products are required than when hays of lower crude protein content are used. There are a number of varieties of clover ; alsike, crimson, scarlet, and white clovers, all having about the same general composition. Each, how- ever, has characteristic habits of growth which make it peculiarly adapted to certain soil and climatic conditions. 374. Alfalfa and Fodders Similar to Clover. — Alfalfa has somewhat the general composition and feeding value of clover, but its physical composition, as density of tissue and proportion of leaves to stems, is different, and it can be grown under more adverse climatic conditions. All members of the leguminous or pulse family, to which clover, alfalfa, peas, cowpeas, and vetch belong, are 2 54 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY characteristically rich in protein, and are among the most valuable forage crops. The discovery, by Hellreigel, of the unique value of clover and other legumes in assimi- lating the free nitrogen of the air by means of the action of microorganisms associated with the roots of these plants, and of the use of leguminous crops in increasing the supply of nitrogen in the soil, is one of the greatest achievements of agricultural chemistry. In Plate III, the arrow indicates one of the nodules containing the nitrogen-assimilating organisms. 375. Rape. — The rape plant contains nearly as much crude protein as clover hay. Because of the presence of certain volatile oils, it cannot be fed to milk cows without imparting an unpleasant taste to the milk. Rape, how- ever, is valuable for the feeding of all growing and fattening animals. 376. Pasture Grass. — In studying the composition of plants at different stages of growth, it was stated that the nitrogenous compounds are produced more rapidly than the non-nitrogenous (Section 351). The dry matter of pasture grass is more nitrogenous in character than that of the matured crop. The dry matter of all kinds of pasture grass is rich in crude protein ; the various nutrients, however, range between wide limits, according to the species of grass, and the conditions affecting its growth. When a piece of land is grazed, a smaller amount of total nutrients is secured than if a forage crop were harvested and fed. Pasturing is similar in results to a series of early cuttings, before bloom, rather than one later cutting, as in harvesting a crop. 377. Corn Fodder and Stover. — By corn fodder is meant the entire corn plant with or without ears, accord- ing to the conditions under which it has been grown, Plate III. — Clover Roots. COMPOSITION OF COARSE FODDERS 255 ETHER EXT while corn stover is the plant after the grain has been removed. Corn fodder is one of the most valuable, palatable, and largest yielding crops that can be produced. When sown so that no ears, or very small ones, are developed, the leaves and stalks contain all of the nutrients which would otherwise be stored in the seed. When grown under favorable conditions, corn fodder contains about the same per cent of crude protein as timothy hay, and is equal in value to the best quality. When field-cured, it contains from 15 to 30 per cent of water, from 12 to 25 per cent of crude fiber, and from 2.5 to 4 per cent of ash. In the study of the composition of the corn CORN fodder plant (Chapter XXVI), the Content of Fig. 87. — Composition crude protein and other nutrients in ? f * shock of corn 1 . . fodder. the various parts of the plant was considered. In growing corn fodder, it should be the aim to produce a large number of medium-sized plants with large leaves, small or no ears, and small stalks. Thus the largest amount of nutrients most evenly distributed, palatable, and digestible are secured. Corn stover has more of the characteristics of a straw crop, and is not so valuable as corn fodder. When ears are produced, the protein is stored in them, and hence less is found in stalks and leaves. The physical condition and chemical form of the cellulose, as hydrated or lignose, also influence the feeding value of corn fodder and corn stover. Corn fodder can be fed to all kinds of farm animals, and is one of the cheapest forage crops. It is valuable alike for horses, sheep, and dairy and beef cattle. 256 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 378. Silage. — In preparing silage the green material is placed in a nearly air-tight compartment. Corn, clover, or any green crop may be cured as silage. Corn, however, is the crop most generally given this treatment, and unless otherwise designated, silage usually has refer- ence to corn fodder prepared in this way. The chemical changes that take place in the silo are caused mainly by ferments. Carbon dioxid, hydro- carbons, and ammonia in small amounts are among the volatile products formed. There is always a loss of dry matter in curing silage. This is greatest in the top layer and least in the bottom. The losses in the different sections of a silo may range from 5 to 25 per cent. In a large silo the losses are less than in a small one, and they need not exceed 5 per cent of the dry matter. The average of a number of trials shows that when corn fodder is prepared as silage, there is a loss of from 5 to 25 per cent of dry matter, of which a proportional amount is pro- tein. Including mechanical losses, there is nearly the same in field curing of corn fodder as in its preparation as silage. The temperature of the silage, when undergoing fermen- tation, ranges from 35 to 75 C. The lower temperatures generally produce poor silage, while the higher yield a better quality. In order to make sweet silage, the condi- tions should be such that the temperature during fermen- tation is kept above 43 ° C, so as to render the acid spore that produces the sour silage less active and allow other ferments to act. No appreciable amount of alcoholic fermentation takes place in the silo. The corn for silage should be cut green rather than overripe, and should be evenly packed in the silo so that all parts will ferment alike. Comparatively short fermentation at a high temperature is preferable to slow fermentation at a low temperature. COMPOSITION OF COARSE FODDERS 2 57 Average Composition of American Fodders. (Jenkins and Winton.) Field-cured Fodders. ^ Pet. Corn fodder, average 42.2 " minimum 22.9 " maximum 60.2 Corn leaves, average 30.0 " minimum 14.8 " maximum 44.0 Corn stalks, average 68.4 " minimum 51.3 " " maximum 78.5 Corn stover, average 40. 1 11 " minimum 15.4 " maximum 57.4 Redtop 8.9 Timothy : All analyses 13.2 Cut in full bloom 15.0 Cut soon after bloom 14.2 Cut when nearly ripe 14. 1 Red clover 15.3 Alsike clover 9.7 White clover 9.7 Alfalfa 8.4 Cowpea 10.7 Wheat straw 9.6 Oat straw 9.2 1 Pet. 2.7 c o I* Pet. 4-5 2.7 6.8 6.0 4-5 8-3 1.9 1.2 3-° 3-8 1.8 8.3 7-9 5-9 6.0 5-7 5-o 12.3 12.8 15-7 14-3 16.6 3-4 4.0 3 u Pet. 14-3 7-5 24.7 21.4 17.4 27.4 11. o 6.9 16.8 19.7 14.1 32.2 28.6 29.0 29.6 28.1 3i-i 24.8 25.6 24.1 25.0 20.1 38.1 37.o a £■• bo X o '3 -f- Wheat, durum 3 10.7 15.0 2.4 (69.9) 2.0 + Wheat, hard fife 4 11. 2 15.8 2.3 (68.8) 1.9 1 H. W. Wiley, Bui. 13, Part IX, U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Chem. 2 Minn, analyses. 3 Average of thirteen northern grown samples. 4 Spring wheat grown under similar conditions as durum. 272 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY >. c « d o ■§ "-3 * 8 od U • O 00 d d r^ oo O . io vO no vO jj u J Ov . NO vo vo VO NO Tj- O <0 CO vO CN H M M ON NO r» 00 On T3 u u, +i d £ « d O CN vO CN . ON . o . o ON . M ^1- H CN CO • <0 . On . o M . CO On r^ ^ O ,Q cd w •e cm 55 vo co w vO O r- vo OnCOvo com -<^- cn roO 0> N ui io voOnvoOO N ^ fO O CO m to O m On c JS « d »-H ^ l-M y 8 VO CN o cu ^ .-2 .5 *d o <-t co n rt 8 «j S ^ aj u J=3 O o ~ e e W to CO <0 On vo vO voOncO Tt vo "n 1- 00 OnnO O > M o lO CO H o 00 CN VO NO 1-1 CO CM VO On ro O CO vo CO a. CO o o "55 "c3 — ' o c .3 >» uT p% 5 S •« r 1 fj !_ 8n & •e .a CO CO £ B o o CN no CN M K^ WJ c_? ^ 3 'a co co co co co r d 'd a a a ai3 ^ y o '^ M CO uTJ CO CO o OjO c o a u-; lO 7) Z aJ ?3 aJ o o o a a g a a g ^ s a G *o3 °°. «J •+ CD O O •j < < < a3 aS 03 a3 aj r ^ o ,« ^< ^tniS .. xi ^3 ^a +J +-) J^J) +J> co *-■ J— I I— i s o o o < r orn with I4 - 92 per cent proteln ; • ° r 2, corn with 7.76 per cent protein. made from a photograph taken of the corn kernels and sections with a magnification of three diameters. At the left are two sections and a whole kernel from corn containing 14.92 per cent of protein. The sections and kernel at the right are from corn containing 7.76 per cent of protein. About one fourth of the kernel was cut off from the tip end in making the cross sections. In the longitudinal sections the tip end of the kernel points upward to the right. It will be seen that in the 276 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY cross sections the white starchy layer nearly disappears in the high-protein corn, but becomes very prominent in the low-protein corn. In the longitudinal sections this difference is also apparent, the white starch in the high- protein corn being confined almost entirely to the crown end of the kernel, while in the low-protein corn it extends into the tip end in considerable amount. The germ in the high-protein corn is somewhat larger. This is also indicated by the depressions in the whole kernels." There are occasionally exceptions, however, in the relation of form to the protein content of corn, but in making comparisons in the manner indicated, the few errors liable to occur are in assigning too low rather than too high a protein value to the sample. In the selection of seed corn a knowledge of the characteristic of the kernels as of high- or low-protein content will be found of value. Experiment 72. — Select, from a sample of corn, kernels of highl- and kernels of low-protein content. Make longitudinal and cross sections of some of the kernels, and note the proportion of germ, aleurone, and floury parts in each. Make a drawing of a represen- tative kernel of each kind of corn. Observe how your rating of the corn compares with the chemical analysis. Determine the weight per bushel and assign a grade to the sample. 395. Varieties of Corn. — The numerous analyses, which have been made of the different varieties of corn as dent or flint, do not show any wide variations in com- position when they are grown under similar conditions. The main differences are in the amount of coloring matter and in the physical characteristics rather than in chemical composition. Yellow corn contains no more nutrients than white corn ; there is coloring matter present in one and not in the other. Sweet corn contains more sucrose, MAIZE 277 but otherwise it has about the same general composition as the dent and flint varieties. 396. Moisture Content of Corn. — The keeping qualities of corn depend largely upon its moisture content. With more than 19 per cent mois- ture, corn cannot be con- sidered safe for storage. With a sufficiently high tem- perature corn " heats " or ferments with less than 19 per cent moisture. The moisture in corn is deter- mined for commercial pur- poses, in the following way : One hundred grams of corn are placed in flask (a), with 100 cc. of thin lubricating oil that has a high ignition point (a commercial grade known as " Atlantic red " being suitable for the pur- pose). The stopper with thermometer (b) and delivery tube (c) is inserted. The delivery tube is connected with condenser (d) and the graduated cylinder (e) is placed so as to receive the dis- tillate. Heat is applied gradually until the thermometer registers 188 C. and then is shut off. The cc. of distillate in the graduate represents the per cent of moisture in the corn . This method , first used by a German chemist , has been Fig. 90a. — Grain moisture. Apparatus. A block tin pipe (d) passes through a condensing cham- ber filled with water. The flask (a) rests upon a triangle supported by a metal frame or box of galvanized iron with a perforated lid at (g) . The box is lined with asbestos paper. 278 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY modified, and is generally referred to as the " government " moisture method. It is extensively used in the testing of corn, and is also applicable to the testing of wheat for moisture content. 397. Corn Products. — When the entire kernel is ground, coarse corn meal is the product. When a part of the bran is removed, fine corn meal is obtained. Corn flour is made by removing the bran and germ and reduc- ing the interior portion of the kernel, as in flour making. In the manufacture of starch, the proteid matter is removed, and with the germ and bran, forms the basis of a number of commercial feeds. Cornstarch is sold either as a commercial product, or is used in the prepa- ration of glucose (see Experiment 49). The larger por- tion of the fat or oil of corn is present in the germ and is recovered as corn oil. A number of other products are also obtained from corn. 398. Corn as a Food. — Corn is extensively used both as human and animal food. Its proteids do not render it as valuable for bread-making purposes as wheat. It is, however, one of the cheapest foods that can be procured, and the prejudice against its use as human food because of its being fed to animals is gradually being overcome. Its value as animal food is too well known to require further discussion. CHAPTER XXXI Oats, Barley, Rye, Buckwheat, Rice, and Miscellaneous Seeds 399. Structure of the Oat Kernel. — Oats are composed of two parts, the kernel and the hull. The hulls have the same general composition as straw, and make up about 30 per cent of the weight. The different parts of the oat kernel are: (1) seed pod, (2) aleurone layer, (3) germ, and (4) floury portion. The weight per bushel of oats depends largely upon the amount of hulls ; in some samples these make up 25 per cent, and in others 35 per cent of the weight. 400. Composition of Oats. — When the hulls are included, oats have a larger amount of fiber and ash than any other cereal. The per cent of fat is higher than in wheat, barley, or rye, and as high as in corn. Hulled oats have about the same general composition as wheat, with a tendency to a higher protein content. They are also characterized by a high per cent of fat. Variations in the composition of oats are, to a limited extent, notice- able. The ratio of hull to kernel influences the composi- tion more than any other factor. There is not a great difference in the chemical composition of heavy- and light-weight oats. Experiments at the Maine Experi- ment Station show that the differences are mainly in the amount of nutrients in a given, volume of the grain, as a bushel, rather than in percentage composition. This emphasizes the importance of feeding oats by weight rather than by measure. 279 280 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 401. Oats as Human and Animal Food. — Oats are used more extensively as an animal food than as human food. When the hulls are removed and the oats are properly prepared, they make a valuable human food, because of the large amount of available protein, fat, and other nutrients. Oats are especially well adapted for the feeding of horses, because of their mechanical condition and the character of the available nutrients. Experiments at the Wisconsin Exp. Station show that when fed to dairy animals under similar conditions, high grade oats produce 10 per cent more milk and butter fat than the same weight of average bran. 402. Barley is used largely for brewing and for animal- feeding purposes rather than as a human food. There is less fat, fiber, and ash than in oats, but more protein and carbohydrates. Barley contains less protein than wheat. For brewing purposes, perfectly sound and fully matured barley with a high germination percentage is necessary, while that which has been slightly damaged in any way, as by rain, frost, or hot winds, is not suitable for this purpose. Such barley, however, can be used for feeding purposes, and is often the cheapest grain that can be fed by western farmers. Barley is suitable for feeding to all kinds of farm animals. The hull-less varieties contain less fiber and more protein and available carbohydrates. A study of the proteids of barley shows that there is about 1 part of nitrogen to every 5.7 parts of protein, which is practically the same in amount as is found in wheat proteids. 