Glass_ 
 Booki 
 
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INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY 
 
CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES 
 
 INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY 
 
 TAEE AND McMUREY 
 
 REVISED BY 
 
 THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE 
 
 AND APPROVED BY 
 
 THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION 
 
 A Native Daughter 
 
 SACRAMENTO 
 W. W. Shannon, Superintendent of State Printing 
 
 1910 
 

 <*;* 
 
 Copyright, 1904, 1910, 
 
 THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Copykigiit, 1900, 190T, 
 
 THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 
 
 In the compilation of this work, certain matter from the Elementary- 
 Geography by Kalph S. Tarr and Frank McMurry has been used. All 
 such matter is protected by the copyright entries noted above. 
 
 APR 15 1911 
 
 1 e — 50 m — 3 '10 
 
 <§CI.A265250 
 
PREFACE 
 
 This is the first of a series of geographies ; the more 
 advanced treatment deals at greater length with the 
 world and its inhabitants. Since Part I of the present 
 volume is a radical innovation, it perhaps needs an 
 explanatory foreword. 
 
 Necessity of Home Geography. — The final basis 
 -for all study of geography is actual experience. Yet 
 text-books on that subject rarely treat Home Geography 
 at all, and those that do, devote but few pages to it. 
 This subject should, we think, receive far more careful 
 attention. 
 
 Necessity of Other Basal Notions. — Home ex- 
 perience alone, however, cannot offer a complete basis 
 for the later study of geography, because no one locality 
 presents all the features required. From this it happens 
 that the best books have contained some definitions and 
 illustrations, as of mountain, river, valley, harbor, and 
 factory, and have planned to build the later text with 
 the ideas these gave as a foundation. Such conceptions 
 are certainly necessary in the early part of geography ; 
 but mere definitions fail to produce vivid, accurate pic- 
 tures. The average pupil who has pursued geography 
 for a year has little notion of the great importance of 
 soil, of what a mountain or a river really is, of the value 
 of good trade routes, and why a vessel cannot find a 
 harbor wherever it will cast anchor along: the coast. 
 
VI PREFACE 
 
 Yet such ideas are the proper basis for the study of 
 geography in the higher grades. The fact that they 
 are so often wanting is proof that our geography still 
 lacks foundation. 
 
 How these Needs are Met. — The first 110 pages of 
 this volume attempt to supply this foundation by treating 
 first, such common things as soil, hills, valleys, industries, 
 climate, and government, which are part of every child's 
 environment; and secondly, other features, as mountains, 
 rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from 
 many localities, are still necessary as a preparation for 
 later study. Definitions, however, are not relied upon 
 for giving the child this extra knowledge, but detailed 
 descriptions and discussions instead. This by no means 
 involves neglect of the child's own environment from the 
 time the unfamiliar matter is introduced, for through- 
 out the geographies home experiences are frequently 
 used. We believe that our plan gives a fuller guarantee 
 of fitness for advanced study than has heretofore been 
 furnished. 
 
 Relationship to Mankind. — According to the defi- 
 nition of geography, — which treats of the relation be- 
 tween man and the earth, — a hill or a lake is worthy 
 of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the 
 men upon the earth ; considered by itself it is not a part 
 of geography. Therefore each chapter which takes up 
 one of the above subjects, either closes with the bearing 
 of the given topic upon mankind, or it deals with the 
 human relationship throughout. 
 
 Earth as a Whole. — The most difficult portion of 
 our task has been that which presents the Earth as a 
 Whole. That a bird's-eye view should be given at an 
 
PREFACE Vll 
 
 early period in the child's instruction is not questioned; 
 but it is not easy, in limited space, to support the prin- 
 cipal facts with sufficient detail to produce vivid and 
 interesting pictures. The authors have found that some 
 topics commonly included in the early study, such, for 
 instance, as latitude and longitude, should be postponed. 
 They have also found that many other minor subjects 
 usually presented are comparatively irrelevant to the 
 geographical knowledge necessary to a pupil. By setting 
 these aside for the time, space has been secured for a 
 physiographic basis, and for a fairly close sequence in 
 tracing the effects of physical conditions upon plants 
 and animals, and also upon mankind. Throughout each 
 chapter much care has been taken to present a closely 
 related chain of thought, and at the same time to keep 
 the leading facts in their proper foreground. 
 
 Suggestions for Further Home Study. — A study 
 of books alone can never furnish an adequate knowl- 
 edge of geography. Therefore it has been thought ex- 
 pedient to add numerous suggestions at the end of each 
 section, in order to remind both teacher and pupil of 
 suitable excursions, experiments, etc., and to show at the 
 same time the breadth of the subject. In this way physi- 
 cal activity — the love of exercise — may be employed in 
 the service of the study, and a habit of investigating the 
 home environment encouraged. 
 
 Frequent Reviews. — Believing in the value of fre- 
 quent reviews, the authors have suggested review material 
 in frequent comparisons and contrasts,- and in introducing 
 new topics through others that have already been pre- 
 sented. This method has been used throughout this 
 book, and in the more advanced treatment. 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 Maps. — Contrary to the usual custom, the political maps 
 include the principal physical features, so that any place is 
 always seen in connection with its physiographic surround- 
 ings. The colors have been so selected as to secure har- 
 mony, and at the same time to show the boundaries clearly. 
 Unimportant names are excluded, even where space might 
 have permitted their introduction ; and, to an unusual 
 degree, the size of print is proportionate to the importance 
 of places, so that the names of leading divisions, cities, 
 etc., can be distinguished at a glance. 
 
 Illustrations. — The illustrations have been selected 
 with great care to illustrate specific points; and for the 
 sake of accuracy, photographs have in most cases been 
 employed. They are not inserted merely for the purpose 
 of entertainment, but in every case bear a direct relation- 
 ship to the text. They are not intended as mere pictures, 
 but as illustrations ; and being numbered and referred to 
 frequently, they pay for their space by contributing mate- 
 rially to the book's fund of instruction. 
 
 Acknowledgments. — The photographs have been ob- 
 tained from many sources ; the globe drawings were made 
 by Mr. Murray of the Matthews-Northrup Company; and 
 the other drawings were mostly prepared by Mr. C. W. 
 Furlong, instructor in Cornell University. The maps 
 have been prepared by the Matthews-Northrup Company 
 of Buffalo, who have obtained an enviable reputation as 
 map engravers for the Century Atlas. 
 
 The authors of this book are responsible for any short- 
 comings that it may prove to have. They have had the 
 benefit of much criticism of the best sort. Space does 
 not permit them to refer to each one who has kindly 
 extended aid ; yet mention should be made of the ex- 
 
PREFACE ix 
 
 ceedingly valuable criticisms and suggestions of Mr. Philip 
 Emerson of the Cobbet School, Lynn, Mass. 
 
 The State Text-book Committee is under obligations to 
 the following parties for photographs : S. P. Co. ; S. F. 
 0. ■& S. J. Ry. ; P. C. Steamship Co. ; State Fish Commis- 
 sion; California Promotion Committee; Standard Oil Com- 
 pany ; South Africa British Company ; Holt Mfg. Company ; 
 Superintendents J. G. O'Neill, E. B. Wright, H. F. Pin- 
 nell, James E. Reynolds, Belle S. Gribi, Florence Boggs, 
 Hettie Irwin; Maud A. Minthorn; D. A. Hunger; L. E. 
 Chenoweth; George E. Knox; Hajor J. A. Driffill; Lewis E. 
 Aubury; Senators E. S. Birdsall, W. F. Price; Warden 
 W. H. Reilly ; also to Chambers of Commerce of Sacra- 
 mento, Stockton, San Jose, Fresno, Oakland, San Diego, 
 and the Sacramento Valley Development Association. 
 
 Entrance to the Campus of the University of California. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section I. The Soil 1 
 
 Section II. Hills . . . ... . . .10 
 
 Section III. Mountains 18 
 
 Section IV. Valleys . 30 
 
 Section V. Rivers 42 
 
 Section VI. Ponds and Lakes . . . . . . .57 
 
 Section VII. The Ocean 67 
 
 Section VIII. The Air 77 
 
 Section IX. Industry and Commerce ..... 87 
 
 Section X. Government 99 
 
 Section XI. Maps . . 109 
 
 References to Books, etc 115 
 
 PART II. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Section I. Form and Size of the Earth ..... 119 
 Its Form, 119. Size of the Earth, 121. 
 
 Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results . 123 
 The Axis and Poles, 123. The Equator, 124. Gravity, 
 124. Sunrise and Sunset, 125. Day and Night, 125. 
 
 Section III. The Zones 128 
 
 Boundaries of the Zones, 128. Torrid Zone, 129. Tem- 
 perate Zones, 129. Frigid Zones, 130. Hemispheres, 131. 
 Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Effects . . 132 
 Heat in Mines, 132. Melted Rock, 133. The Earth's 
 Crust, 133. Cause of Mountains, 134. Cause of Conti- 
 xi 
 
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 nents and ocean basins, 134. change in the level of 
 the Land, 135. 
 Section V. The Continents and Oceans . . . . 137 
 
 Land and Water, 13-7. The Continents, 137. North Amer- 
 ica, 138. South America, 138. Eurasia, 139. Africa, 
 142. Australia, 143. The Oceans, 143. The Arctic 
 and Antarctic, 143. The Atlantic, 144. The Pacific, 
 144. The Indian, 144. The Ocean Bottom, 144. Moun- 
 tains in the Oceans, 145. Coral Islands, 145. 
 
 Section VI. Maps 149 
 
 Section VII. North America . . . . . . . 151 
 
 Physical Geography, 151. Political Divisions, 152. 
 
 Section VIII. The United States 153 
 
 Section IX. New England ........ 154 
 
 Names, 154. Seaports, 154. Fishing, 155. Farming, 155. 
 Quarrying, 156. Lumbering, 157. Manufacturing, 158. 
 Commerce, 159. 
 
 Section X. Middle Atlantic States 161 
 
 The Coast Line, 161. The Seaports, 161. Reasons for the 
 Great Size of New York City, 161. Cities Near by, 
 161. Water Route to the Interior, 162. Lumbering, 
 163. Farming, 163. Salt, 164. Manufacturing, 164. 
 Commerce, 165. Reasons why Philadelphia has become 
 a Great City, 165. Cities Near by, 165. Farming, 165. 
 Iron, 166. Coal, 166. Oil and Gas, 168. Commerce, 
 168. Other Cities, 168. Baltimore, 168. Washington, 
 168. Virginia and West Virginia, 169. 
 
 Section XL Southern States 171 
 
 Belief, 171. Coal and Iron, 172. Cotton, 172. Ranch- 
 ing, 173. Sugar and Rice, 174. Fruits, 174. Lumber- 
 ing, 175. Manufacturing, 175. New Orleans, 176. 
 Other Seaports, 177. Oklahoma, 177. Climate, 177. 
 
 Section XII. Central States 180 
 
 Raw Products, 180. The Manufacturing and Trade Cen- 
 ters, 183. Review and Comparisons, 188. 
 
 Section XIII. Western States 190 
 
 Reasons why there are so Few People, 190. Wonderful 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS Xlll 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Scenery, 192. Mining, 193. Ranching, 196. The Desert, 
 
 196. Irrigation, 197. Fruit Raising, 198. Industries 
 
 along the pacific coast, 198. the clties op the pacific 
 
 Slope, 200. 
 
 Section XIV. Alaska 203 
 
 Section XV. Canada and Other Countries North of the 
 
 United States . . . . . . . . . 205 
 
 Canada and Newfoundland, 205. Industries, 205. Cities, 
 
 207. The Far North, 208. Islands North of North 
 
 America, 209. 
 Section XVI. Countries South of the United States . . 211 
 Mexico and Central America, 211. The West Indies and 
 
 Bermuda, 213. 
 
 Section XVII. South America 216 
 
 Relief, 216. Climate, 216. History, 218. Brazil, 218. 
 
 Venezuela and Guiana, 220. La Plata Countries, 221. 
 
 Andean Countries, 222. 
 
 Section XVIII. Europe . . . . . .. . .225 
 
 The British Isles, 225. Norse Countries, 229. Russia, 
 231. Germany, 233. Holland, 234. Belgium, 236. 
 France, 236. Spain and Portugal, 238. Italy, 240. 
 Switzerland, 241. Austria-Hungary, 242. Greece, 243. 
 Turkey, 244. 
 
 Section XIX. Asia 250 
 
 Physical Geography, 250. Southwestern Asia, 251. Sibe- 
 ria, 254. The Chinese Empire and Korea, 255. Japan, 
 257. India and Indo-China, 258. 
 
 Section XX. Africa 263 
 
 The Dark Continent, 263. Northern Africa, 264. Cen- 
 tral Africa, 267. South Africa, 269. 
 
 Section XXI. Australia, the East Indies, Philippines, and 
 
 Other Islands of the Pacific 271 
 
 Australia, 271. The East Indies, 274. The Philippine 
 Islands, 275. Islands of the Pacific, 276. 
 
 Section XXII. California Supplement .... 279 
 
 Map Questions, 282. Extent, 285. Relief, 285. Drain- 
 age, 287. Climate, 288. Industrial Development, 291. 
 
XIV 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Agriculture, 294. Fruit Raising, 297. Stock Raising, 
 301. Manufacturing, 305. Mining, 308. Lumbering, 
 310. Fisheries, 311. Commerce, 312. Cities, 313. Re- 
 view Questions, 319. Appendix to Supplement, 321. 
 Index to Supplement, 323. 
 
 Books of Reference 
 
 327 
 
 Appendix — Tables of Area, Population, etc. 
 
 333 
 
 Public Playgrounds near Lincoln School, Santa Barbara. 
 
LIST OF MAPS 
 
 FIGTTRE FACING PAGE 
 
 91. to illustrate the meaning of maps . . . . 114 
 
 119. The Hemispheres 149 
 
 120. Mercator Map of the World 149 
 
 121. Relief Map of North America .... On page 150 
 
 123. North America 152 
 
 124. United States 153 
 
 126. New England . . .154 
 
 132. Middle Atlantic States . . . . ' ■ . . 161 
 
 140. Southern States . . . ... . . 171 
 
 149. Central States 180 
 
 157. Western States 190 
 
 177. South America 216 
 
 183. Europe . 225 
 
 203. Asia 250 
 
 214. Africa 263 
 
 221. Australia, East Indies, Philippine Islands, and Islands 
 
 of the Pacific . . . 271 
 
 225. Railroad Map of California . . . . „ . 278 
 
 227. California (Northern Section) 280 
 
 228. California (Southern Section) 281 
 
 229. Relief Map of California 283 
 
 230. San Francisco and Vicinity . . . . . . . 284 
 
 244. Los Angeles, San Diego, Santa Barbara and Vicinity . 299 
 
Mariposa " big trees " ; on the road to Yosemite Valley. Notice that the four- 
 horse stagecoach is driven through a bole cut in the trunk of the tree. 
 
Paet I 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 oXKc 
 
 I. THE SOIL 
 
 You have often played in the dirt. Did you ever stop 
 to think what it is made of ? It was not always what it 
 now is. You know that the wood in your desk was not 
 always a part of the desk ; it used to be part of a tree, 
 and has a long story to tell about itself before it was 
 brought to your school. So all the dirt or soil that you 
 have ever seen has a long story to tell about how it be- 
 came what it is now. Let us see what that story is. 
 
 When mud dries upon your hands and you rub them 
 together, you can notice an unpleasant, gritty feeling. 
 This is caused by the scraping together of hard bits of 
 something in the soil. If you rub some of this dirt 
 against a- smooth piece of glass, you can often hear it 
 scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must 
 be very hard, for if they were not, they could not scratch 
 anything so hard as glass. They must be even harder 
 than a pin, for you cannot scratch glass with a pin. 
 
 It will help you to find out what these bits are if you 
 examine some sand. The grains in it are tiny bits of 
 rock, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are 
 
2 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 rubbed against glass, they scratch it, because they are 
 hard and sharp. 
 
 Sand is made of rock that has been broken up into very 
 fine pieces. Soil is also made of rock, but the pieces are 
 finer still. The soil that you have seen, such as that in 
 the school yard, or by the side of the walk, was once rock. 
 
 Soil has been made from roch. 
 
 Since soil is found almost everywhere, you may wonder 
 how so much rock has been changed to it. The answer is 
 not hard to find. Did you ever pound a brick up into 
 bits until you made brick dust ? You can change a stone 
 to dust in the same way. Break one into small bits and 
 see how much it resembles dirt. 
 
 Sometimes one sees men drilling holes into stone ; the tiny pieces 
 that are broken off collect in and round the hole, and look much like 
 dirt. When a grindstone is used to sharpen tools, small pieces of the 
 stone are ground off, and if water is poured upon it, this dust makes 
 the water muddy, just as soil would. 
 
 Much rock has been changed to dirt by the rubbing of 
 pieces of stone against one another. In this way tiny 
 bits have been worn off, as chalk is worn away when 
 rubbed against the blackboard, or slate pencils against the 
 slate. Perhaps some of the dirt that you have seen has 
 been made in this manner. Later you will learn about 
 the glaciers which have caused much of this rubbing. 
 
 The grinding of rochs together has made much soil. 
 
 But this is not the only way in which rock has been 
 changed into soil. Much of it has decayed and fallen to 
 pieces as wood does. Yon know that, after a long time, 
 stumps of trees, and the boards in sidewalks, grow so 
 soft that they fall to pieces. Perhaps you have called 
 
THE SOIL 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 A decaying stump of a tree. 
 
 it rotting, but this means the same as decaying. The pic- 
 ture (Fig. 1) shows such a stump. 
 
 Other things even harder than wood decay in much the 
 same way, although per- 
 haps more slowly. Hard 
 nails, at first bright and 
 shiny, decay until they 
 become a soft, yellow 
 rust. Iron pipes and tin 
 pails rust until holes ap- 
 pear in them and they 
 leak. 
 
 You may not have 
 thought that stones also 
 decay, but they do. The 
 headstones in old grave- 
 yards are often so crumbled that the letters can scarcely 
 be read, and sometimes the stones have even fallen apart. 
 
 The decay of rock may 
 also be seen in old stone 
 buildings, boulders, and 
 rock cliffs. Have you 
 ever noticed this ? 
 
 Soil has been formed, 
 also, by the decay of 
 rocks. 
 
 There are several things 
 that help to cause this de- 
 cay. All rocks have cracks 
 in them (Fig. 2). Usually 
 some of these are so large 
 that they can be plainly seen; but there are many others so tiny that 
 they cannot be seen without a magnifying glass. When it rains, the 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 A rocky cliff containing many cracks. 
 Point to some of them. 
 
4 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 water steals into them, and by eating and rotting the rock, very slowly 
 changes it to a powder. 
 
 The water may also freeze in these cracks and pry the stone apart. 
 If you have seen iron water pipes, or water pitchers, burst in cold 
 weather, yon know how this is done. Some of the pieces of rock 
 pried off in this way are very small, others quite large (Fig. 3). 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Pieces of rock broken from a cliff by tbe weather. Can you also see the 
 cracks in the rock of the cliff '? Find some broken pieces in Fig. 2. 
 
 Plants help the water in this work. In search of food they push 
 their hair-like roots into the cracks, and there remain until they grow 
 so large that they also pry off pieces. 
 
 The earthworms that you may often see after a heavy rain also help 
 in crumbling the rock. In order to get food, they take soil into their 
 bodies and grind the coarse bits together until they become very fine. 
 
 Water stealing into the cracks causes rock to decay and 
 crwmMe. Plants and earthworms also help to break it up. 
 
THE SOIL 5 
 
 Rock changes to soil most rapidly near the surface ; for 
 the rain, roots of plants, and earthworms can reach it 
 more easily there than elsewhere. So the deeper into the 
 earth one goes, the less the rock is changed (Fig. 4) ; and, 
 no matter where you live, if you should dig deep enough, 
 you would come to solid rock. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 A section, as if the earth were sliced through, like a loaf of oread, so that the 
 part helow the surface is seen . Tell what you see in this picture. Notice 
 the roots of the tree on the left side. 
 
 Figure 5 shows soil about one and one half feet deep. 
 Sometimes there is much more than this, and men may 
 even dig deep wells without finding rock ; but in many 
 places there are only a few inches of soil, or, sometimes, 
 not even enough to hide the rock. 
 
 One reason for such differences in the depth of soil is that some 
 rocks decay more easily than others. Another reason is that in some 
 places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. 
 This may leave the rock quite bare in one place and make the soil 
 very deep in another. 
 
 There is solid rock beneath all soil. 
 
6 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 How different it would be if no rock had ever changed 
 into soil ! There could then be no grass, flowers, or trees 
 around your home, because they grow by means of the 
 food that they get from the soil. 
 
 Without grass there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep ; 
 in fact, few animals such as are found upon the land could 
 live ; for what would they eat ? What, then, could you 
 yourself find to eat ? There would be no vegetables, no 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 A picture showing solid rock beneath the soil. Notice the cracks in the rock. 
 
 bread, butter, and milk, and no meat. You see that, if 
 there were no soil, few people could live ; so that the 
 dirt under our feet is a very valuable substance. 
 
 Without soil, few plants, animals, or people could live 
 on the land. 
 
 Soil is needed by plants because it holds water. They 
 become thirsty as well as you. Where the dirt is only 
 a few inches deep, it may dry out on hot summer days, 
 and then the plants die ; but where it is deep, the roots 
 may reach down several feet till they find damp earth. 
 
THE SOIL 
 
 It is surprising how long the roots of some small plants are 
 (Fig. 6). For example, the clover in the picture is less than a foot high, 
 but its roots are longer than you are tall. They reach so deep down 
 that even in dry weather the clover is green while other plants, with 
 shorter roots, are withered and dry. Some trees push their roots 
 down a greater distance still. Can 
 you find out how long the roots of 
 any weeds are ? 
 
 The soil holds food, as well 
 as water, for plants. In it is 
 found something which plants 
 need, and which they take up 
 through their roots ; it is a part 
 of the soil itself, and is called 
 plant food. Each blade of grass 
 and each limb of a tree contains 
 some of it ; and when a piece 
 of wood is burned, some of this 
 food is left behind in the ashes. 
 
 Every person even has a 
 quantity of it in his body; your 
 bones and teeth are partly made 
 of it. But you did not take 
 it directly from the soil; the 
 plants took it for }^ou, and you 
 received it from them in flour 
 and other foods that you have 
 eaten." 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Some of the roots of the clover 
 that the hoy is picking have 
 reached out into the air 
 through the side of the hank. 
 They are seeking water. 
 
 Soil furnishes water and food to -plants. 
 
 All plants do not need the same kind of food any more 
 than all animals do. Horses eat hay and grain, while 
 dogs eat meat; so some plants need one kind of food, 
 
8 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 others another. These different kinds of plant food are 
 found in the different kinds of soil, of which there are 
 very many. 
 
 For example, some soils are fine, while others are coarse, because 
 some rocks have crumbled to finer bits than others. Then, too, there 
 are many kinds of rock, such as granite, marble, and sandstone; and 
 when they decay they make different kinds of soil. 
 
 In some places great numbers of plants have grown up and died. 
 During their growth they took substances from the air, as well as 
 from the soil, and when they died and decayed they returned some 
 of these to the soil. These plant remains have become mingled with 
 the soil, making it dark and sometimes almost black. In some places 
 this dark-colored layer may be several feet deep, as in forests, or in 
 swamps, where plants have been growing and decaying for hundreds 
 of years. This is an excellent soil for farming, because it produces 
 large crops. 
 
 There are many different hinds of soil. 
 
 Soil that has much plant food in it is said to be rich or 
 fertile; if it has little, it is said to be poor or sterile. The 
 plants are taking away some of this food ; they are really 
 robbing the soil. But when weeds and trees fall and 
 decay on the spot where they grew, they pay back what 
 they took away. In fact, some of this food is returned to 
 the earth every autumn when the leaves fall from the trees. 
 
 But if plants are carried away from the spot where 
 they grew, there is danger lest fertile land shall be robbed 
 of so much plant food that it will become sterile. Now 
 this often happens ; for farmers send away their wheat to 
 make flouf, and haul their corn, hay, and oats to market. 
 Some farmers have done this for so many years that they 
 are no longer able to support their families on their land, 
 but have been obliged to move away to find other farms 
 where the soil has not been robbed of its plant food. 
 
THE SOIL 9 
 
 The wise farmer takes care to put some plant food back upon the 
 soil to pay for what he has taken, so that he may continue to raise 
 good crops. That which he puts back upon the soil is called a 
 fertilizer, because it keeps the soil fertile. People in the city often 
 use a fertilizer to feed the grass of their lawns and keep it green. 
 
 Fertile soil may he robbed of its food and become sterile. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Of what is the soil made? (2) How 
 can you show that the little bits in it are hard like rock? (3) What 
 happens when rocks are rubbed together ? (4) If you have ever seen 
 rocks that were decaying and crumbling, tell about it. (5) How 
 does water enter rocks? (6) What happens when water freezes in 
 the cracks? (7) What else helps to crumble the rocks and soil? 
 (8) What is beneath the soil? (9) Make a drawing, like Fig. 4, 
 showing the rock beneath the soil. (10) Tell about the depth of the 
 soil. (11) Why is there no soil in some places? 
 
 (12) Why is the soil worth studying? (13) Name two things that 
 plants take from it. (11) Of what advantage is a deep soil ? (15) Do 
 all plants want the same kind of food ? (16) What causes the different 
 kinds of soil? (17) What has made some soils so black? (18) What 
 is fertile soil ? (19) Sterile soil? (20) How are some soils robbed of 
 their plant food ? (21) What is used to make them fertile once more ? 
 (22) Tell what you see in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. 
 
 Suggestions for Study at Home and Out of Doors. — 
 Here are things, some of which, at least, you -will be able to see 
 or do for yourselves : (1) Find a place where men are digging a 
 ditch or cellar, to see how the dirt looks below the surf ace. (2) Find 
 a boulder, cliff, old stone wall, or an old headstone in a graveyard, 
 and see if the stone is crumbling. (3) Break some pebbles open to 
 see whether or not they are decayed on the outside and fresh within. 
 (4) Change a stone to dust. (5) Collect several different kinds of soil. 
 (6) Plant beans in each kind, at the same time, and see in which one 
 they grow best. (7) See what the effect would be if no water were 
 given to some of them. (8) Find out what trees and vegetables grow- 
 best near your home. (9) What do the farmers prefer to raise? 
 (10) Go to a hot-house to find out what kind of soil is used there, and 
 what is done to keep it fertile. (11) Write a short story about the soil. 
 For References, see page 115. 
 
II. HILLS 
 
 The soil that has been formed from rock has not been 
 left smooth and level like a floor. The surface of the 
 land is usually uneven or rolling ; and even those places 
 which at first sight appear level, are really sloping 
 (Fig. 7). Besides such gentle slopes, there. are many 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 A very level plain ; but since a stream is flowing through it, there must he 
 
 slope. 
 
 others steep enough to allow coasting in winter, and 
 others still that are much too steep for this purpose. In 
 other words, hills, some gently sloping, some steep, are 
 found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth 
 (Fig. 8). 
 
 10 
 
HILLS 11 
 
 These hills have not always been here. Even the ones 
 you may have seen and climbed have been slowly made. 
 Let us see what has caused them. 
 
 When it rains slightly, the water soaks into the ground 
 and disappears ; but when there is a heavy rain, all of 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 A picture in a hilly country. The surface of the lake is level ; hut the hills, 
 some steep, others gently sloping, are very irregular. 
 
 the water cannot sink into the soil as rapidly as it falls. 
 Some then begins to flow away. One little stream, per- 
 haps hardly an inch wide, begins at one point ; another 
 joins it ; quickly several of them unite, and soon a good- 
 sized brook or creek is formed. Have you not noticed 
 this flowing water in the school yard, in the roads, and on 
 the sides of hills ? 
 
 But did the water flow off without taking something 
 
12 
 
 HOME GEOGBAPHY 
 
 with it ? Was it not muddy ? This means that soil had 
 become mixed with the water and was being borne away. 
 Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting out little 
 channels, washing out roads, and perhaps even destroying 
 the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for 
 a time. 
 
 During such a rain little channels, or valleys, and tiny 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 Little hills and valleys cut in the soil by heavy rains. Point to some of them. 
 
 hills and ridges are carved in the soil (Fig. 9). No doubt 
 you have seen these formed very many times. If not, 
 you can easily make them by pouring water from a 
 sprinkler upon a pile of loose dirt. 
 
 During many hundreds of years the water has washed 
 away an enormous amount of soil and rock which the 
 large streams and rivers have carried away to the sea. 
 
HILLS 
 
 13 
 
 By this means deep valleys have been formed, with hills 
 between them, much as the tiny channels in the school 
 yard are cut in the dirt by the rain water. 
 
 Then, also, some rocks are not so hard as others, and 
 the softer ones, as they break up, are naturally carried 
 away faster than those that are harder. This leaves high 
 ground where the rocks are hardest. 
 
 What a change water must have made in the appear- 
 ance of the surface of the earth ! No doubt, in the very 
 beginning there were hills and valleys ; but every year, 
 for thousands of years, these have been slowly changing, 
 so that they are now very different from what they were 
 long ago. And after many more years they will be very 
 different from what they now are, for they are even now 
 changing. 
 
 Most hills have been carved out by running water. 
 
 In every neighborhood there are hills, although they may not be 
 very high. The picture shows one with a somewhat gentle slope 
 
 SEA LEVEL 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 To show the difference between the slope of a hill and its height. 
 
14 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 (Fig. 10). If a person were to walk up this hill, going from its base 
 to the top, or summit, he would walk more than a mile ; but this, of 
 course, does not mean that the hill is a mile high. 
 
 For example, in Fig. 11 you see a board ten feet long, with one end 
 resting on the ground and the other on a fence four feet above the 
 ground. If a person starts at the lower end and walks to the upper 
 end, he travels ten feet; but he is then only four feet above the 
 ground. 
 
 The height of a hill is much less than the length of 
 its slope. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 Perhaps you have heard that it is colder on the summit, 
 or crest, of a high hill than at its base. If one takes a 
 thermometer with him when going to the top of the 
 Washington Monument (Fig. 85), which is 550 feet high, 
 he finds that it is about two degrees colder at the top 
 than at the base. 
 
 People who live where there are high hills often observe 
 that it snows upon them while it rains upon the lower 
 ground at their base (Fig. 12). Explain why this 
 is so. 
 
 It is colder at the crest of the hill than at its base. 
 
HILLS 15 
 
 Many people prefer to build their houses upon hills, 
 partly because the air is cooler and fresher in summer; 
 but another and more important reason is, that it is more 
 healthful to live on this high ground. Where the land 
 is low$ the slope is often so gentle that the water cannot 
 flow off readily, so it stands, sometimes making wet places 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Do you see any reason for thinking that it is colder near the summit of this 
 high mountain than at its hase ? This is Mt. Chimborazo in South 
 America, where it is very hot in the lowlands. 
 
 called swamps (Fig. 33). Houses in such places often 
 have cellars and foundation walls that are damp, and the 
 people who live in them are in danger of fever, and of 
 other kinds of sickness caused by this dampness. 
 
 But the water usually runs quickly away from a hill, 
 so that even after a heavy rain the ground soon becomes 
 dry* In large cities, where land is very expensive, people 
 build almost anywhere; but in these cities there are so 
 
16 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 many drain pipes, or sewers, to carry off the water, that 
 even the low places are quite dry. 
 
 In times past some men were in the habit of building great castles, 
 "with thick walls, on the crests of hills (Fig. 13). From these they 
 could look out over the country for a long distance and spy approach- 
 ing enemies in time to prepare for them. Then, too, the steep sides 
 of the hills were difficult for the enemy to climb, so that the people 
 living in castles on hilltops were quite safe. 
 
 Some of the Pueblo ludiaus built their towns upon the tops of 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 A castle built upon the brow of a high hill. Describe the view from there. 
 
 steep hills in order to be safe from the more savage Indians who 
 attacked them. For much the same reason the Puritans, many years 
 ago, were in the habit of building their churches upon the hilltops. 
 
 " Hills at present are little needed for such a purpose ; but there is 
 another reason why people like to live upon them. From their tops 
 they can look out over the fields for long distances and enjoy the 
 beautiful views. Have you yourself ever enjoyed such a view? 
 
 People like to build their houses upon hills, because it 
 is healthful there and the views are beautiful. 
 
HILLS 17 
 
 -Review Questions. — (1) Is there much laud that is really level? 
 (2) What do you uuderstand by rolling land ? (3) Were the hills 
 that you know always there ? (4) Have you seen water carrying away 
 soil ? If so, tell about it. (5) Explain how hills have been made. 
 
 (6) What is the base of a hill ? (7) The summit ? (8) Tell what 
 you learn from Fig. 10. (9) From Fig. 11. (10) Make a drawing 
 somewhat like Fig. 11. (11) On what part of a hill is it coolest V 
 (12) How could you prove it ? (13) Why does it often snow on hills 
 while it rains on lower land near by? 
 
 (14) What is a swamp? (15) Why should not houses be built on 
 swampy ground? (16) Why are hills liable to be dry? (17) Why 
 is the lowland iu cities usually so dry ? (18) Why have castles often 
 been built on hills? (19) Why did the earlier settlers place their 
 churches on hills? (20) What other reasons can people have for 
 wishing to look far out over the countiy? 
 
 Suggestions for Study at Home and Out of Doors. — 
 (1) Find some ground about your home that seems nearly level. 
 Is it really level ? (2) Where is the longest slope in your neigh- 
 borhood ? The steepest one ? (3) Watch the water carrying off soil 
 after a rain. Where does the soil go? (4) Write a story about it. 
 (5) Hunt for a washout after a heavy rain. (6) Where is your high- 
 est hill? (7) In what season of the year is it especially pleasant to 
 live on a hill? Why? 
 
 (8) Can you find any houses built on low, wet soil? (9) Are their 
 cellars ever very damp? (10) Ask some doctor why one should not 
 live in such places. (11) Find some pictures of castles, showing 
 their location. (12) Is your schoolhouse upon a hill? (13) Name 
 any houses in your neighborhood that stand on a hill. (14) Where 
 is your most beautiful view? (15) Do your friends agree with you 
 that it is the most beautiful one? 
 
 For References, see page 115. 
 
III. MOUNTAINS 
 
 You may never have seen mountains, but you have 
 certainly seen something that looks much like them. 
 Often, on a summer evening-, the sun sets behind great 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 A park, or broad, open mountain valley in the Rocky Mountains. Sultan 
 Mountain is in the distance. 
 
 banks of clouds that reach far up into the sky. Some of 
 them have rough, steep sides and great, rugged peaks, 
 while others have more gentle slopes and rounder tops. 
 
 18 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 19 
 
 Oftentimes there are many of them together, and they are 
 so real that it seems as if one might climb their sides if 
 he could only reach them. 
 
 This is very much the way snow-covered mountains 
 appear in the distance; in fact, the resemblance is so 
 close that, when one is at a distance from mountains, he 
 must often look 
 carefully to note 
 whether he is 
 looking at real 
 mountains, or 
 only at clouds 
 in the sky. 
 
 The moun- 
 tains in Fig. 14 
 are much like 
 hills, except that 
 they are larger. 
 Hills are seldom 
 more than a few 
 hundred feet 
 high, while 
 mountains rise 
 several thou- 
 sand feet in 
 height. Some 
 mountain peaks rise above the clouds (Fig. 71) and are 
 often wholly hidden by them. 
 
 Usually where there is one mountain peak there are 
 others near by. They often extend a long distance, per- 
 haps hundreds of miles, forming what is called a mountain 
 chain, or a mountain range (Fig 16). 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 A snowdrift near Lundy schoolhouse, Mono County, 
 California, March, 1909. The children have just 
 reached the school on their skis. Describe what 
 you see in this picture. 
 
20 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 A spur of the Sierra Nevada Ranges, on trail in Kern River Canon. 
 
 Such great ranges have been formed in different ways. They may 
 be due to volcanic action, to earthquake movements, to slow folding, 
 as in Fig. 17, or wholly to erosion. 
 
 You can imitate 
 mountain folding by 
 crumpling a number 
 of sheets of paper. 
 The reason for this 
 folding of the rock 
 layers will be found 
 stated on page 133. 
 
 Mountains 
 are lihe hills Fig. n. 
 
 only they are This is a drawing of a mountain range sliced through 
 7 • „ 7 -, so as to show the layers of rock that have heen 
 
 higher and more pushed upward 
 rugged. 
 ' Men often climb to the tops of mountains. It might 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 21 
 
 seem that this would not take a very long time, nor be 
 very difficult; but to go to the crest of even a low moun- 
 tain is often quite a task. Upon a level road one can 
 easily walk a mile in less than half an hour. But it 
 might require a whole day of steady climbing to reach the 
 summit of a mountain only one mile high. 
 
 It would be a 
 long journey even 
 if one could go in 
 a straight line to 
 the top. It has al- 
 ready been stated 
 (p. 14) that to 
 climb a hill two 
 or three hundred 
 feet high it is 
 necessary to walk 
 a longer distance 
 than this. The 
 same is true of 
 mountains. 
 
 Most mountains 
 are so. steep that 
 one would grow 
 very tired climb- 
 ing directly up 
 their slopes; so a 
 much longer, zigzag path is usually followed. Then, too, 
 there are often steep cliffs, or precipices, that could not be 
 climbed (Fig. 18), and one must travel round these to find 
 a place where the slope is gentle. This makes the path still 
 longer, so that to climb a mountain one mile high it mi'ght 
 be necessary to walk ten miles, or even more. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 A mountain precipice in the Yosemite Park among 
 the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. 
 No one could possibly climb the face of this 
 steep rock cliff. 
 
22 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 If the air is colder at the crest of a hill than at its base, 
 one might expect that it would be very much colder on the 
 top of a high mountain, and this is true (Fig. 12, p. 15). 
 In fact, it grows so much colder near the summit of the 
 higher mountains that it never rains there, but snows 
 instead; and it may even be so cold that trees cannot grow 
 there. 
 
 It is a long distance to the top of a high mountain, 
 and the air is cold there. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 Mt. Shasta from Sisson, showing the timber line. 
 
 Many people visit Mt. Shasta, Fig. 19 ; but while they enjoy climb- 
 ing about on the sides, and looking at the beautiful views, very few 
 reach the summit of the higher peaks. It is the best-known moun- 
 tain of California, and is over two and one half miles in height. 
 
 Suppose we make an imaginary trip up a high mountain. We 
 start early in the morning so as to have a long day. Each of us 
 carries a few light articles, but the guides carry most, for they are 
 strong and used to climbing. 
 
 At first we walk along a pleasant path in a beautiful wood. 
 
MOUNTAINS 23 
 
 A house is occasionally passed and perhaps a green field. But soon 
 there are no more houses and fields, and the trees become smaller and 
 smaller until the line is reached above which it is so cold that no trees 
 can grow. This is called the tree line or timber line (Fig. 19). 
 
 From this point on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after 
 a while even these disappear. Meanwhile the soil and the grass have 
 become more scarce, while here and there banks of snow are found in 
 the shady hollows. Soon we have climbed to the snow line. This is 
 the line above which snow is found all the year round. Now, no mat- 
 ter in what direction we look, rock and snow are everywhere to be 
 seen, the latter often being many feet deep. 
 
 What a beautiful view before us! It repays us for all the hard 
 work. We look down upon the woods through which we have just 
 passed ; then, over beyond them, to the deep valleys, with the green 
 fields, pretty houses, and villages far below us ; and, beyond these, to 
 the other steep mountains upon the opposite side of the valley. 
 
 The guide takes his place in front of us, and often tells us to stop 
 while he goes ahead to examine the way. It may be that the snow 
 has bridged over and hidden a deep and narrow chasm, so that if one 
 were to step upon this snow he might fall through. 
 
 As we advance higher and higher, it is often necessary to take a 
 narrow path on the steep side of the mountain. On the right you can 
 look hundreds of feet almost directly downward ; on the left are great 
 stones and masses of snow almost directly overhead. 
 
 The snow sometimes falls, forming snow slides or avalanches, which 
 are very dangerous. You have seen the same thing, on a much smaller 
 scale, when snow has slid from the roofs of houses on warm winter days. 
 
 After much hard work we reach the summit. Here, in spite of our 
 wraps, we are all shivering ; for upon high mountain summits there 
 are winds whicli seem to go through even the thickest cloth. 
 
 On this barren mountain top there are no birds, no trees, no grass : 
 nothing but snow and rock ; but if it is a clear day, and there are no 
 clouds clinging to the mountain sides below, we may be able to look 
 down into the beautiful green valleys, only a few miles away. There 
 the birds are singing, flowers are blossoming, and men, working in 
 the fields, are complaining of the heat. 
 
 It is a difficult and dangerous journey to the top of a 
 high mountain. Why? 
 
Fig. 20. 
 
 Foot of the Echo Mountain incline, Mt. Lowe Railway, Los Angeles County. 
 Length of incline, 3000 feet; direct ascent, 1325 feet. At the end of this 
 inclined railway is an electric line which carries passengers around and up 
 the mountain five miles to Alpine Tavern, Fig. 21. 
 
 24 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 25 
 
 It is by no means so difficult to reach the summits of 
 all mountains. Many of them are so low that there is no 
 snow upon them in summer, and trees live and thrive 
 even at the top. Roads or car lines (Fig. 20) may have 
 been built to the summit, so that one may ride up instead 
 of walking. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 Alpine Tavern, Echo Mountain, Los Angeles County. A noted summer resort. 
 
 Among some of these mountains hotels are built 
 (Fig. 21) to which people go in summer to escape the 
 hot weather. There they may walk through the woods, 
 and climb to many interesting places, where fine views are 
 to be had. 
 
 Mountains are important summer resorts. 
 
 Perhaps you already know that the rocks inside the moun- 
 tains sometimes contain gold and silver (Figs. 22 and 23). 
 Iron, lead, and other metals are also found there. When 
 
Fig. 22. 
 
 Iu these buildings metal is obtained from the ore that is mined in the moun- 
 tain rocks far below the surfaces. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 Mule hauling gold ore on 2200-foot level, Empire Mine, Nevada County, 
 California. This mule has been in the mine for five years and will not be 
 taken to the surface until his days of usefulness are over. 
 
 26 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 27 
 
 they are dug out from the rocks they are ores, which 
 do not look much like these metals as we know them. 
 Bat the metal in the rings, watches, and silver dollars 
 that you have seen, and even the iron parts of your school 
 desk, may have come from the rocks of some mountain. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 "Mossbrae Falls," Shasta Springs, California. 
 
 Mt. Shasta. 
 
 Fed by the melting snow of 
 
 The trees in the mountain forests are also valuable. The most 
 common kinds are evergreens, such as the pine, hemlock, and spruce, 
 which are green even through the winter, and which can live on the 
 cold mountain sides as far up as the timber line. 
 
 Mountains are covered for miles and miles with dense forests. 
 This is fortunate, for the trees may be cut down and sawed into 
 lumber, from which all sorts of wooden articles are made. Possibly 
 
28 HOME GEOGBAPLIY 
 
 the very seat in which you are sitting was once a part of a tree that 
 grew on the side of a mountain. 
 
 Mountains are of further use because of the abundance of water 
 they supply. We have already seen that there is much ice and snow 
 upon some of them ; in fact, there is so much upon the h igher ones that 
 it can never all melt away, no matter how hot the summer may be. 
 
 During hot weather many streams dry up ; but at such times the 
 ice and snow of the mountains only melt the faster, so that the streams 
 which flow forth from these mountains are even more swollen than 
 usual (Fig. 24). This water may run along for many miles until it 
 finally reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink. Do 
 you know of any city that gets its drinking water from such a river?. 
 
 Mountains furnish metals, lumber, and water. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What can you say about the height 
 of mountains? (2) How have they been made? (3) What is a 
 mountain chain or range? (4) How long might it take to climb a 
 mountain a mile high? (5) Why so long? (6) What can you tell 
 about the cold at the summit? (7) How do the trees change in 
 appearance as one mounts higher and higher ? 
 
 (8) What would you need for a journey up Mt. Shasta ? (9) De- 
 scribe the first part of the journey. (10) What is the timber line? 
 (11) What is the snow line ? (12) What are avalanches ? (13) De- 
 scribe the view from the top of the mountain. 
 
 (14) Mention some reasons why mountains are favorite sum- 
 mer resorts. (15) What kinds of mines are found in mountains ? 
 (16) Why is it fortunate that trees grow so well on mountain^ 
 sides? (17) What is done with them ? (18) Tell what you can 
 about the streams that flow from mountains. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Watch for clouds that resemble mountains. 
 Make a drawing of them. (2) Find pictures of mountains; note the 
 timber line, the snow line, and other points of interest. (3) Rep- 
 resent a mountain in sand. Show the tree line ; the snow line ; steep 
 and gentle slopes. (4) Represent a mountain range in sand. (5) In 
 what direction are the nearest mountains? What are they called? 
 How far away are they ? Find out an interesting fact about them. 
 
 (6) Ask some one who has climbed a mountain to tell you about it. 
 (7) Would you care to climb one yourself? Why? (8) Write a 
 
MOUNTAINS 
 
 29 
 
 story relating the adventures you would expect in mountain climbing. 
 Describe some of the views you would expect to find. (9) Why do 
 few people live high up on the mountain sides ? 
 For References, see page 115. 
 
 U. S. Forest Service, camp and party. Calaveras Grove, 
 ander Von Humboldt." 
 
 Big tree " Alex- 
 
IV. VALLEYS- 
 
 We have seen how water is always washing away soil, 
 making hills and changing their appearance. Wherever 
 
 hills are found 
 there are al- 
 ways low places 
 or hollows, and 
 these are called 
 valleys. 
 
 Some very 
 small valleys 
 yon have al- 
 ready seen in 
 Fig. 9. They 
 are only a few 
 inches wide, and 
 the tiny hills or 
 ridges between them are only a few inches high. 
 
 Every stream of water, whether great or small, when 
 flowing over soft earth, is carrying some of it away and 
 forming valleys. Even when flowing over hard rock, the 
 water is doing the same thing, but more slowly. It grinds 
 the rock away by dragging pebbles and grains of sand 
 over it, thus scouring it out. This work of the water is 
 never finished, for every rain is slightly changing the 
 valleys. 
 
 Are there any valleys in your neighborhood ? Do you 
 live in one ? If you have traveled on the railway, you 
 have certainly seen many of them. Figures 11, 14, and 25 
 
 30 
 
 Fig. 25. 
 
 A beautiful stream in the Yosemite Valley. 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 81 
 
 show valleys. Can you find others in the book ? In Fig. 
 25 is shown a small stream with the land on either side 
 gently sloping toward it. 
 
 Since there are very few places without slopes and hills 
 of some kind, there must be few places without valleys. 
 Although some of these are narrow, others are so wide 
 that one cannot see across them. 
 
 Wherever two downward slopes come together, a valley is formed, 
 whether the slopes be long or 
 short. In those that you can 
 find, notice the difference in the 
 slopes. If in one of the valleys 
 there is a stream, notice the 
 direction in which it flows. 
 Why does the water flow at 
 all? Which way is down the 
 valley f Point up the valley. 
 
 Yon see, of course, that val- 
 leys have not only width, but 
 length. Perhaps your home is 
 in a valley that is many miles 
 in length. Find out if this is 
 true. 
 
 The dotted lines show the divides be- 
 tween the valleys. Trace them. What 
 else do you see in the picture ? 
 
 Most valleys have been cut out of the land by running 
 water. 
 
 In the picture (Fig. 26) you see several valleys. Rain 
 falls into each of these, some of it sinking into the soil and 
 some running off down the slopes. Into which valley will 
 the water flow that falls on the top of the ridge ? 
 
 When it rains upon the roof of a house (Fig. 27), the 
 water is divided along the highest part, some flowing 
 down one side, some down the other. The same thing 
 happens when water falls on the land. Because the water 
 parts, or divides, at the highest place between two valleys, 
 
32 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 this place is called a divide or water parting, or sometimes a 
 
 watershed. The 
 dotted lines in 
 the picture 
 (Fig. 26) show 
 some divides. 
 How irregular 
 the lines are ! 
 
 A divide some- 
 times stands out 
 sharply, as on 
 the roof of a 
 house ; but in 
 many places it 
 is difficult to 
 find, for the 
 land there may 
 appear to be 
 
 flat. Can you point out such a place in Fig. 26? 
 
 If you wish to know how wide one of these valleys is, where 
 would you begin to 
 
 measure ? Would it not 
 be from the divide on 
 one side to the divide 
 directly across on the 
 other side? Of course 
 it would, for the divides 
 form the boundaries of 
 the valley (Fig. 28). 
 
 A divide or water- 
 shed is the highest 
 ground separating 
 two valleys. 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 A house roof, to show that the water is divided along 
 
 the highest part. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 The line A-B shows the width of this valley. 
 Observe that the valley is much wider than 
 the stream. 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 33 
 
 While the valleys that one usually sees are both narrow 
 and short, there are some so long and wide that one could 
 not travel their whole length or width, even if he were to 
 spend all day and all night upon a fast train (Fig. 29). 
 In our own country there is such a one, called the Missis- 
 sippi Valley, which is over three thousand miles long and 
 many hundred miles wide. 
 
 
 
 " ' 
 
 
 
 
 *i 
 
 . ;'. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Picture of a river winding through a broad aDd very long valley. 
 
 When valleys are as large as this, their slopes must be 
 very gentle. On that account many people who live in 
 the Mississippi Valley scarcely know that they are in a 
 valley. The river flows through the lowest part, and the 
 homes of these people may be so far away that they have 
 never seen it. All about them the land appears so level 
 that it does not seem to form a part of a slope. It is 
 
34 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 A valley sliced through to illustrate how valleys may he formed hy the fold- 
 ing of the rock layers. 
 
 therefore called a plain. But when rain falls there, it 
 immediately flows toward the river, thus proving that the 
 plain is a part of the great Mississippi Valley slopes. 
 
 Such an immense valley was not cut out by running 
 water. You have learned that hills are made in that 
 way, but that mountains are formed by the rising of great 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 Truckee, California, a mining town among the Sierra Nevada Mountains. 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 35 
 
 masses of rock. Some of the great valleys, like the Mis- 
 sissippi, have also been made by changes in the level of 
 the land. But even the valleys that have been formed 
 in this way have generally been greatly changed by the 
 water that has run through them. 
 
 Some great valleys have been formed by the rising or 
 sinking of the land. 
 
 People generally choose the valleys for their homes. 
 Even among 
 high mountains, 
 where it is imr 
 possible to live 
 on the steep and 
 cold sides, they 
 often dwell in 
 the bottom of the 
 valleys. Here 
 they are sur- 
 rounded by lofty 
 peaks which ap- 
 pear to shut 
 them in almost 
 entirely (Fig. 
 
 31). 
 
 Hills are often 
 too cool, or else 
 have too shallow 
 a soil for farming. The rains have washed the dirt down 
 the steep slopes into the lower part of the valleys, making a 
 deep and fertile soil there. In the valleys, therefore, the 
 best farms are found, with their great fields of corn, oats, 
 wheat, and grass. Here, also, cattle and horses are raised 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 A "prize winner" grazing on alfalfa growing in the 
 deep, rich soil in a valley hottom of Kern County, 
 California. 
 
36 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 (Fig. 32), many large cities have sprung up, and railways 
 have been built. 
 
 Most of the land is really made up of slopes, and we 
 are living upon them. It may not seem that your home 
 is upon one, but it probably is. Your house may even be 
 upon a hilltop, and yet you may be living in a broad valley. 
 
 Most people live in some part of a valley. 
 
 The soil is all the more valuable because of the slopes 
 of valleys. Were it not for them the water, after a heavy 
 rain, would stand in a thin sheet upon the ground. But 
 where there are slopes down which the water can freely 
 run, it quickly flows off and does not drown the crops or 
 make the region unhealthful for man and animals. 
 
 The great importance of this matter is shown when farmers buy 
 land. One of the first things that they inquire about is drainage, 
 that is, the slopes, which allow the water to run off quickly. 
 
 If the water does not freely flow away, they even dig ditches in 
 order to carry it off (Fig. 33). Sometimes these ditches are left open, 
 as in the picture ; but, more often, tiles are placed in the bottom," 
 forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown back again. 
 The water finds its way into the pipes, through small openings that 
 are left for this purpose, and flows away. Good drainage is so im- 
 portant that men are often willing to incur great expense in order to 
 secure it. 
 
 In- some places the land is so nearly level that the 
 standing water produces swamps. There are thousands 
 of swamps in this country, and great sums of money are 
 spent in digging ditches to drain them. This makes the 
 swamp dry; and since the soil in such places is very fer- 
 tile, a great deal of land that was once of little value is 
 now changed to rich farms. 
 
 The slopes of valleys are valuable for drainage. 
 
VALLEYS 37 
 
 Valleys have had a great influence upon the roads of a 
 country. For instance, in going across mountains men 
 generally follow a valley, going higher and higher until 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 A ditch dug to drain a swamp. 
 
 they come to what is called a mountain pass (Fig. 34), 
 which is nothing more than a valley between mountain 
 peaks. After crossing this, they go down another valley 
 on the other side of the mountain. 
 
 Railroads also cross mountains through the valleys and 
 over the lower passes ; they wind in and out, often mak- 
 ing sharp curves in order to avoid cutting directly through 
 the rock. 
 
38 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Even in hilly regions it is usually easier to get from 
 one place to another by traveling in the valleys. In the 
 lower parts, near the streams, the land is most nearly level ; 
 but as soon as one attempts to go directly across the coun- 
 try, the roads become rough and hilly. 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 Inspiration Point on White Pass Route — the old-time route to the gold fields 
 of the Klondike. 
 
 On that account, when white men first came to this 
 country, and settled among the hills and mountains, they 
 built their roads in the valleys, often quite near the streams. 
 Men do the same thing still. 
 
 Where the country is more level, as upon a plain, it is 
 not so difficult to travel directly forward ; but even in 
 such places both the wagon roads and the railways are 
 often built round a small hill rather than over it. 
 
 The location of wagon roads and railways depends 
 on the valleys. 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 39 
 
 We have seen that hills and mountains afford many beautiful views. 
 But it is not necessary to go to the mountains to see fine views. You 
 may see them in almost any valley or plain. Those living in cities, 
 or even small towns, may see roadways well graded and shaded by 
 beautiful evergreen trees (Fig. 35). The advent of the automobile 
 has been the means of securing better roads. Why? 
 
 
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 3. 1 " 
 
 "^* 
 
 jjBLll 
 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 A beautiful tree-lined roadway for automobiles and carriages. 
 
 In the country, also, there are many beautiful sights, such as the 
 variously colored fields, the waving grain, the graceful trees, and the 
 shady roads. 
 
 In the spring the plants are fresh and bright; in the autumn they 
 are prettily colored; in the winter the damp snow clings to the trees, 
 bushes, fences, and houses until everything is robed in white (Fig 36). 
 Again, the rain freezes to the trees, and when the sun appears, every- 
 
40 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 thing sparkles in the bright light as if it were covered with a thou- 
 sand jewels. 
 
 It is not necessary, then, to travel far in order to find beautiful 
 views ; they are to be found everywhere, not only among the moun- 
 tains, but on the hills, in the valleys, in the country, and in the city. 
 
 The hills, mountains, and valleys are very beautiful. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 A scene in a city park after a heavy fall of damp snow. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What makes the little valleys? (2) Tell 
 why they must change from year to year. (3) Describe some of 
 those that you have crossed on the railway. (4) How many slopes 
 are necessary to make a valley? (5) What is a divide? (6) Tell 
 how large some of the largest valleys may be. (7) How have these 
 very large valleys been formed ? (8) What is a plain ? 
 
