'^^k^^i'^sM Digitized by the Internet Arciiive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/cattlefeedingwitOOware CATTLE FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, MOLASSES SUGAR BEET RESIDUUM LEWIS S. WARE, EDITOR "THE SUGAR BEET," AUTHOR OF "SUGAR BEET SEED," ETC. FELLOW OF L'ECOLE CENTRALE DES ARTS, MANUFACTURES ET AGRICULTURE, PARIS; MEMBER PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; ASSOCIATION DES CHEMISTES ; ASSOCIATION DES CHEMISTES BELGE, ETC., ETC., ETC. ILLUSTRATED PHILADELPHIA BOOK CO., PRACTICAL, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL BOOKS, 15 SOUTH NINTH STREET, 1902. THE CIBRAfJY OF OONf^RESS, "^ vo Copitd Reosived OCT, 25 19f^2 OUASS a. XXa No. COPY S. Copyright by PHILADELPHIA BOOK CO. 1902. Printed at the WICKERSHAM PRINTING HOUSE, 53 and 55 North Queen Street, Lancaster, Pa., U. S. A. DR. HARVEY W. WILEY, Chief Chemist of the U. S. Depaetment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, my friend and co-worker, who during the past twenty years has given his official and scientific support toward the practicai/ realization of the introduction of the beet-sugar industry into the united states, this work is respectfully dedicated by The Author. PREFACE. The author for many years past has felt convinced that the future success of the American beet sugar industry would depend upon the introduction of certain principles of economy that are not entirely in accordance with our customs. The utilization of waste is an issue that always appeals to countries where labor is cheap and the struggle of life is hard. In the United States it is only within the past two years that any serious attention has been given to feeding the residuum cos- settes to cattle or finding some use for the molasses remaining after the campaign has ended. There is no doubt but that a large number of the European beet sugar factories would have long since ceased to exist had the residuums, pulp and molasses not been sold and thus become the sole money returns for the investors. In years when general prosperity prevails this income is that much more to be added to the general profits which frequentl}' during a single campaign reach a total of 80 per cent, on the invested capital. In 1874 when the beet sugar agitation in the United States was begun, not a single acre was planted in beets and no beet sugar factory was working in this country ; the seeds imported were distributed in many states and the resulting beets were ana- lyzed. There remained on the farmers' hands several tons of beets which had at first to be paid for out of the personal pocket of the writer: it was urged that a reasonable trial be given to these roots for feeding purposes ; this was done, and excellent results followed. Subsequently, the seeds of many varieties, which were gratuitously distributed, had no difficulty in finding some willing tillers to give them a fair trial. This led to solutions of difficult issues among farmers who had fur- nished beets to several of the early Canadian beet sugar fac- ( V ) VI PREFACE. tories, when the inferior quality of the beets caused their refusal at the factory ; discouragement followed and many of the farmers cancelled their contracts and turned their attention in other directions. It was not long before it was realized that while $4.00 to $5.00 per ton could not be obtained at the factory for roots testing less than 10 per cent, sugar, on the other hand for feeding purposes they would be worth at least $3.50 as shown by the increase in milk, butter, etc. Some farmers have gone so far in this direction as to devote a certain area to beets every year since that time, while the Canadian factories that were Avorking in 1883 have now ceased to exist. During the interval of twenty years sugar beets have continued to be fed with excellent results in certain districts of Canada. In the United States root feeding to cattle is not as general as it should be and the farmers have thus wasted an opportunity. Gen- eral information in regard to pulp feeding has been wanting, so it was considered urgent to visit most of the European farms and examine the question on the spot, and this present volume has been the result of that investigation. Of recent years in Continental Europe molasses feeding to cattle has gained in popularity. All the available documents on the subject in both French and German have been consulted and the practical re- sults where this residuum has been regularly fed have been per- sonall}' observed. Sugar may be had at such a low figure that it is interesting to examine just within what limit it also may be used for cattle. The theor}' of cattle feeding and requisites for success as considered from the standpoint of the leading German authorities such as Wolff and Kiihn, have been studied in detail, also the theories of many of the French savants upon the same subject. As the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington and the numerous experiment stations of the country have devoted considerable time to cattle feeding, their publications have been consulted and from them certain conclu- sions have been drawn that are not always in strict accordance with the theories of some of their experts. The results of the writer's personal practical experience is also given in these pages. As many technical terms are used there is given as Part VI a special chapter of definitions and technical considerations, PREFACE. Vll which enables any person without special scientific training to thoroughly understand the entire question discussed. The main object in view is to prevail upon farmers to use either sugar beets, sugar, or sugar beet residuum in its varied forms; by so doing they will have within their reach a source of profit hitherto ignored. L. S.. Ware. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. General Considekations on Cattle Feeding. ^^^^ Former modes; The cow formerly considered of secondary importance in general agricultural economy; Forage for cattle on the average Euro- pean farm; Eesults realized not commensurate with the outlay 1 Present modes; Work of the agricultural chemist and of the chemists con- nected with the sugar factories; Hay as the standard of the nutritive value of forage in general; Constituents of fodder; Constituents for the production of muscular tissues 2 Direct action in the formation of fat; Additional factor towards the supply of non-nitrogenous substances; Standards of feeding; Nutritive value of the nitrogenous substances; How the best results are obtained. 3 Importance of fat; Role of cellulose; Importance of salt; Role of water... 4 Variable ration; Most advantageous condition for the utilization of the nutritious elements of a forage; Facts to be remembered in fattening of live stock; Hygienic conditions; Temperature of the stable; Order of meals ^ Importance of regular feeding for cows; Production of milk; Ration for working animals; Rations for stall-fed animals 6 Conclusions; How fodders may be made as profitable to farmers as the cultivation of cereals; Special advantages offered by the beet; Negative results of stall-feeding; Advantages of the pulp combination in the animal ration ' Results obtained in feeding scrub cattle with cossettes misleading 8 PART FIRST. Feeding and Fattening Yol'ng Steees and Cattle. Theoretical considerations relating to the formation of fat; Principal groups of nutrients from which the fat is derived; Determination of the problem how domesticated ruminating animals store up fat 9 Kiihn's experiments in reference to the percentage of fat furnished in fodder which is deposited in the body; Examinations as to the influence of carbohvdrates on the formation of fat; Origin of the fat formed; (ix) X CONTENTS. PAGE Effect of too much water in fodder; Influence of the ambient tempera- ture of the stable; Importance of the size of the body 10 Bleeding animals to be fattened; Explanation of the influence of carbo- hydrates on the production and deposit of fat; What is shown by the general laws for the formation or production of flesh and fat 11 Theoretical considerations respecting flesh formation ; Early experiments having in view the production of flesh; Amount of protein decomposed from the body when the ration has been properly combined; Protein needed to sustain life in a normal condition of health 12 Effect of salt in reasonable amounts; Methods for economizing the quan- tity of albumin so as to obtain the maximum meat production; Stoh- mann's experiments; Effect of an addition of sugar in the shape of molasses or beet pulp to fodder 13 Consumption of carbohydi^ates by ruminating animals; General outline of the requisites for the practical and theoretical feeding and fattening of young cattle and steers; Wrong impression as to feeding semi-starved animals upon i-ations consisting of beet-sugar factory residuum products combined with other forages 14 Difiiculties contended with and experiments; Object of the consumption of food before a growing animal is weaned; Soxhlet's experiments; Feeding calves after being weaned 16 Water and its consumption by steers; Daily weighing; Varied feeds recommended; Essentials in fattening 16 Requisites for success; Duration of the fattening period; Advantages of sugar-beet residuum; Requisites for successful fattening; Importance of forcing animals to eat the greatest possible amount; Periods of feed- ing 17 Standards during the various periods of feeding; Success depends upon practical experience 18 Average cost for one pound increase in live weight; Money advantages of beet residuum; Needs for shipping facilities; Preparations for shipping fattened steers; Precautions in the use of s-alt in steer feeding 19 Essentials for success; Comforts for the steer to be fattened; Prof. Henry upon this subject; Feeding growing steers 20 Idea of the progress of the fattening to be obtained from the droppings; Prof. Henry on this subject; Milch cow feeding; General remarks 21 Combination of concentrates with roughage; Capacity of the milch cow to adapt itself to varied feeding; General interest in the question of feed- ing milch cows 22 Amount of milk a cow should yield; Dairying based on maternity of the cow, explained by Prof. Henry; Two sorts of milch cows 23 Considerations about milk and milking; Difference in the quantity and composition of milk; Influence of ihe time of milking upon the com- position and quality of the milk; The true and only basis for the sale of milk 24 CONTENTS. XI PAGE Calving cow, and its needs; Calf feeding; Artificial means a mistake 25 Rations and feeds; Use of cob meal and corn in preference to whole ear corn; Advantages of certain cotton-seed meals; Influence of feeds upon butter and milk 26 Influence of certain feeding stuflfs upon the flavor of butter; Importance of the influence of inorganic substances on the quality and quantity of milk; Henneberg and Stohmann's experiments 27 Influence of fodders upon the flavor of milk; Theoretical considerations; Elimination of milk from the blood; Elaboration of milk from the colostrum 28 What milk in reality is; Importance of the composition and size of the milk glands; Abnormal development of the udder not a sure indication of the possibility of an abundant flow of milk 29 Advantages of albumin; Amount of digestible protein needed; Efiiect of an ino'ease in the amount of fat of a ration on the flow of milk; Wolff on this subject 30 Experiments of Kiihn and of Weiske; Essentials for successful dairying; Shelter, and its importance; Amount of air required 31 Comfort and ease for the cow; Stables; Breed and kind of cow; Cows should have a trial; Continued attention; Kindness 32 Feeding; Time of feeding; Successful cossette feeding; Excessive feeding; Difficulties in feeding 33 Stable feeding and exercise; Feeding with a view of butter production; Feeding according to records; Question of labor 34 Bacteria; W^ater in feeding; Influence of water upon food consumption ... 35 Influence of water on protein consumption; Water drunk and its influence. 36 EflTect of water when given in excess; Loss of water per diem; Diarrhoea caused by excessively diluted rations; Essentials of good water; Salt ... 37 Mistake in starting a dairy; Co-operative methods; Calculation of rations for milch cows; Preliminary remarks 38 Manurial value of the droppings; Difference in opinion as to standard rations 39 Composition of one hundred rations for dairy cows in different parts of the United States; Requirements of American cows as compared with European 40 The standard adopted; Advantage of the- use of special tables for com- puting rations for farm animals; Faulty rations 41 Composition of ration No. 1, fed to California dairy cows; Composition of ration No. 2, fed to California dairy cows 42 Manner of calculating a ration; Composition of suppositious ration for dairy cows 43 Modification of above ration; Further modification of above ration 44 Sheep feeding; General considerations; Impulse to sheep raising in the United States given by beet pulp utilization 45 Importance of having the ewes well looked after; Advantages of com- Xll CONTENTS. PAGE parative breed tests; Mistake of shearing during feeding; Craig's experiments 46 Surprising results in sheep fattening; Beet cossettes and the wool; Sheep characteristics 47 Requisite feeding space and other essentials; Prof. Henry's views 48 Importance of sheep selection; Sheep fattening 49 Oats as a ration; Lands for pasturage suited to sheep; Winter feeding 50 Health of a sucking lamb; Weaning lambs 51 Feeding working animals; Theoretical considerations; Volt's experi- ments; Hanneberg's experiments upon sheep 52 Function of protein; Equivalents for 100 parts of fat 53 Production of muscular energy by albumin in the fodder; Facts to be con- sidered in the production of work; Causes of gouty and rheumatic ten- dencies 54 Production of work from foods, and Sanson's results in this direction 55 Working oxen and cows; Ration of an animal doing work 56 Rations in general; General remarks; Variation in the daily ration with the ambient temperature 57 Standards; Basis of all standard rations 58 Variation in standards; Variation in ration 59 Appetizing rations; Distribution of rations 60 Commercial value of fodders; All existing modes of estimation of value very empirical; Money mode of valuation 61 Difference in the nutritive money value as admitted in the United States from that adopted by Kiihn; Purchasing feeds 62 Rules proposed by the New Ycrk Agricultural Experiment Station; Cost of rations 63 PART SECOND. Feeding Beets to Cattle. Preliminary remarks; Advantages of a succulent ration with corn 64 Preparation of beets before feeding; Steaming or cooking 65 Vertical and horizontal section of Leduc's beet-steaming pits; Steaming process combined with fermentation 66 Arrangement of the pits and detail of chimney 67 Advantages of a reasonable fermentation 68 Maceration and its object; Comparative experiments; Beets and pulp compared 69 Experiments upon sheep; Sugar-beets and mangels compared 70 Comparison of Tankard and sugar-beets 71 Comparative increase in weight of sheep fed with Tankard and with sugar-beets; Size of root for cattle-feed 72 CONTENTS. Xin PAGE Plant food taken up by mangels and sugar-beets 73 Sugar-beets compaj-ed with rutabagas; Comparative analyses of a rutabaga and a sugar-beet 74 Efforts to create a semi-sugar-beet; Comparative yields of forage and semi-sugar-beets 75 Green corn fodder vs. sugar-beets for cattle feed; Green corn ensilage; Exhausting effects of green corn upon the soil 76 Plant food absorbed by one ton of sugar-beets and green corn; Plant food absorbed to the acre by ten tons of beets and twenty tons of green corn. 77 Large and small beets in cattle feeding 78 Sugar-beets more profitable than clover-hay for cattle-fodder; Experi- ments in feeding beets to cows and sheep in the United States; Prelimi- nary remarks; Great changes in the existing dairying process by the introduction of the sugar-beet 79 Dr. Goessmann on sugar-beet feeding; Statement emanating from the Pennsylvania State College Experiment Station 80 Comparison of corn silage and roots for milch cows 81 Corn silage and clover silage vs. sugar-beets; Wisconsin experiments in feeding sh eep 82 Relative value of silage and field beets in the production of milk; Experi- ments at the Ohio experiment station 83 Silage vs. beets, showing feed refused 84 Total milk produced, and gain and loss in weight 85 Average daily yield of milk with and without beets in ration, Ohio station. 1890 86 Cost of harvesting, siloing, etc., per acre of beets and of corn; Consump- tion of dry matter by cows fed on beets and on silage; The problem of fattening animals 87 Comments on the Ohio experiments; Comparison between potatoes and beets 88 Results obtained by feeding a short-horn cow and a Holstein heifer on beets; Results obtained by feeding a short-horn cow and a Jersey heifer on potatoes 89 Difference between beet butter and potato butter; Other experiments to determine the value of potatoes and roots for fattening lambs 90 Comparative results obtained by feeding lambs with potatoes, beets and mangels; Results of experiments made to determine the relative value of sugar-beets for steers and sheep 91 Comparative feeding value of silage, beets and mangels for cows; Exj^eri- ments to determine the effect of different rations in fattening lambs 92 Comparison of cost of grain per 100 lbs. with roots, and without roots; Comparative experiments with siloed cossettes and forage beets; Feed- ing sugar-beet leaves and tops; Preliminary remarks 93 Composition of beet leaves and tops according to Dr. Herzfeld 94 Beet -leaf stripping i , 95 XIV CONTENTS. PAGE Early feeding and mistakes made; Harvesting the crop of beet leaves and tops; Average crop to the acre 96 Value of beet leaves and tops; Beet-leaf keeping 97 Composition of beet leaves siloed in two ways; Methods of compressing the leaves in the silos 98 Transformation in silos and losses; Analysis of siloed beet leaves, accord- ing to Stutzer 99 Efforts to hasten lactic acid fermentation; Faulty siloing; Leaves and other substances in silo 100 Beet leaf siloing in Germany; Grouven's experiments in siloing leaves; Changes which take place in the tops 101 Soft leaf fodder; Postelt's method; Beet-leaf washing; Lehmann and Maercker's method for soured leaves 102 Acidulated beet leaves; The Mehay method 103 Beet-leaf drying, and its advantages 104 The Crummer dryer; Buttner and Meyer dryer 105 Vibrans' objections to this method 106 Wusterhagen dryer; Various modes of beet-leaf keeping 107 Proebent's experiments in beet-leaf drying 109 Advantages and disadvantages of beet-sugar; Beet-leaf feeding 110 Priester's experiments; Objections to beet-leaf feeding Ill Oxalic acid — its influence 112 Zuntz's experiments; Gaspari's conclusions and recommendation 113 Conclusions respecting beet-leaf feeding; Eesults obtained in Germany.... 114 Relation of beet to leaf composition; Saline elements taken from the soil and contained in beet leaves; Experiments in which cows were fed upon beet leaves 115 Surprising results in feeding milch cows with beet leaves; Money value of beet leaves and tops; Economical advantages of the utilization of beet leaves 116 Feeding seed stalks and seed 117 PART THIRD. CHAPTER I. Feeding Fresh and Siloed Sugar Beet Residuum. Early appreciation of the value of sugar-beet residuum cossettes; Objec- tion to its use 118 Manner of using residuum; Diffusion cossettes; In what diffiision consists. 119 The main object of the sugar manufacturer; Composition of diffusion cossettes as they leave the diflTusion battery 120 Sugar left in the residuum; Excess of water; Desirability of eliminating the water of diffusion pulps; Dripping and straining 121 CONTENTS. XV PAGE Cossette presses; Objection to excessive pressure 122 Losses during pressing; Diversity of data; Experiments of Stammer and of Classen 123 Kesults obtained by Friihling and Schultz; Analysis of beet residuum before and after preparation; The Klusemann press, illustrated and de- scribed 1 24 Selwig and Lange cone pulp press, illustrated and described 127 Advantages claimed for the conical cossette press 130 Daily delivery of 3-cone cossette presses of varying dimensions; The Ber- green press, illustrated and described 131 Lallouette press, illustrated and described 134 Care needed during pressing; Pressing facilitated by heat; Modes for facilitating pressing 136 Maercker's mode of working; Siekel's process; Muller's proposition; Theory of the Manoury method 137 Mixing of lime with the cossettes; Scheermesser's method; Pulp or cos- sette contracts 138 Value of sugar-beet cossettes 139 Conveyance of cossettes to farms; Importance of keeping the residuum clean 140 Changes when exposed to the air; Not to be fed alone to live stock; Feed- ing value of cossettes; Importance of adding lime 141 Phosphoric acid to be added; Beet cossettes in cattle feeding; Fattening of sheep with beet cossettes in the United States 142 How to feed beet pulps; Dangers of feeding beet pulps 143 Advantage of the saturation of pulps with alcoliolic vapors; Beet pulp disease; Most objectionable pulps. 144 Maladies due to decomposed or mildewed cossettes; Use of soui-ed cos- settes; Conclusions as to dangers of cossette feeding 145 Pulp malady a comparatively new fad among scientists; Osteomalacia and its causes 146 Feeding with the view to production of milk and butter; Synopsis of ex- periments made bearing on this question 147 Continued feeding with cossettes; Klein's observations 148 Excessive feeding; Water in beet pulp 149 Mistake to feed frozen cossettes; Rations for working oxen; Mode of stall- feeding oxen for the market on Austrian farms 150 Eation for bulls on an Austrian fai-m; Eations for live stock in general, as used in France; Eations for sheep; Eations for mules and horses; Eation for pigs 151 Simon Legrand's ninety-four day experiment in feeding diffusion pulp to cattle; Mixing cossettes with other fodders 152 Eations for milch cows recommended by Eisben 153 Increase in the milk production when soured cossettes are used 154 Digestibility of residuum cossettes; Cossettes as food for man 155 XVI CONTENTS. PAGE Cossettes as food for ganae; General remarks; What residuum cossettes feeding means in Germany; Siloing residuum cossettes; Silos for reducing cossettes 156 Size of silos recommended by Pellet and Lelavandier 157 Characteristic odors of butter made from milk of pulp-fed cows; Bottom paving of silos 158 Filling silos with beet cossettes 159 Coverings for the top of silos; Advisability of obtaining the best results in cossette keeping; Transformation during siloing 160 Sacrifice by organic transformation or putrefaction; Percentage of organic acid cossettes may contain; Temperature which the cossettes should reach 161 Transformation of the nitrogenous substances; Nutritive value of the amides; Percentage of anhydrous carbonic acid in the gases 162 Principal centers for change in silos; Early chemical changes during siloing (Maercker) 163 Chemical changes during prolonged siloing (Petermann) 164 Decrease in the number of cattle in Germany during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870; Digestibility of nitrogenous substances for soured and for fresh cosset t es 165 Liebscher's observations on the reduction of losses; Mixing chopped straw with the cossettes 166 Mixing the pulp with molasses; Mixing the residuum with some anti- septic; Surface siloing; Simple surface siloing illustrated and described. 167 Surface siloing using lumber, illustrated and described; Silo formed by excavating hillside, illustrated and described 168 Wood-built silo, illustrated and described 169 Dug-out type of silo, illustrated and described 170 Underground type of silo, illustrated and described 172 CHAPTER II. Dried Eesiuuxjm Cossettes. Early efforts in drying cossettes; Prize offered for a dryer; Objections to using dried cossettes 173 The principal promoters of dried cossettes; Limit of pressing 174 Liming before drying; Hot diffusion facilitates pressing 1 75 The Pfeiffer compressed-air mode for employing the diffusors; Waste gases for drying 176 Utilization of lost heat for drying; Eational appliances led to poor results. 177 The Mackensen dryer, illustrated and described 179 The Petry-Hecking dryer, illustrated and described 180 The Buttner and Meyer dryer, illustrated and described 181 Temperature of cossettes being dried 184 Complete drying unnecessary; Regulating the dryer 186 CONTENTS. XV 11 PAGE Practical working of a drjer; Formula for the calculation of the efficiency of a cossette dryer, proposed by Eydlew.ski; Objectionable feature of dryers 1 87 Analj'sis of fresh and dried pulp aiccording to Erunehfiut; Cost of plant... 188 Steam drying; Steam dryer, illustrated and described 189 The Thiesen dryer; The Heckmann dryer; Composition and appearance of the dried residuum; Average composition of dried eossettes 191 Comparative analyses of dried oossettes and hay; Comparison between siloed and dried eossettes 192 Active elements of fermentation 193 Advantages of dried -cossettej? for feeding; Heat needed to evaporate water drunk 194 Vogel'.s experiments witii sheeij; Utilization of the force developed by the heart; Results showing the influence of the excessive water absorbed ... 195 Influence of water in ration on milk and weight of cows; Di'ied eossettes more hygienic tlian the siloed 196 Dried eossettes more readily handled than the fresli oi' siloed; Minej'al substances in the dried eossettes 197 Conservation of dried eossettes; Change during keeping 198 Digestibility of eossettes; Eelative digestibility of fresh, dried, and siloed •eossettes 199 Reduction in th"• handling of the data contained in the tables previously referred to. In the present example, we may suppose that a farmer has 50 cows of an average weight of 1000 lbs. , and that all condi- tions are favorable for cattle feeding ; also that the winter feeding lasts from November to May, we may say 200 daj^s, and that the barn contains 40,000 lbs. clover hay and 70,000 lbs. oat straw. Residuum cossettes have been obtained at the beet-sugar factory and siloed, the quantity being 200 tons or 440,000 lbs. As 70 tons of beets offered to the factory have been refused, they must also be kept during the winter, and represent 154,000 lbs. Under the best circumstances, it is not desirable to consume all the hay on hand, but for the present we may simply suppose that it is all fed, other fodders being put aside for spring feeding. The 40,000 lbs. clover hay to be consumed in 200 days means 200 lbs. per diem or 4 lbs. per cow. in the same manner the consumption of oat straw should be 7 lbs. per diem, 44 lbs. cossettes, and 15 lbs. of beets. If we should use only what is on hand, the daily ration for each cow would be as follows: Composition of Suppositious Kation for Dairy Coavs. Dry matter. Digestible. Protein. Carbohy- di-ates and fats X 2.25. Total. Eatio. 3.40 lbs. 6 37 " 0.272 lbs. 0.084 " 0.264 " 0.165 " 1.584 lbs. 2.828 " 3.212 " 1.560 " 1.856 lbs. 2.912 " 3.476 " 1.725 " 44 lbs. cossettes 15 lbs. beets 4.40 " 1.95 " Total 16.12 lbs. Standard 24.5 " 1 0.785 lbs. 2.2 " 9.184 lbs. 14.9 " 9.969 lbs. 17.1 " 7.131 lbs. 1:11 1:6.8 1 Difference 8.38 lbs. 1.415 lbs. 5.716 lbs. 44 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The fodders to be added must make up for this deficiency, and the kind, depend upon the market price and the locality in which the farm is situated. It must be noticed that the ration as it exists is entirely too wide, hence there should be added a fodder with narrow ratio. The tables show that 9 lbs. of wheat middlings will very nearly furnish what is needed, and as thej' may be had at a low price they may be used. Modification of Above Eation. Dry matter. Protein. Carbohy- by drates and fat. ■ Total. 16.12 lbs. 7.92 " 0.785 lbs. 1.152 " 9. 184 lbs. 5.463 " 9.969 lbs. 6.615 " 9 lbs. wheat middlings . • • . 1:4.7 Total 24.04 " 1.937 " 'l4.647 " 16.584 " 1:7.5 The ratio is still rather wide, and there remains 0.27 lbs. protein to be furnished. We must select a fodder that will have a low nutritive ratio, and one pound of linseed meal meets the essentials: Further Modification of Above Ration. ^J ] Protein, matter. 1 Carbohy- drates and fat. Total. 24.04 lbs. 1.937 lbs. .90 " 0.282 " 14.647 lbs. 0.464 " 16. 584 lbs. 0.746 " 1 lb. linseed meal 1 :1.6 Total 24.94 " ; 2.219 " 15.111 " 17.330 '' 1:6.8 Without the use of well arranged tables considerable guess work must be restored to, but by their use the problem is solved almost at a glance. In the calculations one could enter GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 45 into great detail as to the cost of the ration per diem. With pressed cossettes from the factory a very important portion of the nutrients is obtained at a comparatively low figure. In the case we have supposed, the 450 lbs. of wheat middlings and 50 lbs. of linseed meal per diem would have to be purchased, and should be on hand as soon as possible. It means the purchase of 450 X 200 or 90,000 lbs. with 10,000 lbs. linseed meal, the latter costing not more than $20 a ton and the former $18 per ton. The money outlay for the farmer is certainly less than $1,000, from which he has 10,000 rations, meaning 10 cents per ration. As the cossettes are had free or at a cost of 50 cents per ton, they enter into the ration for less than one cent. As the beets cost the farmer at least $3.00 a ton, they enter the ration for less than two cents. All facts considered, the daily ration consisting of 4 lbs. clover hay, 7 lbs. oat straw, 44 lbs. sugar-beet cossettes and 15 lbs. of beets should cost less than 13 to 14 cents per diem. The feeding of steers, lambs, etc., offers no difficulty; if their rations consist of dried or siloed cossettes, or even of the various molasses or sugar fodders, the calculation is done in exactly the same manner. The standard ration for each animal differs. The question of economy in the use of the by-fodder added must be separately calculated, and would take us beyond the limits of the present writing. Slieep Feeding. The beet pulp utilization has given an enormous impulse to General con- sheep raising in the United States. No less than three instances siderations. may be cited in which the lots are 30,000 each, hence the im- portance of having a general outline of the requirements for the successful care-taking of these animals at various periods of their growth. As the milk of ewes is seldom used for man in this country, its characteristics need not be discussed for the present. Several of our experimental stations have taken up the question of comparing the results obtained in lamb feed- ing with cows' milk and with regular rations made up of various feeding stuffs, and decided in favor of the milk. As milch cows are usually fed in large number with residuum beet 46 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. cossettes, the milk required for the special purpose of lamb fattening at certain seasons of the year, generally in mid-winter, may be had at a very low cost, and almost defies all other competition. During the very early days of the lamb's existence it had better depend upon its mother for its subsistence, and the im- portance of having the ewes well looked after is self evident. A suitable diet is needed, and express orders should be given not to permit shearing, as experiments show that this is gener- ally followed by a decrease in the flow of milk. However, when from local reasons there is a marked demand for the wool, the secreting powers of the ewes may be restored after a week's time by the Judicious introduction of certain feeding stuffs in the ration. The age of the animal has an important influence on the possible money profits that are to be derived from fattening, the young animals being, in the long run, more profitable. In whatever State sheep feeding with residuum pulp is prac- ticed, one is to a certain extent dependent upon the breeds that the locality can furnish. Certain breeds are more profitable than others. For breeders who purpose to continue with lambs frOm year to year, it may be considered advantageous to carrj^ out certain comparative breed tests. In order to save money and time, experiments have been made with self-feeding appliances, the grain being placed in a special upper receptacle, and falling by gravity as the hopper connecting it with the trough becomes empty. The sheep have in this manner food ad libitum. These devices have never been up to expectations, and are not to be recommended. We have already mentioned in a general way how the shear- shearing dur- ^j^g influences the milk; in the same way the possibilities of fattening are lowest when the wool has been removed. In this respect the experiments of Craig of the Wisconsin station have brought to light some important conclusions, among which may be mentioned that shorn lambs eat more, drink less water and make 30 per cent, less gain than the unshorn, hence when fattening is the object in view the shearing, and even increase of wool, is objectionable. Mistake of SHEEP CHARACTERISTICS. 47 By shearing in the fall of the year and again in the spring more avooI is obtained than from a single spring shearing, bnt the market A'alue of the two clippings, is not any greater than of the single clipping, in which the fibres of the fleece are larger. When the lambs are to be fattened during three or four winter months, there appears to be no practical advantage in fall shear- ing. A rather surprising result obtained in this question of sheep fattening is, that unlike the steer, very little advantage is to be gained by in-door feeding. Evidently to make up for the difference of temperature in the two cases, more food is required to obtain the same results. Whatever be the success in feeding, there will always follow a certain shrinkage when sent to their destination, and the question is open to discussion whether in the long run it would not be more profitable to have the stock yards in the direct vicinity, especially as the resulting blood could be combined with the molasses and cossettes to form part of the regular daily rations. There is very little available information as regards the exact Beet [cossettes advantage of introducing beet cossettes on an extended scale in ^'"' ""^ ^'"''• sheep feeding, but the results in Nebraska show in a general way that the advantages are considerable. Just whether it is advantageous to use corn, wheat, etc. , depends upon the locality in which the feeding is done, and when the beet cossette feeding has become very general in its applications, we are convinced it will completely change all existing modes, resulting in greater -economy and facility. Certain facts always remain, whatever be the mode of feeding. A long series of investigations will be needed to determine exactly what influence cossettes have on the quality of the wool; however, in this respect, as every one knows, the environment has more influence than the actual food eaten. Among all the animals the breeder has to handle, none can sheep char- subsist on more varied rations than can sheep; they evidently acteristics. adapt themselves to any circumstances that may arise. The general characteristic of the sheep is that its general condition improves when in flocks of several thousands. When these ex- tensive flocks existed some years since, it always necessitated a Jarge area of ground in some corn State, and the experienced 48 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. care of a shepherd. Now with an abundant supply of residuum Requisite feeding beet cossettes, special quarters are provided which occupy a corn- space and other paratively limited space. Professor Henry * discussing this essentials, question says: "A ewe weighing 100 lbs. will require about ten square feet of ground space, while one weighing 150 lbs. should have 15 square feet. A space 40x40 feet square will therefore accommodate about 160 sheep weighing 100 pounds each, or 100 weighing 160 pounds, not allowing for feed racks. Provide 15 inches running length of feed rack for each sheep weighing 100 pounds, and two feet for those weighing 200 pounds." "Sheep to be profitable must be kept dry as to coat and feet; inattention to either of these essentials will result disastrously. . . . One thickness of closely-matched boards will make the barn or shed where sheep are confined sufficiently warm in the Northern States, except for winter lambs." In several efforts at sheep feeding in the United States, com- ing under our notice, the flocks are simply collected together regardless of their weight, size and general characteristics, and the ultimate results obtained would certainly be disappointing if critically examined. An enormous number of lambs die after being born; the early care needed is frequently lacking, as the object in view is simply fattening; but this will change in time and the requisite hourly care-taking will be given. The American sheep and lamb cossette feeding is generally over before the time for past- uring has arrived, and even if this were not so, the pasturage in most cases where factories are located would not be sufficient to meet the requirements of the case. However, in this respect there is much to be said, for in cases where the cossettes have been properly siloed the feeding can continue well on into the spring, the flock being removed when the desired fattening limit has been reached, f and it is then recommended to allow the lambs to have the full run of the fields, returning to their mothers through smaller spaces than the ewe can pass. As the *See " Feeds and Feeding," p. 516. t The increase according to the best authorities is one pound live weight per 1 lbs. dry substance fed. SHEEP FATTENING. 