403. Rye. — Rye contains proteids similar to wheat, rendering it suitable for bread-making purposes. How- ever, rye is more extensively used in this country for the manufacture of alcoholic beverages than for bread. Rye resembles wheat in chemical composition more than does OATS, BARLEY, RYE, ETC. 281 any other cereal, although when grown under similar conditions it contains somewhat less protein than wheat. In the feeding of farm animals, rye must be used with more caution than wheat. If used in a dairy ration in too large amounts, it is believed to have a tendency to pro- duce a slightly inferior quality of milk and butter, but when fed moderately no difficulty is experienced. In a mixed ration, rye has been found equal to barley and other cereals for meat production. 404. Rice. — Rice is characterized by a low protein and fat content, and a high per cent of carbohydrates. It is not used to any extent for the feeding of stock, although its by-products are employed for this purpose. Rice may furnish the carbohydrates of a ration at a low cost, but should be combined with foods rich in protein, as legumes. 405. Buckwheat. — The entire kernel contains quite an appreciable amount of fiber, which is removed in the preparation of buckwheat flour. There is somewhat less protein than in wheat and other cereals. Buckwheat is not extensively used for the feeding of animals, although some of its by-products are valuable for this purpose. 406. Flax is a type of oil seed, small in size but with a large amount of nutrients in the form of fat. Average flax contains about 38 per cent of fat, which is largely removed in the manufacture of linseed oil. A bushel of flax will yield about 19 pounds of oil and 40 pounds of oil cake. Flax is too concentrated, and usually too valuable a market crop to be used much for animal feeding purposes. Should the price warrant, it may be combined with other grains. As much as 8 pounds a day have been fed in a dairy ration without apparent ill results. Unripe and immature flaxseed is often used for feeding 282 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY purposes. Other oil seeds, as cotton and rape, are valu- able for the oil they contain, and the oil cake which is used for feeding purposes. 407. Millet Seed has somewhat the same general com- position as oats. However, when fed it should be ground and combined with other grains. 408. Peas and Beans. — Peas and beans, as well as other leguminous seeds, are characteristically rich in protein and contain variable amounts of fat. Peas and beans are valuable alike as human and animal food. When used as animal food, they should form a part of a grain ration. They are particularly good for pork production as well as for meat and milk, but their high price usually prevents their extensive use in animal feeding. When they can be produced cheaply and abundantly, they are among the best foods that can be used. The proteid of leguminous seeds is largely in the form of legumin, a casein-like body. 409. Grading of Grains. — Oats, barley, rye, and other grains are all graded commercially on the basis of their physical properties, as weight per bushel, maturity, amount of foreign weed seed, and any fungus disease, or injury caused by rust or excessive heat. As an example of rules for grading grain the following adopted by the Minnesota Board of Grain Appeals are given. NORTHERN SPRING WHEAT No. 1 Hard Spring Wheat. — Shall be dry, sound, bright, sweet, clean, and consist of over 50 per cent of the hard varieties, and weigh not less than 58 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 1 Northern Spring Wheat. — Shall be dry, sound, sweet, and clean, may consist of the hard and soft varieties of spring wheat, and weigh not less than 57 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Northern Spring Wheat. — Shall be dry, spring wheat, OATS, BARLEY, RYE, ETC. 283 not clean enough or sound enough for No. 1, but of good milling quality and must not weigh less than 56 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Northern Spring Wheat. — Shall be composed of inferior, shrunken spring wheat and weigh not less than 54 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 Northern Spring Wheat. — Shall include all inferior spring wheat that is badly shrunken or damaged and weigh not less than 48 pounds to the measured bushel. Rejected Spring Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of spring wheat sprouted, badly bleached or for any other cause unfit for No. 4. Note. — Hard, flinty wheat, of good color, containing no appre- ciable admixture of soft wheat, may be admitted into the grades of No. 2 Northern Spring Wheat and No. 3 Northern Spring Wheat, provided weight of the same is not more than one pound less than the minimum test weight required by the existing rules of said grades, and provided, further, that such wheat is in all other respects qualified for admission into such grades. Note. — The variety of wheat known as "Humpback," owing to its inferior milling quality, shall not be graded higher than No. 3. WHITE WINTER WHEAT No. 1 White Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of pure, soft, white winter wheat, sound, plump, dry, sweet, and clean, and weigh not less than 58 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 White Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of soft, white winter wheat, dry, sound, and clean, may contain not more than 5 per cent of soft red winter wheat, and weigh not less than 56 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 White Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of soft, white winter wheat, may contain 5 per cent of damaged grains other than mow-burnt wheat, and may contain 10 per cent of soft red winter wheat, and weigh not less than 53 pounds to the meas- ured bushel. HARD WINTER WHEAT No. 1 Hard Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of hard winter wheat, sound, plump, dry, sweet, and clean, and weigh not less than 61 pounds to the measured bushel. 284 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY No. 2 Hard Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of hard winter wheat, dry, sound, and clean, and weigh not less than 59 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Hard Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of hard winter wheat, of both light and dark colors, not clean and plump enough for No. 2, and weigh not less than 55 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 Hard Winter Wheat. — Shall include all varieties of hard winter wheat not fit for a higher grade. RED WINTER WHEAT No. 1 Red Winter Wheat. — Shall be pure red winter wheat of both light and dark colors, dry, sound, sweet, plump, and well cleaned, and weigh not less than 60 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Red Winter Wheat. — Shall be red winter wheat of both light and dark colors, shall not contain more than 5 per cent of white winter ; dry, sound, sweet, and clean, and weigh not less than 58 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Red Winter Wheat. — Shall be sound red winter wheat, not clean and plump enough for No. 2 ; shall not contain more than 5 per cent of white winter, and weigh not less than 5 5 pounds to the measured bushel. WESTERN WHITE AND RED WHEAT No. 1 Western White Wheat. — Shall be dry, sound, well cleaned, plump, and composed of the western varieties of white wheat. No. 2 Western White Wheat. — Shall be dry, sound, reason- ably clean, and composed of western varieties of white wheat. No. 3 Western White Wheat. — Shall be composed of all western white wheat fit for warehousing, weighing not less than 54 pounds to the measured bushel, and not sound enough or otherwise fit for the higher grades. Rejected Western White Wheat. — Shall comprise all wes- tern white wheat fit for warehousing but unfit for higher grades. Note. — Western Red Wheat and Western Wheat shall corre- spond in all respects with the grades of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and Rejected. OATS, BARLEY, RYE, ETC. 285 DURUM (MACARONI) WHEAT No. 1 Durum Wheat. — Shall be bright, sound, dry, well cleaned, and be composed of durum commonly known as macaroni wheat and weigh not less than 60 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Durum Wheat. — Shall be dry, clean, and of good milling quality. It shall include all durum wheat that for any reason is not suitable for No. 1 Durum and weigh not less than 58 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Durum Wheat. — Shall include all durum wheat bleached, shrunken, or for any cause unfit for No. 2, and weigh not less than 55 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 Durum Wheat. — Shall include all durum wheat that is badly bleached or for any cause unfit for No. 3. MIXED WHEAT In case of any appreciable admixture of Durum, Western, Winter or Western White and Red Wheat, with Minnesota grades of North- ern Spring Wheat, or with each other, it shall be graded according to the quality thereof and classed as Nos. 1, 2,3, etc., Mixed Wheat, with inspector's notation describing its character. CORN No. 1 Corn. — Shall be corn of various colors, sound, plump, and well cleaned, and shall contain not more than 1 5 per cent of moisture. No. 2 Corn. — Shall be corn of various colors, sweet, reasonably clean, and shall not contain more than 15! per cent of moisture. No. 3 Corn. — Shall be corn of various colors, sweet, shall be reasonably sound and reasonably clean, and shall not contain more than 19 per cent of moisture. No. 4 Corn. — Shall include all corn not wet and not in heating condition that is unfit for No. 3 corn. YELLOW CORN No. 1 Yellow Corn. — Shall be 98 per cent yellow, sweet, sound, plump, and well cleaned, and shall contain not more than 15 per cent of moisture. No. 2 Yellow Corn. — Shall be 90 per cent yellow, sweet, shall 286 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY be reasonably clean and shall not contain more than 15! per cent of moisture. No. 3 Yellow Corn. — Shall be 90 per cent yellow, sweet, shall be reasonably clean and reasonably sound, and shall not con- tain more than 19 per cent of moisture. No. 4 Yellow Corn. — Shall include all yellow corn not wet and not in heating condition that is unfit for No. 3 Yellow. Note. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 White Corn shall correspond in all respects with the grades of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 Yellow Corn. OATS No. 1 White Oats. — Shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 3 2 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 White Oats. — Shall be seven eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 31 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 White Oats. — Shall be seven eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 28 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 White Oats. — Shall include all oats not sufficiently sound and clean for No. 3 White Oats and shall weigh not less than 24 pounds to the measured bushel. Yellow Oats. — The grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Yellow Oats shall correspond with the grades of Nos. 1, 2, and 3 White Oats, excepting that they shall be of the yellow varieties. No. 1 Oats. — Shall be dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 32 pounds to the meas- ured bushel. No. 2 Oats. — Shall be dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain and shall weigh not less than 31 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Oats. — Shall be all oats that are merchantable and ware- houseable, and not fit for the higher grades. No. 1 Clipped White Oats. — Shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 40 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Clipped White Oats. — Shall be seven eighths white, dry, OATS, BARLEY, RYE, ETC. 287 sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 38 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Clipped White Oats. — Shall be seven eighths white, dry, sweet, sound, reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 36 pounds to the measured bushel. RYE No. 1 Rye. — Shall be sound, plump, and well cleaned, and shall weigh not less than 56 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Rye. — Shall be sound, reasonably clean and reasonably free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 54 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Rye. — All rye slightly damaged or from any other cause unfit for No. 2 shall be graded No. 3. BARLEY No. 1 Barley. — Shall be plump, bright, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 48 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Barley. — Shall be sound and of healthy color, not plump enough for No. 1, reasonably clean and reasonably free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 46 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Barley. — Shall include all slightly shrunken and other- wise slightly damaged barley, not good enough for No. 2, and shall weigh not less than 44 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 4 Barley. — Shall include all barley fit for malting pur- poses, not good enough for No. 3. No. 1 Feed Barley. — Must test not less than 40 pounds to the measured bushel and be reasonably sound and reasonably clean. No. 2 Feed Barley. — Shall include all barley which is for any cause unfit for the grade of No. 1 Feed Barley. Chevalier Barley. — Nos. 1, 2, and 3 Chevalier Barley shall conform in all respects to the grades of Nos. 1,2, and 3 Barley except that they shall be of a chevalier variety, grown in Montana, Oregon, and on the Pacific coast. 288 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY No Grade. — All Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, and Corn in a heat- ing condition, too musty or too damp to be safe for warehousing or that is badly bin burnt, or fire burnt, badly damaged, exceedingly dirty, or otherwise unfit for store, shall be classed as No Grade, with inspector's notation as to quality and condition. SPELTZ No. i Speltz. — Shall be white, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 37 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 2 Speltz. — Shall be dry, sweet, sound reasonably clean, and practically free from other grain, and shall weigh not less than 36 pounds to the measured bushel. No. 3 Speltz. — Shall be all speltz that are merchantable and warehouseable, and not fit for the higher grades. FLAXSEED No. 1 Northwestern Flaxseed. — Shall be mature, sound, dry, and sweet. It shall be northern grown. The maximum quantity of field stack, storage or other damaged seed intermixed shall not exceed twelve and one half (12I) per cent. The minimum weight shall be fifty-one (51) pounds to the measured bushel of commer- cially pure seed. No. 1 Flaxseed. — Shall be northern grown, sound, dry, and free from mustiness, and carrying not more than twenty (20) per cent of immature or field stack, storage, or other damaged flaxseed, and weighing not less than forty-nine (49) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed. No. 2 Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is bin burnt, immature, field damaged or musty, and yet not to a degree to be unfit for storage, and having a test weight of not less than forty-seven (47) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed, shall be No. 2 Flaxseed. No Grade Flaxseed. — Flaxseed that is damp, warm, moldy, fire burnt, very musty, or otherwise unfit for storage, or having a weight of less than forty-seven (4 7) pounds to the measured bushel of commercially pure seed, shall be No Grade. OATS, BARLEY, RYE, ETC. 289 The following abbreviations to be used by inspectors in desig- nating the grades : R. Wt. for Red Winter O. for Northern H. for Hard Wn. W. for Western White Wn. R. for Western Red W. for Winter W. Wt. for ' White Winter Mx. for Mixed Y. Corn for Yellow Corn W. Corn for White Corn N. G. for No Grade Bly. for Barley Fd. for Feed Du. for Durum Rej. for Rejected MANNER OF TESTING Wheat, Flax, and Rye shall be tested after cleaning. The test kettle shall be placed where it cannot be jarred or shaken. From scoop, bag, or pan, held two inches from top of kettle, pour into middle of same at a moderate speed, until running over, strik- ing off in a zigzag manner with the edge of beam held horizontally. Note. — No grains shall in any case be graded above that of the poorest quality found in that lot when it bears evidence of being plugged or doctored. Note. — Wheat scoured or otherwise manipulated, the test weight will not be considered in grading same. Note. — The grades of "Purified Oats" or "Purified Barley" shall correspond with the other grades of Oats and Barley, except that same shall be designated as "Purified." Grades are subject to change according to the character of the crops as influenced by climatic conditions. Wheat that grades No. 1 Northern one year might be assigned either a higher or a lower grade another year. Grades are relative rather than absolute. 