 (9) In what parts of mountains do most people live? Why? 
 (10) What is meant by drainage ? (11) How do farmers sometimes 
 provide drainage? (12) What is a swamp? (13) Why do roads 
 and railways among the mountains follow the valleys ? (14) What 
 
VALLEYS 
 
 41 
 
 is a mountain pass? (15) Where is the most level land usually- 
 found? (16) What fields or yards near you are beautiful? (17) Are 
 there any walks or drives that you greatly enjoy ? (18) How do the 
 views change from time to time ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Find a tiny valley and watch to see if it is 
 changed in any way by a heavy rain. (2) Find a still larger valley 
 in your neighborhood. (3) Find the divide on each side of it. 
 (4) Show that streets and roads are so made that they have a water- 
 shed. (5) Make some valleys in clay or sand and show the divides. 
 (6) Where is the largest valley in your neighborhood ? (7) Is your 
 home in one of the very large valleys, or in a small one ? (8) Show 
 by a drawing like Fig. 30 how the largest valleys have been made. 
 (9) Can you show it in any other way? (10) Why should swamp 
 land that has been drained raise uncommonly good crops? (11) Do 
 you know of any roads or railways that follow valleys and wind about 
 the hills? Tell about them. (12) Find some beautiful views in 
 your neighborhood. (13) Make a collection of pictures of valleys.. 
 (14) Write a story telling how valleys have been formed. 
 
 For References, see page 116. 
 
 A beautiful home iu the Sacramento Valley, Colusa, California. 
 
V. RIVERS 
 
 Every heavy rain causes the water to collect, here and 
 there, and flow down the slopes. At first only tiny rills 
 are formed; but these unite to form the little streams 
 and brooks. 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 A noisy brook in the Adirondacks of New York, tumbling over its rocky bed. 
 
 42 
 
RIVERS 
 
 43 
 
 In some places a brook is narrow and deep, in others 
 broad and shallow ; here it flows swiftly and there slowly. 
 Place a chip or a boat in such a brook, and it floats quietly 
 in some places, and then, coming to a rapid, it is whirled 
 along swiftly and perhaps upset (Fig. 37). Or it may 
 float to a waterfall, where the water tumbles down from the 
 top of a ledge, and then it is surely overturned (Fig. 38). 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 Pitt River Falls, Shasta County, California. 
 
 There are large rivers in the world much like these 
 little brooks, the main difference being in their size. But 
 even such rivers are generally small at their beginning 
 or source. Some of the largest have their sources far up 
 the mountains, where they are so small that a person can 
 easily step across them. 
 
44 HOME GEOGBAPHY 
 
 The water of these rivers may come from the melting 
 snows ; and, as it dashes along, beating itself into foam by- 
 striking against the rocks, it is joined by other streams 
 like itself. Often the water must rush round or leap over 
 large boulders which lie in its path ; and often it falls 
 directly downward for many feet with a great roar 
 (Fig. 75). 
 
 Great rivers at their source are usually no larger than 
 a brook. 
 
 The water of a mountain stream seems to be quite help- 
 less, with the great, hard rocks all about it ; but it never 
 gives up its struggle with them. Rocky cliffs may reach 
 far up into the sky on either side, and the slopes may be 
 so steep that loose pieces of stones often fall into the 
 water. But the torrent dashes these against one another, 
 and grinds them against its rocky bed, until they are worn 
 into pebbles. These pebbles are borne downstream and 
 are slowly ground up into grains of sand and bits of clay. 
 
 If we should travel down such a stream, starting near 
 its source among the wild mountains, we should find it 
 constantly changing. In the first place, it gradually grows 
 larger, because other streams, called branches or tributa- 
 ries, enter it (Fig. 39). The banks become lower and the 
 river grows broader and deeper. In places there may still 
 be rapids and falls, but the country on either side is not 
 so steep and rocky as it was among the mountains. Now, 
 houses, farms, and men are seen, and horses and cattle are 
 grazing in the fields near the banks. 
 
 At first, the slope of the stream bed was so great that 
 the river hurried along faster than you could run. Now 
 the water no longer flows rapidly enough to drag boulders 
 
BIVEBS 
 
 45 
 
 or even pebbles ; but it can still carry the sand and mud 
 brought by the rain from the soil of the hillsides. 
 
 Tig. 39. 
 
 Two streams, the Allegheny and Monongahela, uniting at the great city of 
 Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. 
 
 It has now been many days since this water left the 
 mountains. The 
 river has become 
 so wide that a long 
 bridge is needed 
 to cross it (Fig. 
 40), and so deep 
 that boats navi- 
 gate it, carrying 
 freight and pas- 
 sengers (Fig. 41). 
 
 At last, per- FlG - 40 - 
 
 , if. The long bridge across the Mississippi River at 
 
 haps weeks after — St. Louis. 
 
46 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 Sacramento River at Sacramento, California. It flows through a splendid 
 
 farming country. 
 
 it started, the water approaches the ocean ; and now the 
 downward slope of the river bed is so gentle that the current 
 cannot drag even grains of sand ; but it still carries fine 
 bits of rock-mud with it. These bits may be so tiny that 
 if yon were to place some of the muddy water in a glass, 
 it would take hours for all of them to settle and leave the 
 water clear. When the river enters the quiet waters of 
 the ocean, even this mud, or sediment, settles. 
 
 We have followed the river from the source to the 
 mouth, where it empties its waters into the great ocean. 
 At first it was a little stream, but by the addition of water 
 from many tributaries, it has grown larger and larger, 
 until at its mouth it may be more than a mile in width. 
 
 A great river is broad and deep at its mouth, and its 
 current is very slow; but it carries sediment even to the 
 ocean. 
 
 Where does so much water come from ? Taken up 
 from the ocean, it falls from the sky in the form of rain 
 
RIVERS 
 
 47 
 
 or snow. But we all know that small streams dry up and 
 disappear soon after a rain. Even large streams may be- 
 come quite dry in summer (Fig. 42). Why, then, do not 
 great rivers also dry up ? 
 
 One reason is that many rivers have a constant supply 
 at their source. That this is true of a stream starting in 
 a high mountain is clear, because we have seen (p. 28) 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 Paso Robles, California. Notice in the foreground the Salinas River bed, 
 which is filled with water when the rain falls or the snow in the mountains 
 melts, but dry during the summer. 
 
 that the snow in such places never entirely melts away. 
 It is also true of streams that have their sources in lakes 
 and swamps. 
 
 Then, again, not all of the rain water flows off, but some 
 sinks down into the ground. There is a great deal of 
 water in the ground, and it is this which men find when 
 they dig wells. This underground water trickles through 
 the soil, and through crevices in the rocks, often bubbling 
 
48 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 forth as a spring, weeks after it has fallen as rain some- 
 where else. Most large rivers are supplied with water 
 from hundreds and even thousands of such springs. 
 
 It is to be remembered, too, that a great river, with its many tribu- 
 taries, flows through a very large tract of country, so that when it is 
 not raining in one part, the rain may be falling in another. Thus, 
 while one tributary carries little water, heavy rain may keep others 
 full, and this flows into the main stream, preventing it from drying up. 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 Photograph of a river flood on the Ohio, which has forced the people out of 
 their home. Tell what you see in this picture. 
 
 If a heavy rain falls, or if the snow melts rapidly, so 
 much water may flow into a river that it rises and over- 
 flows its banks (Fig. 43). Those who live near such 
 streams are in danger of being drowned by the floods, 
 and in some places men have built banks of ' earth, 
 
RIVERS 49 
 
 called levees, to keep the water from overflowing the 
 towns and farms. 
 
 The supply of river water comes from rain or melting 
 snoiu, from lakes and swamps, and from underground. 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 A small river basin drained by a valley stream. Tell what you see in this picture. 
 
 Every one has seen muddy water flowing in gutters, or in rills on 
 the hillsides. Great quantities of soil are washed away in this man- 
 ner, as has been shown (p. 12). But what becomes of it all ? 
 
 If you have seen a sidewalk or a field flooded with water, you per- 
 haps remember that when the flood disappeared, a thin layer of fine 
 mud was left. This mud was carried along by the current until it 
 reached a place where the water stood almost still, then it slowly set- 
 tled. The same thing will happen if some muddy water is allowed to 
 stand in a glass for a time. Try it. 
 
 E 
 
50 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 In much the same way, when there is a river flood (Fig. 43), the 
 water spreads out on either side of the river in a great, thin sheet, flow- 
 ing slowly along and depositing a thin layer of mud. Each flood adds 
 a layer, making the land higher, until, after many years, it is lifted 
 considerably above the usual level of the river. Such land is gener- 
 ally a level plain ; and since it is made by river floods, it is called a 
 flood ■plain. 
 
 Some of the sediment carried by rivers forms flood 
 plains. 
 
 Much of the sediment is carried on until it reaches a lake 
 or the ocean. Here, opposite the river mouth, the water 
 is generally quiet, so that the mud sinks to the bottom. 
 
 At first only 
 enough sedi- 
 ment is collected 
 to form low, 
 swampy land ; 
 but this is gradu- 
 ally lifted higher 
 and higher, by 
 layers of mud 
 from each flood, 
 until it becomes 
 high enough to 
 make dry land. 
 These plains 
 
 at the mouths of rivers form what are called deltas (Fig. 
 45). Many streams have such wide deltas that one 
 cannot see across them, most of the sediment having come 
 from fields, hills, and mountains, perhaps hundreds of 
 miles away. The surface of the delta is a plain, because 
 it cannot be built any higher than the floods themselves 
 have reached. 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
 This picture shows a river delta. What else do you 
 
 see in the picture ? 
 
RIVERS 
 
 51 
 
 From year to year more sediment is brought down, and 
 the land is built farther and farther into the water, so 
 that deltas are constantly growing. The slope of the 
 river bed is usually so gentle that all of the water cannot 
 flow out in a single channel. For this reason it enters the 
 sea through several arms, cutting 
 the delta into several parts. 
 
 Some of the sediment car- 
 ried by rivers builds deltas at 
 their mouths. 
 
 A river entering the sea may re-, 
 ceive water brought by hundreds of 
 tributaries. Thus the rain that falls 
 in places even hundreds of miles apart 
 may at last be brought together in 
 a single main stream. Such a main 
 stream with all of its tributaries is 
 called a river system (Fig. 46). For 
 instance, we speak of the Mississippi 
 River system, meaning the Mississippi 
 and its many tributaries. 
 
 All the country which is drained by 
 a single main stream is called a river 
 basin. Thus all the land drained by 
 the Mississippi River is included in 
 the Mississippi basin. 
 
 One should not think of this as a 
 true basin. A real basin, as a wash- 
 basin, has a rim extending all around it. 
 is the divide ; but there is no divide, or rim, near the mouth of a 
 river, since the water runs out into the sea. If it were a true basin, 
 with a rim all around it, the water would collect and form a lake. 
 
 All the land whose waters are drained by a single river 
 is called a river basin, and all these streams together form 
 a river system. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Picture of a river system and 
 river basin. Point to some 
 of the tributaries ; to their 
 source ; to the mouth ; to the 
 delta. 
 
 The rim of a river basin 
 
52 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Some ways have already been suggested in which rivers 
 are of much use. They build flood plains and deltas, thus 
 making some of the most fertile land in the world. Rivers 
 also furnish water to plants, animals, and man. 
 
 On page 6 it was shown that plants sometimes wither during hot 
 weather, because the soil is dry. But near rivers the soil is usually 
 kept so moist that plants grow well even in dry weather. 
 
 There are some places in the world where there is not enough rain 
 for crops to grow. The people in such regions sometimes lead the. 
 water out of the rivers into ditches, through which it flows for long- 
 distances. Then it is spread out over the thirsty soil, so that plants 
 can thrive. This is called irrigation, and in some places no crops can 
 be raised without it. 
 
 Many animals and people depend on rivers for all the water they 
 use. Even whole cities obtain their drinking water solely from rivers 
 (Fig. 49). 
 
 Streams not only bring water that is needed, but they 
 also carry away that which is not wanted. A river is 
 really a great ditch for draining the land, so that when- 
 ever the snow melts rapidly, or a heavy rain falls, the 
 rivers quickly remove the water. They also carry off the 
 filthy water, or sewage, of many towns and cities. 
 
 Rivers supply ivater that is needed, and remove that 
 which is not wanted. 
 
 The water of rivers is also used for turning wheels to 
 help make many articles, such as cloth and flour. 
 
 You have perhaps noticed how windmills work (Fig. 68). 
 The wind blows the large wheel round and round, and 
 it is so connected with other wheels that it can pump 
 water, or turn a saw for sawing wood, or grind corn. 
 Likewise steam is used to turn the wheels of a railway 
 engine, so that it drags the heavy cars along. 
 
 River water is made to do work in much the same man- 
 
RIVERS 
 
 53 
 
 ner. The water, racing rapidly along, strikes a wheel 
 and makes it whirl round. This wheel, being connected 
 with others, causes them to turn also, much as one wheel 
 in a clock causes others to revolve. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 Old mill and wheel covered with moss. 
 
 Saint Helena, California. 
 
 Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are 
 sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is 
 made into cloth, and many other kinds of work are done. 
 
 The water that furnishes the power to turn the wheels 
 is called the water power, and the buildings in which such 
 manufacturing is carried on are called factories or mills. 
 
 In many places the river water does not flow fast enough 
 to strike a wheel with much force ; water power is found 
 
54 110ME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near 
 rapids and falls. Here mills have been built, and then 
 great cities have often sprung up (Fig. 75, p. 91). 
 Rivers also supply water power for manufacturing. 
 
 There is still another way in which rivers are extremely 
 valuable. It has always been difficult to find a conven- 
 ient means for carrying goods from one place to another. 
 In some places there are no roads ; and even where there 
 are, they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. 
 
 Yet most of the articles that we use every day, like 
 sugar, flour, oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, have 
 been carried long distances, sometimes thousands of miles. 
 Even if, the roads were excellent, it would take a great 
 deal of time, and cost much money, to bring these things 
 in wagons. To carry them by railway takes less time, 
 but is expensive. 
 
 A broad, deep river is really one of the finest roads in 
 the world. To be sure, no wagons or cars can be drawn 
 over it, but boats move there with ease. A river boat 
 can carry as much as scores of wagons or cars (Fig. 48), 
 and many may be going and coming at the same time, so 
 that a large river is equal to several railroads ; it costs 
 little, too, to keep it in repair. 
 
 For these reasons carrying goods by boat upon rivers, 
 or river navigation, is a very important business. Indeed, 
 it is so important that in many places broad ditches, called 
 canals, have been cut in the soil and rock in order to carry 
 goods by boat. 
 
 Before the railways were built, — which is no longer 
 ago than when your grandfathers were boys, — boats were 
 used for carrying all sorts of articles from place to place. 
 
RIVERS 
 
 55 
 
 Even to-day, when there are so many good wagon roads 
 and railways, it is cheaper to carry crops and other prod- 
 ucts on boats than in cars, and this is often done. 
 
 We see, then, why many people have preferred to build 
 their homes near rivers. A farmer prefers to live near a 
 good wagon road, or near the railway station, so that he 
 may easily send his crops away ; and, for the same reason, 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 A view across the broad Mississippi at New Orleans. The other hank is seen 
 dimly in the distance. A loaded river boat is just coming in, and others 
 are tied up to the levee. 
 
 people have always liked to live near a river, which is a 
 good road or waterway. It is partly on this account that 
 many of the large cities of the world stand on the banks 
 of large rivers. Do you know of any such cities ? 
 Rivers are also of value for navigation. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Describe a stream that you have seen. 
 (2) What are rapids and falls? (3) Describe a small stream in 
 the mountains. (4) What does it do with the rocks in its way? 
 (5) What are tributaries ? (6) Does the current grow more or less 
 
56 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 swift as one goes farther downstream? (7) How does the country- 
 change in appearance ? (8) What becomes of the pebbles ? Why ? 
 
 (9) What is meant by the source of a river ? By its mouth ? 
 
 (10) Where do rivei's obtain their water? (11) What is a spring? 
 (12) What effect has a heavy rain upon a stream ? (13) Why do 
 not large rivers dry up in summer? (14) Why does not sediment 
 sink where the current is swift? (15) What is a flood plain ? Why 
 is it level? (16) Explain how a delta is made. (17) What is a 
 river basin? (18) A river system ? (19) Why do plants grow well 
 on the banks of a river ? (20) What is irrigation ? (21) How are 
 rivers useful for drainage? (22) What is water power? (23) In 
 what ways is a river a fine road? (24) Give some of the reasons 
 why many cities have sprung up near great rivers. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) After a heavy rain, follow a small stream 
 from its source to its mouth. (2) Throw a chip into the water, and 
 follow it as far as you can. (3) Why are the rocks in river beds 
 usually so smooth and round ? (4) If there is a brook or river near 
 you, examine its banks. Is it a tributary of another stream ? 
 (5) How deep and how wide is it? (6) Trace a brook to its source, 
 if possible. Find several tributaries. (7) What large river is nearest 
 your home ? What are its largest tributaries? (8) What is meant 
 by "up a river"? By "down a river"? By right bank? By left 
 bank? By river channel? By river bed? (9) Find a spring. 
 Why is its water cool? (10) Watch a well that is being dug, 
 to see if underground water is found. (11) Find a flood plain along 
 the side of a stream. (12) Find a delta. (13) Do you know 
 of a city that gets its water from a river? (14) Make a small 
 water wheel, and arrange for a stream of water to turn it round. 
 (15) Visit a mill that is run by water power. (16) Find out more 
 about canals. (17) Make a collection of pictures of rivers, and 
 notice as many things as you can about them. (18) Find some 
 poems describing brooks and rivers. (19) Write a story of a journey 
 from the source to the mouth of a river. 
 
 For References, see page 116. 
 
VI. PONDS AND LAKES 
 
 Rivers supply towns and cities with water, and also 
 turn the wheels of factories ; but some streams become 
 so low in summer that they lack water for these pur- 
 poses. To prevent this difficulty men often build dams 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 Merced Falls, California. Water supply for domestic use and for irrigation. 
 
 of wood, earth, or stone across the rivers, and in this way 
 collect sufficient water to make ponds (Fig. 49). When 
 the rivers are high, these ponds are filled, and enough 
 water gathers to last through the dry season. 
 
 Lakes, may be made in a similar manner, for they are like ponds, 
 only larger. Sometimes they are several hundred miles in length, 
 and perhaps one hundred miles in width. Some of the largest in the 
 
 57 
 
58 " HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 world, the Great Lakes in the northern United States, were made by 
 dams formed ages ago across parts of the great St.. Lawrence River 
 system. 
 
 But in most cases these dams have not been built by men. Beavers 
 have made a few of them. There used to be a great many of these 
 little animals in this country, and some are still left. Since they pre- 
 fer quiet, shallow ponds in which to live, they gnaw down trees and 
 build dams with the logs ; then they build their homes in the water 
 thus collected. 
 
 In other places, where the sides of a valley are steep, great masses 
 of rock and earth have sometimes fallen, in the form of avalanches, 
 and blocked or dammed the streams. 
 
 Also it was stated (p. 20) that the earth has been warped or bent 
 upward in some places, forming low ridges, or even lofty mountain 
 ranges. In this way the ground has sometimes slowly risen across 
 river valleys, making high dams ; in such cases large lakes have been 
 formed. 
 
 There are many other ways in which dams have been built, espe- 
 cially by means of glaciers, which you will study about later. 
 
 Most poncts and lakes have been formed by dams 
 across valleys. 
 
 Since a lake is generally a part of a stream, it is evident 
 that water must flow into it. The river that flows into a 
 lake is called the inlet, and that which flows out is called 
 the outlet. There are also many streams entering from 
 the sides. Each of these brings sediment, which settles 
 in the lake, slowly filling it. At first deltas are built 
 opposite to the stream mouths ; then, in time, the whole 
 lake is filled and changed to a swamp. Many a swamp is 
 really the last stage in the life of a lake. 
 
 The surface of a lake appears to be level ; but one part 
 is really slightly higher than the other, otherwise.the water 
 would not flow out of it. The higher part of the lake, near 
 the inlet, is called the head of the lake, the lower part, near 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 
 
 59 
 
 the outlet, the foot of the lake. It is correct, then, to 
 speak of going up or down a lake, just as we speak of 
 going up or down a river. 
 
 Some lakes have no outlets, because there is so little water that 
 the basin cannot fill up aud overflow. This has a very peculiar effect 
 upon the water, for in time it becomes salt. Probably you have heard 
 of the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. These are salt 
 lakes of this kind, and no one would drink their water, even if he 
 were dying of thirst. 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 A mountain stream. An outlet to a lake. 
 
 But why do such lakes become salt? There is some salt in all water, 
 even in that which we drink, although so little that we do not notice 
 it. When water flows into a lake, the salt is carried with it. If there 
 is no outlet, the salt can go.no farther; but each day some of the 
 water is changed to vapor and carried away in the air. As the bits 
 of salt cannot go off in this way, they remain, and increase in number, 
 until, in time, the water becomes so salt that we have a salt lake. 
 
 Most lakes have inlets and outlets ; but some, having 
 no outlets, become salt. 
 
60 
 
 HOME GEOGBAPHY 
 
 The land at the margin of a river is called the bank, but 
 that along the margin of a lake is called the shore. Some- 
 times the lake shore is low and wet, being overgrown 
 with swamp plants. Again, it is pleasant to walk upon, 
 being made of sand and pebbles brought there by the 
 waves. This kind of shore is called a beach (Fig. 51). 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
 Lake shore. Clear Lake, California. 
 
 Many lake shores are regular, but many more are irreg- 
 ular. In some places points of land, called headlands, ex- 
 tend into the water (Fig. 52). If small, these are called 
 points or capes; if large, peninsulas. A narrow neck of 
 land joining two larger pieces is an isthmus. Bodies of 
 land entirely surrounded by water are known as islands. 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 
 
 61 
 
 
 \?>\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 _, B » 
 
 ^fo->C-^ 
 
 S38HBB 
 
 
 - .V3V*W> 
 
 1 '".' •■■ ' 
 
 
 
 ^o'v<\\. i 
 
 
 
 *Po'ml 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 K 
 
 
 ^ tH 
 
 
 K*f» 
 
 ^ >: ,. 
 
 
 
 3b -t j - JSB 
 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 A view of Moosehead Lake in Maine. Learn what each of the names means. 
 
 The water that is partly shut in between two headlands 
 is called a bay. When a bay has deep water, and is so 
 nearly surrounded by land that vessels can enter it and 
 be protected from the wind and waves, it is called a 
 harbor. A narrow strip of water connecting two larger 
 bodies of water is known as a strait. 
 
 When the water gathers behind a dam to form a lake, it enters 
 many valleys, forming bays and harbors, with capes, and perhaps 
 islands between. This is the chief reason for the irregular shores 
 of many lakes. If you will make a little valley in clay, with two or 
 three tributaries entering, then put a dam across it and fill it with 
 water, you will see just how this is done. 
 
 The shores of lahes are often irregular, producing 
 bodies of land and water of rnany shapes. 
 
 Ponds and lakes are useful in many of the same ways 
 as rivers. They help to keep the ground moist ; they 
 
62 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 How many of the features just mentioned can you find in this picture ? Find 
 some also on Fig. 60. 
 
 furnish water to cities, and they supply water to turn 
 the wheels of factories. Besides this, many valuable 
 fish are caught in lakes, and much ice is cut from their 
 surface. 
 
 Again, like rivers, lakes are important waterways. 
 Upon large lakes, like the Great Lakes, hundreds of ves- 
 sels are going and coming, carrying men, grain, coal, lum- 
 ber, and countless other things. On this account many 
 people have settled on the shores of large lakes ; and, as a 
 result, many towns and cities have been built there. Do 
 you know of any ? 
 
 The shores of lakes are often very beautiful, and many persons go 
 to them in summer to hunt, fish, and canoe. There are hotels there, 
 too (Fig. 52), and some lakes are important summer resorts. 
 
 Lakes supply drinking water, water power, fish, and 
 ice. They are also useful for navigation and for sum- 
 mer resorts. 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 
 
 63 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 A, picture to show how deep a vessel sinks in the water. 
 
 How are vessels loaded with goods ? And again, how 
 can these cargoes be unloaded ? Wagons may be driven 
 beside a railway car, and be filled or emptied speedily. 
 But a large boat 
 sinks down 
 many feet into 
 the water (Fig. 
 54), so that if 
 it came near the 
 shore, it might 
 strike the bot- 
 tom and be 
 wrecked. 
 
 Fortunately, 
 
 here and there along the lake shore, there are small bays 
 with deep water. The opening is large enough for vessels 
 to enter easily, but small enough to keep out the fierce 
 waves. Here we have a fine harbor (Fig. 55). 
 
 From the shores of the harbor men build piers of wood 
 or stone, called wharves. These reach into the deeper 
 water, where ships may be fastened or moored to them. 
 
 Large cities are sometimes found on parts of a lake shore where there 
 are no such natural harbors. In that case harbors have to be made, 
 even though it is expensive to do so. Walls of rock, or of posts driven 
 deep into the ground, are built in such a way as nearly to inclose a 
 body of water, very much as capes inclose the water of a natural harbor. 
 Such a wall is called a breakwater (Fig. 56), because it breaks the 
 force of the waves, and prevents them from entering the space 
 behind. 
 
 When a harbor is not deep enough for vessels to enter, it is 
 necessary to dig out the dirt and rock from the bottom. This 
 is quite often done in the inlet and outlet streams at the ends of 
 a lake. 
 
64 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 Avalon, Catalina Island, California. A noted resort. 
 
 Harbors are places where vessels find safety from 
 storms and where cargoes are loaded and unloaded 
 with ease. 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 Breakwater at San Pedro, where the coast has no natural harbor. 
 
 Built by U. S. Government. 
 
PONDS AND LAKES 65 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Why are dams built in rivers ? (2) Ex- 
 plain how ponds are made. (3) How do lakes differ from ponds? 
 (4) How are lakes made? (5) Tell what you can about beaver 
 dams. (6) In what other ways may lake dams be made ? (7) What 
 is thainlet of a lake? The outlet? The head? The foot? (8) How 
 does it happen that some lakes have no outlet? (9) What about 
 the water then ? Why ? 
 
 (10) What is meant by shore? By beach? (11) What do you 
 understand by a regular lake shore? (12) Make a drawing of a 
 cape; peninsula; isthmus; island; bay; strait. (13) Tell in words 
 what each of these is. (14) What is the cause of these irregularities? 
 (15) Mention a few uses of ponds and lakes. (16) What is a harbor? 
 (17) Why must the water be deep? (18) How can a harbor protect 
 ships from storms? (19) What is a wharf ? (20) How are harbors 
 often made ? (21) What is a breakwater ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Build a dam in some small stream and note 
 how rapidly the water collects. (2) Find out more about bsavers. 
 
 (3) Look for a pond or lake and examine the dam that caused it. 
 
 (4) See if there are both an inlet and an outlet. (5) Walk up the 
 lake ; walk down the lake. (6) Examine the shore and notice the 
 different forms of land and water. (7) Find a small harbor. Would 
 every bay make a good harbor? (8) Make a small, irregular 
 hollow in clay and fill it with water to form capes, harbors, and 
 islands. (9) Find some of these in the pictures and maps of 
 this book. 
 
 (10) How do men get ice from a lake ? (11) In what ways do men 
 catch fish? What kinds of fish have you seen caught? (12) Find 
 pictures of good harbors. Look for the wharves and the breakwater. 
 (13) Build a breakwater to form a little harbor in a small stream or 
 pond. (14) Find just how many feet some of our largest ships sink 
 into the water. 
 
 (15) Walk toward the nearest large lake. What are some of its 
 tributaries? Where is the inlet stream? The outlet? What are 
 their names? (16) Name some cities that are on lake harbors. 
 (17) Write a story telling what you would expect to see along a 
 lake shore. 
 
 For References, see page 116. 
 
6Q 
 
 HOME GEOGBAPHY 
 
 Matchless Lake Tahoe, California. 
 
 Stowe Lake, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. 
 
VII. THE OCEAN 
 
 The great rivers, starting as tin}' brooks, grow into 
 larger and still larger streams, until, after days and per- 
 haps weeks, they reach the mighty ocean. No doubt much 
 of the rain falling in your neighborhood finally reaches 
 the sea in this way ; and if you could float along upon it 
 in a light boat, in time you too would reach the ocean. 
 
 We can see across most lakes, and can sail across even 
 the largest in a day or two ; but the ocean is far larger. 
 One could sail upon it in the same direction for many 
 days without coming to land (Fig. 57). It is so great 
 that it surrounds all the land on which people live, and 
 no matter in which direction you might travel, if you 
 went far enough you would come to it. 
 
 If you were to start out to reach the ocean, the journey 
 might last many days. It might be necessary to go up 
 hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly 
 over great ranges of mountains. You would be surprised 
 to find how much land there is, and how many farms, 
 villages, towns, and cities there are. 
 
 But there is far more water than land. In fact, the 
 water covers about three fourths of the earth's surface and 
 the land only one fourth. If one were to travel entirely 
 around the earth, he would probably spend much more 
 than one half of his time upon the ocean. 
 
 The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the 
 earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may be thousands of 
 miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach them all. 
 
 67 
 
68 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The water of the ocean is too salt to drink ; but river water is 
 fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers entering the sea, 
 would you not expect that their water would make the ocean less salt ? 
 It does do so near the mouths of great rivers ; but soon it becomes 
 mixed and swallowed up in the salt water. This is another way of 
 showing the size of the ocean, for all the river water that enters it is 
 not enough to make it fresh. 
 
 The salt water of the ocean surrounds all the land. 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 A view of the great ocean. 
 
 Different parts of the ocean have different names. For 
 instance, the Atlantic Ocean is the part lying between' the 
 United States and the land called Europe, where the 
 English, German, and other peoples live. We buy many 
 articles from these countries, such as woolen cloth, knives, 
 oranges, and olives ; and they likewise purchase other 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 69 
 
 articles from us, such as wheat, cotton, and meat. The 
 
 way to reach these people is to cross the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The fastest steamers need five or six days for the 
 voyage. 
 
 In all parts of the earth the ocean is a great highway. It is so 
 large that thousands of ships are traveling upon it in all directions, 
 carrying people, cattle, grain, fruit, iron, different kinds of machines, 
 and many other things. Although there are so many ships, the ocean 
 is so large that one ship may sail for days without seeing another. 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 Ocean steamer, about to leave for the Orient. 
 
 Ocean navigation is therefore a great business, and many 
 thousands of men are engaged in it. Most of the ships 
 used are larger than the vessels upon lakes, and they 
 sink deeper into the water (Fig. 58). Very large ones, 
 when loaded, reach down about thirty feet below the 
 surface. 
 
70 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Of course the ships meet with storms upon the ocean, as upon lakes. 
 In fact, the ocean waves are at times so high that they sweep over and 
 almost cover up the largest vessels (Fig. 59). 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 Ocean waves during a storm. 
 
 The coast of the ocean resembles the lake shore in hav- 
 ing capes, peninsulas, islands, isthmuses, straits, and bays 
 (Fig. 60). We have learned (p. 35) that the land in 
 places has been raised or lowered. When it is lowered 
 near the seacoast, the water enters the valleys and partly 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
 A picture of Castine harbor on the irregular coast of Maine. Here the land 
 has been lowered so that the salt water of the ocean has entered the val- 
 leys, covering their bottoms, but leaving the hilltops as islands, capes, etc. 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 71 
 
 drowns the land, as it does in lakes (p. 61). This, of 
 course, makes an irregular coast. 
 
 Naturally, on such an irregular coast there are harbors 
 which large vessels enter, and in which they are safe from 
 storms. For example, New York harbor is so broad and 
 deep that hundreds of ships (Fig. 61) are found in it at 
 all times, either loading or unloading their cargoes, or 
 waiting for storms to pass. 
 
 Fig. 61. 
 
 A view among the ships along the wharves of New York harbor. The great 
 
 Brooklyn Bridge is seen behind the masts. 
 
 Goods are brought to New York, not only from Europe, but also 
 from China and Australia, and, in fact, from all parts of the world. 
 It is quite possible that the tea and coffee which are used on your 
 table, and the bananas and pineapples which you have eaten, were 
 brought over the ocean and unloaded in this harbor. If not, they 
 were unloaded in some other fine harbor, such as Boston, San Fran- 
 cisco, Philadelphia, Baltimore, or New Orleans. 
 
72 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Since the ocean easily connects such harbors with all 
 parts of the world, it is natural that great cities should 
 spring up where the best ocean harbors are found. It is 
 partly on this account that New York, Philadelphia, Bos- 
 ton, and San Francisco have become such large cities. 
 
 Vessels come toward these seaports from all parts of the world ; 
 but it is often difficult to tell just where to enter the harbors, espe- 
 cially at night. Ships are in danger of going out of the way, and of 
 running upon rocks, or reefs, in the shallow water near the coast 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 A vessel wrecked by running aground upon a shallow reef. 
 
 (Fig. 62): On that account, tall lighthouses are built on many 
 islands and capes, so that" captains may know by their lights which 
 way to go in order to enter the harbors (Fig. 63). 
 
 TJxe ocean is a great waterway connecting different 
 parts of the world. 
 
 Not only are goods carried on vessels, but- many men go out in 
 them, often out of sight of land, in order to catch the fish which. live 
 in such great numbers in the sea. Instead of hooks and lines, long 
 nets are often used, and in them so many fish are caught that the 
 vessel is loaded down with fish. No doubt some of the mackerel that 
 you have eaten have been caught in this way. Picture 67, page 79, 
 shows a vessel that is used to catch ocean fish. 
 
 In summer the ocean shore is cooler than the land far 
 away from the sea. This is because the air is cooled as 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 73 
 
 it passes over the water. Many people therefore go to 
 the seashore to avoid the hot weather, just as others go to 
 the mountains. Here they spend day after day climbing 
 about over the rocks or walking upon the clean, sandy 
 beach, breathing the fresh air, enjoying the beautiful 
 scenery, and bathing in the cool salt water (Fig. 64). 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 Point Loma Lighthouse, California. A bright light is placed at the top of the 
 tower so that it may he seen far away. 
 
 On this account many houses, and even towns, have been built at 
 those places along the seashore where people wish to spend their vaca- 
 tions. There are large hotels to accommodate the visitors (p. 76) ; 
 and in the summer these places are crowded ; but very few people 
 remain at summer resorts during the winter. 
 
 There is another way in which the ocean is even more 
 useful to man. It is the sea water which supplies us with 
 moisture, so that there can be rain. If it were not for the 
 
74 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 great ocean, very little rain would fall. So every one is 
 deeply indebted to the ocean, even though he may live 
 thousands of miles from it. Soon you will learn (p. 80) 
 how its water reaches us in the form of rain. 
 
 The seashore is a popular summer resort; the ocean 
 water supplies food and makes rain possible. 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 Bath House, Ocean Park, California. 
 
 Rivers, lakes, and the ocean present many beautiful views. You 
 may have observed that in cities, where people plan for fine parks, 
 they arrange, if possible, to have a lake or stream as part of the 
 scenery. A body of water, even if but a brook, greatly improves a view. 
 
 A brook is a beautiful object (Fig. 65). How pleasant to see its 
 green banks, to listen to its rippling waters, and to watch its tiny 
 rapids, whirlpools, and falls, as it travels onward to the ocean ! 
 
 Rivers are not less attractive ; like the brooks, their rushing 
 waters seem to tell a story, and one loves to linger by them, to listen 
 and to look. At times, when swollen by floods, they are wild and 
 savage ; again, they are quiet, peaceful, and beautiful. They wind in 
 and out among the steep and wooded hills ; now they flow along 
 noiselessly, then they rush over rapids and falls with a roar; here 
 their banks are low and green, there they are high, steep, and rocky. 
 
THE OCEAN 
 
 75 
 
 The lakes and the ocean are sparkling sheets of silvery water, often 
 dotted here and there with white sails. Sometimes the color is green, 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 A quaint bridge across a beautiful brook in New York State. 
 
 again it is bine ; and when the clouds hang over it, it is dark and 
 gloomy. There are beautiful sunrises and sunsets to watch ; and 
 one can see the storms come and go, with the waves dashing into the 
 whitest of foam. In fact, the water, the sky, and the coast are always 
 changing in appearance, so that the lake shore and the seashore are 
 among the most attractive of places. 
 
 The land and the water together furnish -many beauti- 
 ful viezus. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What place does the water of brooks 
 and rivers finally reach? (2) How much of the earth's surface is 
 water? (3) What other facts show that the ocean is very large? 
 (4) Tell about ocean navigation. (5) What is the cause for irregular 
 ocean shores? (6) Tell what you can about New York harbor. 
 (7) Why are large cities found on the fine ocean harbors ? (8) Of 
 what use are lighthouses ? (9) Name some foods obtained from the 
 ocean. (10) Why do many people go to the seashore in summer ? 
 
 (11) Do you know of any park or meadow with a stream or lake in 
 it? If so, describe it. (12) Did you ever enjoy watching the water? 
 
76 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Where was it? (13) How does the surface of a lake or ocean change 
 at different times ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) In what direction would you go to reach the 
 ocean? How far is it? (2) Find pictures of large harbors with 
 ships in them. (3) Name several seaport cities. (4) Have some one 
 tell you about a journey across the ocean. (5) Name as many arti- 
 cles as you can that come from over the ocean. (6) How does the 
 captain of a vessel know in what direction he is going, after losing- 
 sight of land? (7) How are ships made to move through the water ? 
 (8) What use is made of whales ? (9) Find out how fish are caught. 
 (10) Ask some one who has visited a summer resort on the seashore 
 to tell you about it. (11) Is there any brook or river that you enjoy 
 visiting? Where is it most beautiful? (12) Tell about some of the 
 storms on the ocean described in Robinson Crusoe. (13) Do you know 
 of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence of water ? 
 If so, where are they? Describe them. (14) Collect, from magazines, 
 pictures of beautiful views with water in them. (15) Write a story, 
 telling what you would expect to see in crossing the ocean. (16) Make 
 a drawing of a ship. 
 
 For References, see page 116. 
 
 Coronado Beach, San Diego, California. Coronado Hotel in the distance. 
 
VIII. THE AIR 
 
 Since air cannot be seen, people often forget that it 
 really is something ; but a fire will not burn without it, 
 and plants, animals, and men must have it to breathe. In 
 fact, drowning means nothing more than sinking under 
 water, where there is not enough air to breathe. 
 
 This is proof that the air is really something, even 
 though it cannot be seen ; and you can prove the same 
 thing in other ways. For instance, if you stand with 
 your face to a breeze, you feel the air moving. Some- 
 times this movement of the air, which we call wind, is so 
 rapid that it blows down trees and houses. 
 
 Here is an experiment to prove that the air is something and that 
 it fills space. 
 
 Find an empty bottle without a cork and sink it in water with the 
 open end up. Notice the gurgling noise as the bubbles of air rise to 
 the surface, while the bottle slowly fills. Where does this air come 
 from? And why does not the bottle fill more quickly? You see that 
 although we called the bottle empty, it was really filled with air which 
 could not be seen. The water could not enter the bottle until it pushed 
 the air out, because the bottle could not be filled with two substances 
 at the same time. So, as the air was leaving, the water was entering. 
 
 If the bottle is turned bottom upward, and pushed perfectly straight 
 into water, the air will be given no chance to slip out, and then the 
 bottle cannot be filled with water. 
 
 Air is something real and occupies space. 
 
 There is air all around the earth, and it extends many 
 miles above us. This air, often called the atmosphere, is 
 
 77 
 
78 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 usually in motion, now in one direction, now in another, 
 and it often moves fast enough to cause a breeze, or wind. 
 
 Even when the wind is not blowing near the ground, it may be 
 doing so far above, where the clouds are. You can see that this is so 
 if you watch the clouds as they are driven along by the winds. 
 
 Let us see what causes the air to move. Heat has much 
 to do with it. If you watch smoke in a room where there 
 
 is a lighted lamp, you will 
 see that it moves toward the 
 lamp, and then rises above 
 it (Fig. 66). Hot air also 
 rises above a stove, or above 
 a furnace through the regis- 
 ters ; and during the winter, 
 when there is a hot fire, the 
 air near the ceiling of a room 
 is much warmer than that 
 near the floor. 
 
 The reason for all this is, 
 that when air is warmed, it is 
 expanded and made lighter. 
 Light objects, such as wood, 
 will rise and float in water. 
 So, also, when air is warmed 
 and made light near a lamp, 
 the cooler, heavy air all 
 around flows toward the lamp and the warm air is forced 
 to rise. It is, in fact, pushed up by the current of heavy, 
 cool air. 
 
 Now we can understand the cause of winds. The at- 
 mosphere in one place, perhaps to the north of you, is 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 Smoke rising from the table above 
 the lighted lamp. 
 
THE AIR 
 
 79 
 
 colder than that where you are. This cold air, being 
 denser and heavier than the warm air, begins to push it 
 away, and thus moves toward you, forming a cold north 
 wind. 
 
 People on the sea or lake shore often have such winds in summer, 
 when, during a hot day, the air over the land becomes heated, while 
 that over the water remains cool. The cool air then commences to 
 move landward, and a cool sea breeze begins to blow. 
 
 Whenever the air is heavy in one place, and light in 
 another, winds will blow toward the place where it is 
 light. Since this lightness of the air is usually caused by 
 heat, we say that 
 
 Most winds are caused by differences in the tempera- 
 ture of the air. 
 
 Winds are useful in many ways, 
 vessels through 
 the water, and 
 they turn wind- 
 mills (Fig. 68), 
 which are often 
 used to pump 
 water from wells. 
 But what is most 
 important, they 
 carry water all 
 over the earth. 
 At all times 
 there is enough 
 water in the at- 
 mosphere to fill 
 many large lakes. 
 
 They drive sailing 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 A sailing vessel driven through the water by the force 
 of the wind. This is the picture of a fishing schooner 
 going out of the harbor after a load of fish. 
 
80 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 You know that there must be some water in the air, for 
 wet clothes hung out on a line become dry as the water 
 passes off into the air. 
 
 Some of the water in the atmosphere enters it after 
 every rainstorm, when the muddy roads and wet fields are 
 dr} T ing ; but most of it comes from rivers, 
 lakes, and the ocean. We have already learned 
 (p. 67) that the ocean covers about three 
 fourths' of the surface of the earth. The air 
 is taking water from all parts of it, so that 
 each minute enough water to fill thousands 
 and thousands of barrels is leaving the ocean 
 and floating away in the atmosphere. 
 
 Another reason why we know that there 
 must be much water in the air, is that much 
 comes out of it in the form of rain, snow, hail, 
 dew, and frost. 
 The air takes up water from one place and holds it, per- 
 haps for many days, during which time the winds may 
 have carried it hundreds of miles ; it may then be allowed 
 to fall. Thus it is by the help of the wind that rocks are 
 wet and caused to change to soil, plants are made to grow, 
 rivers are furnished with water, and animals and people 
 are given water to drink. 
 
 Persons living where there is plenty of rain perhaps do 
 not realize how important it is ; but there are some parts 
 of the earth where the air is so dry that very little rain 
 can fall from it. In these places, called deserts (Fig. 69), 
 only a few kinds of plants and animals can live, while men 
 generally avoid them. 
 
 The air obtains water from the ocean, and the winds 
 carry it about. 
 
THE AIR 
 
 81 
 
 What causes water to rise into the air ? And why can 
 we not see it there ? If you watch a boiling kettle, you 
 will see that " steam " rises from it. In a short time all 
 the water will be boiled out of the kettle, passing into the 
 air, where you can no longer see it. 
 
 The water in the kettle was a liquid, which could be seen ; 
 but heat has changed it to a gas, which, like air, is colorless 
 and cannot be seen. Then, too, it is so light that it floats 
 round in the air. This water gas is called water vapor, and 
 the change from liquid water to vapor is called evaporation. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 A Caravan on the Desert of Persia. 
 
 It is not necessary to boil water to make it evaporate ; 
 for all over the earth, where there is water, vapor is rising 
 from it into the air. You can prove this for yourself by 
 placing a pan of water on a table and leaving it for some 
 days, and then noticing how much of it has evaporated. 
 It is in this way that the great amount of water, which 
 every moment is rising from the ocean, is able to pass 
 into the atmosphere. 
 
 Water vapor is obtained by evaporation. 
 
82 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 When it falls from the sky as rain, the water vapor has 
 changed back to liquid water. What causes it to do 
 this? 
 
 Have you ever noticed a glass or pitcher of ice water 
 " sweat " on a hot summer day (Fig. 70) ? The water 
 that collects on the glass has not leaked through, for there 
 are no holes in the glass. What has really happened is 
 
 that the air near the dish has 
 been cooled so that the vapor in 
 the air has collected in drops 
 on the cold surface of the glass. 
 Drops would gather there just the 
 same, even if no water were in 
 the glass, provided the surface 
 remained just as cold. 
 
 On wash day, when a great 
 deal of water vapor rises from the 
 boiler, the windows are often cov- 
 ered with drops of water, because 
 the vapor has been changed back 
 to liquid, or condensed, on the cold 
 window pane. Your own breath 
 contains vapor, and you can change 
 it to water by breathing on a cold 
 window pane. So you see that if 
 air loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the vapor gas is 
 changed back to water. 
 
 There are several ways in which air may be cooled. 
 You know that mountains are colder than the lower 
 lands (p. 22) ; so that winds blowing over them are often 
 chilled, and their vapor condensed. It is evident from 
 this that mountains are an important help in causing rain. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Little drops of water con- 
 densed front the vapor of 
 the air on the outside of a 
 glass of cold water. 
 
THE AIR 
 
 83 
 
 Vapor may also be condensed when a cold wind blows 
 against a warm one. Again, during summer the sun may 
 shine down so hot that the air near the earth becomes 
 warm. This makes it so light that it often rises high into 
 the sky, where the air is so cold that the vapor condenses 
 into rain. The summer thunder showers, which often 
 come on hot afternoons, are caused in this way. 
 
 Vapor is condensed by the cooling of the air. 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 Mt. St. Helena, California. 
 
 There are several different forms of condensed vapor. 
 When you breath into the air on a cold, frosty morning, 
 your breath forms a little fog or cloud. The cold air has 
 made the vapor change to tiny particles of water, so small 
 that you cannot see a single one, though many of them 
 together make a thin mist. You have no doubt seen fogs 
 in- valleys, on lakes, or over the ocean. These are always 
 made of tiny drops of water condensed from vapor in the 
 air. 
 
 Most clouds are also made of tiny fog and mist parti- 
 cles. These, too, are caused by the cooling of the air, 
 sometimes when it moves against mountain slopes (Fig. 
 71), sometimes when cold winds blow against warm ones, 
 
84 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and sometimes when warm air rises high in the heavens 
 
 and becomes cool (Fig. 72). 
 
 Another form of condensed vapor is the raindrop which 
 
 falls from the clouds. 
 These drops begin : as 
 tiny mist or fog par- 
 ticles, and then, becom- 
 ing larger and larger, 
 grow so heavy that they 
 can no longer float, but 
 must fall to the ground. 
 We have seen that 
 water may be either a 
 liquid or a gas. There 
 is still another form, the 
 solid, which is produced 
 when vapor condenses 
 
 in a temperature below 32°, or the freezing point. Then 
 
 snow or hail is formed instead of rain (Fig. 73). 
 
 At night, drops of water often collect on the cold ground, 
 
 on grass and 
 
 leaves, some- 
 what as it 
 
 does on an ice 
 
 pitcher or the 
 
 window pane. 
 
 This is dew, 
 
 which gathers 
 
 because the 
 
 ground cools 
 
 quickly after 
 
 the sun sets, 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 A summer cloud, often called a " thunder 
 head," formed by the rising of warm 
 air to such a height that the vapor is 
 condensed. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 Photographs of snowflakes. Sometime, when light, 
 feathery snow is falling, notice what beautiful forms 
 it takes. 
 
THE AIR 
 
 85 
 
 so that the warm, vapor-laden air is chilled until the 
 vapor is condensed. 
 
 If the temperature is below the freezing point, frost is 
 formed instead. 
 
 You will notice that raindrops, fog particles, and snow- 
 flakes form in the air, while dew gathers on grass and the 
 drops of water on window panes. Really the raindrops 
 and fog particles also gather on solid substances ; for there 
 are many tiny, solid particles of dust floating in the air, 
 which you can often see dancing in a beam of sunlight, 
 and it is around these that the rain, fog, and snow form. 
 
 It is condensed vapor that forms fog, mist, rain, snow, 
 hail, dew, and frost. 
 
 Usually winds from certain directions, as from the 
 ocean, are liable to bring rain, while others indicate fair 
 weather. By keeping a daily record of the direction of 
 the wind, and of the kind of weather it brings, you will 
 be able to find out for yourself which of your winds 
 cause fair weather and which rainy. You might also 
 look at the thermometer at the same time and note the 
 temperature. By these means you can learn something 
 about the weather around your home. A record of this 
 kind, which would be called a weather record, might be 
 kept somewhat as follows: 1 — 
 
 Date and Time of Day. 
 
 Direction of Wind. 
 
 Kind of Weather. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Aug. 17, 1899, 8 a.m. 
 Aug. 17, 1899, 8 p.m. 
 Aug. 18, 1899, 8 a.m. 
 
 Southeast. 
 Calm. 
 - West. 
 
 Cloudy. 
 Gentle Rain. 
 Clear. 
 
 70° 
 
 72° 
 68° 
 
 1 If it is practicable, the teacher should at this point introduce an ele- 
 mentary study of weather maps and have the pupils read them each day. 
 
86 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Of what use is air ? (2) How can you 
 prove that air is something? (3) Describe the experiments with 
 the bottle. (4) What do they prove? (5) What are winds? 
 (6) Prove that there are winds high above the ground. (7) Why 
 does the air rise over a lighted lamp ? (8) What causes winds ? (9) In 
 what ways are winds useful ? (10) How can you prove that there 
 is water in the air? (11) Where does most of it come from? 
 (12) What do the winds do with this water? (13) Of what service 
 is the rain? (14) What becomes of water as it boils? (15) What is 
 water vapor ? (16) What is evaporation ? 
 
 (17) What happens to vapor when cooled ? (18) Tell some 
 ways in which you can see condensed vapor. (19) In what ways can 
 the vapor in the air be condensed? (20) Why can you "see your 
 breath " on cold mornings? (21) How are clouds formed ? (22) How 
 cold must it be to form snow? (23) How is dew caused? Frost? 
 (24) Of what importance are the dust particles in the air ? (25) Tell 
 how you would keep a weather record. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Why are stoves made so as to let in air for the 
 fire ? (2) What becomes of the air after it enters ? (3) How does 
 air reach the wick of a lamp ? (4) Try a common drinking glass, 
 instead of a bottle, to show that air takes up space. (5) Heat some 
 muddy water and watch its movement. (6) Why does smoke go up, 
 and not down, the chimney? (7) Show how a hot stove causes a 
 movement, or circulation, of the air in a room. (8) Find out how 
 your schoolhouse is ventilated. (9) How many examples can you 
 give of evaporation of water? (10) Cool a piece of glass or iron and 
 notice the vapor condense upon it, when the air is " muggy " or when 
 steam is passing into the air. (11) Why do clouds frequently sur- 
 round mountain tops? (12) See how early in the evening the dew 
 begins to collect upon the ground. (13) What causes fogs to dis- 
 appear? (14) Which winds usually bring rain to you? (15) How 
 far have they probably carried the vapor ? How long would it take 
 them to do this, if they traveled at the rate of eight miles per hour ? 
 (16) Write a story, giving the history of a raindrop. 
 
 For References, see page 116. 
 
IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 Every man is expected to engage in some kind of 
 work, or industry, in order to earn a living. For instance, 
 farmers raise stock and grain, while gardeners produce 
 vegetables and fruit. The crops they raise vary with the 
 locality. 
 
 Some men, instead of working in the soil, are engaged 
 in manufacturing such articles as shoes, cloth, and ma- 
 terials used in building and furnishing houses. Are 
 there any of these men in your vicinity ? If so, what do 
 they make ? You can at least find a blacksmith shop, or 
 a tin shop, or a house that is being built. Notice how 
 many different materials are used by the workmen. 
 
 Storekeepers do neither of these two kinds of work. 
 What, then, do they do ? Notice how many articles the 
 grocer keeps in his store, also the dry-goods merchant, 
 and others whose stores you visit- Where do they get 
 them all? 
 
 At the present time it is easy, where most of us live, to 
 buy almost anything, and to find men who can do almost 
 any kind of work. We are so accustomed to all this that 
 we are apt to forget that it has not always been so. 
 
 Not many hundred years ago there were no stores or 
 houses in this country; and each family, as it settled 
 here, was obliged to find its own food, make its own 
 clothing, and build its own house. 
 
 87 
 
HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Let us study more fully how people lived in those 
 days, and how changes have gradually been made until the 
 present manner of living was reached. 
 
 The first persons who left Europe, and crossed the 
 Atlantic Ocean to live in this country, naturally settled 
 along the coast, because that was the first place reached. 
 
 But soon men began to push into the wilderness 
 farther west. Often several families settled together, 
 miles away from other people. Sometimes a single 
 
 family would go off 
 alone, and make a 
 home ten or twelve 
 miles from the nearest 
 neighbor. Most of the 
 United States was first 
 settled by these scat- 
 tered pioneer families. 
 Of course when a 
 man started out he 
 took some articles with 
 him, as a gun, with 
 powder and bullets, 
 some clothing, and 
 some blankets; but upon arriving at his new home he 
 was obliged, like Robinson Crusoe, to rely upon himself. 
 
 In 1816, when Abraham Lincoln was seven years of age, his father 
 moved to Indiana. He had to cut down trees in order to make room 
 for a house, which he built of logs with mud between the cracks (Fig. 
 74). It had no floor except the earth, and only one room. Abraham 
 slept in the loft, climbing up each night by pegs fastened in the logs. 
 The beds were some posts driven into the ground with crosspieces, 
 the chairs were three-legged stools, and the table was a part of a log 
 supported upon four legs. When a young boy, Abraham wore trousers 
 
 Fig. 74. 
 
 A log house, such as the pioneers used to 
 build in the forests. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 89 
 
 of deerskin, and when he was not barefooted he probably used moc- 
 casins for shoes. 
 
 His father raised enough corn for corn bread ; their tea was often 
 made from roots in the forest, and meat was obtained by shooting 
 wild game. Abraham was very fond of books ; but at night he read 
 by the light of burning wood, for he had neither candle nor lamp. 
 He wrote with ink made from brier root, and with a pen made from 
 the quill of a large feather. Almost everything that the family used 
 was raised or made by the father and mother, so that they had to do 
 many kinds of work. 
 
 Such was the life of the early frontier settlers. Usu- 
 ally they raised their grain and wheat for bread. They 
 kept sheep and made the wool into yarn, blankets, and 
 cloth. If a boy needed a new suit of clothes, his mother 
 would make the cloth, cut it, and sew it. They were 
 obliged to do nearly everything for themselves. 
 
 As a rule, each man raised more of some things than 
 his own family could use, as wheat, wool, or hogs ; but 
 there were others that he had to buy, as powder, sugar, 
 salt, pepper, and coffee. 
 
 It was the custom, therefore, to drive two or three times 
 a year to the nearest large town, perhaps a hundred miles 
 away, taking the products of the farm and exchanging 
 them for necessary articles. 
 
 These trips had to be few, for the roads were often 
 rough, muddy, and dangerous. It might require two 
 weeks or more to haul a load of grain to town and bring 
 back the coffee and other materials the family wanted. 
 In parts of the world, where there are few settlers, people 
 are still living in this manner. 
 
 But one family did not usually live long alone, for soon 
 others came and settled near them. Perhaps several built 
 their houses near together, forming a little village. 
 