49 lambs may be born at any period, it is well to adopt the system of placing something tempting for the lambs. As regards the quantity of water to be allowed sheep, authorities differ, some declaring the less water the better, some that a few quarts daily are sufficient. Too little attention has hitherto been given to the feeding troughs, which should be constantly cleansed, and the cossette ration not eaten removed and replaced by fresh. In the general rush at sheep feeding on an extended scale Importance of with the view to utilizing cossette fresh from the factory, too sheep selection, little attention is given to medical examination of the animals to be fed, and the result is that disease soon spreads and plays havoc among the flock. Just as is the case with milch cows, sheep must be fed at reg- Sheep fattening, ular intervals and treated with constant kindness; they become accustomed to special attendants, and they alone had better handle the question of feeding. In whatever State the sheep feeding is carried on, there are always certain essentials for the market; but just what these are would carry us beyond the scope of the present writing. The fattening proper cannot commence until sheep have been not only weaned, but have got their full set of teeth. In countries presenting passable conditions the sheep grazing can commence when the cattle leave off. It is important that the sheep be not allowed to walk distances out of proportion to the food gathered, otherwise the exercise would not lead to very beneficial results as far as the farmer is concerned. Evi- dently the best meat is obtained from sheep that are familial? with good pasturage on lands more or less charged with salts, like those near the seashore, which frequently offer the best results. The fattening of sheep is a much more difficult process than that of cattle, owing to the individual characteristics of each. They must be classified not only according to weight, but also in regard to special characteristics. The rule is to give stimu- lating food, so as to obtain the greatest possible consumption per diem. When rams have commenced to give evidence of their maturity they require a very diff'erent ration from sheep that have been altered or females. 4 50- FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The varying requisites in sheep raising render their profitable breeding most difficult. It is pointed out that when conditions permit, that sheep, even in summer, be not allowed to leave the fold on empty stomachs. The change from dry fodder to pasturage should not be accomplished too rapidly. A good custom that seems to prevail is that of giving sheep plenty of exercise even in cold weather. The principal difference in fodders to be given to older sheep and types, previously men- tioned, is that the percentage of coarser feeds is to be aug- mented and the concentrated diminished. The total per diem is .diminished and carbohydrates increased. While oats are objectionable as a general ration, in this special case they render excellent service; as they have an ex- citing tendency on the procreating organs, their introduction as a ration must be effected gradually, just to take the place of bran; and when the greatest effect has been produced the ration is withdrawn little by little. In all casss the question of age is an important factor. Raisers of sheep have many theories that are not altogether in accordance with practice. Ample feeding for sheep is as important as it is for cattle. Unlike cattle, there is no special time for sheep to be born, and it occurs just as frequently in summer as in winter. The rations during the two periods must, however, differ; in summer there is the natural pasturage, and what sheep can utilize is very different from that for cows. The question remains to be solved just within what limits lands are suited to sheep. Swampy low lands do not give satisfactory results. The lands should not be too far from the fold and farm to furnish suffi- cient food to thoroughly satisfy their appetites almost twice a day. It has been suggested that the best method for determin- ing the quantity of grass, etc., needed, is to weigh a certain number of sheep before and after their feeding, by which means one could ascertain the average consumption.. When winter feeding is considered it must not be forgotten that sheep during gestation have not attained their full growth, and should be fed accordingly. Very coarse fodders are not suitable for sheep; too highly fermented food is also objectionable; excitable SHEEP FATTENING. 51 fodders are very objectionable, and the nutritive ratio should be 1:4, with at least 60 per cent, moisture. Beets give excel- lent results, and should in all cases be mixed with chopped straw, etc. It is difficult to determine Ihe exact quantity of fodder to be given; the best guide with sheep is the amount they refuse. Great advantages are to be derived by allowing sheep to have all the milk from the mother that they need. The health of a sucking lamb depends upon the health of the mother. The discussions of this question are outside the province of the present writing. One sheep should never .be allowed to feed more than one lamb at a time, and in special cases the use of a bottle may give excellent results; two quarts of milk per diem is readily con- sumed by an average healthy lamb. Good and well selected fodder comes next in importance. Great care should be taken that the fodders be not too rich and dry. The lamb as well as the mother under such rations would soon die. During very rainy weather the grass and general pasturage contain so much water that it is frequently found possible to supplement their food in fold. The sucking should be repeated four times a day (at first much oftener), and during the interval the mother has ample time to recuperate. Arrange so that the mother and young one are separated by a partition with doors large enough for the lamb to pass, but not the mother. The first tooth appears after four months, and the weaning should then begin. One meal of oil cake, etc., is furnished during the interval of their sucking. These meals become more numerous, and within a month the weaning should be complete. It may be considered a mistake to make a distinction between the requirements of male, female or altered sheep. The object in all cases is the same, that of securing in one year the most complete development possible. The French authorities are strongly opposed to the use of oats in sheep rations, as this fodder has a very exciting tendency and as a result a very thinning effect. The summer pasturage is very much the same as it is with sheep. The rations should be as much like fresh grass as possible. . 52 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Feeding Working Animals. Theoretical con- The theories relating to the feeding of working animals siderations. j^^yg undergone many changes within recent years. For a long while it was admitted that muscular exertion always meant a wear and tear upon the organs of the body in which the ex- penditure of protein was several times greater than during periods of rest. Experiments by Voit have long since demon- strated that the consumption of albuminoids is not necessarily greater during Avork than it is in rest. Evidently during work the circulation is more active which necessitates a greater con- sumption of protein in special directions, but there soon follows a compensation. On the other hand, during the activity there is necessarily greater consumption of fat than during rest, and also it must not be forgotten that during this period more oxygen enters the lungs, the combustion is greater and the caloric gen- erated is increased; this is necessarily followed by an increased perspiration and ultimate loss of animal heat. Consequently efforts to fatten an animal doing work Avould be folly. The subject continues to be constantly discussed and authorities do not agree. Many of the experiments made upon dogs have led to some results of more or less importance. The Avriter con- siders it unnecessary to give numerous tables, showing that the consumption of protein is entirely independent of work done as mentioned in the foregoing. Interesting experiments by Henneberg upon sheep show that the muscular expenditure due to mastication and rumination have an important influence upon the loss of carbonic acid. Animals receiving their rations in the regular way threw out from the body 54 per cent, of total carbonic acid during the day; when fed at night, 56 per cent, of total carbonic acid was thrown off during the twelve hours of feeding. Numerous experi- ments upon horses offer for our readers matter which is for- eign to our subject. ■ As regards this question, it is interesting to mention that some authorities pretend that as the consumption of fat increases with work done, it is to this source we must look for muscular force. As the work done has its equivalent in the excess of heat produced, there is possibly a transformation of heat into work exactly as in the steam engine. Heat comes THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 53 from the fuel consumed, which caloric is subsequently trans- formed into power in the receiving receptacle. From this it is concluded that it is mainly from the carbohydrates that heat is obtained, and the resulting force is only 20 per cent, of the total caloric, which results are however superior to the very best mechanical appliances. This is only theory and does not agree with the facts of the case. If the forces of the body represented a simple transformation of animal heat, it would be possible to keep on working night and day without the least sensation of fatigue. If there is greater heat produced during work than in rest, this is compensated by the increased perspiration which estab- lishes an equilibrium. Some years since it was declared that when feeding animals during excessive work, their rations must contain considerable protein, and a comparatively small amount of carbohydrates. The function of protein is not to produce power, but it is essential for muscular activit3^ Recent experiments, on the other hand, show that carbo- hydrates, such as sugar, actually mean strength. There can be no doubt that animals store up a certain amount of power in various forms. Max Riibner has demonstrated that dynamic equivalents of nutrients are almost exactly equal to their caloric equivalents. It is, however, to Stohmann that the credit must be given of this interesting discovery. It has been demonstrated that 100 parts of fat have the following equivalents: Equivalents for 100 Parts OF Fat. Number obtained directly. Calculated. Myosin 225 232 231- 256 213 — 4424 calories. Starch Cane sugar Glucose 229 = 4416 235 = 4001 ^55 — 3692 " 54 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. These figures show that the different carbohydrates men- tioned agree ahiiost mathematically. Stohmann admits that the thermogenic values " of one kilo of albumin, fat and starch are represented bj^ 5715, 9431 and 4116 calories." It is evident that the dynamic and thermogenic equivalents are different. The factor 2.44 as admitted between fat and starch is too high. One gram of organic substances of A^egetable origin, such as rye bread, represents 3960 calories. While fats and carbo- hydrates have important functions to fulfill in the production of power, the protein elements undergoing decomposition in the -body are compared by Voit to a constant flow of water, the amount escaping through the mill-race being perfectly inde- pendent of the energy obtained. Other experiments appear to show that the decomposition of protein means an absorption of water, and the ultimate splitting up of the protein molecules means the formation of urea and fat. Considerable albumin in the fodder helps without doubt in the production of muscular energy; when w^ork is continued for a long period the nutritive ratio must be more contracted than when at rest. While indirectly the decomposition of protein in the body may be considered as a source of power, it must not be forgotten that the decomposition continues even during sleep. -- An abundant supply of nutritive substances is not alone sufficient to produce work; the body of the animal fed must be in a good healthy condition, otherwise there is only a partial assimilation. A weak animal with a poor muscular organism would give very poor work, even when well fed, as compared to one whose muscles are in prime condition. In fact, there is very much less oxygen stored up. In this question of the production of work it must not be forgotten that the muscles cannot and do not work properly if the gases evolved and wastes are not constantly removed from the circulation. Gouty and rheumatic tendencies are important examples of muscular activity, due to an unusual deposit of lactic or uric acid. The theory now accepted is that muscular force depends upon the splitting up of some element making up the muscle rather than upon an actual oxidation, thus the de- THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS. 55 composition in whatever form it may be considered depends to a certain extent upon the storing up of ox5^gen, which remains dormant as it were until needed. The Henneberg experiments show that most of the oxygen is taken up during the night, this being true not only when the animal is at rest, but also when working. As regards carbonic acid, the reverse is true, viz., most of the carbonic acid is thrown off during the day and the amount increases with work done. An important fact is that the storing up of oxygen seems to depend upon the amount of protein fed. Muscular activit}^ always means an expenditure of fat and carbohydrates, hence there can be no doubt of the importance of a fodder containing a sufficient suppty to meet almost any emergency. Additional fat is a very important element in the production of work, and it is not surprising that the working classes as such depend so largely upon fatty foods. This sub- ject of production of work from foods has been' reduced to a science, and among the most important results in this special direction are those of Sanson. The problem is to establish a proportion between the work done in raising one kilo one meter high, and the energy of a kilo of protein combined with fatty substances and carbohydrates. The mechanical equivalent of one kilogram of protein corre- sponds to 1,742,500* kilogrameters of work; and consequently an animal fed can develop that amount of M'ork without loss of weight. To compose a ration that would fill all the require- ments of the case, the distance traveled in a unit of time, the effort consumed, and the total time during which work lasts must be considered. If K represents foot pounds, P protein, and X the number of foot pounds that 1 lb. of protein will produce, we shall have the following equation: K ^ P X X, consequently X = — . This -proportion is frequently termed the mechanical coefficient of pro- tein. In experiments upon horses, it was shown that by sub- tracting from the protein consumed during work the protein *One kilo of protein = 4,100 calories; one calorie = 425 kilogrameters. 4,100 X 425 = 1,742,500 kg. ra. 56 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. consumption during rest we obtain the protein requisite for work produced. In such calculations it is well to consider the digestible protein; in fact, upon general principles we may admit that the working powers of an animal depend upon its digestive activity. Again using the above formula, we have: K = PX 1,742,500. Consequently if we have a ration consisting of known fodders it is possible to determine the work it can produce. In a few words, the calculation consists in determining the raw protein of the ration and the coefficient of digestibility. Work done =: Crude protein X Coeff. of digestibility X 1.742.- 500. If the work is known in advance the protein necessary may be determined by a very simple calculation. Upon general principles it must be admitted tliat an animal will not develop muscular force unless its muscles are in good condition, which means health. The amount of albumin de- posited in the organs and in the circulation must be sufficient to supply the demands for the production of work. Under special conditions the mechanical energy developed may be increased by using a very concentrated ration. and'Tows^" '^^® working of cows and oxen on farms is not practiced in this country as in Europe, consequently the subject has for us only a secondary importance. The ration of an animal doing work must necessarily differ from one being stall fed, and the appetite is greater owing to the effort of nature to restore tissue consumed during work. Instead of the standard given for growing cattle, we can increase the quantity of beets -| lb. per diem and slightly decrease the cotton seed cake. The pro- portion for each would then be 35 per cent, of total dry matter furnished by beets, 17 per cent, h&j, 13 per cent, wheat, 18 per cent, cotton-seed cake, and 18 per ceiit. malt sprouts. For an- imals 12 to 18 months old and consuming 18.5 lbs. dry matter per diem we should have a ration as follows: Beets 46 lbs., clover hay 3.7 lbs., wheat straw 2.7 lbs., cotton seed meal 8.7 lbs., malt sprouts 3.7 lbs. Under these circumstances there would follow an increase of weight of about y^^ or 1.8 lbs. per GENERAL REMARKS. 57 diem; if at the commencement of the season the animal weighed 770 lbs., its weight would be after six months about 1,000 lbs. As many cows are w^orked during their gestation, it is of great importance not to give them beets that are even slightly fer- mented. It is the custom on some farms to prepare the ration and allow it to subsequently ferment, but there is constant dan- ger under these circumstances of bringing about a miscarriage. Young oxen through this feeding may work and gain in strength and weight; the ration then undergoes a slight change, and con- tains a heavier percentage of coarser fodders. After the end of the third year they attain their maximum working weight. There are many arguments as to the comparative advantages of working an animal that is to be subsequently fattened, and of allowing it to remain idle for over two years. Oxen when doing light work do not require very much more fodder than is needed for their maintenance; on the other hand, if extra work is demanded of them, it is important to furnish per 1,000 lbs. live weight about 1.6 lbs. protein and 12 lbs. of non-nitrogenous substances, the nutritive ration being then, 1:7.5. Rations In General. The Wolff tables are calculated on a basis of 1000 lbs. live Oeneral'remarks. weight per diem. Several French authorities justly point to the fact that these figures are not based upon thoroughly scientific facts. Little or no allowance is made for the difference in the assimilating powers of certain races of large and small animals, no account is taken of the age of the cattle being fed, and there is no effort at economy of fodder used, when a little more or less in certain cases would bring about very different results financially. It is most difficult by using these standard rations to ascertain their economic working. It is also pointed out that a knowledge of the average temperature in the stables is neces- sary, and that in reality the daily rations should vary with the ambient temperature. When every fact is considered, it re- mains to be thoroughly proved whether the best ration should not be governed by the appetite of the animal being fed. We do not in our present writing consider it worth our while to enter into those very complicated theories based upon the caloric neces- 58 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. sary to keep up the animal's consumption. Furthermore it was proposed that the ration should vary with each animal, as the cube root of the square root of the animal's weight. All chest measurements for weight of ration are also very empirical, as the expansion of the chest is by no means constant and varies irom minute to minute; a variation of one inch in these meas- .urements makes a very considerable difference in the results obtained. So all facts considered the standard may be the best guide. It may, however, be desirable to have tables for an average weight and to decrease or increase same, as may be, lemembering in all cases that a small animal eats more, propor- tionately, than a large one does. Standards. Animals of given weight, age and kind, are capable of eating a certain amount per diem. An average in each case has led to certain standards upon which the whole art of cattle feeding depends. Hence well-arranged tables point out just what amount of protein and fatty substances should be fed to cows being milked, or cattle going through the process of fattening. To remain within rational limits, it is important to be con- stantly watching the condition of excrements thrown out by each animal fed, as if it is receiving that which it cannot digest, there will soon be evidence of this in the excrements, and the ration then should be altered until normal conditions are reached. Practical experiments appear to show that the di- gestive capacity of cattle is about 2 to 3 per cent, of dry matter of their weight. Upon this basis one can approximate the maximum feeding capacity of the product on hand for a given period.. All standard rations are based upon the supposition that the stable is kept at a temperature that varies from 12 to 20° C. Jn exceptional cases, during winter for example, the tempera- ture is very much below this standard; under which circum- stances it becomes important to increase the percentage of heat- forming elements, and in such cases beets may render good service. The caloric is thus furnished to the animal and he is not obliged to abnormally exhaust those elements for heating the body which should be otherwise utilized. The carbohy- drates and fatty substances are particularly desirable. It has VARIATION IN RATION. 59 been recommended that the carbohydrates be increased y-g- and protein -^^ for every 5° C, fall below 12° C. The composition of a ration should vary not only with the Variation in animal but with the object in view. If it is simply to keep the standards, animal in good condition, then its fodder would be a main- tenance ration. In case of cows giving milk there is another element that must be considered besides that of furnishing the body with its requirements, which is that of meeting the drain -that the milk production requires. While animals may be made to feed upon stuffs that their nature did not origin- ally intend, they do not under these circumstances retain their original constitution. Animals, for example, in zoological gardens are kept alive on foods that they would have declined under normal conditions. There follows a great change in their characteristics. When the question of fattening is to be con- sidered, then the problem is to force the consumption of rations, which is accomplished by furnishing an ample amount of con- centrated stuffs, and these may consequently be considered as additional rations. Just as man eats bread to represent volume in the stomach, which is one of the essentials of perfect diges- tion, live stock must have a certain amount of coarser elements added, the volume of these depending upon the cases under consideration. The coefficient of digestibility depends upon the age of the animal; when very young it requires considerable protein- and phosphoric acid, and the nutritive ratio should be as near as possible to that of green grass. As the years advance the ratio gets smaller. Calculations of this kind are no easy matter, and are not within the power of an average farmer; but we consider that very accurate results may be obtained from -certain practical rules. Rations should var}^ in their composition. Whatever be the Variation in ra- advantage claimed for cossettes, beet leaves and their varied combinations, it is never desirable to keep the ration of the same composition for too long at a time, as live stock in general, like men, need a change in the diet, and their general health is improved in a very important measure by these changes. The variation should not consist in a different food at each meal of the same day. Cows or live stock are individuals of habit, and ex- tiofl. 60 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Appetizing tions. Distribution rations. pect their ration during the period of special feeding at the same hour and of the same kind; in other words, the first meal should not necessarily be the same as the second, but on each successive day let it be identical at the same hour, otherwise there would certainly be a falling off in the expected results. It is a great mistake to change the ration too suddenly. Even with fodders of the very best quality there is a falling off in the flow of milk after a change is made, and no condition is more important for an abundant supply of milk than the uni- formity of regime. A precaution too frequently overlooked is to arrange so that the summer ration shall be in reserve in sufficient amount ta meet every possible emergency caused by bad weather, etc., and the same may be said of winter rations. In case fermenta- tion occurs, the reserve can be drawn upon. The supply of beets and beet pulp now renders excellent service. The success of cattle feeding frequently depends upon the art of presenting the ration in the most appetizing form and thereby realizing an abnormal consumption; and as for milch cows, the more appetizing the ration is the better, upon general principles,^ will be the milk, and herein may be found the exceptional ad- vantages of the sugar beet and its residuum — it is always eaten with avidity. A custom that has certainly led to very unsatis- factory results is to simply throw the various compounds of a ration into the manger without any attempt at mixing; this is a mistake, and never leads to satisfactory milk production. Experience appears to show that it is best to give the more palatable ration in the morning, while the roughage is placed at the cow's disposal for night-feeding. The number of meals per diem and of what they should con- sist vary with each kind of animal being fattened. Regularity • in feeding is the basis of success. Animals that are worked must necessarily have a longer interval between their meals than those that are stall-fed. Whatever plan is adopted, it must be adhered to. Cattle become restless when the meal hour approaches, and if irregular the wear and tear on their constitution does away with all beneficial effects that would be otherwise obtained. The meals should not all be of the MONEY MODES OF CALCULATION. 61 same kind; they should, within a reasonable extent, differ not ■only as regards quantity but composition; it must be borne in mind that these differences must be very slight, as they would otherwise be followed bj^ digestive complications. Hence the importance of passing very gradually from stall-feeding to pas- turage. It isf important to watch the supplj' of fodders on hand, and when one is low and a change must be made, arrange to effect the same graduall}'', at least 8 to 10 days being necessary for these changes of diet. Commercial Talue of Fodders. The Germans employ much technical detail to determine the value of fodders, which in reality is a most simple question, ■and is governed by the supply and demand. The price of a commodity must necessarily vary with the advantages of its production in the center where it is sold. The writer intended to give an average price of the standard fodders for the United States, but was obliged to abandon the project owing to the great difference in the value of a staple such as hay; it may fluctuate from a few cents per ton to several dollars (15 to 20). The German method consists in accepting hay as a standard and to allow a pro rata value for the digestible elements of which it is composed; knowing the composition of any fodder, its crude protein, fat, etc. , are multiplied by the standard prices -and its commercial value is thus obtained. One need onlj'' make a calculation of this kind and compare the price obtained with the market rates to realize how far such theoretical considerations are from the reality. Another point not to be forgotten is that whatever be the fodder used, it must necessarily contain several elements that are not utilized in the manner that theory supposes, under which circumstances, if we place a money value upon them, we shall pay for an ingredient that is wasted, and this would certainly not be in accordance "with the true principles of economy. Place a definite price per pound on protein, fat and carbo- hydrates, the data being based upon the average market price, 'which is about as follows: Protein 1 to 2.5 cents, and carbo- hydrates from 0.5 to 1 cent per pound. The advantage of this All existing modes of es- timation of value very empirical. Money modes of calculation. 62 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. data is that it is supposed to enable the farmer to calculate in advance what fodder is to his actual advantage. While the market prices of cotton-seed meal and gluten meal may differ only by one dollar, the actual feeding value may vary $10. It is interesting to note that the nutritive money value as admitted in the United States is very different from that adopted by Kiihn, who declares that if the carbohydrates are worth one cent per pound, the digestible fatty substances would then be worth 2.44 cents and the protein digestible constituents, 6 cents. However, even the caloric basis of estimation is very mis- leading, as the formation of flesh and fat, the flow of milk, etc., depend upon other physical conditions than simple generation of heat. It becomes evident than even in this case, it is im- possible to obtain results that are more than approximatively correct. The only true basis that might be suggested is the actual analysis of each fodder used, and this would be too com- plicated to have any practical value. A fact too frequently forgotten is that to a farmer the most valuable fodder is not the greatest milk and meat producer, but the one that can accom- plish this at the least possible cost. If of two fodders, one yields two pounds of digestible matter, and the other only one pound, then the one fodder is twice as valuable as the other for nutrition, irrespective of the market price. The price of meat is not so variable throughout the country as the price of seeds, so we may base estimates upon it. To pro- duce this pound of beef, there must be consumed a certain quantity of protein, fatty substances, and carbohydrates, and this consumption must necessarily vary with each animal. If we could establish an average, then we could approximate the value of each of the elements upon which this meat production depends. Purchasing feeds. It is always recommended when purchasing feeds to obtain a list of market prices and determine by a very careful calculation which is the most desirable for the object in view. Such efforts may mean a dail}' saving of ten or twelve cents per ration per diem. The calculation should be largely based upon the man- ner in which the protein may be obtained under the most economical conditions, and these data always vary not only with the feed, but with the year. I COST OF RATIONS. 63 It is important that the farmer should know when purchasing feeding stuff just what its source and its nature are. Consider- able fraud frequently exists in this respect, and various wastes are introduced upon the market that have only a secondary nutritive value. The New York Agricultural Experiment Station proposes the following rules: 1. A ration to contain 30 to 45 per cent, protein and 50 to 60 per cent, carbohydrates: Cotton seed meal, linseed meal and gluten meal. 2. A ration to contain 20 to 30 per cent, protein and 66 to 70 per cent, carbohydrates : Gluten feeds, dried brewers' grain, malt sprouts, buckwheat, middlings, etc. 3. A ration to contain 14 to 20 per cent, protein and 70 to 75 per cent, carbohydrates: Middlings, from wheat and rye. 4. A ration to contain 8 to 14 per cent, protein and 75 to 85 per cent, carbohydrates: Cereals, grains, hominy, etc. The cost of the ration should be as low as possible, so that Cost of rations, the results obtained will be at least equal to cost of fodders. Just within what limits the farmer can profitably grow his own fodders is a question we cannot here discuss. All things being equal one fact is certain, he saves the cost of transportation. Oil meal for example can be more profitably utilized for milk production near large cities than it could be for cattle fattening on distant farms. Oats are more suitable for feeding working animals than they would be for stall-fed cattle. Consequently one must take into consideration the value of the product used. If the farmer has not on hand any so-called concentrated fodder, it becomes of the first importance that he purchase what is needed from outside. Fodders must be considered collect- ively and not separately. PART SECOND. Feeding Beets to Cattle. Preliminary It frequently happens that the beet crop is very large, due to remarl, ^ >» ^ >> S >;• ^ M m OQ S pq CQ a pq cc W M 03 -. . « to . . _ H H H H •-! H •"1 H H H H I-; 56.5 186.0 58.0 147.0 96.5 159.5 87.0 263.0 0.5 1.0 27.0 24 The fact that three cows should refuse 298.5 pounds hay and SILAGE AND FIELD BEETS. 85 755.5 lbs, silage during two months, does not show that the cows experimented on were highly pleased with the rations furnished. It may be noticed that all the beets offered were eaten, and only 32.5 lbs. -hay were refused. If towards the end of Period II slight changes had been made in the regime, we are convinced that all the hay in series B would have been eaten. The fat estimation in milk does not show that there was any special advantage of silage over beets. From the following table we conclude, that during two months the silage gave 707 lbs. milk, while beets during the same period gave 932 lbs. , or a difference of 225 lbs. milk in favor of beets. The gain in weight with silage, as compared with beets, can be of no possible moment, as it is not unusual to find important differences during an interval of 24 hours. Total Mile; Produced, and Gain and Loss in Weight. Series A, silage Series B, beets . Milk Produced. Period. I. II. III. IV. 178.0 230.0 179.4 225.9 175.3 239.6 174.2 236.1 Gain(+) or Loss (- IN Weight. Period. II. m. IV +22 —13 +14 + 8 +15 + 1 —3 +4 It is to be regretted that a portion of the beets was lost dur- ing warm weather, and that the roots used in the second series of experiments were large and coarse, containing but 1L69 per cent, dry matter. The inferiority of such roots becomes evi- dent w^hen it is known that superior beets contain 24 per cent, dry matter. Roots such as used by the Ohio station were very little superior to ordinary mangels. Under these circumstances, in order to feed beets so that total dry matter should be equal to that contained in silage ration, the weight of beets fed reached 60 lbs. per diem. To the rations in each case six pounds of bran were added, with good clover hay fed ad libitum. These experiments showed that 14 lbs. of hay per diem were 86 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ample for silage-fed cows. On the other hand, the beet-fed cows consumed considerably more than that quantity; this was a very encouraging result, as previously mentioned. The principle of cattle-fattening, as already stated, is to force con- sumption of fodder and whatever causes this brings the de- sired result. While the silage ration was only 27 lbs. per diem, the stuff was not eaten with the same avidity as beets. The average daily yield of milk with and without beets in these experiments is shown in the following table: Average Daily Yield of Milk With and Without Beets in Eation. Ohio Station, 1890. Experiment No. 1- Experiment No. 2- Without beets. 220 oz. 191 oz. With beets. 240 oz. 214 oz. Advantage in favor of beets. 20 oz. 23 oz. During these experiments the weekly gain or loss of weight with and without beets was 4 to 14 lbs. in favor of beets. ' ' There was a marked tendency to increase in live weight dur- ing the periods when beets were fed, and to fall off when on silage." As regards milk at the station, it was found that dur- ing 1890 " whenever the feed was changed to silage there was a rapid falling off in yield of milk, and whenever it was changed to beets this falling off was checked, and in several instances the flow increased. * ^ * In respect to the milk-flow, there- fore, the results * =^ * confirm those of previous years, indicat- ing that beets are more favorable to milk-production than corn silage." One of the most interesting features of these experiments was the decline in live weight with a decrease in flow of milk when feeding silage, which is a most important argument in favor of beets. Our readers should not forget that numerous European ex- periments point to the fact that when beets are fed all their dry matter is digested. On the other hand, experiments in M^is- SILAGE AND FIELD BEETS. 87 consin, Pennsylvania, and other states, show that with silage 63 per cent, only is assimilated. It is admitted that all items such as harvesting, siloing, etc., for beets, make the cost ^37.75 per acre, while for producing and siloing one acre of corn requires S31.25. The silage con- tained 4,400 lbs. digestible dry matter, while the beets con- tained 3,750 lbs. of the same. This difference would appear to counterbalance the 359 lbs. of milk in favor of beets, not to mention the increase of weight. A fact in this argument that is generally overlooked is, that for the sum allowed for cultivation of one acre of beets, superior sugar beets might be obtained averaging 18 per cent, dry matter. This means a total of nearly 6,000 lbs. digestible dry matter per acre. The cost of such in beets is 0. 6 c. , and in silage 0. 