290 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Composition of Grains and Seeds. (From Jenkins and Winton.) Crude Ether Water. protein. extract. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Corn, dent 10.6 10.3 5.0 Corn, dent (max.). . . 19.4 12.8 7.5 Corn, dent (min.) . . . 6.2 7.5 3.1 Corn, flint 11.3 10.5 5.0 Corn, sweet 8.8 11.6 8.1 Oats 11. o 11. 8 5.0 Barley 10.9 12.4 1.8 Rye 11. 6 10.6 1.7 Rice 12.4 7.4 0.4 Buckwheat 10.9 10.5 5.4 Peas 1 10. 1 21.6 1.0 Flaxseed 1 5.1 27.5 38.6 Millet seed 1 12.5 10.6 3.9 Navy beans 12.4 22.2 1.4 1 Minnesota analyses. Nitrogen- free ex- Crude Ash. tract. fiber. Per Per cent. Per cent. cent. 70.4 2.2 1.5 75-7 4-8 2.6 65-4 O.9 1.0 70.1 1-7 1.4 66.8 2.8 1.9 59-7 9-5 3-o 69.8 2.7 2.4 72.5 1-7 1.9 79.2 0.2 0.4 69.6 2.1 i-5 58.2 5-7 3-4 17.9 7-4 3-5 61. 1 8.1 3-8 53-i 7.2 3-7 CHAPTER XXXII Mill and By-products 410. Sources. — Various by-products are obtained in the milling of wheat and in the preparation of cereal foods, malting of grain, extraction of oil from seeds, and manufacture of starch and glucose, and these are used for the feeding of animals. 411. Wheat By-products. — In the milling of wheat, about 72 per cent of the grain is returned as straight grade or patent flour, .5 per cent as low grade, 1.50 per cent red-dog or feeding flour, and 25 per cent as wheat offal — bran, shorts, or middlings. The mechanical losses and shrinkage due to drying amount to about 1 per cent. The separation of the wheat kernel into these various products is a mechanical operation effected by rolls for the reduction of the grain, and sieves and bolting cloths for the separation of the various products. The grades of flour and the percentage amounts of by-products recovered in milling vary with the character of wheat used and the individuality of the mill. (See Section 385.) 412. Wheat Bran is composed mainly of the outer layers of the wheat kernel removed in the manufacture of flour. Some of the floury portion and aleurone cells find their way into the bran and fine bran or shorts. Wheat bran varies in chemical composition and feeding value according to the composition and character of the wheat used and the process of milling. It may contain as low as 14 and as high as 18 per cent of crude protein ; 291 292 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY average bran contains about 15 per cent. Two samples of bran may have about the same percentage amount of protein and not have the same feeding value. For example, one wheat containing 13 per cent protein may be exhaus- tively milled and yield a bran of 1 5 per cent protein, while another wheat with 15J per cent imperfectly milled may yield bran with 16 per cent protein. While both brans contain nearly the same amount of crude protein, the second sample would have more available non-nitrogenous nutrients and with the same per cent of crude protein would produce better results in feeding than the first sample. There is usually more protein in spring wheat bran than in winter wheat bran. This is due largely to the more nitrogenous character of the spring wheat. Bran should be practically free from weed seeds and all foreign matter. Bran occupies a high position among animal foodstuffs. It is bulky in nature and can be fed in comparatively large amounts without injury to animals. Director Henry in " Feeds and Feeding " states : " Next to corn, wheat bran is the great cow feed of this country. Rich in ash and protein, carrying a fair amount of starchy matter, its light, chaffy character renders it the natural complement of heavy corn meal. Though its nutritive constituents approximate those of cottonseed meal, it mixes well with that feed, causing it to lie more lightly in the stomach. " The large amount of mineral matter in bran is another factor of much importance in milk production. In milk there is much mineral matter, placed there for the frame- work of the calf, and bran supplies this more abundantly than most feeding stuffs. " Middlings, like bran, are extensively fed to dairy MILL AND BY-PRODUCTS 293 cows. Being themselves heavy in character, they do not mix well with heavy feeds like cottonseed meal and corn meal. Dairymen will find middlings much relished by cows and yielding satisfactory returns. Bran and mid- dlings are conceded by all who have fed them to favorably affect the flow of milk. Cows may be fed as much as 6 to 8 pounds of bran daily and from 4 to 6 pounds of middlings. Bran was at first regarded with favor only by dairymen. Gradually the steer feeder is learning, its value in connection with other grain in the feed box. Because of its bulky character and its cooling, slightly laxative properties, bran is a most excellent dilutent for corn meal, cottonseed meal, and other heavy food sub- stances. Where it can be obtained at a reasonable price, the stockman will find much satisfaction in mixing one third its weight of bran with cornmeal." In commenting upon the feeding value of wheat by- products, Jordan, in the " Feeding of Animals," states : " No commercial feeding stuffs are regarded with greater favor, or are more widely and largely purchased by Amer- ican feeders than the by-products from milling wheat. Wheat bran and middlings are cattle foods of standard excellence, whether we consider composition, palatable- ness or their relation to the quality of dairy prod- ucts." 413. Wheat Shorts or Middlings consist of those outer portions of the wheat kernel which contain somewhat less crude fiber, protein, and ash than the parts which make up the bran. This product is practically the fine bran subjected to more complete pulverization and mixed with some " floury " stock. It is more variable in com- position than bran, but for some purposes, as pig feed- ing, is more valuable. 294 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Standard middlings and flour middlings are products with different amounts of " floury " stock. Used in con- nection with animal feeding, middlings means an entirely different product from the purified middlings mentioned in Section 385, which form the basis of the patent grades of flour. Wheat germ is a part of the shorts or middlings and is rich in both protein and fat. About 6 per cent of the wheat offal is germ. It would impart poor keeping qualities if present in flour, and its proteids are not suit- able for bread-making purposes. 414. Wheat Feed or Mixed Wheat Feed is composed of the bran, shorts, or middlings and the " red-dog " or feeding flour in the proportions obtained in the manu- facture of flour. It is a mechanical mixture of all of the wheat by-products and has a high feeding value. It is particularly valuable for milk production, and because of its physical composition possesses some advantages over bran or middlings fed alone. A mixed wheat feed should contain 1 5 per cent or more of protein, 4. 5 per cent fat, and less than 9 per cent fiber. 415. Wheat Screenings are a mixture of various seeds with occasionally broken and shrunken wheat kernels, and vary in composition and food value with the different kinds of weed seeds present. They should be finely ground so as to prevent the introduction of foul weeds on the farm. During recent years, mustard seeds have been removed from wheat screenings and sold as a separate product, the oil which they contain being extracted and used commercially. 416. Linseed Meal. — When the oil is extracted from flaxseed, linseed cake is obtained which, when ground, forms linseed meal. Linseed meal should contain 35 per cent crude protein. The darker-colored meals are MILL AND BY-PRODUCTS 295 those which contain most oil. Linseed meal is a con- centrated nitrogenous animal food and is valuable for feeding all kinds of farm animals. It should be combined with other foods. Linseed meal is occasionally adulterated with flax screenings. Hence, if adulteration is suspected, the cake itself may be purchased and ground. The cake is not adulterated because weed seeds and impurities must be removed in order to produce a good quality of oil. When the oil is removed from the flaxseed by naphtha and other chemicals, the product is called "new process linseed meal," which differs from pressure process meal by having the oil more thoroughly extracted and by con- taining a larger amount of crude protein. There is but little new process meal found on the market. 417. Cottonseed Cake and Meal, obtained from cotton- seed after removal of the hulls and extraction of the oil, are concentrated nitrogenous foods. The meal is lemon-yellow in color and is characteristically rich in crude protein and ether extract. It contains somewhat more crude protein than linseed meal. Cottonseed meal is a concentrated nitrogenous food and can be fed, when properly combined with other foods, to sheep and beef and dairy animals. It cannot safely be fed in large amounts nor for a long period to swine. When used in a dairy ration as the principal food, it influences the character of the butter fat, producing butter with a high melting point. 418. Oat Feed is a product obtained in the manufacture of oatmeal. It is variable in composition and consists of light-weight oats mixed with oat clippings. Oat hulls have about the same composition and feeding value as oat straw, and are frequently used for the adulteration of animal foods. In the purchase and use of oat feeds, 296 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY particular attention should be given to their composition. High-grade oat feed is valuable, but when it contains any appreciable amount of hulls, the food value is propor- tionally lessened. 419. Gluten Meal is a by-product obtained in the manu- facture of glucose. Soaked corn is broken open and the germ is liberated and floated off with water. The oil from the germ is extracted and the germ cake sold as a commercial product or used for mixing with other foods. The starch and gluten of the corn are separated by me- chanical means. The starch being heavier separates and settles. The gluten product is dried, ground, and sold as gluten meal, which usually has about 35 per cent of protein and 3 per cent of fat. Gluten feed contains the corn hulls or bran along with the gluten meal. The hulls reduce the proportion of protein. Gluten feed usually contains about 25 per cent of crude protein, but is variable in composition. 420. Malt Sprouts. — When barley is subjected to the malting process, germination takes place, which results in changing the starch to maltose. The plantlets or sprouts are removed, dried, and sold as malt sprouts. They are nitrogenous in character and contain about 22 per cent of crude protein, the larger portion of which is in soluble form. Malt sprouts are valuable for feeding sheep and beef and dairy stock. 421. Miscellaneous By-products. — There are a large number of miscellaneous by-products used for feeding animals as rye bran, buckwheat middlings, palm-nut meal, hominy chops, etc. Their composition and general feed- ing value may be noted from the table of analyses at the close of the chapter. 422. Inspection of Feeding Stuffs. — During recent MILL AND BY-PRODUCTS 297 years, many of the states have passed laws regulating the inspection and sale of animal feeding stuffs. The object of such laws is to prevent adulteration of animal foods by requiring manufacturers and dealers to guarantee the percentage amounts of crude protein and fat. Many of the European countries have had such laws in force for a number of years. It is noticeable that in those countries and states where feeding stuffs are subjected to inspec- tion, the quality is better than where they are not in- spected. The national pure food law is applicable to animal foods in that it requires all foods to properly corre- spond with their labels so that the purchaser may know what he buys. Experiment 73. — Graphic composition of foods. Make a draw- ing of some human or animal food material and indicate graphically the percentage amount of the different nutrients. If a hundred millimeter rule is used in the construction of the drawing, each t " 'a 0" o "2, «,<^ I t STARCH CTC 0) / a « " e *Oe<» %"l *.*"> » o U 5 .»,», B "ARCH [ICo. J.-0 &'^ I 751 o °h> \^ '* *« *i *fe> » "«,' ' °* o r '°J t» *«0 •1 "starch etc }oJ V " v 6 a ° * WHEAT FLOUR. CORN MEAL OAT MEAL ■ .FAT 8 1 FAT M 1 ASH ♦ i ASH > Fig. 91. — Graphic composition of foods. linear millimeter will correspond to 1 per cent. If a food contains 12 per cent water, 12 millimeters are measured off to represent the water in the material, and so for each class of nutrients an area corresponding to its percentage amount. 298 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Composition of Mill and By-products. £ < Per Per cent. cent. Linseed meal (old process) . . 9.20 5.70 Linseed meal (new process) . 10.10 5.80 Cottonseed meal 8.20 7.20 Malt sprouts 10.20 5.70 Corn and cob meal 15.10 1.50 Gluten meal 9.60 0.70 Gulten feed 7.80 1.10 Oat feed 7-7° 3-7© Oat hulls 7-30 6.70 Sugar-beet pulp l 88.53 4-^5 Rye bran 11.60 3.60 Buckwheat middlings 13.20 4.80 Palm-nut meal 8.30 3.70 Hominy chops 11. 10 2.50 Apple pomace 76.70 0.50 Wheat feed 12.00 4.00 Wheat feeding flour (red dog) 1 2.00 3.00 Wheat bran, winter 12.30 5.90 Wheat bran, spring n.5° 5-4Q Wheat shorts 11.80 4.60 Wheat screenings 11.60 2.90 Meat scrap 1.33 8.03 Wheat flour (Minn.) 11.90 0.40 Corn meal 15.10 1.40 Corn flour 12.57 0.61 Buckwheat flour 14.60 1.00 Oatmeal 7-9° 2.00 1 Dry matter basis a *s "53 |4 3 3 a « O a w«3 fc.2 W 59.1 32.6 35.9 64.2 57.9 70.4 59.7 29.1 58.0 54.2 64.4 55.2 89.6 87-3 90.4 67.2 65-7 76.1 23.7 88.4 55.5 60.6 93.3 81.2 ... 88.8 57.0 77.6 88.6 67.9 ... 94.7 92.1 85.6 78.0 89.2 84.4 88.2 . . . 89.8 94.4 80.2 32.9 68.1 77-8 28.6 69.4 68.0 84.8 16.4 74.7 42.8 91.3 77.0 . . . 44.7 . . . 90.4 13.0 Some of the facts noticeable in the table are as follows : The highest degree of digestibility of a nutriment is usually obtained with foods which contain the largest amount of that nutrient. For example, clover hay con- tains more crude protein than timothy hay, and in general the protein of clover is more completely di- gested than that of timothy. In potatoes, there is a large amount of nitrogen-free extract compounds (starch), and in the table it will be observed that they are more completely digested than the crude protein which is present in smaller amount. Whenever a food contains nutrients in small amounts they are in dilute forms, and are not so completely extracted as when present in larger amounts. The coarse fodders are not so completely digested as the grains and milled products. In the coarse fodders, the digestion coefficients range from 30 to 65, 326 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY while in grains and milled products, the range in diges- tibility is from 70 to 95. 