90 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Now that there were more people, the kind of work 
 that each did began to change. Perhaps one of them 
 built a sawmill, and sawed lumber for the others when 
 they needed it. Another spent part of his time at car- 
 pentry work for his neighbors. A third built a gristmill, 
 and occasionally ground grain into flour. A fourth made 
 shoes, or clothes, a part of his time, or he doctored the 
 sick, or preached, or taught school. 
 
 Perhaps the blacksmith spent all of his time in his shop, shoeing 
 horses, making plows, etc., while the storekeeper did nothing but 
 buy and sell goods. He went to the city and bought the supplies that 
 he thought his neighbors would need, such as matches, boots, shovels, 
 calico, and drugs, and these he kept in his store for sale. 
 
 It was not then necessary for the farmer to go to the 
 distant town, because he could usually find what he wanted 
 at the store ; and if he raised more potatoes than he needed, 
 he could take them to the storekeeper and get coffee in 
 return. Or he would receive money for them, and with 
 this pay the blacksmith who had shod his horses, or the 
 doctor, or teacher. In many of the less settled parts of 
 the country this is the way people are still living. 
 
 Each year more people took up land, until most of it 
 was carefully cultivated, and towns and cities grew up 
 (Fig. 75). Then they began to live in the way that is 
 now so common. That is, each man now confines himself 
 to one or a very few kinds of work, and depends upon other 
 men for the other things that he needs. Those who live 
 in the country are chiefly farmers, and raise the food that 
 we eat. Others work in mines, digging coal, iron, lead, 
 copper, silver, or gold out of the ground. 
 
 Many, instead of raising crops or working in mines, 
 are employed in mills and factories. One saws logs into 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 91 
 
 lumber, or makes doors; another manufactures cloth, an- 
 other needles, another shoes. Others follow the industry 
 of tailoring, tanning hides for leather, making clocks, etc. 
 Still others are engaged in a third kind of work. They 
 do nothing but buy and sell such articles, and among these 
 are all the merchants 
 that we see 
 
 in the 
 
 stores. 
 
 Under these conditions 
 the work that one man 
 does is not only of one 
 kind, but it may be of a 
 very narrow kind. For 
 example, a man may do 
 nothing but drive a team. 
 Or he may make shingles, 
 or drive nails, or tie up 
 sacks of flour, or put in 
 the heads of barrels. How 
 different this is from the 
 work of the pioneers ! 
 
 As a rule, each 
 town or city is spe- 
 cially interested in 
 one or a few kinds of 
 business. For exam- 
 ple, a town surrounded by extensive woods is likely to 
 have an important lumbering industry. Another, in 
 the midst of mountains, may make mining its especial 
 work; or another, near great wheat fields, may have 
 immense flour mills. 
 
 Thus each town, like each man, is apt to be interested 
 in the production of few things ; what they raise or manu- 
 
 The city of Rochester, in New York, has grown 
 up near these beautiful falls on the Gene- 
 see River. Some of the factories that use 
 the water power are seen in the picture. 
 
92 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 facture is sent away in all directions, and the other arti- 
 cles, that the people in the town want, are brought to them 
 from the many places in which they are produced. Find 
 out what is made in your own town, and some of the 
 substances that are brought to it. 
 
 When people are so dependent upon others for most of 
 the materials that they use, it is clear that roadways be- 
 come of great importance. For if the best wheat for flour 
 is raised in Dakota, if the best shoes and cloth are made 
 in New England, and if the best cotton, corn, and tobacco 
 are grown in the South, what good will they do us if they 
 cannot be brought to us? 
 
 The pioneers had no roads at first. The early settlers 
 who. crossed the Alleghany Mountains into the region 
 
 from which has 
 been formed the 
 present states 
 of Tennessee, 
 Kentucky, Ohio, 
 Indiana, and 
 Illinois had to 
 find their way 
 through the 
 dense forests. 
 
 One of the 
 early customs 
 was to follow a 
 trail, or narrow path, and, instead of using a wagon, to 
 carry goods strapped upon one's own back, or else upon 
 horses or mules. A number of horses carrying packs 
 formed a pack train (Fig. _ 76). Pack trains are still 
 common in some places. 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 A pack train on a mountain road, carrying supplies 
 to a mine on the mountain side. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 93 
 
 A great deal of labor has been spent in making good 
 roads. Not only must trees be cut down and stumps and 
 stones be removed, but steep places must often be lev- 
 eled. Bridges are also necessary, and much work must 
 be done to keep the roads in repair. In some places 
 where there is much travel, as in eastern Massachusetts, 
 great sums of money are spent in making excellent roads. 
 
 There is so much carting in cities that their streets 
 must be paved. .Bricks "are often used ; or stones larger 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 Train load of sugar-beets on way to factory. California. 
 
 than bricks are laid down side by side ; and in many 
 cities, asphalt pavements are common. What kind of 
 streets have you seen, and how were they built ? 
 
 We have already (p. 54) considered the importance of 
 rivers as roadways. For a long time the Mississippi 
 River with its chief tributaries, such as the Ohio, the Ar- 
 kansas, and the Missouri, was the only roadway to the 
 great city of New Orleans, and to-day these rivers are the 
 commercial highways of parts of sixteen states situated in 
 the Mississippi basin. Between New Orleans and cities 
 
94 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 on these rivers numerous boats constantly ply, carrying 
 grain and cotton, and goods of all kinds. 
 
 Even with the finest of wagon roads, people and goods 
 cannot usually be carried more than twenty to forty miles 
 in a day. Boats are somewhat faster ; but railway trains 
 travel from four hundred to a thousand miles per day, 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 A view in a freight depot at St. Paul, Minnesota. 
 
 and they take both passengers and freight much more 
 cheaply than they can be carried in wagons. 
 
 As we ourselves travel on passenger trains, we are in- 
 clined to think that the chief business of railways is to 
 carry people ; but this is not generally the case. Their 
 main business is to carry freight, such as grain, cattle, 
 groceries, and machinery; and by doing this they have 
 had a great influence upon the development of the country. 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 95 
 
 * : 
 
 
 _ ii «— : j ' 
 
 
 ' ' ,- : % ~ 
 
 ! 
 
 ;-^- ** 
 
 , 
 
 ,' ' 03 ' 
 
 ... 
 
 " 
 
 'f ■:■[' 
 
 
 
 • - • • '* ' / 
 
 
 For example, a few years ago it would have done little 
 good to raise sheep, wheat, and fruit in the far West, be- 
 cause they could not be sent to the great cities to be 
 sold; but since the railways were built, these industries, 
 and many others, 
 have become of 
 great importance. 
 There is therefore 
 much more buy- 
 ing, selling, and 
 carrying — that is, 
 much more com- 
 merce — than be- 
 fore the railways 
 were built. 
 
 Letters, news- 
 papers, and ex- 
 press packages 
 are now carried very rapidly on the trains. Formerly 
 they were sent in stagecoaches or on horseback ; but 
 now many passenger trains have one or two cars used 
 for these purposes alone. 
 
 It is clear that good roadways, whether made of soil, 
 water, or iron, are a great help to trade. In fact, without 
 them there could be very little commerce. The wagon 
 roads in the country and city are of great value in carry- 
 ing goods for short distances as, for instance, to the river 
 wharf or the railway station. Then boats and trains are 
 used to carry them farther. 
 
 Not only is there commerce on the land, but, as we have 
 already seen (p. 69), thousands of vessels are engaged in 
 carrying freight on the ocean. They are constantly pass- 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 A freight yard with many freight cars. 
 
96 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ing up and down the coast of the United States, going 
 from one city to another (Fig. 80) with loads of cloth, 
 iron, grain, lumber, and hundreds of other articles. 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 A view in New York harbor, showing the vessels corning and goiDg. 
 
 Vessels are also going and coming at all times between 
 the United States and foreign countries (Fig. 58), bring- 
 ing materials which we need and taking back some of our 
 products. This is known as foreign commerce. 
 
 Eeview Questions. — (1) What do merchants do ? (2) Who are 
 pioneers ? (3) Describe a house such as the early pioneer was com- 
 monly accustomed to live in. (4) Tell what you can of the life and 
 the dress of the early settler. (5) Tell about the trips to the nearest 
 large town. 
 
 (6) How did the work of each man change when the people began 
 to live in villages ? (7) Give some examples. (8) What would you 
 expect to see in a general store ? (9) Make a list of articles that are 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 
 
 97 
 
 manufactured. (10) Name several industries. (11) How has the 
 work of each man changed as great numbers of them have settled to- 
 gether? (12) In what ways have men become dependent upon one 
 another ? Give examples. 
 
 (13) Show that roads are of great importance. (14) What kind 
 of roads did the early pioneers have ? (15) How did they cross the 
 streams? (16) Why must streets in cities be paved? (17) In what 
 respects are railways better than other roads ? (18) Tell how railways 
 have helped to develop our country. (19) What is meant by com- 
 merce ? (20) By foreign commerce ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Make a list of the crops grown in your neigh- 
 borhood. How is the work done ? (2) Do the same for manufactured 
 articles. (3) Tell something of the life of Daniel Boone or that of 
 
 Electric Train, Los Angeles. A network of these electric lines radiates from 
 Los Angeles to the beaches and adjacent cities and towns. 
 
 Lincoln. (4) What were some of the things Robinson Crusoe had 
 to do for himself ? (5) Write a story describing an early pioneer's 
 journey to the nearest large town. 
 
 (6) Visit a general store in the country. (7) Visit a factory, a 
 blacksmith shop, or a mill. Describe the visit. (8) Make a list of 
 articles that you use which we're probably brought from a distance on 
 the railroad or on water. (9) Find out where some of them came 
 from. 
 
 (10) Name as many substances as you can that come from over 
 
98 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the ocean. (11) Write a story giving the history of the material 
 of your dress or coat ; of your shoes. (12) How has the use of elec- 
 tricity influenced commercial life? For References, see page 117. 
 
 "Key Route Ferry System" operating between Oakland, Berkeley, and San 
 Francisco, California. Upper, Claremont Ferryboat ; Middle, Pier and 
 Station; Lower, Electric Train. Thousands of passengers are carried 
 daily back and forth over this system. 
 
X. GOVERNMENT 
 
 Every boy and girl has heard men talk about voting, 
 and has noticed how interested they often become as 
 election time approaches. 
 
 But do you know what voting is for ? Do you know 
 why the day for voting is called election day? Find out 
 what you can about voting and election. 
 
 Laws and officers are frequently mentioned when men 
 are talking about election. Can you name some laws ; 
 and do you know any officers ? You have, certainly seen 
 a policeman : what does he do ? You have heard of 
 judges, and of the President : can you state anything 
 about them ? Can you mention any other officers ? 
 
 In our study of commerce we saw that it required a 
 long time to reach our present way of living and carrying 
 on trade. So it is with our government. At present we 
 have many laws and officers, while long ago there were 
 very few of each. Let us see why this is so. 
 
 The farmer manages his farm nearly as he pleases. He 
 puts up fences, sells his grain, or feeds it to stock, as 
 seems to him best ; and when repairs are needed, he looks 
 after them himself. The miller builds a large or small 
 mill, uses old or new machinery, grinds much or little 
 corn, and makes repairs, as he chooses. In each case, one 
 man owns and uses the property. 
 
 But there are some things that no one man owns and 
 that all wish to use. This is true, for instance, of roads. 
 All people drive or walk over them, yet they belong to no 
 
 99 
 
100 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 one person. Who, then, should build roads in the first 
 place, and who should decide upon and make necessary 
 repairs on them ? 
 
 Again, there are public schools which no one man owns 
 and which many wish to use. Large yards, good build- 
 ings, and good teachers are all desirable, but who should 
 provide for them ? This and many other questions arose 
 in early days (and still arise) and had early to be dealt 
 with in some way. The organization which any com- 
 munity has for dealing with these public questions is 
 called its government. 
 
 The first permanent English settlement in America was at James- 
 town, in Virginia, and its government was managed by seven men 
 appointed by the King of England. At first the people had no right 
 to -vote, but later, when Virginia came to have a number of settle- 
 ments, a body called the House of Burgesses, composed of two men 
 from each settlement, was elected to make the rules or laivs for all 
 parts of the colony. 
 
 In the New England settlements, government was introduced in a 
 different way. The people lived in towns and each town governed 
 itself. Town meetings were held which adopted rules or laws regard- 
 ing roads and schools and elected officers to enforce them. The same 
 meetings passed laws to punish persons who committed crimes, and 
 elected officers called constables to arrest offenders. All the people in 
 the small towns (Fig. 81), therefore, had a voice in making the laws 
 by which they were to be governed. 
 
 When towns became more numerous, there were many 
 things which concerned more than one town to be decided. 
 For example, in early days questions arose as to the high- 
 ways which joined these towns, just as to-day there is the 
 question of regulating railway companies which charge 
 too much for carrying passengers and freight. In such 
 cases laws may need to be passed, compelling them to 
 charge reasonable rates. But as these railways are scores, 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 101 
 
 or even hundreds, of miles long, the people of a single 
 town could do very little with them. In that case it 
 would be necessary for those living perhaps hundreds of 
 miles apart to unite in some way in order to make laws. 
 
 
 Jrf^^gy^_^ 
 
 
 ■■" **f^ 
 
 m 
 
 ^'•■- 
 
 ' w* 
 
 & 
 
 • - 
 
 ^ 4 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 i *? 
 
 >,.*« 
 
 
 >.-;;' 
 
 **• 
 
 '■1 t 3 
 
 
 
 ** * <•. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 Auburn, nestled in a valley among the hills, fields, and forests of California. 
 
 Again, it is important that there be buildings in which blind people 
 may be properly cared for, in which the deaf and dumb may be edu- 
 cated, and insane people confined (p. 108). There must also be strong 
 prisons where criminals must be sent (Fig. 82). 
 
 Therefore, while there must be a town government, there 
 must be also a state government. Virginia started with the 
 state government and worked down to the town, or rather 
 county, government, while New England began with the 
 town and worked up to the state. 
 
 All the men of a state cannot assemble at one point, 
 
102 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 from a distance of one or two hundred miles, in order to 
 attend to such matters. Even if they could make the 
 journey at the time appointed, there would be so many of 
 them that they could not hear one another speak, and 
 little business could be carried on. 
 
 For these reasons it is necessary for one man to be 
 elected to represent many others. Where there are a great 
 number of people, he may represent many thousands. 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 State Prison, Folsom, California. 
 
 Such men, being chosen to represent the others, are 
 often called representatives; and because they legislate 
 (which means " make laws "), they are together called 
 the legislature. 
 
 The legislature meets at the capital {capital means 
 head city) of the state. This is a city, often near the 
 center of the state, in which there is a line building, 
 called the state capitol (Fig. 226), where the representatives 
 hold their meetings. 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 103 
 
 We saw that in the town the people not only made 
 laws, but elected men to see that they were enforced. 
 Such men are necessary for the state also. The leading 
 officer, chosen to en- 
 force or execute the laws, 
 is the governor, some- 
 times called the chief 
 executive. 
 
 In large cities (Fig. 83) 
 there are so many people that 
 they must also be governed 
 by representatives, as the 
 people of the whole state are 
 governed. The men who 
 make the laws are often 
 called aldermen and council- 
 ors, and the highest officer, 
 elected to execute the laws, 
 is known as the mayor. The 
 building in which these rep- 
 resentatives meet, and in 
 which the mayor has his 
 office, is the City Hall (Fig. Fig. 83. 
 
 81). While a city is governed Market Street, San Francisco. "Call" 
 by its own officers in some Building in the center. Many officers 
 
 matters, it is still a part of a are needed in such a large city. Indeed, 
 
 , , , there are more officers in San Francisco 
 
 state, and elects represents than there are men> women> and chil . 
 
 tives to the state legislature. dren in some towns. 
 
 In our country there are many states, and there are 
 some matters that no one state can decide alone, because 
 all the others are equally interested in them. For in- 
 stance, it would be a great hindrance to travel and trade 
 if each state made its own money ; for then each one 
 might have a different kind, with coins of different names 
 
104 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and weights, and travelers passing from one state to 
 another might be obliged to exchange their money for a 
 new kind. 
 
 Again, in case of war it would be impossible to make much prog- 
 ress if each state acted independently. Perhaps you can give some 
 of the reasons why. Mail is another matter that concerns all the 
 states, and there are still others besides. Can you mention some ? 
 
 So it is evident that we need a United States Govern- 
 ment, as well as state, city, and town governments. The 
 
 reason for calling it the United 
 States Government is also plain ; 
 for the states have really united 
 in order to have one central 
 government for some of their 
 most important affairs. 
 
 If the people of a single state 
 cannot meet in a body to make 
 laws, certainly those of the entire 
 United States cannot do so. 
 Representatives are elected and 
 sent, from all the states of the 
 Union, to one place where they 
 consider the affairs of the whole 
 nation. The place where they 
 meet is the city of Washington, and it is on that account 
 the capital of the United States. Here is a magnificent 
 capitol building (Fig. 85)' in which the meetings are held ; 
 and there are many other great government buildings 
 besides. (See Fig. 85.) 
 
 The representatives from all the foily-six states of the 
 Union form what is known as Congress. This corre- 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 City Hali, Petaluma, 
 California. 
 
106 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 sponds to the legislature of the states, the congressmen 
 making laws for the nation, as the legislators do for the 
 state. The members of Congress are called senators and 
 representatives. The executive officer of the United States, 
 corresponding to the mayor of a city and the governor of 
 a state, is called the President. He lives in Washington, 
 and his residence is called the Executive Mansion, or the 
 White House, since it is painted white (Fig. 85). 
 
 Besides these officers who are elected by the people, 
 there are a great many others appointed by the President 
 to carry on the government work. Many live in Wash- 
 ington, but some, as postmasters, live in other places. 
 
 We have seen how the people in small towns arrange 
 for their home government, and how, uniting with those 
 in other towns, they elect some men to represent them 
 at the state capital and others to represent them at the 
 national capital. These representatives are elected by 
 means of votes that are cast for them. 
 
 Because the people make their own laws, our govern- 
 ment is called a democracy. The first part of this word 
 means " people," and the last part " government," so that 
 the whole word means "government by the people." Be- 
 cause the people do not make all the laws themselves, but 
 allow their representatives to make them, it is often called 
 a representative government or a republic. 
 
 It is often said that our form of government makes us 
 free and equal. People are by no means so free and equal 
 in all countries. Under some governments, in Europe 
 and Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws 
 that shall govern them. Nor do the laws protect them all 
 equally, for the high officers say freely what they think, 
 while others do not dare to do this. They must obey 
 
GOVERNMENT 107 
 
 their rulers blindly, just as little children are expected to 
 obey their parents. 
 
 Such a government cannot be called a democracy or a 
 republic ; it is indeed a despotism, or an absolute monarchy. 
 This means that the ruler is a despot, or a monarch, hav- 
 ing complete or absolute power to do what he chooses. 
 For instance, he puts men to death without any trial, a 
 thing that the laws of our country do not allow. China 
 and Turkey are examples of this kind of government. 
 
 There are other nations in which the people have more 
 freedom than this, but not so much as we have. They 
 are allowed freedom to do some things which they wish, 
 while in other matters they are compelled to obey, with- 
 out even asking any questions. Spain has a government 
 of this kind. Since the people have some rights by which 
 the monarch's power is checked or limited, this govern- 
 ment is called a limited monarchy. Some limited mon- 
 archies, however, like England, allow a very considerable 
 freedom. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Name a few things that no one person 
 owns and that all wish to use. (2) How did the pioneers arrange 
 for roads? (3) Why was a constable necessary? (4) What are 
 laws? (5) Why must a great many towns and villages unite in 
 order to make laws? (6) Name some of the objects for which 
 they must unite. (7) What is a state ? (8) How are laws made 
 in states? (9) Why are the men that are elected called representa- 
 tives? (10) What is a legislature? (11) Where does it meet? In 
 what building? (12) Where does the governor live? (13) Why 
 must large cities also be governed by representatives ? (14) Name 
 some of the city officers. Where do they meet? 
 
 ' (15) Why should not each state make its own money? (16) Why 
 are these states called the United States? (17) Where do the repre- 
 sentatives of the United States meet ? In what building? (18) What 
 is Congress? (19) What is the White House ? (20) What does the 
 
108 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 word democracy mean? (21) Why is this government called a repub- 
 lic? (22) How are people in many other countries less free and equal 
 than we are ? (23) What is a despotism ? An absolute monarchy ? 
 A limited monarchy ? Give examples. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What persons repair the roads or streets where 
 you live ? (2) How are they chosen ? (3) What officers look after the 
 schools? (4) Attend a trial to see how it is conducted. (5) What 
 are taxes? (6) In what state do you live? (7) What is the name 
 of your state capital? (8) How far is it from your home, and in 
 what direction? (9) Who is the governor of your state? (10) If 
 you live in a city, who is the mayor? Where is the City Hall? 
 (11) What does U. S. stand for? 
 
 For References, see page 117. 
 
 Upper picture, Institution for the Deaf and the Blind, Berkeley, California. 
 Lower picture, State Hospital for the Insane, Napa, California. 
 
XL MAPS 
 
 We often wish to represent a country upon a map so as 
 to tell, at a glance, its shape, and where the mountains, 
 rivers, and cities are located. Such a drawing can be 
 made of any place, no matter how large or small it is. 
 
 Suppose we 
 desire to draw 
 only a school- 
 room (Fig. 86), 
 which is per- 
 haps 32 feet 
 long and 32 
 feet wide. It 
 would not be 
 easy to find a 
 piece of paper 
 so large as that, 
 and it would 
 not be necessary to do so. A small piece would do, 
 because 1 inch upon it could be allowed to represent 
 several feet in the room. 
 
 In this case let an inch stand for 16 feet. Since the room is 32 
 feet on each side, and there are two 16's in 32, the drawing will be 
 just two inches long and two wide. To place the desks and aisles 
 properly, we will need to use a ruler divided into sixteenths, for one 
 foot in the room represents ^ of an inch on the ruler. 
 
 The ends and sides are marked (Fig. 87) north, east, south, and 
 west. The teacher's desk is 3| feet in front of the north wall. There 
 is a row of desks about 4 feet from the west wall. The desks are just 
 
 109 
 
 Fig. 8(3. 
 
 Picture of a schoolroom which is 32 feet long and 32 
 feet wide. 
 
110 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 2 feet long, with eight in a row 1 \ feet apart. There are seven rows ; 
 and the aisles between them are each \\ feet wide. Here is a map of 
 
 the schoolroom (Fig. 
 north .^3»<^ 
 
 87). Measure each 
 part to see if it has 
 been drawn correctly, 
 using a foot rule that 
 shows the sixteenths 
 of inches. How large 
 is the desk? The 
 EA8T piano? 
 
 3 C 
 
 □ □ □' D D □ □ 
 
 □ □ □ □ □ □ C3 
 Zz □□□□□□□ 
 
 o aa □□□□ 
 aadanDD 
 □ □. a □ □ □ cu 
 
 czi a □ □ LH O CZ1 
 
 aaa □□□□ 
 
 BOUTH 
 
 iiitiii r 
 
 * ' A 
 
 8 10 W 14 10 
 
 SCALE OF FEET: 1 INCH=1 6 FEET 
 OR lW OF AN INCH=1 FOOT 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 A map of the schoolroom shown in Fig. 86. 
 
 When a person 
 draws in this way, 
 letting a certain 
 distance on the 
 paper represent a 
 much greater one, 
 he is said to use a 
 scale, or to make 
 a map according 
 to a scale. In the 
 schoolroom just described (Fig. 87), the scale is 1 inch to 
 16 feet. 
 
 In the next drawing (Fig. 88), one inch represents 140 
 feet. According to this scale, find out how large the 
 yard and the school building are. Find how far .the trees 
 are from each other, from the nearest fence, and from the 
 building. 
 
 Can you not make a map of your own schoolroom? What scale 
 will you use ? Put in your own desk, but omit the others, if you wish. 
 
 You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to 
 do so, find its size by stepping or pacing it off, making each of your 
 steps about two feet long. Measure the building in the same way. 
 After having finished these two maps, draw a third one, including in 
 
MAPS 
 
 111 
 
 it not only the school yard, but also a few of the neighboring streets 
 and houses. The scale for this might perhaps be 1 inch for every 
 500 steps. 
 
 All maps are drawn to a 
 scale in this way, whether 
 they represent a school yard, 
 a state, the United States, or 
 even something still larger. 
 Opposite page 152 you will 
 find a map of North America. 
 On what scale is it drawn? 
 Look at some other maps to 
 find out the scale. p IG gg 
 
 A map of the school yard shown in the 
 picture, Fig. 89. 
 
 
 
 
 
 School /fouse 
 
 Tree 
 
 Tree 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 O/fydrvnt 
 ft/tee 
 
 Maps are used a great 
 deal to show the direc- 
 tion of one place from another. But a person must first 
 understand what is meant by north, south, east, and west. 
 Probably you already know that. 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 A typical rural school of one teacher. 
 
 California. 
 
112 
 
 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 One of the easiest ways to find the direction is by a 
 compass (Fig. 90). This is simply a piece of steel, called 
 a needle, that swings about easily and always points to 
 the north. It is magnetized, like the horseshoe magnets 
 that you have seen, and it points north- 
 ward, because something draws it in that 
 direction ; but no one knows certainly 
 what this " something " is. 
 
 When the stars are shining, one can 
 tell which direction is north by the help 
 of the Great Dipper. The two stars on 
 the edge of the Dipper point toward the 
 North Star. It is so bright that it can 
 be easily picked out, and it is always to 
 the north of us. 
 
 One can also find direction by the help 
 of the sun ; for twice a year, about March 
 twenty-first and September twenty-first, 
 it rises exactly in the east and sets 
 exactly in the west. Where does it rise 
 in winter? In summer? Which direction is on his right 
 and left when a man faces the east? The west? The 
 south? The north? 
 
 Northeast means halfway between north and east. Southeast 
 means halfway between south and east. What, then, do northwest 
 and southwest mean ? 
 
 Point north, east, west, south, southwest, northeast, northwest. 
 Walk a few feet in each direction. What direction is your desk from 
 that of your teacher? From the desks of your friends? From the 
 door? What direction is your home from the schoolhouse? From 
 other houses? In what directions do some of the streets extend? 
 
 Now let us tell directions on the map. Lay your draw- 
 ing of the schoolroom upon your desk, so that the line 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 compass. The 
 letter N means 
 north. What do 
 the other letters 
 stand lor ? In 
 California the 
 needle points a 
 little east of 
 north. 
 
MAPS 113 
 
 representing the north side of the room is toward the 
 north. Also place yourself so that you are facing di- 
 rectly north as you look at the map. If your desk faces 
 the wrong way for this, turn round, or put your map 
 upon the floor. Now, north on the map is also north in 
 the room, and the other directions on the map correspond 
 with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, 
 is the door from your desk? From the teacher's desk? 
 Place your map of the school yard in the same position 
 and give the directions. 
 
 You see that the north side of this map is the side fur- 
 thest from you ; the east side is on your right, the south 
 next to you, and the west is on your left. When a map 
 is lying before us, we usually look at it from this position. 
 
 But it is not always convenient to have a map lying 
 down, especially in the schoolroom, where it must be hung 
 up so that the whole class may see it. 
 
 Let us hang up one of these maps and take particular 
 pains to put it upon the north wall. Which direction on 
 the map is north now ? It is evident that the north side 
 must be up, while east is on the right, south is down, and 
 west is on the left. Certain lines, called lines of longi- 
 tude, extend due north and south, and others, called lines 
 of latitude, east and west. You should drill yourself to 
 understand directions on maps. 
 
 Give the directions of objects from one another while the map is 
 hanging up. Pat up the map of the school yard, and any others that 
 you have, and tell the directions from one place to another. 1 
 
 1 After the children are quite at home in using the map when it is hung 
 on the north wall, hang it on other sides of the room and have them give 
 the directions. This is easy work if properly graded ; hut many children 
 are confused in regard to directions on the map. At the proper time 
 show that toward the top of the map is not always north. See Fig. 203. 
 
114 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 It is clear now what a map is. It is a drawing telling 
 something about a country, just as a letter may be some 
 writing telling something concerning a friend. When 
 you read such a letter, you think of 'your friend, how he 
 looks, what he has been doing, etc. So when you look at 
 a map, you should think about the country, how it looks, 
 how far apart the places are, etc. 
 
 The maps that you have been drawing are flat maps, 
 representing the country as if it were a flat surface. In 
 Fig. 91 you will see the way in which these maps are 
 made to represent the land and water. No attempt is 
 made on the flat maps to show just what the country 
 looks like. They represent the position and direction 
 of towns, rivers, lakes, etc., just as if the country were 
 perfectly flat. 
 
 Later on you will study relief maps. These show the 
 mountains and valleys. They are pictures of the land as 
 it might appear if one were to look down upon it from 
 some point far above. 
 
 For References, see page 117. 
 
 The Diamond Match Factory, Chico, California. 
 
OCEAN 
 
 ''■ "''•'•*«!*' * vi '~ •■''.•.■'""■. , .:.''' ! '"-'- , .'.i,- L . ' ';!"". -ji': f; . ; ■»',»:;' '■'.'■■»■■" 
 
 NEW 
 ERUNSWICK 
 
 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
 To show what maps mean. The left-hand figures show the country as if you were 
 looking down upon it; the right-hand figures represent the same country on 
 maps. Tell what you see in each of these. 
 
REFERENCES TO DESCRIPTIONS, IN PROSE AND POETRY, 
 OF TOPICS TREATED IN HOME GEOGRAPHY. FOR 
 TEACHER AND PUPIL 
 
 McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York ; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
 Mass. ; A. B. C, The American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett 
 & Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Section I. The Soil. — King, "The Soil" (McM., $0.75); Tarr, 
 " Elementary Geology," Chapters VI, XI, and pp. 475-487 (McM., 
 $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in Geology," pp. 24-29 (Heath, $0.60). 
 Also other geologies. Nature Study Quarterly, No. 2, October, 1899 
 (Cornell University, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y. Free on 
 application) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter IV, 
 "The Transformation of a Grain of Soil" (McM., $0.50); Wilson, 
 "Nature Study in Elementary Schools. Teacher's Manual," p. 177 
 (McM., $0.90) ; Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," section on " How 
 Soil is made and carried " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, " All the Year 
 Round," Part II, sections 7 and 8 (Ginn, $0.30). 
 
 Section II. Hills. — Whittier, " Among the Hills " (poem) ; Whit- 
 tier, " The Hilltop " (poem) ; Hutchinson, " The Story of the Hills " 
 (McM., $1.50). 
 
 Section III. Mountains. — Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," 
 Chapters V and VI (the former on forests) (McM., $1.50) ; Jordan, 
 " Science Sketches," section on " The Ascent of the Matterhorn " 
 (A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50) ; Whymper, " Chamonix and 
 Mont Blanc" (Scribner, New York, $1.20); Whymper, "Travels 
 amongst the Great Andes " (Scribner, New York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " Ele- 
 mentary Geology," Chapter XVII (McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, "Elementary 
 Physical Geography," Chapter XIX (McM., $1.40) ; Shaler, " First 
 Book in Geology," Chapter V (Heath, $0.60) ; Kingsley, " Madam How 
 and Lady Why," Chapter V, "The Ice Plough" (McM., $0.50). 
 
 115 
 
116 HOME GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Sections IV and V. Valleys and Rivers. — Tarr, " Elementary 
 Geology," Chapters VI-X ; " Elementary Physical Geography," Chap- 
 ters XV and XVI (each, McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in 
 Geology," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.60) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature 
 Studies," sections on " Valleys," " Plants of the Valleys," and " Animals 
 of the Valleys" (A. B. C, $0.25) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady 
 Why," Chapter I, " The Glen " (McM., $0.50) ; Frye, " Brooks and 
 Brook Basins " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," 
 Chapters VII and VIII (McM., $1.50). Poems : " The Brook," Ten- 
 nyson ; " The River," Samuel G. Goodrich ; " The Mad River," Long- 
 fellow ; " The Falls of Lodore," Southey ; " The Brook and the Wave," 
 Longfellow ; " A Water Song,"E. G. W. Rowe; " The Endless Story," 
 A. K. Eggleston ; " The Impatient River," E. G. W. Rowe ; The last three 
 sections in Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies" (A. B. C, $0.25). 
 
 Section VI. Ponds and Lakes. — Shaler, "First Book in Geology," 
 pp. 125-129 (Heath, $0.60) ; Tarr, "Elementary Geology," pp. 188-193, 
 and " Elementary Physical Geography," pp. 298-301 (each, McM., 
 $1.40) ; Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," Chapter VIII (McM., 
 $1.50); Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies," section on "Pools, 
 Ponds, and Lakes" (A. B. C, $0.25) ;" The Lakeside," poem, by 
 Whittier. 
 
 Section VII. The Ocean. — Shaler, " Sea and Land" (Scribner, New 
 York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " First Book of Physical Geography," Part III 
 (McM., $1.10) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter IX 
 (McM., $1.50) ; Andrews, " Stories Mother Nature Told Her Chil- 
 dren," section on " Sea Life " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Holland, " The Sea 
 Voyage," in "Arthur Bonnicastle " ; Dickens, "David Copperfield," 
 Chapter V ; " Robinson Crusoe," Chapter III ; Taylor, " The Waves," 
 " Wind and Sea," in Marble's " Nature Pictures by American Poets" 
 (McM., $1.25) ; Coleridge, " The Ancient Mariner." 
 
 Section VIII. The Air. — Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geog- 
 raphy," Part II (McM., $1.10); "A Summer Shower," " Cornell 
 Nature Study Bulletin," No. 1, June, 1899 (free on application to 
 Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y;) ; Murche, " Science Reader," Book 
 III, sections on " Air," " Vapor in the Air," " Vapor : What becomes 
 of It? " " What the Atmosphere Is," " Ice, Hail, and Snow " (McM., 
 $0.40); Frye, " Brooks and Brook Basins," sections on " Forms of 
 Water " and " The Atmosphere in Motion " (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, 
 
REFERENCES 117 
 
 " All the Year Round," Part IT, sections 33-39 (Ginn, $0.30) ; Andrews, 
 " Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on "The Frost 
 Giants " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," 
 many excellent stories and poems (A. B. C, $0.25) ; " Nature Pic- 
 tures by American Poets " : " Summer Shower," Dickinson ; " Rain," 
 De Land ; " Song of the Snowflakes," Cheney ; " Cloudland," Cheney 
 (McM., $1.25) ; Wilson, "Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Sec- 
 ond Reader, the following poems : " The Rain Shower," " The Wind 
 Song," " The Bag of Winds," " The Sunbeams," "Snowflakes," "Signs 
 of Rain," " The Rainbow " (McM., $0.35) ; Lovejoy, " Nature in 
 Verse," the following poems : "Merry Rain," " The Clouds," " The 
 Dew," " The Fog," " The Rain," " The Snow," " The Frost," " Jack 
 Frost," " Little Snowflakes " (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Shelley, « The Cloud " ; 
 Whittier, " The Frost Spirit " ; Bryant, " The Hurricane " ; Whittier, 
 " Snow-Bound " ; Irving, " The Thunderstorm " (prose). 
 
 Section IX. Industry and Commerce. — Payne, " Geographical Nature 
 Studies," sections on " Occupations," " Trade or Commerce," " Trans- 
 portation by Land," "Transportation by Water" (A. B. C, $0.25) ;> 
 Andrews, " The Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on 
 " The Carrying Trade " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Whittier, " Songs of Labor." 
 
 Section X. The Government. — Brooks, " Century Book for Young 
 Americans" (Century Co., New York, $1.50) ; Brooks, " The Story of 
 the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; 
 Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," section on " Government " 
 (A. B. C, $0.25). 
 
 Section XI. Maps. — Excellent outline maps of states and conti- 
 nents, costing \\ to 2 cents each, can be purchased from D. C. Heath 
 & Co., Boston, Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago, and other publishers. 
 Maltby, " Map Modeling " (A. S. Barnes and Co., New York, $1.00) ; 
 Kellogg, " Geography by Map Drawing " (same publishers, $0.30) ; 
 Redway, " The Reproduction of Geographical Forms " ($0.30), and 
 " Teacher's Manual of Geography" ($0.65) (both by Heath) ; Frye, 
 " The Child and Nature " (Ginn, $0.80) ; Frye, " Sand and Clay 
 Modeling " (American Book Co., New York, $0. 10) ; Frye, "Teacher's 
 Manual of Methods in Geography" (Ginn, $0.50) ; Kellogg, " How to 
 Teach Clay Modeling " (A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $0.25) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, Lesson XIII 
 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 
 
118 
 
Part II 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 I. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 1 
 
 Its Form. — Hundreds of years ago, before America 
 was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They 
 traveled so little that they had no idea of its form or of 
 its size. 
 
 A few men who had studied the matter believed that 
 the earth was a round ball, and that if one traveled 
 straight on in any direction, he would in time return to 
 the place from which he started. You can understand 
 this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an 
 orange, until it comes back to the starting point. 
 
 Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to 
 obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. 
 
 Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land called India, 
 for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they traveled 
 thousands of miles eastward; but Columbus said that if the earth 
 were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going westward 
 across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore 
 asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. 
 
 The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous ; 
 bat the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 
 
 1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes may 
 be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. 
 
 119 
 
120 
 
 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE 
 
 sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would 
 never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, land was reached 
 on October 12th. 
 
 Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians ; but 
 instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the 
 coast of North America; a continent and large ocean still lay between 
 him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the 
 New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white 
 men then lived. 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the 
 king of Spain. 
 
 After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to 
 explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, 
 started to sail around the earth ; and though he was killed 
 when he had reached the Philippine Islands, his ships 
 went on and completed the journey. Since then many 
 people have made the voyage in various directions, and 
 the earth has been studied so carefully that every one 
 now knows it is round. 
 
 The great, round earth is also called the globe or sphere. 
 
FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 
 
 121 
 
 The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we 
 see so little of it at a time. 
 
 If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. 
 To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole 
 in it, so that none of the surface is seen 
 excepting that which shows through 
 the hole. This part does not appear 
 round, but flat. 
 
 If we could get far "enough 
 
 away from the earth to see a 
 
 large part of it at once, as we 
 
 are when looking at an orange, 
 
 or at the moon, we would easily 
 
 be able to observe its roundness 
 
 (Fig. 93). 
 Size of the Earth. — Our 
 
 sphere is so large that even the 
 
 highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, 
 are no larger than a speck of dust 
 when compared to an apple. Lofty 
 mountains are rarely more than three 
 or four miles high ; but the diameter 
 of the earth, or the distance from one 
 side to the other, through the center 
 of the earth, is nearly eight thousand 
 miles. 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 The sphere. 
 
 Fig. 94. 
 
 Figure of the earth cut 
 in two, to show the 
 diameter, the line 
 passing through the 
 center (c). 
 
 The circumference of the earth, or the dis- 
 tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- 
 five thousand miles. This is a little more than 
 three times the diameter, and you will find 
 that the circumference of any sphere is always 
 a little more than three times its diameter. 
 Prove this with an orange. 
 
122 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What did people formerly know about 
 the shape of the earth ? (2) What is its form ? (3) Tell the story 
 of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians ? (5) Why 
 was the land he discovered called the New World ? (6) Tell about 
 Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to 
 us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth ? The cir- 
 cumference? (9) The latter is how many times the former? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. 
 (2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early 
 explorers and read about them. (4) Trace Columbus's journey on a 
 globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to see 
 where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India 
 by traveling eastward as well as westward. (5) Make a sphere in clay. 
 Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs can you 
 find that the earth is round ? Find out how we know that it is like a 
 ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about Columbus. 
 
 For References, see page 328. 
 
 El Carmel Mission, near Monterey. Within the walls of this Mission lies 
 huried the body of Father Junipero Serra, California's premier missionary. 
 
II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH, AND 
 ITS RESULTS 
 
 The Axis and Poles. — The earth seems to us to be 
 motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each 
 day, rising in the east and setting in 
 the west. But in reality neither of 
 these things happens. 
 
 Instead of being without motion, 
 the earth is turning round at a uni- 
 form rate of speed. You have per- 
 haps watched a wheel spin about 
 on a rod or pin, and have noticed 
 that the outside goes rapidly, while 
 the part near the pin moves much 
 more slowly. It is the same with 
 the earth ; and just as we speak of 
 the wheel turning upon a pin, so we 
 speak of the earth turning upon its 
 axis. 
 
 But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis 
 of the earth is merely a line that we think of- as reaching 
 through the earth's center and extending to the surface 
 in both directions. 
 
 The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, 
 one end being the north pole, the other the south pole. 
 
 Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a 
 stick pushed through its center would represent its axis, and the two 
 
 123 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 A drawing of the earth 
 cut through to show 
 the axis and poles. 
 
124 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, very 
 much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). 
 
 If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you 
 would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the 
 south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that 
 surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not 
 find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be 
 almost directly overhead. 
 
 The Equator. — Midway between these poles, we think 
 of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. 
 
 This is called the equator, be- 
 cause all parts of it are equally 
 distant from each of the poles. 
 On page 121 the distance 
 around the earth was given ; 
 what, then, is the length of 
 the equator ? 
 
 As the earth spins on its axis, all 
 points on the surface must go with 
 it, as every part of the skin of an 
 apple turns with it. Since the earth 
 makes one complete turn each day, 
 a man at the equator travels twenty- 
 five thousand miles every twenty-four 
 hours. What a whirling motion that 
 is ! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the 
 fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. 
 
 Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move 
 as rapidly as those at the equator ? 
 
 Fig. 96. 
 
 A drawing of that half of the 
 sphere containing the New 
 World, — to show the position 
 of the poles and the equator. 
 
 Gravity. — What, then, is to hinder our flying away 
 from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on 
 a strings it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And 
 wh}' is not all the water hurled from the ocean ? 
 
DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 125 
 
 The reason is that the earth draws everything toward 
 it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the 
 floor ; and when you spring into the air, you quickly 
 return to the ground. All objects are drawn downward, 
 because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them 
 much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. 
 
 The force with which the earth draws all objects toward 
 it is called gravity ; and it is because of gravity that the 
 water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when 
 the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. 
 
 Sunrise and Sunset. — The sun seems to rise in the east 
 and set in the west. This could not be the case if the 
 earth did not turn or rotate toward the east ; for all 
 heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward 
 which the earth tarns. This eastward rotation of the 
 earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and 
 set as it does. 
 
 Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, 
 and, after moving across the heavens, set in the west. We still use 
 the words " sunrise " and " sunset " which they used, although we 
 know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. 
 
 Day and Night. — It is this rotation that causes day 
 and night. A lamp can light only one half of a ball at 
 a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of 
 the great earth ball at one time. This being the case, if 
 our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day 
 on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. 
 
 But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day 
 is constantly changing ; and while the sun is setting for 
 people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to 
 the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight 
 on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 
 
126 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes 
 one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day 
 and night together must last just that length of time. 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day 
 
 and night. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What motion has the earth ? (2) What 
 is the axis of the earth ? (3) The north pole ? The south pole ? 
 (4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward 
 the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? 
 (7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around 
 once? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator? 
 (9) Why are we not thrown away from the earth ? (10) Give sev- 
 eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what 
 direction is the earth rotating? (12) How does that explain sunrise 
 and sunset? (13) What causes night ? (14) What would be the 
 result if the earth did not rotate ? (15) When it is noon here, what 
 time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the 
 day and night together last ? Why ? 
 
DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 
 
 127 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Point out the axis of a wheel; of a top; of a 
 rotating ball; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an 
 apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mold a 
 sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, 
 and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly how many miles a 
 point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet 
 to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to 
 show why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one 
 side while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east 
 some night, to see which way they appear to move. (8) Why do not 
 the clouds appear to move westward also ? (9) Is the sun always 
 shining during the day? Why, then, do we not always see it? 
 (10) Who was Atlas? AVho was Aurora? (11) Find out what the 
 ancients supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is 
 noon here, what time is it one fourth of the distance around the earth 
 to the east? To the west? 
 
 For References, see page 328. 
 
 Sunset at Fort Wrangel, Alaska, 10.15 o'clock, p.m 
 
III. THE ZONES 
 
 NORTH POLE 
 
 Boundaries of the Zones. — The sun's rays feel warmer 
 at noon than toward evening because the sun is more 
 
 nearly overhead at noon, and 
 the rays then reach us nearly 
 vertically. 
 
 For the same reason the sun 
 seems hotter in summer than in 
 winter, and in some parts of 
 the earth than in others. 
 
 The hottest part of the earth 
 is near the equator, for in that 
 region the sun at midday is 
 directly over the heads of the 
 people. That is the case, for a 
 part of the year, as far north as 
 the line on the map (Fig. 98) marked tropie of Cancer, 
 and as far south as the one marked tropie of Capri- 
 corn. Point to them on Figs. 119 and 120. These 
 lines are more than three thousand miles apart, a dis- 
 tance greater than that across the United States from 
 Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area the heat 
 is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear only 
 the very lightest clothing, and the savages have almost 
 none (Fig. 99). 
 
 But farther north and south the heat becomes less and 
 
 128 
 
 Fig. 98. 
 A map of the zoiies. 
 
THE ZONES 
 
 129 
 
 less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, 
 approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, 
 then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither 
 very hot nor very cold, but temperate. 
 
 Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as 
 they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There 
 it is so cold, ov frigid, that the ground never thaws out, 
 the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- 
 tion can grow. 
 
 Torrid Zone. — Thus one part of the earth has a hot 
 climate. There the 
 noonday sun is al- 
 ways so directly over 
 the heads of the in- 
 habitants that they 
 never have winter. 
 
 This hot region 
 extends entirely 
 around the earth, 
 like a great belt, and 
 the equator is in the 
 middle of it. This 
 is called the tropical 
 belt, or the tropical 
 or torrid zone, and 
 sometimes the equa- 
 torial belt. Why the 
 latter name ? 
 
 Temperate Zones. — On the north and south sides of this 
 are the two temperate zones. People living in the north 
 temperate zone find the sun to the south of them at noon, 
 even in summer ; and their shadows always fall toward 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
 Philippine savages hunting ; their home is in the 
 torrid zone, and they need almost no clothing. 
 
130 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 the north. But in the south temperate zone the midday 
 sun is always in the north. Which way must the shadows 
 fall in that zone? 
 
 Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also 
 the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of 
 the temperate zones do you live? 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by their 
 sleds on the ice-covered sea. 
 
 Frigid Zones. — North of the north temperate zone, and 
 south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where 
 the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday 
 is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as 
 they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, 
 while at the equator there is never any winter, near the 
 poles there is never any real summer weather. 
 
 The northern of these zones is called the north frigid 
 
THE ZONES 131 
 
 zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. 
 They are also known as the polar zones, since they sur- 
 round the poles; 
 
 It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the 
 poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and 
 vessels hundreds of miles away from them are in danger of being 
 crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. 
 
 Hemispheres. — The half of our sphere north of the equator is 
 called the northern hemisphere (or half sphere), the southern half, the 
 southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle 
 running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- 
 taining the New World, being called the western hemisphere, and the 
 eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What is the cause for the great heat in 
 the torrid zone ? (2) What are its boundaries ? (3) What other zones 
 are there? What are their boundaries? (4) In which direction does 
 the midday sun lie in each zone? (5) In which direction do the 
 shadows then fall ? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther 
 one travels from the equator ? (7) Why has no one ever been able to 
 reach either pole ? (8) Which part of the earth has no cold weather ? 
 (9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in 
 Fig. 98. (11) Represent them in a drawing of your own. (12) 
 Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's 
 rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the 
 heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing 
 you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. 
 (3) In which direction would you look to see the sun at noon on such 
 a journey? (4) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of 
 trees and other plants ? (5) How would the direction of your shadow 
 change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how 
 could yOu tell the time of day from the sun ? (7) Find out about 
 some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In 
 which zone would you prefer to live ? Why ? (9) Explain how some 
 places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid zone. 
 
 For References^ see page 328. 
 
IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS 
 EFFECTS 
 
 Heat in Mines. — While much is known about the sur- 
 face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. 
 The reason for this is that people cannot go far down 
 below the surface in order to see what is there. 
 
 In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile 
 below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but 
 when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face 
 
 of a precipice into the water. 
 
 132 
 
HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 
 
 133 
 
 thousand times as far to reach the center, it is plain that 
 this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface 
 of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of 
 an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself. 
 
 In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find 
 solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but 
 no one has ever gone beyond this rock. 
 
 It is interesting to note that the farther miners have 
 dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. 
 The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or 
 sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, 
 have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. 
 
 Melted Rock. — This has led to the belief that, if it were possible 
 to go still deeper, the earth would be found to grow hotter and hot- 
 ter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough to 
 melt rocks. 
 
 Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, 
 melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then 
 cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has 
 flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called 
 the crater, that a moun- 
 tain peak has been built. 
 Such peaks are called 
 volcanoes (Fig. 102), and 
 some of them are many 
 thousand feet high. 
 
 The Earth's Crust. 
 
 — From a study of 
 the earth it seems 
 certain that, al- 
 though the outside 
 
 b , , , Fig. 102. 
 
 is now cold, it was . . H 
 
 Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out Java, ashes, and 
 Olice hot, and that steam during an eruption some years ago. 
 
134 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 the mass within is still hot. It may be compared to a 
 biscuit that is still hot inside, although its crust has become 
 cool. In fact, this cold outside part of the earth is gener- 
 ally called the earth's crust. 
 
 Cause of Mountains. — It was stated on page 20 that 
 some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain 
 ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. 
 We are now ready to explain how this has happened. 
 
 You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith 
 put a tire upon a wheel. He heats the 
 tire so hot that it expands, and it is 
 then easily placed over the wheel. 
 But when the iron cools it shrinks, so 
 that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. 
 The hot interior of the earth is 
 undergoing a similar change, since 
 every year it is slowly growing cooler, 
 and, therefore, shrinking or contracting. 
 This allows the cool crust to settle ; 
 but, being too large, it wrinkles, or 
 puckers, causing the rocks to bend and break, and forming 
 great mountain ranges and valleys. 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
 An apple wrinkled 
 through drying. 
 
 One sees something of the same kind in an apple that has become 
 dry and wrinkled (Fig. 103). It has dried because some of the 
 water beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as vapor ; thus 
 the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, like the 
 crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. 
 
 Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. — The moun- 
 tains and valleys are not the largest wrinkles on the 
 earth's surface. As the crust has settled, some portions 
 have been lowered several miles further than others, 
 
HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 
 
 135 
 
 and in these great depressions the waters have collected, 
 forming the oceans, which in places are four or five 
 miles deep. 
 
 Those great portions of the earth's crust which rise above 
 the ocean are called continents ; and the highest mountain 
 peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest 
 part of the ocean. 
 
 Change in the Level of the Land. — The contracting of the earth 
 has caused many changes, and is still causing them. Some parts of 
 the land have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk 
 beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be 
 among the mountains, was once below 
 the ocean. This can be proved, in 
 some places, by finding certain shells, 
 called fossils, in the rocks. 
 
 Ages ago these shells were parts of 
 animals living in the ocean ; but on 
 the death of their owners they became 
 buried in theihud and lay there for 
 centuries until the layers of mud be- 
 came slowly hardened into rock. This 
 was later lifted above the water, and 
 then frost, rain, and rivers wore the 
 upper layers away, bringing the fossils 
 to light. 
 
 We have already seen (p. 2) how rock is changing to soil and being 
 washed from the laud into the ocean. We now learn that this settles 
 upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, is lifted 
 into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going on all 
 the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the sea, 
 and others where they now live have risen above it. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) What is known about the temperature 
 of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? 
 (3) What other proof of this conclusion is there? (4) What is a 
 volcano ? (5) What is the crust of the earth ? (6) What happens 
 as the interior cools ? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 A rock containing many fossil 
 shells. 
 
136 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 (8) How have the ocean basin sand continents been formed? (9) What 
 do fossils in the rocks prove? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earth- 
 quakes. Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing 
 of a volcano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all 
 rocks contain fossils; but examine those in your section to find if 
 they do. (5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered 
 by the sands. (6) If a mine were a mile deep, what would be the 
 temperature at the bottom, if the average temperature at the sur- 
 face is 45° ? 
 
 For References, see page 328. 
 
 Whitney Domes, Kern River Canon, California. 
 
V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 Land and Water. — The greater part of the land is found 
 in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the water 
 in the southern (Figs. 106 and 114). 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemispheres. 
 sphere means half sphere ; that is, half the earth. 
 
 Hemi- 
 
 It is possible to divide the earth into halves, in one of which — the 
 land hemisphere — nearly all the land is situated, while in the other — 
 the water hemisphere — there is very little land. This is shown in 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 The Continents 
 
 In Fig. 106, or, better, on a globe, notice that two 
 great masses of land extend from the north polar zone. 
 One of these lies in the western hemisphere, and is the 
 land on which we live ; the other is in the eastern 
 hemisphere. 
 
 137 
 
138 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 North America. — The western land, which is better 
 shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers 
 down nearly to a point just north of the equator, having 
 the form of a triangle. What is the name of this part ? 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 The northern hemisphere, showing the land ahout the north pole, Eurasia in 
 the eastern hemisphere, and America in the western. 
 
 Show where New York, Washington, and Chicago should be on this 
 map. (See the map, Fig. 120.) Point also to your home. Find 
 some rivers, mountains, peninsulas, gulf s, and other forms of land and 
 water. 
 
 South America. — South of North America, and con- 
 nected with it by a long neck of land, the Isthmus of 
 Panama, lies the continent of South America. The two 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 139 
 
 continents together are called the two Americas, forming 
 the New World which Columbus discovered (p. 119). 
 Notice how much alike they are in shape ; draw triangles 
 to show this. 
 
 Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, 
 p. 128.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all 
 the time ; to the part 
 
 where there is never Nocfh Po/e. 
 
 any snow. Where 
 must the Eskimo 
 girl, Agoonack, one 
 of the Seven Little 
 Sisters, have lived? 
 Read about the Eski- 
 mos on page 208. 
 
 Tell how the cli- 
 mate would change 
 if you were to travel 
 from the northern 
 end of North Amer- 
 ica to the southern 
 end of South Amer- 
 ica. What changes 
 would you expect to 
 find in the plants? 
 In the clothing of 
 people? Write a story 
 about such a journey. 
 
 On page 141 are pictures of some of the wild animals of South 
 America (Fig. 109). What wild animals live in North America? 
 Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them? 
 
 Eurasia. — East of us, across the Atlantic Ocean, is the 
 Old World (Figs. 108 and 115). More land is found there 
 than in the New World, and the largest mass of it is 
 called Eurasia. 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 The half of the sphere containing the New World. 
 
140 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The northern part of Eurasia is in the North Frigid 
 zone, on the opposite side of the north pole from North 
 America (Fig. 106), and extends a great distance east 
 and west. Find for yourself how far south it reaches, 
 and through what zones it passes. 
 
 NORTH 
 
 SOUTH" 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 A hemisphere, showing a part of Eurasia and Africa. 
 
 Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the 
 New World, the most civilized people lived in HJurope, 
 the western part of that great continent. 
 
 The homes of Jeannette and Louise, two of the Seven Little Sisters, 
 were in that country. If you have read the story, can you not tell 
 something about each of them ? 
 

 ONDOR 
 
 Pig. 109. 
 
 Some of the animals of South America. 
 
 141 
 
142 
 
 THE EARTH AS A TV HOLE 
 
 The eastern 
 part of the con- 
 tinent is called 
 Asia. 
 
 Read in the 
 " Seven Little Sis- 
 ters " about Ge- 
 mila, the child of 
 the desert, and of 
 Pen-se, the Chinese 
 girl, whose homes 
 were in Asia. 
 