7 c. All these figures must vary with circumstances. The cows fed solely on beets consumed 20.1 lbs. dry matter per 1000 lbs. of their weight, while silage-fed cows consumed 20.9 lbs. In both these cases the consumption was consider- ably below the standard of 24 lbs. The beet-fed cows were underfed, and we are convinced that if they had had the food they required, their milk-producing qualities would have been greater, and their weight would have increased instead of re- maining stationary, as it did during the eight weeks the experi- ment lasted. It would be interesting to draw some comparison as to the cost of feeding with silage and beets. If the yield of corn and beets is about the same per acre, the siloing of corn is very much more expensive than that of beets. The exhaust- ing effect of a beet crop upon the soil on a well-organized farm is nothing like as great as the average agronomist supposes, as at least 80 per cent, of all salts absorbed are returned in the shape of a fertilizer; the remaining 20 per cent, is in the milk sold. The problem of fattening animals properly is to make them eat as much as possible, since at least -^-^ of such food is retained and transformed mainly into fat. It is possible to reach a limit of increase of 4.5 lbs. per diem. It may seem incredible, but it is possible to force the consumption of dry matter to 44 lbs. per diem. The increase in weight continues until the end of 88 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. second period; during the last period the ration should take a new shape. As regards the foregoing experiments, silage vs. beets, we would say: If the Ohio station had used beets of a quality culti- vated during 189] -92,* the roots would have averaged 15.5 per cent, dry matter instead of 10 per cent., as admitted in the above feeding experiments. Under these circumstances, about 32 lbs. beets would have given the same result as 50 lbs. beets such as were used, and it would have been possible to push the daily consumption very much beyond the limit attempted. It is admitted that beets in Ohio would certainly average 11 tons per acre and as their cost of cultivation, including harvesting and siloing, is $44.00, the cost per ton is $4.00 or about 0.2 cents per lb. If we admit that corn silage is worth $2,50 per ton, its cost per lb. is 1.2 cents, consequently 40 lbs. silage costs 5.2 cents per diem, while sugar beets cost 6.4 cents, or a difference of 1.2 cents to produce 3.7 lbs. of milk. This, in itself, would be a most excellent investment. These contrasts would have been still greater had better beet seed been used. Not only would it have been shown from a milk-and-butter point of view, but also in actual gain in flesh. In Bulletin No. 2, 1892, the following statement is made: "It is possible to produce on an average as many pounds of sugar beets per acre as of mangels; and since the average analysis shows fifty per cent, more dry matter, the conclusion reached is, that one ton of average sugar beets is worth as much for feeding purposes as 1^ tons of average mangel-wurzel." The comparison between corn silage and sugar beets was further made by a new series of investigations during 1890. f Comparison be- Very important experiments have been made under the tween potatoes auspices of the Iowa experiment station X with a view to ^" ^^ ^" determining the comparative value of sugar beets and potatoes in * Bulletin, No. 2, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892. t Bulletin, No. 5, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 1890. X Bulletin No. 17, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, 1892. COMPARISON BETWEEN POTATOES AND BEETS. 89 the production of milk, cream and butter. To facilitate under- standing the Iowa data the results have been tabulated as follows : Results Obtained by Feeding a Shoet-hobn Cow and a Holstein Heifer on Beets. S 0) 'I pq a 'S'g H 3 pq Market value of butter per lb. First churning (January 18th. ) Second churning . . ( January 25th. ) Third churning (February 22d.) lbs. 80.5 84.0 8.40 82.8 lbs. 13.5 10.75 14.75 lbs. 9.0 8.0 9.25 min. 12 11 25 lbs. 3.75 3.75 4.50 4.0 lbs. 50 20 20 cents. 20 18-20 21-22 Average 8.75 20 From these figures we conclude that from 20.7 lbs. milk there was made 1 lb. butter worth 20 cents per lb. Results Obtained by Feeding a Short-horn Gdw and a Jersey Heifer on Potatoes. 1 i o 1 3 pq bio C « 2 S 3 pq Market value of butter per lb. First churning Second churning Third churning lbs. 54 46 34 lbs. 10.2 5.25 5.75 lbs. 6.5 3.0 2.75 min. 15 22 20 lbs. 3.0 1.5 2.2 lbs. 40 20 10 cents. 20 16 to 17 18 to 19 45 4.08 2.3 18 3 90 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. We conclude that from 19.5 lbs. milk there was made 1 lb. butter worth 18.3c. per lb. From February 2nd to 22nd the cows fed on beets gave 1.056 lbs. milk, those on potatoes during same period 581 lbs. milk. If we admit the foregoing averages, there would be extracted 51 lbs. butter from beet milk worth $10.00, from the potato milk 30 lbs. butter worth $5.50, or $4.50 in favor of beets, dur- ing a period of 20 days. To these profits must be added the cream and buttermilk, which with beets is nearly double that obtained from potatoes. It would be interesting to determine the comparative fertiliz- ing value of the manure from cows fed upon potatoes and beets. One fact appears to us certain, that 50 lbs. beets at $4.00 per ton are always cheaper than 40 lbs. potatoes, even at the same market price, and admitting that the butter returns would be the same (?). Beet butter has its own characteristic color, and will keep for months, while potato butter has no keeping quali- ties and is colorless. It has been concluded that high-grade butter cannot be made when cows eat more than 10 lbs. potatoes per diem. When cows are eating 20 lbs. beets per diem no coloring matter need be used and the resulting butter is of a superior quality and has a most excellent flavor while potato butter lacks flavor. These feeding experiments were conducted with considerable care, the ration being gradually increased, and then decreased. An important fact noticed w'as, that cows will continue to eat 50 lbs. beets with relish, but after a time refuse the 40 lbs. potatoes. Other experiments have been made to determine the value of Other experi- potatoes and roots for fattening lambs.* The test was made with 36 lambs divided into 3 lots of 12 each. The three lots consumed about the same quantity of grain, hay and roots. The table herewith shows the result of these tests: * Bulletin No. 59, MinneBota Agri. Exp. Station, 1899. ments. COMPARISON BETWEEN POTATOES AND BEETS. 91 COMPAKATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED BY FEEDING LaMBS WITH POTATOES, Beets and Mangels. Lot t, potatoes ...... Lot 2, mangel-wurzel Lot 3, sugar-beets •• • verage weight at the begin- ning of test proper. verage gain per lamb. 3od comsumed per lamb per day. < < P^ 50.6 lbs. 32.9 lbs. 3.52 lbs. 50.8 " 30.6 " 3.52 " 50.6 " 34.6 " 3.57 " 2 be O 3 o 4,94 cents. 4.20 " 3.78 " ^ S §0.86 1.07 L24 These figures speak for themselves — with beets the average gain, cost and profit were greater than with either mangel- wurzels or potatoes. In experiments made to determine the relative value of sugar beets for steers and sheep, it is interesting to note that ' ' the lot fed on alfalfa and sugar beets returned a net profit, above a fair price for feed given, of $3.45 apiece, and the lot fed on alfalfa and grain a loss of $2.38 apiece." The sugar beets were valued at $3.50 per ton. Like experiments were made with sheep. The conclusion was that the lot fed hay and sugar beets during the second period gave better returns than those fed on hay alone.* Experiments to determine the comparative feeding value of silage, sugar beets and mangels were made at the Pennsylvania experiment station, the result of which experiments is shown in the table herewith: * Bulletin No. 30, Wyoming Agri. Exp. Station, 1896. 92 FEEDIISTG WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Comparative Feeding Value of Silage, Beets and Mangels for Cows. *» Milk. Butter. Solids. Not fat. lbs. 141.3 152.4 116.0 lbs. 9.0 7.7 6.4 lbs. 12 1 Lot 2, sugar-beets (2d period) Lot 3, mangel -wurzels (2d period). 13.3 10.4 These figures show that the milk production is in favor of beets. Considered as a whole, these figures appear to be slightly in favor of silage, the difference, however, being so slight that it need not be considered. * In New York, Cornell University has made some interesting experiments to determine the effect of different rations in fat- tening lambs. In these, instead of sugar beets, mangolds were used. The lambs selected were thin in flesh and considered well adapted to the experiment. We notice in these results several important facts apparently overlooked. The sheep were divided into four lots of three each. One lot did not have a ration suitable to its requirements, so the results obtained in that special case need not be considered. The fourth lot received no roots during the entire period of feeding, and the total protein was nearly the same as in the third lot. The increase of weight was 80.5 per cent, for second, 73 per cent, for third, and only 52.7 per cent, in fourth lot (without roots). It is maintained that the nitrogenous food in the second case was the cause of the excessive gain; this may be true, but it cer- tainly was not so in the third. The animal before fattening weighed 51.5 lbs,, and five months afterward weighed 89 lbs., with a ration of mangolds, hay, corn, wheat, beans, etc., while with wheat bran, cotton-seed meal, corn and timothy hay (no * Eeport Pennsylvania Agri. Exp. Station, 1896. SUGAR BEET LEAVES AND TOPS. 93 roots), lambs weighing 54.7 lbs. in November weighed 83.59 lbs. in April. Another interesting fact is, that the cost of grain per 100 lbs. with roots was $6.03 to $6.36, while without roots it was $7.82. In the former cases the digestible nutrients were 363.9 lbs. and 383.2 lbs., while without roots only 351.4 lbs. were digested; the object was to feed all that would be readily eaten. A fact ■ that we wish to emphasize especially is, that roots assist the digestion of other fodders, and force consumption, which is of considerable moment. The two lots fed with mangolds in their ration gave an increase of wool of 72 and 56 lbs. respectively, while without roots the wool weighed 46 lbs. As the protein in the last two cases was nearly the same, this result shows an increase of 10 lbs. wool in favor of mangolds. Another experiment station of the country, with a view to determining within what limits siloed cossettes compare with for- age beets when fed to milk cows, conducted a series of experi- ments, the result of which was that cows fed on forage beets gave 1137 quarts of milk containing 79 lbs. fat, while the re- siduum fed cows resulted in 1105 quarts of milk containing 75 lbs. fat. The difference is so slight that the results may be con- sidered identical. The forage beet ration consisted of 72 lbs. beets, 8 lbs. clover hay, 6 lbs. chopped straw and 5 lbs. oil cake for 1000 lbs. live weight. The other ration consisted of 80 lbs. re- siduum cossettes, to which were added 9 lbs. chopped straw, 8 lbs. clover hay and 4 lbs. oil cake per 1000 lbs. live weight. Later experiments upon a very extended scale have demon- strated that the cossette feeding is more economical. Feeding Sugar Beet Leaves and Tops. The cultivation of sugar beets to be furnished to the factory for Preliminary the extraction of sugar is not the only question to be considered remarlcs. by the farmer, for the simple reason that the resulting pulp or residue has an enormous value to the agricultural community. Besides the roots proper, one may harvest a large quantity of leaves and tops which without being of any commercial value are of great importance to the tiller. However, there are many farmers sufficiently blind to overlook the precious qualities of 94 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. .hese portions of the plant, and allow them to remain and rot )n the field without rendering other service than that of supply- ng a portion of certain mineral elements — representing plant ood — which have been absorbed by the root during its develop- ment. The money value of these leaves when used as a fertil- izer is certainly less than that which would be derived from feeding to cattle. Beet leaves and tops contain, it is true, a certain amount of salts which are useful to the soil, but on the other hand many of these mineral substances can be more ad- vantageously utilized by feeding the leaves to cattle and col- lecting the manure; their fertilizing properties are not subse- quently lost by the passage through the animal's body and during the interval the stock has been benefited by receiving a good wholesome green fodder at the very period of the year when it is most relished and is eaten with avidity. A difficulty as regards this question arises here: Experience shows that the best results are obtained by feeding siloed beet leaves during early spring. Experience also shows that barn-yard manure must not be applied to lands during the season of planting. If the tiller is anxious to return to the soil the salts the manure contains, he must cultivate that year some other crop than beets upon it; otherwise the resulting roots would very probably be refused at the factory owing to their low coeflScient of purity. When beet-sugar factories are located near populous centers, beet leaves may render excellent service for dairy cows. Under such circumstances farmers should depend upon their own fertihzers rather than on those from cities, which are mainly made up of organic matter. Composition of Chemical analysis of this residuum demonstrates that the use leaves and tops. Qf ^get leaves, etc., may become a vital question during those years when the beet harvest has been unsatisfactory. While such analyses vary under different conditions, it is very important to give what may be considered an average. Their composition, according to Dr. Herzfeld, is as follows: BEET LEAF STRIPPING. 95 Average Composition of Beet Leaves and Tops. Leaves. Tops. Entire beet. "^Vater Ash ....._ Raw protein Fatty substances • • • Fibre Nitrogen free extract 89.05 2.20* 2.80 0.45 5.50 80.10 5.65 1.99 0.24 1.83 10.00 81.5 0.7 1.0 0.1 1.3 15.4 From this one concludes that between the tops and the entire beet there is a very great difference. The necks have double the nutritive value of the leaves. However, when fed to ani- mals, it is the custom to combine the leaves and tops. A glance at these figures shows that the tops contain more salts than the leaves; in raw protein the leaves have a slight advantage; in pure protein the tops contain 1.25 per cent, while the leaves contain only 0. 75 per cent. The tops, weight for weight, contain nearly twice as much of nitrogenous consti- tuents as are possessed by the leaves. As soon as farmers of certain sections commence to realize the value of beet leaves for cattle-feeding they do not appear to be able to resist the temptation of stripping the beets of their foliage before the harvesting period commences, and this prac- tice means a considerable reduction in the ultimate sugar per- centage of the roots, with an increase of the saline percentage. The necks of the beet become more and more elongated. Nature in her effort to restore the mutilation sends out new leaves, which means a temporary reduction in the sugar per- centage of the beet, and this is never replaced, notwithstanding the fact that the young foliage performs a certain amount of sugar elaboration. When the harvesting period arrives the tops must be removed from the beets, and the larger they are the smaller will become the ultimate yield of sugar beets per acre; further- more, the farmer receives a decreased price for his beets, for * According to Wolf's analysis, the ash percentage is 1.5, of which 0.4 is potassa, 0.2 soda, 0.3 lime, 0.17 magnesia, 0.07 phosphoric acid, 0.08 sulphuric acid, 0.16 silicic acid, and 0.13 chlorin. Beet leaf stripping. 96 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. they not only contain less sugar, but the juices are less pure than they would have been had the leaf stripping been prohib- ited. When farmers grow beets for cattle-feeding there can be no objection to stripping. Early feeding and Small farmers are necessarily obliged to feed the leaves im- niistfikp^ niftdp mediately, and under such circumstances there is a great waste of material. They are pulled from the cribs as eaten by the live stock and certain portions fall on the ground, are trod upon and are thus lost. This is why it is more economical to chop up the leaves before the early feeding. Many farmers allow sheep to run over their fields and eat the leaves during their passage. Under all circumstances such customs should be prohibited, as large quantities of leaves are necessarily trod under and are thus destroyed, which in reality means a waste as far as their nutrient value is concerned. Furthermore, it is simply folly to allow freedom to sheep, etc., at that period of the year when there is always danger of rain. Another fact not to be forgotten is that sheep manure is not considered a desirable fertilizer for sugar beets; but this would evidently be of no consequence if a suitable rotation of crops was maintained. As a general thing as soon as the beet harvest commences residuum feeding is resorted to, but for a farmer who has a considerable area devoted to beets it is necessary to adopt some system of feeding which will ultimately become quite an econ- omy when green forages are scarce. Harvesting the It is urgent in most cases in harvesting the beets either to crop of beet form piles of the roots on one hand and the leaves on the other, leaves and tops, q^ ^q alternate rows of leaves and roots, or again to form piles of the beets and use the leaves as a cover. When the piles are small the practical results obtained are more satisfactory, as the leaves then are left on the ground and are subsequently collected. An average crop is about 12,000 kilograms of leaves and tops to the hectare (4.8 tons to the acre), which may be com- posed as follows: 25 per cent, for the tops and 75 per cent, for the leaves. If one makes allowance for the cost of conveyance of the leaves and tops to the center of utilization, it will be BEET LEAP KEEPING. 97 seen that the losses are considerable when not promptly utilized, especially in cases where they are considered as having fertiliz- ing value. Their nourishing value means 1,600 (1,408 lbs. to the acre) kilograms of dry substance to the hectare, of which 260 kilograms (228 lbs. to the acre) are albuminoids. Their value, which is frequently only moderately appreciated, is in reality such that it should not be neglected, and if added to the price paid for the beet at the factory one will be surprised to see at what cost these roots could be furnished to the manufacturer by the farmer; notwithstanding this fact, many tillers will not take the matter into consideration. In 1873 in estimates of the possible money cost of working a beet-sugar factory the beet leaves to be harvested were frequently taken into consideration. The idea then was to utilize them in a manner that has never since been realized — they were to form a substitute for tobacco. The only rational utilization of beet leaves which is generally Beet leaf applied at the present day, consists in keeping them as a sort of •^^fP'"?- sour fodder. The first experiments at beet leaf keeping that we know of were made in 1852 at Thiede, but these were not suc- cessful, for the simple reason that air was allowed to enter the silos, which is very objectionable, as we shall see later on. Since then many modes have been proposed which were intended to obviate existing faults, but none of these systems proved successful. The method which is now generally adopted con- sists in allowing the leaves to remain on the field for three or four days, after which period they are soft and no longer possess the rigidity which would otherwise have prevented their satis- factory settling in the silos. Comparative experiments made by Muller show just to what extent the method of placing in silos exerts an influence. In the one case the leaves in a more or less wilted condition were placed in a silo in layers and well pressed and subsequently covered with three feet of earth; in the other the ordinary mode of siloing was adopted. 7 98 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Composition of Beet Leaves Siloed in Two Ways. Water Protein substanees • • . • Raw fatty substances • . Extractable substances Eaw fibre Mineral substances • . . Lactic acid Layers of Leaves. Regular Siloing. 74.95 79.67 2.90 2.65 0.65 0.54 8.69 7.59 2.79 3.11 9.66 0.14 0.33 6.31 Furthermore, these leaves during the wilting lose part of the water, which may be considered an advantage. They should be well shaken as a preliminary operation, with a view to getting rid of any adhering earth, and then compressed into silos dug out of the ground, cemented or not, as the case may be. The silos are usually about six feet in depth; their length is variable and may suit the ideas of each farmer. The width of four or five feet appears satisfactory; the bottom should have a slight slant, say J inch per yard and suitable means for drain- age. The method of filling, and also the most desirable con- dition of the leaves before being siloed, remain open questions. There are various modes of compressing the leaves in the silos, one of which consists of alloAving a cart with wide tires to pass over each successive layer. This operation is repeated several times. However, precaution should be taken that the wheels of the wagon do not pass over in the same rut each time. In such cases the silos have a width equal to twice the spacing between the wheels of the cart. Excessive pressure is not de- sirable in beet-leaf preservation. Experiments show that leaves partially lose their nourishing value when submitted to great pressure. The custom of treading down the upper surface should be abandoned. The leaves are piled up several feet above upper border of the silo. These soon settle and more leaves are thrown on top; when the surface remains constant a conical pile of leaves forms the top; this is covered with a layer of earth, the thickness of which depends upon the ambient temperature. Care must be taken that cracks be Avell filled, so as to keep out air. TRANSFORMATION IN SILOS AND LOSSES. 99 After a few days the mass becomes heated, and there follows Transformation a lactic fermentation which when completed leaves the mass in '" ^''"^ ^""^ a brown colored condition. It may remain in a perfect state of *'^^^'* preservation during a very long period, lasting for several years — three or more. The fermentation in question means a considerable softening of the leaves and a reduction in the vol- ume of the exterior portion. The mass settles, and the volume is reduced by one-third and frequently 50 per cent., the loss of nitrogen being 30 per cent. , and it is at this time that open cre- vices are noticeable in the earth covering, through which there is danger of air penetrating. Under these circumstances there would follow all sorts of secondary reactions very favorable to the existence of micro-organisms, the combined action of which would cause putrefaction. Under all circumstances, it is advis- able to carefully close these openings as soon as they are visible. The upper stratum always comes more or less in contact with the air, and is consequently the first to show signs of decay or organic changes of the residuum being kept. It necessarily fol- lows that these transformations mean a money loss to all inter- ested. A German analysis * of leaves siloed for six months showed that they contained 0.136 per cent, oxalic acid soluble in water and 0.46 per cent, insoluble in water — possibly in the form of a calcic oxalate. Stutzer gives the following analysis of siloed beet leaves: Per cent. Water 69.8 ] Mineral substances- • 15.9 Raw protein 2. 2 Per cent. The raw protein con- [ ^'^"^^^^^ • • • ^-^ Cellulose 4. 3 f tained Non-digestible nitric Non-nitrogenous.... 6.4 | L ^"bstances 1.7 Fatty substances • .. 1.4 J The excessive mineral percentage was explained by the im- purities possibly introduced by the leaves from having been in contact with earth. *No analysis should be made of siloed leaves until cleaned and free from the earth collected from the side of silos. L.q'C. 100 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. It has been proposed, in order to obviate the losses of these protein substances, to have a cemented bottom in the silos so as to retain the liquid in question; but experience has shown that there follows no increase in the total nutritive value of the final product; and furthermore its palatability is very much lessened. In order to increase the conservation of siloed leaves it is desir- able to add one per cent, of ordinary salt. It may happen that the mass becomes excessively heated, and instead of lactic acid there will be formed acetic acid, resulting in an acetic fermentation. This very materially diminishes the nutritious value of the leaves that are to be kept. Efforts have been made to hasten the lactic fermentation with the view of obviating this difficulty. To produce lactic acid the leaves are moistened during siloing with sour milk, but this has not given the results hoped for. Faulty siloing. Under certain circumstances, which we regret to say are of very frequent occurrence, the siloing has been very badly done, and the exterior leaves are rotten. These may be removed by a spade or any other implement. Regarding this question it is well to note that under all circumstances there is necessarily a certain decomposition of the upper surface of the product being siloed, and it does not necessarily follow that the person in charge is responsible for the surface alterations which alwaj's occur, do what one may; but what we have reference to is an excessive putrefaction, such as is frequently seen in some of our western farms where efforts have been made at siloing either leaves or cossettes. Any putrefaction of more than one foot be- low the surface is extremely faulty. Two or three inches from the surface may be said to be the limit, leaves and other It seldom occurs that beet leaves are siloed without the addi- substances in tion of some foreign material, the object of which is extremely silo. variable. Upon general principles these leaves are kept in con- junction with other forages in order to obtain a compact mass into which air penetrates with difficulty. Under these circum- stances there is very much less danger of putrefaction, and this siloed material, which is of great value to the farmer, lasts with- out undergoing the slightest change during a period of years. It is considered desirable, according to Herzfeld, to carry out LEAVES AND OTHER SUBSTANCES IN SILOS. 101 the siloing with alternate layers of tops, leaves and residuum cossettes. Under all circumstances the tops should never be separately siloed, otherwise they would lose too much of their nutritive value and would rot. Upon general principles it is well to alternate with the leaves a certain number of layers of straw with a view to absorbing the excess of moisture thrown off by the leaves and in this manner the soil is prevented from absorb- ing it. This is the usual practice. If during the siloing a certain amount of salt is added, an allowance must be made for this fact during feeding so that an excess of this condiment will not be administered. In certain parts of Germany visited by the writer the beet leaf siloing is done in silos about 6 feet deep with rounded corners, the bottom slanting slightly. Upon it there is placed a certain layer of straw, after which the leaves are placed to a depth of about 5 inches, and the mass is compressed by sim- ply stamping upon it. Then there are added about 7 lbs. of salt per ton of leaves, over which is placed a 4-inch layer of straw, followed by another o-inch layer of leaves, etc. , until the mass is 3 to 4 feet above the level of the ground. Many years since Grouven made a series of experiments in siloing leaves, and the combination giving the best results con- sisted of 2,000 lbs. of leaves, to which were added 150 lbs. straw and 500 lbs. beet tops. After 6 months' keeping of the product, the analysis showed that the addition of straw had a tendency to retain the juice of the leaves, regulating at the same time the fermentation. First of all the sugar contained in the tops disappears. It is found from experiments that when the tops are siloed with their leaves they had better be well chopped up. The extractive sub- stances of the tops and a portion of the cellulose of the leaves undergo an acid fermentation and are thus transformed into many complicated constituents, the nutritious value of which is very questionable. Finally, the proteid substances are trans- formed into amides, the nutritive power of which is very much less than albumin proper. A large portion of the disappearing nutritive substances is changed into certain compounds that are found in the liquid which separates or runs off from the leaves. 102 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Solt leaf fodder. Postelt works in the following way in order to obtain a soft fodder, as he calls it. Upon general principles the idea is to bring about as rapidly as possible a temperature of at least 25 degrees C. [77° F.] in the midst of the leaves, and furthermore to maintain this temperature. The wilted leaves heat more rapidly, due to the fact that they contain less water. They are thrown into the vat in which a proportionate amount of chopped straw is combined. Furthermore a certain quantity of this sub- stance is added without attempting to compress the same. After intervals of two or three days the temperature rises to 50 degrees C. [122° F.]. Then there follows a daily addition of beet leaves so that the thermometer introduced into the mass of the leaves will always indicate the same temperature. This heating may be explained by an oxidation through the influence of the oxygen of the air which is retarded by a new pressure of the leaves forced layer by layer one over the other. Under these circumstances naturally considerable air is imprisoned therein. It has been suggested that a certain amount of lattice work be arranged around the silos so that the mass of leaves can be raised, say nine feet, above the level of the ground, and covered with moist earth. Precautions should be taken to sepa- rate the leaves from the earth at the bottom of silos with a layer of chopped straw. It is further recommended under no circum- stance to add leaves to the silos when the temperature is too high. Beet leaf The Lehmann & Maercker method for soured leaves has many washing, advantages. These well known agronomists find that the wash- ing of leaves, when they have been properly siloed, effects the elimination of dirt-like substances, which when allowed to re- main will, under all circumstances, give to animals a distaste for what they are given to eat, as the sandy particles get be- tween their teeth and they become discouraged and reject this food later on. Lehmann washes the leaves in a wired basket in a suitable tank filled with water. From his personal observation he has concluded that under these circumstances leaves lose 1.3 per cent, of their organic substances, 0.5 of protein, 0.12 fatty sub- stances, 4.53 of mineral substances, 0.09 of celluose, and 0.68 ACIDULATED BEET LEAVES. 103 of non-nitrogenous extractive substances, all of which are calcu- lated upon the basis of soured leaves. Observations show that upon an average the loss is 8.03 per cent, of the absolute quan- tity of organic substances. Maercker declares that the losses, owing to washing, are very- much greater and are nearly 25.05 per cent, of the total organic substance. There is lost, according to this authority, 75 per cent, of ether-extractable substances, and he declares that under these circumstances it is very advantageous, as these constitu- ents are worthless. It is now generally admitted that washed leaves have the same nutritive value as forage beets. The Mehay mode that gained considerable favor over thirty Acidulated beet years ago, had for a general starting-point a cooking of the '^^^^^' leaves in water containing a small percentage of hydrochloric acid. The operation was conducted in the following manner: ' ' A special receptacle of about 530 gallons capacity, in which the boiling was done, was half filled with water, to which were added about 3 quarts of hydrochloric acid at 22° Be. This was well stirred so as to assure a perfect combination of the water and acid, and after the boiling had lasted for a few minutes 1000 lbs. of beet leaves with their tops were added just as they were collected from the field subsequent to the sugar-beet harvesting. The receptacle at first is too small to contain the leaves in question, but as the boiling continues they settle and may be readily kept beneath the surface of the acidulated water. The boiling ceases after 15 minutes, when the leaves are removed with wooden pitchforks and allowed to drain for a short period, the liquor running off being returned to the boiler. Special stress was placed upon the importance of collecting the leaves upon the field as soon as possible, thus preventing any possible alteration they might undergo, as during such or- ganic changes they become possessed of a characteristic odor which even the boiling and acid treatment do not overcome. After a certain number of repeated boilings there is deposited at the bottom of the receptacle a certain quantity of dirt, etc. ; hence it was customary to allow it to settle entirely and then decant. It was noticed that the earth alwaj^s neutralized a certain percentage of the acid used, and hence it was import- 104 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ant to make allowance for this loss. It was argued that during this acid treatment the alkalies, such as potassa and soda, be- came potassic and sodic chlorids, and took the place of the or- ganic acids. Far from reducing the nutritive value of the pro- duct, they on the contrary rather increased the nourishing properties of the leaves treated. The leaves thus prepared were placed in special silos with false bottoms, from which the water draining from the mass could be drawn off. It was proposed to subsequently distil the liquor with the view to alcohol pro- duction. The heating of the receptacle could be done upon an open fire with steam coils, etc., but under all circumstances the coils used should be copper so as to diminish the chances of their being attacked by the acid. Later modifications of this mode resulted in using wooden vats with steam coils. The cooking of beet leaves became very popular in certain parts of the North of France and Belgium; but at first no acid was used nor were such leaves siloed. It was found later on, Avhen intro- ducing the Mehay mode upon an extended scale, that great ad- vantages were derived from chopping the leaves up into small pieces, which greatly facilitated the action of the acids used, especially in cases where boiling was done away with. It was noticed that a certain interval was always needed by the cold water mode before the acid had completely penetrated the entire texture of the leaves treated, and under no circumstances should they be fed to cattle before assuming the same appearance as to texture as leaves that had been boiled. However, by the cook- ing mode two men can handle 3 tons of leaves per diem, which after the treatment are reduced to 2.0 tons. At that time this preparation cost, including fuel, interest on investment, etc., about $1.20 per ton of leaves, and was worth, it was then de- clared, at least $4 per ton. Beef [eaf drying. Miiller has published a calculation showing that, practically and theoretically, there is a special advantage in drying beet leaves with a view to their transformation into dry fodder. Under these circumstances it is possible to obtain a combination of superior money value when considered on a basis of 100 lbs. of material fed. It is not found desirable to dry the leaves in any special appliance. It is far better from an economical BUTTNER AND MEYER DRYER. 