466. Digestible Nutrients of Foods. — When the total nutrients in a food are multiplied by the digestion coeffi- cients, the available nutrients are secured. For example, clover hay contains 12 per cent crude protein, which is 60 per cent digestible. The available or digestible crude protein of the clover hay is 7.2 (12 X 0.6 = 7.2). In like manner, all the digestible nutrients of foods are ascer- tained. The per cent of each nutrient is multiplied by its digestion coefficient, which gives the total available or digestible nutrients. When the average composition of American feeding stuffs and the average digestion coefficients are used, the average digestible or available nutrients are obtained. Such a table is given at the end of the chapter. In using this table, it should be remem- bered that the figures are those of average conditions, and may not be applicable to all cases, and while the amounts of nutrients given are fairly constant, they nevertheless vary. It is possible by giving due care to the production of crops to secure those containing the maximum nutrients, and then to feed the crops so as to secure the highest degree of digestibility and thus more nutrients than are given in the tables at the close of the chapter. For example, timothy hay may contain from 5 to 9 per cent protein. That which contains 5 per cent is less completely digested than that containing 9 per cent. From the timothy with the highest degree of digestibility, there is about 7 per cent of the protein digestible and available, while from that with 5 per cent of crude protein there is from 2.5 to 3 per cent available. The avail- ability of the other nutrients also is in favor of the timothy hay with the larger amount of protein. In the feeding DIGESTION AND NUTRITION 327 of farm animals, particular attention should be given to the production of foods which contain the largest amounts of the most valuable nutrients and to combining and using them so as to secure the highest degree of digesti- bility. Digestion experiments have pointed out ways in which these results may be accomplished, and the experi- ments are valuable in indicating how the largest returns can be secured from the fodders and grains raised and fed upon the farm. Experiment 77. — Digestible nutrients of foods. Take the di- mensions of one of the measures given out for the experiment and calculate its capacity in quarts, dry measure (1 quart = 67.2 cubic inches). Weigh the measure, fill it with oats and weigh again. From the tables, calculate the pounds of digestible fat, protein, and carbohydrates in one quart of each of the foodstuffs. Tabulate the results as follows : Digestible Nutrients in Foods. Name of Food. Net Weight of Measure. Digestible Pounds per Quart. Grams. Pounds. Fat. Protein. C'bhydr'ts. Oats Bran Corn Oil meal Flour Shorts CHAPTER XXXVI Rational Feeding of Animals 467. Balanced Rations. — A balanced ration is one which contains sufficient nutrients from a variety of foods to meet the requirements of the animal. Since the different classes of nutrients serve different purposes in the body, it is the object of rational feeding to combine foods so as to supply the nutrients in the right proportion for growth and work or for the production of milk, meat, or wool. Rational feeding is based upon (1) the food requirements of animals, and (2) the amount of digestible nutrients in foods. The food requirements of animals are determined by experiments. 468. A Maintenance Ration is one which furnishes all of the nutrients required for maintaining the weight of the body and for performing all its functions without allowing any nutrients for growth, work, or other purposes. A maintenance ration simply sustains the animal, and makes no allowance for growth or work. When an animal is fed a maintenance ration, it neither gains nor loses in weight ; an equilibrium is established between the income and outgo of the food. The nitrogen in the proteids of the food consumed is all returned in the various waste products of the body. Since nitrogen is the characteristic element of protein, it is taken as the index for determining the maintenance requirements of animals. When the nitrogen in the waste products equals that in the food consumed, and no work has been 328 RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 329 performed, a maintenance ration has been fed, as the body has neither gained nor lost protein. Growth, work, and animal products are all produced from the excess of nutrients over those required for maintenance purposes. For example, a pig weighing 200 pounds requires about five pounds of grain per day for mainte- nance. If 5.5 pounds per day are fed, an increase in weight is secured only from the half pound in excess of the maintenence ration. 469. Standard Rations. — For feeding purposes stand- ard rations have been proposed, giving the amounts of nutrients required by different classes of animals for different purposes. These tables have been prepared largely as the result of digestion experiments and feeding trials. The table in most common use is that prepared by Woulff and modified from time to time by various investigators. This table is given at the close of the chapter. 470. Food Requirements of Animals. — In the feeding of balanced rations, tables of feeding standards should be used largely as guides. It is not necessary that the rations should, in all particulars, absolutely conform to the standards given. On the other hand, it is not advisable to have the amounts of nutrients in the rations vary in any large degree from the standards. It is difficult to specify the amounts of nutrients which, under all condi- tions, will meet the food requirements of all classes of animals. In previous chapters, it has been shown that the composition of forage crops is subject to variation, as is also their digestibility. Hence, tables giving the amounts of digestible nutrients are only approximately correct, and if assumed for all fodders and conditions, the calculated amounts of nutrients would, in some cases, 330 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY exceed, and in others fall short of, the standards given. On this account, it is not well to adhere too closely to fixed rules in the rational feeding of farm animals. When foods containing the largest amounts of nutrients are produced and so fed as to secure the highest degree of digestibility, smaller amounts are required than when foods low in available nutrients are used and injudiciously fed. 471. Food Supply at Different Stages of Growth. — The amount and nature of the food consumed should vary with the period of growth. Rations for young and grow- ing animals should contain more protein and less of the non-nitrogenous compounds than rations for mature animals. This is because more food is required for building purposes in the early stages of growth than in later stages, when more is required for heat and energy. These facts may be observed from the table of feeding standards. For example, a calf three months old that weighs 150 pounds requires per day 0.6 pound digestible protein and 2.4 pounds digestible non-nitrogenous com- pounds. When the animal is a year old and weighs 500 pounds, it requires 1.3 pounds of digestible protein and 6.9 pounds of digestible non-nitrogenous compounds. The animal has increased in weight more than three times, while the additional demand for digestible protein has only doubled, but for the non-nitrogenous compounds it is four and one half times as great. When an excess of starchy and non-nitrogenous foods is fed to a young and growing animal, there is a tendency toward the production of a poor muscular and bony framework and premature fattening. To produce balanced growth in young animals, careful attention should be given to the amount and nature of the nutrients supplied in the food. RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 33 1 472. Food Requirements of Horses. — In feeding work horses, the object is to provide available nutrients for the production of energy, because it is the energy from the food which enables the horse to do his work. Experi- ments show that for maintenance purposes, a iooo-pound horse requires about 17.5 pounds of hay per day contain- ing a half pound of digestible protein and 7 to 7.5 pounds of digestible non-nitrogenous compounds. Such a ration does not provide any nutrients for work. In the table at the close of the chapter are given the amounts of nutrients required for average work. Any increase in work should be followed by a corresponding increase of food. Average work is best accomplished with a ration containing 22 to 24 pounds of dry matter per day, of which about 1.8 pounds are digestible protein and 11 to 1 1.5 pounds are digestible nitrogen-free extract. It is estimated that about one third of the energy derived from the food is utilized as energy in the performance of work. The best results are obtained when an even draft is made upon an animal, as experiments show that less energy is required for average work continuously than for severe work for a short time followed by rest. 473. Selection of Food for Horses. — For light work, 5 to 7 pounds per day of mixed grains are usually sufficient if combined with 12 to 15 pounds of coarse fodder, as timothy hay. For average work more food is required, and the amount of grain should be about equal in weight to the coarse fodder. For heaviest work, the grain should exceed the fodder in weight. Pure clover hay, on account of its mechanical condition, is not suitable for the feeding of horses. Timothy hay, blue grass, and the different varieties of prairie hay are all good if cut and cured when medium ripe. Early cut fodders are not so satisfactory 332 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY for horses as for other kinds of animals. There is a tendency to confine the ration of horses too largely to one grain, oats, which usually makes an expensive ration. Experiments show that a larger variety of foods is desirable. Corn, barley, ground wheat, bran, and other milled products may form a part of the ration for work horses. For purposes of variety, carrots or potatoes in small amounts may be fed. Oil meal also to the extent of about one fourth pound per day is valuable. For average work, grinding of grains is not necessary ; for hard work, coarse grinding results in availability of a larger amount of the net energy of the foods. 474. Foods required for Beef Production. — According to the table of feeding standards from 25 to 30 pounds dry matter containing 2.5 to 3 pounds digestible protein, and about 15 pounds digestible carbohydrates are re- quired for a 1000-pound animal. As pointed out by Jordan, in " Feeding of Farm Animals," these standards are too high for economic feeding. As the result of feeding trials, 15 pounds digestible organic matter per day for a 1000-pound animal have been found sufficient. A ration containing 15 pounds digestible dry matter, about 1.80 pounds digestible protein, 13 pounds digestible nitrogen-free extract compounds, and 0.7 pound digestible ether extract was found satisfactory. When too little protein is supplied in a ration, the meat is of poorer quality than when more is available, so as to produce a normal amount of circulatory proteids in the system. In beef production, the aim should be to supply sufficient available protein for maintenance purposes, and a small amount for the other needs of the body, the fat being produced from the less expensive nutrients, as carbohy- drates and ether extract. When the fat is produced RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 333 from an excess of protein in the food, the cost of produc- tion is unnecessarily large. The protein supply in beef production should vary with the stage of fattening. Experiments at the Pennsylvania Station show that 0.42 pound digestible protein, 6.77 pounds digestible non- nitrogenous compounds, and 0.13 pound digestible ether extract are required for maintenance purposes. At different stages of growth, different amounts of food are required to produce a pound of gain. This fact is particu- larly noticeable in experiments at the Kansas Station from which the following data are taken : Grain required for 1 pound gain. After 56 days 7.30 After 84 days 8.07 After 122 days 8.40 After 140 days 9.01 After 168 days 9.27 After 182 days 10.00 In the production of beef, palatability of the ration is an important factor ; this is best secured by combining a number of grains and coarse fodders. 475. Selection of Foods for Beef Production. — Foods which are valuable for milk production are likewise valuable for beef production ; bran, oil meal, cottonseed meal, corn, barley, shorts, middlings, and screenings are among the best grain and milled products. Pasture grass, clover hay, alfalfa, corn silage, corn fodder and mixed hays are all valuable coarse fodders. Roots and tubers, to the extent of 10 to 15 pounds per day, may also be added to a beef ration. The amount of grain should range from 10 to 18 pounds per day, with from 12 to 18 pounds of coarse fodder. Occasionally heavy grain 334 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY feeding is resorted to in the fattening of steers. When grains and milled products are cheap, this practice is often economical, as it converts a cheap grain into a more valuable marketable product. Ordinarily the cost of production is greater with a heavy grain ration than with a light or medium one, and when more than 12 pounds of grain per day are fed, the additional amount is fed at a loss. When grains and feeding stuffs are high in price, heavy grain feeding is not economical. It should be the aim, in the production of beef, to secure the larger portion of growth, as well as the larger portion of the increase during the fattening, from high-grade coarse fodders, and supple- ment them with medium amounts of grain and milled products. The amount of grain that can be fed econom- ically is regulated by its cost and the market price of the beef product. 476. Food Requirements of Dairy Cows. — For the production of milk, a more liberal supply of digestible protein is required than for beef production. From 0.4 to 0.5 pound of digestible protein and from 7 to 7.5 pounds of digestible carbohydrates are required for main- tenance. A ration should contain, in addition, 1.2 to 1.8 pounds digestible protein and 4 to 6 pounds digestible carbohydrates, because milk cannot be produced econom- ically on too scant an amount of nutrients. According to the standard feeding tables, a ration for a cow giving a heavy yield of milk should contain 3 2 pounds dry matter, 3.3 pounds digestible protein, and 13 pounds carbohy- drates. This is a larger amount of protein than is neces- sary for economical milk production. Under average conditions, a ration containing about 27 pounds dry matter, 1.8 to 2 pounds digestible protein, and 11 to 13 pounds digestible carbohydrates will prove more economi- RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 335 cal than one containing larger amounts of protein. In a milk ration, proteids must be furnished for the produc- tion of the albumin and casein in the milk. In 1 5 pounds of milk there is about one half pound of proteids, as albumin and casein, and this must be supplied from the food. About as much more protein is necessary to supply the energy to produce the milk as is required for main- tenance and the milk proteids. In an ordinary dairy ration, practically one fourth of the proteids is recovered in the milk as casein and albumin, one fourth is indi- gestible, while one half is present in the liquid waste and represents the protein required for maintenance and the production of milk. The nutrients in a dairy ration should vary with the milk yield, as given in the table of feeding standards, but it is not necessary to adhere too closely to the figures. In calculating a dairy ration, it will be found that when ordinary foods are combined, the amount of ether extract or crude fat will exceed the figures given in the table. Provided the ration contains the requisite diges- tible protein, and does not yield more than 32,000 calories, there is no objection to the crude fat amounting to 0.6 pound per day. It ought not, however, in an average ration, exceed 0.8 pound. 477. Selection of Foods for Dairy Cows. — The amount of grain which a dairy cow should receive varies from 7 to 12 pounds per day. Occasionally 15 pounds can be fed economically, but, as a rule, medium grain rations of from 7 to 1 2 pounds produce milk and butter more econom- ically than either light or heavy rations. As in beef feeding, when more than 12 pounds per day of grain are fed, the additional amount is not used economically, and is generally a loss. The coarse fodder in a dairy ration 336 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY may vary from 18 to 50 pounds per day, according to the amount of water in the foods. The ration should contain from 25 to 30 pounds of dry matter. When silage is fed, 20 to 40 pounds may be used because of its high water content. In feeding roots, from 15 to 20 pounds per day will be found economical. It is not desirable to restrict dairy cows to a ration of one grain or milled product. Better results are secured from a mixture of two or three grains. No great differences have been observed in the milk-producing value of the different grains and milled products. A pound of one grain in a mixed ration will produce about as good results as a pound of another grain. For example, wheat has been found to have practically the same feeding value as corn, oats, or barley. Common farm grains will give about the same yield of milk and butter-fats as average mill feeds like bran or shorts. Mixed wheat feed consisting of bran, shorts, or middlings and red-dog or feeding flour is a valuable dairy feed. Oil meal in medium amounts in a ration produces from 20 to 25 per cent better re- sults than bran. Oil meal, cottonseed meal, and gluten meal all have about the same milk-producing value. Clover hay, corn silage, corn fodder, alfalfa, and oat hay are among the most valuable coarse fodders for milk production, preference being usually given to clover hay when cut in early or full bloom. When silage is' not fed, roots should always form a part of a dairy ration. Roots are valuable largely because of their palatability and the favorable influence which they exert upon diges- tion, rather than for any large amount of nutrients. 