 Europe is 
 usually consid- 
 ered one conti- 
 nent and Asia 
 another, al- 
 though, as you 
 can see from the maps, especially Fig. 106, they are not so 
 clearly separated as the other continents are. For this 
 reason Europe and Asia are often called one continent, 
 Eurasia, the name being made up of " Eur," from Europe, 
 and " Asia." 
 
 Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably 
 its warmest part ? 
 
 Africa. — South of Europe is the continent of Africa. 
 
 Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, 
 and this is the place the negroes came from. 
 
 In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare 
 with South America in temperature ? In shape ? In what 
 direction would you start in order to go directly to 
 Africa ? 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 The home of Jeannette among the Swiss mountains. 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 143 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ar^i?jk 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .^r "f /ifl 
 
 
 
 HL *id 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 r^-iyf> 
 
 
 
 
 
 F^P/^L 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Hf^l 
 
 ^s 
 
 **■ 
 
 *<^ 
 
 M\3 
 
 
 ^^m ■ 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 The tiger, one of the wild auimals of Africa and Asia. 
 
 Australia. — - South of Asia are many large islands called 
 the East India Islands (Fig. 120). Find the zone in 
 which they lie. Southeast of these is a large island 
 known as the continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what 
 zones is it ? 
 
 The Oceans 
 
 The Arctic and Antarctic. — r There seems to be a great 
 deal of land ; but, as we have learned (p. 67), three 
 fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water. The 
 water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the 
 Arctic Ocean. Find it on a globe. 
 
 There are many islands in this ocean, and the water between them 
 is covered with ice. The climate is so cold "that there are very few 
 people, and no crops of any kind can be raised. Here the Eskimos 
 live, hunting the polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain meat for food, 
 fur for clothing, and oil for fuel and light (see p. 208). 
 
144 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Much less is known about the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 
 114), which surrounds the south pole, and in which there 
 is also a great deal of floating ice. 
 
 The Atlantic. — Extending from the Arctic to the Ant- 
 arctic is the Atlantic Ocean, having the Old World on the 
 east and the New World on the west. This is the water 
 that we cross in going to Europe, and many of the things 
 we eat and wear are brought across it. Can you name 
 some of them ? Find what continents the Atlantic 
 bathes. 
 
 The Pacific. — The water west of North America is 
 called the Pacific Ocean, which is the largest of all oceans, 
 occupying more than one third of the earth's surface. 
 What continents does it bathe? Walk toward it. 
 
 The Indian. — There is still another great body of water 
 called the Indian Ocean (Fig. 108). It lies south of 
 India in Asia, and between Africa on one side and Aus- 
 tralia and the East Indies on the other. 
 
 The Ocean Bottom. — The depth of the ocean water 
 varies considerably ; on the average it is a little over two 
 miles, but in some places it is more than four miles deep. 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 One of the deep-sea fish. 
 
THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 
 
 145 
 
 In this immense body of water are millions of animals, 
 some of them, as the whale, shark, codfish, and seal, being 
 of use to man. 
 
 The bed of the ocean is mainly a great plain, where it 
 is as dark as our darkest night, because the sunlight can- 
 not pass through so much water. In consequence, the fish 
 living there have little use for eyes, and some have none. 
 
 The mud which covers the bottom is in many places 
 made up of the shells of tiny animals, many of them 
 even smaller than a pinhead. Some of the chalk used in 
 schools was just such mud before it was raised to form 
 rock layers on the dry land. 
 
 Mountains in the Oceans. — While most of the bottom of 
 the sea is a plain, some parts are not so level. Here and 
 there are mountain peaks, and chains of islands, extending 
 above the sea far away from the continents. Many of 
 these are portions of mountain chains rising above the 
 water ; but many, 
 like the Hawaiian 
 Islands, are vol- 
 canoes which 
 have been built 
 up by lava flow- 
 ing from the in- 
 terior of the earth 
 (p. 133). 
 
 Coral Islands. — 
 In the open ocean 
 there is another 
 interesting kind 
 
 of island known as the coral island (Fig. 113). Some 
 very tiny creatures, called coral polyps, build hard, limy 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 A ring-like coral island, called an atoll, in the open 
 ocean. 
 
146 
 
t» en 
 
 . cS 
 
 <1 
 
 147 
 
148 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 coral, such as you have no doubt seen. Where the ocean 
 water is warm, as in the torrid zone, these little animals 
 live in immense numbers, millions of them around a single 
 island. 
 
 Each polyp resembles a fully blossomed flower ; and 
 they vary greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, 
 
 yellow, brown, and many other 
 colors. It is a truly beautiful 
 sight to see them spread out 
 in the water, looking like a 
 flower garden in the sea (Fig. 
 118). 
 
 When these coral animals 
 die, the hard coral part re- 
 mains. Then other polyps 
 build upon these skeletons, 
 and this is continued until the 
 the water is reached and coral islands are 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 A piece of coral, with the polyps 
 projecting from the hard coral 
 like a bunch of flowers. 
 
 surface of 
 formed. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Name the five continents, counting 
 Eurasia as one. (2) Write their names. (3) Walk toward each of 
 them. (4) Tell what you can about each. (5) Where is the Arctic 
 Ocean? The Antarctic ? (6) Tell something about the people and 
 animals of the Arctic region. (7) What oceans touch North Amer- 
 ica? (8) Name five oceans. Which is the largest? (9) What are 
 the conditions on the ocean bottom ? (10) In what ways are islands 
 in the open ocean formed? (11) How are coral islands made ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Make an outline drawing of each of the con- 
 tinents. (2) Of each ocean. (3) Collect pictures of the animals, peo- 
 ple, and scenery of the continents. (4) Write a story about one of the 
 pictures. (5) Obtain pieces of coral for the school collection. 
 
 For References, see page 329. 
 
VI. MAPS 
 
 The maps that have been thus far used are all hemi- 
 spheres, and represent the earth as it would appear if 
 we looked down upon it from above. Such maps are 
 especially desirable because they call attention to the 
 roundness of the earth ; but they are so difficult to make 
 that it is customary to represent the earth on flat maps 
 instead. 
 
 In Fig. 119 you can see the difference between the two. 
 While the lower ones show the roundness of the earth, 
 the upper two represent it as quite flat. Although they 
 are unlike, the latter show the position of the land and 
 the water quite as plainly as the former. Since this is 
 true, and since it is much easier to make the flat maps, 
 these will be the ones chiefly used hereafter in this book. 
 But in studying flat maps one should always remember 
 to think of the earth as round, and not as a flat surface. 1 
 It should also be noticed that on flat maps it is impossible 
 to show correctly both the shape and the size of countries. 
 Compare Greenland and South America in Fig. 119 with 
 the same countries in Fig. 120. If you should draw a 
 picture on half of a toy balloon made of rubber, and then 
 stretch the rubber flat, would the picture look the same ? 
 Examine Fig. 120 also. 2 
 
 1 The teacher should see that this is done by frequent use of a globe. 
 It is advisable to have one large globe and several small ones, so that each 
 pupil may have one for frequent use. 
 
 2 These maps (Figs. 119 and 120) should be carefully studied, the 
 pupil following map questions given by the teacher to cover form, location, 
 etc., of continents, oceans, and important places. 
 
 149 
 
Fig. 121. 
 
 Relief map of North America. 
 
 (Modeled by E. E. Howell.) 
 
 150 
 
VII. NORTH AMERICA 
 
 Physical Geography. — Here is a relief map of the con- 
 tinent on which we live. What great highland do you 
 find in the west ? In the east ? In what direction does 
 each extend ? Which is the broader and higher ? Where 
 is the lowest land between these two highlands ? Trace 
 the Mississippi River. Name some of its largest tribu- 
 taries. (You will find these rivers on the map, Fig. 123.) 
 Find the Rio Grande River in the south ; the St. Law- 
 rence River in the northeast ; the Yukon in the north- 
 west. What two great rivers flow westward from the 
 Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean ? 
 
 Notice the slope east of the Appalachian Mountains. 
 Is it longer or shorter than that west of the Rockies ? 
 What, then, are the main slopes in North America? 
 Upon which of these slopes do you live ? Point as nearly 
 as you can to the place where your home is. 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 Section across United States, from east to west, to show mountains, plains, 
 
 and principal slopes. 
 
 Find New York and San Francisco on Fig. 123. If you were to 
 go westward from the former to the latter, you would travel over 
 many hills, valleys, and mountains. Some of the slopes would be 
 short and gentle; others would be very long, and sometimes gentle, 
 sometimes steep. Here is a drawing showing the chief slopes you 
 would cross in making that journey. Point on Fig. 121 to the slopes 
 A, B, C, D, E, and F, of the drawing. Draw a section like this. 
 
 161 
 
152 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Political Divisions. — You will remember that Spain was 
 the nation that helped Columbus make his discovery of 
 America. The Spaniards afterward settled in the south- 
 ern part of the continent, and introduced the Spanish 
 language there. That is still the chief language spoken 
 in Mexico, in the southern part of North America. Mexico 
 became independent of Spain many years ago. 
 
 Other nations also sent explorers and made settlements. 
 Among these were the English, who settled chiefly along 
 the Atlantic coast, and finally came to own the greater 
 part of the continent north of Mexico. 
 
 In time the English who lived in the central portion of 
 eastern North America waged war against England, and 
 chose George Washington as their leader. On the 4th of 
 July, 1776, they declared their independence of England, 
 and finally won it completely. This part became known 
 as the United States; but the region to the north, which 
 England was able to keep, and which she still possesses, is 
 called Canada. Find each of these countries on the map 
 (Fig. 123). Point toward Canada and Mexico. 
 
 Besides these three large nations, several smaller ones 
 occupy Central America, which lies south of Mexico. 
 
 Of course there must be some place where one country ends and 
 another begins. Such a place is called a boundary, and the boundary 
 lines between the different nations are shown on this map by heavy 
 lines. Point them out. 
 
 In some parts you see that a natural boundary has been chosen, 
 such as a river or a chain of lakes ; but it is often only a straight line, 
 cutting across rivers, lakes, and mountains. Examine the boundary 
 of the United States to determine how much of it is natural. 
 
 Where the boundary is only a straight line, it is marked by a row 
 of posts or stone pillars a few rods apart, and if you were to cross from 
 one country to another you could easily see them. 
 
lOO'Lungitude West 9Q°lrum Greenwich 
 
 Fia. 123. 
 
K Street, Sacramento. United States Post Office Building on right, 
 with tower. 
 
 One of the principal business streets of Stockton. 
 
A business street in San Jose. 
 
 One of the main business streets of Fresno. County Court House in the distance. 
 
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 Sioux City 
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 J,ai Angela, 
 
 
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 Jotti 1 
 
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 > 
 
 UNITED STATES \*" 
 
 WESTERN SECTION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 lli 1 I 
 
 50 100 200 see 
 
 Capitals of Countries © 
 
 Capitals of States ® 
 
 Other Cities • 
 
 T"\# E 
 
 M E xf I 
 
 Laredo 
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 Houston 
 
 San Antonio 
 
 iriveston 
 
 
 
 GUl.F 
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 MEXICO 
 
 SENSMVIKS C0.,N.y 
 
 is _ _1 
 
 from 105 J Greenwich 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
vJhtUii-ie 
 KVT 
 
 JefTerson°City 
 MISSOURI 
 
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 ! ARKANSAS, ) - 
 
 tittle Boo>v§/ A t \- \\dixYaxA^ 
 
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 Bonge M^x F^ n ~L\~ ' ®'o 
 
 Westou 
 
 s 
 
 \st- A r 
 
 uvitte 
 
 V 
 
 ^v 
 
 M JB -* r 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 EASTERN SECTION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 50 100 
 
 J 
 
 Capitals of Countries ' ® 
 
 Capitals of States. -® 
 
 Other Cities- • 
 
 V 
 
 c^ 
 
 t> 
 
 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
Street scene in San Bernardino, California. Courthouse on the left. 
 
 Fifth Street, San Diego. 
 
VIII. THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) What waters border the United States? 
 (2) What countries? (3) What is the greatest distance across the 
 United States, east and west ? (Notice the scale of miles on the map.) 
 North and south ? (4) Where are the main divides ? (5) Do you see 
 any part that has very few streams? What does that suggest to you? 
 (6) Find New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, 
 Chicago, New Orleans, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco, and tell 
 where each is. 
 
 When our war for independence began there were thir- 
 teen large groups of settlements, each of which was abso- 
 lutely independent of the others, called colonies, which at 
 the close of the war became known as states. Our flag still 
 has its thirteen red and white stripes to remind us of them. 
 
 There were at first only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag ; 
 but one has been added for each new state until now there are many 
 more. Count the stars on a flag to see how many states there are. 
 
 For a long time after the war for independence, the in- 
 terior and western parts of what is now the United States 
 formed an unknown wilderness belonging to other nations, 
 and inhabited chiefly by Indians. The United States has 
 obtained part of this land by war, and part of it by pur- 
 chase, so that the country is now several times as large as 
 it was at first. Many large states have been added ; but 
 there are still- some parts, called territories, which have 
 not yet been made into states. 
 
 In order that they may be more easily studied, the 
 states are usually divided into groups. Let us take first 
 the northeastern group called the New England States; 
 and afterwards, others. 
 
 153 
 
IX. NEW ENGLAND 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Name the six states included in New Eng. 
 land. (2) Which is largest ? (3) Which smallest ? (4) Which has 
 no seacoast? (5) What mountains are found in these states? What 
 rivers? (6) Remembering what was said on pages 72 and 96, where 
 would you expect to find the largest cities ? (7) What is the capital 
 of each state ? (8) Point to Cambridge in Massachusetts, where Long- 
 fellow lived. (9) To Boston. Walk toward Boston. (10) In what 
 direction would one sail from there to reach England ? (See Fig. 120.) 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 A view of Boston, the largest city in New England, showing its harbor and 
 some of the ships in it. 
 
 Names. — The settlers who came to this part of North 
 America called it New England. Several. names on the 
 map also commence with New, as New Hampshire and 
 New Haven. Find others. What reason can you give 
 for their using that word so often? 
 
 Seaports. — If you examine the map, you will notice that 
 the coast is very irregular, with many small bays, promon- 
 
 154 
 
West 70° from Greenwich 68° 
 
 NEW ENGLAND STATES 
 
 Capitals ® OtUtsr Cities • 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
NEW ENGLAND 
 
 155 
 
 tories, and fine harbors. Draw the coast line, showing 
 some of these. 
 
 The excellent harbors have determined the places where 
 great cities should grow up. The largest of all is Boston, 
 and two others are Portland and Providence. Point 
 them out. What di- 
 rection is each from 
 the others, and in 
 what state is each ? 
 
 Fishing. — Some of the 
 towns are located on the 
 coast because the men who 
 live in them are fisher- 
 men, and must have their 
 homes near the water. In 
 the early days, cod, mack- 
 erel, and halibut were 
 easily caught near the 
 shore ; but now it is often 
 necessary to sail far from 
 land, the men being gone 
 perhaps for weeks before 
 filling their vessels (Fig. 
 67, p. 79) with fish. 
 
 Portland, BosTosr,and Gloucestek 1 are important fishmarkets, the 
 latter being the largest fishing port in the country. Fish is sent from 
 there to all parts of the United States, and even to foreign countries. 
 
 Farming. — A fine harbor by itself cannot make a great 
 city. As you remember (p. 63), this is important simply 
 because it renders the loading and unloading of vessels 
 both easy and safe. But unless there were many people 
 
 1 Whenever cities, rivers, etc. , are mentioned in the text, the pupils 
 should be required to locate them on the map, giving state and 
 position. 
 
 
 
 ■J^'-i 
 
 l^i'ii 
 
 IH 186 
 
 ^^^-^ ^B 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 -^ft^Lj^lte, 
 
 -^^TjJr 
 
 >T~"3Bt"C^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^tP 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 Fishermen hoisthig halibut fro^i a fishing 
 vessel at Gloucester. Notice that these 
 fish are as large as a man. 
 
156 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 supplying and needing materials, there would be little 
 need of using these harbors. 
 
 One might expect that there would be much farming 
 here ; but there are so many hills and mountains, and the 
 soil is often so thin and stony, that the farms are usually 
 small, supplying only vegetables, milk, butter, and other 
 products to be used in the cities near by. Some of them, 
 far from the cities, have been abandoned because the land 
 is so hilly and the soil so poor. 
 
 Quarrying. — But while the rocky hills and mountains hinder farm- 
 ing, they often furnish excellent granite, which is used for buildings 
 and street pavements. White marble, used in monuments, is also 
 found among the mountains near Rutland, Vermont; and slate, for 
 roofs of houses, and for writing slates, is obtained both in Vermont 
 and Maine. 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 Lumbermen engaged in floating logs downstream from the forest. 
 
NEW ENGLAND 
 
 157 
 
 Lumbering. — Since many of the hills and mountains 
 are still covered with forests, much lumber is obtained 
 from them, es- 
 pecially from 
 the mountainous 
 part of northern 
 Maine. As you 
 can see from the 
 
 map (Fig. 126), 
 there are very 
 few towns in this 
 section, most of 
 the country be- 
 ing wooded. 
 
 During spring 
 
 freshets, when the winter snows are melting, the logs are 
 floated downstream, often to a place where ocean steamers 
 
 Fig. 129. 
 
 Map showing the regions from which considerable 
 timber is now being obtained. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 An outing on skis over the snow in New England during winter. 
 
158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 can reach them. Here they are sawed into lumber and 
 loaded upon vessels to be carried in all directions. Ban- 
 gor, on the Penobscot River, has become a large city, 
 chiefly because of its lumber industry. Other towns on 
 the Kennebec and the Androscoggin rivers have grown 
 in the same way. 
 
 Manufacturing. — But we have not yet come to the most 
 important occupation of the New England people. The 
 short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with 
 swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. 
 
 and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because 
 vessels cannot go far upstream ; but in another way it is 
 a great advantage. Can you see how ? 
 
 On page 53 you learned that streams with swift cur- 
 rents and waterfalls furnish the best water power." Where 
 such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great 
 factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- 
 dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the 
 New England states are among the most important manu- 
 facturing states in the Union. 
 
 The principal rivers that furnish water power are the 
 Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already 
 
NEW ENGLAND 159 
 
 mentioned (p. 158). Find each of these, and trace its 
 course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep- 
 resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large 
 cities. 
 
 There is so much manufacturing in New England, by 
 the use of water power and steam, that shiploads of cotton 
 are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as Man- 
 chester (Fig. 131), Lowell, New Bedford, and Fall 
 River. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made 
 into woolen goods at Lawrence and Providence, which 
 also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousand of hides of 
 cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, 
 and leather of all kinds at Lynn and other cities. Iron 
 and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, 
 needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of 
 other articles at Worcester, Bridgeport, Springfield, 
 New Haven, and Hartford. In Boston itself there is 
 also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. 
 
 Find each of these cities ; tell in what state it is and upon what 
 river, if the name is given on the map. All of the other cities 
 marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. 
 Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made 
 in one of these places. 
 
 Commerce. — Some of the manufactured articles are 
 shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to 
 other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- 
 mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- 
 ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the 
 large cities to grow about the best harbors. 
 
 Not only do the persons living in the interior produce 
 great quantities of goods to be shipped away, but they 
 require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and 
 
160 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. 
 The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this 
 is one of the chief reasons why Boston, Portland, and 
 Providence have become large cities. To the first two 
 goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped 
 abroad. 
 
 Review Question's. — (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- 
 land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger 
 seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. 
 (4) Tell what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stones 
 are found, and for what are they used? Where are they found? 
 
 (6) Describe the lumbering. Which state produces the most lumber ? 
 
 (7) Explain how the lumber trade has determined the location of Ban- 
 gor. On what river is it situated ? (8) Why cannot vessels go far 
 up the New England rivers? (9) How are the rivers useful for man- 
 ufacturing? Name several that furnish water power. (10) What 
 goods are manufactured there? In what cities ? (11) What articles 
 must be shipped to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such com- 
 merce affects the size of the coast cities. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What stories of New England do you know ? 
 (2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- 
 fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you 
 will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made 
 of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. 
 (7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- 
 ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. 
 Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- 
 tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can 
 you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take 
 you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. 
 (12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital 
 cities, and principal towns. 
 
 For References, see page 329. 
 
A View of Niagara Falls. 
 
.Tig. 132. 
 
X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic states bor- 
 der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is 
 smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New 
 England ? (You will find the scale on each map.) (5) Name the 
 chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- 
 thest east ? Which farthest west ? (7) What natural boundaries do 
 you find between them ? (8) What are the names of the mountain 
 ranges ? (9) Which state has no mountains ? 
 
 The Coast Line. — Observe that, as in New England, 
 the coast line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- 
 lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused 
 the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- 
 peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each; also 
 draw the coast line to show these bays. 
 
 The Seaports. — The largest cities in New England 
 were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though 
 smaller. The same is true here. New York, on the last- 
 named bay, is the largest city in the United States and 
 next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is 
 Philadelphia on the Delaware, just as far up the river 
 as large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the 
 head of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named 
 Baltimore, in the state of Maryland. 
 
 Reasons for the Great Size oe New York City 
 
 Cities near by. — Near New York harbor we find not 
 only New York, but Jersey City, Newark, and 
 Brooklyn, which has lately become a part of Greater 
 New York. Other cities like Paterson are not far 
 
 161 
 
162 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 away. That is, not only one, but several great cities 
 have grown up here very near together. Let us see why 
 more people should have crowded together here than in 
 any other part of the New World. 
 
 One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- 
 dreds of vessels 
 may anchor at 
 one time, goods 
 can be shipped 
 over the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean to 
 various parts of 
 the world. 
 
 Water Route 
 to the Interior. 
 — A second 
 reason is that 
 goods may also 
 be shipped westward by water. Looking at the map, you 
 see that New York Bay is at the mouth of the Hudson 
 River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean 
 water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad 
 and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as Albany. 
 Long ago people saw that if they could construct a 
 waterway from the Hudson River to Buffalo, they 
 could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; 
 and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one 
 another, they could go all the way to the western end of 
 Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) 
 to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes 
 would the route lead? 
 
 The scheme was finally carried out by building the Erie 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie where a 
 railway bridge crosses it. 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 163 
 
 Canal from Buffalo, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, 
 then down that valley to Albany. (See map, Fig. 132.) 
 
 As the Western country became settled, more and more 
 goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- 
 ways began to be built, many of them also led there. In 
 this way New 
 York has become 
 a great city, and 
 the chief ship- 
 ping point for a 
 large part of the 
 United States. 
 Let us see what 
 some of the 
 goods are that 
 are sent to New 
 York. 
 
 Lumbering. — 
 On the map 
 (Fig. 132) you 
 will find the 
 Adirondack 
 Mountains north 
 of the Mohawk, and the Catskill Mountains south of it. 
 Among these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that 
 lumbering is an important industry there. 
 
 Farming. — These mountains do not cover all of the 
 state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon 
 it. Farming is therefore much more important than in 
 New England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable 
 hay and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, 
 such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. 
 
 Fig. 134. 
 In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, 
 in central New York. The walls and sides of these 
 tunnels are glistening white salt. 
 
164 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Salt. — An extensive bed of salt is found deep down 
 in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is 
 taken from it in many places, and it was the important 
 salt industry that determined the location, and much of 
 the early growth, of Syracuse. 
 
 Manufacturing. — Again, in this state, as in New Eng- 
 land, there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- 
 turing has therefore become extensive. 
 
 Flu. 335. 
 Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract on the western hemisphere. 
 
 In Rochester, at the falls of the Genesee Biver (Fig. 75, p. 91), 
 are many flour mills. The cities on the Mohawk are also engaged in 
 manufacturing. What are their names? In Buffalo, the second 
 city in size in New York State, much use is made of power from the 
 Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. Troy, near Albany, makes 
 shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along 
 the water route already mentioned. Why ? What others do you find 
 along this route? 
 
 In New York City itself there is a vast amount of manufacturing, 
 steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where 
 there is water power, factories now often use steam ; but when the 
 manufacturing began, people could not use steam because they did 
 not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where 
 there was water power. 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 165 
 
 Commerce. — So much manufacturing, together with 
 the farming and other industries of the state, helps to 
 explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- 
 tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others 
 in exchange. It should be remembered, too, that cities 
 hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of 
 the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water 
 and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. 
 
 From this it is plain why the largest city in America is 
 situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up 
 about New York harbor. 
 
 Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great 
 
 City 
 
 Cities near by. — Philadelphia, like New York, has 
 other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- 
 ware is Camden in New Jersey ; and to the northeast, 
 also in New Jersey, is Trenton, where a clay is found 
 that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- 
 west is Wilmington in Delaware, where many ships and 
 railway cars are built. 
 
 Farming. — The soil and climate in this neighborhood 
 are well adapted to growing such fruits as peaches, pears, 
 apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are 
 many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. 
 
 To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian 
 Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend 
 across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and 
 the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- 
 tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, 
 sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried 
 on amonfl; the mountains. 
 
166 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Fig. 136. 
 Rotary snow plow clearing the railroad tracks in New York. It is pushed 
 through the snow drifts hy two or more locomotives, and whirls the snow 
 off to one side in a great arch as high as a telegraph pole. 
 
 Iron. — Several substances found beneath the soil in 
 Pennsylvania are its most important products. 
 
 In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found 
 there. When dug out of the. ground this often resembles 
 reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron ; but 
 by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then 
 shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, 
 guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. Pitts- 
 burg and Allegheny are noted for such manufacturing; 
 also Reading and Harrisburg, the capital, as well as 
 Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a 
 list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. 
 
 Coal. — It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- 
 duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and 
 to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately 
 great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 167 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 Panorama of Schuylkill Coal Regions. 
 
 coal being mined in the western part near Pittsburg 
 and Allegheny, and hard or anthracite coal in the . east- 
 ern part near Scranton and Wilkesbarre. 
 
 Much coal is 
 needed for stoves 
 and furnaces in 
 houses, and also for 
 producing steam for 
 factories. There is, 
 therefore, a great 
 demand for it, and 
 every year it is 
 shipped by thou- 
 sands of car loads 
 to New York, Phil- 
 adelphia, and else- Fig. 138. 
 
168 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 where, often to be loaded upon ships to be sent to Boston and many 
 other cities. 
 
 Oil and Gas. — Gas, much like that used in lighting houses, and 
 petroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also found beneath 
 the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania and New York. There 
 is so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel in manufac- 
 turing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. 
 
 Commerce. — The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, 
 and Delaware, principally fruit, grain, lumber, iron, coal, 
 gas, and oil, together with the manufacture of iron goods, 
 have helped to make Philadelphia a great. citj% As in 
 the case of New York, many of these substances are sent 
 to Philadelphia to be manufactured ; and, like New York, 
 Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of 
 the country. Many other materials are sent there to be 
 shipped away by water ; and many shiploads of goods, for 
 people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Other Cities 
 
 Baltimore. - — Baltimore has grown in much the same 
 way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can 
 easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, 
 Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and 
 much manufacturing. 
 
 Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are 
 shipped from Norfolk, Annapolis, and Baltimore. 
 
 Washington. — Another large city in this section is 
 Washington, on the Potomac River in the District of 
 Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, 
 it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact 
 that it is the National Capital, where there are many great 
 government buildings (Fig. 85, p. 105), and thousands of 
 
MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 
 
 169 
 
 men and women employed in the service of the govern- 
 ment. Can you describe some of the work which thej r 
 are required to do ? 
 
 Virginia and West Virginia. — Richmond, on the James 
 River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, 
 the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The 
 western part of the state is mountainous, as is the eastern 
 
 Fig. 139. 
 Pennsylvania Avenue from the Treasury. 
 
 part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and 
 iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a 
 great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive 
 manufacturing, especially at Wheeling, on the Ohio River. 
 Farming is the chief work in Virginia. . The climate is 
 so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably 
 than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which 
 white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf 
 that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and 
 
170 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are 
 needed for such work, and they represent one of the main 
 industries of Richmond, which is a great tobacco market. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk to- 
 ward each as you name it. (2) What reasons can you give for the 
 great size of New York City? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson 
 and Mohawk rivers. (4) What cities do you find on the Erie Canal? 
 
 (5) What can you say about the farming in New York State? 
 
 (6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in 
 New York ? (8) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia 
 and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture so important in 
 Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city. 
 
 (11) Where are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton, and Wilkesbarre? 
 
 (12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For 
 what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and 
 Wheeling? (16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? 
 
 Suggestions. — (l)Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are 
 any of them not situated either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? 
 (3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston? (See Fig. 124, oppo- 
 site p. 153.) (4) Find what some of the chief difficulties are in build- 
 ing canals. (5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school 
 collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. 
 
 (7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city? (8) Why have 
 Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location ? (9) Give two reasons why 
 Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some 
 pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com-, 
 pare them. (11) Head the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains 
 described are the Catskills. ' (12) Draw an outline map of these 
 states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from 
 memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, — its build- 
 ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map 
 (Fig. 124, United States) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- 
 cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. Find out the 
 abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. Also 
 for the other states as you study about them. 
 
 For References, see page 330. 
 

 
 
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SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 WESTERN SECTION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 ' ! 1 ■ ' 
 
 50 100 200 300 
 
 Capitals of States o Other Cities • 
 
 101° Longitude 
 
 West 97° from 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 Greenwich 03° 
 
 L.L POATESENGfl'G C0..N.Y. 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 EASTERN SECTION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 i 50 i5o 2U0 300 
 
 Capitals of States Other Cities • 
 
 Longitude West 
 
 FiS. 140. 
 
XI. SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Where are the mountains in this group of 
 states? (2) Where are the plains? (See map, Fig. 140.) (3) Notice 
 the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the 
 south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico ? (6) What 
 large peninsula do you find on this map? (7) Which is the largest 
 state? (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size? 
 With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New 
 Orleans to Boston? (See map, Fig. 124, United States.) (10) Notice 
 how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer. (See map, Fig. 123, 
 opposite p. 152.) What does that tell you about their climate ? 
 
 Relief. — The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- 
 bama, passing across several of the Southern states. 
 Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- 
 ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky- 
 Mountains in western Texas. 
 
 But this part of the country is mainly a great region of 
 plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high 
 above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, 
 level land known as the coastal plains. 
 
 Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, 
 where there are broad flood plains protected from the river 
 floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- 
 sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land 
 projects so far into the gulf. (See pp. 50 and 51.) 
 
 We observe, then, that in this group of states are some 
 mountains ; between these and the coast are high plains 
 or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us 
 see what these three sections produce. 
 
 171 
 
172 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 Children playing on a bag of cotton, just picked. 
 
 Coal and Iron. — Coal and iron are found among the Ap- 
 palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would 
 
 expect from this 
 to find manufac- 
 turing centers 
 near the moun- 
 tains ; and Bir- 
 mingham, At- 
 lanta, Chat- 
 tanooga, and 
 Knoxville 
 are engaged in 
 manufacturing 
 of many kinds. 
 Find each and 
 tell what state 
 it is in. 
 Cotton. — On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the 
 climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere 
 excepting in 
 western Texas 
 and Oklahoma. 
 For these rea- 
 sons farming is 
 the chief occu- 
 pation. The 
 southern farms 
 are commonly 
 called planta- 
 tions, and the 
 principal crop 
 on the higher plains, away from the coast, is cotton. 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 A small cotton field and a negro home. The cotton 
 bolls look like white flowers. 
 
SOUTHERN STATES . 173 
 
 The cotton plant grows to an average height of two to eight feet. 
 It has a white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod, called 
 the boll, grows. This boll enlarges until it ripens, when it bursts, 
 revealing a mass of fluffy white fibers, called cotton. 
 
 The cotton is picked in the autumn by men, women, and children, 
 and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin; this separates or 
 combs the cotton from the seeds. The cotton is then packed in bales 
 like hay, and shipped away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and 
 other goods. Name more of them. 
 
 Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, 
 and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 Cattle on the Great Plains. 
 
 Ranching. — The drier plains of western Texas are 
 covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of 
 horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these 
 animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries 
 of this state. The section of land over which a man's 
 cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle 
 ranch, and the business is known as ranching. 
 
 Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or 
 sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account 
 there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see 
 on the map. Dallas and Ft. Worth are the principal centers of 
 trade for this region. 
 
174 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 Cutting sugar cane in Louisiana. 
 
 Fig. 145. 
 A pineapple field in Florida. 
 
 Sugar and Rice. — 
 On the low, swampy 
 plains near the coast 
 and along the lower 
 Mississippi River, rice 
 and sugar cane are 
 raised. Rice seeds 
 grow on a grasslike 
 plant in wet soil. 
 Sugar cane looks 
 much like corn ; but 
 the juice of the stalk 
 is so sweet that it can 
 be made into sugar 
 and molasses. 
 
 Fruits. — Besides the 
 crops mentioned, the low 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 175 
 
 plain of Florida produces fruits. It is so far south that its climate 
 is warm enough for oranges, lemons, and pineapples ; probably your 
 grocery store has such fruits from Florida and California. 
 
 Lumbering. — Some of these plains, both the high and the low ones, 
 are still wooded. It is from them that the hard or Georgia pine, so 
 often used in floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the moun- 
 tains, so that there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which 
 Northern state already studied has a large amount of timber ? In 
 what section would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of 
 forests ? 
 
 Manufacturing. — Knowing what is produced in the 
 Southern states, we naturally expect much manufactur- 
 ing. There are coal, iron ore, corn, wheat, sugar cane, 
 cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, from each of which use- 
 ful articles can be made. Tell what they are. There is 
 also water power in many places. 
 
 For a long time most of the manufacturing in the 
 United States was done in New England. Great quan- 
 tities of cotton and other raw products were sent there 
 from the South to be manufactured. Then some of the 
 finished articles were brought back for use in the South. 
 
 This condition has now greatly changed. The Southern 
 states still ship much cotton to New England and Europe, 
 but much is retained for manufacture at home. No other 
 part of the country has shown such rapid progress in manu- 
 facturing as the Southern states. They are one of the 
 greatest cotton-manufacturing regions in the world. 
 
 Near the coal fields important iron and steel manufac- 
 turing industries have arisen ; near the forest regions are 
 many lumber mills. The abundance of coal, iron, and lum- 
 ber has made possible the manufacture of farm implements 
 and other articles of iron and wood. Each year the impor- 
 tance of manufacturing in the South is rapidly increasing. 
 
176 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The variety of manufactures is far too great to list. Besides arti- 
 cles of iron, wood, and cotton, tobacco is made into many forms ; wool 
 into cloth and other woolen goods; hides into leather; cotton seed 
 into cotton-seed oil ; sugar cane into sugar and molasses ; the sap of 
 the pine tree into turpentine, tar, and rosin. 
 
 Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, 
 one of the most common draft animals of the South. 
 
 New Orleans. — The principal cities in the South are 
 those that have grown up at the best shipping points, 
 that is, on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or some of the 
 great railways. 
 
 The greatest city in this entire section is New Orleans, 
 in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred 
 miles from its mouth. 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 177 
 
 Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, 
 but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by 
 others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to 
 pass up the river from the Gulf ; and river boats can reach 
 it from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. 
 
 These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- 
 shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice 
 are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, 
 and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this center, and there 
 distributed in all directions. Further up the river are Vicksburg 
 and Memphis, which are important river ports. 
 
 Other Seaports. — Not many large cities are found on 
 the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the 
 harbors are often blocked by sand bars. 
 
 The largest seaport west of New Orleans is Galveston. 
 "What goods are probably shipped from this harbor ? 
 Remember the low coastal plains and the high dry plains 
 to the west. 
 
 Along the coast east of New Orleans are Mobile, a great cotton 
 port, Tampa, and Pensacola, a lumber port. Why lumber? On 
 the Atlantic coast are Jacksonville, the chief shipping port for 
 Florida oranges, Savannah, Charleston, and Wilmington. Find 
 each of these and tell what state it is in. In the interior are Atlanta, 
 Columbus, and Augusta. 
 
 Oklahoma. — A few years ago the section north of Texas, now 
 called Oklahoma, was known under the name of Indian Terri- 
 tory, a place set aside by our government as a home for some of 
 the tribes of Indians. But later, these Indians were collected in 
 the eastern part of Indian Territory. The western part was called 
 Oklahoma Territory and was opened up to white people for settle- 
 ment. Later the two territories were united in the new state of 
 Oklahoma. 
 
 Climate. — The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many 
 
178 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- 
 ern-part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. 
 Do you know why the song birds of the North go there in winter? 
 
 Fro. 147. 
 Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) In which Southern arid Northern states 
 are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can 
 about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore 
 mined? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. 
 (5) AVhat is done with the cotton after it is picked? (6) What is 
 the occupation of the people in western Texas? Why? W T hy so few 
 towns there ? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal 
 plains and flood plains? Describe each. (8) What fruits are raised 
 in Florida? Why raised there? (9) What about the lumber indus- 
 try? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? 
 (11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Wliy are 
 there so few large cities? (14) Which is the largest of all? Why? 
 (15) What goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate 
 the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, 
 and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. 
 (19) Tell something about Oklahoma. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Draw the coast line of these states. Add the 
 rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. 
 
SOUTHERN STATES 
 
 179 
 
 (2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. 
 
 (3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made 
 from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of 
 your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. 
 (5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only 
 wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, 
 especially if you can induce some one who has a hothouse to allow 
 you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as 
 New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of 
 the Southern states dependent upon each other in the work that they 
 do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus 
 far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locate 
 the chief cities in all these states. (11) Draw the entire Eastern 
 coast line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. 
 
 For References, see page 330. 
 
 A river swamp in Mississippi. 
 
XII. CENTRAL STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which 
 ones border on the Great Lakes ? How can goods be shipped from 
 them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which 
 is highest above the level of the ocean? Which is lowest? (4) Into 
 what do they empty? (See Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers 
 in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (See Fig. 124, 
 United States). (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri River? 
 (8) Into the Mississippi? (9) Into the Ohio? (10) Which one into the 
 Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of any reason why 
 it should be a great city — the greatest in this section? (12) In which 
 of these states did Abraham Lincoln live ? 
 
 Raw Products. — This group of states has four cities 
 larger than New Orleans, and several others that are not 
 very much smaller. 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 A "bunch" of cattle on a farm in Western Kansas. 
 
 180 
 
^ Turtle Mts. 'K'Z~££o?m 
 
 K 
 
 Grafton.. 7. 
 ■Devils r~f&^ li 
 
 k 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 >Laki^f^ 
 
 Woods 
 
 Bed Lake 
 
 Grand Forks! 
 
 R T 
 
 D A KlO t/ A 
 
 Jamestown^ ^( |\o' £«4e /«o«ci 
 
 Bismarck * %» FargcJ/i 
 
 
 'LeecJi 
 Lake 
 
 VbH \MJ N N E Sj'O T A jSuperlor 
 
 I Wah D RtL»Hi Braine/Fd£^j[ e 
 
 ■Aberdeen. 
 
 Fergus Falls 
 
 St. CloudV*V 
 
 %&M o u 
 
 BJac/f 
 
 T H 
 
 'tf^ 6 
 
 Xio6r«ra] 
 
 (TTaterto wi 
 
 *> A KoVl 
 
 Huron Jfi 
 Mitchell < 
 
 Siouxi 
 
 V* f4hs 
 
 "•5 
 
 StillwVat 
 
 Minneapolis/^^ i sis' 
 
 I'Rea'WW* 
 
 Faribault V3* 
 ■Winona 
 
 -v 
 
 Mat 
 
 Slom City 
 
 JV E 
 
 B R 
 
 o 
 p 
 
 t!!P NorfblF* 
 
 £ K A 
 
 V£ Fremont 
 
 r orth Platte V -~~i T*- ' , 
 
 Omafta '{.Council Bluffs 
 
 ^^^^ndliSndP^ """"pk 
 
 \o 
 
 ou City 
 
 w 
 
 4? i 
 Des Moines c 
 
 MarsballtOjt! * Cedar*C _. 
 ask -^ R M ^\ Clinton 
 
 Kearney 
 
 Bpiiubliean 
 J%% — _ . ^ 
 
 attamouthT" 
 Wi 9 
 
 ^Ottffttw 
 
 Nebraska!"*" 
 BeatrifcV ° Uj 
 
 O j > 
 
 i« 
 
 A N 
 
 ?»•* 
 
 s 
 
 HutchinsonV, 
 
 •VKlchltS 
 
 Topeka\~Y' Kansas City 
 
 Lawrence. SedaIia . 
 
 Jeffersor 
 
 i *==M»^C\ t _. _. \Arkansas City\j 
 
 CENTRAL STATES ~ 
 
 WESTERN SECTION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 5 26 60 Ti loo 
 
 ~200 
 
 W,' ^ 
 
 Rapids 
 
 Da vcn'j port, 
 Muscatiner 
 
 Hannibal 
 Moberly 
 
 Pig. 149. 
 
g V T E It z 
 
 
 V..^ Hough; 
 
 />^f JtS^f ^'^Wquette^ ' Isj 
 
 i 4 * — ■ Ij**-^ 3& llsbpennng <\^ Vv «y >- ".«J5I__ 
 
 [Superior J*]^*" 1 * | J^f ^Sj)^ Sault Ste.jMawe^ 
 
 * 
 
 ^SUE ROY ALE 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 4a 
 
 CENTRAL STATES 
 
 EASTERN SECTION 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 6 25 ^0 75 100 20 
 
 Capitals of States © Otter Cities o 
 
 o 
 
 4 - -* A 
 
 fli 
 
 ( 
 
 Z^>i 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 ,d!4 
 
 V 
 
 ^ 
 
 -\< 
 
 Str. qf»p^ 
 
 i & fl *cSeboygan 
 
 . ... WMeapniiuee 
 ; armette jtf£JE/lZ-& ) — 
 
 "Wauiauj* 
 
 Eau Claire < (& een \B&y „ , 
 
 WISC Q^N S<* NT I *Y /.Manistee 
 
 < / ApiietonJ' J. t> / Wr\ , . 
 
 S& /kJ&tH) w»x \ oVrwest r $ 
 
 "WlnonVV. fca*?-»fi"*S<'»»y ghLboygan J J'CJBay City* 
 
 V. «, X >J Fond rf W I & r~~ I * ■—•» — • i , 
 
 La Crosse \. la u \Lae 7 ^ V ^/ I y /Saginaw \ lftj 
 
 L..j = e^ w 4 t0 } n Milwaukee ¥f;H v {j. 0Tt * m °*f °S^r^<. 
 
 >^ Janesvillef. J ^ J Battle Creek 1 petroU^^VOil I V >^* >. 
 
 Buba,u„V— . fcSirfTl ^ ^Xzoo' iacLn^ nn Artor£^ ^/Tt 
 
 P*VO W A V' reep0r r yl- Evansto^Jl H, . A _ ^-H-iflrian* /§i«T, A 
 
 W 
 
 -v. y_r^ t,t ' Ai.rori^ 
 
 DavenjporUJ^jj i ine _ . Joliet 
 
 0* 
 
 
 vd 
 
 Elgi 
 
 ' >J ' J 0tSwaVv 
 Rankalt' 
 
 
 . Logansport^ 
 
 I /--^^Mariotf- 
 
 Keokuk^ 
 
 Hannibal • 
 
 M 
 
 02 
 
 ("East S^Lo lis 
 Be/IteviUe 
 
 nliety^"^ >4tf°«/A* GoBben / ^-4-' Sandusky ,?„. Ivj^i 
 
 •- MassiUo^verpooljrV^: 
 
 tiina -, "* EastPjveru" /. -w 1 
 
 • Mansfield " TQ \..A\ \ 
 
 i c . olun X I z SVvlU» ( •-— *v 
 
 Sprihgneld IS \ L/ \ 
 
 7\»aYton II llariettaWI 
 / VjUilliootbe >ip ar Versburg 
 
 I /i Hamilton *> I T 1 -, a T 
 
 i jAfiiBcmiiatfo ^/vLiS5a^. s \ 
 
 ^SnyV V-^\ TO. 
 
 Galesburg 
 
 J^lpomftiswm] ^^/Lafayette 
 
 Muncii 
 
 Dknville • j) 
 
 AadersclnS- / f 
 
 . . 'Decktur J * X % Kic^mon 
 
 J.| Jacksonville _^,- jj. Indl^ftiaP 
 
 [Terre Haut* 
 
 7 
 
 ^/EvansTlUel^JLOUiSVUleYexlngton-v % ^> > 
 
 Henderson 3 . 0ensDoro A A. y I """/V. 
 
 /O 
 
 ■^Mammot^fei, 
 
 I 5 \ y \ t-WpkduJahOT% Bowling Green ^^-0 iia £sg&^£: J~TT 
 
 Gfreemvie! 
 
 89 ° LoDgit'ude West froi 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
.c ^ s ri 
 ~ .a be 
 
 be O - '' 
 
CENTRAL STATES 
 
 181 
 
 The entire section is mainly a great plain, whose soil is 
 favorable to farming. 
 
 In the "western part of Kansas, Nebraska, and the two 
 Dakotas this plain is dry, like the western part of 
 Texas. 
 
 The reason for this is that the winds from the Pacific 
 Ocean lose their moisture as they pass eastward over the 
 mountains, while those from the Gulf of Mexico and At- 
 lantic rarely reach so far as this region. On that account 
 the men of this section, as in western Texas, are princi- 
 pally engaged in raising cattle (Fig. 156), sheep, and horses. 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 Harvesting wheat on one of the great wheat fields of the Red River Valley of 
 
 North Dakota. 
 
 The eastern part of the states from North Dakota to 
 Texas has more rain ; and since the soil and climate are 
 favorable, it is a great wheat region, the best in the entire 
 country. 
 
 In Kentucky, as in Virginia, tobacco is one of the most 
 important products; but in the Central states perhaps 
 the most valuable farm crop is corn. A great deal of 
 that grain is raised in every one of these states, although 
 Iowa and Illinois produce the largest amounts. In many 
 
182 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 localities so much is raised that the cornfields extend as 
 far as the eye can reach. 
 
 In all of these states there is much stock, each farmer usually 
 keeping a few horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs. Each state, likewise, 
 produces wheat and other kinds of grain, as well as wool, hay, fruit, 
 vegetables, and other crops. Ohio is especially noted for its sheep 
 and wheat. 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 An Iron Mine. 
 
 Underneath the soil in several of the states, especially 
 in Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana, coal is mined. Look on 
 the map (p. 167) to see in what states coal occurs. In 
 Ohio and Indiana, petroleum and natural gas are found. 
 
 On the northwestern shore of Lake Superior, in Minne- 
 sota, and also on the southern side, in Wisconsin and 
 
CENTRAL STATES 
 
 183 
 
 Michigan, iron ore is mined, as in Pennsylvania and Ala- 
 bama. In fact, that region produces more iron ore than 
 any other in the world. A great quantity of copper is 
 also mined in Michigan. 
 
 The northern parts of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michi- 
 gan also have large forests, so that many kinds of lumber 
 are secured from them. 
 
 Now we know 
 the principal 
 raw products of 
 the soil and 
 mines of this 
 region. We find 
 cattle and sheep 
 in the dry west- 
 ern section, 
 wheat in the 
 northwest and 
 in Ohio, copper 
 and iron ore along the shores of Lake Superior, lumber in 
 the north, tobacco in the south, corn in the center, and 
 a vast amount of coal in several of the states. Many of 
 the people of these states are engaged in obtaining these 
 raw products. 
 
 The Manufacturing and Trade Centers. — From this it is 
 easy to see the reason for so many people and great cities 
 in this region. The statement was made at the beginning 
 of this section that four cities here were larger than New 
 Orleans, and several Others about as large. Where should 
 they be located? Heretofore we have found the great 
 cities where goods can be shipped by water ; accordingly 
 we would expect to find them either on the shores of 
 
 70 am? 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 Make a list of the wheat-producing states. 
 
184 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 the Great Lakes or along the Mississippi River and its 
 tributaries. 
 
 Let us study about some of these cities, starting first 
 with Chicago. It is next to New York in size, and is 
 situated on the southwestern end of Lake Michigan in 
 Illinois. It has water connections with New York City, 
 as you know, and also with the cities along the St. Law- 
 rence River ; for there is a canal leading from Lake Erie 
 to Lake Ontario in order to avoid the Niagara Falls. 
 What physical features tend to make Chicago a great 
 railroad center ? 
 
 Milwaukee, farther north on the lake shore, is much 
 smaller than Chicago, but it is one of the two cities nearly 
 
 as large as New 
 Orleans. 
 
 What, now, 
 are likely to be 
 the industries 
 of these two 
 cities and the 
 others along the 
 Great Lakes? 
 Quantities of 
 the raw prod- 
 ucts named are 
 sent to Chicago. 
 It is the greatest 
 meat market in 
 the world ; and 
 cattle and sheep 
 from the West- 
 ern plains, and hogs from all over the Central states, are 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 Market Street in the great city of Chicago. 
 
CENTBAL STATES 
 
 185 
 
 ! |J 
 
 '■ ■ '■■ II % i- "■ . ■■ .. . ".. It ..:■ .... ■ ' " II : 
 
 :-■■■'-■: 
 
 ; ■:;:;:,:.:%■. 
 
 
 S=5= 
 
 S^LZCIIl-i-- -i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 Cattle in the Chicago stock yards. 
 
 shipped to the Chicago stock yards (Fig. 154), where 
 thousands of men are employed in preparing them for 
 food. The business of packing, canning, and shipping the 
 meat requires a great number of workmen, and the tanning 
 of the hides to make leather, which is done in Milwaukee, 
 also keeps many men busy. 
 
 Some of the wheat of the Dakotas and Minnesota is 
 sent to Chicago and Milwaukee to be shipped or to be 
 ground into flour for bread. The latter city has long been 
 noted for its flour mills. In southeastern Minnesota are 
 falls in the Mississippi River (Fig. 155) which furnish ex- 
 cellent water power, so that flour mills have been built there 
 and the city of Minneapolis has grown up about them. 
 
 Only a few miles away, at the head of navigation on the Missis- 
 sippi, is St. Paul, which owes its growth partly to the fact that it is 
 
186 
 
 TUE EAIiTII AS A WHOLE 
 
 a center for the sale of machinery, clothing, and other articles needed 
 by the farmers who raise the wheat. Name some of the articles they 
 need to buy. 
 
 While much flour is made in the West, a great deal of the wheat 
 is sent to Dultjth, on the western end of Lake Superior, and there 
 shipped over the Great Lakes, whence it goes to New York and even 
 to Europe. Why should Duluth be selected ? 
 
 Chicago has no water power for manufacturing, but it 
 is the nearest lake port to the Illinois coal fields, and draws 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
 The power for running the large flour mills of Minneapolis is furnished by 
 St. Anthony Falls, of the Mississippi River, The growth of Minneapolis is 
 due largely to these natural advantages. 
 
 upon them for fuel to produce steam for factories. Thus 
 it is made a great center for the manufacture of iron goods 
 and furniture, receiving both iron ore and lumber in lake 
 vessels. But the other lake ports share in this work, espe- 
 cially the great cities of Cleveland, Detroit, and To- 
 ledo, which are within easy reach of the raw products. 
 
 Another important product that reaches Chicago is corn. There 
 it is ground into corn meal or made into hominy, starch, and other 
 substances. So much corn and wheat are carried there that Chicago 
 is a great grain as well as meat market. 
 
CENTRAL STATES 
 
 187 
 
 Locate the principal cities along the Great Lakes. Named in order 
 of size they are Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Milwaukee, Toledo, and 
 Duluth. In what state is each of these? Also find Saginaw and 
 Grand Rapids, two important lumber-manufacturing cities. 
 
 We said that the other great cities should be looked for 
 upon the waterways formed by the Mississippi River and 
 its largest tributaries. The greatest of these tributaries 
 is the Missouri River, and a very large city, St. Louis, is 
 situated near where it enters the Mississippi. 
 
 St. Louis is connected with the country far to the north- 
 west by the Missouri River; with Minneapolis by the 
 Mississippi ; with Pittsburg by the Ohio ; and on the 
 south with Memphis, New Orleans, and the ocean. Natu- 
 rally, as people settled here, railways were built, until, 
 like Chicago, it has become one of the great railway cen- 
 ters in the country. Like Chicago, also, it draws to itself 
 all the products that have been named. 
 
 Although a great 
 many cattle and 
 sheep reach St. 
 Louis and Chicago, 
 making them im- 
 portant meat 
 markets, many of 
 these animals are 
 slaughtered near 
 the plains on which 
 they are raised, and 
 that fact explains 
 the importance of 
 Omaha and Kan- 
 sas City. Both these noted meat markets are on the Missouri River. 
 Horses and wool are also shipped from these cities. 
 
 Much wheat and corn are brought to St. Louis, making it an impor- 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
188 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 tant grain market. A great deal of tobacco also goes to St. Louis; but 
 since Kentucky is the chief tobacco raising state in the Mississippi 
 Valley, its leading city, Louisville, is the great tobacco market of 
 that section, as Richmond is for Virginia. It is also an important 
 manufacturing center. 
 
 The manufacture of clothing is an important industry 
 in Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and much machinery 
 is made there from iron ore sent from Pennsylvania and 
 West Virginia. Why from these states rather than from 
 Lake Superior? 
 
 One of the largest cities in these Central states, Indian- 
 apolis, the capital and largest city in Indiana, is located 
 away from the great waterways. But it is in a rich farm- 
 ing country, and as railways enter it from all directions, 
 it has become the chief trade center of that state. Colum- 
 bus, the capital of Ohio, is another great trade center. 
 
 Locate the principal cities on the large rivers and tell for 
 what they are important. Ranked in order of size they 
 are St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, Minneapolis, Kansas 
 City, and St. Paul. In which state is each of these? 
 
 Review and Comparisons. — We have seen that the farm products 
 and manufactures of the Central states are quite different from those 
 of the Southern states. Make a list of these for each of the groups 
 and compare them. Compare them in the same way with those of 
 New England. With those of the Middle Atlantic states. Make a 
 list of the six largest cities in each of these four groups of states. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Describe the surface of the Central 
 states. (2) What four states are dry in the western part? Why? 
 
 (3) Compare the products of these with those of western Texas. 
 
 (4) Where is our greatest wheat region? (5) Where in this group of 
 states are copper and iron ore mined ? (6) Where is lumber found ? 
 (7) Tobacco? (8) Corn? (9) Coal? (10) For what products is 
 Ohio noted? (11) Give some reasons why Chicago has become so 
 great a city. (12) Also St. Louis. Name and locate the chief cities 
 
CENTRAL STATES 
 
 189 
 
 along the Great Lakes, giving the main industries of each. (13) Do 
 the same with the cities along the great rivers. (14) What was said 
 about Indianapolis and Columbus ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Mississippi Kiver with its two main 
 tributaries. Add to the drawing the Great Lakes and the Atlantic 
 and Gulf coasts. Make a cross where each of the large cities is 
 located, and write its name. (2) Do the lakes affect the climate 
 of cities on or near their shore? Why? (3) Add some wheat 
 and corn to the school collection. (4) Grow some of each in the 
 school. (5) Tell from what animals wool, beef, pork, mutton, 
 lard, and leather come. (6) Find out about the buffalo and 
 Indians that used to live on the plains. (7) Read about the early- 
 French explorers. About the pioneers who first settled these plains. 
 (8) According to the scale of the map (Fig. 124) how does Kansas com- 
 pare in size with Connecticut ? (9) With the whole of New England? 
 (10) Draw a map of the Central states similar to that of New Eng- 
 land, and put in the capitals. 
 
 For References, see page 330. 
 
 Marysville, California. 
 