105 standpoint to avail one's self of the fine weather and sunshine that frequently occurs in the autumn. Under these conditions the leaves will be semi-dried. An example may be cited in which the tops lost 80 per cent, of their weight in eight days; the leaves, strictly speaking, lose 33 per cent. Rain has not as unfavorable an effect upon the desiccation as one might suppose, as the water that is deposited upon the leaves in the form of dew readily runs off and is rapidly evaporated when brought into contact with the wind or any mechanical influence. During ordinary weather the leaves lose in five or six days 50 per cent, of their moisture, and if 25 per cent, more is evapo- rated a commodity is obtained that will be possessed of all the requisites for easy keeping. Air desiccation is apparently not feasible at the time of year when the sun has very little evaporating force; but it is import- ant not to overlook the fact that there are many other industries that have the same difficulties to contend with, and overcome them successfully. Authorities in some cases have suggested that the " Crummer Crummer dryer, dryer" may possess all the essential qualifications. The leaves and tops undergo a sort of preliminary chopping and pressing in the air, so as to withdraw or extract an additional amount of moisture; and this operation is then followed by the action of a series of compressing drums in which circulates steam at various pressures. A point that is essential to bear in mind is that under no circumstance should the pressure of steam be the same in each drum, but on the contrary it is desirable to gradually increase it until reaching the limit of the desiccation in view. The dry leaves thus obtained have excellent keeping qualities, will not mildew, and have a good healthy appearance. Buttner and Meyer by their method of drying resort to a pre- Buttner and liminary desiccation by the elimination of a large proportion of Meyer dryer, the water contained in the cells of the leaves. They cut the leaves into strips in special machines, which are in reality not special, as they are simply those which are used to chop beets. The leaves are then forced through a spiral where they are sub- mitted to the action of steam. Under the influence of this in- creased temperature the cells of the greater portion of the leaves 106 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. burst open and the liquid they contain is liberated. After their passage through suitable presses the water percentage has been considerably reduced, and some authorities maintain that this reduction reaches 40 per cent. The leaves, having thus undergone this preliminary water- elimination, are dried in special furnaces of the Buttner and Meyer type, which will be described later on. The leaves are then perfectly dry, with the exception, however, of a few small particles that are rather too large to have undergone a perfect desiccation during such a limited period. In order to prevent these slices or pieces from being the source of a future infection and possible complications when considered from a fermenting standpoint (we refer to micro- organisms that may possibly be generated and which would necessarily result in the putrefaction of the material under con- sideration), the particles being treated pass through a metallic gauze acting as a filtering medium, and are subsequently run through a special dryer. On a particular farm visited by the writer, where the Buttner and Meyer method has been practically introduced, it has been possible to gather per hectare 3,500 kilograms of dried leaves [about 3,000 lbs. per acre], which, according to Maercker, have a commercial value of 9 marks per 100 kilogs. [say $1 per 100 lbs. or $22 a ton] , which means 315 marks to the hectare [$31.50 per acre]. The same leaves when green are worth only 60 marks [$6 per acre] . The desiccation costs 2 marks per 100 kilogs. [24 cents per 100 lbs.], which in other words means 70 marks for the total dried leaves obtained from a hectare [$7 per acre] . The carting may be put down at 40 to 50 marks per hectare [S4 to $5 per acre] . There remains consequently a net profit of 315-180, or 135 marks per hectare [or about $13.50 per acre] . The installation of a plant for this special drying, etc. , is not to be altogether recommended, owing to the cost of the transportation from the beet fields. According to Runkhe, the installation necessary for 125 hectares [300 acres] may be esti- mated at 20,000 marks [$5,000]. Vibrans declares that there is a decided objection to this method, owing to the fact that the preliminary pressing of the WUSTERHAGEN DRYER. 107 leaves in the Klusemann apparatus increases the dry matter from 7 to 30 or 40 per cent., which means that there has been pressed out 75 to 80 per cent, of the total liquid. Unfortunately the water thus separated is not only water, but contains also a considerable percentage of dry substances. Happily these losses are not so heavy as might be supposed, as the original percentage of dry matter is higher than 7 per cent. ; it is at least 10 per cent. , and if the leaves during the period they remain in the field lose a certain percentage of this moist- ure, the dry substance they may contain is not less than 15 per cent., which leaves only 50 to 60 per cent, of the final liquid to be eliminated. Wusterhagen has given the question of beet-leaf keeping and Wusterhagen drying considerable attention, and his records upon the subject dfyer- are worth noting. He declares that when leaves are to be fed to cattle they should always undergo certain preliminary preparations with a view to diminishing the percentage of oxalic acid. Many modes for beet-leaf keeping have been suggested and experimented with. One of the recent German patents declares that in the question of beet-leaf keeping there are five facts that must be taken into consideration: 1st. Cleaning, with the ob- ject of getting rid of the sand, dirt, small stones, etc. 2d. Re- duction of the toxic percentage of oxalic acid of the leaves. 3d. Retaining the saccharine substance of the tops and leaves. 4th. Decrease of the total volume of the mass. 5th. Complete and thorough drying with a view to perfect keeping. The efforts of M. Wusterhagen were to carry out these essentials to the letter. Upon general principles we may admit that the green leaves retain 10 to 20 per cent, sand, which offers some difiiculty in complete laboratory analysis. While it has been recom- mended to wash the beet leaves, the idea does not appear to have much practical value. The sand collects in the tops dur- ing the washing and must be subsequently removed, which means, in practice, an additional expense. M. Wusterhagen says he allows the leaves to undergo a preliminary wilting upon the ground after the beets have been harvested, and this drying is continued in a current of hot air. The leaves thus dried are 108 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. placed in a revolving drum in which the sand, etc., is separated through a well-arranged sieve, and this work may be very thor- .oughly done even during drying. Attention is called to the fact that in soil or sun-drying, the dew and rain bring about a slow decomposition of the oxalic acid. This fact is new and was unknown several years since; if true, it has a more than second- ary importance. At first sight, it would seem impossible to decrease the oxalic acid and at the same time retain the total sugar in the tops and leaves, as oxalic acid needs for its entire decomposition a high temperature, which would destroy the sugar. Just why during sun-drying the oxalic acid should decrease has never been satisfactorily explained. Is the reduc- tion due to an oxidation or the. action of some micro-organism? The drying means a considerable loss of oxalic acid. Before desiccation the leaves contained 2.39 per cent, of this acid and after the hot-air treatment it fell to 0.60 per cent. The average for all the samples examined during one week was 0.45 per cent., while the analysis of a sample of the previous year showed only 0.35 per cent, of oxalic acid. Under these circumstances there can be no possible objection to feeding these dried leaves to cattle in their regular daily ration. On the other hand, when the green leaves are fed there are great risks, for the simple reason that the acid percentage of the dry matter frequently reaches 5.9. When leaves are submitted to a very high temperature, as is suggested by Maercker, there is always some danger of bring- ing about an alteration in the sugar w^hich is not desirable; hence the advisability of never exceeding a certain limit, and this is controlled by a current of cool air and the addition of some fresh substance to the mass. Both Drs. Zelber and Maercker declared that by the Wusterhagen mode there is no decomposition of the sugar. The operation of drying offers certain difficulties in view of the fact that one has varying elements to contend with, and these are all of very different natures. For example, the tops have an entirely different structure from the leaves, and in the latter the special delicate botanical formation must be taken into consideration. If there existed simply a regular, uniform heating, one portion would WUSTEEHAGEN DRYER. 109 be entirely burned while the other Avould be only semi-dried. Long observations had demonstrated that the best mode is to begin with a systematic cleaning, then an air reduction in weight followed by drying. The tops remain upon the ground for several weeks; then they are put into small piles where the wilting continues, after which they are taken to the hot air dryer. By this treatment the oxalic acid is almost entirely de- stroyed, while the sugar contained in the tops has undergone very little transformation. The drying of the leaves and tops is then continued at a lower temperature, so that there can be no possible danger of caramelization, a special system for regu- lating the temperature of the dryer being used. The reduction in weight of the tops and leaves always means a considerable loss during sifting of the dust, impurities, etc. At the start 88 per cent, of substance to be dried diminishes at least 20 to 30 per cent, in weight during the air-drying or wilting. The arti- ficial drying means 80 to 48 additional percentage. The leaves finally retain about 15 per cent, moisture. Beet leaf drying has already obtained considerable proportions. According to Petry & Hecking, who have introduced the Wusterhagen mode upon several farms, these dried leaves will keep for at least two years under ordinary conditions, notwith- standing the fact that they show certain hygrometric powers. A sample containing 20 per cent, of water did not mildew even after a long period of keeping. They declare that this keeping power is due to their sugar percentage, Proebent's experiments in beet leaf drying have shown that the operation costs about 50 cents for 220 lbs, dry matter. In Belgium the profits are about one cent a pound. From a hectare (2.5 acres) there is collected about 3 tons of dry sub- stance, which is worth at least $30 in its dried state. Vibrans cannot understand how the technical authorities can possibly attempt to extract the water from a substance which contains already less moisture than do pressed diffusion cos- settes, and if these can be dried under remunerative conditions certainly beet leaves could be desiccated under very much better circumstances, if, instead of pressing the product, some practical method was devised for bringing the dryers to the leaves as found upon the field. 110 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Advantages and The idea does not seem in many respects to be practicable; disadvantages ^^ jg^ however, very advantageous when sugar factories cultivate ee sugar. ^^^ beets themselves. Under these conditions the roots are farmed in the vicinity of the factory; but when it comes to the transportation of leaves for a distance of 2^ miles at a period when all means of traction are more expensive, such a system would be excessively costly. It would be necessary that the plant should consist of an apparatus for cutting the leaves, for the drying in a special furnace, and a movable engine that would carry the appliance where it was required. The combined machinery should be placed under a light movable roof. The desiccation of leaves has the great advantage of doing away with the moisture that may have been produced during siloing, under which circumstances they would more surely ap- proach the feeding value of hay. Furthermore the product would be vastly more healthy and would not be possessed of any of the laxative properties of fresh leaves. Moreover the amount of oxalic acid they contain is considerably reduced. Already the beet leaves that have remained on the field during an interval of a week or ten days after the harvesting of the beets, lose a considerable proportion of their oxalic acid. This statement, previously mentioned, is absolutely true. Apparently there has been produced a sort of fermentation which reduces the oxalic acid. However, this decrease may be the outcome of a continuation of some physiological action of a substance contained in the leaves after they are separated from the main body of the root, and this reduction increases during desicca- tion. There seems to be every reason to believe that there is great truth in this assertion, for the analysis, as given by Vibrans a well-known chemist, substantiates his views. The dry leaves contain 0.03 to 0.05 per cent, of oxalic acid, and 15 to 20 per cent, of water, 5 per cent, albumen and 12 per cent, sugar. Buttner and Meyer allow only 0.23 per cent, of oxalic acid. On the other hand it is true that in their method there is no explanation of the loss of oxalic acid during the pressing of leaves in the Klusemann press. Beet leaf There is no example to be given of any serious complica- feeding. tion arising from the special beet leaf feeding. It is well to OBJECTIONS TO BEET-LEAF FEEDING. Ill remember that in these scientific experiments the results ob- tained show data that can be absolutely relied upon, and those interested in cattle feeding can adopt the given principles with- out the slightest hesitation. However, in the early experiments that were made in these new efforts at the utilization of products either from the beet sugar factory direct, or from the residuum of factories, there have always been certain unknown factors to contend with, but as matters now stand and as investigations have been made by the leading experimental stations of continental Europe, it is not to be presumed that any practical error has been committed. Attention has been called to the experiments of Priester in the " Milchzeitung," the well-known organ of Germany de- voted to this specialty. In this publication it is declared that when cows have been exclusively fed with leaves and without the intensive additional use of another forage, no results other than those which have been extremely satisfactory have ever been re- corded. The quantity of milk has increased, and furthermore in cases of working oxen the amount of traction obtained after a given interval has been quite equal to that which has hitherto been realized by many of the complicated formulae advanced by well-known specialists. The introduction of beet leaves as a forage, and especially Objections to siloed leaves, has met with endless objections among farmers, beet-leaf feeding. It has always been declared among- tillers that there is danger of lowering the general health of the animals by excessive beet- leaf eating, owing to the purgative effect of the residuum. This objection is in a measure correct; however, at the present day, these objections have, without doubt, been very materially over- come. To reply to many erroneous assertions about beet leaves in cattle feeding would be a waste of time; suffice it to say, it is much to be regretted that several agricultural journals of the country should have printed articles written by persons who certainly have had little or no experience in the subjects they were discussing. "Beet leaves fill up cattle; ^ * * they pro- duce a bad effect upon the kidneys owing to their containing an excess of alkalies, etc., etc.," are only a few of the theories ad- vanced. It has been pointed out that cows, when fed with beet 112 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. leaves during the period of gestation, would bring dead calves into the world, and their milk and butter would be of an inferior quality, to say nothing of the resulting diarrhoea. Practical experience has shown the absolute absurdity of such theories. However, no one can deny that during the first stages of beet- leaf feeding there is always certain evidence of diarrhoea, but this laxation of the intestinal tubes is assuredly only temporary, lasting, we will saj^ a few weeks, and no ill effects have been known to follow, provided certain precautionary measures are taken. It is claimed that soured leaves give sour milk, but the fact of the matter is that it would require a very delicate palate to distinguish between the milk of cows fed with hay and that which has resulted from beet-leaf feeding. The observations of Von Schmidt are not very reliable, for he claims that such milk is in no way suited for the manufacture of cheese. It has been noticed upon several occasions that butter produced from milk obtained from cows fed on beet leaves is hard, but even if such be the case this difficulty may be readily overcome. It is sufficient to give to the cow or live stock being fed a certain amount of oil cake in order to reduce the butter to any condi- tion of softness that the locality may call for. It is, how- ever, recommended that, when one wishes to give to live stock turnip cake, the quantity introduced into the ration should not exceed one kilogram per diem if it is desirable that the butter shall not have imparted to it a turnip flavor. The fault found by Grouven with beet-leaf feeding is that this residuum does not contain sufficient phosphoric acid. Such assertions do not appear to be endorsed by modern science, as Stoklasa has shown that a considerable quantity of this chemical is formed in the leaves during their early development. However, very little is shown to exist, and oil cake had better be added. Oxalic add— It has further been pointed out that beet leaves are actually its influence, possessed of certain toxic influences due to the oxalic acid they contain. Before refuting such assertions it is interesting to call attention to Hertzfeld's experiments, which demonstrate that oxalic acid, far from being the result of the decomposition of the leaves, in reality disappears in notable proportions during CONCLUSIONS RESPECTING BEET-LEAF FEEDING. 113 the siloing, owing to the action of a certain mushroom which, according to Keller, decomposes the oxalates during their keep- ing. Zuntz has demonstrated by his experiments that oxalic acid has without doubt a toxic action; oxalates, on the con- trary, possess this action to a very much less extent. On the other hand, beet leaves that contain oxalic acid in the propor- tion from 5 per cent, to 10 per cent, of their dry substances, contain it mainly in the form of oxalate of lime, which is not dissolved in the first stomach of ruminants, nor in the lower portion of the intestinal canal. However, it may be digested in the rennet, and if a certain amount of lime is present there can be no possible danger of toxication. It is proposed, under these circumstances, to give at the same time with a regular ration of leaves, 0.05 to 1 per cent, of lime as chalk, carbonatation scums or in some other form. The need of lime is not urgent during the first stages of digestion as the oxalic acid is neutralized by the lime taken from the bony tissues of the body. The body of man, and also that of animals, has the peculiar property, as previously pointed out, of yielding to the organism little by little the components requisite to sustain life during periods of excessive work or abnormal strain. This expendi- ture or absorption of lime, according to Zuntz, demonstrates that it is impossible to feed live stock indefinitely with green leaves without the addition of this calcic salt, as there would necessarily follow a reduction in the bony tissues, resulting in dangers of a very serious nature as far as the health of the animals being fed is concerned. The addition of lime to the forage in the form of chalk or carbonatation scums, reduces very materially, if not to a mini- mum, the deleterious actions referred to above. Gaspari arrives at the same conclusion as Zuntz and declares that this forage, which contains only a small quantity of oxalic acid, far from being deleterious, plays on the contrary an im- portant role in stimulating the appetite of the animals fed. It is further recommended by. this authority that special precau- tions, such as those first mentioned, be taken with the view of preventing accidents that may occur through this mode of feeding. 8 114 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Zuntz has made a series of experiments on sheep and has found that they are not afTected by oxalic acid. He believes that their pouch or second stomach must necessarily contain a substance that effects a fermentation and completely destroys the oxalic acid with which it comes in contact. He recom- mends that animals receive increasing quantities of this forage, and under no circumstances should the maximum be reached at the early stages of feeding. This idea is in striking accord with all accepted rules and theories of stock feeding in general, as advanced by the leading authorities. Conclusions re- Under all circumstances, as is generally admitted by those I ./ *^ who have given dried leaves a thorough trial, the results feeding. . obtained with them are superior to fresh or sour leaves from many points of view, not only as regards their nutritive equiva- lents, but also their keeping qualities. A fact never to be forgotten is that the leaves are not eaten by cattle with avidity at first. They must first become accus- tomed to the new diet, as to many other condiments. However, a change occurs after a few days, and then live stock in general ap- pear to like this fodder and to eat the same with an unex- pected relish. It is only under very exceptional circumstances that a cow, or whatever animal is fed upon this waste, will refuse it, and if this proves to be the case one may be assured that there is some organic trouble existing and that the animal is not in its normal physical condition, and should be medi- cally treated. In Germany excellent results have been obtained when feed- ing about 30 lbs. beet leaves per diem per head. As this has been practiced for many years, it seems curious that a practical farmer should not discover whether the fodder he used was profitable or not. Hundreds of other examples could be cited. A fact too frequently overlooked is, that when a sudden change of diet is made for dairying cows, there always follows a de- crease in milk production, and it remains to be determined whether this is due to the fodder or to the new "regimen." Sufficient has been said in the foregoing to point to a ques- tion of great agricultural importance in the future development of the beet-sugar industry in the United States. When we con- FEEDING SEED STALKS AND SEED. 115 sider that the weight of leaves is nearly equal to one-half the weight of the beets, it is easy to estimate the enormous volume of cheap fodder farmers are to have at their disposal. Corenwinder, not many years since, demonstrated that a lux- Relation of beet uriant foliage always indicated a high sugar percentage. Accord- to leaf com- ing to Deherain, beets testing 16 per cent, sugar will have leaves position, weighing 60 lbs. per 100 lbs. roots, while leaves from roots con- taining 11 per cent, sugar would not weigh 30 lbs. The quality of the beets has an important influence on the saline composition of leaves; the richer the beet, the higher the percentage of salts in leaves. The saline elements taken from the soil and contained in leaves are for beets testing 15 per cent, sugar, about as follows: Potassa 5.30 to 5.7, soda 1.45 to 1.55, lime 1.40 to 1.55, magnesia 1.18 to 1.30, chlorin 1.44 to 1.65, sulphuric acid 0.64 to 0.65, silica 0.35 to 0.64, phosphoric acid 1.18 to 1.20, various 0.78 to 0.85, in a total of 14. Strange as it may seem, these show 14 lbs. of important substance, taken from the soil by leaves, for every 100 lbs. sugar contained in the roots. Grouven also says that 100 lbs. of fermented leaves are equal for feeding purposes to 150 lbs. of fresh leaves, and equal to about 20 lbs. of the very best fodder. Attention should be called to some experiments in which cows were fed upon beet leaves and gave milk, from 24 lbs. of which there was extracted 1 lb. butter. With the same cows, but with- out leaves, 28 lbs. of milk were necessary to produce 1 lb. of butter. This would show beyond cavil, that beet leaves are favorable to milk production. Wild's experiments demonstrate that very satisfactory results may be obtained by feeding beet leaves and straw to sheep; he found that 57 per cent, of total organic sub- stances were digested. Maercker made the following experiment in feeding beet leaves and necks to sheep. There were two series of ten animals each, one series receiving 50 kilos of beet leaves and the other 40 kilos of residuum cossettes, to which was added the desired percentage of nitric elements, etc. From a money point of view, the results obtained were in favor of the leaves. In another experiment the leaves were placed at the disposal of the sheep, and the ten animals ate 67.6 kilos, their health not 116 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. being in any way affected. The example may be cited of a Ger- man farmer who fed his milch cows very extensively with beet leaves, and with surprising results, for the flow of milk increased and the quality was satisfactory, containing 4 per cent, of fatty substances. It is to be noted that during the early period of feeding there is always a diarrhoea, which lasts for about three weeks, and the animal fed has a very debilitated appearance; then there follows a reaction for the better and the fattening is very rapid. Beeves fed for two to three months on beet leaves and tops increased considerably in weight. Under no circum- ■ stances should leaves be fed to cattle or sheep during the period of gestation. Working oxen, after beet harvesting, prefer beet leaves and tops to almost any other kind of fodder. Farmers who have the slightest apprehension as to the feeding of beet leaves to cattle should give the product a trial in combination with chopped straw, etc. , to which may also be added certain oil cakes. If the ration consists of f leaves and ^ tops, about 60 lbs. may be fed per 1000 lbs. live weight; if only 30 lbs. are fed, then it is desirable to add hay, straw and about 6 lbs. of oil cake. As a ration one may give to cattle the combination proposed by Grouven: For heavy cattle 40 lbs. of soured leaves and the same quantity of soured cossettes, 3 lbs. of colza oil cake and 6 lbs. of hay. Money value of When one discusses the money value of beet leaves and tops beet leaves and f j.qjj^ ^ feeding standpoint their digestibility must be taken into account. While it is admitted that all the nutrients these con- tain are digestible, it is thought desirable to deduct 20 per cent, from their supposed money value. Upon general principles it may be admitted that the tops are twice as nourishing as the leaves. All calculations made the tops and leaves worth in Germany about 8.25 cents per 100 lbs. or $1.80 per ton, about S8 to the acre. In order to show the economical advantages of the utilization of beet leaves it is interesting to give as an example Germany, where 440,000 hectares, 1,100,000 acres, of beets are harvested, and where they do not rely upon more than two tons of dried leaves per hectare, which are worth 80 marks per ton, the value FEEDING SEED STALKS AND SEED. 117 considered as a whole reaching seven miUions of marks for their sugar campaign, which is a sum not to be ignored by any one. The experiments made upon pigs at Gottingen, with the Feeding seed stalks of beet seed, showed that they were composed of onl}^ a stalks and seed, very indefinite nutritious value. The experiments made at Halle-sur-Saale experimental station demonstrated that this re- siduum was possessed of only a moderate nourishing value and had a coefiiciency of digestibility of only 64.02 per cent., viz., about equal to the straw of cereals in general and of rye in par- ticular. Old beet seed, which for special reasons cannot be utilized, may be ground to a powder and advantageously used for fodder. PART THIRD. CHAPTER I. Feeding' Fresli and Siloed Sxigar Beet Resldunm. Early apprecia- From the very origin of the beet sugar industry it was sug- tion of the value gested that residuum from the beet sugar factories should be of sugar beet ^gg^j fQj. cattle feeding, and if one consults the work of Achard it Avill be noticed there are a few lines respecting this subject, but curious to say, long years elapsed before the question was given the attention it deserved. The fact of being able to keep the residuum 'cossettes in an excellent condition during several months of the year, at a period when fodders in general are expensive, was a most important advantage that all intelligent farmers appreciated. Objeetion to Many objections were made to this residuum pulp (as it was its use. then called), but the arguments used were certainly errone- ous. Frick relates that in 1850, when efforts were made to arrange a fodder out of pressed pulp — the residuum of hydraulic pressing, which was then in vogue — the same objections were maintained everywhere; for example, it was claimed that cei'tain lice were often found in the stomach of animals fed, and that they had no other origin than beet pulps. Later on similar difficulties were contended with when endeavoring to arrange for the utilization of exhausted diffusion cossettes. Some farmers refused to recognize that the residuum contained any nutrients whatever, for at that time it was agreed that all the nourishing constituents of the products had been removed with the water during pressing. The heavy percentage of water contained in the residuum pulp, when diffusion was first introduced, was another argu- ment against the general use of this valuable product. It was thought that the health of the animals would suffer. (118) IN WHAT DIFFUSION CONSISTS. 119 At first the fact was apparently ignored that the general fat- tening effect upon animals of beet cossette residuum from sugar factories, unlike the mash from breweries, was not to bloat. Cattle raisers, however, were willing to give the product a fair trial, and from that time forward certain encouraging results were obtained. It was noticed that pressed cossettes had excellent keeping qualities, and even when fed in considerable quantities produced little or no diarrhoea, and in this manner all previous adverse arguments were overcome. The manner or the condition in which this residuum from Manner of using, beets was fed to cows always depended upon the existing condition of the sugar industry; also upon the various phases and processes which the sugar manufactory underwent at differ- ent periods of its development. At the start of this industry it was impossible to consider or to urge the use of the residuum in any shape other than that in which it left the hydraulic presses. Then there came a struggle to convince farmers of the importance of combining a suitable fodder with the after-pro- ducts of the maceration process, and at last there was no longer a question of this mode. This was soon replaced by another method known as diffusion, which, from that time to this, has held its own. Furthermore, it became necessary to take into consideration other very complex questions, such as the impos- sibility of utilizing the enormous quantities of this feeding stuff in a very limited time, which resulted in great changes in the methods of keeping the same. At the present day no other question is discussed than that of diffusion cossettes. For the benefit of those who may not be thoroughly familiar with the question, a few preHminary re- marks may be of interest. In order to obtain the rapid and complete extraction of the in what diffusion sugar from the beets, the root is reduced to small slices, each consists, having a section closely resembling the letter V. These slices are called cossettes. The cossettes upon leaving the sheers are received in receptacles known as diffusers, in which they are in contact with circulating water. Under these circumstances an exchange is created between substances dissolved in the liquid 120 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. The main object of the manufacturer. Composition of diffusion cossettes. contained in the interior of the beet cells and those of the ex- terior liquid. These transformations take place through the membranes of the tissue, and there is a real phenomenon of diffusion, which in reality explains the use of the word. The substances dissolved in the liquid of the cells pass through the porous membrane with different velocities, which depend upon their condition of fluidity and the complexity of their molecules. The saline substances are most rapidly diffused through the tissues. Then there follow the sugar, amides, and, last of all, the albuminoids, and the cellulose and pectic substances. For- tunately these transformations are in direct ratio to the degree at which exhaustion takes place in the diffusion battery. The main object the sugar manufacturer has in view is to ex- tract from these cossettes as much sugar as possible and to leave behind a maximum, so to speak, of albuminoids and other sub- stances which are likely to offer difficulties in the subsequent operations of the various phases of sugar extraction. These transformations will end at a certain point and the exhausted cossettes will ultimately consist of a residuum product that will be very valuable for cattle feeding. As all the substances dissolved in the liquid of the cells and the order in which they diffuse are known, we are able to ap- proximate, with a considerable degree of accuracy, the composi- tion of the final exhausted cossettes. They are poor in sugar and relatively rich in albuminoids and pectic substances. The salts have also been eliminated to a considerable extent. This product as it leaves the diffusion batteries has about the follow- ing composition: Composition of Cossettes as They Leave the Diffusion Batteky. Substances. Water • • Cellulose Albuminoids Ash Extractive substances Fatty substances Stammer's Briem' s experiments. experiments. Per cent. Per cent. 95.45 94.0 3.32 1.4 0.36 0.5 0.30 0.4 0.57 3.6 0.1 DKIPPING AND STRAINING. 121 It becomes very evident that one cannot consider these figures as being possessed of absolute value. They evidently vary with the original composition of the beets and their physiological con- dition, which has previously allowed diffusion to take place more or less rapidly, thereby permitting the dissolved substances contained in the cellular tissues to pass through the outer walls at a more or less rapid rate. The composition furthermore depends upon the method of ^"fl^"" '^^ '" manufacture, the process of diffusion and the degree of exhaust- ^ '■esiduum. ion to which the beets have been submitted in the diffusion battery. Suffice it to say that there are many sugar factories which allow 0.8 per cent, of sugar to remain in the residuum, whilst at other factories the percentage is 0.15 per cent. Degner urges that there be left a few hundredths per cent, of sugar. What strikes one especially in these data is the enormous Excess of water, quantity of water that remains in the residuum, and every effort should be made to reduce this to a minimum in all cases. It stands to reason that such an excess would be deleterious to the general health of the animals to which it might be fed. The methods proposed to reduce this water percentage are very different and depend essentially upon the various factories where they have been introduced, so that we cannot at present enumerate them in detail. It is customary to resort to a me- chanical method which reduces this water at least 50 per cent. The desirability of eliminating the water of diffusion pulps is an open question. When it is to be consumed near the beet- sugar factory, the product may be thrown into silos upon leav- ing the battery; the water runs off by natural pressure of the mass. This plan would not be practicable, however, when pulps are Xo be carried to distant farms; hence, upon general principles, we may admit that a reasonable pressure is desirable. Some authorities urge that such a reduction is unnecessary; Dripping and we, however, are in favor of resorting to considerable pressure, straining. The ordinary method of straining the cossettes and allowing the water to drip off, so to speak, gives only fairly satisfactory re- sults. Some allow the water to drain off upon inclined planes; the semi-strained mass is then laid on wagons, where the drip- 122 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ping continues. Under these circumstances 60 per cent, of the water of the cossettes is separated, which is a fraction more than that which can be removed by mechanical pressing. According to Wicke the residuum thus obtained contains 8.5 per cent, of dry substances. On the other hand, Bodenbender, who has also made some experiments in endeavoring to drain this water from the product, has obtained strained cossettes containing 85 per cent, water. In these same pulps the water is reduced to 50 per cent, after siloing, which would tend to confirm the argu- ment of Schotter, who declared that this pressing was not nec- essary when the residuum was not to be kept for more than eight months. He claimed that after this time, pressed or not pressed, the residuum always had the same composition. Cossette presses. The straining method has ver}^ little practical value for large factories, and it is now customary to submit the cossettes upon leaving the battery to considerable mechanical pressure. To accomplish this an almost unlimited number of cossette presses has been invented, but the results obtained with each of these are approximately the same. When first introduced they gave a residuum containing 9 per cent, of dry substances. Little by little the improvements re- sulted in an increase in this percentage, owing to a greater quan- tity of water being expressed. As a result the dry matter remaining in the best known apparatus is 15 per cent., and it must be understood, too, that this is by no means the limit that such machines may attain. Excessive There are, however, certain obstacles to be overcome, which pressure. ^^ ^ measure prevent the progress that one might expect. Ex- cessive pressure would reduce the cossettes to a paste, and this would be objectionable, as one looks for a certain dry pulveru- lent condition of the product ultimately desired, which consist- ency the cossettes generally possess after leaving the typical presses and in which form the product may be easily handled. Furthermore, this paste product would pass through the per- forated iron filtering surfaces of the presses, and would, under such circumstances, obstruct their proper working. An exces- sive pressure would also decrease the percentage of nutritive elements, as some would be carried out with the sweet water es- caping when the sides of the beet cells are broken open. LOSSES DURING PRESSING. 