478. Food Requirements of Swine. — The nutrients required by swine vary with the stage of growth more than in the case of other animals. In the earlier stages of RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 337 growth, particular attention should be given to furnishing a liberal supply of available protein and mineral matter. A ration for a ioo-pound animal should contain about 0.5 pound digestible protein and 2.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates, while that for a 200-pound animal should contain about 0.6 pound digestible protein and nearly 4 pounds digestible carbohydrates. For growing pigs, a mixture of shorts and corn or shorts and barley with skim milk will be found preferable to any single grain. Skim milk should not be used in greater amounts than 3 pounds for each pound of grain. Five pounds of skim milk will produce as much gain in weight as one pound of grain. For fattening pigs the grain mixture should contain more corn than shorts. Coarsely ground barley is a valuable food and produces a good quality of pork. Peas may form about one third of the grain mixture. For fattening purposes, foods with a large amount of digestible protein are not as essential as for growing animals because the excess of protein is used for the production of fat, which can be produced from less expensive nutrients, as carbohydrates. The food should not be too concentrated in character. Many of the grains are so highly digestible that they leave in the digestive tract only a little insoluble matter to dilute the waste products. This is particularly true of peas and corn. Charcoal and a small amount of corn and cob meal are found useful to correct such deficiencies. Also some forage crop, as chopped, steamed, or soaked clover, should be at the disposal of the animal. Wheat, barley, and rye, if fed, should be coarsely ground, but with corn, grinding is not so essential. Bone meal, dried blood, and meat scrap are valuable m a ration for pigs, particularly if corn is the principal grain used. Among the forage crops, rape, clover, alfalfa, sorghum, 338 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY and corn will be found most valuable for pork produc- tion. 479. Food Requirements of Sheep. — The standard for the rations of sheep, as given in the tables, can be adhered to more closely than the standards for any other class of farm animals. This is because a large number of feeding trials and experiments have been made with sheep. They require more nutrients than do beef animals, and they are capable of making equally good returns from the food consumed. Experiments by Lawes and Gilbert show that during the process of fattening only a slight increase in nitrogen takes place ; the gain in weight is largely an increase in fat. During the growing period, a more liberal allowance of available protein is required than for fattening. Farm foods need but little reinforce- ment with mill and other products for the production of mutton. Henry, in " Feeds and Feeding," states that about 500 pounds of corn and 400 pounds of clover will produce 100 pounds of gain in live weight of lambs, and he gives these figures for calculating the cost of production. The grinding of grains is not so necessary in sheep feeding as in dairy feeding. Among the grains, corn, barley, wheat, and oats have all been found valuable. Wheat screenings are extensively utilized in the production of mutton. Oil meal and other mill by-products also are suitable, provided their cost is not too high. Among the coarse fodders, clover hay, alfalfa, corn fodder, and silage are particularly valuable. Roots should form a part of the ration. Variety and palatability should be considered. 480. Calculation of Balanced Rations. — In calculating a balanced ration, first the food requirements of the ani- mal, as given in the table of feeding standards, are noted. RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 339 Then a reasonable variety of coarse fodders, grains, and roots is selected on the basis of cost, as explained in Sec. 483, and a trial ration is calculated, using the approxi- mate amounts of foods as given in the various sections relating to the food requirements of animals. The amounts of digestible nutrients in the foods selected are calculated and the totals of the different nutrients deter- mined. If these correspond with the figures given in the table, a reasonably well-balanced ration is secured. In case the nutrients are present in the right proportion but deficient in amounts, the weights of foods used are increased ; if excessive, they are reduced. Should the ration be deficient in digestible protein, a small amount of some food containing a liberal supply of this nutrient may be added. Finally, when the requirement as to nutrients is satisfied, the various other factors, as bulk, suitable combinations, cost, and labor involved in prepa- ration are to be considered. Example. — Calculate a ration for a dairy cow giving a large milk yield. The standard ration calls for 1.8 to 2 pounds digestible protein and from 10 to 12.5 pounds digestible carbohydrates. It is necessary to combine the coarse fodders and grains so as to secure approximately these amounts of nutrients. A trial ration is cal- culated, composed of 10 pounds each of clover hay and corn fodder, 20 pounds of mangels, 5 of bran, and 3 of oats. The digestible nu- trients in these materials, as given at the close of the chapter, are as follows : Digestible Nutrients. Protein. Wheat 12.9 Mangel beets 1.1 Clover hay 6.8 Corn fodder 2.5 Oats 9.2 Fat. Carbohy- drates, etc. 3-4 40.I O.I 5-4 i-7 35-8 1.2 34.8 4.2 47-3 340 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY These figures are on the basis of ioo pounds. The amounts of nutrients in one pound are found by moving the decimal point two places to the left. Multiplying the pounds of food by the per cent of digestible nutri- ents, the pounds of digestible nutrients will be found to be as follows : Pounds of Digestible Nutrients. Carbohy- Pounds. Protein. Fat. drates, etc. 10 Clover hay 0.68 0.17 3.58 10 Corn fodder 0.25 0.12 3.48 20 Mangel-wurzels 0.22 0.02 1.08 5 Bran 0.64 0.16 2.00 3 Oats 0.28 0.13 1.42 2.07 0.60 n.56 Compared with the standard ration, it will be observed that the amounts of nutrients are approximately as given in the table, suggesting that as far as total nutrients are concerned, the ration is a reasonable one. The coarse fodder, grain, and roots are about in the proportions given in Section 477. As to the effects of the various foods, the bran, mangels, and clover hay might possibly prove somewhat laxative in character, and while the ration supplies all of the requisites as to dry matter and amount of nutrients, it would be necessary to note the effect upon the animal, before concluding it satisfactory in all respects. 481. Nutritive Ratio. — The nutritive ratio is the ratio which exists between the digestible protein and the digestible non -nitrogenous compounds. A nutritive ratio of 1 to 6.7 means that for every 1 pound of crude pro- tein there are 6.7 pounds of digestible non-nitrogenous compounds. A wide nutritive ratio means a large amount of non-nitrogenous to nitrogenous compounds, while RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 34 1 a narrow nutritive ratio means a small amount of non- nitrogenous to nitrogenous compounds. To calculate the nutritive ratio, first determine the pounds of digestible protein in the food, then the pounds of digestible carbohydrates, etc. Multiply the pounds of digestible ether extract by 2.2, because the fat produces 2.2 times as much heat, consequently is considered 2.2 times more concentrated than the nitrogen-free extract compounds. Add the digestible fiber, nitrogen-free ex- tract, and corrected ether extract and divide the sum by the digestible protein ; the result is the nutritive ratio. The nutritive ratio of the ration given is 6.23 (0.6 X 2.3 = 1.32) (1.32 + 11.56 = 12.88) (12.88 -3- 2.07 = 6.23). 482. Caloric Value of Rations. — The caloric value of a ration is determined by multiplying the pounds of digestible ether extract by the factor 4225 and adding this to the number secured by multiplying the sum of the digestible protein and carbohydrates by i860. As used in the calculation of rations, the carbohydrates include the nitrogen-free extract compounds and the digestible fiber. The term carbohydrates is used in the broad rather than the restricted sense. Problem 1. — Calculate a ration for a 1200-pound horse at light work. Use any foods desired. Problem 2. — Calculate a ration for a 1200-pound horse at heavy farm labor. Problem j. — Calculate a ration for a pig weighing 100 pounds. Problem 4. — Calculate a ration for a pig weighing 250 pounds. Problem 5. — Calculate a ration for a dairy cow giving a full flow of milk. Problem 6. — Calculate a dairy ration for average milk yield. Problem 7. — Calculate a ration for a sheep weighing 100 pounds. Problem 8. — Calculate a ration for a growing steer weighing 500 pounds. Problem 9. — Calculate a ration for a 1 200-pound steer, fattening period. 342 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 483. Comparative Cost and Value of Grains. — The market value of grains frequently differs from their actual food value. That is, a given sum of money if invested in one food article will often procure a larger amount of digestible protein and other nutrients than if invested in other foods. To illustrate : If corn is 50 cents and oats 30 cents per bushel, $1 will purchase either 112 pounds of corn or 107 pounds of oats. Which is the cheaper and more valuable for feeding purposes? The digestible nutrients in 100 pounds of corn and oats are as follows : Corn Oats. Digestible nutrients. Protein. Fat. Pounds per hundred Carbohydrates, etc. 7-9 4-3 66.7 9.2 4.2 47-3 Protein. Fat. Carbohy- drates. Calories. 8.85 4.82 74-7 175,684 9.84 4-5° SO.6 13^407 The amounts of digestible nutrients in 112 pounds of corn and 107 pounds of oats obtained by multiplying by the per cent of digestible nutrients are : Pounds. Corn 112 Oats 107 There is a difference of about 1 pound of digestible protein in favor of the oats and 24 pounds of digestible carbohydrates in favor of the corn ; the dollar's worth of corn would also contain about 44,000 more calories. At the prices given, corn rather than oats should form the larger portion of a grain ration for work horses, beef and dairy animals, and swine and sheep. For growing animals, however, a large amount of corn is not desirable. In deciding the comparative value of foods on the basis of their nutrient content, preference should usually be given to the protein, but when the difference in digestible protein is small, the preference should be given to the food containing the largest amount of available carbo- RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 343 hydrates and number of calories. Comparisons between foods which are very unlike in character of nutrients cannot safely be made. It is not possible to assign an absolute value to any food upon the basis of any one or all of its digestible nutrients, because the comparative value of the different nutrients has not, as yet, been definitely ascer- tained. In the selection of foods, it will frequently be found that a given sum of money can be invested in the purchase of two foods, one nitrogenous and the other non- nitrogenous, better than in the purchase of one. The re- sults of actual feeding tests should also be considered before definitely selecting foods. When both the available nutrients and the results of feeding experiments are considered, an accurate idea of the comparative cost and value of grains and milled products can be formed. Problem. — Complete the following table and calculate the avail- able nutrients and calories that can be procured for $i when the various foods are at different prices. In making the calculations, use the prices of your local or home market. Select three of the cheapest and three of the most expensive foods from the list. Price per Bushel or Ton. Pounds for $i.oo. Nutrients procurable for $i.oo. Pounds Digestible Nutrients. Protein. Carbohy- drates. Ether extract. Calories. Corn Oats Wheat feed .... Wheat bran . . . Wheat shorts . . Oil meal Linseed meal . . . Cottonseed meal Gluten meal. . . 344 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 484. Sanitary Conditions. — Satisfactory results in the feeding of animals can be secured only under the best sanitary conditions. When animals are kept in crowded quarters, deprived of pure air and sunlight, they fail to make the best use of the food consumed. Carbon dioxid thrown off from the lungs and ammonia produced from decaying manure form ammonium carbonate, a volatile and irritating compound. Sunlight is an important factor for promoting animal growth. Experiments with grow- ing calves show that under the same conditions of food and management, animals reared with an abundance of sunlight make better gains in weight, and are more vigorous than those confined in dark quarters. The best results are obtained in the feeding of animals when their sur- roundings are most sanitary. A large amount of available energy is often lost in warming up cold, wet bedding. Pure water, pure air, sunlight, clean quarters, and dry bedding are as necessary to animals as is a well-balanced ration. Table of Feeding Standards. Per 1000 lbs. live weight, daily. Digestible organic substances. Dry sub- Kind of animals. stance, lbs. Fattening bo vines 30 Milk cows : Daily milk yield, 11 lbs. . . 25 Daily milk yield, i6| lbs. . . 27 Daily milk yield, 22 lbs.. . . 29 Daily milk yield, 27! lbs. . . 32 Sheep 22 Fattening sheep, first period 30 Horses : Light work 20 Moderate work 24 Severe work 26 Car- Pro- bohy- Nutri- tein. drates. Fat. Total. tive lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. ratio 1 2-5 15- o.5 18.O 6-5 1.6 10. °-3 II.Q 6.7 2.0 11.0 0.4 13-4 6.0 2-5 13.0 0.5 16.0 5-7 3-3 13.0 0.8 17. 1 4-5 i-3 11. °-3 13-5 3-° 15.0 0.5 18.5 5-4 i-5 9-5 0.4 11. 4 7.0 2.0 11. 0.6 13.6 6.2 2-5 13-3 0.8 16.6 6.0 RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 345 Per iooo lbs. live weight, daily. Digestible organic substances. Dry sub- Kind of animals. stance, lbs. Fattening swine : First period 36 Second period 32 Third period 25 Growing cattle (dairy breeds) : Age in months. 2" 3 3" 6 6-12 12-18 18-24 Beef breeds : 2- 3 3" 6 6-12 12-18 18-24 Sheep : 4- 6 8-1 1 Swine : 2- 3 3- 5 5- 6 Live weight per head, lbs. I50 300 500 700 900 65 IOO 45 no 150 23 24 27 26 26 23 24 25 24 24 26 24 44 35 33 Pro- tein, lbs. Car- bohy- drates. lbs. Fat. lbs. Total, lbs. Nutri- tive ratio 1: 4-5 25. 0.7 30.2 5-9 4.0 24. 0.5 28.5 6-3 2.7 18. 0.4 21. 1 7.0 4.0 3-o 2.0 1.8 i-5 4.2 3-5 2.5 2.0 1.8 4.4 3-° 7.6 5-o 4-3 13.0 12.8 12.5 12.5 12.0 13.0 12.8 13.2 12.5 12.0 15-5 14-3 28.0 23.1 22.3 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.4 o-3 0.9 0.5 1.0 0.8 0.6 21.0 16.8 15.0 14.7 13.8 19.2 17.8 16.4 15.0 14.2 20.8 17.8 35-7 28.9 27.2 4-5 5-i 6.8 7-5 8-5 4.2 4.7 6.0 6.8 7.2 4.0 5-2 4.0 5.0 5-5 Digestible Nutrients in Fodders Digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. Name of feed. Dry matter in 100 lbs. Corn (all analyses) 89.1 Dent corn 89.4 Flint corn 88.7 Sweet corn 91.2 Corn cob 89.3 Corn and cob meal 84.9 Protein. 7-9 7-8 8.0 8.8 0.4 4.4 Carbohy- drates. 66.7 66.7 66.2 63.7 52.5 60.0 Ethei extract. 4-3 4-3 4-3 7.0 0.3 2.9 346 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Digestible nutrients in ioo lbs. Name of feed. Corn bran 90 Gluten meal 91 Germ meal 89 Hominy chops 88 Wheat 89 Wheat bran 88 Wheat bran (spring wheat) . 88 Wheat bran (winter wheat) . 87 Wheat feed 88 Wheat shorts 88 Wheat middlings 87 Wheat screenings 88 Rye 88 Rye bran 88 Rye shorts 90 Barley 89 Malt sprouts 89 Brewers' grains (wet) 24 Brewers' grains (dried) 91 Oats 89 Oat feed or shorts 92 Oat hulls 90 Buckwheat 87 Buckwheat bran 89 Flaxseed 90 Linseed meal (old process) . . 90 Linseed meal (new process) . 89 Cottonseed meal 91 Coarse Fodders. Fodder corn (green) 20 Fodder corn (field-cure J) ... 57 Corn stover (field-cured) .... 