XIII. WESTERN STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) In what directions do the mountains ex- 
 tend ? (2) Name the principal ranges. (3) Which are the chief 
 rivers? (4) Make a drawing of them. (5) In what sections do 
 there seem to be few rivers ? (6) What does that suggest about rain- 
 fall? (7) Some rivers empty into lakes that have no outlet. AVhat 
 does that suggest? (See p. 59.) (8) How far is it across the United 
 States from the northern to the southern boundary ? (9) Measure 
 the length of California. Compare its size with Pennsylvania ; with 
 Texas ; with Massachusetts. (10) Compare the coast line with that 
 of New England. What does that suggest about harbors and cities? 
 (11) Locate the capital and the chief city in each state. 
 
 Reasons why there are so Few People. — This group of 
 states is much larger than either of the other four, form- 
 ing about one third of the entire United States. But 
 they are thinly settled, having only about one fourth as 
 many people as the Southern states alone. Two divisions, 
 Arizona and New Mexico, are still territories. 
 
 One reason why they have so few people is that most of 
 the early settlers came from Europe, and naturally located 
 in the Eastern and Southern states. It was only after 
 these parts were fairly well occupied that many people 
 moved farther westward. 
 
 Another important reason is the mountainous condition 
 of the country. Much of this section is a vast, dry pla- 
 teau, usually more than a mile above the level of the sea. 
 Extending across the plateau from north to south are 
 several great mountain ranges. The mountains along the 
 Pacific coast are called the Coast Ranges, those in eastern 
 California the Sierra Nevada, and those farther north, in 
 
 190 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 Scale of Miles. 
 q 50 100 
 
 State Capitals'- © Other Cities 
 
 115 c Longitude West 110° frc 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
Fig. 158. 
 Mirror Lake, Yosemite Valley. Mt. Watkins in the distance. 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 191 
 
 Oregon and Washington, the Cascade Ranges. Far east 
 of these long chains are others called the Rocky Mountains. 
 All of these mountains together are known as the Western 
 Cordilleras. 
 
 The Cordilleras are far higher and steeper than the Appa- 
 lachians in the East, and they are very rocky, so that farm- 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 A geyser in eruption in Yellowstone National Park. 
 
 ing is impossible on much of the land. Indeed, in many 
 parts they are so rough that it is difficult to travel among 
 them ; this is indicated by the name Rocky Mountains. 
 
 Still another reason why there are so few people is that, 
 even where the soil is fertile, the climate is usually too dry 
 for farming, because the winds that reach it do not carry 
 much vapor. 
 
192 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 Grand Canyon of the Colorado. 
 
 Wonderful Scenery. — Some of the places in this section 
 are among the most interesting in the world. For exam- 
 ple, in northwestern Wyoming are hundreds of springs 
 where the water is so hot that it boils. . At some points boil- 
 ing water and steam occasionally shoot upward with a roar, 
 from holes in the ground, and rise frequently to a height 
 of one or two hundred feet. These are called geysers 
 (Fig. 159), and there are scores of them in this region. 
 
 Here, too, is the Yellowstone River, whose waters tum- 
 ble 308 feet in a single fall, which is nearly twice as high as 
 the Niagara Falls in New York. In the deep gorge that 
 the river has cut below the falls, the rocky banks are in 
 places fully one fourth of a mile high and beautifully col- 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 193 
 
 ored. Our nation has set aside this wonderful region as 
 a park, naming it the Yellowstone National Park; and each 
 year hundreds of people travel there to see it. 
 
 Away in the heart of the Sierra Nevada mountains in 
 central eastern California, is the Yosemite Valley (Fig. 
 158), ground out by glaciers of long ago. 
 
 Tourists the world 
 over come here to see its 
 lofty peaks and domes, 
 its great cliffs and mighty 
 waterfalls. Whether 
 seen in winter with its 
 tall pine trees mantled 
 in snow, or in early sum- 
 mer when the thunder 
 of its waterfalls can be 
 heard up and down the 
 entire length of the val- 
 ley, it is ever and always 
 California's most famous 
 natural wonderland. 
 
 There are many other 
 interesting places to visit 
 in this western country ; 
 but none are more won- 
 
 Fig. 161. 
 
 A miner washing, or "panning," gravel to 
 
 see if there is any gold in it. 
 
 derful than the Colorado Canyon (Fig. 160), cut in the 
 rocks of the plateau, in places to a depth of over a mile. 
 Trace its course on the map. 
 
 Mining. — Although so rocky and so arid in places, there 
 are important industries in the Western states ; and in 
 order to find out what they are, let us first study the 
 mountains. You remember that iron ore and coal are 
 
194 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 found in the Appalachians; do you remember in what 
 states? Some coal and iron ore are also mined in the 
 Cordilleras ; but even more valuable minerals than these 
 are found in the mountain rocks. 
 
 In 1848 gold was discovered in California. Bits of this 
 heavy metal lay in some of the stream beds, and could be 
 obtained by carefully washing the lighter dirt away (Fig. 
 161). News of the discovery quickly spread throughout 
 the world, and men hastened to the gold fields by thou- 
 sands. Ever since then California has been one of the 
 leading states in the production of gold. 
 
 There were no railways then in the West, so that some 
 of the people from the East crossed the plains and moun- 
 tains in wagons, and were in danger of being attacked by 
 savage Indians ; others made the long journey in vessels. 
 What route must they have taken? The best harbor on 
 the Pacific coast was San Francisco Bay, where a small 
 Spanish town had existed for years. Soon people crowded 
 in so rapidly that the town of San Feancisco became a 
 great city and the chief trade center in the West. 
 
 Gold was also found in veins in the solid rock. Rock 
 with gold in it is called gold ore, and must be crushed into 
 fine bits before the gold can be collected. This requires 
 much machinery, and is one of the important parts of 
 mining (Fig. 22, p. 26). 
 
 Gold is also found in Colorado, and many men have 
 been attracted to that state, as formerly to California. In- 
 deed more gold now comes from Colorado than from 
 California. Denver, the largest city in Colorado, and 
 Poeblo, owe their growth partly to the gold mines near 
 them. Find these cities on the map. 
 
 Silver is another precious metal mined in the West, and 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 195 
 
 Colorado produces more of it than any other state. With- 
 out doubt some of the gold and silver that you have seen 
 came from the mountain rocks of California or Colorado. 
 For what purposes are these metals used ? 
 
 Large quantities of both metals are also mined in the other 
 states and territories of this section, epecially in the Black 
 Hills of South Dakota, in Montana, Nevada, and Utah. 
 
 Fig. 162.. 
 
 Placer mining in Montana. — Two alluvial fans being built of gravel dropped 
 at the end of sluices in the process of washing gold from the gravels. Notice 
 the numerous branches of the stream on the farther fan. These are so 
 rapidly depositing and building up the fan that they must frequently change 
 positions. 
 
 Much copper is mined in the West, especially-at Butte, 
 Montana, where the greatest copper mines in the world are 
 situated, and in the territory of Arizona. Lead is a fourth 
 important metal obtained from these Western states. 
 
 Cities have grown up near some of these mines ; but 
 there are many mines in the mountains far away from the 
 cities. In some parts of the country travelers may see, 
 
196 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 from the car windows, scores of little tunnels dug into the 
 sides of the mountains, by men who were hunting for ore. 
 It is a hard, lonely life, and many find little ore ; but one 
 occasionally makes a discovery that brings him a fortune. 
 Ranching. — The mountains, therefore, are chiefly valu- 
 able for their ores ; but the high plains and plateaus also 
 
 have some worth. 
 There is little rain 
 upon them ; but, as 
 in the western part 
 of the two Dakotas, 
 Nebraska, Kansas, 
 and Texas, there is 
 often grass enough 
 for raising cattle, 
 sheep, and horses. 
 Many of the animals 
 raised are finally 
 shipped eastward 
 to furnish meat, 
 leather, and wool. 
 In these states the 
 cowboys live, spend- 
 ing most of their 
 days upon their 
 horses (Fig. 163). 
 The Desert. — In some parts of this dry, or arid, region 
 there is so little rain that they are true deserts. One can 
 travel for scores of miles and see scarcely any vegetation 
 excepting cactus, a little grass, and such plants as grow in 
 arid regions. There are no trees ; there is no water ; in 
 fact, there is little but sand and rock to be seen ! No 
 
 Fig. 163. 
 A western cowboy. 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 197 
 
 wonder that many a family, with their horses or oxen, 
 died of thirst and hunger in attempting to cross this desert 
 waste in search of California gold sixty years ago. 
 
 Irrigation. — However, by irrigation parts of these deserts 
 are changed into gardens. To irrigate the thirsty soil, 
 which is usually fertile, men dig ditches and lead the 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 Mormon Temple, Salt Lake City, Utah. 
 
 water from streams that are fed by the rain and melting 
 snow of the high mountains (Figs. 165-166). 
 
 The Mormons of Utah, a people who were driven out 
 of the Eastern states many years ago, and who settled in 
 that barren region, have changed the desert to a garden by 
 means of irrigation. They have also built the beautiful 
 Salt Lake City (Fig. 164) near Salt Lake ; and not far 
 away from this is Ogden, a busy railway center, where there 
 are not so many Mormons. Find these places on the map. 
 
198 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Near Denver is a great irrigation ditch leading from the 
 mountains ; and while the land just above the level of the 
 ditch is fit for nothing but grazing, that below it, which 
 can be flooded with the water, produces excellent crops. 
 
 Irrigation is growing more common every year, and 
 by the aid of it people often raise food for stock, as well 
 as for themselves. They even build great reservoirs to 
 collect the water for use in the summer (Fig. 49, p. 57). 
 
 Fruit Raising. — We have been studying the moun- 
 tains, high plains, and plateaus, finding mining and graz- 
 ing to be the chief industries, with farming where the soil 
 is irrigated. 
 
 Let us now examine the land nearer the coast. South- 
 ern California also has an arid climate, where much of the 
 farming is carried on by means of irrigation. But since 
 the climate of the region is warm, as in Florida, the fruits 
 that grow in southern countries, such as oranges, lemons, 
 peaches, olives, and figs, are easily raised. 
 
 In the midst of this beautiful fruit country, where the 
 climate is so fine, is the beautiful city of Los Angeles, an 
 important railway center, surrounded by thriving towns 
 and orange groves. 
 
 Everywhere in that vicinity the main work is fruit 
 raising by aid of irrigation (Figs. 165-166). Without it 
 a piece of land produces only scanty crops, while a well- 
 irrigated orchard by its side thrives wonderfully well. 
 Visitors are usually surprised to see such a striking 
 difference. 
 
 Industries along the Pacific, Coast. — Farther north, 
 toward San Francisco and beyond it, the rainfall is 
 heavier ; but irrigation is necessary in man}' - places. The 
 most common fruits are grapes, prunes, peaches, and apri- 
 
WESTERN STATES 
 
 199 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 A dam and ditch, built for irrigation purposes. Tell what you can of all you see 
 
 in this picture. 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 
 The plan of irrigating a fruit orchard. Notice the main ditch and how the water 
 
 is let into the furrows made between the rows of trees. 
 
200 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 cots. Much wheat is also raised, and sheep are numerous. 
 This is the country of "big trees," too (p. xvi), the largest 
 in the world being found in the vast forests among the 
 mountains. 
 
 Still farther north, between Oregon and Washington, 
 you will find a large river on the map. What is its name ? 
 Here the moist winds from the ocean cause heavy rainfall, 
 so that irrigation near the coast is unnecessary. On the 
 mountain slopes are extensive forests, and there are large 
 lumber mills, especially in Washington along Puget Sound. 
 Find this sound (Fig. 124). 
 
 The raising of such fruits as peaches and apples is an 
 important industry. Salmon are abundant in the Colum- 
 bia River, so that the fishing industry is important there, 
 as at Gloucester, Massachusetts. What kinds are caught 
 there? (See p. 155.) 
 
 The Cities of the Pacific Slope. — The largest city north 
 of San Francisco is Portland, on a small branch of the 
 Columbia River. The other cities are Tacoma and 
 Seattle on Puget Sound, and Spokane, a manufac- 
 turing center, at the falls in the Spokane River. 
 
 Comparing the Pacific with the Atlantic coast, one sees 
 some striking differences. The Atlantic coast is low and 
 extremely irregular, having many bays and fine harbors, 
 with numerous great cities about them. But the Pacific 
 coast has steep mountains in many places, and, except in 
 the very north, is regular, having few fine harbors and large 
 cities. San Francisco, Oakland, Berkeley, and Alameda 
 are the most important cities situated on San Francisco 
 Bay, one of the best harbors in the world. 
 
 San Jose in the Santa Clara Valley, and Sacramento, 
 Stockton, Fresno, and Bakersfield in the Sacramento-San 
 
WESTERN STATES 201 
 
 Joaquin Valley, are important cities. Los Angeles, San 
 Diego, Pasadena, and Santa Barbara are the largest cities 
 in the southern part of the state. 
 
 From the coast and bay cities, and from the interior, 
 California products are shipped over the Pacific Ocean to 
 Japan, China, Australia, and even around South America 
 to the Atlantic coast. This is an important trade, but it 
 is not so extensive as the ocean commerce of the Atlantic 
 coast cities. The fact that we now control the Philippine 
 and Hawaiian islands will cause this trade to increase ; 
 and when the Panama canal connecting the Atlantic and 
 Pacific oceans is finished, there will be still more ocean 
 commerce. Why ? A cable has recently been laid from 
 San Francisco to Manila by way of Honolulu. Of what 
 benefit is it ? 
 
 At present the greater part of the products of the 
 Western states, even of the coast cities, instead of being 
 shipped by water, are sent eastward by rail. There are 
 railway lines connecting each of the large Western cities 
 with all portions of the Eastern states. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Compare the size of this group of states 
 with that of the other groups. (2) What about the number of people 
 there? (3) Give three reasons why there are so few. (4) Name each 
 of the mountain ranges, rinding each on the map, Fig. 124. (5) Tell 
 what a visitor may see in the Yellowstone Park ; in Yosemite Valley. 
 Locate each. (6) Where is San Francisco? What caused its early 
 rapid growth ? (7) Where is Denver ? Give a reason for its impor- 
 tance. (8) What metals are obtained in the West? (9) Where is 
 each found? (10) Tell what you can about each. (11) What is the 
 principal industry on the high plains and plateaus ? Why ? (12) Why 
 cannot the whole desert be irrigated? (13) What city have the Mor- 
 mons built? Where is it? (14) Where is Los Angeles ? (15) What 
 is raised near there? Why? (16) What is raised in other parts of 
 California? (17) Name the products of Oregon and Washington. 
 
202 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 (18) Where is the chief city in Oregon? Why there? (19) What are 
 the chief cities in Washington? (20) Name the cities on the Pacific 
 coast having excellent harbors. Name several on the Atlantic. 
 (21) How do the two coasts differ? (22) Where are the products of 
 the Pacific coast sent ? How ? 
 
 (23) Make a list of the principal cities in California. (24) In 
 what direction is each from San Francisco ? (25) Make a map of the 
 United States, placing on it each of the states with their names. Put 
 on the map the names of the capitals. (26) Which states have a 
 seacoast? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Write a story describing a journey across the 
 plains and mountains to California in the early days. (2) Make a 
 list of articles made of gold; of silver; of copper; of lead. Collect 
 some ores of these for the school. (3) What stories have you read 
 about the life of cowboys? About the Western Indians? (4) Find 
 out something about the Yosemite Valley. (5) Find out what prod- 
 ucts of your county are shipped to other states or countries. (6) Visit 
 a fish market to see some salmon. Find a picture of one in the 
 dictionary. (7) Add together the population of the five largest cities 
 on the Pacific coast. Compare that number with the population of 
 the five largest on the Atlantic coast. You will find a table giving 
 population of cities on page 336. (8) Make a drawing of the Pacific 
 coast, showing the cities. Add the rivers. (9) Find out what large 
 animals live among the mountains. (10) What is the distance from 
 San Francisco to New York? (11) Past what cities must the waters 
 of the Yellowstone River run, in flowing to the Gulf of Mexico? 
 Through what states? (12) Ask the railroad agent in your town for 
 illustrated circulars descriptive of western scenery, or write to San 
 Francisco to the general offices of the different roads. 
 
 For References, see page 330. 
 
XIV. ALASKA 
 
 Alaska, which you see on the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
 p. 152), although a part of the United States, is a great 
 distance from us. Our country purchased this cold north- 
 ern land from Russia. It is so far north that it is partly 
 in the arctic zone, and many people thought that our 
 government wasted the 17,200,000 that was paid for it. 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 On the way to Klondike gold mines, Alaska. 
 
 But Alaska has proved valuable in several ways. Dur- 
 ing the last few years thousands of men have gone there in 
 search of gold, just as years ago thousands rushed to Cali- 
 fornia. You have probably heard of the famous Klondike 
 region (Fig. 167), where so much gold has been found. 
 The Klondike is a stream flowing into the Yukon River 
 
 203 
 
204 
 
 THE EAIiTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 just east of the boundary line between Alaska and Canada. 
 Find it. The Klondike region itself is in Canada. 
 
 Fig. 168. 
 
 Face of Muir Glacier, Alaska. Notice the icebergs broken off the glacier and 
 lying in the foreground. 
 
 A few hundred miles southwest of the mouth of the Yukon River 
 are the small Pribilof Islands, to which thousands of seals come every 
 spring to rear their young. Seal hunters are allowed by the govern- 
 ment to capture some of these for their fur, which is warm and beau- 
 tiful, but very expensive because the animals are not abundant. 
 
 There are great forests in some parts of Alaska. The fishing in- 
 dustry is also important. Not only is Alaska valuable at present, but 
 it will probably be even more valuable in the future. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Where is Alaska? (2) In what zones? 
 (3) flow did we obtain it? (4) What is done there? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Draw the Yukon River. (2) Measure its 
 length and compare it witli that of the Mississippi. (3) How does 
 the coast compare with that of California? Of Maine? (4) Read 
 something about the fur seal. Examine some fur. (5) Find out 
 something about a journey to the Klondike. 
 
 For References, see page 331. 
 
XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH 
 OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) How far are Detroit, Buffalo, and Chicago 
 from Canada? (Figs. 132-148.) (2) What falls in the river which 
 connects Lakes Ontario and Erie ? (3) What effect have they upon 
 shipping? (4) In what part of Canada would you expect to find most 
 of the people? Why? (5) What large bay in northeastern Canada? 
 (See map opposite p. 152.) (6) What can you say about the climate 
 of the country north of this? (7) Which of the Great Lakes is 
 entirely within the United States? (8) Into what large river do the 
 Great Lakes empty ? 
 
 Canada and Newfoundland 
 
 Industries. — Canada is a British colony ; and New- 
 foundland and Labrador also belong to England, but are 
 separate from Canada. 
 
 In the north this region is cold and bleak ; but the 
 southern part resembles the northern United States in cli- 
 mate and soil, so that the products on the two sides of the 
 boundary may be expected to correspond. 
 
 Fishing was found to be an important industry along 
 the New England coast (p. 155) ; so it is, also, in Nova 
 Scotia and Newfoundland. 
 
 Maine in the East and Washington in the West are cov- 
 ered with vast forests. Forests extend into Canada, cover- 
 ing a large part of it, and in fact they reach northward 
 for several hundred miles, until the climate becomes so 
 cold that trees can no longer grow. 
 
 205 
 
206 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 New York and Ohio are noted for their fruit, dairying, 
 and farming. Ontario, or that part of Canada just north 
 of these states, has the same products. 
 
 The best wheat fields in the United States are in Min- 
 nesota and the two Dakotas ; so Manitoba is the best 
 wheat region in Canada. And since the dry plains of 
 the Far West also extend into Canada, cattle and sheep 
 raising are important industries on the plains of western 
 Canada, even to the base of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The western mountains of the United States contain 
 much gold, silver, and other metals ; it is the same with 
 the mountains of Canada. The Klondike region should 
 be remembered as a part of Canada, although it was men- 
 tioned in connection with Alaska. (See p. 203.) 
 
 Since we know the principal products, let us locate the 
 chief lines of transportation and cities. Canada, like the 
 
 United States, 
 has a water 
 route to the 
 ocean. This is 
 partly along the 
 Great Lakes 
 and partly along 
 the St. Law- 
 rence River, one 
 of the great riv- 
 ers of the con- 
 tinent ; but in 
 some places, as at Niagara, it is necessary to pass for short 
 distances through canals. One of the largest of these is 
 the Welland Canal, which connects Lakes Erie and On- 
 tario. Point it out on Fig. 132. 
 
 Hpw 
 
 
 W :J % 
 
 -:.-■;-■■ -■■ ' ■■''■"::■:-'■ '':':-:- 
 
 "■* _ ; \ i 
 
 
 - — «S^ML^_* _*. 
 
 --***■■■■*.•— _•»<' •+- ' - 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 The Lachine Rapids, on the St. Lawrence, just above 
 Montreal. There is one place down which a steamer 
 can come ; but no vessel can go up the rapids. Do 
 you see how this has helped to determine the loca- 
 tion of Montreal? 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 
 
 207 
 
 Cities. — The eastern part of Canada is most thickly 
 settled, like the eastern part of the United States, and for 
 the same reasons. What are they ? Along the water 
 route just mentioned are some very large cities, as in the 
 United States. The largest is Montreal, which is nearly 
 as large as New Orleans. Like that city, Montreal is sit- 
 
 Fig. 170. 
 
 Waterfall at Ottawa. The city is seen beyond the fall. How has the fall 
 helped to determine the location of Ottawa ? 
 
 uated on a river at a point where ocean vessels can reach 
 it. Farther down the St. Lawrence is the old city of 
 Quebec, founded many years ago by the French. Ot- 
 tawa, the capital, is west of Quebec, on Ottawa River, 
 and Toronto is across Lake Ontario from Niagara Falls. 
 Find all these (Fig. 123). 
 
208 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 As there is much water power and coal in eastern Can- 
 ada, there is a great deal of manufacturing in the cities, 
 especially in Montreal and Toronto. 
 
 The cities not on this water route are smaller. Halifax, in Nova 
 Scotia, has an excellent harbor. Winnipeg, the main city in the 
 wheat region of Manitoba, is connected with the Pacific coast at Van- 
 couver and the Atlantic at St. John by the great Canadian Pacific 
 Railway. From Vancouver and Victoria, as from Seattle, Tacoma, 
 Portland, and San Francisco, goods are shipped to Australia and Asia. 
 
 Fig. 171. 
 A whaling vessel ice-bound in the Far North. 
 
 The Far North. — In the vast forests of northern Canada live few 
 other people than hunters, trappers, and Indians. 
 
 Along the northern coast are found scattered groups of Eskimos, 
 who get their living almost entirely from the sea. Their food is 
 obtained from the seal, walrus, polar bear, and reindeer ; their clothes, 
 summer tents, and boats are made from the skins of these animals; 
 and their oil for light and heat during the long winter night also 
 comes from them. Their winter houses are snow huts, and long 
 journeys over the ice-covered seas are made on sledges drawn by 
 wolf-like dogs. 
 
COUNTRIES NORTH OF UNITED STATES 
 
 209 
 
 Islands North of North America 
 
 The islands north of North America are desolate lands. In winter 
 the sea is frozen ; and even in summer floating ice is usually in sight. 
 Some of the ice is that which has frozen on the surface of the sea 
 during the winter ; but rising above this are many great blocks of ice, 
 or icebergs, sometimes two hundred or three hundred feet in height. 
 They have broken off from the streams of ice, called glaciers, that 
 
 Fig. 172. 
 An iceberg from the great glaciers of the Arctic region. 
 
 move down from the land and enter the sea. The immense island of 
 Greenland is almost a ? l covered by such glaciers. No land can be 
 seen excepting near the coast,, where some Eskimos live and a few 
 Europeans, called Danes, from Denmark. The island belongs to the 
 Danes, who purchase skins, oil, etc., from the Eskimos. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Show how the products of Canada cor- 
 respond with those of northern United States. (2) Where is the 
 St. Lawretice River? Walk in the direction in which it flows. 
 (3) Where does the water come from? (4) Through what waters 
 must a vessel pass in going from Duluth to the Gulf of St. Lawrence 
 
210 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 and the ocean ? (5) Name and locate the chief cities along this route. 
 (6) Where is the largest city? Why there? (7) Where is Ottawa? 
 Halifax? (8) Name two cities on the western coast. (9) Tell about 
 the people living in northern Canada. (10) How are icebergs caused? 
 (11) Make a drawing of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, put- 
 ting iu the cities. 
 
 Fig. 173. 
 
 Cutting ice from the St. Lawrence River opposite Montreal. What effect 
 should you think this thick ice would have on the commerce of Montreal ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What difficulty do you see in building the 
 Welland Canal ? How is it overcome ? (2) What difficulties should 
 you think the Canadian Pacific Railway would have in running- 
 trains in winter ? (3) Why is not Hudson Bay an important outlet 
 for goods by water from Canada? (4) How can you explain the 
 fact that there are no large cities along the great Mackenzie River? 
 (5) Find out something about Quebec. (6) Write a story about 
 the Eskimos. (7) Collect pictures of scenes in Canada. (8) Read 
 Longfellow's poem, " Evangeline " ; the land of Evangeline is in Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 For References, see page 331. 
 
XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) What does the map (Fig. 123, opposite 
 p. 152) tell you about the highlands and lowlands in Mexico ? (Notice 
 the rivers.) (2) Find the capital of Mexico. (3) Why is Central 
 America a fitting name for the region southeast of Mexico ? (4) Point 
 toward Cuba. (5) How far is Havana from Florida? From New 
 Orleans? (6) What large islands in the West Indies? In what zone 
 are they? (7) What large peninsulas are in Mexico? 
 
 Mexico and Central America. — As Canada is colder than 
 the United States, so the countries south of us may be ex- 
 pected to be warmer. 
 
 Fig. 174. 
 
 Popocatepetl, an extinct volcano, not far from Mexico City, and one of the 
 highest mountain peaks on the continent. Notice that the top is white 
 with snow, although in the torrid zone. 
 
 211 
 
212 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Near the seacoast of Mexico the land is low and the cli- 
 mate hot ; but in the interior are many mountains and 
 broad, arid plateaus. They are a continuation of those in 
 our Western states, and are so high that the climate is 
 cool. 
 
 Some of the highest mountain peaks are old volcanoes made of lava 
 that has poured forth from the earth. These peaks are so high that 
 they are always covered with snow, in spite of the fact that they are 
 in the torrid zone. 
 
 With such a variety of climate we shall of course find a 
 variety of products. Much of the mountain region is too 
 
 cold and rocky 
 for farming; 
 but, as in Col- 
 orado, these 
 mountains yield 
 valuable metals, 
 especially sil- 
 ver. 
 
 Part of the 
 Mexican plateau 
 is dry, like west- 
 ern Texas and 
 some of the other 
 Western states. 
 Name some of them. Like these, its value consists largely 
 in wild grass, on which great herds of cattle, sheep, and 
 horses feed. Of what use are these animals ? In other 
 parts of the plateau there is enough rainfall for farming ; 
 but in most places crops can be raised by the aid of irri- 
 gation only. 
 
 Along the lowlands of the coast, the rainfall is heavy, 
 
 Fig. 175. 
 A street in a Mexican town. 
 
COUNTEIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 213 
 
 and the products are much the same as on the low, damp 
 plains of our own Southern states. What are they ? (See 
 pp. 172 and 174.) Besides these, much coffee is grown on 
 the slopes between the coastal plain and the high plateau. 
 Have we found that product before in North America ? 
 
 There is very little manufacturing in these countries, for two rea- 
 sons. One is that coal is lacking. Why is that a good reason? The 
 other is that many of the people are too ignorant to manage machinery. 
 
 The Spaniards once owned this part of North America, and their 
 language is still spoken there. Most of the people living in Mexico 
 and Central America are either pure Indians, or else Spaniards with 
 Indian blood in their veins, called half-breeds. Only about one man 
 in six is a full-blooded Spaniard. 
 
 Mexico is now a republic, like the United States, 
 and its capital is the city of Mexico. The coast on 
 the east is regular, as you can see, so that there are 
 few harbors. Vera Cruz is the chief port, but the 
 harbor is pooi> 
 
 Central America is made up of several republics, each 
 having a capital of its own. Many of the people are very 
 ignorant, and there are frequent revolutions, when ambi- 
 tious generals try to overthrow the government. 
 
 At the present time Central America and the Isthmus of Panama 
 are of interest because a canal is being dug there, to save vessels the 
 long journey around South America. Examine the map (Fig. 120, 
 opposite p. 149) to see how much distance will be saved in this way 
 between New York and San Francisco. In Central America are 
 dense tropical forests from which hard woods, dyes, rubber, and other 
 valuable products are obtained. 
 
 The West Indies and Bermuda. — Besides the countries on 
 the mainland of the continent there are numerous islands, 
 some of which form an archipelago called the West Indies. 
 They are really the highest parts of mountain ranges pro- 
 
214 
 
 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 jecting above the sea and so arranged as to separate the 
 Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Mexico and from the At- 
 lantic Ocean. All of them have a tropical climate. 
 
 Fig. 176. 
 
 A field of Easter lilies in the Bermuda Islands, where these lilies are raised for 
 export to the United Slates at Easter. 
 
 The largest island is Cuba, where sugar, tobacco, and 
 tropical fruits, such as bananas, are raised. Havana, is 
 its capital and largest seaport. Cuba belonged to Spain 
 until our recent war with Spain, and so did Porto Rico, 
 which now belongs to the United States. 
 
COUNTRIES SOUTH OF UNITED STATES 215 
 
 The other large islands are Jamaica, belonging to England, and 
 Haiti, where there are two. negro republics. The large islands are 
 called the Greater Antilles; and the small islands, extending in a 
 chain from near Porto Rico to the South American coast, are called 
 the Lesser Antilles. These belong to England, France, and other 
 European nations. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Tell about the climate and relief of 
 Mexico. (2) About the industries. (3) About the inhabitants. 
 (4) What cities are there? (5) For what is Central America espe- 
 cially important at present ? (6) Tell what you can about the West 
 Indies. 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What country is digging the Panama Canal? 
 (2) Find out what you can about the Panama Canal. (3) Why are 
 there no large rivers in Mexico ? (4) Tell some of the events that 
 happened in Cuba during our war against Spain. (5) Find out what 
 you can about Cuba; about Porto Rico. 
 For References, see page 331. 
 
 U. S. Government Experimental Station, Chico, California. 
 
XVII. SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Compare the shape of South America 
 with that of North America. (2) What great mountain ranges are 
 there along the western side ? (3) Which part of South America has 
 no cold winter? (4) What is the name of the longest river? 
 
 Relief. — In South America there are high mountains 
 on the western side, called the Andes. Many of the peaks 
 are higher than those in the United States, and there are 
 many active volcanoes among them (Fig. 12). 
 
 Besides the Andes, the map shows a highland region in eastern 
 Brazil and a smaller one between the Amazon and Orinoco rivers, 
 forming the divide between them. 
 
 The remainder of South America is mainly lowland, drained by 
 three mighty rivers. What are their names? Where does each rise? 
 In what direction does each flow ? AVhich drains the longest slope ? 
 
 Climate. — The products of the three valleys greatly 
 depend upon their climate ; let us, therefore, see how 
 much heat and moisture they have. 
 
 Where does the equator cross the continent ? Where 
 does the tropic of Capricorn cross it ? How much of 
 the continent, then, is in the torrid zone ? Where is the 
 coldest part ? In which zone ? 
 
 From this we see that much more than half the conti- 
 nent must have a warm climate ; but that the southern 
 part has a temperate climate more like our own. In 
 which months does summer come to this region ? 
 
 As for the moisture in the torrid or tropical part of 
 South America the rains are very heavy. The reason 
 
 216 
 
Fig. 177. 
 
Thoroughbred stock raised in Tehama County, California. 
 
 Sheep feeding in a valley pasture. Tehama County, California. 
 
 Cattle and sheep raising are important industries in South America as well 
 as in North America. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 217 
 
 for this is that the air becomes heated and is thus made 
 very light ; it is then forced to rise to such a height that 
 the vapor is condensed, causing heavy showers. (See 
 p. 83.) 
 
 There is less rainfall in the south temperate zone, and 
 still less in the narrow strip west of the central part of 
 
 Fig. 178. 
 Two tunnels on a railway line that crosses the high Andes of Peru. 
 
 the Andes,in Chile and Peru. There the climate is quite 
 arid because the principal winds are from the south and 
 east, so that the air loses its vapor in passing over the 
 mountains and descends upon the Pacific slope as dry, 
 parching winds. 
 
218 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 History. — Knowing now the chief facts about the re- 
 lief and climate, let us look at the countries themselves. 
 After the discovery of South America by Columbus the 
 Spaniards settled in many parts, obtaining great quanti- 
 ties of gold and silver, especially in the Andes. Nearly 
 all of South America once belonged to Spain, excepting 
 Brazil, which was settled and for a long time owned by 
 the Portuguese. Although the South American coun- 
 tries are now independent nations, the Spanish language 
 is still spoken nearly everywhere excepting in Brazil. 
 
 Brazil. — This is the largest country, being even larger 
 than the United States without Alaska ; but it has only 
 about one fourth as many inhabitants. Much of the 
 great Amazon valley consists of forest-covered plains, 
 called silvas, in which the trees are so close together, and 
 there is such a mat of vines and underbrush, that it is 
 extremely difficult for one to make his way through. 
 From what was just said about the climate, you may be 
 able to give the reason for such rank growth. 
 
 You will find pictures of some of the wild forest ani- 
 mals in Fig. 109, page 141. What are their names ? 
 
 Of course this forest is not a good home for men, espe- 
 cially since much of the land is frequently flooded ; in 
 fact, Indians are almost the only people living there. 
 They make a living by hunting, fishing, and selling rub- 
 ber from the rubber tree that grows in the woods. 
 
 Rubber is obtained by cutting a hole in the bark, and 
 catching the milky fluid that flows forth. After being 
 warmed over a fire to make it more solid, it is sent down 
 the river in boats to Para and then shipped to many parts 
 of the world. Bicycle tires and overshoes are made from it. 
 See how long a list of other rubber articles you can name. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 219 
 
 Another common tree is the cocoa tree, on which grow 
 the beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. It 
 is difficult to travel in this great wilderness, where the 
 rivers are almost the only roadways. 
 
 Fig. 179. 
 A view in a tropical forest. 
 
 Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern part 
 along the coast. Some of them are white people, but many 
 are either Indians or negroes, or of mixed blood, as in 
 Mexico. You will notice several cities on the coast, of 
 which Rio de Janeiro, the capital, is the largest, having 
 over half a million people. It has a splendid harbor. 
 
220 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 There must certainly be some important industries in 
 this region to cause a city to become so large. Besides 
 the raising of cattle upon the plateau of eastern Brazil, 
 farming is an important industry there. The principal 
 crops are the same as those already found in warm coun- 
 tries ; namely, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. The 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
 Native Indian women washing clothes in Venezuela. Do you see in the picture 
 any reason for thinking it is warm there ? 
 
 last is most important, and Rio de Janeiro is one of the 
 chief export towns, which is the reason why some of our 
 coffee is called Rio coffee. 
 
 Venezuela and Guiana. — North of Brazil is Venezuela, 
 which includes most of the Orinoco valley. Here are 
 broad plains, called llanos, which produce excellent grass, 
 so that cattle raising is one of the important industries. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 221 
 
 Coffee and cocoa are also raised. The capital and largest 
 city is Caracas, which is located several miles from the 
 coast upon land more than half a mile above the sea. 
 
 Just north of the mouth of the Orinoco River is Trini- 
 dad Island, on which is a great pitch lake, supplying much 
 of the asphalt used in our street pavements. 
 
 All of the countries of South America are republics ex- 
 cepting Guiana, which belongs to three European nations. 
 What are their names? 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 A scene on the pampas of Argentina. 
 
 La Plata Countries. — The country south of Brazil, 
 drained by the Plata River and its tributaries, is one of 
 the most productive parts of South America. Here, at 
 the mouth of the Plata River in Argentina, is Buenos 
 Aires, the largest city on the continent. Across the 
 wide river mouth is Montevideo, another large city, 
 in Uruguay. What other small country lies between 
 Argentina and Brazil ? 
 
 The plains in this section of the country are called 
 pampas; and because of their excellent grass one of the 
 
222 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 chief industries is ranching. Since most of the country 
 is in the temperate zone, corn and wheat are important 
 farm products ; and in the warm northern part, near the 
 tropics, tobacco and sugar cane are raised. This is the 
 part of South America that most nearly corresponds in 
 climate and products to the United States. 
 
 Goods are still carried upon the rivers in Argentina, 
 but there are also many railways in^that country, — more, 
 in fact, than in any other part of South America. 
 
 Andean Countries. — The countries in the western part 
 of South America are very mountainous, since each of 
 them includes a part of the Andean chain. As you might 
 expect, then, one of the principal industries is mining ; 
 and immense quantities of gold and silver have been 
 found there. What are the names of these countries ? 
 
 Observe that most of the cities are not upon the coast. 
 This is partly because they have grown up in the mining 
 districts among the mountains, and partly because there 
 are so few good harbors. Many of the cities away from 
 the coast have seaports, as Callao in Peru, the seaport 
 of Lima. Find others. 
 
 Valparaiso, in Chile, is the largest port on the Pacific 
 coast ; but Santiago, the capital, situated fifty miles 
 inland, and about one half mile above the sea, is more 
 than twice as large. Notice how long and narrow Chile 
 is ; what reason can you give for that ? 
 
 Farming is possible in the northern part of the western 
 coast, where the rainfall is heavy ; but farther south, as 
 in Peru and northern Chile, agriculture is impossible with- 
 out irrigation. In southern Chile, however, the rainfall 
 is moderate, and many people have settled there because 
 the farming and grazing are excellent. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 
 
 223 
 
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 f.« 
 
 ;.v Van.w:- 
 
 
 
 <4n .*•. 
 
 -^■^fi! 1 *^ — • *?' 
 
 Fig. 182. 
 A scene among the lofty mountains of Chile. 
 
 Which of the Andean countries has no seacoast ? Is 
 that a disadvantage ? Ecuador is the Spanish word for 
 equator. Why is that a fitting name for the country? 
 Colombia and Panama have seacoasts on two oceans, and 
 the latter includes the Isthmus of Panama. What cities 
 do you find on the two sides of the Isthmus ? They are 
 connected by a railway. Why is this important ? 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Describe the highland regions of South 
 America. (2) What three great valleys are there? (3) In what zones 
 are the different parts of the continent ? (4) Which is the rainiest 
 region? Why? (5) What about the rainfall elsewhere ? (6) Com- 
 pare Brazil with the United States in size and number of inhabitants. 
 (7) Tell about the silvas and the valuable products obtained from 
 them. (8) Where are the chief cities in Brazil? Which is the 
 largest? (9) Name the main industries in that section. (10) Where 
 is Venezuela? (11) Tell about the industries there. (12) Where is 
 Caracas? (13) For what is Trinidad noted? (14) Which is the 
 
224 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 most productive- part of South America ? What are the products ? 
 (15) Name and locate the largest city on the continent. (16) Name 
 the countries along the western side of South America. (17) "Why 
 are most of the cities not directly on the coast? (18) "Which is the 
 largest port ? (19) What are the five products of these countries ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) Draw the outline of South America. Put in 
 the drawing the mountains, chief rivers, and cities. (2) What large 
 cities were found in the interior of North America? How about 
 South America in that respect ? What are the causes for the differ- 
 ence ? (3) Brazil is in the torrid zone, while the United States is in 
 the temperate zone. Which country has the advantage in temper- 
 ature? Why? (4) Write a story telling of a journey by laud and 
 river from the mouth of the Orinoco to the mouth of the Plata. 
 (5) Read something about coffee raising. (6) From the table on 
 page 339 find the five largest cities in South America. Add the 
 populations together and compare the result with the total of the five 
 largest cities in North America (see p. 335). 
 
 For References* see page 331. 
 
 
 
 
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 Shetland ponies, so protected by a heavy coat of hair that they thrive in the raw 
 climate of the Shetland Islands. 
 
Fig. 183. 
 
XVIII. EUROPE 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) On page 142 it was stated that Eurasia 
 consisted of two continents, Europe and Asia. Trace the boundary 
 line between them, naming the mountains and waters that form it. 
 (2) One of the seas has no outlet; which is it? What kind of 
 water would you expect to find in that sea? (3) How does the coast 
 line of Europe compare with that of South America? Of North 
 America? (4) Would you expect to find many good harbors? 
 (5) Name the largest peninsulas and draw an outline map to show 
 them. (6) Where are the highest mountains? (7) One of the 
 Alpine peaks is Mt. Blanc. (8) Where are the plains? Which 
 very large country is made up mainly of plains? Find Sicily and 
 Sardinia. (9) In what zones is Europe? (10) How do you think its 
 climate would compare with that of the United States? (11) With 
 what European country have we recently been at war? (12) What 
 other countries in Europe do you know something about? (13) By 
 what route would you go from New York to one of them? (See 
 Fig. 120.) 
 
 Europe is only a little larger than the United States 
 with Alaska, but contains more than five times as many 
 inhabitants, who are separated into a score of nations, 
 with a different language for nearly every one. 
 
 I. The British Isles. — The people in Europe to whom 
 we are most closely related live on the small group of 
 islands, called the British Isles, which lie just west of 
 the mainland. This is often called our "mother coun- 
 try." Can you tell why ? 
 
 There are two islands, Ireland and Great Britain ; what 
 are the names of the three parts of Great Britain ? 
 
 225 
 
226 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 On these islands are fine harbors and many great cities, 
 London, in the southern part of England, on the Thames 
 River, being the largest city in the world. Let us see 
 what the people do. 
 
 Judging from their position one might expect these islands to be 
 too cold for agriculture, for they are farther north than the mouth of 
 the St. Lawrence River ; but the climate is no colder than that of the 
 northern United States. The reason for this is that the western coast 
 
 
 
 
 
 k\ 
 
 fr -, 1 , 
 
 i 
 
 
 ' - .j^. ■jOr'titf 
 
 
 
 ^^/ : * 
 
 m 
 
 BE& 
 
 ^rl^ihf ' 
 
 Fig. 184. 
 
 London bridge, across the Thames, over which a busy throng is almost con- 
 stantly passing. 
 
 of Europe is warmed by a broad current, or drift, of warm ocean water, 
 known as the Gulf Stream, which flows northeast in the Atlantic 
 Ocean from the warm southern seas. The air over it becomes warmed ; 
 and, since the winds of Europe blow chiefly from the west, they carry 
 this warmth with them and produce a climate much milder than one 
 would otherwise expect. 
 
 Wales and most of Scotland are too hilly to be well 
 suited to agriculture ; but many sheep and cattle are 
 
EUROPE 227 
 
 raised. In England there is much more farming, and hay 
 is one of the chief crops, since the damp air and the rain 
 cause the grass to grow well. This is a reason, also, why 
 sheep are raised in great numbers. 
 
 But agriculture and stock raising are not the chief 
 occupations. Having much wool, the people long ago 
 learned to make woolen cloth. In addition to that, they 
 purchased cotton from distant countries, — as New Eng- 
 land does to-day from the Southern states, — and made 
 cotton goods. Thus extensive manufacturing industries 
 have been developed, which have been made possible 
 because of the vast beds of coal found there, as in Penn- 
 sylvania, Illinois, and neighboring states. 
 
 The center for this manufacturing is Manchester, and 
 the nearest port is Liverpool, thirty-five miles away. 
 Recently a ship canal, called the Manchester Canal, has 
 been built, connecting these two cities. Find them. 
 
 The coal has helped to make another great industry 
 possible. Beds of iron ore occur in England, and by the 
 use of coal it is made into iron and steel, especially at Bir- 
 mingham, which is the greatest center for iron manufac- 
 turing in Great Britain. Where else have we found a city 
 called Birmingham ? What can you tell about it ? 
 
 The lowland portion of Scotland, about Edinburgh 
 and Glasgow, is likewise noted for its cotton and 
 woolen factories, and for its iron manufacturing. Glasgow 
 is the greatest center for steel shipbuilding in the world. 
 What city in the United States is noted for shipbuilding ? 
 
 Great numbers of people are employed in all this work, 
 so that enough cloth, knives, needles, engines, and so forth 
 are made to supply many parts of the world. 
 
 Ireland is not so much interested in manufacturing, al- 
 
228 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 though linen is an important product, being manufactured 
 especially at Belfast. It is really to a great extent a 
 farm for the English, furnishing them butter, eggs, pota- 
 toes, and also meat. The air is so moist that the grass 
 is kept fresh and green, and on that account Ireland is 
 often called the Emerald (or Green) Isle. The two largest 
 
 cities are naturally 
 on the side next to 
 England. What are 
 their names ? 
 
 So many manu- 
 factured goods must 
 be shipped away 
 from Great Britain, 
 and so much food 
 imported, that the 
 shipping business is 
 FlG - 183 - very important. For 
 
 Thatched cottages in Ireland. ^^ reason there are 
 
 many skillful sailors in Great Britain, and that nation has 
 more ships upon the sea than any other in the world. 
 
 Having so many ships, the British have been led to explore coun- 
 tries in all parts of the world. Whenever they discovered new lands, 
 they laid claim to them in the name of their government, and in that 
 way England has come into possession of Canada, Australia, India, 
 several large countries in Africa, and scores of islands. These are 
 called colonies, and the British have more of them than any other nation 
 in the world. Indeed, these colonies cover one hundred times as much 
 surface as the British Isles and have ten times as many inhabitants. 
 
 London, the capital and the central port for vessels, 
 has an excellent harbor on the Thames River, where hun- 
 dreds of ships can be accommodated at one time. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 229 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland, together with their many 
 colonies, form the British Empire. Its government, un- 
 like our own, is a monarchy ; but it is very liberal, and 
 as in our own country, the people have an important share 
 in the making of laws. 
 
 Fig. 186. 
 The Thames River and Windsor Castle, where the King of England resides. 
 
 II. Norse Countries. — Sweden and Norway. These 
 two countries together occupy the Scandinavian peninsula, 
 and are about as far north as southern Greenland. Were 
 it not for the Gulf Stream, which flows past Norway, this, 
 like Greenland, might be a barren, frozen country. 
 
 As in Scotland, most of the country is too hilly and 
 rocky for farming, although some grain, cattle, and sheep 
 
230 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 are raised, especially on the lower land of southern Sweden 
 along the Baltic. Few people live in the highlands, and. 
 
 about one fourth of 
 Norway is covered by 
 forests. 
 
 The coast is very irregular, 
 and many deep, narrow bays, 
 or fjords, reach into the land, 
 making fine harbors. As a re- 
 sult, Norwegians and Swedes 
 are skillful sailors. In the 
 early days these Northmen 
 were the best sailors in the 
 world, and they came to the 
 American shores long before 
 Columbus discovered America. 
 
 Fig. 187. 
 One of the deep, narrow fjords of Norway 
 
 Fishing for cod and herring is now one of their important industries 
 
 The principal cities are Stockholm and Chiustiania. 
 Find each. They 
 are* the capitals of 
 Sweden and Norway, 
 two prosperous king- 
 doms which until 
 recently were under 
 one king. 
 
 Denmark, just 
 south of Norway and 
 Sweden, is inhabited 
 by people similar to 
 those in Scandinavia ; FlG - m 
 
 in fact, these three Danish women selling fish. 
 
 are often called the Norse nations, or the nations of the 
 Northmen. 
 
EUROPE 231 
 
 The Danes, also, have been great sailors, and now have possession 
 of Iceland and the west coast of Greenland. Their country presents 
 a very different appearance from Norway and Sweden, for the land is 
 low and level, and farming is the occupation of about one half the 
 people. Fishing is also an important industry. 
 
 The government is a monarchy, the capital and largest 
 city being Copenhagen, situated on an island. 
 
 III. Russia. — The Russian Empire not only includes 
 great plains in Europe, but extends several thousand miles 
 beyond the Ural Mountains to the eastern coast of Asia ; 
 it is larger than the whole of the continent of North 
 America and contains a greater number of inhabitants. 
 
 Most of Russia in Europe is a level country. The northern part, 
 like northern Norway, is in the frigid zone, and so far away from the 
 Gulf Stream that the climate is extremely cold. The plains there, 
 called tundras, are too cold for trees, and. the frost never leaves the 
 ground except at the very surface in summer. Nevertheless, a moss 
 flourishes and supports numbers of reindeer, which are used as draft 
 animals by the natives. 
 
 The southeastern plains, called steppes, are so far from 
 the ocean that the west winds can bring them little rain. 
 They are therefore dry like the arid region in our Western 
 states. But the central and western parts are well suited 
 to farming, and there most of the people live. As in the 
 northern United States, one of their main crops is grain, 
 especially wheat ; and vast numbers of cattle and sheep 
 roam over the broad, grassy steppes. 
 
 The rivers are excellent waterways, the largest of all 
 being the Volga, the greatest river in Europe. What 
 others do you find? 
 
 Since the Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the Arctic 
 Ocean on the north side is frozen much of the time, the 
 chief ports for foreign commerce must be either on the 
 
232 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Baltic or the Black Sea. This explains the location of 
 St. Petersburg, the capital and largest city, which is 
 about the size of Philadelphia. Odessa, on the Black 
 Sea, contains many flour mills and is an important port 
 for the export of wheat. With what two cities northwest 
 of Chicago may it be compared ? 
 
 The chief railway center and second city in size is 
 Moscow in the interior. 
 
 Fig. 189. 
 A family of Russian peasants. 
 
 The great mass of the people, called peasants, are allowed to take 
 little part in the government, and, unlike most of the Europeans, 
 are kept in ignorance and subjection. They are ruled by a man 
 called the Czar, who makes and executes laws very much as he 
 pleases. That kind of government is called an absolute monarchy, 
 or despotism, and is very different from the limited monarchies 
 thus far studied. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 233 
 
 IV. Germany. — The general slope of the land in Ger- 
 many is shown by the rivers ; in what direction do most 
 of them flow ? The southern part of the country consists 
 of mountains and highlands, but the northern part is a 
 great plain, a continuation of the plains of Russia. 
 
 As in Russia, there is much agriculture, one of the 
 chief products being grain. Much of their bread is made 
 from a grain called 
 rye, and is so dark 
 that it is called 
 "black bread." 
 Beets are grown 
 in enormous quan- 
 tities, and sugar is 
 manufactured from 
 them as it is from 
 sugar cane in 
 Louisiana. Grapes 
 flourish along the 
 upper Rhine River, 
 and from these 
 wine is made ; and 
 more hops for making beer are raised in Germany than 
 in any other country of the world. 
 
 Both coal and iron ore are mined in abundance; and many 
 articles are manufactured, such as the famous Krupp guns 
 and many kinds of machinery. Germany is noted also for 
 its manufacture of cotton, woolen, and linen goods, ranking 
 next to England as a manufacturing country of Europe. 
 
 The chief seaport is Hamburg on the Elbe River, a 
 rapidly growing city. Why should the chief port be at 
 this point rather than farther east on the Baltic Sea? 
 
 Fig. 190. 
 A castle on the Rhine. 
 
234 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The schools, universities, and museums of Germany are among 
 the best that exist, and many Americans go to Germany each year to 
 study music, painting, and other subjects. The largest university is 
 in Berlin; Leipzig also has one, and there are many others. Mu- 
 nich and Dresden are noted for their fine picture galleries, and so 
 is Berlin, which also has other large museums. Find these cities. 
 
 Fig. 191. 
 The Royal Museum at Berlin. 
 
 Berlin, the capital of Germany, is the largest city. 
 The government is a limited monarchy, and the present 
 ruler is Emperor William II. 
 
 V. Holland; or the Netherlands (a word that means 
 lowlands), is a low, flat country, much of it being lower 
 than the neighboring sea. 
 
 The inhabitants have built embankments, called dikes, to keep 
 the sea out, and have dug canals across the country to drain it. The 
 water that collects inside the embankments is pumped out by wind- 
 mills, or by steam, into the canals, and these canals are the chief 
 roads, being used in summer by boats and in winter by people on 
 skates or on sleds. 
 
 The damp soil furnishes excellent grass, so that cattle raising and 
 dairying are the principal occupations. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 235 
 
 The Hollanders, or Dutchmen, living so near the sea, have become 
 great sailors and explorers, like the Englishmen. For this reason 
 they have come into possession of some of the richest islands in the. 
 East Indies, from which are obtained valuable products, such as 
 coffee, spices, and precious stones. On the map, Fig. 221, facing 
 
 Fig. 192. 
 A canal in Holland. 
 
 page 271, find the names of some of the Dutch East Indies. Find 
 out about the early Dutch settlements in America. What great city 
 did they settle ? 
 
 The chief city is Amsterdam, with a population 
 of half a million people. The government is a mon- 
 archy, and the laws are made at The Hague, on the 
 coast. 
 
236 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 VI. Belgium, like Holland, has some land that is lower 
 than the sea and protected by dikes; but the eastern part 
 
 is much higher. 
 
 The people are crowded 
 together more closely than 
 in any other country of Eu- 
 rope. Many live on farms and 
 raise much the same prod- 
 ucts as those of Holland and 
 Germany. What are these? 
 
 Flax is an important farm prod- 
 uct. It is a plant about two feet 
 high, whose fiber is used in mak- 
 ing linen and fine laces. The Bel- 
 gians have long been skillful in 
 such work, and it was from them 
 that the English received some of 
 their knowledge about manufac- 
 turing. Brussels, the largest city, is famous for its fine laces, linens, 
 and Brussels carpets, the latter being made of wool on a mat of linen. 
 
 There is a great amount of coal and iron in this little king- 
 dom, so that the iron industry is extensive, as in Germany. 
 
 The government is a monarchy with Brussels for its 
 capital. Antwerp is the chief seaport. 
 
 VII. France. — The slope of the land in France you 
 see by the course of its rivers. What are their names ? 
 Where do they rise and in what direction do they flow? 
 
 In the cool northern part the crops are similar to those 
 of Germany ; but in the southern portion the climate is 
 warmer and the crops somewhat different. Besides grapes, 
 which are grown in great quantities in the region of Bor- 
 deaux, and made into wine that is sold in many parts of 
 the world, much silk is also produced. 
 
 Fig. 193. 
 
 A windmill, in Belgium, like those 
 so common in Holland. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 237 
 
 Silk is manufactured from cocoons spun by a caterpillar called the 
 silkworm. Each one of the cocoons is made of a fine thread several 
 thousand yards long, looking somewhat like the thread of a spider's 
 web. 
 
 After the cocoons have been softened in hot water the threads are 
 unwound and then wound upon spools. They are later made into 
 thread and woven into silk cloth, ribbons, handkerchiefs, and other 
 silk goods. 
 
 Lyon, the center for the silk industry, is the greatest 
 silk market in the world. 
 
 Fig. 194. 
 A view of the great city of Paris. 
 
 Paris, the largest city in France, is the third in size in 
 the world, and probably the most beautiful. Like several 
 cities in Germany, it has fine picture galleries and mu- 
 seums, and many foreigners go there to study painting, 
 music, and other subjects. It is situated upon the Seine 
 River, and its chief port is Havre, at the mouth of the 
 Seine. 
 
238 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Fig. 195. 
 
 The harbor of Marseille. 
 
 Bordeaux is an important shipping port for wine, and 
 Marseille is the principal port upon the Mediterranean 
 coast. 
 
 The French government is a republic with Paris as its 
 capital. 
 
 VIII. Spain and Portugal. — The Pyrenees Mountains 
 form the boundary between France and Spain, rising like 
 a great wall to separate the two countries. 
 
 YoU remember that Magellan was a Portuguese and that 
 it was to Spain that Columbus went for help. These were 
 once among the most powerful nations in the world, and 
 they once ruled much of North America and most of 
 South America. Little by little they have lost their 
 colonies in the New World, the last to be taken being 
 Cuba and Porto Rico. 
 