123 According to Bartz, one loses about 0.28 per cent, of the pro- Losses during teid substances passing out in the sweet water of the cossette pressing, presses, when one ol)tains for the total weight of the beets worked 50 per cent, of pressed cossettes, which is about an average. Maercker, however, declares that this loss is very much less. He has pressed the cossettes so that they are reduced to 18.41 per cent, of their original weight and, notwithstanding this ex- cessive pressure, there does not remain in the sweet water run- ning off more than 3.35 per cent, of the total dry substances. On the other hand. Stammer declares that this loss is very much greater, even when submitted to less pressure, and that the weight of cossettes is reduced to 38 per cent, with a conse- quent loss of 5.5 per cent, of dry substances in the sweet water forced out from the residuum. The essential reason for this diversity of data may be ex- plained by the composition of the cossettes submitted to pres- sure. The more complete their exhaustion during diffusion the less will be the loss of dry substance during subsecjuent preparing. It is interesting to note that in the experiments of Stammer, it has been demonstrated that the loss of saline substances in the sweet water is 32 per cent. , while for albumen and extract- ible substances the loss is only about 12 per cent, of the total original quantity. This same authority declares that the actual loss of nitro- genous substances during preparation was not more than 0.03 to 0.04 per cent, of the weight of the beets handled; further- more, that before preparing, there was 7.4 per cent, albumen in 100 parts dry matter contained in the cossettes, and after- wards the percentage was reduced to 6. 56 per cent. Classen has also found that this loss is considerable. He has pointed out that even with a slight pressure the losses of nitro- genous substances reach 7 per cent., and the non-nitrogenous 9 per cent. On the other hand, by excessive pressure, the loss is 10 per cent, of nitrogenous, and 15.04 of the non-nitrogenous substances. He, therefore, justly finds that these are no longer insignificant quantities that may be overlooked. Happily, the 124 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. average for the general work always results in certain com- pensations for these losses. Friihling and Schultz have obtained the following results by pressing in a Bergreen apparatus: In the pressed cossettes there was 12 per cent, dry substance, and 0.66 per cent, in the sweet water, of which 0.23 per cent, was ash, and 0.16 per cent, proteid substances. Below is given the analysis of the resi- duum before and after preparing: Analysis of Beet Residuum: Before and After Preparation. Substances. Water Ash Raw protein Fibre cellulose Nitrogen free extract • . • • Fatty substances ....... Digestible. Albuminoids and amides Nitrogen free extract • • • Fibre Fattv substances Before preparing. After preparing. Per cent. Per cent. 94.0 89.8 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.9 1.4 2.4 3.6 6.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 3.0 5.1 1.2 2.0 0.1 0.2 An examination of these data shows beyond cavil the advan- tage of pressing. The presses now generally used are of the Klusemann orthe Selwig and Lange types, the Klusemann press being the out- come of Schlickeysen's suggestion. Klusemann A side view and section of one of these presses is shown in press. Y'lg. 3; in many respects it is one of the best known. They may be seen in operation in most beet-sugar factories. As a general thing, they give entire satisfaction. If this machine does not extract the fluid as fully as the hydraulic press, it does, working continuously, deliver the pressed mass containing 12 to 14 per cent, of dry substance, almost equal in value for cattle-fodder to ordinary beets, and also valuable as a fertilizer. The idea of Klusemann' s press evidently came from the clay- mixing machine, which has been used with so much success for KLUSEMANN PRESS. 125 mixing pressed clay with water. Here, as in the clay-mixer, the mass is worked by knives and screw-formed cutters, and is, at the same time, forced through a very contracted opening. Fig. 3. Side View and Section of IClusemann Press. In the Klusemann press this is effected by a perforated cone L. which works in a perforated cylinder, and is furnished with iron or steel blades placed in screw form. These blades seize and force down the cossettes which are fed in at the top; and as the cone expands at the bottom, and the cylinder is of equal diameter throughout, it is evident that a strong pressure must be given to the cossettes as they approach the contracted open- ing between the cone and cylinder at the bottom. 126 FEEPING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. This press, as shown, is fed Avith cossettes, which, after leav- ing the elevator i?, fall into the hoi3per K. The cone L with its flanges then carries the mass down, pressing it against the circumference d of the cylinder. As already stated, the pressure increases as the mass is forced downward, and at the point of greatest pressure this escapes, H having given out fully half its liquid — a portion entering the hollow cone through the perfora- tions therein, and escaping at g, and the remainder passing through the perforated cylinder c into the outside case and escaping at k. The speed must be so regulated that the elevator will bring just enough material to keep the hopper K constantly full; and it is thought desirable, when the cossettes are not in suffi- cient volume to fill the same, to stop the machine, as otherwise the results expected will not be obtained. The machine should always be started slowly at first, and when entirely filled, run at a regular rate of 50 revolutions per minute, arranging the elevator to suit. The motion is given by a pulley P carrying a pinion M working in the cog-wheel D, which is keyed on a horizontal shaft E, the latter having also a beveled pinion F which works into a beveled cog-wheel C fastened on the prolongation of the upper axis of the cone, just above the box in which the axis turns. The lower axis is hollow to allow the liquid inside the cone to escape, and this axis works in an iron box provided with strong set-screws h and h' on the outside, by which the box can be raised or lowered, to lessen or increase the size of the opening of delivery and the consequent pressure as may be desired. It is not always possible to convey the cossettes by a mov- ing apron direct from the bottom of the diffusion battery to the hopper K. But frequently it is emptied in any part of the building, and the refuse conveyed by an Archimedean screw into the presses. One advantage of this press is, that it requires no care^ and little or no attention ; but what is to be re- gretted is that the pulp has not the fresh appearance it had prior to the pressing. Fifty tons of cossettes may be worked in twenty-four hours through one press of this description. This amount may be increased by increasing the diameter of the SELWIG AND LANGE PRESS. 127 apparatus. The force required is said to be about one and one- half horse-power. Modifications have been made by Bendel and Bergreen, also by Buttner and Meyer, but the general princii^le remains the same. Fig. 4. Vertical Section — Selwig and Lange Cone Pulp Press, The Selwig and Lange presses work upon an entirely differ- ent principle. This press, which is shown in Figs. 4 and 5 in Selwig & Lange two sections, presses the cossettes in the following manner: press. The hopper E receives the cossettes, which fall at a^ between 128 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. cast-iron jaws, covered with perforated tin; these are placed ob- Hquely to one another, and revolve upon the circumference of a large hollow cylinder made of two conical parts. The move- ment is -very slow, and is the same for both disks. It de- pends upon the velocity of the driving pulley, upon the axis of Fig. 5. Transverse Section — Selwig and Zange Cone Ptilp Fress. which are two pinions that gear with large cog-wheels, these communicating the movement to the exterior circumference of the press. But as at a^ the distance between the surfaces of the SELWIG AND LANGE PRESS. 129 Fig. 6. disks is the greatest, and at a the least, the cossettes reach a con- tracted wedge-shaped chamber whose walls continually move towards the smallest space, and are carried around by the fric- tion and rotation of the disks. As the latter gradually approach the narrowest portion of the space a, the narrowing disks exert a most powerful pressure on the cossettes, while the liquid con- tained in the latter passes through the perforated surfaces of the pressing disks. The pressed cossettes, passing the narrowest portion a — after which the distance between the disk-surfaces again widens — are forced by the following mass against the fast scraper F out through the opening M in the jacket, and form a tolerably consistent mass. The pressed-out water flows through larger openings in the jacket, into a drain H. The degree of pressure on the cossette, which is in proportion to the distances between the disk -surfaces a„ a, can be altered by altering the press disks A, Aj, which can be moved on the axis C C; by set-screws provided for that purpose. The cone cossette press can be placed either on the surface of the ground, or over chambers which can be used for other purposes, provided the liquid can be carried off properly, since the machine has no separated parts, and the pressed cossettes fall from it at the height of one metre, so that a trans^Dorter can be run under to be filled, and carry the cossettes to another place. In most cases it would be best, especially if Klusemann's press is to be run with it, to arrange this press directly under the cossette elevator, in the story over the cossette storage room, as shown in the accompanying small cut. When there is sufficient height ' 9 General Arrangement of Cone I'ress. 130 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. for the elevator above, two presses can be thus conveniently located. In new buildings, or when altering buildings, it is recom- mended to place the press in the factory, and not in a separate building, which is usually colder, since experience proves that the cossettes can be pressed to much greater advantage in a warm than in a cold place. In such a case the pressed cossettes can be carried by a wheeled transporter, an endless screw, a link belt, or some other arrangement into the cossette store-room, and the building need not be more than two stories. The press is driven by fast and loose pulleys on the shaft i, turning a pinion which works into the cog-wheel K. As soon as the hopper E begins to get empty, the press can be put to work; for, if it be not sufficiently filled, the pressing will not be so well done. It is important that all the shafts and the cog- wheels be kept well oiled and greased. The construction of this press is said to be simple and very strong, having no parts which are easily broken, or which wear out rapidly. The materials used are the best; the iron press- rollers D D; are chilled castings. The working of these presses is said to be as simple as their construction. The disks squeeze the cossettes with a direct pressure, almost at right angles. Slipping of the cossettes upon them does not occur, and therefore there is no tearing or de- stroying of their cells. In consequence of this the power re- quired to drive these presses is much less — one-fifth or one- fourth only of that of the Klusemann press of equal capacity. Advantages claimed for the conical cossette press are: 1. Extraordinarily great delivery, with excellent pressing. Of the (3) cone presses of varying dimensions, given in the fol- lowing table, No. 1 has a capacity of 250,000 k, daily; No. 2 of 190,000 k., and No. 3 of 100,000 k. ; and the work is equally as good as can be obtained on an average from the Klusemann press. 2. Very slight power required — only one-third to one-half horse-power per 100,000 k. daily of beets worked, being only twenty to twenty-five per cent, of the power needed for the Klusemann press. In consequence, 100 tons of beet cossettes can BERGKEEN PRESS. 131 be pressed with this machine daily. The economy of coal is apparent. 3. Great simplicity of construction, and entire safety in run- ning. 4. Very little loss of time by stoppage while at work. 5. Better keeping quality of the pressed cossettes, which also are not cut up too fine. These pressed cossettes are said to keep much better in consequence thereof in the silos, as is proved by experience. 6. Lower price of these machines and cheaper setting, com- pared with other presses of equal capacity. Daily Delivery of 3 Cone Cossette Presses of Varying Dimensions. Dimensions, etc. No.l. No. 2. No. S. Delivery per day of worked beets 225 t. to 250 t. 1.800 m. (7U".81) 0.60-0.70 785 mm. 155 mm. 67-78 7000 k. (15,400 lbs.) 150 t to 165 t. 1.450 m. (57".04) 0.85-1.0 940 mm. 155 mm. 33-39 5200 k. (11,440 lbs.) 100 t. to 110 t. 1.200 m. (40".15) 1.1-1.3 785 mm. 130 mm. 41-49 360O k. (7,920 lbs.) Diameter of press disks Number of revolutions of same per minute Diameter of dri\ang pulleys. Dreadth of driving pulleys. Number of revolutions pul- leys, per minute Weight of the press For the pressing of two hundred tons of diffusion cossettes in twenty-four hours, about two horse-power will be required. The Bergreen press of the old and new types is shown Bergreen press, in Figs. 7 and 8. Its working is based on the same principle as that of the Klusemann apparatus. It consists mainly of two cones, A and B, of which the interior one, B, is perforated and has a hollow lower axis, F, for sup- port and the exit of the expressed juice. Both cones are provided Avith iron screw-formed blades of which those on the upper half of the outer cone, J., form segments of a screw, while the lower portion of the screw blade is continuous, and almost touches the inner circumference of the perforated cylinder, D. In the upper portion of this outer cone the separate blades, e e and //, run in spiral form, but in opposite directions. The blades, e g, form a low, sloping screw, while those of // are steep. The former being also broader, spread 132 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. and mix the mass, while the steep winding of the spiral, //, Fig. 7. Sergreen, Cassette Press (Old Type). forces the mass downwards with pressure. In the outer BERGREEN COSSETTE PRESS. 133 cylinder the blades, e and /, move in a spiral from left to right, but the similar blades on the inner cone move spiral]}^ from right to left. Fig. 8. Bergreen Cosaette Press {Sew Type). As the two cones move in opposite directions this arrange- 134 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ment forces the cossettes from the upper broken spiral into the lower continuous spiral. The motion is given by the pulley, a', on whose axis a pinion, b, works into a large cog-wheel, b'. On the horizontal axis, K, two pinions of different sizes are placed opposite to each other, the smaller of which, c, gearing into the bevel wheel, c', on the axis of the inner cone, and the larger pinion, d, gearing into d', on the axis of the outer cone. It is plain, therefore, that the cones will revolve in opposite directions. The cones are slit in many places, as shown on the broken portion of B. These are covered with finely perforated tin, so that the sweet water may run off easily and at the same time be freed from cossettes. There is a man-hole at the bottom of B to afford access to the interior, and around the man-hole is a rim to prevent overflow of the expressed water. C is a hopper, and i i i are three iron bands on the outside of cylinder, D, to strengthen it at the point of greatest pressure. There is an outer casing, E, whence the liquid flows through GG into H. From the inner cylinder the sweet water flows into some exit through the hollow axis, which rests in the holloAv step, F. The cost of this press is greater than the Klusemann apparatus. During recent years another press of the Bergreen model has come into existence, an engraving of which is shown herewith. The outer portion, A, of the old model is done away with. This apparatus is cheaper and works very satisfactorily. Lallouette Another mode which for a time had some popularity, is the press. Lallouette press, shown in Fig. 9, which is not without interest as it has been used subsequently to the standard Klusemann and other presses. The filling may be done with a pulp-pump,* and 15 tons of pulp may be pressed in twenty-four hours. In France this press was not only used for the refuse beet pulp, but also for first and second pressing of the rasped beets. Mr. Lallouette' s idea was to diminish the water in excess in the diffusion pulp, so that the latter would contain no more of it than the pressed diffusion cossettes. His experiments consisted * The pulp-pump is of curious construction. The valves must be necessarily made large, not only to jiermit the passage of the liquid, but also of substances in suspension. LALLOUETTE PRESS. 135 in placing a small quantity of the pulp in the press, then a Fig. 9. JLaUouette Press. layer of linen cloths, then a layer of pulp, etc., alternately, 136 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. until full— the capacity being 250 k. [550 lbs.]. The whole^ after being pressed from seven to ten minutes, was reduced to 170 k. [375 lbs.], about 40 per cent, of water being eliminated. These several pxesses give about the same results: that is to say, they give 50 per cent, in weight of residuum of the beets worked. This product contains on an average from 12 to 14 l^er cent, of dry matter. As was before mentioned, numerous efforts have been made to increase this dry matter percentage. The machines used for the purpose do not permit one to go much beyond the limits named, as otherAvise there would be danger of clogging the mesh of the perforated filtering iron. Care needed It is essential to see that these presses run with regu- during pressing, laxity and to keep them constantly filled with cossettes as long as possible. As long as they are full, the cossettes are submitted to a normal pressure against the sides of the apparatus, but as soon as the supply of the residuum decreases, which frequently occurs during an irregular working and the subsequent empty- ing of the diffusors, the residuum is not pressed and it leaves the presses in a moist condition. Experience shows that it is preferable to supply the cossettes to one press after another and to commence with the central one of the series, there being thus a greater chance of at least two presses working continuously. Heat facilitates There is one fact not to be overlooked, and that is, that the pressing, higher the temperature of diffusion the greater will be the ease with which the water can be expelled from the residuum. It is impossible in the operation of diffusion to go beyond a certain temperature, at which the final residuum becomes gelatinous and bursts open under the slightest pressure. The most desir- able temperature is variable and depends upon the tissues of the beet being worked, but upon general principles it may be said that it is very near 80 degrees C, at which temperature the cells reach their maximum porosity and allow their liquid to escape freely. Modes for facili- For several years past there has been a tendency to introduce fating pressing, the residuum into the cossette presses at the highest possible temperature, and it is for this reason that, in many instances, diffusion is conducted with hot water. Certain manufacturers have gone so far as to mix hot water with the exhausted cos- LALLOUETTE PRESS. 137 settes in order to reheat them, while in other cases it has been customary to reheat this residuum by bringing it in contact with live steam. Maercker attempted to obtain the same result, not by heat but by chemical reactions. After a long series of laboratory investigations he concluded that when the cossettes were mixed with lime or alkaline salts, the cellular tissues of the product became very much more porous. The most efficacious method is the least expensive. It consists in submitting the cossettes to the action of 0.5 per cent, of lime, using it in the form of milk of lime. The receptacle in which this mixing is done has a suitably-arranged agitator which produces a perfectly homoge- neous mass. This operation lasts from 20 to 30 minutes, and the product thus obtained gives up a large percentage of water under the slightest pressure. Some investigators who have introduced this milk of lime treatment claim that the percent- age of dry substances in the final pressed product reaches nearly 30 per cent. (?), that the limed cossettes were possessed of an agreeable flavor, etc. Siekel also recommends this mode of working, but under no circumstances should the residuum be allowed to be in contact with the lime for more than 30 minutes, as otherwise the physical condition of the product would be altered, and it would then, in a measure, be worthless for the purposes intended. It would be transformed in the presses into a com- pact mass, which it would be impossible to compress without a breaking of the press, and under such circumstances it would become necessary to cut it into pieces in order to remove it. Muller proposes the washing of the cossettes in lime water before pressing. Under this treatment the residuum increases in value as a fodder, and the lime will constitute later on an obstacle to the excessive fermentation in silos, which is always to be dreaded. The theory of the Manoury method is based upon the simultaneous action of heat and a suitable chemical, which coagulates the albuminoids in the tissues of the beet. Its application to diffusion consists in adding lime to fresh beet cossettes during the diffusion at 70° C, allowing the contact to 1 138 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. last for at least 20 minutes. The cossettes subsequently give excellent results by pressure, and their weight may be reduced to 15 per cent, of the weight of the beet. The mixing of the lime with the cossettes may be done in many ways. The weak juices running from the diffusion battery are used again instead of w^ater for the general working of the battery. The advantages of such practice are as follows: 1st. Considerable diminution in the quantity of water required for diffusion. 2d. The saving of 0.3 to 0.4 per cent, sugar, which is frequently lost in the refuse water and cossettes. It is said that juices extracted by this method are at least as sweet as those from the first carbon atation, consequently the latter operation may be effected with 1 per cent, of lime, giving a purity equal to that obtained with 3 per cent, by the customary process. It is estimated that by an additional expense of ^1,600 there would result an advantage of $1.40 per ton of beets, and for an ordinary campaign a saving of over $12,000. These figures, if correct, are of sufficient importance to warrant their careful examination by every beet-sngar manufacturer. Bosse urges that the several modes mentioned in the fore- going be combined. He submits the residuum to hot water and alkali during pressing, and re-heats the cossettes on leav- ing the diffusors in a large receptacle containing ammoniacal water, which is collected during the evaporation of the juice in the triple effect. Scheermesser uses in the last diffusor of a diffusion battery, water that is saturated with anhydrous sulphurous acid. Under these circumstances the resulting residuum is easily pressed, and the albuminoids are coagulated by this acid, under which conditions they will be retained in the cossettes that are pressed, and will not pass off in the sweet waters. When the product is dried and left in the air for a certain time the anhydrous sulphuric acid seems to evaporate, but it remains to be proved whether the product could be advantageously fed _ to cattle. Pulp or cossette Most farmers in continental Europe, when contracting to grow contracts, beets for the sugar factories, stipulate in advance that they must have in return at least 50 per cent, in weight of the beets fur- VALUE OF SUGAR BEET COSSETTES. 139 nished. Under these circumstances it is to the manufacturer's interest to have the largest possible quantity of residuum cos- • settes. Unfortunately, very dishonest methods are frequently employed to obtain the same, in which case the manufacturer has no special advantage in submitting the cossettes to an ex- cessive pressure. Furthermore, it would be to the interest of the tiller to stipu- late in his contract that the residuum shall contain a certain quantity of dry matter. If this is less than 8 per cent, the pro- duct should be refused. As affairs now stand the farmer fre- quently receives water instead of the valuable constituent just mentioned, and can derive no benefit from it. On the other hand, when the water has not been removed the mass of cos- settes has considerable volume and the cost of its transportation is considerably higher than it should be. Furthermore, the nutrients contained in the product are frequently so diluted that they have a pernicious effect upon the health of the animals being fed. The market value of residuum cossettes from sugar factories Value of sugar depends upon many conditions; their composition, the manner beet cossettes. in which they are obtained, the abundance of other crops and distance from factory to farm. In most European countries contracts are made between farmer and manufacturer for beets at $.4.00 per ton, the farmer reserving the privilege of purchas- ing the residuum pulp at $1.00 to $2.00 per ton, in quantities corresponding to -g- of the weight of beets furnished. When pulps are delivered at farms allowance is made for such trans- portation. Considerable change occurs in the composition of the product during transit. The percentage of water increases cost for example, if 80 carts are required to carry a given weight of pulp containing 80 per cent, water, 85 carts would be neces- sary for transportation of the same pulp if the Avater percentage had been 85 per cent. By means of oxen the cost of transportation of pulp to a farm at average distance from the factor}^, is 15 cents per ton. This price permits keeping oxen, or other animals used, in good con- dition, and in a few years pays their value. Difficulties con- stantly arise between manufacturer and farmer; either the latter 140 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. wants more than his contract calls for, or he maintains that the refuse is inferior in quality to the product formerly used. As the percentage of cossettes obtained varies with the saccharine quality of the beets worked, it is well for the manufacturer not to make any rash promises as to the amount he can furnish and the quality of the product. Hence 20 per cent, is considered a reasonable limit. From 100 lbs. of beets there are obtained on an average 42 lbs. of cossettes; the difference should be con- sumed by animals at the factory. Diffusion must be conducted under most scientific principles, otherwise the feeding- value of the pulp suffers. If the tempera- ture is too high there follows a coagulation of many of the nutritive elements. To protect the farmers' interest and to make sure of harmony among all interested, an understanding should exist as to limits of temperature at which the battery is to be worked. If farmers sell siloed pulp to their neighbors, they should ask double the purchase price at the factory, to which should also be added the expense of transportation and siloing. The bulk is reduced one-half, but the value has re- mained unchanged. These pressed cossettes are in some cases fed to live stock as fast as received or they are kept in specially built silos. Farm- ers collect the product at the factory in wagons or carts, or transport it by water in boats constructed for this purpose. Conveyance of Respecting this question of transportation, there is no special remark to be made, except that wagons, carts or boats which have previously served the purpose of carrying beets to the fac- tory and have thereb}^ become dirty on account of adhering earth, should in all cases undergo a special cleaning before being filled with the residuum cossettes. This cleaning also serves the purpose of diminishing the possible contamination of certain bacteria that frequently accompany earth of all kinds. These would necessarily bring about complex fermentation during the siloing. Importance of It is well to note that with forage in general it is always de- keeping the sirable not to allow gravel and sand, or other hard substances, residuum clean, ^q penetrate the mass, as these would produce a disagreeable sensation during the process of rumination. cossettes to farm. IMPORTANCE OF ADDING LIME. 141 When it is desirable to feed the cossettes just after they leave Changes when the presses, it is important that it be done as soon as possible, exposed to the as they rapidly undergo transformation, due to bacteria absorbed ^'''• or taken from the air, which soon find in the cossettes an excel- lent medium for their development. The micro-organisms also existing will necessarily produce an objectionable fermentation, which has no relation whatever to the healthy fermentation occurring during the siloing. Cossettes exposed to the air soon give evidence of putrefaction, which render them worthless for feeding purposes. Under no Not to be fed circumstances is it recommended that cattle be fed with cossettes alone to live alone. However, certain practical experiments have shown that ^''"-'^• no special evil effects arise from this practice; but their compo- sition, as shown above, demonstrates that this residuum, like all fodders, is not complete within itself. Exhausted cossettes are very poor in fatty and saline sub- Feeding value stances. Their dry constituents consist mainly in non-nitrogen- of cossettes. ous substances of only an average nutritive value, their carbo- hydrates are mainly cellulose and penta-glucoses; but the reasonable percentage of albuminoids which the residuum contains, renders this product a fresh and valuable fodder, not- withstanding its heavy percentage of water, which necessaril}^ dilutes the nutritive substances. The deficiency of saline sub- stances is partly overcome by the addition to the ration of a small quantity of salt mixed with the cossettes, or, as is fre- quently done, a large block of salt may be placed at the animals' disposal, which they can lick to their hearts' content, their appetite being thus stimulated. It is, upon general principles, desirable to add a certain importance of amount of lime or phosphoric acid in the form of phosphate, adding lime, which is necessary for the building up of the bony tissues. As to lime, it is sufficient to mix with the forage any calcareous substance, such as carbonatation scum. This is essential, as many who have had experience in the special subject of cattle- feeding and dairying in general declare that when cheese is the object in view, lime should not be used too sparingly, as other- wise the cheese would not be possessed of the essentials for coagulation. On the other hand, the phenomenon of faulty 142 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. coagulation is attributed to the contamination of the milk with the micro-organisms "with which the cossettes become saturated when brought into contact with the air of the stable. Phosphoric acid Phosphoric acid may be supplied by mixing with the resid- to be added, ^um pressed cossettes any forage containing this acid in a reason- able proportion. For this purpose one may use oil cake resid- uum of various origins. These are very valuable from another standpoint; they give the requis^e quantity of fatty substances, which are entirely absent in diffusion and pressed cossettes. When these fatty constituents are absent in the forage fed to milk cows there follow certain difficulties in the production of butter. Beet cossettes in The growth of our population and the increased value of cattle feeding, lands, render the problem of cattle feeding much more com- plicated than formerly. Stall feeding is now more general than it used to be, but the custom in the United States is practiced only to a limited extent, as compared with Europe. The idea in view, however, in both cases remains the same, i. e., to pur- chase cattle at the lowest price and sell with the greatest profit. That the selling price per pound increases with an increase in total weight of the animal is a well-known fact. The fattening should cease when the conditions do not appear favorable for its continuance; that is, when interest of money and cost of fodder used are more than the money value of the daily gain in weight. The question of beet pulps for milch cows is of far greater importance than the average reader can at first realize; for, if the cost of production of a quart of milk can be made less than at present, there would necessarily follow a decrease in the selling price of that necessity of life, which would benefit the laboring class in general. The fattening of sheep with beet cossettes has of late been conducted on a very extended scale in the United States, not only in California but also in Nebraska, etc. , and it may cer- tainly be made profitable in the Eastern States. Wool in abun- dance on American soil means cheaper clothing. Without at- tempting any other economic argument, suffice it to say, that beet-cossette residuum utilization is destined to take a most im- portant part in the general prosperity of our country. DANGERS OF FEEDING BEET PULPS. 143 No general rule can be given as to the best methods for feeding, How to feed as they depend upon the special circumstance of the locality, beet pulps. Siloed pulp, upon general principles, being better than the fresh, the farmer has every reason to give the silo his best possible attention. The ration should vary with the special animal to be fed; and samples of rations should not be considered as standard, but taken simply as guiding points in the experiment. With fresh pulps suitable quantities of oil cake should always be used, taking the precaution to mix them with a certain amount of chopped straw and fermenting the same in special vats. Under these circumstances it is found desirable, to accelerate the fermentation by the addition of a small quantity of tepid water. It is well to have two vats, one fermenting while feed- ing from the other. To avoid hot water in excess, a slow heat- ing of the mass is highly recommended by some; the effect of this system appears to be most satisfactory. Under certain circumstances live stock may decline the Dangers of cossettes; then a mild system of starvation may be adopted. '^^'""^ ''^^' This method, however, from the writer's point of view, can never be made profitable, as the loss of weight could not be compensated by the economy in the cost of fodder used. The addition of condiments is one of the best methods; a little salt water frequently answers the purpose, and diluted molasses is most excellent. It may be desirable to mix with the pulp a very tempting fodder, and to diminish this gradually. In the whole question of feeding beet pulps to cattle there are important facts not to be overlooked. When the pulp is fed fresh the main difficulty is overfeeding, or not properly prepar- ing the ration to meet the requirements of the special case under consideration. Siloed pulps undergo organic changes during their keeping; first, they may become mouldy, second, saturated with excess of alcoholic vapors, and third, attacked by a certain disease known as pulp malady. The portions of siloed pulp that become mouldy are generally at the top, being more in contact with the air. ' Distillery pulp owing to its acidity keeps longer, consequently many conclude that a slight acidity is rather desirable. It is a great mistake to allow any mouldy pulp to pulps. 144 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. be used, as death may ensue. No one has yet discovered the form of bacteria responsible for the trouble. The saturation of pulps with alcoholic vapors is rather an advantage, as the cattle eat it with considerable avidity. The excess of alcohol in beet pulps is never as great with diffusion cossettes as with the hydraulic-press residuum, for the simple reason that the latter contains more sugar that could generate alcohol. During the period when presses were used as a means of extracting the juice from pulp during the regular process of manufacture, one would constantly hear of actual intoxication, the animals falling to the ground and remaining in an almost comatose state for a considerable time. After the effects had passed off they would rise and eat as if nothing had occurred. These alcoholic pulps would, after a time, cause cerebral com- plications. Before that period is reached the flesh has depre- ciated in value; this is, however, a difficulty at present almost unknown. Beet pulp disease. A few years since it was noticed that in certain parts of France cows fed on well combined rations were suffering from certain organic complications. A young bull being fattened became suddenly ill. No cause could be attributed for the same. After death the animal was examined and found to have suffered from serious stomach and intestinal complications. Fortunately such instances are of rare occurrence, but it was discovered that the pulp used was from a very old silo. The toxic elements existing, that will necessarily cause physi- cal complications if taken into the system, are the outcome of the early stages of decay of the product fed. The objectionable microbes are found mainly in the water running off. At first the animals suffering from the disease are very restless; severe colics soon manifest themselves, and considerable suffering and pain always accompany these troubles. The most objectionable pulps are those that have been stored for a period of months. Practical experiments show that if the kept residuum is heated to 212° F., all the microbes they contain are destroyed. This, in fact, applies to most bacteria. This mode cannot be prac- tically applied. Sodic chlorid or common salt offers one of the very best means of destroying objectionable microbes. This DANGERS OP COSSETTE FEEDING. 