59 Fresh Grass. Pasture grasses (mixed) .... 20 Kentucky blue grass 34 Timothy, different stages. . . 38 Oat fodder 37 Peas and oats .... 16 natter Carbohy- Ether jibs. Protein. drates. extract •9 7.4 59-8 4.6 .8 25.8 43-3 II. O .6 9.0 61.2 6.2 •9 7-5 55-2 6.8 •5 I0.2 69.2 1-7 .1 12.2 39-2 2.7 •5 12.9 40.1 3-4 •7 I2.3 37-1 2.6 .0 *3-3 40.5 4.0 .2 12.2 50.0 3-8 •9 12.8 53-o 3-4 •4 9.8 51.0 2.2 •4 9.9 67.6 1.1 •4 n-5 50.3 2.0 •7 11. 9 45-1 1.6 .1 8.7 65.6 1.6 .8 18.6 37-i i-7 •3 3-9 9-3 1.4 .8 IS-7 36.3 5-i .0 9.2 47-3 4.2 •3 12.5 46.9 2.8 .6 i-3 40.1 0.6 •4 7-7 49.2 1.8 •5 7-4 30.4 1.9 .8 20.6 17.1 29.0 .8 29-3 32.7 7.0 •9 28.2 40.1 2.8 .8 37-2 16.9 12.2 •7 1.0 11. 6 0.4 .8 2-5 34-6 1.2 •5 i-7 32.4 0.7 .0 2-5 10.2 o-5 •9 3-o 19.8 0.8 •4 1.2 19.1 0.6 .8 2.6 18.9 1.0 .0 1.8 7-i 0.2 RATIONAL FEEDING OF ANIMALS 347 Digestible nutrients in ioo lbs. Dry matter Name of feed. in ioo lbs. Hay. Timothy 86.8 Redtop 91.9 Kentucky blue grass 78.8 Hungarian grass 92.3 Mixed grasses 87.1 Rowen (mixed) 83.4 Oat hay 91. 1 Straw. Wheat 90.4 Oat 90.8 Fresh Legumes. Red clover, difL stages 29.2 Alsike, bloom 25.2 Crimson clover 19. 1 Legume, Hay, and Straw. Red colver, medium 84.7 Red clover, mammoth 78.8 Alsike clover 90.3 Alfalfa 91.6 Cowpea 89.3 Silage. Corn 20.9 Roots and Tubers. Potato 2 1. 1 Sugar-beet 13.5 Mangel beet 9.1 Rutabaga 11.4 Carrot 11.4 Miscellaneous. Pumpkin (field) 9.1 Beet pulp 10.2 Cow's milk 12.8 Skim milk (gravity) 9.6 Skim milk (centrifugal) 9.4 Buttermilk 9.9 Whey 6.6 Carbohy- Ether. Protein. drates. extract, 2.8 43-4 1.4 4.8 46.9 1.0 4.8 37-3 2.0 4.5 5i-7 i-3 5-9 40.9 1.2 7-9 40.1 i-5 4-3 46.4 1. 5 0.4 36.3 0.4 JH.2 38.6 0.8 2.9 14.8 0.7 2.7 i3-i 0.6 2.4 13-9 0.5 6.8 35-8 i-7 5-7 32.0 1.9 8.4 42-5 1. 5 11. 39-6 1.2 16.8 38.6 1.1 0.9 n-3 0.7 0.9 16.3 O.I I.I 10.2 O.I I.I 5-4 O.I 1.0 8.1 0.2 0.8 7.8 0.2 1.0 5-8 °-3 0.6 7-3 3.6 4.9 3-7 3-i 4-7 0.8 2.9 5-2 o-3 3-9 4.0 1.1 0.8 4-7 °-3 CHAPTER XXXVII Composition of Animal Bodies 485. Water and Dry Matter. — About half of the live weight of an animal is water. In fat animals, the pro- portion of water is less than in lean animals. The same general classes of organic compounds present in plants, as non-nitrogenous and nitrogenous, are found also in animal bodies ; the animal forms, however, are usually somewhat more complex than the plant forms. Animal bodies are characterized by containing a high per cent of fat and proteid materials and a low per cent of non- nitrogenous compounds other than fat. 486. Mineral Matter. — The ash elements in the animal body are the same as those found in plants, and are nearly all furnished from vegetable sources. The body of an animal, live weight basis, contains from two to four per cent of mineral matter, from half to three fourths of which is present in the bones, while the remainder is in solution in the various fluids, as the blood, chyle, etc., and deposited and combined with the solid and fleshy tissues of the body. Silicon in animal bodies is found mainly in the hair, wool, and feathers. Sodium and chlorin, while unnecessary to plants, are absolutely necessary to animals. A thousand parts of blood yield about 4 parts of mineral matter, of which 1.2 are sodium chlorid. In the blood, salt is necessary as a solvent for the proteids. The per cent of ash in the carcasses of different animals 348 COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES 349 varies, being greatest in the half -fat steer or ox and least in the fat pig. In the process of fattening, the percentage amount of ash is decreased. As in the case of the plant, the mineral matter of the animal body must be secured and assimilated in the early stages of growth. Young pigs, or other young animals, fed exclusively on food which, like corn, is poor in digestible mineral matter, have bones which are weak and do not furnish a framework strong enough for the perfect development of the body in its last stages of growth. The same elements which are essential for plant growth are also essential for animal growth. 487. Fat. — The per cent of fat in the carcasses of animals ranges from 14 to 45 per cent of the live weight. The carcasses of fattened steers of good quality are about one third fat ; in moderately fat sheep there is somewhat more, while the largest amount is pres- ent in the body of the very fat pig, with the very fat sheep as a close competitor. "It is thus seen that animal food of reputed high quality as sold by the 1 1 1 1-1 1 8eef::: I. ash butcher, and to which such a -*ound-« £.refuse highly nitrogenous character is Fig. 99. — Composition of meat. usually attributed, will consist of fat to the extent of one third to one half of its total weight." (Lawes and Gilbert.) 488. Nitrogenous Matter is present to the extent of 10 to 18 per cent in the live animal, being least in the very fat pig and most in the half -fat ox. The offal parts, as the head, feet, tail, hair, wool, and horns, are rich in nitrogen, but not so rich as the flesh. Beef -yielding 35° AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY animals, on the whole, contain rather more nitrogenous compounds than sheep, which in turn contain more than pigs. A large amount of the nitrogenous compounds of sheep and lambs is found in the wool (50 to 55 per cent). About 75 per cent of the carcass of the sheep is consumed as food ; thus it will be seen that much less than half of the total nitrogen is really made use of as human food. Of the fattened pig, about three fourths of the nitrogenous compounds are in the edible carcass, from 6 to 7 parts are in the bone, and about one quarter is in the offal. About 8 per cent of the nitrogenous compounds of the offal and a little over three fourths of the total nitrogenous compounds of the pig are consumed as food. About two thirds of the entire nitrogen of the calf and steer are in the butcher's carcass, and about 12 per cent in the bones. From 5 to 7 per cent of the nitrogen of the offal parts and about 60 per cent of the total nitrogen of the steer are utilized as human food. In the table of relative composition of animal bodies, it will be noticed that the mineral matter increases and decreases with the nitrogenous matter. In the carcasses of all animals, it will be observed that the fat always ex- ceeds the nitrogenous matter, except in the case of the lean calf. In the bodies of animals in good condition, there is usually twice as much fat as protein. The following table is from the extensive work of Lawes and Gilbert. 489. Proteids of Meat. — Lean meat, fat-free, is a concentrated nitrogenous material composed mainly of proteids, but containing also small amounts of amides, albuminoids, and, in some cases, alkaloidal bodies. The proteids are mainly in insoluble forms ; a small amount, however, is soluble. The principal soluble meat proteids are albumin and syntonin. COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES 351 — 55 < to O 55 O en O P- O O w t— ( O So^O^OOCOOItJ-CNMtS- -4J rt com io N N O co io u"> m j^ id 00 co *o t^ r^ t~- "0 no r^. r~~ o ti fo 6 o6 co no c> d dv6v""4- j 00 M M lO N ifl vo OO CO r^ On i O M nO M M CN rj- H H H M o H CO M O H < o no nO ON On h H M o On NO to "* to M CO - O^ On CO U"> CO ^ NO lO't'tlO'tcOfOiOCO SJr^o •^-'^•^'OCOO t^ t»- t-ticoo ^ M w o o t^. ^- w P fl ro^io^^iOOO "^ no 5 • no no 00 On 00 co •'d" w w io , d NO CO g.3 QJ O CO CT3 <-M a QJ >-M M , aw rt « ^ rt S J5 ^ r^ ^ «J 352 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 490. Albumin. — The formula C 7 2Hii 2 Ni 8 S022 has been tentatively assigned to albumin. The albumin in meats ranges from 0.6 to 5 per cent. Liebig gives as a mean 2.96 per cent. The lean meat of the pig as well as that of poultry contains a relatively large amount. Albumin is soluble in cold water, and is coagulated at a temperature of 1 5 7 to 163 F. and of 6o° to 75 C. Dilute acids con- vert albumins into acid albuminates, while alkalies produce alkali albuminates. The albuminates are proteids derived from albumins and other proteids by the action of acids or alkalies. 491. Myosin. — Myosin is obtained from meat by extraction with a weak solution of common salt. The myosin dissolves in the salt solution and is precipitated by heat and chemicals (see Experiments 60 and 61). Myosin is a globulin, and in the living animal is largely in soluble forms. 492. Syntonin has the same general relationship to myosin as dextrin has to starch. Dextrin is derived from starch and syntonin is derived from myosin. Synto- nin is an acid albuminate formed by the action of dilute acids. The amount of syntonin and myosin in meats is small, never exceeding, according to Hoffman, 2 or 3 per cent. 493. Hemoglobin. — When fresh meat is soaked in cold water, the solution becomes red in color on account of the hemoglobin extracted. Hemoglobin is a proteid which imparts the red color to the blood and is coagulated by heat at a temperature of 128 to 132 F. There is enough of the various salts in the blood to dissolve some of the fibrin proteids which are precipitated at a tempera- ture of about 140 F. or 6o° C. 494. Insoluble Proteids. — The larger portion of the COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES 353 nitrogenous material of the muscles is in the form of insoluble muscular fiber. From 90 to 95 per cent or more of the total nitrogenous matter of fat-free lean meat is in insoluble forms. In the grains there are various insoluble proteids ; and in the different meats different kinds of insoluble proteids are present. Meats differ both as to the kinds and proportional amounts of the several proteids which they contain. 495. Peptones. — When muscular fiber is acted upon by some ferments, peptones are produced. Only a small amount of peptones is present in meat. When meat is in cold storage to undergo the curing process before it is placed upon the market, the peptonizing process takes place to a slight extent. If the process is too long con- tinued, ptomaines, which are poisonous compounds, may develop. With meat of the best quality long curing is unnecessary. 496. Keratin is an amide compound found in meat juices in small amounts ; 100 pounds of meat contain from 0.07 to 0.32 of a pound. Like other amides, it possesses less food value than protein. Keratin, sarkin, and allied bodies are not coagulated by heat, but are gradually decomposed, and when meat is being cooked, pass off with characteristic odors. Keratin and sarkin are present in large amounts in beef extracts, and although they possess no direct food value, they impart palatability and are valuable mainly on this account 497. Albuminoids, Gelatin. — When bone or muscular tissue is subjected to the action of boiling water, gelatin separates upon cooling and standing. Gelatin is quite different in chemical composition from albumin, muscular fiber, and other proteids. Hoffmeister gives the formula as Cio2Hi5iN 6 3 9. It contains no sulfur, while proteids 2 A 354 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY contain from i to 2 per cent. Gelatin may prevent the rapid depletion of the protein of the body, but cannot take its place as a nutrient. The approximate amounts of the nitrogenous compounds in lean meat are given in the following table, from which it will be observed that only a small part is in the meat juices. The Nitrogenous Compounds of Meat. 1. Proteids Per cent. Muscular fiber 12 to 18 Albumin 0.5 to 2.0 Myosin 0.4 to 0.6 Syntonin 2. Albuminoids Gelatin, etc 2.0 to 5.0 (Keratin 0.07 to 0.34 Sarkin 0.01 to 0.03 Urea Traces 4. Alkaloids (ptomaines) Occasionally traces 498. Influence of Food upon the Composition of Ani- mal Bodies. — The nature of the food consumed has a noticeable effect upon the composition of the animal body. The food affects both the amount of meat produced and its composition. As a general rule, an unbalanced ration, particularly one with a large amount of non-nitrogenous compounds, produces flesh that is poor in circulatory proteids. But few systematic experiments have been made in regard to the influence of food upon the composi- tion of animal bodies. 499. Composition of the Human Body. — Halliburton states that the human body contains 58.5 per cent water. The amount at different stages of life varies ; in later life, the body contains less than during youth. Water is present in all parts of the body ; enamel contains 2 per cent, the gray matter of the brain 85 to 86 per cent, COMPOSITION OF ANIMAL BODIES 355 bone about 50 per cent, and muscle 75 per cent. The amount of fat varies between wide limits ; Moleschott states that normally it makes up from 4 to 5 per cent of the weight of the body. Adipose tissue contains about 85, marrow 96, and nerves 22 per cent fat. Twenty- five per cent of the muscle is solid matter, of which 21 per cent is proteid and albuminoid material, and 4 per cent are fat and nitrogenous extractive bodies. Mineral matter is present in small amounts combined with the muscular and other tissues and in solution in the various fluids and secretions. CHAPTER XXXVIII Rational Feeding of Men 500. Similarity in the Principles of Human and Animal Feeding. — The rational feeding of men is founded upon the same principles as the rational feeding of animals. It is the object in each case to supply the body with the right kinds and amounts of nutrients to meet all its demands. It is not possible in either human or animal feeding to establish inflexible standards. 501. Dietary Standards. — Some of the proposed standard rations call for about one fourth of a pound each of fat and protein and a pound of carbohydrates in the daily ration of a man at average muscular labor. Such a ration should yield about 3200 calories. The actual amount of nutrients consumed by laborers does not always conform to this standard. For example, studies show that the negro laborer in the South often, by choice, consumes about 0.1 pound per day of protein, while a well-fed mechanic frequently consumes over 0.5 pound per day. While only tentative standards are proposed, experiments and dietary studies show that the best results are obtained in the feeding of men, as in the feeding of animals, when the ration conforms within reasonable limits to the standard. By a dietary standard is meant the approximate amounts of nutrients which the daily ration should contain. Such a standard as proposed by Atwater is as follows : 356 RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 357 Carbohy- Fuel Nutri- Protein. Fat. drates. value. tive lb. lb. lb. Calories. Ratio. Man with little physical exercise 0.20 0.20 0.66 2450 5.5 Man with light muscular work . 0.22 0.22 0.77 2800 5.7 Man with moderate muscular work 0.28 0.28 0.99 3520 5.8 Man with active muscular work 0.33 0.33 1.10 4060 5.6 Man with hard muscular work . 0.39 0.55 1.43 5700 6.9 502. Amounts of Foods consumed per Day. — In combining foods to form human rations, there should be, as in animal rations, a variety of foods, and no food article should be used in excess. The approximate amounts of foods consumed per day by a .man at average labor are as follows : Range. Average. Ounces. Pound. Bread 6 to 14 0.50 Butter 2 to 5 0.12 Potatoes 8 to 16 0.75 Cheese 1 to 4 o. 1 2 Beans 1 to 4 0.12 Milk 8 to 3 2 Sugar 2 to 5 0.20 Meat 4 to 12 0.25 Oatmeal 1 to 4 o. 1 2 In a balanced ration, it is the aim to obtain from all of the foods approximately 0.25 pound each of fat and protein and a pound of carbohydrates. In case of severe work, larger amounts of nutrients, as indicated in the table, are necessary. The composition of human foods is given in the tables at the close of the chapter. To calculate the amounts of nutrients in fractions of a pound, the percentage composition of the food is mul- tiplied by the weight used, as in calculating animal rations (see Section 480). 358 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 503. Calculating a Balanced Ration. — The various articles of food should be selected according to cost, nutritive value, purposes for which they are desired, amount and kind of work to be performed, and individual preferences. When bread, butter, milk, potatoes, sugar, oatmeal, corn meal, beef, ham, and eggs are to be combined to form a ration, such amounts are taken as will yield approximately 0.25 pound each of protein and fat, and a pound of carbohydrates. Such a combination would be as follows : Nutrients. Amount Foods. per day. Protein. Ounces. Pound. Ham 4 0.04 Eggs (2) 0.03 Bread : . . 