 Like Mexico, which was settled and for a long time owned 
 by the Spanish, Spain has a dry, mountainous plateau or 
 table-land in the interior, with low land along the coast. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 239 
 
 Being so much like a desert, one would expect few 
 people to make their homes in the interior ; and this is the 
 case, although, strange to say, the greatest city, Madrid, 
 is found in the center of this table-land. Its importance 
 is due to the fact that it is the capital of Spain. 
 
 Fig. 196. 
 A view of part of Madrid and the great plateau on which it is situated. 
 
 As upon our dry Western plains and plateaus, cattle 
 and sheep raising are important industries on this high- 
 land. But the rocks of this region contain its chief 
 wealth, for Spain produces more quicksilver and lead 
 than any other nation, and more copper and iron than 
 most others. 
 
 Farming is carried on in the mountain valleys and on the lowlands 
 along the coast. One of the most valuable crops is grapes. 
 
 Barcelona, on the eastern side, is the chief port of 
 Spain ; and the principal city of Portugal is Lisbon, the 
 capital. 
 
240 
 
 THE EABTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Both governments are limited monarchies, like those of 
 most European countries. 
 
 IX. Italy was once the most powerful country in the 
 world. Its principal city was Rome, and the Romans 
 ruled nearly all the other countries then known. But, 
 like Spain, it has lost much of its importance. 
 
 Fig. 197. 
 St. Peter's Cathedral on the left, and the Vatican, the residence of the Pope, 
 
 on the right. 
 
 Rome is still the capital and the residence of the king ; 
 also of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic 
 Church. The city is especially noted for its many ruins 
 of buildings erected hundreds of years ago. 
 
 Venice, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is another interesting city. 
 It is built upon many islands joined by hundreds of bridges, and its 
 chief streets are canals, where boats, called gondolas, are used in place 
 of wagons and carriages. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 241 
 
 Naples, which is on the coast southeast of Rome, and 
 near Mt. Vesuvius, is the largest city in Italy. The 
 steam rising from the crater of Vesuvius is easily seen 
 from the city (Fig. 102). Volcanic ash from Mt. Vesu- 
 vius has entirely buried some of the towns near by, such 
 as the ancient city of Pompeii, from which the ashes have 
 been dug away so as to bring to light the buried build- 
 ings and streets. 
 
 Fig. 198. 
 One of the canals of Venice, with a gondola floating upon it. 
 
 The best farm land is in the valley of the Po River in the northern 
 part, where wheat, and other grains, and mulberry trees for silk- 
 worms are raised. Milan, like Lyon in France, is a great center for 
 silk. 
 
 The climate is mild enough to produce the same fruits that are 
 grown in Florida and Southern California. Name some of them. 
 
 X. Switzerland. — Any one who has heard the story of 
 William Tell, or who has read about the St. Bernard 
 
242 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 dogs kept by the monks, has some idea of how Switzer- 
 land looks. Here are the snow-capped Alps, with many 
 lakes and fertile valleys between them, and views so 
 
 beautiful that thou- 
 sands of people go 
 every year to enjoy 
 them. One of the 
 occupations of the 
 Swiss is to provide 
 for these visitors. 
 in hotels and res- 
 taurants. 
 
 Fig. 199. 
 
 The snow-capped Matterhorn, one of the Alpine 
 peaks. 
 
 The green grass in 
 the low-lying valleys 
 and on the mountain. 
 sides provides excellent 
 food for cattle and goats, so that butter and cheese are made, as in 
 Holland. Probably you have heard of Swiss and Dutch cheese. 
 
 Wood carving is also an important industry. During the long 
 winters the wood grown upon the mountains is carved into toys, 
 clocks, and many other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock ? 
 Name the countries on each side of Switzerland, and notice that it 
 is surrounded by people who speak German, French, and Italian. In 
 consequence, instead of having one language of their own, the Swiss 
 have these three, those living in each part speaking the language of 
 the foreign country nearest to them. 
 
 The Swiss government has long been a republic, like 
 our own, and Berne is the capital. Find the chief cities, 
 Zurich and Geneva. 
 
 XI. Austria-Hungary. — Austria and Hungary are 
 united under one monarchy, although they have differ- 
 ent customs and languages. Many of the Austrians are 
 closely related to the Germans ; but the Hungarians are 
 
EUROPE 243 
 
 a very different race. The capital and largest city is 
 Vienna, the fourth in size in Europe. It is situated on 
 the Danube River, so that it has water connection with 
 many other places. 
 
 Budapest is next to Vienna in importance. Like Minneapolis, it 
 is in the midst of a great wheat region, and is a flour-milling center. 
 The cultivation of flax leads to another manufacturing industry. 
 What is it ? 
 
 Fig. 200. 
 A view in Austria. 
 
 XII. Greece. — The country in Europe which has per- 
 haps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world 
 is Greece. The Romans received many of their beliefs and 
 customs from the Greeks ; and since many of ours come 
 from the Romans, we also are greatly in debt to the 
 Greeks. 
 
 The center of this influence was Athens, once the most 
 famous city in the world. Many years later, at the time 
 of Christ, it was still an important place. Both Athens 
 and Corinth, near by, are mentioned in the Bible. 
 
 The country is mountainous, producing raisins and other fruits, 
 and much grass for grazing. But there is little mining and manu- 
 facturing. 
 
244 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 At one time the Greeks were conquered by the Turks and very- 
 cruelly treated by them ; but they obtained their independence, and 
 their government is now a monarchy with Athens for its capital. 
 
 Fig. 201. 
 
 The Acropolis with its ruins on top, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter on 
 the right, Doth in ancient Athens. 
 
 XIII. Turkey. — The largest city in southeastern Eu- 
 rope is Constantinople, which has over one million 
 inhabitants. Notice what an excellent location it has. 
 It is the capital of Turkey, which, like Russia, is a 
 country partly in Europe and partly in Asia. 
 
 The Turkish government is the worst in Europe. The 
 ruler, called the Sultan, is an absolute despot, who 
 governs his people so badly that they are kept ex- 
 tremely ignorant and poor. In all the other nations of 
 Europe the Christian religion, either Catholic .or Protes- 
 tant, is followed ; but the Turks are Mohammedans, 
 followers of Mohammed, like many other people in Asia 
 
EUROPE 
 
 245 
 
 and Africa. They are religious fanatics, and dislike 
 Christians very much. 
 
 One proof that the Turkish government is bad, is the fact that the 
 people in many parts of the Empire have rebelled against it and 
 fought for their freedom. For example, Roumania, east of Austria, 
 used to belong to Turkey, but 
 it is now an independent king- 
 dom. The same is true of Bul- 
 garia, Servia, and Montenegro ; 
 Greece has already been men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The people in all these 
 countries are largely en- 
 gaged in farming and 
 herding, the Danube Val- 
 ley being especially fertile. 
 Grain, wine, and raisins 1G ' ~ J ' 
 
 . , A mosque, or Mohammedan church, 
 
 are important products. Constantinople. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I. The British Isles. Questions. — (1) What are the divisions of 
 the British Isles? Where is each? (2) Why have not the British 
 Isles a colder climate? (3) Tell about the agriculture. (4) What 
 kinds of cloth are manufactured? Where? (5) Where is the iron 
 manufacturing earned on ? (6) Of what value are the coal beds ? 
 (7) Tell about Ireland. (8) Explain how Great Britain has come to 
 have so many ships. (9) So many colonies. Name some of them, 
 including several islands near North America. (10) What is the 
 British Empire ? What kind of government has it? (11) Locate all 
 the cities mentioned. 
 
 Suggestions. — (12) What books have you read whose authors lived 
 in Great Britain ? (13) Examine pocket-knives and table-knives to see 
 if you can find some made in England. (14) The iron manufactories 
 of England remind you of what states in this country? (15) When 
 did our country cease to be a colony of Great Britain ? (16) What 
 
246 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 are the people from the four divisions of the British Isles called? 
 (17) Make a drawing of the British Isles. 
 
 II. Norse Countries. Questions. — (18) What about the climate 
 of Norway and Sweden ? (19) Tell about the agriculture ; the other 
 industries. (20) What are the Norse nations? (21) What colonies 
 have the Danes ? (22) Name the chief industries of Denmark. 
 (23) What kind of government have these Norse countries? and 
 what is the capital of each ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (24) Find out something about Iceland. (25) In 
 what other section that you have studied is fishing important ? 
 
 (26) Find out about the length of days and nights in Norway. 
 
 (27) Draw a map of the Scandinavian peninsula. 
 
 III. Russia. Questions. — (28) Tell about the size of Russia. 
 (29) What parts of Russia in Europe are not fitted for farming ? 
 Why? (30) What is the main occupation of the people ? Name the 
 important products. (31) What are the tundras? The steppes? 
 (32) Which is the largest river in Europe ? (33) Whei - e are the lead- 
 ing Russian ports ? (34) Locate three of the largest cities, and state 
 why each is important. (35) Tell about the government. 
 
 Suggestions. — (36) Why would you not expect Russian sailors 
 to be as numerous as the English sailors ? (37) Name some city of 
 the United States which is about as far north as Odessa. (38) How 
 does the northern location of St. Petersburg interfere with its com- 
 merce by sea? (39) What city on the St. Lawrence has the same 
 difficulty ? (40) Show the route a vessel would take in going from 
 Odessa to London. From Odessa to St. Petersburg. 
 
 IV. Germany. Questions. — (41) Where is the highest land in 
 Germany? The great plains ? (42) Tell about the chief farm prod- 
 ucts. (43) What are the principal manufactures in Germany? 
 (44) Where is Hamburg? (45) For what is Berlin noted? Leipzig? 
 Munich? Dresden? Locate each. (46) Tell about the government. 
 
 Suggestions. — (47) Do you know any songs or stories about the 
 Rhine River? (48) Make a drawing showing the course of this river. 
 (49) Do you know of any German paintings? Of any music written 
 by Germans? (50) Make a collection of German pictures. 
 
 V. Holland. Questions. — (51) Tell about the dikes and canals of 
 Holland. (52) What is the principal industry? Why? (53) What 
 important colonies has Holland ? (54) What are the main cities ? 
 
EUROPE 247 
 
 Suggestions. — (55) Write a story telling what you think might 
 result if a dike were to give way. (56) Find a picture of a Dutch 
 windmill. (57) Tell what you would expect to see in crossing Hol- 
 land on a railway train. 
 
 VI. Belgium. Questions. — (58) What are the farm products of 
 Belgium? (59) Tell what you can about flax. (60) Name and locate 
 the two principal cities. (61) What about coal and iron ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (62) Examine a piece of Brussels carpet ; a piece 
 of lace also. 
 
 VII. France. Questions. — (63) Describe the chief slopes of 
 France. (64) What are the products iu the northern part ? In the 
 southern part? (65) Tell about the silk industry. (66) What can 
 you say about the capital? (67) About each of the other cities? 
 (68) What kind of government has France? 
 
 • Suggestions. — (69) Examine a cocoon and a piece of silk. Ob- 
 tain a caterpillar, if possible the silkworm, and raise it in the school 
 to see how the silkworm forms silk and what happens to the 
 "worm." (70) Why would the value of a cocoon be destroyed if 
 the chrysalis inside were to break through in order to get out? 
 (71) Can you find any pictures of Paris? 
 
 VIII. Spain and Portugal. Questions. — (72) Where are the 
 Pyrenees Mountains ? (73) Tell about the former power of these 
 countries. (74) Describe the relief and climate. (75) What are the 
 industries on the plateau? (76) What minerals are found there? 
 
 (77) Where is most of the farming? What are the chief products? 
 
 (78) Name and locate the most important coast cities. The two 
 capitals. 
 
 Suggestions. — (79) Would you expect the rivers to be naviga- 
 ble for any considerable distance from the Spanish coast? Why? 
 
 (80) Make a sand map of Spain, showing the high and low land. 
 
 (81) Examine some quicksilver. For what is it used? (82) Can 
 you find out anything about the Moors and the Alhambra in south- 
 ern Spain? Perhaps you can find pictures from there. Washington 
 Irving has written some beautiful stories about the Alhambra. 
 
 IX. Italy. Questions. — (83) Where is Rome ? Venice ? Na- 
 ples? Mt. Vesuvius? Milan? (84) Tell something about each of 
 these. (85) Where are the mountains ? (86) Where is the Po Val- 
 ley? (87) What is raised in Italy? 
 
248 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Suggestions. — (88) Find pictures of some^of the ruins in Rome. 
 (89) Of some of the buildings in Venice. (90) Look on a globe to 
 see in which direction Rome is from New York. (91) Draw a map 
 of Italy. 
 
 X. Switzerland. Questions. — (92) What are some of the in- 
 dustries of the Swiss ? (93) What languages are spoken ? (94) Name 
 the principal cities. (95) What is the kind of government? 
 
 Suggestions. — (96) Read the story of William Tell. (97) Find 
 other stories about Switzerland. (98) What disadvantages do you 
 see in having so many languages? (99) What large rivers rise ip 
 Switzerland ? (100) Write a story describing the St. Bernard dogs 
 of Switzerland. 
 
 XI. Austria-Hungary. Questions. — (101) Name four leading 
 cities in Austria-Hungary. (102) Tell why each is important. 
 
 Suggestions. — (103) Trace the Danube River from its source to 
 its mouth. (104) How far is Trieste from Venice? (105) Through 
 what waters would a vessel pass in sailing from New York to Trieste ? 
 (106) By using the scale on the map, find out how far Vienna is from 
 Munich. From Leipzig. From Berlin. From Paris. From St. 
 Petersburg. (107) In what direction is it from each of these ? 
 
 XII. Greece. Questions. — (108) What can you say about the 
 influence of Greece upon the world ? (109) Find Athens. (110) Tell 
 about the climate and products. 
 
 Suggestions. — (111) Where can you read about Ulysses? 
 
 (112) Have some one tell you the story of the Trojan War. 
 
 (113) Find some other stories about the ancient Greeks. 
 
 XIII. Turkey. Questions. — (114) Where is Turkey? What is 
 its capital? (115) Tell about its government. (116) What is the 
 chief occupation of the people? (117) What countries have gained 
 their independence from Turkey ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (118) What is the boundary line between Tur- 
 key in Europe and Turkey in Asia? (119) Examine a Turkish rug. 
 (120) What reasons can you give why Russia would like to own 
 Constantinople ? 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 
 
 (121) Do you know of any persons who have come from one of 
 these countries of Europe ? If so, ask them to tell you about them. 
 
EUROPE 
 
 249 
 
 Also have them speak in their native language. (122) Ask a 
 merchant to show you some goods from Europe. (123) What diffi- 
 culties would you expect to meet if you were to travel through Europe 
 without knowing any foreign languages? (124) Bound each of the 
 countries of Europe. (125) Draw an outline map of Europe, putting 
 in these boundaries and the principal rivers. (126) Make a dot to 
 represent Berlin; also locate the other large cities. Mark the capitals 
 with stars. (127) Collect pictures of Europe for the school collection. 
 (128) Cut out scraps, from the magazines and papers, relating to the 
 people, animals, plants, cities, etc., of different parts of Europe and 
 present them to the school to be kept for use in the geography class. 
 They can be arranged by countries and will be very useful. 
 For References, see page 331. 
 
 Modem means of travel in Europe, America, and other countries. 
 
XIX. ASIA 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Through what zones does Asia extend? 
 (2) What climate would you expect to find? (3) "Where are the 
 highest mountains and plateaus? (4) What rivers have their sources 
 in that region? (5) What large inland seas do you find? (6) What 
 three large peninsulas on the southern side ? (7) What three were 
 found on the south side of Europe ? (8) How does Asia compare in 
 size with Europe? (9) Find Asia on a globe. (10) How could you 
 reach it, if you wished to go there? (11) On the map, which way is 
 north from the British Isles? From Kamchatka? 
 
 Physical Geography. — Like Europe, the coast of Asia 
 is very irregular, with many peninsulas and islands. 
 Draw an outline map of it, showing these, with the larger 
 bays and seas inclosed by them. 
 
 Note the direction in which the many mountain ranges 
 extend. The loftiest among them, and in fact the highest 
 in the world, are the Himalaya Mountains, the highest 
 peak, Mt. Everest, being over twenty-nine thousand 
 feet, or about five and one half miles above the sea. 
 Where is it ? How does it compare in height with Mt. 
 Blanc? (Seep. 341.) 
 
 North of the Himalayas are lofty plateaus, one of them, 
 the plateau of Tibet, being about three miles in height. 
 How does that compare with the Spanish plateau (see 
 p. 342) and with our western plateau (see p. 342) ? 
 It is so high that the winter climate is very cold ; and 
 since the winds from' the ocean have lost their moisture 
 in passing over the mountains, these plateaus are also 
 
 250 
 
Fig. 203. 
 
pp^^"~~ 
 
 P" 1 ':• 
 
 
 : : ' 
 
 "' if-'" 
 
 • A r-- ■*--■":.,, ■; ; .•■•..-.-.-... -" -'■ "■ ■ - - >a 
 
 'j|/^';l, -V . : -^-;-. ; '*ffe' -'..'mj^'t 
 
 
 Picking Tea in India. 
 
 Asiatic buffalo, used as a work animal in southern and western Asia, eastern 
 Europe, and northwestern Africa. 
 
ASIA 
 
 251 
 
 dry. Farther north it is drier still, and we find there 
 the great desert of Gobi. 
 
 These mountains and plateaus form the watershed of the con- 
 tinent. Find three great rivers that flow northward from the water- 
 shed through the vast plain of Siberia. Name three that flow 
 eastward into the Pacific Ocean. What others flow southward? 
 
 Fig. 204. 
 A native village near Calcutta — notice the bamboo on the right. 
 
 From what has been said about the climate it is plain that the 
 inhabitants of this continent must be found chiefly in the eastern 
 and southern parts. There they live in vast numbers along the 
 coast and the large rivers ; in fact, nearly one half of all the people 
 in the world are found in these regions. 
 
 I. Southwestern Asia. — Rome and Athens have been 
 mentioned as cities that have had a great influence upon 
 other countries. But the part of the world which has 
 probably had the greatest influence of all is that at the 
 
252 
 
 THE earth as a whole 
 
 eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the land 
 that used to be called Palestine, the home of the Jews ; 
 and here is still the city of Jerusalem (Fig. 205), near 
 which Christ was born about nineteen hundred years ago, 
 and in which He was crucified. The Christian churches 
 and Christmas are in His memory. The home of Christ, 
 where the Christian religion was founded, is now a part 
 of the Turkish empire which extends into Asia. 
 
 Turkey extends down the western coast of the Arabian peninsula, 
 and includes another famous city called Mecca. The Turks are not 
 Christians but Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, who was 
 
 Fig. 205. 
 A picture of a part of Jerusalem. 
 
 born at Mecca nearly fourteen hundred years ago. The Mohamme- 
 dans believe in God, and their holy book is called the Koran. A 
 great many other people in Asia and northern Africa are followers of 
 Mohammed. 
 
 The western part of Asia, including Turkey, Arabia, 
 and Persia, has a very dry or arid climate. This is par- 
 ticularly true of Arabia, which is mainly a desert plateau 
 much more arid than Spain. 
 
 In this desert country agriculture is not a very impor- 
 
ASIA 
 
 253 
 
 tant industry; but dates and coffee are raised there, espe- 
 cially near the rivers and along the coast. You have per- 
 haps heard of Mocha coffee, and if you look on the map 
 you can find the place from which it gets its name. 
 
 Although so much of this region is desert, there are places, called 
 oases, where water is found. As these are usually too small to fur- 
 nish water and grass for large herds during a long time, the Arabs 
 are forced to wander from place to place, having no fixed homes. On 
 
 miMiifliL iJFMlLiiiiii inWPi *nii i '*YffMP 
 
 
 1 AT i1iTiii«iii 1 
 
 HHSflHKsflBBflHBH 
 
 
 Fig. 206. 
 A group of Persian natives on the desert of eastern Asia. 
 
 that account they are called nomads or wanderers (Fig. 206). They 
 take special pride in raising horses, which have become famous 
 throughout the world. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. 
 
 Much of Persia is also a desert; but some parts are well 
 suited to grazing, and the climate is warm enough for 
 such fruits as figs and dates. What is the capital? The 
 ruler of the Persians is a despot called the Shah. 
 
 The people of these countries are not civilized enough to carry on 
 much manufacturing, although beautiful carpets, rugs, and shawls 
 are made in great numbers, especially in Persia and Turkey. The 
 
254 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 work is done by hand, and though it is well done, it requires a great 
 deal of time, while in our great factories carpets are quickly made by 
 machinery. Railways are almost unknown, and even carriage roads 
 are usually lacking. Goods are carried upon camels in groups, called 
 caravans, and men travel upon the backs of horses and camels. 
 
 II. Siberia. — Siberia belongs to Russia. It is a region 
 of extensive plains and is mucb larger than the whole of 
 Russia in Europe. Like northern Canada, much of it is 
 
 Fig. 207. 
 A village in Siberia. 
 
 so cold that few people can live there, and it has been 
 made a prison for many Russians who have committed 
 crime, or who have offended their despotic rulers. 
 
 A large portion of southwestern Siberia is a desert having numerous 
 lakes without outlets. Would you expect them to be salt or fresh? 
 Between this arid section and the bleak northern plains, or tundras, 
 which resemble those of northern Europe, is a region where there are 
 extensive forests, and broad plains suited for grazing and farming. 
 
 One of the chief sources of wealth of Siberia is in the gold mines 
 of the Ural Mountains. Graphite, from which the " lead " in lead 
 pencils is made, is also found there. Many of the prisoners from 
 Russia are compelled to work in these mines. 
 
ASIA 
 
 255 
 
 The Russian government has built a great railway all the way 
 from St. Petersburg eastward to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast. 
 How far is that ? 
 
 III. The Chinese Empire and Korea. — Some of the most 
 important arts that we have ever learned first came from 
 the Chinese. For instance, they made porcelain dishes 
 long before Europeans knew how, and on that account 
 
 Fig. 208. 
 Houseboats on the Tientsin River of China. 
 
 those dishes are still called Chinaware, even though manu- 
 factured in the United States. They invented gunpow- 
 der, and our firecrackers for the Fourth of July used to 
 come from China. They also discovered how to make 
 silk and paper, and they invented the art of printing. 
 
 But while this strange -looking, yellow race was once among the 
 foremost nations of the earth, it is now very much behind. This is 
 explained partly by the fact that their religion causes them to wor- 
 ship their ancestors, so that whatever their fathers did, they must do. 
 Since their fathers had no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, none 
 are wanted now. Owing to their fear of new things, they have 
 neither traveled abroad much nor allowed foreigners to visit them. 
 
 But recently many Chinese have come to this country, working as 
 servants, especially on the Pacific coast, and as laundrymen in all 
 
256 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 parts of our country. Besides that, they now allow foreigners to live 
 in some of their coast cities and trade with the people. 
 
 Canton in the southern part is especially noted for its 
 silk. It is the largest city in China. . Shanghai is an- 
 other large city. Both are important ports for trade with 
 Americans. Hongkong is a British port. 
 
 Much of the northern and western portions of the Chinese Empire 
 are so high and dry that few persons can live there. Find the names 
 of those parts. But the lower plains near the coast, especially the 
 fertile flood plains and deltas of the great rivers, support a vast popu- 
 lation, because the soil is fertile, and abundant rainfall is supplied by 
 the damp winds from the Pacific. Here live nearly one fourth of all 
 the inhabitants of the globe, crowded together so closely that many 
 thousands dwell in boats on the rivers. 
 
 In the northern part a great deal of wheat is raised ; 
 but farther south rice, millet, tea, and silk are important 
 
 products. China 
 produces more 
 raw silk than any 
 other country in 
 the world. What 
 other regions are 
 noted for these 
 same products ? 
 
 The. govern- 
 ment is an abso- 
 lute monarchy, 
 with the capital at 
 Peking, situated 
 some distance in 
 the interior. Peking and Tientsin, its seaport, have 
 about three quarters of a million inhabitants each. 
 
 
 '"ir *' 
 
 fUftffiW ■ *^^ ^^^.^^, 
 
 j4 
 
 
 
 Fig. 209. 
 Temple in Peking. 
 
ASIA 
 
 257 
 
 Korea is also a very unprogressive nation which, until recently, 
 would not permit foreigners to enter. 
 
 IV. Japan. — The Japanese live upon islands east of Asia, 
 as the British do west of Europe. Their territory is but 
 slightly larger than 
 the British Isles, and 
 there are not many 
 more inhabitants. 
 Many of the islands 
 are small, but there 
 are five large ones, the 
 southernmost being 
 Formosa. They are 
 really the crest of a 
 mountain range ris- 
 ing above the sea, and 
 some of the mountain 
 peaks are volcanoes. 
 
 Km 
 
 
 j| ''?■ -JiH 
 
 
 \JSjm 
 
 
 
 
 
 SbPa 
 
 %*#- - ; '-M- -"^T" 
 
 %l 
 
 
 PJTf^Jj 
 
 KcJ^mI 
 
 &jl3 
 
 
 
 BKfi SJSfiwffi 
 
 i&~~ 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 r 
 
 rafeftsjgggfc 
 
 ''■'■- ^^^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 210. 
 
 A Japanese woman being carried in a traveling 
 chair by two Japanese men. 
 
 The Japanese used to "be much like their neighbors, the Chinese; 
 that is, they believed foreigners inferior, and wanted nothing to do 
 with them. But in 1853 an American naval officer, with several war- 
 ships, entered the harbor of Yokohama and persuaded the Japanese 
 to allow us to trade with them. 
 
 Before many years had passed the Japanese not only allowed for- 
 eigners to enter, but they invited them to come as teachers, and even 
 sent some of their own young men abroad to study. There have 
 been many Japanese students in the colleges and universities of the 
 United States during the last twenty years. 
 
 The great war between Russia and Japan (1904-05) was fought for 
 the control of Korea and proved that Japan had learned much from 
 the western nations in the arts of war and peace. Japan is now far 
 in advance of all other countries of Asia. Railways, telephones, and 
 newspapers are common, and there are many good schools, while 
 vapid progress has been made in manufacturing. 
 
258 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 That the Japanese are very skillful in many kinds of 
 handiwork is suggested by the Japanese fans, parasols, 
 
 napkins, dolls, and 
 screens so often seen 
 in this country. 
 Whatever they 
 make they try to 
 make beautiful, be- 
 ing one of the most 
 artistic races in the 
 world. 
 
 Japan, like China, 
 produces a great 
 amount of silk, rice, 
 and tea. There is 
 also some mining. 
 
 The principal 
 city and capital is 
 Tokio, one of the 
 large cities of the 
 world, and the 
 home of the emperor, called the Mikado. Its seaport is 
 Yokohama, at the entrance of Tokio Bay. 
 
 V. India and Indo-China. — India, the central one of 
 the three peninsulas on the southern side of Asia, is the 
 country that Columbus thought he had reached when he 
 discovered America. Hence the name " Indians " for the 
 savages whom he met. 
 
 The damp winds from the Indian Ocean furnish the plains and 
 mountains of India with so much rain that in places the forests form 
 a perfect tangle or jungle of luxuriant vegetation, in which live 
 tigers, elephants, and many other wild animals. 
 
 Fig. 211. 
 
 The way Japanese babies are carried by the young 
 
 girls. The baby leaning back is asleep. 
 
Asia 259 
 
 Several vevy large rivers rise in the Himalayas and flow across the 
 plains. One is the Indus, from which the word India comes, and 
 also the word Hindoos, as the inhabitants are sometimes called. 
 The river flowing southeast is the Ganges, on which is the capital 
 and largest city, Calcutta. 
 
 One of the chief reasons why England holds India is 
 for the important crops raised there. Cotton, one of the 
 
 Fig. 212. 
 Idols in a cave near Bombay. 
 
 principal products, is shipped to England to be made 
 into cloth, and then some of this cloth is shipped back 
 to India and sold. Where else have we found a similar 
 situation ? 
 
 Wheat is another great product, and since England 
 cannot raise enough of that food for herself, she se- 
 cures some of it from India. Other crops are poppies, 
 from which opium is made, silk, rice, tea, coffee, and 
 sugar. 
 
260 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Fig. 213. 
 A view in the palace grounds at Bangkok, Siam. 
 
 The peninsula east 
 of India, called Indo- 
 China, and the East 
 Indian Islands south 
 of it, are other places 
 that Columbus wished 
 to reach. Here are 
 found precious stones, 
 such spices as pepper, 
 nutmeg, and cinnamon, 
 and other valuable 
 products, which were 
 carried by caravans to 
 Europe long before the 
 time of Columbus. 
 Many of these prod- 
 ucts are now shipped 
 from Singapore, an 
 English city on an is- 
 land at the southern 
 end of the Malay pen- 
 insula. The greatest 
 city in Indo-China is 
 Bangkok, the chief 
 seaport and the capital 
 of the kingdom of 
 Siam. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I. Southwestern Asia. Questions. — (1) What part of Asia has 
 had the greatest influence upon the civilized world ? Tell about it. 
 (2) To what nation does Palestine belong? (3) What other parts 
 of Asia belong to it? (4) Tell about Mecca. (5) Describe Arabia. 
 (6) How do the Arabians live ? (7) What do you know about Per- 
 sia? (8) How do people travel in those countries ? 
 
 Suggestions.— (9) What is meant by the date 1900? (10) What 
 buildings in your neighborhood have been erected in the memory of 
 
ASIA 261 
 
 Christ? (11) What stories in the Bible have you read that tell about 
 places mentioned in this book or on the map? (12) What reasons 
 can you suggest why the Turks have not taken possession of the inte- 
 rior of Arabia, as well as of the coast? (13) Does your grocer sell 
 Mocha coffee? (14) Examine a Persian or Turkish rug. (15) Learn 
 .how camels are especially fitted to live in desert countries. 
 
 II. Siberia. Questions. — (16) Point toward Siberia. (17) Tell 
 about the climate. (18) In what occupations are the people engaged? 
 (19) How does Siberia compare in size with Russia? 
 
 Suggestions. — (20) What advantage will the railway be to 
 Russia ? (21) How does that railway compare in length with those 
 reaching across the United States ? (22) What object do you see in 
 having the eastern terminus, Port Arthur, so far south? 
 
 III. Chinese Empire and Korea. Questions. — (23) Name some of 
 the arts that we have learned from the Chinese. (24) What has 
 made them so backward? (25) What special ports are open to 
 American traders? (26) In what part of China do most of the peo- 
 ple live ? Why there ? (27) What are the principal products ? 
 (28) What kind of a government has China? (29) Tell about 
 Korea. 
 
 Suggestions. — (30) How can you distinguish a Chinaman from 
 other men? (31) How does the number of people in China compare 
 with the number in the whole of Europe ? (See the table on p. 333.) 
 (32) Write a story telling some of the differences between life in 
 America and in China. (33) Draw the two chief rivers in China. 
 (34) How might railways in China help to prevent the awful famines 
 that they have there ? (35) Find out about Confucius. About the 
 Great Wall of China. 
 
 IV. Japan. Questions. — (36) Where is Japan ? (37) In what 
 way have the Japanese been like the Chinese ? (38) How have they 
 differed ? (39) Why are they called an artistic race ? (40) What 
 are their chief products ? (41) Name and locate the chief cities. 
 
 Suggestions. — (42) Make a collection of Japanese articles, as 
 paper napkins, fans, etc. (43) Examine them to see in what 
 respect they are artistic. (44) Collect pictures of Japanese houses 
 and people. 
 
 V. India and Indo-China. Questions. — (45) What nation owns 
 India? (46) What rivers in northern India? (47) Locate the chief 
 
262 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 cities. (48) What are the products? (49). What advantages does 
 England enjoy in owning India? (50) Name the peninsula east of 
 India. (51) What comes from there? (52) Find Singapore. 
 
 Suggestions. — (53) How far was Columbus from India when he 
 discovered America ? (54) What route should he have taken if he 
 had continued his voyage to India? (55) What is the shortest route 
 from Bombay to London ? Through what waters would a vessel pass ? 
 
 VI. Review. — (56) Draw an outline map of Asia and put in the 
 boundary lines of the principal countries; also the rivers, mountains, 
 and cities. (57) Find out about foreign missions to Asia. 
 
 For References, see page 331. 
 
 U. S. Barracks, " Goat Island," San Francisco Bay. 
 
Victoria Falls, Africa. 
 
XX. AFRICA 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) What continent does Africa most resem- 
 ble in shape? (2) In what parts are the chief mountain ranges? 
 
 (3) Find the main slopes on the continent by a study of the rivers. 
 
 (4) Name and trace the three largest rivers. (5) About how much 
 of Africa lies in the torrid zone? (6) How does its coast line compare 
 with that of Europe as to regularity? (7) What influence must that 
 have upon the harbors ? 
 
 The Dark Continent. — Although Africa is so near 
 Europe that they almost join at the Strait of Gibraltar, 
 and although it is one of the oldest continents that history 
 tells about, it is the least known of them all. 
 
 There are several reasons for this. In the first place, 
 south of the Mediterranean Sea is a broad desert, extend- 
 ing entirely across the continent. This, a part of which is 
 called the Sahara Desert (Fig. 69), is about a thousand 
 miles wide, and very difficult to cross. 
 
 Far south of this desert, for more than a thousand miles, 
 the country is covered with a forest where the rainfall 
 is heavy ; and near the equator the vegetation is so rank 
 that an almost impenetrable jungle is formed, like the 
 Amazon jungle. It is inhabited by large and fierce ani- 
 mals, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion. 
 
 The rivers offer further obstacles to travel. The con- 
 tinent is mainly a plateau, varying from one fourth to one 
 and one half miles in height ; and its rivers on approach- 
 ing the ocean have numerous rapids and falls, so that boats 
 cannot make their way upstream. 
 
 263 
 
264 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 Not only.are there deserts, unnavigable rivers, and dense 
 forests with fierce animals, but there are hordes of savages 
 belonging to the black race. It was from Africa that 
 negroes were first brought to our country as slaves, and 
 on that account those now here are often called Africans. 
 
 Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. 
 
 Fig. 215. 
 
 The Great Pyramid and the Sphinx. What animals are those standing on 
 the desert sands near the Sphinx ? 
 
 Here, then, are several reasons why we know so little 
 about Africa, which, because of this, and because so many 
 blacks live there, is sometimes called the "dark continent." 
 
 Northern Africa. — The African side of the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea, being so close to Asia and Europe, has long 
 been settled by the white race. Many of the inhabitants 
 are Arabs, who, being believers in Mohammed, still make 
 
AFRICA 
 
 265 
 
 pilgrimages to Mecca in Arabia, like other followers of 
 that prophet. 
 
 The best-known "country in this section is Egypt, and 
 Cairo, its capital, is the largest city in Africa, having 
 more than half a million people. Alexandria is the 
 chief Egyptian port. 
 
 This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the kings of Egypt, 
 used to rule ; and the ruins of the immense pyramids and monu- 
 ments that they built thousands of years ago may still be seen. 
 Here, the Bible tells, Moses once lived ; aud Joseph also. What 
 stories do you remember about them ? 
 
 Fig. 216. 
 A family camped on an oasis in the desert of Morocco. 
 
 Most of Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia on the one 
 side and the Sahara Desert on the other. The Nile River 
 flows through this desert, and every year the heavy floods, 
 from the mountains of Abyssinia and the forest country 
 near the equator, cause it to rise higher and higher until it 
 
266 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 overflows its banks. These floods, spreading out over the 
 flood plain and level delta of the Nile, irrigate the land. 
 
 As in other rivers, the water carries with it an abundance 
 of mud, which settles in a thin layer of rich soil upon the 
 flood plain, making it so fertile that excellent crops of 
 cotton, sugar cane, and grain can be raised after the. water 
 is gone. By this means millions of people obtain food, 
 although they live in a desert region. 
 
 Fig. 217. 
 The Suez Canal at Port Said. 
 
 The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, which con- 
 nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships 
 sailing from Europe to Asia were compelled to go all the way round 
 Africa; but in 1869 a canal one hundred miles long (Eig. 217) was 
 completed across the isthmus, so that vessels can now make a short 
 cut. Estimate how many miles are saved by the Suez Canal in going 
 from London to Calcutta. 
 
 Name the countries west of Egypt along the Mediter- 
 ranean coast. What are their capitals ? Most of them, 
 
AFRICA 
 
 267 
 
 like Egypt itself, are controlled by countries of Europe. 
 Their products are similar to those on the northern side 
 of the Mediterranean. What are some of them? 
 
 On the desert of Sahara few people are able to live. Some parts 
 are sandy plains, while others are rocky and hilly, and in places even 
 
 Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. 
 
 Fig. 218. 
 Kaffirs, South African savages. 
 
268 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 mountainous. But here and there, as in Arabia, are oases where 
 water comes from underground, so that grass and date palms are able 
 to grow. Sometimes these oases are so large that villages are built 
 upon them ; and the caravans that cross the desert to bring ivory and 
 other products from the south, make their stops at these places. Some 
 of these caravans consist of hundreds of camels, so that there is need 
 of much food and water. 
 
 Central Africa. — Until a few years ago this was a wil- 
 derness that no civilized man had ever visited; but now 
 much of it has been explored. The natives are mainly 
 savage blacks; and the Arabs, who go there to purchase 
 ivory, still carry large numbers of them away as slaves. 
 
 The northern part is 
 called the Sudan. Near 
 the borders of the Sa- 
 hara the country is a 
 desert ; but this condi- 
 tion gradually changes 
 until, farther south, the 
 land is covered with a 
 dense tropical forest, 
 for the rains are heavy 
 near the equator. In 
 this region live the lion, 
 rhinoceros, giraffe, and 
 elephant, the latter be- 
 ing killed for the sake of 
 its ivory tusks. Some 
 of the forest woods are valuable, and the rubber tree 
 flourishes there. 
 
 The two great rivers of this region are the Niger, north of the 
 equator, and the Kongo, south of it. They are the main roads lead- 
 ing inland, although their falls and rapids greatly interfere with 
 
 Fig. 219. 
 A pair of ostriches in South Africa. 
 
AFRICA 
 
 269 
 
 travel. Throughout that entire region there are almost no wagon 
 roads, so that goods must be carried either on the rivers or over paths 
 or trails in pack trains. But this situation is improving as the 
 nations of Europe obtain more and more control. At the present 
 time, several European countries claim parts of Africa. 
 
 South Africa. — Southern Africa is the best-developed 
 section of the continent. It was originally settled by the 
 Dutch, though England has taken possession of a portion 
 of it. Part of it is a high plateau, with a warm temperate 
 
 Fig. 220 
 A diamond mine at Kimberley. 
 
 climate, having many of the same products as our own 
 country. Most of the people are engaged in farming and 
 ranching, producing grain, wool, and hides. Ostrich 
 farming is an important industry in Cape Colony, the 
 beautiful feathers of the male bird being very valuable. 
 Johannesburg is the center of the richest gold-mining 
 
270 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 region in the world, and more diamonds are obtained from 
 near Kimberley than from any other part of the globe. 
 Portions of southern Africa have long been settled by 
 Europeans and much of it is now owned by England, the 
 oldest colony being Cape Colony, the capital of which is 
 Cape Town. Consequently many railways and good 
 wagon roads have been built, and many other advances 
 have been made. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Why is so little known about Africa ? 
 (2) Why is it called the " dark continent " ? (3) Which is the best- 
 known country in northern Africa ? (4) Name and locate its two 
 chief cities. (5) Tell about the Nile River. (6) About the Suez 
 Canal. (7) About the Sahara Desert. (8) Where is the Sudan? 
 What animals live there? (9) What two great rivers are in Central 
 Africa? (10) How are goods carried from place to place? (11) 
 What influence are the nations of Europe having upon Africa? 
 (12) What climate has Southern Africa? What are the occupations 
 of the people ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (1) What reasons can you give why Timbuktu 
 should be an important trade center? (2) The caravans composed 
 of camels travel at the rate of about sixteen miles per day. How 
 long would it probably take for a caravan to travel from Timbuktu 
 to Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast? (3) One camel can carry 
 about four hundred pounds. How many tons could a caravan of 
 s?x hundred camels carry? (4) What are some of the dangers of a 
 journey across the desert? (5) Beginning with the western Sahara, 
 trace the desert country that extends across Africa and Asia. (6) Why 
 should the two largest cities in Africa be located at or near the mouth 
 of the Nile River ? (7) Find some object made of ivory and show 
 it to the class. (8) Examine an ostrich feather and a diamond. 
 (9) Why are there no tributaries to the northern half of the Nile? 
 What part of the river, then, probably has most water ? (10) Find 
 out about the war between the Boers (those living in the South Afri- 
 can Republic and Orange Free State) and the British. (11) Draw 
 an outline map of Africa and put in the main rivers and cities. 
 
 For References, see page 332. 
 
A pineapple field in the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 Native Kanaka boys with surf hoards and canoe, Hawaiian Islands. Kanaka 
 boys and girls are expert swimmers. 
 
XXI. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIP- 
 PINES, AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE 
 PACIFIC 
 
 Map Questions. — (1) Find Australia on a globe and show how 
 you would reach it from New York in a vessel. Through what waters 
 would you pass? (See Fig. 120.) (2) From San Francisco? From 
 London? (3) In what part are most of the mountains? (4) The 
 rivers? (5) The cities ? (6) In what zones is Australia? (7) Will 
 there be any cold winter on this continent ? (8) Look on a globe to 
 see what other continents are in the same zones. 
 
 (9) What are the principal islands of the East Indies? FindBata- 
 via. (10) In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Austra- 
 lia? (11) Estimate the distance. (12) Find the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 I. Australia. — The names of the three eastern divi- 
 sions of Australia, — Victoria, New South Wales, and 
 Queensland — suggest the country to which this continent 
 belongs. Which is it ? The various sections of Austra- 
 lia have been joined into one confederation similar to 
 Canada and our own confederation of states. 
 
 Australia is the smallest of the continents, being about 
 the size of the United States, not including Alaska. It 
 is a low plateau, with the chief mountain range on the 
 eastern side. These mountains have much influence on 
 the climate ; for, since the prevailing winds are from the 
 southeast, as they reach this range, and rise to pass over 
 it, they grow cooler and lose most of their moisture. If 
 the mountains were on the western side, as the Andes are 
 in South America, nearly the whole country might be 
 well watered, like the Amazon Valley. As it is, however, 
 s 271 
 
272 
 
 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 the eastern coast of Australia has abundant rain, while 
 farther westward it becomes drier, until, at a distance of 
 one hundred and fifty miles from the coast, farming is 
 almost impossible. 
 
 What about the country farther west ? With what 
 part of Africa should it be compared? Where must the 
 
 Fig. 222. 
 
 A sheep run in Australia. The water in this artesian well rises from a layer 
 
 of porous rock over six hundred feet helow the surface. 
 
 chief rivers be? Where might we expect to find salt 
 lakes? The best farm land? The principal cities and 
 most of the people? 
 
 Now examine the map to see if you are right. Where 
 is the large desert? (It is dotted.) What is the name of 
 the main river? There is often so little rain, even on the 
 lower part of the Murray River Basin, that the river grows 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 273 
 
 smaller toward its mouth, and its chief tributary, the Dar- 
 ling, dries up almost entirely. 
 
 When the English began to colonize this country, they found it 
 inhabited by a very low class of savages; and the plants and animals 
 were found to be different from those elsewhere. A great part of the 
 interior was covered with a low bush, called "scrub," having hard, 
 prickly leaves and often growing so dense that it was difficult for one 
 to make his way through it. It caused the country to 
 look desolate indeed. 
 
 There were none of the fierce animals common to 
 other countries, the largest being the kangaroo, which is 
 furnished with a sack or pouch for carrying its young. 
 Instead of running on all fours, it jumps along on its 
 hind legs, using its tail for support. 
 
 Finding the plants and animals of little 
 use, the English began to import some. 
 Sheep were taken there and found to 
 thrive ; for the temperature is so 
 mild that they are not exposed to 
 cold, and some of the plants fur- 
 nish excellent food. Consequently, 
 great sheep ranches or sheep runs, 
 as they are called there, have been 
 established. The best sections for 
 this purpose are 
 Victoria and 
 New South 
 Wales, where 
 wool has become 
 one of the chief 
 exports. Indeed, Australian wool is the best in the world. 
 
 ymltfftflt*- 
 
 Fig. 223. 
 An Australian kangaroo. 
 
 The imported cattle have likewise multiplied, so that hides and 
 meat are produced in abundance. Wheat and corn also flourish, and 
 many fruits, such as we know, are now plentiful in that region. 
 
274 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE 
 
 The presence of mountains suggests that metals might 
 exist there, which is the case. For many years Australia 
 has ranked as one of the most important gold-producing 
 countries of the world. 
 
 Since these industries have become very extensive, espe- 
 cially in the rainy southeastern part, we see why several 
 great cities have grown up in that section. The largest 
 is Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, which has about a 
 half million people. The next is Sydney, the capital of 
 New South Wales, nearly as large ; and the third is Ade- 
 laide, the capital of South Australia. 
 
 An island, Tasmania, just south of Australia, is owned 
 by the British, and has almost the same industries as 
 Victoria. 
 
 The New Zealand Islands are also British, and in the 
 climate and the customs of the people they resemble Aus- 
 tralia. What is the capital? What other city is found 
 there? Do you remember the geysers for which the 
 Yellowstone National Park is noted (p. 193)? New 
 Zealand and Iceland are the only two other parts of the 
 world where geysers are found. 
 
 Manufacturing is not yet greatly developed, so that 
 quantities of wool, hides, metals, etc., are exported, going 
 mainly to England, since these are colonies of Great Brit- 
 ain. Some of the imports that must be received in return 
 you can probably name. 
 
 II. The East Indies. — Between Australia and Asia are 
 a large number of islands, many of them too small to place 
 upon the map. What are the names of some of the largest 
 of this group, or archipelago, known as the East Indies ? 
 The one that you have probably heard about most often is 
 Java, from which the Java coffee comes. Among the 
 
AUSTRALIA 
 
 275 
 
 forests of these islands are many different kinds of valu- 
 able tropical woods. Sugar, tobacco, pepper, spices, and 
 precious stones are other valuable products. 
 
 These islands, like those of the Japanese Empire, are 
 the crests of mountains in the sea. Among them are 
 many very active volcanoes, some of them having caused 
 terrible destruction by their frightful eruptions. The 
 islands belong to European countries, and you will find 
 the names of these countries marked on the map. 
 
 III. The Philippine Islands. — The principal city on the 
 Philippine Islands is Manila, on Luzon Island, where 
 Admiral Dewey de- 
 stroyed the Spanish 
 fleet. 
 
 Notice (Fig. 203) 
 that they lie between 
 the Japanese Islands 
 and the East Indies, 
 both of which were 
 said to be mountain 
 ranges in the sea. 
 The Philippines are 
 also mountains, form- 
 ing a part of the 
 same chain. 
 
 There are valuable 
 kinds of wood in the forests, and many mineral deposits; 
 but these were never much used by the Spaniards. The 
 chief products have been sugar, tobacco, and hemp, which 
 is used in making ropes. Now that the United States is 
 in control of the islands, it is probable that their mineral 
 and other resources will be developed. 
 
 Fig. 224. 
 
 A native house in Manila. In order to be well 
 above the damp ground, the people live in 
 the upper part. Notice the bamboo fence. 
 
276 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE' 
 
 On these islands dwell several different races. There 
 are still many savages there, especially in the dense for- 
 ests of the interior (Fig. 99). Some of them are called 
 Negritos or little negroes. On the Sulu Islands are 
 Mohammedans called Moros. The Tagalogs belong lo 
 the more advanced tribes, who have learned the arts of 
 civilization from the Spaniards. 
 
 IV. Islands of the Pacific. — There are many hundreds 
 of islands in the Pacific Ocean, some of them being tiny 
 coral islands, others large and mountainous. They are 
 all located where mountain ranges or volcanic peaks rise 
 from the great plain of the ocean floor. 
 
 Find the Fiji Islands. They are also British. What 
 other group of small islands do you see in that region ? 
 Find the Samoan . Islands. One of these belongs to the 
 United States. What large island is just north of Aus- 
 tralia ? In what zone does it lie ? One part is British, 
 one part Dutch, and one part German. All of its prod- 
 ucts are tropical, and it is covered with a dense forest 
 and inhabited by fierce savages. Very few Europeans 
 live there. 
 
 Among the islands of the Pacific we must not forget to 
 mention the Hawaiian Islands, for they now form a 
 part of our own country. They are situated in the mid- 
 Pacific on the way from San Francisco to Australia, and 
 consist of a number of islands, the largest being Hawaii. 
 All of them are volcanic, and on Hawaii are two of the 
 largest volcanoes in the world (Fig. 101). Being in the 
 torrid zone, their climate is warm enough for sugar raising, 
 and this is one of the principal industries of the islands. 
 Where else have we found this industry ? Honolulu is 
 the capital and largest city. 
 
AUSTRALIA 277 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 I. Australia. Questions. — (1) To what country does Australia 
 belong ? (2) How does it compare in size with the United States ? 
 
 (3) How does the mountain range on the east affect the climate ? 
 
 (4) Which, then, is the most valuable part of the country? (5) Tell 
 about the native plants and animals. (6) What animals and plants 
 have been imported ? (7) What industries have resulted ? (8) Name 
 .the principal exports. (9) Locate the chief cities. 
 
 Suggestions. — (10) Sketch Australia, putting in the Murray 
 River and the principal cities. (11) What other places in the world 
 are noted for sheep and cattle raising? (12) For gold mining? 
 (13) Read about the great trouble the imported rabbits have caused 
 in Australia. (14) Where are the desert countries of the world? 
 Make a sketch map to show them. 
 
 II. East Indies. Questions. — (15) Name several of the larger 
 islands of the East Indies. (16) What are the products? 
 
 Suggestions. — (17) Why were they named the East Indies? 
 (18) Find what spices are used in cooking at your home. (19) Make 
 a collection of spices, trying to find where each kind came from. 
 (20) See on the map (Fig. 221) to what European countries each of 
 the larger islands belongs. (21) Find where the tea and coffee used 
 at your home came from. By what route are they probably brought? 
 
 III. Philippine Islands. Questions. — (22) Where are the Philip- 
 pine Islands? (23) Name the principal city. (24) What has re- 
 cently made it famous? (25) What are the names of the largest 
 islands ? (26) How far is Manila from China ? (27) What races 
 occupy these islands ? 
 
 Suggestions. — (28) Collect some Manila hemp rope. (29) Find 
 out about the battle of Manila Bay and also about the war with the 
 Filipinos. (30) Collect pictures from the Philippines. 
 
 IV. Islands of the Pacific. Questions. — (31) Find Tasmania; 
 New Zealand ; the Fiji Islands. (32) What large island lies north 
 of Australia? Tell about it. (33) Tell about the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 Suggestions. — (34) Find out something about the Fiji Islands. 
 (35) How are the Hawaiian Islands governed? (36) Find out some 
 events that have happened on the Samoan Islands. 
 
 For References, see page 332. 
 
Fig. 225. 
 
CALIFORNIA 
 
 "THE LAND OF SUNSHINE 
 FRUIT AND FLOWERS" 
 
 Fig. 226. 
 The State Capitol aud Grounds, Sacramento. 
 
 A SUPPLEMENT 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES A. BARR and EDWARD HUGHES 
 
 REVISED BY 
 
 THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE 
 1910 
 
MAP QUESTIONS 
 
 Refer to the maps and (1) Compare the size of California with that 
 of Texas ; New York ; Massachusetts. (2) Find points on the Atlan- 
 tic coast that have the same latitude as the northern and southern 
 boundaries of California. (3) What states are included between these 
 points? (4) Give the boundaries of California. (5) What moun- 
 tains in the eastern part ? (6) In what direction do they extend ? 
 (7) Find Mt. Whitney. (8) What direction is it from San Francisco? 
 (9) What ranges in the western part ? (10) Compare their direction 
 with that of the coast. (11) What is the highest mountain peak in 
 the northern part of the state ? (12) What great lowland region 
 between the Sierra Nevada aud Coast Range Mountains ? (13) What 
 river drains its northern part? (14) Describe it. (15) What river 
 drains the southern part ? (16) Describe it. (17) What river on 
 the southeastern boundary of the state? (18) Describe the Klamath 
 River ; the Eel ; the Russian. (19) In what direction are these rivers 
 from San Francisco Bay ? (20) Describe the Salinas River; the Santa 
 Maria; the Santa Clara. (21) What direction are these from San 
 Francisco Bay? (22) Where is San Diego Bay? Monterey Bay? 
 (23) Find a harbor in the northern part of the state. (24) What is 
 the entrance to San Francisco Bay called? (25) Locate Lake Tahoe; 
 Clear Lake ; Honey Lake ; Goose Lake ; Salton Sea. (26) Give loca- 
 tion of the following cities : San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, 
 Sacramento, San Jose, San Diego, Stockton, Alameda, Berkeley, 
 Fresno, Santa Barbara. (27) Locate three principal cities of the 
 northern coast region. (28) Locate six important cities of the 
 southern coast region. (29) Locate four cities in the San Joaquin 
 Valley ; four in the Sacramento Valley. (30) Name the leading com- 
 mercial cities of California. Why commercial ? (31) Name some of 
 the natural resources of the state. Where found? 
 
 282 
 
\\ LanJ 
 P\Surrace 
 
 RELIEF MAP OF 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 By N. F. DRAKE 
 
 Department of Geology, 
 
 Stanford University 
 
 Issued by the 
 CALIFORNIA STATE MINIX6 BUREAU 
 
 LEWIS E. AUBURV 
 State Mineralogist 
 
 Area of California, 153,650 sifcJnlks 
 
 Area of 10 other States, 153,130 »j mllea 
 
 Fig. 229. 
 
Fig- 230. 
 
XXII. CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 Extent. — In size California ranks second among the 
 states of the Union (Fig. 229). Its greatest length is 
 about 775 miles ; its average width, about 200 miles. 
 
 Relief. — California contains the lowest, and, with the 
 exception of Alaska, the highest lands in the United 
 States, ranging from 
 depressions 263 feet 
 below the sea level 
 (Fig. 233) in the ex- 
 treme southern part, 
 to mountain peaks 
 nearly 15,000 feet in 
 height (Fig. 19). The 
 great interior valley is 
 the most extensive low- 
 land region in the state. 
 This fertile valley is 
 about 400 miles long, 
 with an average width FlG A 
 
 of 40 miles. Except Not a " Bad man from Bodie " but a young 
 for a narrow break at snow-shoer, two years old, of the high 
 „ „ Sierras near Bodie, Mouo County. 
 
 San 1 rancisco .Bay 
 
 (Fig. 230), it is completely inclosed by the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains on the east and the Coast Ranges on the west. 
 The northern part of this great plain is known as the 
 Sacramento Valley, while the southern part is called the 
 San Joaquin Valley. 
 
 285 
 
286 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 There are many smaller valleys ill both the Sierra 
 Nevada and Coast ranges and in the southern part of the 
 state. Among the most important are the Russian River, 
 
 Napa, Santa 
 Clara, and Sa- 
 linas valleys and 
 the plain of Los 
 Angeles. On 
 the western 
 slope of the 
 Sierras is the 
 famous Yosem- 
 ite Valley 
 (Fig. 234). 
 
 The coast line 
 is more than a 
 thousand miles 
 long, with few 
 good harbors. 
 However, San 
 Francisco Bay 
 (Fig. 230) is one 
 of the largest 
 and best har- 
 bors in the 
 world. San 
 Diego Bay (Fig. 
 261) in the south and Humboldt Bay on the north coast 
 are also excellent harbors. The scenic features of the 
 state, whether of the coast and islands or of the mountains, 
 are unsurpassed and are visited by tourists from all over 
 the world. 
 