145 should be combined with pulps in the proportion of 0.25 to 0.30 per cent. It is important not to use it in excess. Every few days there should be placed at the animal's disposal a salt solu- tion, permitting the animal to use its own discretion as to quantity taken. Decomposed, or mildewed cossettes, should never be used for cattle feeding, as the general health of the animals fed would suffer. There would follow colics, swelling of the intestine, cramp, paralysis, etc., due to ptomaines and ferments, from which there is alwa3^s to be feared a continued action upon the nervous system. Arlaing attributes to sour cossettes certain diseases of the ren- net. Stift declares that lactic acid, when present in excess, always means certain complications of the bony tissues. Ac- cording to Gerland, notwithstanding all the water that the cos- settes may contain, soured cossette feeding means diarrhoea only, provided there has been a sudden lowering of temperature of the intestinal tubes. On the other hand, these sour cossettes increase the secretion of the kidneys. There certainly are many advantages in using soured cossettes rather than the fresh residuum, as they contain less water. An excessive consumption of cossettes may result in an excessive flow of blood to the brain or spine. Under these circumstances there follow intestinal troubles in the animals, resulting in death, owing to diarrhoea. All of these alleged dangers from feeding cossettes do Conclusions as not in any way reduce their actual value and excellent feeding to dangers of qualities taken as a whole and considered as forage, provided, ^^oss^tte feeding, however, they be not fed to excess. It is desirable that the cos- settes be not allowed to undergo an}' organic transformation during their keeping, the natural fermentation being the limit. Microbes that may be accidentally introduced will bring about complications, and it has been noticed that soured cos- settes are particularly favorable for this bacteriological develop- ment. Many essays have been written which endeavor to demonstrate that it is to this source that we must look for nearly all the diseases that cossette-fed cattle have had to fight against.- The technical discoveries in this matter have been such that 10 146 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. efforts have been made to prohibit, in the working of the diffu- sion batteries, the use of certain waters which are supposed to contain microbes. It frequently happens in the manufacture of beet sugar that there is a scarcity of water, and under these con- ditions it becomes imperative to use the water that the manu- facturer has at his disposal over and over again. However, compressed air comes to the rescue when water is scarce, and man}'' advantages have been derived from its use. While it has not been conclusively demonstrated that water contains germs which prove themselves to be decidedly objection- able, it has been shown beyond cavil that the cossettes appear to combine certain elements favoring putrefaction upon coming in contact with the unknown microbes during siloing, thus considerably increasing the losses occurring during this keeping. The pulp malady is a comparatively new fad among scientists who declare that the trouble commences in the intestinal canal; diarrhoea is the second stage. While it is admitted that special microbes have been found in rotten pulps, it is interesting to note that it is not from the microbe the difficulty arises, but through internal complications. The toxic substances formed may be numerous, some of which are precipitated in alcohol while others are soluble therein. Their action in these cases is ver}^ different, and recent investigations appear to show that it is those elements soluble in alcohol which are the most to be dreaded, as they cause convulsions and frequently death. None of these difficulties will ever occur if the pulps are boiled or dried. ^ These facts have been mentioned as offering a certain interest for those who contemplate cattle fattening on an extended scale. It is also important to note that among many thousands of beeves fattened with beet pulp for the European market for a period of years, there has not been a single case where the farm- ers complained of any evil effects arising from an extended use of the residuum. When the difficulty does occur, the farmer himself is responsible, as when beet pulps are fed alone there may be some danger of osteomalacia (softening of the bones). Such practice of feeding can certainly have no advantage other PRODUCTION OF MILK AND BUTTER. 147 than ecoiiomy, which does not prove profitable in the end. The disease in question appears to be more prevalent among cows than oxen; the latter appear to be better able to resist any ab- sorption from their bony frame. Let the ration contain enough salts (phosphate of lime, soda, potassa, etc. ) ;* let the by-fodders have the saline elements needed, and the pulp malady will pos- sess no more than a passing interest. There is a great difference of opinion as regards the value of Feeding with tlie beet pulp on dairy farms. Some say, that under all circum- view to produc- stances the milk from cows fed upon the product has an un- *'*•" *•' "^^^^ pleasant taste and is worthless for the city market; others, on ^" "*'*'^' the contrary, argue that the milk is sweeter than can be ob- tained by the use of any other fodder; that the bad taste of milk is due to the use of inferior siloed pulp, which has undergone some alteration during keeping. The abundance of milk that follows pulp feeding no one doubts — the quantity is greater, but the quality diminished. Under all circumstances, it is certain that the results obtained depend as much upon the care taken as upon the fodder used. It would be impossible to give a full synopsis in the present writing of the numerous trustworthy and scientific experiments that have been made bearing on this question. However, a synopsis of a few of them are given: 1st. The daily ration during first week for a cow Aveighing 700 lbs. contained 38 lbs. rutabaga; the yield of milk was 5 quarts per diem; the second week 60 lbs. diffusion pulp, yield * Just whether common salt, if mixed with pulp attacked by the malady, overcomes all complications to be dreaded, remains to be yet thoroughly dem- onstrated. Some French experiments appear to prove that salt does not over- come the difficulty. The main thing to be avoided is the use of cossettes that have for a period of months been in contact with the stagnant water of a silo. In this respect cemented silos for beet pulp are objectionable unless thoroughly drained and those simply made in the ground are far preferable. An interesting fact not to be overlooked is that the lower strata of a silo may frequently be worthless for cattle feeding, while a few inches from the cos- sette upper surface may be in an excellent condition for sheep, cattle, etc. When the feeding of diffusion or distillery cossettes to ordinary cattle has become a regular business, it is desirable to isolate the animals being fattened from other stock so as to avoid the spread of disease, when it occurs, to more valuable domestic animals. 148 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. of milk 5.7 quarts; third week 121 lbs. pulp, yield of milk 6J quarts. The yield of milk consequently increased 30 per cent. The beet ration had little or no influence on the casein, which fact seems to be a general conclusion of all observers. The yield of butter increased 12 per cent. 2d. Among the most important experiments in this special direction are those of Andouard and Vezaunaj^, who fed pulp in constantly increasing quantities up to 138 \hf. per diem. Their conclusion was that the influence of pulp increases the yield of milk 34 per cent. ; butter increased 6.74 per cent. After three months the weight of fodder might have been augmented 40 lbs. The objectionable flavor of milk was no greater than with the use of other fermented fodders. Beet pulps are very profit- able in the production of butter and meat. It appears, how- ever, that the milk obtained has a special tendency to acid fer- mentation.-^ Continued feeding Klein has noticed that after a long feeding with cossettes the with cossettes. resulting milk contains 2.22 per cent, less fatty substances than it did during the early stages of feeding. Upon general princi- ples one may admit' that this decrease is observable in cossette feeding in general. To counterbalance this argument it is well not to forget that the volume of milk secreted increases very considerably under the influence of beet residuum fodders, and under these conditions the total fatty substances secreted are in reality greater than with most fodders. * The American farmers having given the question of diffosion cossettes a fair trial, are pleased with the results. Besides the cases cited elsewhere, we maj' mention another where 100 head of cattle were fed upon beet pulps com- bined with other fodders. Small cattle were purchased in the autumn at l^c. per pound, and were sold five months later at 3c. per pound. Beeves pur- chased at 2^0. live weight might subsequently be sold at 4c. , their average increase being 230 lbs. It is recommended to purchase beeves weighing 1,200 lbs. at ^30.00 each; the cost of feeding, including labor, will be about 123.00 each, total cost $53.00; such were sold at §71.50, the profit §18.50 per head. Under these circumstances it follows that if beet pulp utilization is not general it is due to the ignorance of those discussing the question. It is true the residuum when fresh is too bulky, but this objection cannot be urged when it has been properly siloed; furthermore, an extended feeding with fresh pulp would be a mistake. It appears to be generally forgotten that beet residuum from the diffusion battery is more nourishing than was the original beet. WATER IN BEET PULPS. 149 All investigators have not come to the same conclusion as re- Excessive gards excessive cossette feeding. According to Briem when this feeding, cossette feeding is pushed to an excess the resulting butter will have a very tallow-like appearance and bad taste, which objec- tionable features are most difficult to get rid of, even when the animals receive the requisite supply of palm-oil cakes, rice flour, corn residuum, etc. Furthermore, certain authorities declare that it is a mistake to give cossettes to cows that are to supply milk to be fed to babies, or to animals undergoing their period of gestation, or even when the calf is still sucking. But all these views are exaggerated, as pressed cossettes constitute a nutrient as healthy as any known forage for cattle that are being fattened or for those thit are being raised. Schulze points out that if 12 per cent, dry matter is sufficient for a forage being fed to milch cows, the conditions are the same for cattle fed with the idea of obtaining their manure or for breeding purposes. European farmers, during a period of thirty years, have be- come thoroughly accustomed to using beet residuum from beet- sugar factories and distilleries. The product from the factory came from hydraulic presses and contained very much less water than the cossettes from diffusion batteries. Numerous discus- sions followed, showing that there was every advantage in using diffusion cossettes, notwithstanding they contained more water. This excess offered no difficulty when mixing with chopped straw or some other material that would absorb the moisture. Experiments show that an ox weighing 1,000 lbs. should not absorb more than 60 to 80 lbs. water per diem; if this hmit is passed the weight of the animal being fed decreases. This is explained by the fact that the gastric juices of the stomach are then so diluted that assimilation of the fodder is not satis- factory; besides which, as Maercker justly argues, to evaporate this water a certain amount of the animal's caloric must be drawn upon. The degrees of caloric necessary may be easily calculated, and reduced to the basis of starch— it being admitted that for every pound of starch-combustion in the body there is required a given number of degrees of heat. When water is in excess it Water in beet pulps. 150 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. will exert a reflex action upon the albumijioids of the body. An exceptional quantity of water taken into the body has a de- bilitating action owing to the dilution of blood that it brings about. From this same standpoint it is a mistake to feed frozen cos- settes. The freezing occurs during the transportation of the residuum from the sugar factory to the stable. There can fol- low thereby all kinds of stomach diseases and complications. Such cossettes should undergo a preliminary thawing before being fed. According to Elert it is desirable to feed to animals a quantity of forage proportional to their percentage of Avater. The follow- ing per diem ration is proposed by Ahrens for horned cattle: 75 lbs. pressed cossettes; 2 lbs. oil cake; 5 lbs. clover hay; 2 lbs. chopped straw. Rations for Briem recommends that working oxen shall receive 30 to 80 working oxen. lbs. of cossettes per cliem, depending upon the size of the ani- mals. Under all circumstances it is desirable that the limit of the ration shall not be more than 8 per cent, of the animal's weight. On some Austrian farms, oxen are worked for two or three months and then stall-fed for the market. In the spring of each year a number of beeves are purchased whose individual weight is never less than 1000 lbs. These are used for ploughing until December, and then fattened for 150 daj^s. Summer fodder consists of grass with 2 lbs. corn, 2 lbs. barley ground and mixed with barley straw. During the early winter 88 lbs. fresh cossettes; later in the season the same amount of pulp from silos, instead of fresh cossettes. During the following period, and according to the animal's condition, there are given besides the above 7 to 10 lbs. corn ground with 11 lbs. hay. The re- sulting increase in weight is 20 per cent. For oxen doing heavy work from January to May, on an Austrian farm, the ration was: Beet pulp 79 lbs., hay 19 lbs., chopped straw 4.4 lbs., crushed grain 4.4 lbs., malt sprouts 1.1 lbs. , salt |- lb. Oxen used at an experiment station in France, received a daily ration consisting of distillery pulp 88 lbs., hay 11 lbs., chopped straw 11 lbs., oil cake 6.6 lbs. RATIONS FOR SHEEP, HORSES AND PIGS. 151 Ration for bulls on an Austrian farm: Beets 22 lbs., pulp 11 lbs., hay 4.4 lbs., clover hay 2.2 lbs., oats 1.1 lbs., chopped straw 9. 8 lbs. , straw waste 8 lbs. , salt J lb. Rations for live stock in general, as used in France: 1st. Diffusion pulp 132 lbs., wheat husks 8.8 lbs., corn flour 4.4 lbs., oil cake 4.4 lbs., flour sift- ings 4.4 lbs. 2d. Diffusion pulp 121 lbs., colza-oil cake 2.5 lbs., flour siftings 2.2 lbs., bean husks 2.2 lbs., wheat husks 2.2 lbs. 3d. Diffusion pulp 121 lbs., corn flour 4.8 lbs., flour sift- ings 4.8 lbs., oil cake 4.8 lbs. Sheep may be fed with cossettes when they are not being Rations for specially raised for their wool or selection for breeding pur- sheep, poses. Eight kilos, per diem per 100 lbs. weight is con- sidered a desirable limit. To other sheep very little is fed, and some claim that cossettes should not be used at all for sheep feeding. Ration for fattening sheep from January to May on an Aus- trian farm: Pulp 6.6 lbs., chopped straw 1 lb., hay ^ lb. Ra- tion at an experiment station, France: 1st. Beet pulp 5.3 lbs.; hay 3.0 lbs., oil cake 0.6 lbs., barley ^ lb. 2d. Beet pulp 3.3 lbs., hay 4.4 lbs., bran ^ lb., oil cake ^ lb. For oxen doing very little work on an Austrian farm, the ration for 1,000 lbs. live weight, was: Beet pulp 55 lbs., fermented corn meal 44 lbs., crushed peas 1.1 lbs., crushed barley 2.2 lbs., malt sprouts 1.1 lbs., oat straw 5.5 lbs. The feeding of fresh pulps to horses and mules does not ap- Nation for mules pear desirable in all cases. On some farms satisfactory re- "Otsts. suits are obtained with 16 lbs. beets combined with 12 lbs. pulp and 12 lbs. chopped straw. Another authority recommends that working horses, when stall fed, shall receive from 10 to 20 kilos, of cossettes per animal per diem, and when this amount is decreased the work- ing power of the horse appears to diminish. Pubertz says horses may be kept in an excellent condition by a fodder consisting of 100 kilos, cossettes, 50 kilos, oats residuum, 50 kilos, hay, 20 kilos, rye bran. Ahrens, on the other hand, ob- tained excellent results by feeding to horses 90 lbs. of cossettes per diem. Numerous experiments show that it is a great mistake to feed Ration for pigs. 152 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. more than 10 lbs. per diem of beet pulps to pigs. Under al'l circumstances the residuum must be combined with some other fodder. Experts justly maintain that the intestinal canal of swine is unsuited for the proper assimilation of refuse cossettes from the diffusion battery. In certain parts of Germany potato pulp from distilleries is combined in equal parts with beet pulps to form 3 gallons, to which is added 1|- quarts of crushed barley per diem. A greater quantity than this limit brings about in swine a de- crease in the quality of the fat and flesh, and in some cases re- sults in a dropsical condition of their entire cellular tissues. Moreover, when such animals are fed with beet cossettes it is desirable that the product shall undergo a preliminary boiling or steaming so as to concentrate the same. It is desirable upon the whole, however, not to feed pigs with beet cossettes, although there are authorities who declare that the intestinal tubes of SAvine are admirably adopted to the assimilation of the constitu- ents contained in this residuum (?). Practical experiments by Simon Legrand during 94 days in feeding diffusion pulp to cattle gave the following results: Ninety-four Day Experiment in Feeding Diffusion Pulp to Cattle. Items. Quantity of diffusion pulp consumed Cost of pulp Total cost of fodder Total cost of cattle and fodder Total selling price of cattle with no allowance for value of manure. ■ • Total weight before fattening ..... Total weight after fattening-' Oxen. 620,400 lbs. $705 00 $1,188 00 $1,197 60 $5,607 00 46.640 lbs. 58,700 lbs. Bulls. 310.000 lbs. $352 40 $594 00 $158 40 $2,319 80 22,410 lbs. 27 ,588 lbs. Total. 980,400 lbs. $1,057 00 $1,782 00- $5,781 00 $7,926 00 69,080 lbs. 86,328 lbs. Mixing cossettes Upon general principles it may be said there are important with other advantages to be derived in mixing cossettes with other fodders fodders, ^^d arranging the combination in such a manner that the cos- settes shall be 10 per cent, of the total weight of the animals fed in the case of oxen, and 7.5 per cent, in the case of sheep. These RATIONS FOE MILCH COWS. 153 amounts are perhaps excessive. There are many authorities who recommend as an outside hmit 4 per cent, of their weight. Soured cossettes when given alone as a forage are not desirable, notwithstanding the fact that some experiments which have been made are rather encouraging in their results. Without doubt, from a chemical standpoint, there are certain constituents lack- ing to form a complete forage. They may contain nitrogenous elements in sufficient amounts, but this quantity is not sufficient to do away with other combinations furnishing additional nitro- gen. The proportion between the nitrogenous and non-nitro- genous elements may be put down as 1:8. This, however, depends upon the condition one wishes to find the animals in after their feeding, and also depends upon the work they are called upon to perform. In the latter case it is well that this relation should be 1:5 to 1:6.5. In all these considerations it is well not to lose sight of the physiological condition of the animals being fed. It is import- ant to combine with the cossettes a certain amount of fibrous substances demanded by the intestinal canal. As neither the fresh nor the siloed cossettes contain sufficient albumin and fatty substances, these must be added by the use of hay, chopped straw, oil cake, etc. We do not put special stress upon straw or ha}^, for many residuums that may be obtainable on any farm, such as cereals, vegetables, etc., answer the purpose. Eisben recommends the following rations for milk cows, per Rations for 1000 kilogs. live weight: milch cows.- 154 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Three Ea.tions for Milch Cows per 1000 K. Live Weight. Kilos. 5 25 6 6 1 5 3 50 10 4 1 3 1 6 30 25 8 2 2 1 74 Kind of Feeds. Hay Cossettes Summer straw • • . Wheat balls Oil meal Wheat bran Total Hay Cossettes Barley straw W^heat middlings, Malt sprouts Wheat bran Oil meal Total Hay Cossettes Beet leaves Cereal wastes . . • • Colza oil meal • . . Malt sprouts Bran Total Per cent, dry sub- stance. (Kilos.) 4.25 3.12 5.14 5.15 0.87 4.35 22.88 2.55 6.24 8.57 3.43 0.90 £.62 0.87 25.17 5.10 3.75 5.00 6.86 1.74 1.80 0.86 25.11 Dry matter contains Protein. (Kilos.) Fatty substance. (Kilos.) 0.42 0.28 0.08 0.14 0.30 0.70 1.92 0.25 0.47 0.14 0.08 0.22 0.44 0.30 1.90 0.50 0.34 0.50 0.1 1 0.60 0.44 0.13 2.02 0.12 0.02 0.03 0.04 O.iO 0.15 0.46 0.64 Carbo- hydrates. (Kilos.) 1.90 1.81 2.40 2.40 0.30 2.70 11.51 0.07 1.14 0.05 3.62 0.04 4.01 0.02 1.60 0.02 0.43 0.10 1.62 0.10 0.30 0.40 12.71 0.14 2.28 0.03 2.17 0.17 1.50 0.03 3.21 0.20 0.60 0.04 0.84 0.03 0.54 Nutri- tive ratio. !■ 1:6.25 1:4.9 I 11.14 |j When soured cossettes are used as a basis, they very mater- ially increase the milk production which may possibly be ex- plained by the action of amides upon the cells of the udder. Kellner and Andra have noticed that forage beets may readily take the place of sour cossettes in the production of milk. These assertions must be taken with a certain reserve, as they are cer- tainly in contradiction with the observations made by other well-known authorities. Furthermore, the nearer the beet ap- proaches the turnip the more characteristic will be the flavor imparted to the milk of the animals fed. Again, there is always a certain danger of acid fermentation arising in the stomach. COSSETTES AS FOOD FOR MAN. 155 The last of these rations is proposed for oxen and cattle being fed for a stock yard. It is evident that all these proportions may be modified by the local conditions, the outcome of the ex- perience of the cattle raiser. The farmer himself has at his disposal the vast number of combinations of forages based upon Wolff's tables, giving the average composition of such forages. The data published respecting the digestibility or assimilation Digestibility of of albuminoids contained in the residuum cossettes varies con- residuum cos- siderably. According to Henneberg it is only 45.01 per cent., ^^*'^^" but this average is entirely too low. Morgen declares that the average is 76.03 per cent, for the pancreatin and pepsin com- bined, which in reality corresponds in a measure to the average of digestibility of the albumen in sugar beets. Regarding the non-nitrogenous elements, Henneberg declares that the average digestibility should be at least 84 per cent. This data demon- strates beyond cavil that the forage under consideration has a nutritive value which under no circumstances should be over- looked, and consequently all efforts for its utilization are cer- tainly justifiable. It is interesting to recall the various attempts made at its util- Cossettes as food ization in the alimentation of human beings. It is mainly to for man. the poor provinces of Bohemia and Poland that we refer, where the struggle for life is such that any commodity having a nutri- tive value at a reasonable price may be used. For example, Fricke kept with salt, for a long period, white cabbage and beet cossettes that had been previously boiled and washed. After an interval of four months this combination still possessed an excellent taste and could be eaten after being properly seasoned with oil and vinegar. Ottocar Cech says that in Bohemia the cossettes are first Avashed in cold water to free them from sand and dirt; the}^ are then allowed to ferment during a period of two or three weeks. Under these conditions the final product has an excellent flavor and odor, and when combined with caraway seeds is most palatable. On the other hand Naprivil combines with the residuum cos- settes a certain amount of beans and also lentils in order to vary the nourishing combination. Under these circumstances there 156 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. was realized an equilibrium, so to speak, between the legumen of this vegetable and the hydrocarbons of the cossettes. A mix- ture of equal weight of lentils with sour cossettes gives, accord- ing to this authority, a nutritive combination Avhich is possessed of great digestibility. Hard beans ground to a flour and put with the cossettes give a mash which is better yet. Cossettes as food In Germany, at Konigstein, Hamburg and Usingen, experi- for game, ments have been made in feeding game with residuum cossettes. Hare and deer eat this product only when forced to do so. Experience shows that it is not desirable to allow the animals fed during Avinter, Avhen their stomachs are full of cossettes, to remain for too long a time without a reasonable amount of ex- ercise. Cold necessarily paralyzes the activity of the stomach and might result in complicated diseases that always mean death. What residuum From an economical standpoint the utilization of sugar-beet cossette feeding residuum cossettes as a forage has an enormous importance. means in Ger- (Germany, where the annual out-put is ten millions of dollars, is an example of this. If one makes a calculation using well- , knoAvn, established data, the value of this product, based upon its chemical composition, would reach forty millions of dollars for the Empire. If one were to consider only the fertilizing value of its constituents, this more than represents the market value of the residuum, as it is now recognized. Under these circumstances it becomes evident that the tiller or farmer of the United States makes a great mistake in not recognizing what he has within his reach. Siloing Residuum Cossettes. Silos for reduc- It is possible, under most circumstances, to consume entirely ing cossettes. the residuum cossettes of an average beet-sugar factory immedi- ately: that is to say, to consume them in their fresh condition as they leave the cossette presses. This, from many standpoints, is very fortunate.- In the first place, the transportation of the residuum means a large increase of work for animals and indi- viduals occupied in agricultural pursuits, during the autumn, at the very time when crops are harvested, and many farm duties, such as ploughing of the land, etc., should be thoroughly at- tended to. SILOS FOE, REDUCING COSSETTES. 157 The factories working- under the best arrangement generally have a number of oxen to feed, and it is well to have a deter- mined amount of diffusion cossettes placed in silos at the fac- tory. Such silos are usually of the very best types. In general, our changeable American winters are disadvan- tageous to beet-residuum conservation, and attention to its proper preservation is of greater importance than in Europe. When building a silo, the very best material should be used; and as there is considerable lateral and vertical pressure, the side-walls should be sufficiently thick to offer the desired re- sistance; corners should be filled in with triangular or rounded bricks. For many years it was argued that diffusion pulps could not be kept in silos lined with bricks; experiments have shown such theories to be erroneous. Cossettes remaining for five months in silos thus constructed lost only 8.9 per cent, of theic dry substances. It is customary to pile the residuum cossettes in carefully- constructed ditches lined or not with masonry and cement. There are advantages especially to be derived by the use of " elongated silos, so that the portion exposed to the air during their opening shall be as small as possible in order to reduce to a minimum the amount that Avill subsequently rot through oxi- dation. The dimensions, such as length, depth, etc., as recom- mended by various recognized experts, are extremely variable. As the most desirable types of silos for residuum beet pulps are expensive, they are not within the reach of the average farmer. When beyond a certain size they must be cement-lined. Pellet and Lelavandier recommend that the length be 75 feet, width 12 feet, and depth about 4 feet. These dimensions vary with the conditions one may have to contend with. As to the depth, there are no difficulties in the way, provided the soil is not damp. It is not desirable to reach a depth where sub-strata water currents may be met. The other arguments that may be brought forward are based mainly upon the various conditions that different environments create. It is very exceptional, however, that the depth of silos exceeds six feet. Sometimes very deep silos, say 9 feet, give good results; the pulp then eliminates considerable water by its own weight. 158 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. In certain cases, the size is regulated so that a wagon may turn upon itself in the silo, which calls for a width of at least 15 feet. In agricultural attempts at siloing this width is frequently reduced to three feet. The width of the silo must vary with circumstances; if too great, its covering would offer some diffi- cult3^ However, the width should never be less than that of an average cart. It is recommended that the bottom of the silos be paved in such a way that there shall be two-thirds of an inch per yard slant from the entrance to the exit, with the view of facilitating the flow of water that runs off from the cossettes. In certain cases it has been found that this slant should be double, thus permitting the flow from the right as well as the left. Under these circumstances there is no deposit of water at the bottom of the silo, and stagnant water of any kind would soon contaminate the mass of the residuum. Sometimes it has been found an advantage to carry off the water filtration by certain drains; it has also been proposed to allow this water to collect in special wells, filled with stones or other material, from which, when the occasion presents itself, it may be pumped out. On the other hand, some experts advocate the building of these silos on porous soil. Complaints respecting characteristic odors of butter made from milk of pulp-fed cows, refer to siloed pulp. The residuum has become acid and undergone certain organic changes during its keeping, due frequently to the contamination caused by badly drained silos. It is important to call attention to the fact, that the drainage-water does not contain more than a slight fraction of the nourishing elements of the cossettes; its compo- sition, according to Vivien, is nitric elements .0020, carbohy- drates .0270, potassic substances .0006, various mineral sub- stances .0052, water and acetic acid .9818. It is to be noticed that the bottom paving of a silo materially helps the conservation of the siloed cossettes, and experience has shown that for a silo of average dimensions all lateral walls, brick or otherwise, are unnecessary, as they render only a very secondary service, mainly so when in especially plastic soils. Herzfeld says that the slope of the silos is of secondary im- FILLING SILOS WITH BEET COSSETTES. 159 portance, and that the transformations that occur in the mass being kept depend mainly upon the degree of dryness of the products upon leaving presses. On the upper level of the silos it has frequently been found that certain economical advantages may be derived by the in- troduction of small cars, of the Decauville type for example, traveling over the silos on narrow gauge tracks. This arrange- ment allows one to carry the residuum cossettes rapidly and under very economical conditions from the factory to the ditch or silo in which they are to be kept for a period of months. Silos should be filled during cold weather and the filling of Filling silos with each silo should not last more than three days. In our climate beet cossettes. the beet-sugar campaign frequently commences before frost sets in, so that the filling would take place at the wrong period; it would be better at first to feed direct to cattle. Farmers should not forget that filling during warm weather means very inferior fodder later in the season. Care to have the mass of pulp per- fectly uniform, so as to prevent air being imprisoned, is very essential, as its influence is very destructive. It may be com- pressed as much as possible with the back of the spade or other flat instrument used in filling. Tramping upon the residuum by walking a horse or cow over the product during filling is a very common custom, and covering the bottom of the silo with several inches of chopped straw is a good practice the advant- ages of which are numerous. Alternate layers of pulp and straw are to be recommended only in certain cases. The writer is rather in favor of alternate layers of salt and residuum. One man's labor for filling and emptying a silo of 5 ton capacity is sufficient. Silos are generally open on top. Experience has shown, however, that advantages are to be derived from resorting to a covering of at least two feet of earth, in order to prevent the action of air and putrefaction. When crevices open, due to the settling of the mass, they should be closed as soon as pos- sible. The cossettes are placed in silos so that the top (we refer to the portion above ground) shall form slanting angles of about two feet, which will materially contribute towards pressing the 160 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. mass of matter beneath. The slanting sides above ground should be gradually covered with earth, the latter being beaten down with care. After an interval of several days, this outer covering being well settled, another layer of clay is added under the same conditions. Various coverings for the top have been suggested, such as defecated scums, ashes, etc. , but earth seems to be the best of all. If proper attention be not given to the question of covering, putrefaction will continue from the surface to a depth of two feet during a severe winter; but if properly coveied, the pulp may be found in an excellent condition two inches from the surface. It is to be regretted that some of our farmers have used straw instead of earth; this is the very worst material they oould select for the purpose. Heavy weights on the top have some advantage, but the best of all, as before mentioned, is earth; this can be several feet in thickness, and its weight upon the pulp will be all that is desired. Experience has shown that when the silos slant from bottom to top, considerable advantages are found as far as the keeping qualities of the residuum are concerned. Silos when filled settle about 10 per cent., and it is to be noted that the settling has considerable importance, for the simple reason that a given volume of the product, before and after, means an economy as regards the cubical contents of the silos. It is very advisable, in order to obtain the best results in cos- sette keeping, especially during the period when they are withdrawn from the silos, to sub-divide the various chambers in which the product is kept into several compartments. These separations are made at different points in the direction of the least dimension by suitable walls of stone or earth, in such a way that even when one of these divisions is entirely open it in no way interferes with the adjoining one. Under these circum- stances it is possible to arrange so that the supply for the day may be sufficient to meet any possible emergenc}', and in no way have an influence, as far as atmospheric action is con- cerned, upon the product being kept in the adjoining section. Transformation If one leaves fresh cossettes exposed to the air there follows a during siloing, putrefaction after a very short time. Notwithstanding this TEAXSFORMATION DURING SILOING. 