8 0.05 Butter 2 ... Potatoes 12 0.02 Milk 16 0.04 Sugar 2 Oatmeal 2 0.02 Beef (stew) 4 0.04 Corn meal 4 0.02 0.26 Fat. Pound. Carbohy drates. Pound. Calories, O.09 480 0.02 136 O.OI O.28 650 O.I I 450 O.14 285 0.04 O.05 325 O.I2 200 O.OI O.09 230 0.05 250 O.OI O.18 420 0.34 0.86 3426 This ration contains 0.26 pound protein, 0.34 pound fat, 0.86 pound carbohydrates, and yields 3426 calories. While there is somewhat more fat and slightly less carbo- hydrates than the standard the ration is sufficiently near for all practical purposes. Some vegetables and fruits should be added, not so much with the object of increasing the nutrients as for the purpose of greater variety and palatability. In this ration, the nutrients are secured from a variety of sources, the largest amount of protein coming from the bread. About one third of RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 359 the protein is furnished by the meat, one fourth by the eggs and milk, while the balance comes from the vege- table foods. Bread, potatoes, corn meal, and sugar supply most of the carbohydrates, the two ounces of sugar supplying nearly 14 per cent. In combining foods to form balanced rations, meats, beans, cheese, milk, bread, and oatmeal supply protein, while pork, ham, bacon and other fat meats, butter, cheese, and milk supply the fats. Carbohydrates are provided liberally by bread, rice, corn meal, cereals, pota- toes, sugar, and vegetables. 504. Comparative Cost and Value of Foods. — With human as with animal foods, the market price does not, as a rule, correspond with their nutritive value. When foods differ widely in cost, their relative values can be MiUC CHEESE BUTTER KOTctri-sq Fig. 100. — Comparative composition of milk, cheese, and butter approximately determined by comparing the amounts of nutrients which a given sum of money will procure in each case. The principle is the same as in the comparison of cost and value of animal foods, Section 483. In making comparisons, preference cannot be given to any single nutrient. In general, however, foods which 360 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY supply the largest amount of protein for a given sum of money are cheapest and most economical, provided there is no great difference in the amounts of fat and carbohy- drates. When there is but little difference in protein content, preference should be given to foods yielding the largest number of calories. In order to calculate the nutrients which can be pro- cured for a given sum of money, first determine the pounds of food, then multiply the weight by the percentage composition, using the figures in the tables. When round steak is 15 cents per pound and milk 5 cents per quart, the amounts of nutrients which can be purchased for 1 5 cents are as follows : 15 cents will buy Prote lbs. Round steak 1 Milk 6 Three quarts of milk or six pounds contain 0.03 pound more protein and 0.12 pound more fat and yield over 1000 calories more than a pound of round steak costing the same. Milk at 5 cents per quart should be used liberally in the ration when steak is 15 cents or more per pound. It does not follow that meat should be entirely excluded from the ration in favor of milk, but the nutrients indicate that milk should be used in liberal amounts. Problem 1. — Calculate a balanced ration for a man at hard mus- cular labor and give the cost of the food articles required. Problem 2. — Calculate a ration for a man with little physical exercise, giving cost of ration. Problem 3. — Calculate the amounts of foods and the nutrients re- quired for a family of seven for ten days, three of the family to be considered as consuming each 0.8 as much as an adult. Calculate Protein, lb. Fat. lb. Carbo- hydrates, lb. Calories. O.18 O.I2 870 0.2I O.24 O.30 I950 RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 36 1 the cost of the food. Then calculate, on the same basis, the prob- able amounts of food for one year with cost, adding 20 per cent additional for fluctuations in market prices and foods not included in the ten-day list. Problem 4. — How do beef and mutton compare as to nutrients when they are the same price per pound ? Problem 5. — Calculate the comparative amounts of nutrients that can be procured in cheese and loin steak at current market prices. Problem 6. — How do the nutrients in chicken at 16 cents per pound compare with those in round steak at 18 cents per pound ? Problem 7. — How does flour at 3^ cents per pound compare in nutritive value with a cereal breakfast food at 10 cents per pound, and having the same composition as whole wheat ? 505. Factors Influencing Digestibility. — The factors discussed in Chapter XXXV, which influence the digesti- bility of animal foods, also influence the digestibility of human foods. The mechanical condition of the food and the method of preparation have a more pronounced effect in a human than in an animal ration. The term digestibility has, by some physiologists, been used to des- ignate ease of digestion rather than completeness of the process, foods which are easily digested and require but little work of the digestive tract being termed digestible, while those which require a larger amount of work are said to be indigestible. Some confusion has arisen from this use of the term digestible. For example, rice is frequently called a digestible food and cheese an indi- gestible food. Digestion experiments show that cheese is more completely digested than rice. A food which is easily digested is not necessarily completely digested. Variations in the digestive power of individuals influence digestibility ; for example, digestion experiments show differences of over 14 per cent in digestibility of the protein in a mixed ration of bread, milk, and beans. 362 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY There is a greater difference between individuals as to the ease of digestion than as to the completeness. Since digestion is largely a biochemical process, its complete- ness is necessarily influenced by the activity of the cells in the digestive tract. The combining of foods influences digestibility. For example, milk in a ration exerts a favorable influence upon the digestibility of the other foods with which it is combined. This is because of the presence in milk of enzymes or soluble ferments. Experiments show that 12.5 per cent of the protein in a sterile food, as toast, is capable of. being digested by the soluble ferments of milk. The method of cooking and preparing foods also exerts an influence upon their digestibility. Cooking changes both the physical and chemical composition of foods ; the cell walls of vegetables and cereals are broken and the starch granules ruptured, thus exposing them to more thorough action of the digestive fluids. Cooking influ- ences the ease or rapidity of digestion to a greater extent than it does the completeness of the process. The carbo- hydrates are favorably influenced by the action of heat, while, in some cases, prolonged heat may make the proteids less digestible. In pasteurized milk, for example, the proteids are slightly less digestible than in pure fresh milk, while in sterilized milk the digestibility is noticeably lessened. As in the case of animals, the mechanical condition of a food influences both the ease and the com- pleteness of the process. With persons of sedentary habits, the best results are secured when a small amount of some coarsely granulated food is present. A large amount of such foods is not suitable in the ration of a hard-working man because of lack of availability of the nutrients. RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 363 506. Requisites of Ration. — Reasonable combina- tions should be made in forming balanced rations. A number of foods which are slow of digestion or require much intestinal work should not be combined. Neither should a number of foods which are easily digested and leave but little indigestible residue. Two foods which are either laxative or costive should not be combined. After formulating a ration, it should be critically examined to see if it satisfies the following conditions: (i) foods economical and suitable to the work to be performed, (2) foods combined so as to secure balanced work of the digestive tract, (3) foods not too laxative or too costive in effect, (4) requisite bulk, (5) sufficient amount of indigestible residue to dilute the waste products in the intestinal tract. 507. Dietary Studies. — A dietary study considers the cost and amount of nutrients consumed by individuals and families. It is an investigation in which men are used and human foods are studied instead of farm animals and animal foods. Dietary studies show that frequently money is injudiciously spent in the purchase of high- priced foods which contain but a small amount of nutri- ents. In a dietary study, the amounts of nutrients in the foods exclusive of the refuse parts are determined, and from the weight of the foods, the nutrients contained are calculated, using the tables, or they are determined by chemical analysis. The purchasing of food is frequently done without regard to nutritive value. Erroneous ideas as to the value of foods are often the cause of extravagance in their purchase and use. As, for example, it has been claimed that the banana is as valuable as beef, and mushrooms have been erroneously called vegetable beefsteak. Many 364 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY other foods are assigned fictitious values. Too frequently, choice is made on the basis of palatability ; but cost of nutrients and kind of work to be performed should be considered as well as palatability. Dietary studies of the United States Department of Agriculture show that lack of knowledge in regard to the value of foods has frequently resulted in whole families being underfed, not from necessity, but from lack of judgment in the selection of foods. While it is not practicable or desirable to confine the ration to an absolute standard, dietary studies show that for long periods the best results are obtained when foods are combined so as to secure nutrients in approximately the amounts given as dietary standards. By means of a careful study of the dietary, it is possible to reduce the cost of food without impairing its nutritive value, and in many cases, as the cost is decreased, the nutritive value is increased. 508. Chemical Changes in the Cooking of Foods. — The chemical changes which take place in cooking are brought about by the action of heat, water, and ferments, and occa- sionally by the use of chemicals. ' The various compounds of which foods are composed, namely, carbohydrates, proteids, and fats, are all susceptible to the action of these agencies, and the chemical changes which they undergo are briefly discussed in Chapters XXIII and XXIV, treating of the composition of the nitrogenous and non- nitrogenous compounds. Some of the changes are physical rather than chemical in character. All of the different nutrients of foods are influenced by the action of heat. Starch, in the presence of water and heat, undergoes partial hydration, so that the material is in condition both chemically and mechanically to undergo readily inversion changes. In the cooking and RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 365 preparation of foods, starch rarely undergoes more than the hydration change. In bread-making, for example, only a small portion of the original starch is converted into soluble forms. The action of heat upon cellulose and cellular tissue FJBE Fig. ioi. — Comparative composition of raw and baked beans. is mechanical rather than chemical. The mass is partially disintegrated, and in the case of some of the cellulose, hydration takes place to a limited extent. Human foods, however, contain comparatively little of the cellulose group of compounds. The sugars are partially caro- melized by heat, provided it is sufficiently intense, but in ordinary cooking operations, they undergo little or no chemical change unless associated with acids, alkalies, or ferment bodies, in which case they may be converted into a number of chemical products. In the cooking of fruits, as the baking of apples, a portion of the levulose is partially carbonized. If the fruit is not fully matured, the pectose substances or jellies are converted into a more soluble condition by the action of heat. When heat is sufficiently intense, the essential or volatile oils are expelled. Fats, as a class, undergo 366 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY slight oxidation changes by the action of heat. For example, the fat extracted from the bread is different in character from that in the original flour. It is darker in color, and chemical tests show that it is slightly oxidized. Heat causes the proteids to undergo more complex changes than any other class of nutrients. The soluble albumins are coagulated, the globulins also are coagulated, and if the heat is sufficiently intense, molecular changes take place, in which the elements composing the proteid molecule are rearranged, forming, practically, a new molecule with different chemical and physical properties. Since the proteid compounds contain fatty acid radicals, carbohydrate-like bodies, amides, and radicals of other compounds, a number of chemical changes may take place, varying with the degree of heat employed. The chemical changes which occur in the process of cooking influence, to a limited extent, the digestibility of the foods. As a rule, the total digestibility of the carbohydrate nutrients is changed but little by the action of heat. For example, experiments show that the carbo- hydrates in toast are no more completely digested than the carbohydrates in bread, but the action of heat in the preparation of toast produces chemical and physical changes which render the nutrients more susceptible to the action of the digestive fluids, and while toast is no more completely digested than bread, it is more readily acted upon by the digestive fluids. Prolonged heat has a tendency to decrease the digestibility of the proteid compounds as a class. In toast, the proteid nutrients are slightly less digestible than in bread. In general, it can be said that cooking affects ease of digestion rather than completeness of the process, that the carbohydrates are practically as digestible before the RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 367 action of heat as after, and that the proteids are slightly- less digestible after the action of prolonged heat. Experi- ments in the feeding of animals show that when foods are cooked, the total digestibility of the nutrients is not increased, and in some cases, a smaller amount of nutrients was absorbed after cooking than before. This does not mean that the cooking of foods is undesirable, because ease of digestion is equally as important as completeness of digestion. Also cooking sterilizes the food, which is desirable. Many foods, if consumed uncooked, would be unwholesome because of the presence of ferment bodies or poisonous compounds as ptomaines. When acted upon by heat, the ferment bodies are destroyed and the ptomaine compounds decomposed. When salt, soda, or other chemicals are used, chemical changes, to a limited extent, take place. Soda, for example, combines with the proteid compounds of foods, forming alkali proteids, and the acids form acid proteids. In cooking and preparing foods, the physical changes which occur often precede and are necessary to the chemical changes. In boiling potatoes, for example, heat changes the physical character of the cells but does not alter the solubility of the starch. The albumin is coagulated, and small amounts of the mineral compounds and other bodies are extracted. In cooking of some of the cereals, as oatmeal, if the process is continued for only a few minutes, the starch is not acted upon to any appre- ciable extent because of the gelatinous proteids which protect the starch particles. If the cooking is continued for three or four hours, they are disintegrated, the starch cells are ruptured, and instead of masses of starch, small particles of disintegrated starch may be observed. This starch is partially hydrated. Oatmeal cooked in the 3 68 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Frotein. B ■ F at. j&L, two ways, for a few minutes, and for four hours, contains practically the same percentage amount of total starch. In the one case, however, the starch is in large masses, unruptured and unaltered, while in the other, the starch masses have been ruptured, the particles are in a finer state of division, and are partially hydrated. Oat- meal which has been cooked for only a few minutes does not readily undergo digestion, but four hours' cooking produces physical and intermediate chemical changes that cause the starch to yield readily to the action of the diastase ferment. In cooking meats, the heat liquefies a portion of the fat and oxidizes a portion of that exposed to the air, while the proteids undergo complex molecular changes. In cooking and preparing foods, it should be the object to bring about physical rather than chemical changes. Cooking influences the ease rather than the completeness of digestion. 