 Fig. 231. ■ 
 Armstrong Grove of Redwoods, Sonoma County. 
 
DRAINAGE 
 
 287 
 
 Drainage. — The most important rivers of the state are 
 the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, which drain the 
 great interior valley. Both rise in the Sierra Nevada 
 Mountains. The San Joaquin, flowing from the south, 
 is about 350 miles long, while the Sacramento, from the 
 
 Fig. 232. 
 At the base of Mt. Whitney, California. 
 
 north, is about 400 miles in length. The two rivers 
 unite about 60 miles northeast of San Francisco and flow 
 into San Francisco Bay through the strait of Carquinez 
 (Fig. 230). Both rivers have many important tributaries 
 from the Sierras. The western slope of the coast region 
 drains directly into the Pacific by numerous smaller rivers, 
 among which are the Russian and Eel, north of San Fran- 
 cisco Bay, and the Salinas, Santa Clara and Santa Maria, 
 
288 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 south of it. The Klamath in the extreme north breaks 
 through the Coast Range on its way to the sea. In the 
 southern part of the state the streams are small. 
 
 The Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers are navigable 
 (Fig. 236). Most of the streams of the state are of 
 great importance in furnishing water for irrigation (Fig. 
 
 239), for mining, 
 and as sources of 
 electric power. 
 The principal 
 lake region is in 
 the northeastern 
 part. Lake 
 Tahoe (p. 66), 
 on the border 
 line between 
 California and 
 Nevada, is a 
 noted resort. 
 
 Clim ate.— 
 California has 
 every kind of climate to be found in North America. In 
 the desert regions the summers are extremely hot, while 
 above the snow limit on the mountains the climate re- 
 sembles that of arctic countries (Fig. A, p. 285). At 
 ordinary altitudes, however, the state enjoys a mild cli- 
 mate without great summer heat or winter cold. The 
 principal reason for this is the fact that it is a coast state 
 in a region of prevailing westerly winds. 
 
 The temperature of the waters of the Pacific is nearly 
 the same summer and winter, and the winds that cross 
 the state from this great ocean equalize temperatures for 
 
 Fig. 233. 
 
 Plowing salt near Salton in the Colorado Desert, 2G3 
 
 feet below the level. 
 
CLIMATE 
 
 289 
 
 Jaotli seasons (Fig. 238). For the reasons given, there 
 are no marked seasonal changes except in the mountains. 
 The year naturally divides itself into two parts : a season 
 of rainfall corresponding to winter ; and the summer 
 season, in which there is no rainfall except local thunder- 
 storms in the high mountains. 
 
 Fig. 234. 
 A. view from the Yosemite Valley. 
 
 The storms which bring rain to California form in the 
 north Pacific and drift easterly over the state or over the 
 states immediately to the north. Storms that are central 
 as far north as Puget Sound produce abundant rainfall 
 over a large part of California. As the moist winds from 
 the ocean rise to pass over the Coast Ranges much of 
 their moisture is condensed and falls as rain. Naturally 
 
290 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 this region, especially north of San Francisco Bay, is one. 
 of heavy rainfall. At San Francisco the yearly average 
 is 23 inches, and at Eureka 46 inches, while at places near 
 
 Fig. 235. 
 Irrigating a California orange grove. 
 The head ditch or flume lies along the higher side of the orchard. It is made 
 of cement and lets out the water into the furrows through holes as large 
 as broomsticks. 
 The water should run about forty-eight hours continuously. During the hot 
 weather a grove is irrigated about once a month,in the winter time not at alb 
 
 Eureka, but at greater altitudes, 80 to 100 inches are not 
 unusual. 
 
 South of San Francisco the rainfall is much less, rang- 
 ing as low as 10 inches at San Diego. In the great 
 
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 291 
 
 interior valley, the rainfall also increases from south to 
 north. At Visalia, in the southern part, the annual aver- 
 age is 10 inches, at Sacramento 19 inches, and at Red 
 Bluff 25 inches. On the western slope of the Sierras and 
 
 Fig. 236. 
 
 Passenger and freight steamer on the San Joaquin River, plying between 
 
 Stockton and San Francisco. 
 
 at their summit, the rainfall is about equal to that of the 
 northern coast counties. Much of the precipitation here 
 is in the form of snow, which remains on the ground, 
 slowly melting until late in the summer, keeping the 
 streams and irrigating ditches well filled. 
 
 Industrial Development. — During the time of Spanish 
 occupation, owing to distance from markets and lack of 
 
292 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 means of transportation, little was done to develop agri- 
 culture. Cattle were raised, driven to the seaboard, and 
 slaughtered for their hides, horns, and tallow, the only 
 
 Orange orchard 
 of Riverside 
 
 Orange orchard 
 of Sacramento 
 County, six hun- 
 dred miles far- 
 ther north. 
 
 Fig. 237. 
 Orange Groves. 
 
 products that could be shipped long distances in slow sail- 
 ing vessels. The grape, the olive, the fig, and other fruits 
 were planted about the Missions, and enough grain and 
 fruit were grown to supply the needs of the padres and 
 their followers; but the work of agriculture went no 
 further. 
 
INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 293 
 
 The discovery of gold and the rapid increase of popu- 
 lation that followed, brought new needs and American 
 energy to supply them. Provisions of all kinds reached 
 high prices. Some of those who came West to make their 
 fortunes soon saw that farming and the plying of trades 
 
 5 - 
 
 Vv*"' 
 
 ' ■ ,&i-*-i':-L- : ., >'• "" "".'. 
 
 : '• ■' \ $£$' " '. ' 
 
 T 
 
 ~i -."'-Sri..;.'^ 
 
 k^T^' 
 
 
 
 Fig. 238. 
 Under the Oaks at Monterey in mid-winter. 
 
 to meet local demands would be quite as profitable as 
 mining. The soil, which had at first been considered 
 almost worthless, was found to be enormously productive, 
 and where water could be supplied, suited to almost every 
 form of agriculture. 
 
 Labor-saving machinery for use in mining, in farming, 
 in fruit raising was introduced. Railroads were built 
 
294: CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 connecting the state with the older states on the Atlantic 
 Coast and in the Mississippi Valley. With the increase 
 of exports steamship lines were extended. As the demand 
 for California fruits, wines, produce, and grains increased, 
 more and more people came to the state to make their 
 homes. With the increase in population, an excellent 
 public school system was established (Figs. 240, 266). In all 
 
 Fig. 239. 
 La Grange Dam, source of supply of the Modesto-Turlock Irrigation Districts. 
 
 ways, California is now one of the most prosperous states 
 in the Union. 
 
 Agriculture. — Formerly, in California, agriculture meant 
 grain farming almost exclusively. In the great interior 
 valley, wheat was the principal crop because it could be 
 grown without irrigation and shipped by sailing vessels 
 to foreign markets at small cost. It is still one of the 
 most important crops ; but the building of extensive irri- 
 gation systems, the cutting up of the great land grants 
 into smaller farms, and the rapid improvement in the 
 means of transportation, have led. to the introduction of 
 many more profitable kinds of farming. All cereals, ex- 
 cept rice, are grown in the great valley and the bordering 
 
AGRICULTURE 
 
 295 
 
 Grammar School, Modesto. 
 
 High School, San Diego. 
 
 Fig. 240. 
 Typical school buildings. 
 
296 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 foothills. The annual value of the wheat, hay, and barley 
 crops of the state is more than $50,000,000, — more than 
 
 three times the 
 value of the 
 annual output 
 of its gold 
 mines. A trip 
 through the 
 grain region at 
 any time is full 
 of interest. In 
 the plowing 
 
 season, one sees 
 huge traction 
 engines drag- 
 ging long lines 
 of gang-plows, 
 turning up the 
 rich soil (Fig. 
 241), where six 
 months later 
 will wave the 
 ripening grain. 
 Then the same 
 engines may be 
 seen drawing 
 
 the combined harvesters, which cut, thresh, and sack the 
 grain, ready for delivery at the warehouses. 
 
 In the rich reclaimed lands in the delta region of the 
 San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, along the shores of 
 
 Fig. 241. 
 
 From seedtime to harvest in the grain region of the 
 
 great valley. 
 
FRUIT RAISING 
 
 297 
 
 San Francisco Bay, and in the productive irrigated region 
 near Los Angeles, truck farming and gardening are im- 
 portant industries. In these parts of the state may be 
 seen thousands of acres of potatoes, beans, and asparagus, 
 fields of onions, celery (Fig. 242), and other miscellaneous 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 •■ ' "' V '.:'■-.■ ■ -■ 
 
 
 
 
 : '- ' **'"'" 
 
 
 l# 
 
 
 ^ '%.„ ^teJ 
 
 
 * v . • ... r*" "i 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 
 1| 
 
 ? *% 
 
 
 ^%: 
 
 
 ..#" 
 
 ■,*," 
 
 
 ■ «;.'• - 
 
 
 m 9 
 
 
 Fig. 242. 
 Growing celery; Orange County. 
 
 vegetable crops, which not only supply the near-by cities, 
 but are shipped in large quantities to eastern markets. 
 
 The state excels in the production of sugar beets 
 (Fig. 251). Among other important farm crops are oats, 
 hops, alfalfa, rye, corn, and garden and flower seeds. 
 Flax, hemp, broom-corn, chicory, and peanuts are among 
 the minor crops. 
 
 Fruit Raising. — Fruit raising in California began to 
 grow in importance after the completion of the first over- 
 
298 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 land railroad in 1869. The invention and improvement 
 of the refrigerator car, by which fresh fruits can be sent 
 in perfect condition to such distant cities as New York 
 and Boston, have opened the markets of the Eastern states 
 to California fresh fruits. The fruits, fruit products, and 
 vegetables exported from the state increased from 100 car 
 
 Fig. 243. 
 One man plowing with " gang" plow and fourteen-horse team. 
 
 loads in 1871 to nearly 85,000 car loads in 1901. Year 
 by year, irrigation is increasing the area devoted to fruit 
 raising. 
 
 California is now the leading state in the production 
 of fruit. It produces 1 nine tenths of the oranges (Figs. 
 237, 245), four fifths of the figs, more than half of the 
 peaches, prunes (Fig. 265), plums, and grapes, and practi- 
 cally all the olives, lemons, apricots, raisins, English wal- 
 nuts, and almonds grown in the United States. Fruits 
 
 1 Census of 1900. 
 
STOCK RAISING 
 
 301 
 
 succeed at all altitudes, from the sea level up to 4000 or 
 5000 feet. Such semitropical fruits as the orange and the 
 fig are grown in the warm belt on the eastern side of the 
 great valley as far north as Redding, — 600 miles north of 
 Los Angeles, the center of the orange industry. The variety 
 
 Fig. 246. 
 
 Vacation at home on the farm. Write a composition on what this picture 
 
 reveals to you of home and farm life. 
 
 and quality of small fruits are unexcelled. Strawberries 
 may be had in the city markets eleven months in the year. 
 Stock Raising. — Recent years have witnessed many 
 important changes in the methods and results of breeding 
 and rearing domestic animals. Formerly the state con- 
 tained vast areas of uninclosed range lands, and the meth- 
 ods still followed in many of the Western states were the 
 methods of California. The results were a great num- 
 ber of half-wild animals, hardy, and able to take care of 
 
302 
 
 CALIFOENIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 . 
 
 ' ■■'.: , ..-, 
 
 
 < f ' l» fv -*• ""'1 IPWP 
 
 
 
 t 4A— 
 
 <mr *"" 
 
 Fig. 247. 
 A chicken ranch. Describe all you see in this picture. 
 
 themselves during favorable seasons, but suffering almost 
 to the extinction of entire herds in times' of drought and 
 during heavy snowstorms in the mountains. When ready 
 
 Fig. 248. 
 
 Creamery, Merced. 
 
 Tell the story of butter-making. 
 
STOCK RAISING 
 
 303 
 
 for the market such animals in favorable seasons were 
 worth only half what stock carefully bred and cared for 
 should bring. 
 
 The extending of irrigation on a large scale in many 
 parts of the state has resulted in bringing much of the 
 former cattle-range land under cultivation. Stock raising 
 
 Fig. 249. 
 A dairy ranch. Milking the cows out of doors in a corral. 
 
 is now becoming more and more a part of real farm work, 
 as it is in the Eastern states. Enterprising stockmen 
 are at work improving their herds by the importation of 
 blooded animals from the older states and from Europe, 
 with the result o£ greatly, increasing the value of the 
 stock products. 
 
 Cattle raising is the most important division of the 
 stock industry. In 1899 there were in California nearly 
 1,500,000 head of cattle, including dairy herds. The 
 greater number of these are raised on the larger ranges, 
 
304 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 being driven into the mountains in summer and pastured 
 on the pasture-lands and stubble-fields of the lowlands dur- 
 ing winter. Smaller herds are found on most of the farms 
 of the state. Dairying (Fig. 249) is an important and 
 
 
 
 
 ■ V' 
 
 i^ l ***^ 
 
 -., 
 
 •4k -WarT^ *~" - 1 
 
 F • •■ 
 
 Ssbs^-*" 
 
 asiafe^ | HraBt^'"" ■ v 
 
 a tU 
 
 ^^^^^' ,,,,. 
 
 " ; ^S 
 
 $* f .f "'^awww^ 
 
 ^MITW ® 
 
 -^-r : ■ 
 
 .* 
 
 Fig. 250. 
 View in the Los Angeles Oil District. Oil is a cheap and convenient fuel, 
 and its discovery in large quantities has been of the greatest importance 
 in manufacturing. 
 
 growing industry. This is especially true near the larger 
 cities, in the plateau counties of the northeastern part of 
 the state, and throughout the coast region. 
 
 The breeding of fine horses and mules (p. 224) is another 
 important branch of the animal industry, and California 
 thoroughbreds now command good prices in eastern mar- 
 
MANUFA CTUIUNG 
 
 305 
 
 kets. More than 2,500,000 sheep share, with the other 
 animals mentioned, the pasturage of the state, produc- 
 ing annually, besides other valuable products, more than 
 13,000,000 pounds of wool. Swine in large numbers are 
 raised in many parts of the state. Poultry and poultry 
 
 Fig. 251. 
 Sugar factory at Oxuard. 
 
 products are rapidly increasing in importance (Fig. 247). 
 Ostriches are raised for their feathers on the celebrated 
 ostrich- farms near Los Angeles and at San Jose and 
 Sacramento. 
 
 Manufacturing. — Although California is principally an 
 agricultural state, manufactures are of growing impor- 
 tance. The state produces a great amount of raw mate- 
 rials of many kinds, and is well supplied with steam and 
 electric railroads and steamship lines for shipping prod- 
 ucts. The position of the state on the west coast of the 
 
806 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 United States gives control of much of the growing trade 
 with countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean. Manufac- 
 turing in California has been kept back for many years 
 because of the high price of fuel used for running 
 machinery. 
 
 
 y irfP"*?* 
 
 
 r^s— 
 
 i 
 
 "*^"~:— • __ 4%\-- : ; 
 
 Fig. 252. 
 Standard oil refinery — Point Richmond. 
 
 This need for cheap fuel has been met during the last 
 few years, however, by the finding of great quantities of 
 petroleum, which is even better than coal for many uses. 
 Natural gas has also been found in considerable quanti- 
 ties, and the use of electricity has further helped to solve 
 the question of cheap power. Now electricity can be 
 cheaply generated by water power in the mountains. By 
 
M A N UFA CTURING 
 
 307 
 
 means of wires it is taken to cities a hundred miles or more 
 away to run street cars, light the streets and houses, and 
 furnish power for manufacturing. One of the longest 
 electric power lines in the world runs from Colgate in 
 the Sierras to San Francisco, a distance of 212 miles. 
 
 Fig. 253. 
 
 Miners ready to go down into a deep mine. Tesla mine near Stockton. 
 Notice each miner has a candle in his hand. 
 
 Among the more important manufactures which de- 
 pend upon agriculture are flour, canned and dried fruits 
 and vegetables, wines and raisins from grapes, malt 
 liquors from barley, dairy products such as butter, 
 cheese, and condensed milk, refined sugar, and agri- 
 
308 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 cultural implements. In addition to these the man- 
 ufacture of lumber, ships, boats, and barges, mining 
 machinery, railway and street cars, explosives, furniture, 
 clothing, woolen goods, leather, and glassware is impor- 
 
 
 • .Is. * M 
 
 Wk 
 
 
 i 
 
 ,;:,-■ ,4*; *#""* : -^H 
 
 
 
 
 
 ll 
 
 l IBBrftr* ^^bj 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 1 * 'V '*^B 
 
 f 
 
 Fjg. 254. 
 
 Miners at work in a gold mine hundreds of feet below the surface. Describe 
 
 what you see in this picture. 
 
 taut. Large manufacturing interests are generally found 
 in the larger cities and towns, especially those that have 
 cheap power and good railroad or water connections. 
 
 Mining. — The discovery of gold in 1848 first drew the 
 attention of the world to California. The gravel along 
 the streams of the gold-producing sections has practi- 
 cally all been turned over in search of the precious metal. 
 
MINING 
 
 309 
 
 When the supply from this source began to fail, quartz 
 mining began, and it is still one of the most important 
 industries. Gold is found in most parts of the state, but 
 the most important gold deposits are in the Sierra region 
 and in the northern Coast Range. Silver is found in the 
 
 Fig. 255. 
 Gold dredger, on the American River, near Folsom. 
 
 eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in the Shasta 
 region, and in the southern part of the state. 
 
 Copper mining is very important. The most valuable 
 copper mines are in the Shasta country. Quicksilver is 
 found throughout the Coast Ranges. Other important 
 minerals are coal, soda, asphaltum, salt, pottery clays, and 
 borax. Of special importance is petroleum, found in 
 
810 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 great quantities in the southern part of the San Joaquin 
 Valley and in the southern part of the state. Building 
 stone, including granite, sandstone, limestone, onyx, and 
 marble, is quarried in many places. 
 
 Lumbering. — In the regions of heavy rainfall in the 
 Coast Ranges and in the Sierras are some of the grandest 
 
 Fig. 25G. 
 Lumber scene. 
 
 forests of cone-bearing trees in the world. The largest of 
 these are the giant sequoias, found on the western slopes 
 of the Sierras. Some of these measure more than 30 feet 
 in diameter and 325 feet in height. John Muir estimates 
 the age of some of the largest of these trees at 5000 years. 
 The redwood found in the coast region, from near the 
 
FISHERIES 
 
 311 
 
 Oregon line south to Santa Cruz, is another sequoia of 
 wonderful size and beauty and is the most important lum- 
 ber tree of the state. Besides these the yellow pine, 
 sugar-pine, silver fir, Douglas spruce, and incense cedar 
 are valuable lumber trees. The sawmills are usually 
 located in the high mountains. The lumber is floated 
 down to the railroad or coast in long flumes or hauled by 
 teams or traction engines. 
 
 Fig 257. 
 Hauling logs from the forest to the sawmill, Humboldt County. 
 
 Fisheries. — The number and variety of fine food fishes 
 found in California are almost without limit. With the 
 present population of the state the supply far exceeds the 
 demand. The more important salt-water fishes include 
 the salmon, halibut, cod, rock-cod, sea-bass, tuna, yellow- 
 tail, flounder, smelt, tomcod, herring, and many others. 
 The native fishes taken in fresh waters are the salmon, 
 steelhead, and several varieties of trout. Many valuable 
 food fishes have been transplanted from eastern waters. 
 Among these are the striped bass, shad, black bass, and 
 two kinds of catfish. 
 
312 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 The shellfish of importance are the native oyster, 
 abalone, mussel, and clams of several varieties. Eastern 
 oysters are planted in San Francisco Bay and do well. 
 Crabs of several species, the shrimp, and a large lobster- 
 like crawfish are also found in the waters of the ocean and 
 
 
 ;■ • . in 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 y 
 
 & 
 
 
 ~ '-^■ :y ~^ir^ --- 
 
 %z 
 
 !■■- ^_-:2^ 
 
 " -^ki 
 
 
 Fig. 258. 
 Shipping sceue, Brooklyn Basin, Oakland Harbor. 
 
 bays. San Francisco is the leading whaling port of the 
 world. 
 
 Commerce. — The extensive commerce of the state de- 
 pends upon its railroads, steamship lines (Fig. 225), and 
 navigable inland waters, and the very great number and 
 importance of its products. Through railroads it is con- 
 nected with the eastern United States, to which it ships 
 large quantities of fresh, dried, and canned fruits, wine, 
 vegetables, nuts, sugar, and wool, and from which it re- 
 ceives many manufactures. The steamship lines connect 
 it with the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, China, the Philip- 
 pines, Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific ports from 
 
CITIES 
 
 313 
 
 Alaska to Chile. Throughout the year steamers ply the 
 San Joaquin River between San Francisco and Stockton ; 
 the Sacramento between San Francisco and the capital 
 city of the state. The leading foreign exports are wheat, 
 
 Fig. 259. 
 Ferry Building, San Francisco, from the bay, showing ferryboats. 
 
 flour, fruits, and wine. The chief imports are tea, coffee, 
 sugar, rice, coal, and manufactured articles. 
 
 Cities. — San Francisco is the largest city and prin- 
 cipal seaport of the Pacific coast. It is situated on a 
 peninsula south of the Golden Gate, and its hilltops over- 
 look the busy harbor. It is the key to the foreign com- 
 merce not only of California, but to much of that of the 
 Eastern states as well. Its manufactures are of great 
 and growing importance. Its shipyards rank with those 
 of the Atlantic seaboard. Some of the great battleships 
 and cruisers of the United States navy were built here. 
 Among its important manufactures are mining machin- 
 
314 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 ery, flour, refined sugar, malt liquors, leather, canned and 
 preserved fruits, soap and candles, boots, shoes, and cloth- 
 ing. Among its points of interest are the United States 
 Mint, the Presidio and other military posts, the State Min- 
 ing Bureau, Hopkins Art Gallery, the Museum of the 
 Academy of Sciences, and the Park Museum. Golden 
 Gate Park (p. 66) has an area of nearly two square miles, 
 and contains a very large collection of trees and other 
 plants from all parts of the world. 
 
 Los Angeles, the second city in size and importance, 
 is the county seat of Los Angeles County, and the center 
 of the great orange industry of the southern part of the 
 state. Its fine climate and orange groves make it a favor- 
 ite resort .for tourists during all seasons of the year. Al- 
 though twenty-five miles from the coast, good railway 
 (p. 97) connections make it an important port of entry. 
 Other things that contribute to the growth and wealth 
 of Los Angeles are its olives, deciduous fruits, and truck 
 farm and vineyard products. Its manufacturing interests 
 have increased since the discovery of petroleum (Fig. 250) 
 in and near the city. 
 
 Oakland (p. 118), the county seat of Alameda County, 
 is closely connected with San Francisco by means of 
 ferries and local trains (Fig. 259 and p. 98). Many 
 people living in Oakland have their business in San 
 Francisco, and great ferryboats run between the two 
 cities at intervals of fifteen minutes for the greater part 
 of the day. The city has a very pleasant climate, good 
 schools, and other features which make it a favorite place 
 of residence. Its commercial and manufacturing inter- 
 ests are important. Oakland has grown rapidly in recent 
 years. 
 
CITIES 315 
 
 Sacramento is the capital of California and the county 
 seat of Sacramento County. It is an important railroad 
 center and is located on the navigable Sacramento River. 
 It is the center of the early fruit district and a shipping 
 point for grains, produce, and orchard fruits. Flour and 
 
 Fig. 260. 
 Curing prunes in the sun near San Jose, in the Santa Clara Valley. 
 
 agricultural implements are important manufactures, and 
 railway cars are built and repaired. The capitol is a 
 building of great beauty and is surrounded by a large and 
 beautiful park of about thirty-five acres. 
 
 San Jose is the county seat of Santa Clara County, and 
 the chief city of the rich Santa Clara Valley (Figs. 260-5). 
 
316 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 It owes its importance to the immense fruit product of the 
 surrounding region. Its natural beauty of surroundings 
 and fine climate make it popular as a place of residence. 
 The famous Lick Observatory is near by, on the summit of 
 Mt. Hamilton, and can be plainly seen and easily reached 
 from San Jose. The Leland Stanford Junior University 
 is at Palo Alto, eighteen miles northwest. 
 
 Fig. 261. 
 San Diego Harbor. 
 
 San Diego, in the extreme south, is located on San 
 Diego Bay (Fig. 261), one of the best harbors on the 
 coast. The city is important as a shipping point for! 
 oranges, lemons, apples, and honey. Its particularly fine 
 climate makes it a noted winter resort. 
 
 Stockton is situated at the head of tide-water naviga- 
 tion, on the San Joaquin River. Near the city are the 
 rich reclaimed peat lands of the San Joaquin delta. It is 
 the center of an important truck farming, grain, dairying, 
 vineyard, and orchard region. By reason of its excellent 
 railroad and water connections, it is an important shipping 
 point. Its manufactures are important, including com- 
 
CITIES 
 
 317 
 
 bined harvesters, traction engines, dredging machinery, 
 flour, window glass, coal briquettes, leather, and woolen 
 goods. The Tesla mines of coal, clay, manganese, glass 
 sand, and limestone in the Coast Range are connected with 
 the city by rail. (Figs. 236, 241, 253.) 
 
 Fig. 262. 
 Harvesting the grape crop. 
 
 Alameda is situated on the eastern side of San Fran- 
 cisco Bay, and like Oakland has good ferry connections 
 with San Francisco. It is chiefly a residence city for San 
 Francisco business men. 
 
 Berkeley, on the bay shore north of Oakland, is the 
 seat of the University of California, and also of the State 
 
318 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind (p. 108) » It 
 is an attractive residence town and has important manu- 
 factures. 
 
 Fresno, the county seat of Fresno County, in the south- 
 central part of the San Joaquin Valley, is an important 
 
 Fig. 263. 
 
 Upper picture — University of California, Berkeley. 
 
 Lower picture — Leland Stanford Jr. University. 
 
 fruit center. It is especially noted for the quantity of 
 fine raisins annually produced. (Fig. 262.) 
 
 Other important and growing towns are Pasadena, a 
 residence town and health resort in the southern orange 
 belt]" Riverside, the county seat of Riverside County, 
 where oranges were first grown in considerable quantities.; 
 
CITIES— REVIEW QUESTIONS 319 
 
 Vallejo, in Solano County, with the United States Navy- 
 yard and manufactures of importance ; Eureka, on Hum- 
 boldt Bay, the outlet of the northern redwood belt ; Santa 
 Rosa, Sonoma County, the principal- city of the Russian 
 River region ; Santa Barbara, a famous coast resort, the 
 county seat of Santa Barbara County ; San Bernardino, 
 noted for its artesian wells, vineyards, and orange groves ; 
 Santa Cruz, at the entrance of Monterey Bay, a summer 
 resort. 
 
 Review Questions. — (1) Is California principally lowland or 
 mountainous? (2) Where are the principal mountains ? (3) Name 
 and locate the principal lowland regions. (4) What is said of the 
 different kinds of climate in California? (5) Is rainfall heavier in 
 the northern or southern portion? (6) Is it heavier in the lowlands 
 or mountains? Why? (7) What kind of climate is required for 
 oranges, figs, and olives? (8) Name the navigable rivers of the 
 state. (9) Why are smaller streams important? (10) What are 
 the chief industries of the state? (11) Name the principal field crop. 
 (12) Name other important field crops. (13) Name the principal 
 fruit crops. (14) Tell about stock raising. (15) What has prevented 
 extensive manufacturing in California? (16) What recent discov- 
 eries have helped manufacturing? (17) Name the principal manu- 
 factures that depend upon agriculture. (18) What is the most 
 important mineral product of the state? (19) Name other im- 
 portant mineral products. (20) In what regions is each found? 
 (21) Where are the forest regions of the state ? (22) Where is the 
 redwood found? The giant sequoia? (23) What are other impor- 
 tant lumber trees? (24) Tell about the fisheries of California. 
 (25) Which of the fishes mentioned have you seen? (26)- What 
 are some of the things that help commerce ? (27) Name important 
 exports of California; imports. (28) Name, in order of size, the 
 ten largest cities of California. (29) For what is each noted? 
 
 General Questions. — (1) Where does the water of California 
 rivers come from? (2) What keeps water in the largest streams in 
 dry seasons ? (3) From where did the deep rich soil of the lowlands 
 come? (4) How was it brought? (5) Can you think of a reason 
 
320 
 
 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 why the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers are nearer to the Coast 
 Range than to the Sierra Nevada Mountains? (6) Why are there 
 few bays on the coast? (7) Give reasons why San Francisco 
 became the most important city. (8) How are fresh fruits shipped 
 to Eastern states ? (9) Why are there no great forests in the lowland 
 region of the state? (10) How is water power in the mountains 
 made useful in the valley and coast regions ? 
 
 Suggestions. — Discuss with classes the importance of irrigation. 
 How does it increase the number, size, and variety of crops ? 
 
 Irrigation from streams ; from artesian wells ; from deep wells by 
 engines or windmills ; through flood gates in levees. Discuss also the 
 native plants and animals, especially those of local interest and those 
 which are noted outside of the state. Read and discuss selections from 
 John Muir's "Mountains of California" and " Our National Parks " 
 on such subjects as the Yosemite, giant sequoias, redwoods, mountain 
 storms, deer, bear, Douglas squirrel, etc. Make a study with children 
 of some of the wild flowers and trees and shrubs of the immediate 
 neighborhood of the school. 
 
 Fig. 264. 
 Interior of Sutter's Fort, Sacramento. 
 
CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT APPENDIX 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION 
 
 Area, 158,360 square miles. Population (1900), 1,485,053. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 (California State Board of Trade Report, 1909) 
 
 Orchard Products : — 
 
 Fresh deciduous fruits $12,306,400 
 
 Citrus fruits 23,545,400 
 
 Dried fruits other than prunes and raisins . . 11,973,060 
 
 Prunes 2,500,000 
 
 Cannedifruits . 15,624,387 
 
 Olives and olive oil . . . .... . 1,850,000 
 
 Nuts 2,360,000 
 
 Vineyard products : — 
 
 Table grapes 3,816,000 
 
 Raisins . . . . . . . . . 3,600,000 
 
 Wine 15,687,500 
 
 Brandy 1,750,000 
 
 Farm products : — 
 
 Barley . 26,841,394 
 
 Wheat . . . . . . . 18.894,961 
 
 Oats . . . . . . . . . 6,527,140 
 
 Corn 1,146,449 
 
 Rye and other grain 448,180 
 
 Other field crops : — 
 
 Beet sugar 7,460,975 
 
 Potatoes, Irish and sweet . . . . . . 5,779,145 
 
 Beans 6,493,650 
 
 Onions 980,000 
 
 Hops . . . 1,052,280 
 
 Seeds, Melons, etc 1,600,000 
 
 Other products : — 
 
 Vegetables, fresh and canned . . . . . 8,257,912 
 
 Butter, cheese, etc 25,224,150 
 
 Poultry and eggs 12,559,738 
 
 Pish and game . 5,500,000 
 
 • Porest products ' 23,775,027 
 
 Petroleum 28,980,454 
 
 Gold 16,727,928 
 
 Copper 6,341,387 
 
 Cement and others . . . . . . . 15,844,691 
 
 Farm animals and products, wool, hides, etc. . . 30,762,150 
 
 ... . $346,210,358 
 
 321 
 
 Grand total 
 

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INDEX TO CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT 
 
 Almonds, 298. 
 
 Agriculture, 294-297. 
 
 Alameda, 317. 
 
 Alaska, 313. 
 
 Alfalfa, 297. 
 
 American River, 309, Fig. 255. 
 
 Apricots, 298. 
 
 Area, 285. 
 
 Asparagus, 297. 
 
 Asphaltum, 309. 
 
 Atlantic Coast, 294. 
 
 Australia, 312. 
 
 Barley, 290, 307. 
 Beans, 297. 
 Beets, 297. 
 
 Berkeley, 317, Fig. 203. 
 Bodie, 2S5, Fig. A. 
 Borax, 309. 
 Boston, 298. 
 Broom-corn, 297. 
 Building materials, 310. 
 Butter, 307. 
 
 California— extent, 285 ; relief, 
 285 ; drainage. 287 ; climate, 
 288 ; industrial development, 
 291; agriculture. 294; fruit 
 raising, 297 ; stock raising, 301 ; 
 manufacturing, 305 ; mining. 
 308 ; lumbering, 310 : fisheries, 
 311 ; commerce, 312 ; cities, 313. 
 
 Capitol, 279. Fig. 226. 
 
 Carquinez, Strait of, 287. 
 
 Cattle, 292. 
 
 Cedar, 311. 
 
 Celery. 297. Fig. 242. 
 
 Cheese, 307. 
 
 Chicken ranch, 302, Fig. 247. 
 
 Chicory. 297. 
 
 Chile, 313. 
 
 China, 312. 
 
 Cities, 313-319. 
 
 Clays, pottery. 309. 
 
 Climate, 288-291. 
 
 Coal, 309, Fig. 253. 
 
 Coast ranges, 285, 286, 288, 289, 
 309, 310. 
 
 Colgate, 307. 
 
 Colorado Desert, 288, Fig. 233. 
 
 Commerce, 312-313. 
 
 Condensed milk, 307. 
 
 Copper, 309. 
 
 Corn, 297. 
 
 Creamery, 302, Fig. 248. 
 
 Dairying, 304, Fig. 249. 
 Dairy products, 307. 
 Douglas spruce, 311. 
 Drainage, 287-288. 
 
 Eel (river), 287. 
 Electricity, 306. 
 Elevation of surface, 285. 
 English walnuts, 298. 
 Eureka (rainfall), 290. 
 Exports, 298, 312-313. 
 
 Factories — ereamerv, 302, Fig. 
 
 24S ; oil refinery, 306, Fig. 252 ; 
 
 sawmill, 311, Fig. 257 ; sugar 
 
 refinery, 305, Fig. 251. 
 Farm animals, 301. 
 Farm life, 301, Figs. 243, 246. 
 Farm products, 297. 
 Ferries, 313, Fig. 259; 317. 
 Figs, 292, 298. 
 Fir, 311. 
 
 Fisheries, 311, 312. 
 Flax. 297. 
 Flour, 307. 
 
 Folsom, 309, Fig. 255. 
 Forests, 310. 
 Forts, 320, Fig. 264. 
 Fresno, 318. 
 Fruit farm, 322, Figs. 235, 237, 
 
 245, 260, 265. 
 Fruit raising, 297. 
 Fruits, 298. 307, 312. 
 Fuels, 306. 
 
 Gold, 293, 30S. 309, Fig. 255. 
 Golden Gate, 313. 
 Grains, 294, 296, Fig. 241. 
 Granite, 310. 
 
 323. 
 
324 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Grapes, 292, 298, 307, Fig. 2(52. 
 
 Harbors, 286, 316, Fig. 261. 
 
 Harvesting, 296, Fig. 241. 
 
 Hawaiian Islands, 312. 
 
 Hay, 296. 
 
 Health resorts — San Diego, 316 ; 
 Pasadena, 318 ; Santa Barbara, 
 319; Santa Cruz, 319. 
 
 Hemp, 297. 
 
 Hopkins Art Gallery, 314. 
 
 Hops, 297. 
 
 Horses, 304. 
 
 Humboldt Bay, 286. 
 
 Imports, 313. 
 Incense cedar, 311. 
 'Indians, 350, Fig. 208. 
 Industrial development, 291-294. 
 Industrial education, 326, Fig. 266. 
 Industries, 291. 
 Institution for the Deaf. Dumb, 
 
 and Blind, 318. 
 Irrigation, 294, 297, 303. 
 
 Japan, 312. 
 
 Klamath (river), 288. 
 
 La Grange Dam, 294, Fig. 239. 
 
 Lake Tahoe, 288. ■ 
 
 Leland Stanford Junior Univer- 
 sity, 316, 318, Fig. 263. 
 
 Lemons, 298. 
 
 Lick Observatory, 316. 
 
 Limestone, 310. 
 
 Los Angeles, 286, 297, 301, Fig. 
 250, 314. 
 
 Lumbering, 310, 311, Figs. 250-7. 
 
 Malt liquors, 307. 
 
 Manufacturing, 305-308. 
 
 Marble, 310. 
 
 Merced, 302, Fig. 24S. 
 
 Mineral products. 308-310. 
 
 Mines — coal, clay, manganese, 
 
 glass sand, limestone, 317. 
 Mining, 308, Figs. 253-254. 
 Mississippi Valley, 294. 
 
 Modesto Grammar School, 295, 
 Fig. 240. 
 
 Modesto-Turlock Irrigation Dis- 
 tricts, 294, Fig. 239. 
 
 Mono County, 285, Fig. A. 
 
 Monterey, 293, Fig. 238. 
 
 Mountains, 2S5. Fig. 232. 
 
 Mt. Hamilton, 316. 
 
 Muir, John, 310. 
 
 Museum of the Academy of 
 Sciences, 314. 
 
 Napa Valley, 286. 
 Natural gas, 306. 
 Nevada. 288. 
 New York, 298. 
 New Zealand, 312. 
 
 Oakland, 314, 317, Fig. 258. 
 
 Oak trees, 293, Fig. 238. 
 
 Oats, 297. 
 
 Oil, 304, Fig. 250 ; 306, Fig. 252. 
 
 Olives, 292, 298. 
 
 Onions. 297. 
 
 Onyx, 310. 
 
 Orange groves. 290, Fig. 235 ; 292, 
 
 Fig. 237, 300. Fig. 245. 
 Oranges, 298. 301. 
 Ostriches, 305. 
 Oxnard, 305, Fig. 251. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, 287, 288, 289, 306. 
 
 Palo Alto, 316. 
 
 Park Museum, 314. 
 
 Pasadena, 318. 
 
 Peaches, 298. 
 
 Peanuts, 297. 
 
 Petroleum, 306, 309. 
 
 Philippines, 312. 
 
 Pine, 311. 
 
 Pioneers. 332, Fig. 207. 
 
 Plums, 298. 
 
 Point Richmond, 306, Fig. 252. 
 
 Potatoes, 297. 
 
 Poultry, 305. Fig. 247. 
 
 Products of the soil, 296-301. 
 
 Prunes, 298, 315. Fig. 260; 
 
 (orchard) 322, Fig. 265. 
 Puget Sound, 289. 
 
INDEX 
 
 325 
 
 Quartz, 300. 
 Quicksilver, 300. 
 
 Railroads, 20S. Fig. 225. 
 
 Rainfall, 2S0-201. 
 
 Raisins, 208, 307, Fig. 202. 
 
 Red Bluff (rainfall), 201. 
 
 Redding, 301. 
 
 Redlands, 300, Fig. 245. 
 
 Redwood, 310. 
 
 Redwoods (trees), 28G, Fig. 231; 
 
 310. 
 Refineries— oil, 304, Fig. 250; 
 
 sugar, 305, Fig. 251; 306, Fig. 
 
 252. 
 Rice, 204. 
 
 Richmond, 306, Fig. 252. 
 Rivers, 286-28^. 
 Riverside, 318, Fig. 237. 
 Russian River, 286, 310. 
 Rye, 207. 
 
 Sacramento (city). 305, 315; 
 (rainfall), 201; (river), 287, 
 
 288, 313; (valley), 285, Fig. 
 
 264. 
 Salinas (river), 287; (valley), 
 ' 286. 
 
 Salt, 300, Fig. 233. 
 Salton, 288, Fig. 233. 
 San Bernardino (mountains), 300, 
 
 Fig. 245; (city), 310. 
 San Diego (bay) , 286, 316 ; (city) , 
 i 316; (harbor), 316, Fig. 261; 
 
 (rainfall), 200; (school), 205. 
 
 Figs. 240, 266. , ~ ■ J -. - . 
 
 Sandstone, 310. 
 San Francisco (bay), 286/287, 
 
 200, 207, 312; (city), 287, 307, 
 
 313; (port), 312; (rainfall), 
 
 200, Fig. 250. 
 San Joaquin (river), 287, 288, 
 
 206, 313, 316; (valley), 285, 
 
 310. 
 San Jose, 305, 315, Figs. 260, 265. 
 Santa Barbara, 310. 
 Santa Clara (river), 287; (val- 
 ley), 286, 315, Figs. 260, 265. 
 Santa Cruz, 311, 310. 
 Santa Maria (river), 287. 
 
 Santa Rosa, 310. 
 
 Sawmills, 311. 
 
 Schools, 204, 205, Fig. 240; 
 (special), 326, Fig. 266. 
 
 Seeds, 207. 
 
 Sequoias, 310, 311. 
 
 Shasta, 300. 
 
 Sheep, 305. 
 
 Sierra Nevada Mountains, 285, 
 286, 287, Fig. 232; 201, 307, 
 300, 310. 
 
 Silver, 300. 
 
 Silver fir, 311. 
 
 Soda, 300. 
 
 Sonoma County, 286, Fig. 231. 
 
 Spruce, 311. 
 
 State institutions — capitol, Fig- 
 226; Institution for Deaf, 
 Dumb, and Blind, 318 ; Military, 
 314 ; Mining Bureau, 314 ; State 
 Normal School, 326, Fig. 26(5; 
 University of California, 317, 
 318, Fig. 263. 
 
 Stock farm, 303. Fig. 240. 
 
 Stock raising, 301-304. 
 
 Stockton, 313, 316, Figs. 236, 253. 
 
 Strawberries, 301. 
 
 Sugar, 305, Fig. 251; 307. 
 
 Sugar beets, 207. 
 
 Sugar pine, 311. 
 
 Swine, 305. , 
 
 Tahoe, Lake, 288. 
 Trees, 311. 
 
 United States institutions— mint, 
 
 314; navy yard, 310. 
 University of California, 317, 31S, 
 
 Fig. 263. 
 
 Vallejo, 310. 
 
 Valleys, 285, 286, 201, 204. 
 
 Vegetables, 307. 
 
 Visalia (rainfall), 201. 
 
 Walnuts, English, 208. ' 
 
 Wheat, 204, 206. 
 
 Wines, 204, 307. 
 
 Yellow pine, 311. 
 
 Yosemite Valley, 280, Fig. 234. 
 
Home economics — Santa Barbara schools. Davis University farm. 
 
 Cooking school — San Diego State Normal. 
 
 Fig 266. 
 
 Industrial Education. 
 
BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1 
 
 McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, 
 Mass. ; A. B. C, American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C, Silver, Burdett & 
 Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. ; E. P. C, Educa- 
 tional Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. ; Scribner, Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
 York. 
 
 Methods, Aids, etc. 
 
 . Geikie, "The Teaching of Geography" (McM., $0.60); King, 
 "Methods and Aids in Geography" (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $1.20) ; 
 Parker, " How to study Geography" (D. Appleton & Co., New York, 
 $1.50) ; Nichols, " Topics in Geography " (Heath, $0.65) ; Trotter, 
 " Lessons in the New Geography" (Heath, $1.00) ; McMurry, " Spe- 
 cial Method in Geography " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- 
 ton, 111., $0.50) ; McCormick, " Suggestions on Teaching Geography " 
 (same publisher, $0.50); Frye, "The Child and Nature" (Ginn, 
 $0.80) ; Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods in Geography " (Ginn, 
 $0.50); Redway, "Manual of Geography" (Heath, $0.65); McCor- 
 mick, " Practical Work in Geography" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 111., 
 $0.80). 
 
 Journal of School Geography (R. E. Dodge, Teachers College, 
 Columbia University, New York City, $1.00 per year) ; " The States- 
 man's Year Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. 
 (McM, $3.00) ; Ritter, "Comparative Geography" (A. B. C, $1.00) ; 
 
 1 These references are not intended to be exhaustive, but, rather, sug- 
 gestive. Most, if not all, are to first-class sources. The attempt has been 
 to make few references, assuming that the teacher will have others in mind. 
 While there may seem to be many here, a careful examination will reveal the 
 fact that really few books are referred to. Some of those mentioned at the 
 end of Part I will be found useful for Part II also, 
 v 327 
 
328 REFERENCES 
 
 Shaler, " Nature and Man in America " (Scribner, $1.50) ; Guyot, 
 " Earth and Man " (Scribner, $ 1.75) ; Chanrplin, " Cyclopedia of Com- 
 mon Things " (H. Holt & Co., New York, $2.50) ; Champlin, " Cyclo- 
 pedia of Persons and Places" (same publisher, $2.50) ; Murche, 
 " Science Readers " (McM., I and II, $0.25 each, III and IV, $0.40, 
 each, V and VI, $0.50 each) ; Lange, " Handbook of Nature Study " 
 (McM., $1.00) ; Yonge, "Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe " (McM., 
 $0.50); Strong, "All the Year Round" (Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 
 each) ; Carpenter, " Geographical Readers " (A. B. C, Vol. II, Asia, 
 $0.60; volume on North America, $0.60);" Guyot, "Geographical 
 Reader" (A. B. C, $0.60); Chisholm, "Commercial Geography" 
 (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.00) ; Mill, "General Geogra- 
 phy " (McM., $0.90) ; Lyde, " Man and His Markets " (McM., $0.50) ; 
 Herbertson, " Man and His Work " (McM., $0.60) ; Pratt, " American 
 History Stories " (E. P. C, four volumes, $0.36 each) ; Pratt, "Stories 
 of Colonial Children " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Shaler, " First Book in 
 Geology ". (Heath, $9.60); Davis, "Physical Geography" (Ginn, 
 $1.25) ; Tarr, " Elementary Physical Geography " (McM., $1.40). 
 
 Section I. Form and Size of the Earth. — Andrews, "Seven Little 
 Sisters," section on "The Ball Itself." (Ginn, $0.50) ; Irving, "Life 
 and Voyages of Christopher Columbus " (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New 
 York, $1.75) ; " Columbus," by Tennyson D'Anvers, " Science Lad- 
 ders," Vol. I (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
 edge," section on "The Great Globe Itself" (McM., $1.10); Ritter, 
 "Comparative Geography," First Part (A. B. C, $1.00). 
 
 Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results. — Redway, 
 " Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65) ; " Daybreak " 
 (poem), Longfellow. 
 
 Section III. The Zones. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
 and Adventure," section on " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C, $0.50) ; 
 Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," 
 "Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister," and "How Agoonack Lives" (Ginn, 
 $0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
 Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, 
 $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, 
 Part 2 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 
 
 Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Results. — Tarr, "First 
 Book of Physical Geography," Chapters I (p. 8), XIX, and XX 
 
REFERENCES 329 
 
 (McM., $1.10) ; Trotter, " Lessons in the New Geography," pp. 16-17 
 (Heath, $1.00); Redway, "Manual of Geography," Chapter VII 
 (Heath, -$0.65) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," section on 
 " Volcanoes " (McM., $0.50) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- 
 edge," Chapter XI (McM., $1.10) ; Kelly, " Leaves from Nature's 
 Story Book," Vol. Ill, " The Records of the Rocks " (E. P. C, $0.40). 
 
 Section V. The Continents and Oceans. — Andrews, " Seven Little 
 Sisters" (Ginn, $0.50); Ballou, "Footprints of Travel" (Ginn, 
 $1.00); Gee, "Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," Chapter IV, 
 "The Sea" (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's Story 
 Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E. P. C, 
 $0.40) ; Shaler, " The Story of our Continent," section on " Coral 
 Reefs " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., 
 $1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E. P. 
 C, $0.40). Poems: Shelley, "A Vision of the Sea"; Longfellow, 
 " The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hespe- 
 rus"; Holmes, " The Chambered Nautilus"; Byron, "The Ocean." 
 
 Section VI. Maps. — For References, see bottom of page 117. 
 
 Section VII. North America. — Shaler, "The Story of Our Conti- 
 nent" (Ginn, $0.75) ; Lyde, "North America" (McM., $0.50) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- 
 ard, Boston, $0.72). 
 
 Section VIII. The United States. — Brooks, "Century Book for 
 Young Americans" (The Century Co., New York, $1.50); Brooks, 
 " The Story of the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., 
 Boston, $1.50) ; Channing, " Students' History of the United States " 
 (McM., $1.40) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters I and XXV 
 (Ginn, $1.00) ; Gannet, " The United States," Stanford's Com- 
 pendium of Geography (Scribner, $4.50) ; King, " The Picturesque 
 Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72) ; 
 "Our Country" (poem), Holmes. 
 
 Section IX. New England. — Eggleston, " Stories of American Life 
 and Adventure," " Stories of Whaling " and " A Whaling Song " (A. 
 B. C, $0.50) ; Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book I, 
 " Granite," " Marble," and " Slate " ; Book II, " Cotton Manufactur- 
 ing" and " Lumbering " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, each $0.50); Chase 
 and Clow, "Stories of Industry," Vol. I, "Lumbering," "Ship Build- 
 ing," " Marble and Granite," " Slate and Brick " ; Vol. II, " Manufac- 
 
330 REFERENCES 
 
 taring," " Fisheries," and " Whaling " (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books 
 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56) ; Wilson, " Nature Study in 
 Elementary Schools," Second Reader, " The Tree," by Bjornson 
 (McM., $0.35). Poems : Whittier, " Mogg Megone " ; " Peutucket " ; 
 " The Bridal of Pennacook "; " The Merrimack " ; "The Norsemen"; 
 Longfellow, " The Woods in Winter " ; " The Building of the Ship " ; 
 " The River Charles " ; Emerson, " Boston." 
 
 Section X. Middle Atlantic States. — Chase and Clow, " Stories of 
 Industry," Vol. I and Vol. II, various stories on Iron, Coal, Mining, 
 Manufacturing, Farming, etc. (E. P. C, each $0.40) ; Rochelean, 
 " Great American Industries," Book I, sections on " Coal Mining," 
 " Natural Gas," " Petroleum," and " Iron " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
 $0.50) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," sec- 
 tion on " A Story of Niagara " (A. B. C, $0.50) ; King, " The Pictur- 
 esque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & 
 Shepard, Boston, each $0.56). 
 
 Section XI. The Southern States. — Rocheleau, " Great American 
 Industries," Book II, section on " Cotton and Sugar" (A. Flanagan, 
 Chicago, $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," 
 Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). 
 
 Section XII. The Central States. — Garland, " Boy Life on the 
 Prairie" (McM., $1.50); McMurry, "Pioneer Stories of the Missis- 
 sippi Valley " (Public School Publishing Co., Blooniington, 111., $0.50) ; 
 Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, sections on " Grain 
 Raising," "Wheat Raising," and "Milling" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 
 $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book 
 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Poems: "When the Frost is on 
 the Punkin," Riley; "Knee Deep in June," Riley; "The Prairies," 
 Bryant ; " The Hunter of the Prairies," Bryant. 
 
 Section XIII. The Western States. — Ballou, " Footprints of 
 Travel," Chapter XXV (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of Ameri- 
 can Life and Adventure," sections on " How Fremont Crossed the 
 Mountains," " The Finding of Gold in California," " Descending the 
 Grand Canon," and several Indian stories (A. B. C, $0.50) ; Chase and 
 Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, several sectious on " Mines and 
 Mining " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical 
 Readers/' Fifth Rook (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56) ; " The Pass of 
 
REFERENCES .331 
 
 the Sierra " (poem), Whittier ; " tn the Yosemite Valley," Joaquin 
 Miller. 
 
 Section XIV. Alaska. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapter 
 XXVI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Ad- 
 venture," " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C, $0.50). 
 
 Section XV. Countries North of the United States. — Coe, " Our 
 American Neighbors," Chapters I-XII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Lyde, " A 
 Geography of North America" (McM., $0.50); Dawson, "Canada 
 and Newfoundland," Stanford's Compendium (Scribner, $0.50) ; An- 
 drews, " Seven Little Sisters," the two sections on Agoonack (Ginn, 
 $0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C, $1.25); 
 Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge " (McM., $1.10) ; King, 
 " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee andShep- 
 ard, Boston, $0.72) ; " An Arctic Vision," Bret Harte; " Evangeline," 
 Longfellow. 
 
 Section XVI. Countries South of the United States. — Coe, "Our 
 American Neighbors," Chapters XIII-XVII (S. B. C, $0.60) ; Conk- 
 lin, " Guide to Mexico " (D. Appletou & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Lyde, 
 "A Geography of North America" (McM., $0.50); Ballou, "Foot- 
 prints of Travel," Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, and 
 XXVIII (Ginn, $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical 
 Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72). 
 
 Section XVII. South America. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
 Chapters XXIX-XXXI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Coe, "Our American Neigh- 
 bors" (S. B. C, $0.60). 
 
 Section XVIII. Europe. — Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., 
 $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters X-XXII (Ginn, 
 $1.00) ; Coe, "Northern Europe" (S. B. C.,$0.60) ; Pratt, "Northern 
 Europe " (E. P. C, $0.40) ; Lyde, " A Geography of the British Isles" 
 (McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Sixth 
 Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " 
 (E. P. C, $0.-40) ; Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," "The Little 
 Mountain Maiden," and "Louise" (Ginn, $0.50). Poems: Alice 
 Carey, " The Leak in the Dike " ; Longfellow, " Venice " ; Joaquin 
 Miller, " Sunrise in Venice " ; " In a Gondola." 
 
 Section XIX. Asia. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters 
 III, VIII, and IX (Ginn, $1.00) ; Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," 
 (' The Story of Pen-se," also " Gemila " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Smith, " Life 
 
332 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 in Asia" (S. B. C, $0.60); Pratt, " Stories of India" (E. P. C, 
 $0.40) ; Pratt, " Stories of China " (E. P. C, $0.40). Poems by 
 Wbittier: "The Holy Land"; "Palestine"; "The Pipes of Luck- 
 now." 
 
 Section XX. Africa. — Lyde, " A Geography of Africa " (McM., 
 $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters IX and X (Ginn, 
 $1.00); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C, $0.72); Andrews, 
 " Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Little Dark Girl " and 
 "Gemila" (Ginn, $0.59). 
 
 Section XXI. Australia, etc. — Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," 
 Chapters II, IV, VI, V, VII (Ginn, $1.00) ; Kellogg, " Australia and 
 the Islands of the Sea" (S. B. C, $0.68) ; Pratt, " Stories of Aus- 
 tralasia " (E. P. C, $0.40). Poem, " Western Australia," O'Reilly. 
 
 Fig. 267. 
 Pioneers on their way to California in " the days of old, the days of gold, the 
 
 days of '49." 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 CONTINENTS AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES 
 
 Note. — The figures 1897, 1901, etc., refer to the year in which the 
 estimate was made. Most of the figures are obtained from the "States- 
 man's Year Book" for 1909, or from the " Century Atlas." 
 
 
 
 Area in Square Miles 
 
 
 Population 
 
 North America . . . 8,614,658 
 
 1906 
 
 100,913,840 
 
 United States (with Alaska) 3,624,122 
 
 1900 
 
 84,216,433 
 
 Mexico . . . . . 767,005 
 
 1900 
 
 13,607,259 
 
 Canada . 
 
 
 
 3,745,570 
 
 1906 
 
 5,983,560 
 
 Central America 
 
 
 
 169,365 
 
 1906 
 
 11,659,770 
 
 Cuba 
 
 
 
 45,883 
 
 1899 
 
 1,722,953 
 
 South America 
 
 
 
 . 7,960,733 
 
 1908 
 
 46,879,001 
 
 Brazil . 
 
 
 
 3,218,130 
 
 1908 
 
 19,910,646 
 
 Argentina 
 
 
 
 1,135,840 
 
 1908 
 
 5,974,771 
 
 Peru . 
 
 
 
 697,640 
 
 1908 
 
 2,971,814 
 
 Chile . . 
 
 
 
 291,544 
 
 1908 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Europe 
 
 
 
 3,233,916 
 
 1907 
 
 401,590,739 
 
 Russia . 
 
 
 
 1,862,524 
 
 1906 
 
 109,354,600 
 
 German Empire 
 
 
 
 208,730 
 
 1905 
 
 60,641,278 
 
 v Austria-Hungary 
 
 
 
 241,330 
 
 1906 
 
 45,405,307 
 
 France . 
 