161 fact, very often when the factory method of washing does not allow the construction of any special silos, and when the farmers refuse to undertake it, the product is simply thrown in piles and left exposed to the air. Under these conditions it becomes evi- dent that the factories must 'lose, or in other words make a sac- rifice, which under better management would have been unnec- essary, of a product that enters very materially into the financial profits of the season, when the entire bulk of the sugar campaign is considered. This organic transformation, or putrefaction, even during siloing, may represent a sacrifice of 30 to 50 centimetres in depth, meaning a considerable proportion of the total product. It becomes evident that the essentials for the proper preservation of these cossettes consist in keeping out the air and rain. This distinctive action of rain and air increases with the period of keeping, for the reason that the cells of the residuum thus stored become, with time, more and more open. The rain enter- ing carries away a large percentage of the nourishing elements. Do what one may, there always follow numerous transforma- tions in the silos; there arises a fermentation in the mass of all, or nearly all, of the organic substances, such as the non-nitrogenous, which are partly converted into lactic acid. Under these circumstances the cossettes are possessed of a de- cidedly acid reaction and may contain, according to Morgen, more than 4.7 per cent, of their dry substances as organic acid, calculated upon a basis of lactic acid. This apparently ab- normal quantity has very much less influence on the digestion of animals than one might be led to suppose. They give, on the contrary, a rather agreeable characteristic sour taste, to which cattle soon become accustomed, and furthermore they appear to eat the product with great avidity. But, it is to be noticed, that in order that the cossettes may undergo this lactic fermentation to the best advantage, they should reach a temperature of very nearly 40° C. [104° F.], Avithout any supplementary heat other than that found in the siloed mass, otherwise there would follow an objectionable acid fermentation, under which circumstances, instead of lactic acid, there would be found a micro-organism known as mycoderma 11 162 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. aceti, that would soon show its activity, resulting in the forma- tion of acetic acid, for which live stock in general have a distaste. Certain cattle absolutely refuse it under any and every circum- stance, and the product then has absolutely no commercial or feeding value. As the temperature in the silos is considerable, it should be measured with a thermometer and controlled. Experiments have been made to collect some data regarding temperature in silos filled with two kinds of pulp, and the difference in heat evolved after some time was remarkable. A comparatively high temperature is generally desirable, for the reason that it shows that fermentation has commenced. As regards the nitrogenous substances, they also undergo most important transformations. They tend to become very simple compounds. For example, the albuminoids are trans- formed into amides. Morgen thus finds in the analysis of soured beet cossettes 24.03 per cent, of nitrogen in the form of amides. It must not be overlooked that the average for these amides for the entire mass was not more than 8.08 per cent. On the other hand, pressed fresh residuum cossettes do not contain even the slightest trace of these substances, which is ex- plained by the fact that they rapidly diffuse into the juices dur- ing the process of diffusion in the battery. As the most recent investigations show that amides have the same nutritive value as carbohydrates, they are consequently very inferior to the nutritive equivalents of albuminoids, from which they are derived. "Under these circumstances there is evidently a loss at the expense of the nitrogenous elements. There is, furthermore, another loss, which this time is very direct. During siloing the cossettes settle and allow the liquid in suspension to run off, carrying with it a considerable percent- age of substances that have important nutritive value. In all silos it necessarily follows that during the fermentation the hydrocarbons undergo alterations, and there will be formed an acid of the fatty series and also carbonic acid. Morgen has shown that in the gases that appear to be im- prisoned in the upper layers of the cossettes, there exists 3.5 per cent, of anhydrous carbonic acid. Under these circumstances TRANSFORMATION DURING SILOING. 16J one obtains a mass that is grayish in color, with here and there certain spots of more or less blackish appearance, pasty in tex- ture, and after a reasonable period no longer possessing the characteristics of the original pressed residuum, all its primitive structure, organic, etc., having disappeared. The principal centers for change in silos are along the sides and in corners; and no well-built silo should have angular corners, otherwise a thorough cleaning when emptied would be impossible. The shape of a silo has consequently an important influence upon the keeping of the cossettes; most experts say that the sides should be vertical, so that there will be a regular pressure of the pulp by its own weight. The writer much doubts if vertical sides accomplish all that is desired; an in- verted truncated pyramid would be better. No experiments have been made in this direction, so it should not be attempted unless there be in advance some certainty as to results. According to Liebscher, fermentation diminishes after the sixth day of siloing, and when the fifteenth day is reached the temperature of the mass undergoes little or no change, and is about the same as that of the ground in which the ditch has been made. These transformations, as regards the chemical composition of the products, are shown in the table which follows, as given by Maercker: Early Chemicai, Changes Dxjeing Siloing (Maercker). Constituents. Fresh pressed cossettes. Dry Soured matter. cossettes. Dry matter. Water 89.77 per cent. 10.23 0.58 " 0.05 2.3J 6.32 100.00 per cent. 5.67 0.49 23.36 61.78 88.52 per cent. 11.48 1.09 Oil 2.8 6.41 100.00 per cent. 9.5 0.95 24 39 " Ash Fatty substance Cellulose Nitrogenous substances. 55.84 From this data one may conclude that during the keeping of the residuum its percentage of dry substances, such as ash, fatty constituents, cellulose . and nitrogenous elements, is materially 164 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. increased. Whilst this increase is true as regards the fatty con- stituents (it is to be noticed that albuminoids under certain con- ditions, through decomposition, can give fatty constituents), this phenomenon is very misleading as far as the other com- pounds are concerned, for the simple reason that there is a cer- tain water percentage which has been lessened, and there con- sequently follows a corresponding increase in the dry substances. It is well to understand that there has not been a corresponding loss of these dry constituents, for whatever may be the loss of these it is never proportional to the losses of watery vapor, whatever they may be. While the loss of water may be 40 per cent., it does not necessarily carry with it 40 per cent, of different compounds forming the actual constituents of the cossettes proper, which fact may be noticed by the relatively in- creased nutritive value of the material. The fact is, that the actual analysis of soured cossettes shows the material advantage of submitting the fresh product to some siloing. Gradually, as the period of their keeping progresses, this phenomenon, or transformation, so to speak, becomes more and more pro- nounced, as the analysis of Petermann evidently proved. Chemical Changes Dtjeing Prolonged Siloing (Petebmann). Constituents. Cossettes after 8 months' keeping. Dry matter. Cossettes after 2 years' keeping. Dry matter. Water 87.8 percent. 83.98 per cent. Dry matter 12.2 100.00 per cent. 16.02 100.00 per cent. Ash 1.02 " 0.08 " 8.36 0.65 2.96 0.74 18.48 Fatty substances 4.62 Cellulose 2.67 " 21.89 5.06 31.59 " Albuminoids ... 1.00 " (Organic nitrogen) 0.16 per cent. 8.2 1.83 " (Organic nitrogen) 0.29 per cent. 11.42 Carbohydrates . 7.43 " 60.9 5.43 33.89 Unfortunately the keeping in silos of a product such as this necessarily means a considerable loss, that in certain cases amounts to from 40 to 45 per cent., do what one may, and one must make the best of these conditions. , Notwithstanding the TRANSFORMATION DURING SILOING. 165 fact that the residuum may be kept for a longer period and may undergo considerable organic changes, it may always be utihzed to advantage in cattle feeding. During the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, it was to be noticed that m Germany there was a marked decrease in the number of cattle, and for a time there were certain fears entertained that it would be impossible to find means of getting rid of the enor- mous quantity of residuum cossettes that were left after the sugar campaign. These arguments were very misleading, for the simple reason that the product was properly siloed not only by the farmers but by the manufacturers, and while practically only used in some cases two years afterwards, extraordinary benefits were derived from this practice. The total number of head of cattle soon became normal, but as the consumption at first was comparatively small there was necessarily an increased demand for fertilizers, which consequently brought to light th6 possible fertilizing value of this residuum. Dohrn has also kept this material for a year and a half and was perfectly satisfied with the results he subsequently obtained in feeding. Unfortmiately these organic losses during siloing are not the only ones to be considered. The analysis shown above would lead one to believe that there has resulted a certain amehoration which in reality does not exist. On the contrary, digestion experiments according to the methods of Stutzer, while they do not prove very much, claim to show that there is a mistake in supposing that the siloed cossettes are improved after a pro- longed keeping. Experiments by Morgen show that the digestibility of nitro- genous substances is 83.2 per cent, for the soured cossettes a. " compared with 76.3 per cent, for the fresh cossettes. Saillard's experiments show that the digestibility for the siloed cossettes is only 73 per cent. But all these investigations prove nothing as regards the condition in which the nitrogenous substances exist in the residuum, for the simple reason that a certain amount of these constituents consists of ammonia, the nutri- tive value of which may be considered nil. Regarding these losses different authorities, adopting numerous modes of siloin^ have arrived at very different results. *" 166 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The variation of these data may be mainly explained, especi- ally in the case of Maercker, by the fact that in these observa- tions all the decomposed copsettes have been deducted from the calculations as having no feeding value. Under these condi- tions there is an important margin of variation that is open to discussion. The experience of Liebscher shows that it is possible, from a practical standpoint, to reduce these losses very materially by certain precautionary measures. Herewith are his observations for a period of keeping lasting 108 da^'s: Stone silos with stone covering, total loss 7.3 per cent. Stone silos with earth covering, 6.5 per cent. Cemented silos with stone covering, 6.7 per cent. Cemented silos with earth covering, 5.2 per cent. It is difficult to reconcile this data with the assertion of Maercker, who declares that with the best-arranged silos these losses cannot be brought below 20 per cent. The truth is to be found between the two extremes of these and other authorities. It has been recommended that, in order to diminish the losses, one alternate in the silos successive layers of other sub- stances than cossettes, so that there follow in regular order hay and chopped straw, or other forage capable of absorbing the liquid running from the residuum and thereby preventing these losses. According to Rabbetge, it is desirable to mix with the cos- settes 5 per cent, of chopped straw. Von Ehrenstein declares that besides the virtue the straw has of absorbing the liquids, it possesses the advantage of undergoing a transformation in the silos which in reality increases its digestibility. Pellet and Lelavandier have demonstrated that besides the advantages of straw just mentioned, it penetrates the mass and becomes rapidly heated, and under these circumstances attains within a very short time the requisite temperature for satis- factory fermentation. They recommend that at the bottom of the silos there be placed about one inch of chopped straw, then three to five inches of cossettes, then one inch of straw, etc. Strange as it may seem, a German authority declares on the contrary that the losses are greater with straw than without it, SURFACE SILOING. 167 and this assertion seems to be endorsed by manj^ of the leading authorities who state that Avith straw in the silos the mass undergoes considerable loss of dry substances. Mixing of pulp with molasses is practiced by some farmers; the sugar thus introduced is soon converted into alcohol and carbonic acid. The fermentation is very active and must be watched. Excess of alcohol in pulps may in certain cases be very objectionable. Just whether the sugar added does facili- tate keeping remains to be demonstrated. Other investigators have endeavored to establish a very radi- cal method. They attribute all these losses to fermentation, and attempt to do away with it entirely. They apparently justly declare that such losses are not justifiable, even when making allowance for the advantages gained, such as giving to the cossettes all the qualities of taste that cattle seem to relish. They go so far as to propose to mix the residuum with some antiseptic, such as salicylic acid or borax (^ oz. of borax per 100 lbs. cossettes). The results obtained were no more encour- aging than those realized by the addition of lime or salt, which has the opposite object in view, that is to sa}'- to actuate the fermentation. Lime helps the fermentation by the formation of butyric acid, which gives to the cossettes, however, a disa- greeable flavor. All chemical substances added to cossettes have but the effect of putting them into such condition as will cause them to be rejected by the animals to which they are fed. It may be admitted upon general principles that the cossette Surface siloing, residuums will be possessed of keeping powers provided the water they contain can drain off, and that the product be well protected from the rain and variations of the exterior air. A very simple arrangement for surface siloing is shown in Fig. 10. On each side of the pile are suitable ditches that carry off the dripping water from the moist pulp; the earth covering is taken from the ditches. A and B show layers of straw pro- jecting beyond the sides, and these act as drains from the in- terior. The system of surface storing of beet cossettes as it exists at Alvarado, in connection with the silos and the dairy, is fully 168 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. described in a bulletin of the California experiment station. There is a large trestle that carries the beet residuum from the factory and drops it into the silo below. "The silo is 460 feet long, 80 feet wide and 8 feet deep. It is floored and sided with two-inch planks, and the sloping sides Simple Style of Surface Siloing. are supported by heavy posts, set in the ground and braced with strong timbers. Three tracks run through the silo, one on each side and one in the centre, on which a car is drawn by a horse to carry the pulp to the cattle barns several rods distant." Another silo built on the same principle is shown in Fig. 11. This may be made of the roughest sort of lumber, and of any Fig. 11. Stir face Siloing Using Zitimher. size to suit the convenience of the feeder. This silo is 12 feet wide, 30 feet long and 6 feet deep, and will hold about two car-loads of cossettes. Figure 12 represents a simple and cheap way of constructing a silo by excavating a passage through, or in a hill. "The bot- toms should be planked in all such cases and means provided SURFACE SILOING. 169 whereby the water draining from the cossettes may be easily and quickly carried off. The planks should, therefore, set well up from the ground and be far enough apart to leave a crack be- tween them after they have swelled with the contact with moist- ure from the cossettes." This silo may be made of any desired size. One used by a well-known feeder is 600 feet long, 50 feet deep, 20 feet wide at the base and 80 feet wide at the top. The bottom only is planked, and has gutterways under the floor, so as to thoroughly drain the cossettes. The silo is filled by means of carriers bringing the residuum directly from the sugar factory to the upper part of the silo when the carrier is dumped. In the small silo shown in the figure the filling can be done by driving the wagon alongside the top of the silo and shoveling the cossettes into it. Satisfactory results have been obtained in France with the wood-built silo shown in Fig. 13. Fig. 12. ;•-■ "■■'/v^iJ/',**'^^ '.'i.' Silo Formed by JSxeavatino Hillside. Just within what limits this is suitable to our cold climate experiments alone can determine; on the other hand, for Cali- fornia, the method would be excellent. Silos of this type are 90 to 100 feet long by 12 to 16 feet wide and 3 feet 6 inches in height. The bottom is made of ^ones placed on end, with sufficient grade to carry off the water from the mass of pulp into lateral drains communicating with a special manure pit. Wooden posts, seven inches square, penetrating the ground at least 12 inches, are placed vertically at intervals of six feet; these are held in position horizontally by iron bars J inch in diameter, which overcome any lateral pressure. 170 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The sides of the silo consist of boards 12 x 1 with an interval of one inch between each, and all should have a thick coating of tar. To facilitate filling and assure keeping the mass in good condition, the silo is divided in two parts by a partition of posts and boards. The silo may be filled by use of a wheel- Stirface-Built Silos for Seef Ftilp as used in France. barrow from a plank slanting up from the ground; the iron braces are placed in position gradually during filling, and with- drawn as the silo is emptied. The capacity of a silo of this type is 300 tons. It is claimed that the loss during keeping is Fig. 14. very slight, as excessive fermentation is not to be dreaded, owing to the facilities offered for drainage between the boards and at the bottom. A curious custom of some farmers is not to cover the pulp, but simply to keep the upper surface level; the entire mass is SURFACE SILOING. 171 then used just as it is, after having been exposed to the air for a period of months. Silos beneath the surface of the ground are very variable in shape, size, etc. A very simple dug-out type that has met Fig. 15. JSorizontal Section of Underffroiind Silo for lieet Pulp, with considerable practical success is shown in Fig. 14. The drainage consists simply of a few small stones. The water Fig. 16. r^-m Vertical Section of Undergroimd Silo for Beet JPrilp. from the portion above ground drips through the straw layers A and B into the side ditches from which has been taken the earth covering. 172 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, A most interesting, well constructed type of underground silo of 4,000 cubic meters capacity intended for distillery beet resi- duum was seen by tbe writer at the Ferme de la Briehe, France. The refuse is carried from mash tubs in cars C (Fig. 15), in which it is mixed with chopped straw, hay, etc. A movable partition P (19.68 X 11.48 feet), having the exact dimensions of the silo's cross section, is mounted on wheels and placed a short distance from the end wall. The intervening space is filled with closely packed pulp, thus preventing ferm.entation, and a layer of 10 inches of earth covers the top. The partition is moved backward, and the foregoing operations are repeated. It is said that beet pulp, under such conditions, will keep for years; it is taken from the silo in vertical slices. CHAPTER 11. Dried Residuum Cossettes. Upon general principles fresh or siloed cossettes, considered as a forage, entail certain complications in connection with their feeding, keeping, handling, etc., hence there must necessarily be some advantages in their drying. The first really serious experiments made in this direction Early efforts, were those of 1878, by Blossfeld, who at that period had con- ducted quite a propaganda for the encouragement of the idea of cossette-drying that he had been expounding, and the neces- sity of discovering some practical means for overcoming the many difficulties involved. This idea was not well under- stood by the German farmers and sugar manufacturers until 1883, when a prize of fifteen thousand marks ($3,750) for p^ j^^ f(,f g jfy^r. some practical solution of this question was proposed. In order to make the question thoroughly clear in the eyes of those interested in the subject certain conditions were stipulated, viz. : The dried pulp should contain only 14 per cent, water, about the same as hay — it should be without any perceptible odor, and not burnt during drying; the loss of nutritive elements should not be more than 8 per cent. ; the expense must not be more than about 2-| cents per 100 lbs. of pressed cossettes used. Buttner and Meyer were awarded this prize, and their apparatus, which has actually a great practical value, was the starting point for the realization of an idea that has since been of considerable importance to the would-be feeders of this beet- cossette residuum the world over. Since then numerous installations of this plant have been Objections to made, and these continue to increase in number. It must be using dried said that from the start when this dry product was introduced <^ossettes. upon the market, it met with much opposition from those who had occasion to avail themselves of this valuable forage, and it (173) 174 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. was frequently looked upon with a certain misapprehension. The arguments advanced showed that a very indefinite idea was possessed by those discussing the question, and for this reason they need not all be mentioned here. It is interesting, however, to call attention to the farmers' assertion that it was paradoxical to assert that a handful of the dry product could have the same nutritive value as a bucketful of the moist substance from which it was made. These argu- ments occasioned numerous agricultural gatherings at which the entire question was discussed upon a very practical basis. • The rural press of the country took up the question and the actual outcome has been that dried cossettes are now con- sidered as a staple commodity upon the German market. The principal To Maercker and Morgen is justly due the credit of having put promoters, aside, through their numerous publications, all the erroneous assertions of many of the would-be scientists who attempted to cry down this valuable product. Before mentioning exactly in what the practical solution of cossette drying consists, it is important to insist upon the necessity of these cossette dryers producing a product which shall contain the greatest profitable proportion of dry sub- stances; and from this standpoint one may notice that since the cossette desiccating appliances were first introduced, the per- centage of dry matter contained in the pressed cossettes has risen from 12 per cent, to 16 per cent., which means that Limit of press- there is 30 per cent, less water to be evaporated than there was ing. formerly, this phase of the question representing considerable fuel economy. In the chapter devoted to siloed cossettes, we discussed the efforts made to reduce the water in pressed cossettes and conse- quently to increase the percentage of dry matter. The limit of 16 per cent, should not be exceeded for the simple reason that there would always follow a considerable loss of dry substance in the sweet water running from the presses. No solution other than the customary pressing has been found. When one considers the enormous volume of cossette residuum leaving the average beet-sugar factory, it will be seen that it would be by no means practical to run this product through HOT DIFFUSION FACILITATES PRESSING. 175 hydraulic j^resses, as once suggested. With the modern cossette presses there would be no advantage in pushing this pressure beyond the hmit it now attains, when drying is the object in view, as practical experience shows that when this pressure has attained a certain crushing limit, drying them is next to impos- sible, as the heated gases that are in such furnaces cannot ac- complish the object in view. They would carry with them during their circulation a large percentage of the finer particles of which the product consists. Buttner & Meyer some years since forced the cossettes through Liming before perforated cylinders combined with a slanting spiral arrange- dfy'ig- ment which was in close communication with another recept- acle containing milk of lime, in which the residuum became saturated with lime. It was subsequently strained before leav- ing the upper parts of the cylinder. Without doubt, lime has great influence upon the cellular texture of the beet slices being treated, and will often permit a greater percentage of water to escape; but independent of certain mechanical complications that we need not mention here, there is always danger of hardening the cossettes. It frequently happens that the fuel used for the drying in this appliance con- tains sulphur. The gases of the furnaces will then be saturated with anhydrous sulphurous acid, which, coming in contact with the lime of the cossettes during their working in the Buttner & Meyer dryer, would result in a certain calcic deposit. Herzfeld called attention to the fact that after a reasonable period of keeping, this dry residuum threw out sulphuretted hydrogen, notwithstanding the fact that it contained almost insignificant traces of this chemical. At the present time, liming of residuum cossettes has been practically abandoned, and there remain now only the natural, dry cossettes, which product is becoming yearly more and more popular. As the emptying of the diffusors of the diffusion battery may Hot diffusion now be automatically accomplished, the battery may be worked facilitates at a high temperature. This greatly facilitates pressing, as it is '"^^^^ "^" practically shown that cossettes lose, during their pressing when hot, a greater percentage of water than when pressed cold. 176 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Such being the case it becomes imperative to re-heat this residuum in the diffusor, which operation becomes possible by using hot water, and to carry the product as simply and as Cjuickly as possible to the cossette presses. The Pfeiffer compressed-air mode for employing the diffusors is certainly very practical in its working. Besides the direct advantages of hot cossette pressing, there is a direct fuel econ- omy, as the residuum is introduced into the dryer in a warm condition, resulting in that much gain in the caloric which must be furnished to accomplish the desired drying. Waste gases for Drying may be most economically accomplished by using the drying. gases escaping from the grates of the boilers, and which com- bine with the gases in the special generators. It is claimed that there is thus produced an intense gas circulation, which is very favorable to the residuum desiccation, without danger of cooling or any loss of heat. It is claimed furthermore that during this special drying the cossettes will not absorb any of the gas combination, as the water they contain must increase 1700 times in volume before becoming steam, and that under these circumstances there is created a current of vapor sufficiently violent to prevent any direct contact between the cossettes and the gas proper. Experiments have shown that to properly utilize this lost heat from the boilers would necessitate the building of a very large and expensive appliance. Furthermore, steam boilers are rarely arranged as they should be, and an enormous amount of gases is always liberated from them that cannot be utilized, and that is unfortunately supersaturated with soot, their working, moreover, being very irregular. The construction of a special furnace for accomplishing the object in view, is the main point on which our attention should be centered. It has been found desirable to obviate the contact of the gases with the residuum cossettes, in order to prevent their contamination. All combinations that have thus far been devised are not very serviceable in their general work- ing, from an economical standpoint, for the simple reason that there always follows an enormous loss of heat through radiation. RATIONAL APPLIANCES LED TO POOR RESULTS. 177 It has frequently been suggested that for the drying of litilization of cossettes, the lost heat from the various appliances of sugar '"^^ ^^^^ '^"^ factories should be used. Investigations in this direction have been centered upon the utilization of the supposed latent heat, but up to the present time the results obtained have been by no means encouraging. On the other hand, many experts have denied the existence of stored-up heat of evaporation, because they believed that in order to evaporate the water of the heated cossettes in the fur- nace it was sufficient to circulate air in the drier, which, owing to its natural hygroscopic power, would become supercharged with the watery vapor. A fact that has been apparently over- looked is that a complete realization of this phenomenon would have necessitated a supplementary expenditure of caloric. Finally, experiments were made to utilize the caloric contained in the water evaporated, in the same way as this is realized in evaporating appliances, such as triple and multiple effects as used in the sugar factories. The substance here dealt with is, unfortunately, not as fluid as is beet juice, and all facts con- sidered it is difficult to arrange an apparatus, or combination of appliances, that would meet all the numerous demands of beet cossette drying. The transfering of the cossettes from one receptacle to another cannot be accomplished with the same ease as is possible when handling liquids. In order to over- come this difficulty it has been proposed to reduce cossettes to a sort of paste. Furthermore, the cossettes have not the same contact with the heating surface of the evaporator as is possessed by liquids, and the co-efficient of heat transmission falls very low. The multiple effect mode of desiccation would demand appliances of a stupendous size. All efforts to apply the rational principles of economy in this Rational appli- operation of cossette drying have failed, and, strange as it may ances led to seem, the most irrational apparatus yet devised has apparently P*"'' f^sults. led to the most practical results. The rational application of heat, based upon the principle of counter currents, in which the cossettes will come in contact with gases of an increasing temperature, was not successful, for the simple reason that the residuum was burned. 12 178 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, The inventions to overcome this difficulty are extremely j^^^^^j^^ ^m^^V^k^vvvv^^k,^^^ ^ ^ P ; J ^ H U '^s ^rr]^ ^ ' '.^.WWW.t.^.WkV i ^W^VWkk'v'.^k'^k'v'vkVW ^w^mi^^vv^^^^^^mv^^^ numerous and could not be even mentioned in this writing. We shall center our attention on three appliances, which are MACKENSEN DRYER. . 179 considered to be standard and practical in working. These are the Mackensen, the Petr}' & Hecking and the Buttner & Meyer. With the Mackensen apparatus several hundred tons of cos- Mackensen settes directly from the presses may be dried per diem. This dryer, apparatus consists of two long drums in forged iron (I and II), about 43 feet in length and 4^ feet in diameter, each of which is composed of three sections, having iron rings at each of their extremities, and working on trolleys. Their rotatory movement corresponds to a velocity of five to six revolutions per minute. The pressed cossettes fall by K into the first drum, passing through the same very slowly, and the hot gases from the furnace move in the same direction. In the first drum the temperature of these gases is about 140° to 150° C. The motion of the cossettes is produced partly by the current of hot gases that carry them and also by a heating apparatus ar- ranged as a spiral inside of the appliance. The early arrange- m'ent had a fire-grate, over which air passed, in front of each cylinder. At E they fall into an oblique spiral, iJ, which raises and compels them to fall into the second drum, where the tem- perature is about 230° F. The hot gases are drawn off by the so-called exhauster, M, and penetrate a dust chamber where the pulps that have been carried forward are deposited. The cos- settes on entering the second drum contain 50 per cent, to 60 per cent, moisture. They give up their remaining moisture on entering the second drum, II, and fall upon the spiral, F, which conducts them to the elevator, by means of which they are car- ried to the loft or store-room. Two drums are sufficient for a factory slicing 150 tons of beets per diem. The motive power for all the drums, spirals, lifts, etc., is not more than 15 to 20 horse-power. The entire plant does not mean an expenditure of more than 55,000 marks to 60,000 marks [$13,500 to $15,- 000], including building, chimneys, etc. Residuum having originally 85 to 90 per cent, water, retains only 8 to 12 per cent, when the operation is complete. Con- sumption of coal is about 180 to 220 lbs. per 100 lbs. of residuum dried. In Germany, the product finds a ready market at about $27 per ton. The actual cost of the method is $16.80 per ton of dried product obtained. The dail}^ production being 18 tons. 180 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. the daily cost of working is about $300. The shape of the cos- settes has an important influence on the working of the machine. The Retry- The Petry & Hecking dryer consists of several successive Hecking dryer, chambers in the shape of a trough, in which the agitators BUTTNER AND MEYER DRYER. 181 revolve, forcing the cossettes to move forward and projecting them from one compartment to another through the openings that are arranged in the separating division. These passages are not in each case in the same position, and under these cir- cumstances the gases and cossettes are forced to take a zig-zag motion in passing through the apparatus. In this dryer, as in the apphance already described, the gases move in the same direction as the cossettes, but they leave them before reaching the last compartment of the apparatus, from which they are drawn off by a ventilator, V, which forces them to first pass through the so-called " cyclones," C, and then into the channel, K, placed beneath the last heating chamber, which receives its caloric indirectly, i. e., without danger of burning the cossettes. But they leave this last compartment to fall ultimately thor- oughly dried into the spiral, S. It is important to rectify a very erroneous assertion advanced by the inventors of this dryer. They claim that the gases on leaving the division before their final exit, heat the last chamber, and thus allow the utilization of the latent heat of water evaporation held in sus- pension by the circulating gases. This is an erroneous theory; as it is impossible for water evaporated from the cossettes to become re-heated to any considerable extent so as to be again utilized for future work. From the very time that water has passed into the condition of steam it becomes an inert gas, which mixes with the hot gases and can no longer condense in transmitting its heat to the cossettes, unless the residuum, for one reason or another, has become cooled at the very time that the water evaporated was liberated, and there is no possible reason for such cooling. Experiments show that 2,539 kilos of coke are needed to dry 21,000 kilos of cossettes in twenty-four hours. One man can attend to an apparatus of 100 tons capacity per diem. Notwithstanding the numerous efforts made to solve this Buttner and problem, from an economical standpoint, the Buttner and '^^V" ''■'y^''- Meyer dryer actually holds its own to-day against all comers, mainly from a practical point of view. The Buttner & Meyer furnace is based upon two principles, one of which is that the hot gases from the center, of combustion 182 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. which will evaporate the water of the cossettes, should be at the highest possible temperature in order to work economically; the second is that the cossettes cannot move in an opposite direction to the gases, but, on the contrary, they should circulate with them until they leave the apparatus. The second principle is a natural outcome of the first, as it is evident that gases at the Fig. 19. Side View of Sttttner-Meyer Dryer. temperature at which they enter the apparatus (not less than 400° to 750° C. — at first it was argued if the temperature was above 500° C, the cossettes would be burned), would imme- diately ignite if they were circulating in an opposite direction. As to the moist cossettes that come in contact with these hot ases, their temperature can never attain 100° C. so long as they BUTTNER AND MEYEE, DRYER, 183 retain moisture, as all the heat that the gases communicate to them serves in the transformation of this water into steam. Upon general principles, the Buttner & Meyer dryer consists of a large brick frame-work, upon the upper part of which is a furnace, surrounded by a dome ; in it the hydro-carbonated gases complete their combinations and are finally consumed, Fig. 20. JEnd View of Buttner & Meyer Dryer. that is to say they are transformed into carbonic acid in conse- quence of their combination with air with which they come into contact. This frees these gases from the particles of soot that would contaminate the cossettes being dried, and which would consequently give them an unpleasant flavor. The bottom of the dome in question is divided in two by a small brick parti- 184 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. tion, on the one side of which are collected the ash, etc., that have been carried forward by the circulating gases. The suction of the air necessary is accomplished by the so-called exhauster, and may be regulated as the occasion may demand. When this is used for the burning of peat or other poor fuel, such products are first thrown upon a special grating, Avhere they are carbon- ized and fall gradually from layer to layer until completely consumed. On the lower and upper portion of the dome the gases are carried forward at the same time as the cossettes into the dryer proj^er, which consists of three semi-cylindrical layers, one over the other, having each a shaft that forces the spiral agitators to revolve through the intervention of special conical gearing placed outside the dryer. These axes revolve at a velocity of 26 revolutions per minute, the cossettes are intro- duced into the dryer by an endless band carrier and spiral, and are deposited above the chamber of the drier. This residuum passes through the apparatus, comes in contact with the hot gases and is rapidly dried. As we have already described above, there is no apprehension of the cossettes being carbonized, as the evaporation of the water they contain is not sufficiently rapid to prevent their reaching a temperature of 100° C. , and this is a very essential condition, as above that temperature Temperature of the albuminoids of the cossettes would be rendered very much cossettes being less digestible. According to the experiments of Kohler the dried. temperature of the cossettes in this dryer never reaches even 90° C. , as in his laboratory oven experiments, in which the drying was done at 90° C. , the dried product had a coefficient of digestibility less than that of the dried cossettes obtained in the Buttner and Meyer furnace. The agitating arms of the spirals are not "combined as one might suppose, viz., so as to push the cossettes forward and force them out at the end of the apparatus. They are, on the contrary, arranged so as to compel them to circulate in the opposite direction from which they entered, but owing to a cur- rent of hot air they become dryer. The lighter portions are carried down to the second division, where the spiral arm arrangement raises them and brings them again in contact with the hot air until the moment that they are carried to the lower TEMPERATURE OF COSSETTES BEING DRIED. 