509. Refuse and Waste Matters. — Nearly all foods contain some refuse material which cannot be consumed as food. Of average meat, as purchased in the market, from 7 to 56 per cent is refuse ; round steak has least, while shank has most. Tables showing the average amounts of refuse in meats are given at the close of the chapter. The waste of a food is frequently enough to Fig. 102. — Composition of bread. RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 369 make the nutrients of the edible portion quite expensive even in apparently cheap foods. In vegetables, the refuse ranges from 15 to 50 per cent. About 15 per cent of the weight of potatoes is lost as parings; of fresh peas, one half of the weight is pods, and of squash, one half the weight is rind and seeds. In calculating the nutrients of foods, the refuse and waste parts should be considered, as there is nearly always a smaller percentage amount of nutrients in the edible portion than in the food as purchased. 510. Loss of Nutrients in the Preparation of Foods. — In the cooking of vegetables, as potatoes, carrots, and cabbage, some of the soluble nutrients, as albumin, sugar, and mineral matter, are extracted and lost in the water. In the case of potatoes, experiments show that over 57 per cent of the total nitrogenous matter is extracted and lost when potatoes are cut in small pieces and soaked in cold water. When the cleaned, unpeeled potatoes were placed directly in hot water, the loss amounted to only 1 per cent. In the case of carrots and cabbage, the loss is great if the pieces are small and much water is used. There need not be much loss of nutrients incident to cooking meats, provided mechanical losses are avoided. In the boiling of meat, there is a decrease in weight of about 30 per cent, due largely to loss of water. About 5 per cent of proteid matter is extracted, also 13 to 15 per cent of fat and 51 per cent of mineral matter. With small pieces of meat, the total loss of weight may be over 50 per cent. The amount of nutrients dissolved varies with the size of the pieces. From experiments made at the University of Illinois, there does not appear to be any great difference in the amount of nutrients extracted from meats by hot or cold water. If the broth is utilized 2B 370 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY for soup, the nutrients extracted during cooking are not lost. Sir. Mineral Matter in a Ration. — In the calculation of human as well as animal rations, the mineral content of the food is not considered along with the other nutrients. This is not because the mineral nutrients are of insig- nificant value, but because nearly all combinations of foods contain sufficient, both in amount and variety, for nutritive purposes. Phosphates, compounds of iron, potassium, and magnesium are required only in compara- tively small amounts. It is estimated that with a man at hard labor from 2 to 3.5 grams per day of phosphoric acid are eliminated through the kidneys. Since this includes all of the soluble mineral phosphates of the food, and not all of those are used for functional purposes, it is not necessary that the food should contain even 2 to 3.5 grams of available phosphates per day. A ration consisting entirely of white bread contains enough phos- phates to supply the body and establish a phosphate equilibrium. An average daily ration of mixed foods contains from 5 to 8 grams or more. Meats and nearly all animal foods contain about 1 per cent of mineral matter, of which about half is phosphoric acid. Milk and eggs contain phosphates and mineral matter in liberal amounts. In a mixed ration of three or more food articles, there is always enough phosphates and mineral matter for purposes of nutrition. A part of the excess of phos- phates in a ration is eliminated through the kidneys. The feces also contain phosphoric acid. Inability of the organs to assimilate phosphates, due to malnutrition and lack of available forms of other nutrients, is more frequently a source of trouble than lack of phosphates in the food. RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 37 1 " It is evident, however, that a large part of the mineral constituents of cereals is not required for nourishment of the body. Feeding experiments have confirmed this theoretical view, and the ash of food materials has the lowest coefficient of digestion of any constituents thereof with the possible exception of cellulose. " In grinding and reducing to merchantable flour a considerable portion, as a rule more than half, of the mineral ingredients is removed in the waste products of the meal. Enough is left, however, not only to supply the need of the body for mineral constituents but also for condimentary purposes." (H. W. Wiley, Bui. 13, Part 9, Div. Chem., U. S. Dept. Agr.) It is estimated that in the ration of an adult, about 20 grams per day of sodium chlorid are necessary. This compound takes an important part in nutrition and is a normal constituent of all the fluids of the body. 512. Digestibility of Foods. — The digestibility of foods is a subject which belongs for investigation alike to the chemist, the physiologist, and the bacteriologist. The physiologist considers the structure of the digestive tract and the functions of the various organs ; the chemist studies the chemical changes which occur while the food is undergoing digestion, the completeness of the digestion process, and the extent to which the nutrients of the food are made available to the body ; the bacteriologist deals with the ferment bodies which assist in the process of digestion. 513. Digestibility of Meats. — The nutrients of meats, particularly the fats and proteids, are more completely digested than the same classes of nutrients in vegetables. From 93 to 95 per cent or more of the proteids and fats from foods of animal origin are completely digested, 372 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY while of vegetables not more than 85 per cent of the proteids are completely digested except in the case of finely ground flour. Meats are concentrated foods, as they furnish large amounts of nutrients in digestible forms. There is less difference in the completeness with which the various meats are digested than in the ease of digestion. Some meats, as pork, veal, and mutton, which are called indigestible, are slow of digestion but are quite completely digested. The nutrients of meats can, for all practical purposes, be considered entirely digestible. 514. Digestibility of Vegetable Foods. — Vegetable foods are less completely digestible than animal foods. The larger the amount of cellulose or fiber, the less com- pletely digested is the food. Only a very small amount of the cellulose, even hydra ted cellulose, of human foods is available to the body. In many vegetables the nutrients are inclosed in cellular tissue, and thus, to a certain extent, are protected from the solvent action of the digestive fluids. The starches and carbohydrates of vegetables are more completely digested than the proteids. Frequently 95 per cent of the starch and only 80 per cent or less of the proteids are digested. There is a wide range in the digestibility of the nutrients of vegetable foods. The nutrients of fruits are, as a rule, more completely digested than those from other vegetable sources, but fruits contain little nutritive material. 515. Relation of Food to Health. — Since the function of food is to supply the body with nourishment, the subjects of food and health are necessarily closely related. If too long continued, either an abnormally large or too scant an amount of food affects the health. And not only is the amount important to health but also the quality of the food, as nature of nutrients and sanitary RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN * 373 condition. Many diseases result from malnutrition, while many others are caused by the use of foods in an unsanitary condition. Food may cause disease either on account of its being unsanitary or because of an exces- sive or deficient amount of nutrients, or because the nutrients are unbalanced. 374 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Composition of Human Foods. (From Bulletins Nos. 28 and 34, Office of Experiment Stations.) Kind of Food. Beef — Chuck ribs Edible portion As purchased Loin : Edible portion As purchased Neck: Edible portion As purchased Ribs: Edible portion As purchased Round : Edible portion As purchased Rump : Edible portion As purchased Shank, fore : Edible portion As purchased Shank, hind : Edible portion As purchased Fore quarter : Edible portion As purchased Hind quarter : Edible portion P4 13.8 13.0 27.6 20.8 7-7 21.4 36.9 53-9 19.4 NuTRrENTS. Ph 57 49 60 52 63 45 55 43 65 60 56 44 67 42 67 3i 61 49 61.0 > 3Ph 42.7 36.9 39-5 34-4 36.6 26.5 44.6 35-4 34-2 31.6 43-3 34-i 32.1 20.2 32.2 14.8 38-6 3i-i 39-o Ph p., 17.4 15.0 18.3 15-9 19.2 13-9 16.9 13-4 19.7 18.1 16.8 13.2 19.6 12.3 19.8 9.1 17-5 14.1 18.0 ^ 53 Ph 24.4 21. 1 20.2 17.6 16.5 11. 9 26.8 21.3 13-5 12.6 25.6 20.2 11. 6 7-3 n-5 5-3 20.2 16.3 20.1 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.7 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.9 0.4 0.9 0.7 0.9 > fa O 1355 1 1 70 1190 1040 1055 760 1445 1150 935 870 1395 1095 855 535 855 395 1180 95o 1815 RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 375 Composition of Human Foods (Continued). Kind of Food. Beef (Contin'd) : As purchased Cooked, corned, and canned : As purchased Dried and smoked : As purchased Veal — Leg, whole : Edible portion As purchased Rump : Edible portion As purchased Fore quarter : Edible portion As purchased Hind quarter : Edible portion As purchased Lamb — Leg, hind : Edible portion As purchased Loin : Edible portion As purchased Neck: Edible portion As purchased Shoulder : Edible portion As purchased P>H 15-8 15-6 30.2 24-5 20.7 17.4 14.8 17.7 20.3 NlITRDSNTS. 5i-3 53-i 50.8 70.4 59-4 62.6 43-7 71.7 54-2 70.9 56.2 4) • £ y c •22 S "- 1 > 3 Oh 32.9 46.9 4Q.2 29.6 25.O 37-4 26.1 28.3 21.3 29.1 23.1 o "5 Ph o< 63-9 36.1 52.9 29.7 53-i 46.9 45-3 39-9 56.7 43-3 46.7 35-6 51.8 48.2 4i-3 38.4 15.2 28.5 31.8 20.1 16.9 20.1 14.0 19.4 14.6 19.8 15-7 18.5 15.2 17.6 15.0 17-5 14.4 17-5 14.0 f* S3 Ph < u I7.0 I4.O 6.8 8.4 7.2 16.2 n-3 8.0 6.0 8-3 6.6 16.5 13.6 28.3 24.1 24.8 20.4 29.7 23.6 S.8 a g 0.7 4.4 I.I 0.9 I.I 0.8 0.9 0.7 I.O O.8 I.I O.9 I.O 0.8 I.O 0.8 IOOO II20 845 730 620 I055 735 700 525 720 57o 1040 855 1520 1295 1375 1130 1.0 0.8 1580 125s 376 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Composition of Human Foods {Continued). Kind of Food. Mutton — Leg, hind : Edible portion As purchased Loin : Edible portion As purchased Neck: Edible portion As purchased Shoulder : Edible portion As purchased Fore quarter : Edible portion As purchased Hind quarter : Edible portion As purchased Side, without tal- low : Edible portion As purchased Pork — Flank : Edible portion As purchased Ham, smoked : Edible portion As purchased Shoulder, fresh : Edible portion As purchased 18.0 J5-3 28.4 21. 21. 1 16.7 19.2 71.2 14.4 46.6 fa 62.8 5i-4 50. 1 42.2 58.2 41.6 61.9 48.5 5i.7 40.6 54-8 45-6 53-i 42.9 59-o 17.0 40.7 34-9 57-5 30-4 Nutrients. > 5 fa 37-2 30.6 49.9 42.5 41.8 30. o 38.1 29.8 48.3 38.3 45-2 37-7 46.9 37-9 41.0 11. 8 59-3 50.7 42.5 23.0 e a fa fa 18.2 14.9 15.9 13.2 16.3 11. 7 17-3 13-5 15.0 11. 9 16.2 13-5 15-4 12.5 17.8 5-i 15-5 13-3 15.6 8-3 18.0 14.9 33-2 28.6 24-5 17.6 19.9 15.6 32.4 25-7 28.2 23-5 30-7 24.7 22.2 6.4 39-i 33-4 26.1 14.3 D. o % "^ .2CJ > . a a fa 5 a. 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.7 1.0 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.7 I IOO 905 169s 1450 1335 960 1160 910 164s 1305 1490 1245 0.7 0.7 1.0 o-3 4-7 4.0 1580 127s 1265 365 1940 1655 0.8 1390 0.4 760 RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 377 Composition of Human Foods (Continued). Kind of Food. Pork (Contin'd) : Salt, clear fat : As purchased Salt, lean ends : Edible portion As purchased Bacon, smoked : Edible portion As purchased Side : Edible portion As purchased Poultry — Chicken : Edible portion As purchased Turkey : Edible portion As purchased Fish, fresh — Cod, dried : Edible portion As purchased Mackerel, ent. rem'd : Edible portion As purchased Salmon, Cal., sections: Edible portion As purchased Salmon trout, whole : Edible portion As purchased t>i II. 2 8.0 II. 2 34-8 22.7 29.9 40.7 10.3 56.3 ^ c 3! 2 Nutrients. Water-free substance. Per cent. fafL, 4-1 c fa . c < w, V fa 7-3 92.7 1.8 87.2 3-7 19.9 80.I 7-3 67.1 5-7 17.6 71.2 6-5 59-6 5-i 18.2 81.8 10.0 67.2 4.6 16.8 75-2 9.2 61.8 4.2 29.4 70.6 8-5 61.7 0.4 26.1 62.7 7-5 54-8 0.4 74.2 25.8 22.8 1.8 1.2 48.5 16.7 14.8 1.1 0.8 55-5 44-5 20.6 22.9 1.0 42.4 34-9 15-7 18.4 0.8 82.6 17.4 15-8 0.4 1.2 58.5 11. 6 10.6 0.2 0.8 73-4 26.6 18.2 7-i i-3 43-7 15-6 11. 4 3-5 0.7 63.6 36.4 17-5 17.9 1.0 57-9 31-8 16.1 14.8 0.9 69.1 3o-9 18.2 11. 4 i-3 30.0 *3-7 7-7 5-4 0.6 u .u > . o a P 3 fa o 3715 2965 2635 2780 2760 2455 500 325 I350 1070 310 205 640 360 1080 925 820 98S 378 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Composition of Human Foods (Continued). Kind of Food. Fish (Contin'd) : Trout, brook, whole : Edible portion As purchased Fish, pres'v'd, Cod, salt : Edible portion As purchased Mackerel, salt : Edible portion As purchased Salmon, canned, as pur- chased Sardines, canned, as purchased Shell fish, clams, round : Edible portion As purchased Oysters, "solids," purchased Dairy Products Cheese — Cheddar . Butter 1 Milk 1 Cream Eggs: In shell Edible portion as Pi Ph 48.I 24.9 22.9 67-5 13-7 ph 77-8 40.4 53-6 40.3 42.2 32-5 64.5 56.4 86.2 28.0 33-o 13.0 87.0 63.1 73-8 Nutrients. 9?,A ^ -2 £ 22.2 "•5 46.4 34-8 57-8 44.6 35-5 43-6 13-8 4-5 11. 7 67.0 87.0 13.0 23.2 26.2 2 >- Ph Ph 18.9 9-8 21.4 l6.0 22.0 I7.0 20.I 2 5-3 6.5 2.1 6.1 28.0 0.5 3-5 2-5 12. i 14.9 Ph 2.1 I.I O.4 O.4 22.6 17.4 11. 6 12.7 0.4 O.I 1.4 35-o 85.0 4.0 20.0 10.2 10.5 Ph 1.2 O.6 24.6 18.4 I3.2 I0.2 2.4 5-6 2.7 0.9 0.9 4.0 i-5 0.7 0.5 0.9 0.8 a o .Scj a! > . — ~o r? 3 440 230 410 315 1360 1050 890 IOIO 21S 65 235 1999 3600 323 655 721 1 Milk also contains 4.8 per cent carbohydrates. The fat content of cream ranges from 10 to 30 per cent. RATIONAL FEEDING OF MEN 379 Composition of Human Foods {Continued). Kind of Food. Wheat flours, meals, etc: 1 Roller process flour . . Spring wheat flour . . . . Winter wheat flour Buckwheat flour Corn meal, bolted Oatmeal Rice Rice, boiled 1 White bread 1 Graham bread Crackers Sugar, granulated Sugar, maple Vegetables — Aspara- gus : As purchased Beans, dried : As purchased Beets : Edible portion As purchased Cabbage : Edible portion As purchased Carrots : Edible portion As purchased X 20.0 I5.0 20.0 I2.9 11. 6 12.5 14.3 12.9 7.2 12.4 52.7 31.0 32.2 8.2 94.0 13.2 87.6 70.0 90.3 76.8 88.2 70.5 .5 c Ph Ph 12.2 II. 8 IO.4 6.1 8.9 15-6 7.8 5-o 9.9 9-5 10.7 22.3 1.6 i-3 2.1 1.8 1.1 0.9 Ph 1.0 I.I 1.0 1.0 2.2 7-3 0.4 O.I 1.4 2.5 9.9 0.2 1.8 O.I O.I 0.4 o-3 0.4 °-3 -^ PL. re U 74-3 75-o 75-6 77.2 7S-i 68.0 79.0 41.9 57-i 54-7 68.8 98.0 82.8 3-3 59-i 9.6 7-7 5-8 4.9 9.2 7-4 < H in v •£ a o a > . °-5 0.5 0.5 1.4 0.9 1.9 0.4 o-3 0.6 1.1 2.4 0.7 3-6 1.1 0.9 1.4 1.2 1.1 0.9 1665 1660 1640 1590 i6S5 i860 1630 875 1306 1895 1600 1540 105 i59o 210 170 165 140 210 170 From Minnesota analyses. 3 8o AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY Composition of Human Foods (Continued). Kind of Foods. Vegetables (Contin'd) Parsnips : Edible portion As purchased Peas, dried : As purchased Peas, green : Edible portion As purchased Potatoes, raw : Edible portion As purchased Potatoes, sweet : Edible portion As purchased Squash : Edible portion As purchased Turnips : Edible portion As purchased Tomatoes : Edible portion Green corn Cucumber Spinach Sauerkraut ^2 <-> Ph 20. 50.0 15.O 15.O 50.0 30.0 Pi 79-9 63-9 10.8 78.1 39-o 78.9 67.1 69-3 58.9 86.5 43-3 88.9 62.2 96.0 81.3 96.0 92.4 86.3 Ph (X, i-7 *3 24.1 4.4 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.8 i-5 1.6 0.8 1.4 1.0 0.8 2.8 0.8 2.1 i-5 Ph 0.6 °-5 0.5 °-3 0.1 O.I 0.7 0.6 0.6 °-3 0.2 O.I 0.4 I.I 0.2 0.5 0.8 a .J 1? « •s <~ O