 
 
 207,054 
 
 1906 
 
 39,252,245 
 
 British Isles . 
 
 
 
 121,390 
 
 1901 
 
 41,609,091 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 96,500 
 
 1907 
 
 33,640,000 
 
 Spain . 
 
 
 
 190,050 
 
 1900 
 
 18,618,086 
 
 Turkey in Europe 
 
 
 65,350 
 
 1907 
 
 6,130,200 
 
 Asia (with East Indies) 
 
 
 16,631,559 
 
 1906 
 
 886,427,255 
 
 Chinese Empire . 
 
 
 4,277,170 
 
 1907 
 
 438,214,000 
 
 India . 
 
 
 
 1,097,901 
 
 1901 
 
 232,072,832 
 
 Japan . 
 
 
 
 147,655 
 
 1903 
 
 46,732,138 
 
 Turkey in Asia 
 
 
 
 693,610 
 
 1901 
 
 17,683,500 
 
 Siberia 
 
 
 
 4,786,730 
 
 1906 
 
 6,740,600 
 
 Africa . 
 
 
 
 11,514,000 
 
 1906 
 
 127,000,000 
 
 Kongo State . 
 
 
 
 900,000 
 
 1901 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 Egypt . 
 
 
 
 400,000 
 
 1901 
 
 9,734,405 
 
 Cape Colony 
 
 
 
 276,909 
 
 1907 
 
 2,487,882 
 
 Transvaal Colony 
 
 
 
 117,730 
 
 1906 
 
 1,355,440 
 
 333 
 
33± 
 
 Australia 
 
 New South Wales 
 Victoria 
 Queensland . 
 South Australia . 
 Tasmania 
 Western Australia 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 
 
 Area in Square Miles 
 
 
 Population 
 
 . 3,065,120 
 
 1906 
 
 4,479,840 
 
 310,370 
 
 1906 
 
 1,533,000 
 
 87,884 
 
 1906 
 
 1,238,000 
 
 670,500 
 
 1906 
 
 535,100 
 
 903,690 
 
 1906 
 
 383,830 
 
 26,220 
 
 1906 
 
 180,160 
 
 975,920 
 
 1906 
 
 261,750 
 
 SIZE OF THE EARTH 
 
 Length of the Earth's Diameter at equator 
 (miles) . . . . ' 
 
 Length of the Equator (milea) 
 
 The Earth's Surface (square miles) 
 Pacific Ocean (square miles) 
 Atlantic Ocean (square miles) 
 Antarctic Ocean and the great southern sea sur 
 
 rounding the south pole (square miles) 
 Indian Ocean (square miles) 
 Arctic Ocean (square miles) . 
 The sea (square miles) . 
 
 7,926 
 
 24,903 
 
 196,971,984 
 
 55,660,000 
 33,720,000 
 
 30,605,000 
 
 16,720,000 
 
 4,781,000 
 
 141,486,000 
 
 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California . 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 District of Coluui 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Gruam . 
 
 Hawaiian 
 
 Idaho . 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 bia 
 
 dauds 
 
 Area in Square Miles 
 
 52,250 
 
 590,884 
 
 113,020 
 
 53,850 
 
 158,360 
 
 103,925 
 
 4,990 
 
 2,050 
 
 70 
 
 58,680 
 
 59,475 
 
 180 
 
 6,449 
 
 84,800 
 
 56,650 
 
 36,350 
 
 56,025 
 
 82,080 
 
 4,400 
 
 48,720 
 
 Population, est., 1906 
 
 2,017,877 
 
 82,516 
 
 143,745 
 
 1,421,574 
 
 1,648,049 
 
 615,570 
 
 1,005,716 
 
 194,479 
 
 307,716 
 
 629,341 
 
 2,443,719 
 
 9,698 
 
 192,407 
 
 205,704 
 
 5,418,670 
 
 2,710,898 
 
 2,205,690 
 
 1,612,471 
 
 2,320,298 
 
 1,539,449 
 

 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 
 
 
 335 
 
 Area in Square Miles Population, est., 1906 
 
 Maine ...... 33,040 . . . . 714,494 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 12,210 
 
 
 
 
 1,275,434 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 
 
 8,315 
 
 
 
 
 . 3,043,346 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 
 58,915 
 
 
 
 
 . 2,584,533 
 
 Minnesota . 
 
 
 
 83,365 
 
 
 
 
 . 2,025,615 
 
 Mississippi . 
 
 
 
 46,810 
 
 
 
 
 1,708,272 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 69,415 
 
 
 
 
 3,363,153 
 
 Montana 
 
 
 
 146,080 
 
 
 
 
 303,575 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 
 
 77,510 
 
 
 
 
 1,068,484 
 
 Nevada 
 
 
 
 110,700 
 
 
 
 
 42,335 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 
 9,305 
 
 
 
 
 432,624 
 
 New Jersey . ■ 
 
 
 
 7,815 
 
 
 
 
 2,196,237 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 
 
 122,580 
 
 
 
 
 216,328 
 
 New York . 
 
 
 
 49,170 
 
 
 
 
 8,226,990 
 
 North. Carolina 
 
 
 
 52,250 
 
 
 
 
 2,059,326 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 
 
 70,795 
 
 
 
 
 463,784 
 
 Ohio . 
 
 
 
 41,060 
 
 
 
 
 4,448,677 
 
 Oklahoma . 
 
 
 
 39,030 
 
 
 
 
 590,247 
 
 Oregon 
 
 
 
 96,030 
 
 
 
 
 474,738 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 45,215 
 
 
 
 
 6,928,515 
 
 Philippine Island 
 
 
 
 114,326 
 
 
 
 
 7,912,243 
 
 Porto Rico . 
 
 
 
 3,550 
 
 
 
 
 1,037,028 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 
 1,250 
 
 
 
 
 490,387 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 
 30,570 
 
 
 
 
 1,453,818 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 
 
 77,650 
 
 
 
 
 465,908 
 
 Tennessee . 
 
 
 
 42,050 
 
 
 
 
 2,172,476 
 
 Texas . . 
 
 
 
 265,780 
 
 
 
 
 3,536,618 
 
 Tutuila 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 
 3,800 
 
 Utah . 
 
 
 
 84,970 
 
 
 
 
 316,331 
 
 Vermont 
 
 
 
 9,565 
 
 
 
 
 350,373 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 
 42,450 
 
 
 
 
 1,973,104 
 
 Washington 
 
 
 
 69,180 
 
 
 
 
 614.625 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 
 
 24,780 
 
 
 
 
 1,076,406 
 
 Wisconsin . 
 
 
 
 56,010 . 
 
 
 
 
 2,260,930 
 
 Wyoming . 
 
 
 
 97,890 . 
 
 
 
 
 103,673 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED 
 
 STATES 
 
 Note. — The great increase in size of New York is due to the joining 
 of Brooklyn and other cities to it, making Greater New York. 
 
 1. New York, N.Y. 
 
 2. Chicago, 111. . 
 
 Population, 
 est., 1906 
 
 4,113,043 
 
 2,049,185 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1900 
 
 . 3,437,202 
 . 1,698,575 
 
336 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 3. Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 4. St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 5. Boston, Mass. 
 
 6. Baltimore, Md. 
 
 7. Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 8. Buffalo, NY. 
 
 9. San Francisco, Cal 
 
 10. Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 11. Detroit, Mich. 
 
 12. Cincinnati, Ohio 
 
 13. Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 14. New Orleans, La. 
 
 15. Washington, D.C. 
 
 16. Newark, N.J. 
 
 17. Minneapolis, Minn 
 
 18. Jersey City, N.J. 
 
 19. Louisville, Ky. 
 
 20. Indianapolis, Ind 
 
 21. St. Paul, Minn. 
 
 22. Providence, R.I. 
 
 23. Rochester, N.Y. 
 
 24. Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 25. Toledo, Ohio 
 
 Population, 
 est, 1906 
 
 1,441,735 
 649,320 
 602,278 
 553,669 
 460,327 
 381,819 
 450,100 
 375,082 
 353,535 
 345,230 
 317,903 
 314,146 
 307,716 
 289,634 
 273,825 
 237,952 
 226,129 
 219,154 
 203,815 
 203,243 
 185,703 
 182,376 
 159,980 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1900 
 
 1,293,697 
 575,238 
 560,892 
 508,957 
 381,768 
 352,387 
 342,782 
 321,616 
 285,704 
 325,902 
 285,315 
 287,104 
 278,718 
 246,070 
 202,718 
 206,433 
 204,731 
 169,164 
 163,065 
 175,597 
 162,608 
 163,752 
 131,822 
 
 CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPEND- 
 ENCIES MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK 
 
 Albany, N.Y. 
 Allegheny, Pa. 
 Annapolis, Md. 
 Atlanta, Ga. 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 Bangor, Me. 
 Birmingham, Ala. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Bridgeport, Conn. 
 Buffalo, N.Y. 
 Butte, Mont. 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 Camden, N.J. 
 Charleston, S.C. 
 Chattanooga, Tenn. 
 
 'opulation, 
 
 
 
 Population, 
 
 est., 1906 Census of 1900 
 
 170,609 . . . 94,151 
 
 145,240 
 
 
 
 129,896 
 
 9,077 
 
 
 
 8,402 
 
 109,984 
 
 
 
 89,872 
 
 553,669 
 
 
 
 508,957 
 
 23,500 
 
 
 
 21,850 
 
 45,864 
 
 
 
 38,415 
 
 602,278 
 
 
 
 560,892 
 
 84,274 
 
 
 
 70,996 
 
 381,819 
 
 
 
 352,387 
 
 43,624 
 
 
 
 30,470 
 
 98,544 
 
 
 
 91,886 
 
 84,849 
 
 
 
 75,935 
 
 56,317 
 
 
 
 55,807 
 
 34,297 
 
 
 
 32,490 
 

 
 APPENDIX 
 
 337 
 
 Population, 
 
 Population, 
 
 est., 1906 
 
 Census of 19U0 
 
 Chicago, 111 2,049,185 . 
 
 . 1,698,575 
 
 Cincinnati, 0. 
 
 
 
 345,230 . 
 
 325,902 
 
 Cleveland, 0. 
 
 
 
 460,327 . 
 
 381,768 
 
 Columbus, 0. 
 
 
 
 145,414 . 
 
 125,560 
 
 Dallas, Tex. 
 
 
 
 52,793 . 
 
 42,638 
 
 Denver, Col. 
 
 
 
 151,920 . 
 
 133,859 
 
 Detroit, Mich. 
 
 
 
 353,535 . 
 
 285,704 
 
 Duluth, Minn. 
 
 
 
 67,337 . 
 
 52,969 
 
 Fall River, Mass. 
 
 
 
 105,942 . 
 
 101,863 
 
 Galveston, Tex. . 
 
 
 
 34,355 . 
 
 37,789 
 
 Gloucester, Mass. 
 
 
 
 25,989 . 
 
 26,121 
 
 Grand Rapids, Mich. 
 
 
 
 99,794 . 
 
 87,565 
 
 Harrisburg, Pa. . 
 
 
 
 55,735 . 
 
 50,167 
 
 Hartford, Conn. . 
 
 
 
 95,822 . 
 
 79,850 
 
 Havana, Cuba 
 
 
 
 202,395 . 
 
 (1899) 235,981 
 
 Honolulu 
 
 
 
 39,306 . 
 
 39,306 
 
 Indianapolis, Lid. 
 
 
 
 219,154 . 
 
 169,164 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla. 
 
 
 
 36,675 . 
 
 28,429 
 
 Jersey City, N.J. 
 
 
 
 237,952 . 
 
 . 206,433 
 
 Kansas City, Mo. 
 
 
 
 77,912 . 
 
 163,752 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn. . 
 
 
 
 36,051 . 
 
 32,637 
 
 Lawrence, Mass. . 
 
 
 
 71,548 . 
 
 62,559 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal. 
 
 
 
 250,000 . 
 
 102,479 
 
 Louisville, Ky. 
 
 
 
 226,129 . 
 
 . 204,731 
 
 Lowell, Mass. 
 
 
 
 95,173 . 
 
 94,969 
 
 Lynn, Mass. 
 
 
 
 78,748 . 
 
 68,513 
 
 Manchester, N.H. 
 
 
 
 64,703 . 
 
 56,987 
 
 Manila, Philippines 
 
 
 
 219,928 . 
 
 (1901) 350,000 
 
 Memphis, Tenn. . 
 
 
 
 125,018 . 
 
 102,320 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 
 
 317,903 . 
 
 285,315 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn. 
 
 
 
 273,825 . 
 
 202,718 
 
 Mobile, Ala. 
 
 
 
 42,903 . 
 
 38,469 
 
 Newark, N.J. 
 
 
 
 289,634 . 
 
 246,070 
 
 New Bedford, Mass. 
 
 
 
 76,746 . 
 
 62,442 
 
 New Haven, Conn. 
 
 
 
 121,227 . 
 
 108,027 
 
 New Orleans, La. 
 
 
 
 314,146 . 
 
 287,104 
 
 New York, N.Y. 
 
 
 
 4,113,043 * . 
 
 . 3,437,202 
 
 Norfolk, Va. 
 
 
 
 66,931 . 
 
 46,624 
 
 Oakland, Cal. 
 
 
 
 200,000 . 
 
 66,960 
 
 Ogden, Utah 
 
 
 
 17,165 . 
 
 16,313 
 
 Omaha, Neb. 
 
 
 
 124,167 . 
 
 102,555 
 
 Pater son, N.J. 
 
 
 
 112,801 . 
 
 105,171 
 
 Pensacola, Fla. . 
 
 
 
 22,256 . 
 
 17,747 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 
 
 1,441,735 . 
 
 . 1,293,697 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 
 
 375,082 . 
 
 321,616 
 
338 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Portland, Me. 
 Portland, Ore. 
 Providence, R.I. 
 Pueblo, Col. 
 Reading, Pa. 
 Richmond, Va. 
 Rochester, N.Y. 
 Rutland, Vt. 
 Saginaw, Mich. 
 St. Louis, Mo. 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 Salt Lake City, Utah 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 Savannah, Ga. 
 Scran ton, Pa. 
 Seattle, Wash. 
 Sitka, Alaska 
 Spokane, Wash. . 
 Springfield, Mass. 
 Syracuse, N.Y. 
 Tacoma, Wash. . 
 Tampa, Fla. 
 Toledo, O. . 
 Trenton, N.J. . 
 Troy* N.Y. . 
 Vicksburg, Miss. . 
 Washington, D.C 
 Wheeling, West Va. 
 Wilkesbarre, Pa. . 
 Wilmington, Del. 
 Wilmington, N.C. 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Population, 
 est., 1906 
 
 55,167 
 
 109,884 
 
 203,243 
 
 30,824 
 
 91,141 
 
 87,246 
 
 185,703 
 
 11,961 
 
 48,742 
 
 614,320 
 
 203,815 
 
 61,202 
 
 450,000 
 
 68,596 
 
 118,692 
 
 104,169 
 
 1,396 
 
 47,006 
 
 75,836 
 
 118,880 
 
 55,392 
 
 .24,220 
 
 159,980 
 
 86,355 
 
 76,513 
 
 14,834 
 
 307,716 
 
 41,494 
 
 60,121 
 
 85,140 
 
 21,528 
 
 130,078 
 
 Population, 
 Census of 1900 
 
 50,145 
 90,426 
 
 175,597 
 28,157 
 78,961 
 85,050 
 
 162,608 
 11,499 
 42,345 
 
 575,238 
 
 163,065 
 53,531 
 
 342,782 
 54,244 
 
 102,026 
 
 80,671 
 
 1,396 
 
 36,848 
 
 62,059 
 
 108,374 
 37.714 
 15,839 
 
 131,822 
 73,307 
 60,651 
 14,834 
 
 278,718 
 38,878 
 51,721 
 76,508 
 20,976 
 
 118,421 
 
 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WORLD 
 
 1. London, England, est., 1907 . 
 Greater London, est., 1907 
 
 2. New York, United States, est., 1906 
 
 3. Paris, France, 1906 .... 
 
 4. Chicago, United States, est., 1906 . 
 
 5. Berlin, Germany, 1905 
 
 6. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
 
 7. Tokio, Japan, 1903 . . 
 
 Population 
 
 4,758,218 
 7,217,941 
 4,113,043 
 2,763,393 
 2,049,185 
 2,040,148 
 1,999,912 
 1,818,655 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 339 
 
 Population 
 
 8. Philadelphia, United States, est., 1906 . 1,441,735 
 
 9. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 . . . 1,429,000 
 
 10. Moscow, Russia, 1907 . . . . . 1,359,254 
 
 11. Constantinople, Turkey (recent) . . 1,106,000 
 
 12. Calcutta, India, 1901 1,026,987 
 
 13. Buenos Aires, Argentina, est., 1905 . 1,025,653 
 
 14. Osaka, Japan, 1903 995,945 
 
 15. Canton, China, est., 1906 . . . 900,000 
 
 16. Glasgow, Scotland, est., 1907 . . . 847,584 
 
 17. Tientsin, China, est. . . 750,000-900,000 
 
 18. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 . . . 811,265 
 
 19. Hamburg, Germany, 1905 . . . 802,793 
 
 20. Bombay, India, est, 1901 . . . 776,006 
 
 21. Warsaw, Russia, 1901 . . . . 756,426 
 
 22. Liverpool, England, est., 1907 . . . 746,144 
 
 23. Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 . . 732,322 
 
 24; Peking, China, est 700,000 
 
 25. St. Louis, United States, est., 1906 . . 649,320 
 
 IMPORTANT FOREIGN CITIES 
 
 Adelaide, South Australia, 1906 
 Alexandria, Egypt, 1897 
 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1906 
 Antwerp, Belgium, 1906 
 Athens, Greece, 1906 
 Bangkok, Siam, 1906 
 Barcelona, Spain, 1900 
 Belfast, Ireland, 1901 
 Berlin, Germany, 1905 
 Berne, Switzerland, 1907 
 Birmingham, England, 1907 
 Bombay, India, 1901 
 Bordeaux, France, 1906 . 
 Brussels, Belgium, 1906 . 
 Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 
 Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1905 
 Cairo, Egypt, 1897 . 
 Calcutta, India, 1901 
 Callao, Peru, 1906 . 
 Canton, China, 1906 
 Cape Town, Cape Colony, 1904 
 Caracas, Venezuela, 1894 
 
 Population 
 
 174,438 
 
 319,766 
 
 564,186 
 
 304,032 
 
 170,000 
 
 400,000-600,000 
 
 533,000 
 
 349,180 
 
 2,010,148 
 
 73,185 
 
 553,155 
 
 776,006 
 
 251,917 
 
 623,041 
 
 732,322 
 
 1,025,653 
 
 570,062 
 
 1,026,987 
 
 31,000 
 
 900,000 
 
 77,668 
 
 72,429 
 
340 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Christiania, Norway, 1900 
 Constantinople, Turkey, 1906 
 Copenhagen, Denmark, 1906 . 
 Dresden, Germany, 1905 
 Dublin, Ireland, 1901 . 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, 1907 . 
 Geneva, Switzerland, 1907 
 Glasgow, Scotland, 1907 
 Hague, The, Netherlands, 1906 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1901 
 Hamburg, Germany, 1905 
 Havre. France, 1906 
 Hongkong, China, 1906 . 
 Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia, 1906 
 Johannesburg, Transvaal, 1904 
 Kimberley, Cape Colony, 1904 , 
 Leipzig, Germanv, 1905 . 
 Lima, Peru, 1906 . 
 Lisbon, Portugal, 1900 . 
 Liverpool, England, 1907 
 London, England, 1907 . ' 
 London, Greater, 1907 
 Lyon, France, 1906 
 Madras, India, 1901 
 Madrid, Spain, 1900 
 Malaga, Spain, 1900 
 Manchester, England, 1907 
 Marseille, France, 1906 . 
 Mecca, Turkey in Asia, 1907 . 
 Melbourne, Victoria, 1906 
 Mexico, Mexico, 1900 
 Milan, Italy, 1901 , 
 Moclia, Turkey in Asia, 1900 . 
 Montevideo, Uruguay, 1907 . 
 Montreal, Canada, 1901 
 Moscow, Russia, 1907 
 Munich, Germany, 1905 
 Naples, Italy, 1901 . 
 Odessa, Russia, 1900 
 Ottawa, Canada. 1901 
 Para, Brazil, 1900 . 
 Paris, France, 1906 
 Peking. China, 1906 
 Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
 Quebec, Canada, 1901 
 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 . 
 
 Population 
 
 227,626 
 1,106,000 
 426,450 
 516,996 
 290,636 
 345,479 
 116,387 
 ■ 847,584 
 248,995 
 40,832 
 802,793 
 132,430 
 319,803 
 70,000 
 158,850 
 77,668 
 503,672 
 130,000 
 356,009 
 746,144 
 4,758,218 
 7,217,914 
 472,114 
 509,346 
 539,835 
 130,109 
 643,148 
 517,498 
 60,000 
 526,400 
 344,721 
 493,241 
 5,000 
 309,390 
 267,730 
 1,359,254 
 538,983 
 563,540 
 449,673 
 59,928 
 100.000 
 2,763,393 
 700,000-800,000 
 228,645 
 68,840 
 811,265 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 341 
 
 Rome, Italy, 1901 . 
 St. John, New Brunswick, 1901 
 St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 . 
 Santiago, Chile, 1905 
 Shanghai, China,. 1906 . 
 Singapore, Malay Peninsula, 1901 
 Stockholm, Sweden, 1906 
 Sydney, New South "Wales, 1901 
 Teheran, Persia, 1906 
 Tientsin, China, 1906 . 
 Tokio, Japan, 1905 . 
 Toronto, Canada, 1901 . 
 Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
 Valparaiso, Chile, 1907 . 
 Vancouver, Canada, 1901 
 Venice, Italy, 1901 . 
 Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1900 
 Victoria, Canada, 1901 . 
 Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1907 
 Warsaw, Poland, 1901 . 
 Winnepeg, Canada, 1906 
 Yokohama, Japan, 1903 . 
 Zurich, Switzerland, 1907 
 
 750, 
 
 Population 
 
 462,743 
 
 40,711 
 
 1,429,000 
 
 378,000 
 
 651,000 
 
 228,555 
 
 332,738 
 
 487,900 
 
 280,000 
 
 ,000-900,000 
 
 1,818,655 
 
 208,010 
 
 205,136 
 
 175,000 
 
 26,133 
 
 151,840 
 
 29,164 
 
 20,816 
 
 1,999,912 
 
 756,426 
 
 90,153 
 
 326,035 
 
 186,846 
 
 HEIGHT OF A FEW MOUNTAIN PEAKS 
 
 Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, Asia 
 
 Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, Chile . 
 
 Mt. McKinley, Alaskan Mountains, Alaska 
 
 Mt. Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada 
 
 Mt. Elburz, Caucasus Mountains, Eussia 
 
 Orizaba, Sierra Madre, Mexico 
 
 Mt. St. Elias, Coast Ranges, Alaska 
 
 Mt. Blanc, Alps Mountains, France 
 
 Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California 
 
 Mt. Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington 
 
 Mt. Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California 
 
 Pikes Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado 
 
 Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands 
 
 Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming 
 
 Fujiyama, Japan 
 
 Mt. Mitchell, Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina 
 Mt. Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire 
 Mt. Marcy, Adirondacks, New York .... 
 
 Feet 
 29,002 
 22,860 
 20,464 
 19,539 
 18,200 
 18,314 
 18,025 
 15,781 
 14,502 
 14,363 
 14,380 
 14,108 
 13,675 
 13,790 
 12,365 
 6,711 
 6,279 
 5,344 
 
342 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD 
 
 Name 
 
 
 Country 
 
 Length 
 
 in Miles 
 
 Basin Area 
 
 Ocean 
 
 Missouri-M ississippi 
 
 United States 
 
 4,300 
 
 1,257,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Nile . 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 3,400 
 
 1,273,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Amazon 
 
 
 South America 
 
 3,300 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Ob 
 
 
 Siberia 
 
 3,200 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Arctic 
 
 Yangtse Kiang 
 
 
 China 
 
 3,200 
 
 548,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 Kongo . 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 2,900 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Lena . 
 
 
 Siberia 
 
 2,800 
 
 950,000 
 
 Arctic 
 
 Hoang-Ho . 
 
 
 China 
 
 2,700 
 
 570,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 Niger . 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 2,600 
 
 563,300 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Plata . 
 
 
 South America 
 
 2,580 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Mackenzie . 
 
 
 Canada 
 
 2,000 
 
 590,000 
 
 Arctic 
 
 Volga . 
 
 
 Russia 
 
 2,400 
 
 563,300 
 
 Caspian 
 
 St. Lawrence 
 
 
 North America 
 
 2,200 
 
 519,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 Yukon . 
 
 
 Alaska 
 
 2,000 
 
 440,000 
 
 Pacific 
 
 Indus . 
 
 
 India 
 
 1,800 
 
 372,700 
 
 Indian 
 
 Danube 
 
 
 Europe 
 
 1,770 
 
 300,000 
 
 Atlantic 
 
 TEN OF T 
 
 rHE GREAT LAK 
 
 ES OF THE WORLD 
 
 Name 
 
 
 Length Breadth Area in Square 
 in Miles in Miles Miles 
 
 Country 
 
 
 Caspian 
 
 
 680 270 
 
 169,000 Russia 
 
 
 Superior 
 
 
 390 160 
 
 31,200 L 
 
 . S. and Canada 
 
 Victoria Nyanza 
 
 
 230 220 
 
 30,000 Africa 
 
 
 Aral 
 
 
 225 185 
 
 26,900 Asiatic Russia 
 
 Huron 
 
 
 250 100 
 
 17,400 L 
 
 . S. and Canada 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 335 85 
 
 20,000 U 
 
 nited States 
 
 Tanganyika 
 
 
 420 50 
 
 12,650 Africa 
 
 
 Baikal 
 
 
 397 45 
 
 12,500 Siberia 
 
 
 Erie 
 
 
 250 58 
 
 10,000 U 
 
 . S. and C 
 
 anada 
 
 Chad (a shallow 1 
 
 \ke 
 
 which grows . 
 
 
 
 
 very large in i 
 
 he 
 
 rainy season 
 
 about 
 
 
 
 and shrinks in 
 
 he 
 
 dry season) 
 
 10,000 Africa 
 
 
 APPROXIMATE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF SOME PLATEAUS 
 
 Feet 
 
 Tibet . . ... . . 10,000-15,000 
 
 Bolivia 10,000-13,000 
 
 Spain 2,000-3,000 
 
 Mexico . . . . . . . . 5,000-6,000 
 
 Western United States Plateau . . 5,000-6,000 
 
 Brazil . ... 2,000-2,500 
 
INDEX OF PLACES AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY 
 
 KEY TO PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Vowel Sounds : a, as in fate ; a, as in senate ; a, as in fat ; a, as in 
 final ; a, as in far ; a, as in last ; a, as in fall ; a, as in care ; e, as in 
 mete ; e, as in event ; e, as in pen ; e, as in recent ; e, as in term ; I, as in 
 pine ; £, as in pin ; i, as in &asm ; o, as in note ; ci, as in obey ; 6, as in 
 not ; o, as in beckon ; o, as in for ; m, as in mute ; u, as in tub ; m, as in 
 rule ; m, as in furl ; oo, as in food ; oc>, as in foot ; oi, as in oil ; om, as 
 in house- 
 Consonant Sounds : eft, as in chin ; g, as in <jre£ ; n, as in linger, link ; 
 ngr, as in s£h<7 ; N', similar in sound to ng ; th, as in thin ; fh, as in thine ; 
 O and K, like the German eft ; //, strongly aspirated, as in hiss. 
 
 The sign ' tells upon which syllable the accent is placed. The numbers 
 refer to pages in the book excepting where Fig. is before them, when 
 they refer to figures in the book. 
 
 Abyssinia (ab-Ts-sin'I-a), 265. 
 Aconcagua (a-kon-ka'gwa), Fig. 
 
 177. 
 Acropolis (a-krop'6-lls) , Fig. 201. 
 Adelaide (ad'e-lad), 274. 
 Adirondacks (ad-i-ron'daks), 1G3. 
 Adriatic (ad-re-at'ik), 240. 
 Afghanistan (af-gan-is-tan'), Fig. 
 
 203. 
 Africa (af'ri-ka), 142, 263. 
 Alabama (al-a-ba'ma), 171. 
 Alameda, 200. 
 
 Alaska (a-las'ka), 203, Fig. 167-8. 
 Albany (al'ba-nl), 162. 
 Aleutian (a-lu'shi-an), Fig. 203. 
 Alexandria (al-egs-an'drl-a) , 265. 
 
 Algeria (al-je'ri-a) , Fig. 214. 
 Allegheny (al'e-ga-ni), 45, 166, 167. 
 Amazon (am'a-zon), 216, 218. 
 Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 235. 
 Amur (a-moor'), Fig. 203. 
 Andes (an'dez), 216, 222. 
 Androscoggin (an-dros-kog'in), 158. 
 Annapolis (an-nap'6-lls), 168. 
 Antarctic (an-tark'tlk) , 143. 
 Antilles (an-tll'lez), 215. 
 Antwerp (ant'werp), 236. 
 Appalachians (ap-pa-la'chi-anz), 
 
 151, 165, 171, 172. 
 Arabia (a-ra'bi-a), 252. 
 Aral (ar'al), Fig. 203. 
 Ararat (ar'a-rat), Fig. 203. 
 343 
 
344 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Arctic (ark'tlk), 143, Figs. 171-2. 
 Argentina (ar-jen-te'na), 221. 
 Arizona -(ar-I-zo'na), 190. 
 Arkansas (ar'kan-sa), 171. 
 Asia (a'shl-a), 142, 250. 
 Athabasca (ath-a-bas'ka), Fig. 123. 
 Athens (ath'enz), 244. 
 Atlanta (at-lan'ta), 172. 
 Atlantic (at-lan'tik), 68, 144. 
 Auburn, Fig. 81. 
 Augusta (a-giis'ta), Fig. 125. 
 Australia (as-tra'11-a) , 143, 271. 
 Austria (as'tri-a), 242. 
 Azores (a-zorz'), Fig. 214. 
 
 Baikal (bl'kal), Fig. 203. 
 Baltic (bal'tik), 230, 232. 
 Baltimore (bal'tl-mor or -mor), 
 
 161, 168. 
 Bangkok (Mn-kok'), 26D. 
 Bangor (ban'g6r), 158. 
 Bakersfield, 200. 
 Barcelona (bar-se-lo'na) , 239. 
 Baton Kouge (bat'un roozh), Fig. 
 
 140. 
 Belfast (bel-fast'), 228. 
 Belgium (bel'jl-um), 236. 
 Bengal (ben-gal'), Fig. 203. 
 Bering Sea (be'rlng), Fig. 203. 
 Berlin (ber'lin), 234. 
 Bermuda (ber-mu'da), 214. 
 Berne (bern), 242. 
 Berkeley, 200. 
 
 .Birmingham (ber'nring-um) , 172. 
 Big Trees, XVI. 
 Birmingham, Eng., 227. 
 Black Hills, 105. 
 Bogota (bo-go-ta'), Fig. 177. 
 Boise (boi'za), Fig. 157. 
 Bokhara (bok-a'ra), Fig. 203. 
 Bolivia (bo-llv'i-a), Fig. 177. 
 Bombay (b5m-ba'), 259. 
 Bordeaux (bor-do'), 236, 238. 
 
 Borneo (b6r'ne-o), Fig. 221. 
 Boston (bOs'ton), 71, 154, 155, 159. 
 Brahmaputra (bra-ma-poo'tra), Fig. 
 
 203. 
 Brazil (bra-zil'), 216. 
 Bridgeport (brlj'port), 159. 
 British Isles (brit'ish), 225. 
 Brooklyn (brook'lin), 161. 
 Brussels (brus'selz), 233. 
 Budapest (boo'd5-p5st), 213. 
 Buenos Aires (bo'nusa'riz), 221. 
 Buffalo (biif'a-lo), 162, 163, 164. 
 Bulgaria (bool-ga'ri-a), 245. 
 Butte (but), 195. 
 
 Cairo (ki'ro), Egypt, 265. 
 Calcutta (kal-kut'ta), 259. 
 California (kal-i-for'nt-a), 193. 
 Callao (kal-la'o or kal-ya'6), 222. 
 Cambridge (kam'brlj), 154. 
 Camden (kam'den), 165. 
 Canada (kan'a-da), 152, 205. 
 Cancer (kan'ser), Tropic, 128. 
 Canton (kan-ton'), 256. 
 Cape Town, 270. 
 
 Cape Verde Islands (verd), Fig. 214. 
 Capricorn (kap'rl-kdrn) , Tropic, 128. 
 Caracas (ka-ra'kas), 221. 
 Caribbean (kar-ib-be'an) , 214. 
 Cascade Range (kas-kad'), 191. 
 Caspian (kas'pi-an), 231. 
 Castine (kas-ten'), 70. 
 Catalina Island, Fig. 55. 
 Catskills (kats'kilz), 163. 
 Caucasus (ka'ka-sus), Fig. 183. 
 Cayenne (ka-yen' or ki-en'), Fig. 
 
 177. 
 Celebes (sel'e-bez), Fig. 221. 
 Central America (a-mer'i-ka), 152, 
 
 213. 
 Ceylon (se-lon' orsi-lon'), Fig. 203. 
 Chad (chad), Fig. 214. 
 Champlain (sham-plan'), Fig. 132. 
 
INDEX 
 
 345 
 
 Charleston (charlz'ton), 177. 
 Chattanooga, (chat-ta-noo'ga), 172. 
 Chesapeake (ches'a-pek), 161. 
 Cheyenne (shi-en'), Fig. 157. 
 Chicago (she-ka'go), 181, 185. 
 Chico, 114, 215. 
 Chile (che'la), 222, 223. 
 Chimborazo (chim-bo-ra'zo), 15. 
 China (chi'na), 107, 255. 
 Christiania (krls-te-a'ne-a), 230. 
 Cincinnati (sln-sln-na'ti), 188. 
 Cleveland* (klev 'land), 186. 
 Coast Ranges, 190. 
 Colombia (ko-15m'be-a), 223. 
 Colorado (kol-o-ra'do), 191. 
 Colorado Canyon, 193. 
 Columbia (ko-liiin'bl-a), Dist.,168. 
 Columbia River, 200. 
 Columbus (ko-lum'bus), 188. 
 Colusa, 41. 
 
 Connecticut (kon-net'1-ku.t), 158. 
 Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'pl) , 
 
 244. 
 Copenhagen (ko-pen-ha'gen), 231. 
 Cordilleras (k5r-dil'ler-az)", 191, 194. 
 Coronado, 76. 
 Corinth (kor'inth), 243. 
 Corsica (kdr'si-ka), Fig. 183. 
 Crete (kret), Fig? 183. 
 Cuba (ku'ba), 120, 214. 
 
 Dallas (dal'as), 173. 
 
 Danube (dan'ub), 243, 245. 
 
 Darling River, 273. 
 
 Dead Sea, 59. 
 
 Delaware (del'a-war), 161. 
 
 Denmark (den'inark), 230. 
 
 Denver (den'ver), 194. 
 
 Des Moines (de moin'), Fig. 148. 
 
 Detroit (de-troif), 186. 
 
 Dnieper (ne'per), Fig. 183. 
 
 Dniester (lies' ter), Fig. 183. 
 
 Dresden (drez'den), 234. 
 
 Dublin (dub'lin), Fig. 183. 
 Duluth (du-looth'), 186. 
 
 East India (Tn'dl-a), 143, 274. 
 Echo Mt., Figs. 20~, 21. 
 Ecuador (ek-wa-dor'), 223. 
 Edinburgh (ed'in-bur-ro), 227. 
 Egypt (e'jipt), 265. 
 Elbe (elb), 233. 
 Elburz (el-boorz'), Fig. 183. 
 England (In'gland), 107, 227. 
 Erie (e'ri), Lake, 163. 
 Eskimos (es'ki-moz), 130, 209. 
 Eurasia (u-ra'shi-a), 139. 
 Europe (u'rup), 140, 225. 
 Everest (ev'er-est), Mt., 250. 
 
 Fall River, 159. 
 
 Fiji (fe'je), 276. 
 
 Florida (flor'i-da), 175. 
 
 Formosa (f6r-mo'sa), 257. 
 
 France (frans), 236. 
 
 Fresno, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. 
 
 Galveston (gal'ves-ton), 177. 
 Ganges (gan'jez), 259. 
 Genesee (jen-e-se'), 164. 
 Geneva (je-ne'va), 242. 
 Georgia (jor'ji-a), 175. 
 Germany (jer'ma-ni), 233. 
 Gibraltar (jl-bral'tar), 263. 
 Glasgow (glas'go), 227. 
 Gloucester (glos'ter), 155, 200. 
 Gobi (go'be), 251? 
 Golden Gate, X, op. 118, Park 60. 
 Grand Rapids, 187. 
 Great Britain (brlt'an), 225. 
 Great Lakes, 58, 62. 
 Great Salt Lake, 59, 197. 
 Greece (gres), 243. 
 Greenland (gren'land), 209. 
 Guam (gwani), Fig. 221. 
 Guiana (ge-a'na), 221. 
 
346 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Guthrie (guth're), Fig. 140. 
 
 Haiti (ha'ti), 215. 
 Halifax (hal'e-faks), 208. 
 Hamburg (ham'burg), 233. 
 Harrisburg (har'is-burg), 166. 
 Hartford (hart'ford), 159. 
 Havana (ha-van'a), 214. 
 Havre (ha'ver), 237. 
 Hawaii (ha-wl'e), 276. 
 Hawaiian (ha-wl'yan) Islands, 132, 
 
 145, 201, 276. 
 Helena (hel'e-na), Fig. 157. 
 Himalaya (hlm-a'la-ya) , 250. 
 Hoangho (ho-ang-ho'), Fig. 203. 
 Holland (hoi'land), 234. 
 Hongkong (hong-kong'), 256. 
 Honolulu (h5-no-loo'lo5), 276. 
 Hudson (hud'son) River, 162. 
 Hungary (hun'ga-ri), 242. 
 Huron (hu'rgn), Lake, Fig. 148. 
 
 Iceland (Is'land), 231. 
 
 Idaho (I'da-ho), Fig. 157. 
 
 Illinois (il-H-noi' or -noiz'), 181, 182. 
 
 Iloilo (e-lo-e'lo), Fig. 221. 
 
 India (in'di-a), 258. 
 
 Indian, 144, Fig. 268. 
 
 Indiana (In-di-an'a), 182. 
 
 Indianapolis (In-di-an-ap'o-lis), 188. 
 
 Indian Territory, 177. 
 
 Indo-China (In'do chl'na), 260. 
 
 Indus (in'dus), 259. 
 
 Iowa (I'o-wa), 181. 
 
 Ireland (ir'land), 225. 
 
 Irkutsk (Ir-kootsk'), Fig. 203. 
 
 Italy (it'a-11), 240. 
 
 Jacksonville (jak'son-vil), 177. 
 Jamaica (ja-ma'ka), 215. 
 Japan (ja-pan'), 257. 
 Java (ja'va), 274. 
 Jersey (jer'z!) City, 161. 
 
 Jerusalem (je-ru'sa-lem), 252. 
 Johannesburg (yo-han'nes-burg), 
 269. 
 
 Kamchatka (kam-chat'ka), Fig. 203. 
 
 Kansas (kan'sas), 181. 
 
 Kansas City,. 188. 
 
 Katahdin (ka-ta'din), Fig. 125. 
 
 Kennebec (ken-e-bek'), 158. 
 
 Kentucky (ken-tuk'I), 181. 
 
 Key Route, 98. 
 
 Kimberley (kim'ber-li), 270. 
 
 Klondike (klon'dik), 203, 206, Fig. 34. 
 
 Knoxville (noks'vil), 172. 
 
 Kongo (kon'go), 268. 
 
 Korea (ko-re'a), 257. 
 
 Labrador (lab-ra-d6r'); 205. 
 Lachine (la-shen') Rapids, 206. 
 Ladrone (la-dron'), Fig. 221. 
 Lawrence (lar'ens), 159. 
 Leipzig (lip'tsiG), 234. 
 Lena (le'na), Fig. 203. 
 Lima (le'ma), 222. 
 Lisbon (llz'bon), 239. 
 Liverpool (liv'er-pool), 227. 
 Loire (Iwar), Fig. 183. 
 London (lun'dun), 226, 228. 
 Los Angeles (los an'gel-es), bet. 
 
 pp. 148, 149, 201, Fig. 244. 
 Louisiana (ldo-e-ze-a'na), Fig. 140. 
 Louisville (loo'Is-vil or loo'i-vil), 188. 
 Lowell (lo'gl), 159. 
 Luzon (loo-zon'), 275. 
 Lynn(lln), 159. 
 Lyon (li'9»). 237 - 
 
 Madagascar (mad-a-gas'kar), Fig. 
 
 214. 
 Madeira (ma-de'ra), Fig. 214. 
 Madrid (ma-drld'), 239. 
 Maine (man), 156, 157. 
 Malay (ma-W), Fig. 203. 
 
INDEX 
 
 347 
 
 Manchester (man'ches-ter) , Eng. , 
 
 227. 
 Manchester, N.H., 158, 159. 
 Manchuria (man-cboo're-a) ,Fig. 203. 
 Manila (ma-nll'a), 275. 
 Manitoba (man-i-to-ba/), 206. 
 Marseille (mar-sal'), 238. 
 Maryland (mer'I-land or ma'ri- 
 
 land), 161. 
 Marysville, 180. 
 Massachusetts (mas-a-chu/sats) , 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 Matterhorn (mat'ter-horn), 242. 
 Mecca (mek'a), 252. 
 Mediterranean (nied-i-ter-ra'ne-an), 
 
 252, 263. 
 Mekong (ma-kong'), Fig. 203. 
 Melbourne (mel'burn), 274. 
 Memphis (niein'fls), 177. 
 Merced Falls, Cal., Fig. 49. 
 Merrimac (mer'i-mak), 158. 
 Mexico (meks'1-ko), 152, 211. 
 Mexico City, 213. 
 Michigan (niTsh'I-gan), 183. 
 Michigan, Lake, 184. 
 Milan (mil'an or mi-lan'), 241. 
 Milwaukee (nril-wa'ke), 184. 
 Mindanao (men-da-na'o), Fig. 221. 
 Mindoro (men-d5'ro), Fig. 221. 
 Minneapolis (raln-e-ap'o-lts) , 185. 
 Minnesota (mm-e-so'ta), 182, 183. 
 Mississippi (mis-is-ip'i), 185. 
 Mississippi lliver, 33, 45, 51, 55, 
 
 151, 171, 174. 
 Missouri (mis-oo'rl), 171, 187. 
 Mobile (mo-bel'), 177. 
 Mocha (mo'ka), 253. 
 Mohammedan (mo-ham'med-an), 
 
 244, 252. 
 Mohawk (mo'hak), 163, 164. 
 Mongolia (mon-go'll-a), Fig. 203. 
 Monongahela (m5-non-ga-he'la),45. 
 Montana (mon-ta'na), 195. 
 
 Montenegro (mon-ta-na'gro), 245. 
 Montevideo (mon-ta-ve'da-o), 221. 
 Montpelier (mont-pe'li-er), Fig. 125. 
 Montreal (mont-re-al'), 207, 208. 
 Mt. Shasta (shas'taj, Figs. 19, 24. 
 Mt. Whitney Kange, 287. 
 Mt. Lowe Ry., Fig. 20. 
 Moosehead (moos'hed) Lake, 61. 
 Morocco (m5-rok'o), Fig. 214. 
 Moros (mO'roz), 276. 
 Moscow Cmos'ko), 232. 
 Munich (mu'nik), 234. 
 Murray (mur'ri) River, 272. 
 
 Nantucket (nan-tuk'et), Fig. 125. 
 Naples (na'plz), 241." 
 Nashville (nash'vil), Fig. 140. 
 Nebraska (ne-bras'ka), 181. 
 Negritos (ne-gri'toz), 276. 
 Netherlands (neth'er-landz), 234. 
 Nevada (ne-va'da), 195. 
 Newark (nu'ark), 161. 
 New Bedford" (bed'ford), 159. 
 New Caledonia (kal-e-do'nl-a), Fig. 
 
 221. 
 New England (in 'gland), 100, 154. 
 Newfoundland (nu'fond-land), 205. 
 New Guinea (gin'e), Fig. 221. 
 New Hampshire (hamp'shir), 154. 
 New Haven, 154, 159. 
 New Hebrides (heb'ri-dez), Fig. 221. 
 New Jersey (jer'zl), 165. 
 New Mexico (meks'I-ko), 190. 
 New Orleans (6r'le-anz), 55, 93, 
 
 176, 177. 
 New South Wales (walz), 271. 
 New York (y ork) , 71, 72, 96, 161, 164. 
 New Zealand (ze'land), 274. 
 Niagara (ni-ag'a-ra) Falls, 164. 
 Nicaragua (ne-ka-ra'gwa) , Fig. 123. 
 Niger (ni'jer), 268. 
 Nile (nil), 265, 266. 
 Norfolk (nor'fok), 168. 
 
348 
 
 INDEX 
 
 North America (a-nier'I-ka), 138, 151. 
 North Carolina (kar-6-li'ua), Tig. 
 
 140. 
 North Dakota (da-ko'ta), Fig. 148. 
 Norway (nor'wa), 229. 
 Nova Scotia (rto'va sko'shl-a), 205. 
 
 Oakland, 98, 118, 200. 
 Ocean Park. Cal., Fig. 64. 
 Odessa (6-des'sa), 232. 
 Ogden (og'den)' 197. 
 Ohio (o-hl'o), 48, 182, 183. 
 Oklahoma (6k-la-ho'ma), 172, 177. 
 Olympia (6-iIm'pI-a), Fig. 157. 
 Omaha (o'ma-ha), 187. 
 Ontario (on-ta'rl-o), Lake, Fig. 132, 
 Oregon (of'e-gon), 203. 
 Orinoco (o-ri-no'ko), 216, 220. 
 Ottawa (6t'ta-wa), 207. 
 
 Pacific (pa-sif'Ik), 144. 
 Palawan (pa-la-wan'), Fig. 221. 
 Palestine (pal'es-tln), 252. 
 Panama (pan-a-ma') Canal, 201. 
 Panama Isthmus (Ts'mus), 138, 213, 
 
 223. 
 Panay (pa-ni') , Fig. 221. 
 Para (pa-ra'), 218. 
 Paramaribo (par-a-mar'i-bo), Fig. 
 
 177. 
 Paris (par'is), 237. 
 Pasadena, 201. 
 Paso Robles, Fig. 42. 
 Patagonia (pat-a-go'ni-a) , Fig. 177. 
 Paterson (pat'er-son) , 161. 
 Peking (pe-king'), 256. 
 Pennsylvania (p§n-sll-va'ni-a) , 161, 
 
 165-168. 
 Penobscot (pe-nob'scot), 158. 
 Pensacola (pen-sa-ko'la), 177. 
 Persia (per'shi-a), 252. 
 Peru (pe-roo'), 222. 
 Petchora (pet-cho'ra), Fig. 183. 
 
 Petaluma, Fig. 84. 
 
 Philadelphia (ffl-a-del'ii-a), 71, 161, 
 
 165, 168. 
 Philippine (fll'fp-in), 129, 201, 275. 
 Phoenix (fe'niks), Fig. 157.. 
 Pierre (per), Fig. 148. 
 Pittsburg (pits'burg), 45, 166, 167, 
 
 168. 
 Pitt River Falls, Fig. 38. 
 Plata (pla'ta), 221. 
 Popocatepetl (po-po'kat-a-pa-tl) , 211. 
 Playgrounds, XIV. 
 Portland (pdrt'land), Me., 155, 160. 
 Portland, Oregon, 200. 
 Porto llico (por'to re'ko), 215. 
 Portugal (por'tu-gal), 238. 
 Potomac (po-to'mak), 168. 
 Poughkeepsie (po-klp'sl), 162. 
 Pribilof (pre-be-lov') Islands, 204. 
 Providence (prov'i-dens), 155, 159. 
 Pueblo (pweb'lQ), 194. 
 Puget (pu'jet) Sound, 200. 
 Pyrenees (pir'e-nez), 238. 
 
 Quebec (kwe-bek'), 207. 
 Queensland (kwenz'land), 271. 
 Quito (ke'to), Fig. 177. 
 
 Rainier (ra'ner), Fig. 157. 
 
 Raleigh (ra'la), Fig. 140. 
 
 Reading (rgd'Ing), 166. 
 
 Rhine (rln), 233. 
 
 Rhode (rod) Island, Fig. 125. 
 
 Richmond (rich'mond), 169. 
 
 Ilio de Janeiro (re'6 da zha-na'e-ro), 
 
 220. 
 Rio Grande (re'6 gran'da), 151. 
 Rochester (roch'es-ter), 91, 164. 
 Rocky Mountains, 151, 191. 
 Rome (rom), 240. 
 Roumania (roo-ma'ni-a) , 245. 
 Russia (rush'a), 231. 
 Rutland (rut'land), 156. 
 
INDEX 
 
 349 
 
 Sacramento (siik-ra-men't6), 200, 
 
 Figs. 41, 157. 
 Saginaw (sag'in-a), 187. 
 Sahara (sa-har'a), 263. 
 St. Anthony (an'tho-nl) Falls, 186. 
 St. Helena (Mt.), Fig. 71. 
 St. Lawrence (la/rens), 58, 151,207. 
 St. Louis (loo'is or loo'I), 45, 187. 
 St. Paul, 94, 185. 
 
 St. Petersburg (pe'terz-burg), 232. 
 Salinas River, Fig. 42. 
 Salt Lake City, 197. 
 Samar (sa-mar'), Fig. 221. 
 Samoa (sa-mo'a), 276. 
 San Bernardino, op. p. 153. 
 San Diego, 201, op. p. 153. 
 San Francisco (san fran-sis'ko), 72, 
 
 194, 200, 201, op. p. 118, Fig. 83. 
 San Jose, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. 
 San Pedro, Fig. 56. 
 Santa Barbara, 201. 
 Santa Fe (san'ta fa ), Fig. 157. 
 Santiago (san-te-a'gd), 222. 
 Sardinia (sar-dln'i-a), Fig. 183. 
 Savannah (sa-van'a), 177. 
 Scotland (skot'land), 226. 
 Scranton (skran'ton), 167. 
 Seattle (se-at'l), 200. 
 Shanghai (shang-ha'i), 256. 
 Shasta (shas'ta), Figs. 19, 124. 
 Siam (si-am' or se-am'), 260. 
 Siberia (sl-be'rl-a) t 254. 
 Sierra Madre, Fig. 123. 
 Sierra Nevada (ne-va'da), 21, 190. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 Singapore (sln-ga-por'), 260. 
 South America (a-mer'I-ka) , 138, 216, 
 South Dakota (da-ko'ta), Fig. 148. 
 Spain (span), 107, 238. 
 Spokane (spo-kan'.), 200. 
 Springfield (spring'feld), 159. 
 State Inst., Fig. 82, p. 108. 
 Stockholm (stok'holm), 230. 
 Stockton, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. 
 
 Sucre (soo'kre), Fig. 177. 
 
 Sudan (soo-dan'), 268. 
 
 Suez (soo-ez'), 266. 
 
 Sulu (sod-loo'), 276. 
 
 Sumatra (sod-ma'tra), Fig. 221. 
 
 Superior (su.-pe'ri-er) , Lake, 162, 182. 
 
 Sweden (swe'den), 229. 
 
 Switzerland (swit'zer-land) , 142,241. 
 
 Sydney (sid'ni), 274. 
 
 Syracuse (sir'a-kus), 164. 
 
 Tacoma (ta-ko'ma), 200. 
 Tagalogs (ta-ga'16gz), 276. 
 Tahoe (Lake), 66. 
 Tallahassee (tal-a-has'e), Fig. 140. 
 Tampa (tam'pa), 177. 
 Tanganyika (tan-gan-ye'ka), Fig. 
 
 214. 
 Tasmania (taz-ma'n:-a), 274. 
 Tennessee (ten-nes-se'), Fig. 140. 
 Texas (teks'as), 171, 173. 
 Thames (temz), 226. 
 The Hague (hag), 235. 
 Tibet (ti-bet'), or tib'et'), Fig. 203. 
 Tientsin (te-en'tsen) , 256. 
 Tierra del Fuego (te-er'ra del 
 
 fwa'go), Fig. 177. 
 Timbuktu (tim-book'too), Fig. 214. 
 Titicaca (tit-e-ka'ka), Fig. 177. 
 Tokio (to'ke-o), 258. 
 Toledo (to-le'do), 187. 
 Topeka (to-pe'ka), Fig. 148. 
 Toronto (to-ron'to), 208. 
 Trenton (tren'ton), 165. 
 Trieste (tre-esf), Fig. 183. 
 Trinidad (trin-I-dad'), 221. 
 Tripoli (trip'o-11), Fig. 214. 
 Troy, 164. 
 
 Truckee, Cal., Fig. 31. • 
 Tunis (tu'nls), Fig. 214. 
 Turkestan (toor'kls-tan'), Fig. 203. 
 Turkey (tur'ki), 107, 244. 
 
 United States, 29, 104, 136, 152, 153, 
 262, op. p. 179, Fig. 124. 
 
350 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Ural (u'ral) Mountains, 231, 254. 
 Uruguay (od-roo-gwi' or u'rod-gwa), 
 
 221. 
 Utah (u'ta or u'ta), 195, Fig. 164. 
 
 Valparaiso (val-pa-ri'so) , 222. 
 
 Venezuela (ven-e-zwe'la), 220. 
 
 Venice (ven'Is), 240. 
 
 Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos), 213. 
 
 Vermont (ver-inont'), 156. 
 
 Vesuvius (ve-su'vi-us) , 133, 241. 
 
 Vicksburg, 177. 
 
 Victoria (vlk-to'ri-a), Australia, 271. 
 
 Victoria, Canada, 208. 
 
 Victoria Nyanza (hi-an'za), Fig. 214. 
 
 Vienna (ve-en'a), 243. 
 
 Virginia (ver-jln'f-a), 169. 
 
 Vistula (vis'tu-la), Fig. 183. 
 
 Volga (vol'p), 231. 
 
 Wales (walz), 226. 
 Warsaw (war'sa), Fig. 183. 
 Washington (wosh'ing-ton) (city), 
 101, 105, 106, 168, 169." 
 
 Washington (state), 200. 
 West Indies (in'dez), 213. 
 West Virginia (ver-jin'f-a), 169. 
 Wheeling (hwel'ing), 169. 
 Wilkes Barre (wilks'bar-i), 167. 
 Wilmington (wil'ming-ton), Del., 
 
 165. 
 Wilmington, N.C., 177. 
 Winnipeg (win'i-peg), 208. 
 Wisconsin (wTs-kon'sin), 182. 
 Worcester (woos'ter), 159. 
 Wyoming (wi-o'ming), Fig. 157. 
 
 Yang-tse-Kiang (yang-tse-kl-ang'), 
 
 Fig. 203. 
 Yellowstone (yel'6-ston),193,Fig. 159. 
 Yenesei (yen-e-sa'e), Fig. 203. 
 Yokohama (yo-ko-ha'ma), 258. 
 Yosemite (yo-sem'i-te), 21, 193, 
 
 Figs. 18, 25, 158. 
 Yucatan (yoo-ka-tan'), Fig. 123. 
 Yukon (yoo'kon), 151, 203. 
 
 Zurich (tsu'riK.), 242. 
 
 Fig. 268. 
 The home of a typical Piute Indian family. 
 
Mf 27 1910