185 division of the apparatus. They are constantly brought in con- tact with the hot gases, and do not reach the bottom of the dryer until they have become sufficiently light to be carried for- ward by the circulating gases. From what has just been said it becomes evident that the cossettes are raised continuously by the revolving agitators until a period when the hot gases will render them sufficiently light to be carried a little farther each time until they reach the ex- terior of the upper trough, from which they fall to the compart- ment directly beneath, always coming in contact with the circu- lating hot gases. They pass through the three divisions of the apparatus and finally fall into the cylindrical trough at the bottom, in which is a revolving spiral that forces the dried resi- duum to the exterior of the apparatus. As the circulating gases always carry a considerable amount of cossettes in suspension, this would mean an ultimate loss; so before leaving the dryer the gases are forced into a "cyclone" where the particles in suspension are deposited, and where they are collected to be subsequently added to the dried cossettes. A special chimney is connected with the dome of the drj-er and serves for starting the fire. As soon as this cupola is sufficiently hot, and after the cossettes enter and the exhauster is working, the chimney is closed. As the occasion may demand, this chimne}' allows the escape of the gases of combustion at a time when the supply of fresh cossettes is less than the practical efficiency of the appa- ratus, due for example to a stoppage in the general working of the factory from which the cossettes are obtained. The cossettes would be burned if some means were not adopted to meet this emergency. Furthermore, it allows, upon occasion, an entrance into the furnace. It permits air to circulate in the dryer when necessary, by which means the gases may be cooled. The apparatus is regulated in such a way that the cossettes, on leav- ing the dryer, are sufficiently desiccated and the gases are suffi- ciently cool to attain their saturation point, without, however, being cooled enough to allow the water to condense. By approaching as nearh^ as possible this point of condensation, one realizes the economical working of the dryer. According to Buttner and Meyer the final temperature in 186 FEEDING WITH SUGAK. BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. their dryer should be 110° C, which is sufficient to prevent the condensation of water without in any way destroying the ulti- mate value of the dried cossettes. By lengthening the time that the cossettes remain in the dryer one may obtain any de- Complete drying gree of dryness that the occasion may call for. It would be unnecessary, possible to evaporate their water completely. However, this would be unnecessary, as the dry residuum would re-absorb 12 per cent, to 15 per cent, of m.oisture when coming in contact with the air. Buttner and Meyer do not go beyond a limit of 88 per cent, of dry matter, which corresponds with that of hay and other dry forage. In order to regulate the temperature of the furnace and the exit of the gases, special appliances are arranged on the dryer permitting the air to enter in such quantities as circumstances may demand. Regulating the It is to be noticed that the amount of cossettes entering a dryer. furnace is an important factor as regards the final temperature of the gases. The smaller the volume of cossettes in the dryer the greater the tendency of the temperature to rise. This may be readily ex]:»lained, as then a large portion of the caloric is not utilized for the evaporation of the water of the cossettes. The working of the dryer and the suction of the air should be regulated so as to correspond with the entrance of the cossettes into the apparatus. It is essential in this dryer that the suction of air should be regulated so as to correspond to the volume of cossettes being dried; excess would always mean a fall of tem- perature. The variations of temperature are very slight in the Buttner and Meyer furnace owing to the considerable mass of masonry of which the dryer consists,, which within itself consti- tutes a sort of a heat regulator. The initial and final temper- ature of the gases are two facts that are most important to watch. The first can oscillate within the limit from 200° to 300°, and have, evidently, an enormous importance. An excessively low temperature would mean that too much air had been mixed with the hot gases, and there is no question but that it is far better to use directly the caloric of the fuel to evaporate water than to re-heat the air; the higher the initial temperature the greater will be the economical working of the dryer. OBJECTIONABLE FEATURE OF DRYERS. 187 Fettback has analyzed the gases of this dryer in order to make sure that they are supersaturated with moisture. By observing the temperature shown on the moistened thermometer and that of the dry thermometer, and also the pressure indicated on a barometer, it becomes possible to ascertain the relative hygro- static condition of these gases. Specially arranged diagrams showed the influence of the volume of the cossettes to be dried upon the final temperature of the gases and also their relative moisture. When there are defects in the dryer they may be noticed by a fall of temperature of the gases and their comparative moist- ure. The regulating of the dryer may, to a certain extent, be done by ascertaining its practical working efficiency, allowing for the utilization of the caloric of the fuel. We give herewith the formula proposed by Rydlewski for the Practical work- calculation of the efficiency of a cossette dryer: We may sup- ing of dryer, pose that Q is the weight of the fresh cossettes, and q the weight of the dried cossettes, t the temperature in degrees Centigrade of ■ the moist cossettes, and p the weight of the coal, while c is the number of calories liberated by the combustion of one kilo, of coal. Caloric utihzed C = [Q - q] [637 — t] . Caloric furnished C ^ cp. Practical efficiency x per cent. = -^^ . \j The application of this formula has given for the Buttner and Objectionable Meyer dryer, as well as for the Petr}^ and Hecking apparatus, feature of an efficiency of 82.04 per cent. This formula enables one to i^)^^^- ascertain within what limit it is possible to introduce moist cos- settes into the dryer at a variable temperature, and to what ex- tent temperature has an influence on the efficiency of the dryer. A rise of temperature of 30° to 35° C. means certainly an econ- omy of 5 per cent, in fuel. Some objections have been made to the Buttner and Meyer dryer, also to the Mackensen appliance, that there follows an important loss of dry substances carried forward by the hot gases. Some authorities have declared that this loss is 25 per cent, to 30 per cent., and even 40 per cent. This, without 188 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. doubt, is a great exaggeration. RydIe^Yski has shown beyond cavil that when the dryer is conducted as it should be there is not a loss greater than 2.45 per cent, of dry substances, or 0.16 per cent, calculated upon the basis of the weight of the entire beet; this is especiall}^ true in the Buttner and Meyer dryer. On the other hand, Kohler declares that in his investigations the losses of dry substances are 0.1 per cent, of the beets worked, and 1.7 per cent, of the total dry substances contained in the desiccated cossettes. The Buttner and Meyer dryer has had many applications in Germany and in France, and our attention has been called to data obtained at a factory at Fisme (France). The plant has been worked with great satisfaction for several years, all tem- peratures being regulated automatically. Besides the regular plant there is also a steam engine. At first coke was the only combustible used, but at present any kind of fuel answers the purpose. According to Brunehaut the analysis of fresh and dried pulp at Fisme was as follows: Feesh Cossettes. Dried Cossettes. Water 88.40. Water 10.36. Dry substances . • • • 11.60. Dry substances 89.64. The efficiency of the dryer is about 900 lbs. dried cossettes per hour, and the consumption of fuel (coal) about 800 lbs. If we admit 900 lbs. per hour, this represents about 21,600 lbs. per diem, and this amount contains 19,273 lbs. dry sub- stances, corresponding in fresh pulp to 166,100 lbs. The amount of water evaporated is correspondingly 166,100 — 21,600 = 144,500 lbs. The consumption of coal is 19,200 lbs., consequently the fuel consumption per lb. of water evaporated is about 8 lbs. The cost of the dried cossettes including sinking fund for money in- vested and all other items was about $16.00 per ton, or 72 cts. per 100 lbs. This is certainly in excess of what it should be and may be due to fuel used. Cost of plant. Opinions vary — some sa}^ to work 20,000 tons of beets the plant would cost at least $20,000. STEAM DRYING, 189 Cost or Plant in Eelatiox to its Capacity. F Cost of installation .... Beets worked per diem. A B C D E $23,000 300 $28,000 300 $18,000 200 $15,000 150 $24,000 350 $32,000 300 For the United States a plant preparing ] 00 tons of resid- uum per diem would cost at least $45,000. On the other hand the average cost for drying cossettes, in eight German factories, it not more than 17.4 pfennig per 100 kilos of pressed cossettes, notwithstanding the fact that among these factories there was one that worked very poorly during the period of observation. In certain exceptional cases this cost has not been more than 14 pfennig. The steam drying method for the com.plete desiccation of Steam drying, cossettes is said to be a new departure, and has met with great success in Austria. The plant recently built is for a 900-ton factor}^, and cost about $80,000 in that country. All calcula- tions made, it is estimated that even if the dried cossettes sell for $2 a ton the daily profits will be $200. The daily con- sumption of coal is about 100 pounds per ton of beets handled at the factory. In this steam method there is no danger of the residuum being burned by overheating, as is frequently the case by other modes of drying. It is claimed that nearly all the dry substances contained in the original beet are to be found in the final dried residuum (?), averaging 90 per cent, dry substances. The residuum cossettes, after being pressed in a Klusemann or Bergreen press are carried by a moving apron and emptied into a trough with revolving horizontal agitators, and heated with exhaust steam circulating in a jacket. The residuum is kept for a considerable time at a temperature of 40 to 45° C, and is subsequently run into special presses very much of the same design as Klusemann. To each press there is attached an apparatus not unlike a meat chopper in its general construction, and after this subdivision of the fibre, the residuum is carried by an endless screw to the dryers, each of which is about 5 feet 190 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Fig. 21. wide, 18 feet long and 15 feet high. In its interior are four horizontal troughs, placed one over the other, each of which has a steam jacket. In each trough is a rotating, horizontal, tubular cluster, G, Ihrough which steam circulates, consequently the hashed cossettes are heated in the troughs and also heated during their rotating motion. The product being dried falls successively from one trough to another and circu- lates the entire length of each. When the dried cossettes finally leave the apparatus, another rotating device, in which there is no air, helps the empty- ing. The moist air from the oven is removed with a ventilator, the air pass- ing through an arrester which retains all the solid particles in suspension. The entire motive power of the dryer is transmitted by gearing outside of the dryer. The dryer proper is metal; the exterior covering, however, is wood. The dried residuum leaves the dryer at 30° C. (8G° F.). In different parts of the dryer the maximum temperature It is maintained that the following trans- One hundred pounds of residuum pulp End View and Section of Steam Dryer, is 110° C. (230° F.). formations take place: with 10 per cent, dry matter may be considered to have been obtained from 200 pounds of beets, giving 67 pounds cossettes, with 15 per cent, dry matter and only 11 pounds of dried product containing 90 per cent, of dry substances. German experience would appear to show that there was needed for the drying 80 pounds of coal per 100 pounds of dried cossettes, without allowance being made for the motive power. Calcu- lated upon a basis of one ton of beets, this means that 120 pounds dried product demand 110 pounds coal. For the pro- duction of 10 tons of dried cossettes in 24 hours, there is needed a force of 50 H.P. It must not be forgotten that in the ques- APPEARANCE OP THE DRIED RESIDUUM. 191 tion of fuel consumption, the drying is done during the regular sugar campaign, and the steam used is simply the exhaust from the various pieces of apparatus of the factory. The daily capacity of the dryer may be increased by adding an oven to the series. It is claimed that with this apparatus, without any additional device, it is possible to use the dryers for mixing dried cossettes with residuum molasses. This device is so simple in its construction that a drawing was considered unnecessary to convey to the reader the general construction of the dryers. The Thiesen dryer consists of a large vertical cylinder in Thiesen dryer, which are placed alternately funnels attached to the sides, and a sort of plate or dish fixed to the axis of the cylinder. Special scrapers are placed on the axis of the dryer, which brush the funnels and force the substance being dried to fall upon the plates, etc. The substance to be dried enters at the top and leaves at the bottom of dryer. The Heckraann dryer consists of a large horizontal cylinder closed by a suitable cover with glasses for observation — the progress of the drying can thus be closely watched. In the interior is a series of platforms or shelves, having at their lower portion pipes for heating, which may be lengthened or shortened, as the occasion may demand. Piping on top of the cylinder makes a connection Avith the vacuum pump. The dried cossettes consist of fragments, about one inch in Composition and length, and light green in color. To the touch they are rather aPP^arance of the resistant and readily break between the fingers, especially when ^"^^ residuum, they have been dried too much. Their average composition is as follows: Average Composition of Dried Cossettes. Substances. Water Nitrogenous substances . • • Fatty substances Non-nitrogen- ous substances Fibre Ash Sand Analysis of Konig. 15.57 per cent. 7.63 1.09 49.65 18.22 4.19 3.65 f 0.398 oxid of |of which^. P«^«™- • J 0.21 phosphoric [ acid. Analysis of Pott. 10.0 per cent. 7.5 " 1.0 " 58.4 " 17.1 " 6.0 " 192 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. At one time it was admitted that if the percentage of nitrogen in fresh cossettes is one, that of the dried product is 8.16. Cossettes com- The composition of the dried residuum compares favorably pared with hay. ^^iih meadow hay. Comparative Analyses of Dried Cossettes and Hay. Substances. Water Nitrogenous substances Fatty substances Fibre Ash Nitrogen-free extract • • Dried cossettes. Hay. 11.00 14.3 7.87 9.7 1.40 2.5 20.00 26.3 7.14 6.2 51.93 41.0 According to Pott the minimum and maximum variations in the composition of the product are as follows: Dried substances 84,2 to 94.7, nitrogenous substances 6.3 to 8.5, fatty substances 0.4 to 1.5, cellulose 13.5 to 20.7 The introduction and rapidly increasing popularity of desic- cated cossettes may be explained by the important nutritive losses that cossettes undergo during siloing, which is evidently to their disadvantage. In certain cases sugar factories lose through neglect 20 per cent, of their cossettes [this in Europe is excessive] ; this fact alone allows any one to approximate the advantages that will necessarily be derived from cossette drying. The saving thus effected, provided the product is utilized, constitutes an impor- tant margin towards the cost of the drying operation. Upon general principles dry forage of this kind has considerably increased in popularity of late owing to its health}^ appearance, Comparison be- and also to its excessive digestibility, Maercker and Morgen tween siloed and ^gglg^je that no product of fermentation is more digestible and dried cossettes. ^^^^.g nourishing from any standpoint than are the fresh sub- stances from which the dried residuum has been obtained. It is much to be regretted that no appliance has so far been devised COMPARISON BETWEEN SII.OED AND DRIED COSSETTES. 193 that allows one to compute the digestibility of the non-nitro- genous extracted substances, as can be done with the nitro- genous elements by means of the Stutzer method. It is declared that when non-nitrogenous extractible and digestible substances are mixed with the indigestible and ex- posed to the action of micro-organisms, a fermentation or putre- faction follows. The most soluble and most easily digested sub- stances are the first to ferment and undergo putrefaction, and it is precisely in these compounds that the greatest losses occur. The soured residuums are less digestible than the fresh or than the dried cossettes, provided the desiccation has been effected at a sufficiently low temperature to prevent the albuminoids from becoming insoluble. As fermentation is a phenomenon that removes from the forage a certain amount of fuel, which means a reduction in its caloric power, it results in a smaller nutritive equivalent. Among the active elements of this fer- mentation may be mentioned acetic or butyric acid, which has, as determined by Weiske, a nutritive equivalent which is very small. They even occasion a deci'eased assimilation of nitrogen. However, it has been noticed that the lactic acid causes a slight increase in the amount of albuminoids deposited in the organ- ism. In all cases these acids have a nutritive equivalent less than carbohydrates, from which they are derived, and it is easy to see that the cattle breeder loses very considerably from this point of view if one considers that acids form more than 20 per cent, of the dry substances of the siloed cossettes. Morgen, how^ever, finds 17.98 per cent, of acids, and the maximum that he was ever able to discover was 28.98 per cent., calculated on a basis of lactic acid. It is important to add to this the fact that a portion of the albuminoids is transformed into amides, of which the nutritive equivalent is less, and can, according to Kiihn, only be compared with carbohydrates in view of their economizing the albumen consumption in the organism. Finally, a portion of the albuminoids, according to Maercker and Meyer, is completely destroyed during fermentation; they are the most easily digested and they are tbe first, as previously stated, to disappear, as they are more actively influenced by the micro-organisms and consequently more readily fermented. 13 194 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. This explains the decrease in the digestibility of the albumin- oids contained in siloed cossettes, which falls to 73 per cent., while the coefficient of digestibility is, for dried cossettes, 86.06 per cent. The importance, therefore, of the dr}^ cossettes is manifest, not only for the sugar factories, where as we have before explained they reach enormous proportions, but also for the breeder. Advantages of It is not only from this standpoint that there are advantages dried cossettes ^q j^g derived from this dried forage. If one examines the in- fluence upon the organism of the large volume of water con- tained in the soured cossettes, the subject may be classified as follows: First, the cold water they contain has to be re-heated to the temperature of the body; second, the evaporation of water through the pores of the skin and lungs increases consid- erably, which demands a largely increased consumption of cal- oric; third, the amount of blood formed is increased, and with it there follows a considerable increase of wear and tear on the organism; and fourth, the consumption of albuminoids is increased, for the simple reason that an increased absorption of water is always followed by such burning. Heat needed to Maercker and Morgen have demonstrated for the first of these evapora e wa er gi^^^gg ^]^^^ jf q^q divides equally between ten sheep a ration of 17.72 kilos, of cossettes per diem, and that if the temperature of these cossettes is 5° to 10° C, there would be required, to eliminate the water they contain, a temperature of the body of 37.5° C. This would demand 488 to 576 calories, which in other words means the heat liberated by 125 gr. to 150 gr. of starch, and they declare that, while this quantity may appear of very slight importance, when considered from the point of view of daily consumption, it becomes very significant after a long period. Furthermore, a greater absorption of water is always followed by increased excretion of the body in general, either through the skin or the lungs, through which a large quantity of water passes, and to transform it into a vapory con- dition demands a certain amount of caloric, which necessarily must be taken from the food consumed. If one takes as a basis for his argument the experiments on respiration by Henneberg and Maercker, the conclusion would HEAT NEEDED TO EVAPORATE WATER DRUNK. 195 be that the increase of water to be evaporated is 40 per cent, of the additional water consumed. But Henneberg has recently demonstrated that this amount is excessive, and declares that of the water drunk not more than 7 to 17 per cent, is to be elim- inated through perspiration, etc. Vogel made a series of experiments with sheep, and concluded from one of these investigations that the average of evaporation was 30.78 per cent, of water absorbed. Another experiment gave 16.36 per cent., or an average for the two experiments of 23.57 per cent. But the ration under consideration contained only 0.6 kilo of starch. This quantity is lost as a forage as it has no equivalent as work. An increase in the quantity of blood without doubt results, but it remains to be proved whether the increase in question means additional work. According to Volkmann -^l^ only of the force developed by the heart is used, properly speaking, for the blood; the re- mainder is utilized to overcome the resistance of friction in the arterial and venous circulation. It remains to be demonstrated whether this resistance is increased in consequence of a greater quantity of blood put into circulation, or, on the contrary, is diminished, owing to the greater fluidity of the blood. Up to what point can these two contradictory elements be considered as compensating one for the other ? Maercker appears to lean to- wards the theory of an increase in the necessary force at the time of the circulation under consideration. As for the consumption of albuminoids, it is, according to Mares, more and more pro- nounced when the previous ration was deficient in these ele- ments. This would be due to a large consumption of water, for the simple reason that it destroys and decomposes the living substances of the protoplasm. If this absorption of water is of daily occurrence the weight of the animal fed may decline in a very marked degree. In order to overcome this decomposition and to reconstruct or build up the protoplasm, it becomes urgent to feed to animals elements richer in albumen than would otherwise have been necessary, as neither the fatty sub- stances nor the carbohydrates can meet the demand. Weisbeck has fattened cattle and has obtained the following- results, which show the influence of the excessive water absorbed : 196 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Ration of 40 kilos soured cossettes containing 35.85 kilos water and 4.15 kilos dry substances, increase of weight per diem 1.58 kilos. Ration of 50 kilos soured cossettes containing 44.53 kilos water and 5.47 kilos dry substances, increase of weight per diem 1.23 kilos. Henneberg has made similar experiments with milch cows, and has also come to the conclusion that there follows a de- crease in the weight, with a slight increase, however, in the quantity of milk obtained, as shown herewith : Influence of Watee in Ration on Milk and Weight of Cows. Varying water content of ration. Ration containing 19.71 kilos water Ration containing 28.50 kilos water Ration containing 37.12 kilos water Milk per diem. 13.36 kilos. 13.46 " 14.15 " Increase of weight per diem. 0.586 kilo. 0.097 " *0.006 " * Decrease. Dried cossettes If it is true in agriculture that it is not desirable to throw more hygienic away all that has an unpleasant smell, it is, on the other hand, tlian tlie siloed, desirable to be able to transform a forage that has a bad odor, such as soured cossettes, into an odorless forage, such as dried cossettes. Outside of the direct disagreeable features of siloed cossettes there follows an indirect unpleasantness. Some authors claim that the products of a dairy using soured cossettes have a slight smell and always retain it, and their conservation is also rendered more difficult. It does not necessarily follow that these substances are communicated directly to the said pro- duct by the passage through the organism, but the micro-organ- isms with which the forage is supercharged, float in the air of the stables, and consequently fall into the milk. Or, furthermore, they may reach the milk from the hands of those employed in doing the dairy work, who are, unfortunately, not over careful in the use of antiseptics. These micro-organisms give a slight MINERAL SUBSTANCES IN THE DRIED COSSETTES. 197 disagreeable taste to butter and milk products. It is moreover well to add that soured cossettes may in certain cases develop disease, such as epizootic and catarrh of the stomach and in- testines. It is furthermore to be regretted that siloed cossettes are fre- quently handled with great carelessness. Maercker and Meyer mention one case where the cossettes remained in silos in con- tact with dead animals and became infected with disease. Under such conditions siloed cossettes naturally cannot be con- sidered a desirable forage, as such products are not only detri- mental to the health of the animals fed, but also to their descendants. Among the indirect advantages possessed by dried cossettes is Dried cossettes the fact that the work of oxen is lessened in the fall of the year, ""'''f ''f^dily The weight of dry cossettes is ^ of that of pressed, fresh or '"'"'''^'' *''^" soured cossettes. In most instances the beet wagons may return ^ . empty, and in this way one avoids the loss of time occasioned by the long period of waiting in the yards of the factories for the return loads of fresh cossettes. Again it may be pointed out that these long waits are hurtful to the general health of the animals. Thus the economy obtained by the use of dried cossettes in the matter of the transportation from the factories to the silos and then to the stable is considerable. Heine states that this cost is 10 pfennigs per 100 kilos for a distance of three kilometres. The carriage for longer distances by rail- road is often greater. Under all circumstances there necessarily follows a considerably economy in the amount of wear and tear that the draft-animals are called upon to undergo. It is to be noticed that the cossettes contain considerable Mineral sub- mineral substances. This is one of the objections to cossette stances in the drying by means of direct fire. The ash carried forward by the "* """^^^ ^^' circulating hot gases adheres to the cossettes that are yet moist. It would be possible to decrease this action by forcing the gases through metallic gauze with a very close mesh, which would re- tain the suspended cinders. If, for the purpose of drying, one uses coke on the grate, and this coke contains sulphur, the resulting product will necessarily have a bad odor when moist- ened. While this may not have any complicated or objection- 198 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. able influence "when considered from a hygienic standpoint, the cattle to which it is fed will frequently refuse it. The dried cossettes, furthermore, have the advantage over the soured pro- duct of facilitating the compounding of a ration, for the simple reason that its composition is almost constant, whereas soured cossettes leave much to be desired on this point. Conservation of The dried cossettes have, as regards their keeping powers, a dried cossettes. gj-eat advantage over the siloed product. They require, how^- ever, a covered building protecting them against rain, etc., for their preservation and storage. It is not necessary to bestow more care upon them than is given to any other dry forage. Helbrigel placed cossettes in a moist environment for three months, and the residuum did not absorb more than 15 per cent, of moisture, showing that it has little hygroscopic power. Change during Other experiments have been made by placing the dried cos- l(eeping. settes in a very damp cellar for six months, when they be- came moist and mildewed. These experiments, however, were made under exceptional conditions, which are not found in practice. Cossettes that are dried at a low temperature w-ould, however, absorb a little more water, but when they are placed in a moist storehouse at a low temperature they will take up 20 per cent, w^ater and remain in this condition for a long period of months. - They will not mildew any more than does hay during its keep- ing. Under normal conditions it has been noticed that when giving this dried residuum the usual care the loss of dry sub- stances, after months of keeping, is less than it would be with most of the standard fodders, and even less than it is with oil cake. As is the case with all dry fodders, the cossettes increase in weight during the first year of their keeping, after which there follows a slight loss of dry substances. The increase is found mainly in the cellulose, the nitrogenous substances and the ash, W'hile the gaseous extracts and fatty substances diminish. ' As a general thing the mass, after being kept some time, be- comes possessed of a certain butyric odor, w^hich is the out- come of the gradual oxidation of the carbohydrates and the fatty DIGESTIBILITY OF COSSETTES. 199 constituents, which fact in itself explains the decrease in their percentage. As for the albuminoids, they undergo no change as regards their quantity, but their quality shghtly diminishes, as is the case with all other substances contained in fodders in general. A cubic metre of the dried residuum weighs 300 kilos. It occupies, consequently, one-half the volume of either the fresh or the siloed cossettes. Morgen, in 1888, published a series of investigations on the digestibility of the nitrogenous substances contained in fresh, soured and dried cossettes, which demonstrated that the assimil- ability of their constituents was about the same for each form of cossette. From the data he then obtained he concluded that the albuminoids of siloed cossettes could not be considered less digestible than those of the fresh or dried residuum. They ap- peared, on the contrary, to be possessed of considerable advan- tages in this respect, which led to the conclusion that if there is a loss of albuminoids in a silo, the value of soured cossettes as a forage was not lessened; on the contrary, their digestibility had increased. These experiments led to the following results: Eelative Digestibility of Fresh, Dried and Siloed Cossettes. Various fodders. Digestible raw protein. Digestible albuminoids. Per cent. 76.3 79.7 83.2 Per cent. 76.3 79.7 81.7 Siloed or sour cossettes Digestibility of cossettes. The difference in the analysis, between the soured cossettes and the other two products, appears to be caused by the excess of nitrogenous substances that are not necessarily albuminoids and which are indicated as raw protein. Morgen declares that these data are entirely too favorable to the soured cossettes. He finds that these results are in contradiction of what has as yet been obtained in practice and asserts that this is due mainly to the fact that the dried, fresh and soured cossettes, when exam- 200 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ined had not the same common source, that is they were not from the same beets. Morgen undertook another series of investigations with Maercker, taking this point in consideration, and they obtained, for an average of their experiments, a coefficient of digestibility of 86.75 for the dried cossettes, and 73.02 per cent, for the soured cossettes, Avhich means a difference of 13.73 per cent, in favor of the dried residuum. The keeping of cossettes reduces in a very perceptible degree their nutritive value. The dry substance of dried cossettes con- tains 9.02 of protein, or ^i^^A^^ =7.93 per cent, of digest- ible protein, while the siloed cossettes with their 10.61 per cent. , . . ^, , 1 , 4 • 1 10-61 X 73.02 of protein m the dry substance contain only -— =: 7.75 per cent, of protein that may be assimilated. The coefficient of digestibility of protein of different forages was established by the agronomic station at Halle sur Saale, Germany. The conclusion to be drawn from this data is that dried cossettes far excel all forages when considered from a nutri- tive standpoint. In Germany this forage is estimated as having considerable money value owing to this nutritive quality, and also for the reason that cattle fed upon it appear to keep in a very healthy condition. The only element that can reduce the digestibility of the product is heat. Morgen determined an average from three exj^eriments upon the digestibility of nitrogen, and showed that it ran from 76.3 per cent, to 79.1 per cent, with fresh cossettes dried at a temperature of from- 75 to 85° C. Another experiment, made with dried cossettes. at 75 to 85° C, in which the coefficient of assimilation of nitrogen was 78.8, gave on heating to 125° to 130° C, a lowering of the digestibility to 65.8 per cent., or a decrease of 13 per cent. These figures show the importance of carefully watching the dryer, so as to prevent the temperature of the product from rising above 100° C. Precaations in Dry cossettes constitute a nutrient for animals of which they feeding. are ver}^ fond, and it is important to take certain precautionary measures to prevent cattle from eating it to excess. Sheep, for PRECAUTIONS IN FEEDING. 201 example, will eat it with great avidity if they are allowed to do so. They eat entirely too much of this dried product and then take water into the stomach, which is followed by an abnormal swelling. Under these circumstances it stands to reason that serious complications will follow. It frequently happens that sheep are strangled by swallowing this desiccated residuum too rapidly. It is, however, easy to avoid such accidents by merely mixing the cossettes with about 40 per cent, of water and allow- ing the product to swell. Ritter mixes only 16 per cent, water. Some recommend that the cossettes be well ground into a powder. By such precautions the product is swallowed with ease and eaten with relish. However, when first fed the dried product may be refused, which is probably caused by the curious texture of the forage that may be unpleasant to the eye, or for other reasons; however, such cases are the exception. After several days the animals become accustomed to the cossettes and will eat all placed at their disposal. Up to the present time not a single case has been recorded where an animal has continuously declined to eat this dried residuum. Pfeiffer and Lehmann declare that when dried cossettes are fed to an excess, they bring about troubles in the intestinal canal, which, as we may readily suppose, diminishes very materially the coefficiency of digestibility of the fatty sub- stances; and notwithstanding the fact that animals being fed will increase in weight, there is always danger of considerable loss of nutritive substances in the droppings during over- feeding. It must be understood that it is not imperative to mix the cossettes with water, as sheep will eat them in a dry state; how- ever, the mixing of water as previously explained is an advan- tage. It allows the cossettes to be more readily combined with other forages, for, as previously pointed out, the dried cossettes alone should not make up the ration. Notwithstanding its com- paratively small volume the product soon satisfies the animals' hunger, due possibly to the swelling of the beet cells in the presence of the fluids of the stomach, such as gastric juices, etc. The quantity of this feed to be given to animals differs with the object in view. According to Mercker and Morgen the amounts may be as follows: 202 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. QuAXTiTY OF Dried Cossettes to be Fed. Cattle fed. Milch cows • . Steers Working oxen Sheep Young cattle . Normal rations. Maximum rations. Per diem. Per diem. 3 kilos. 4.5 kilos. 5 (( 7.0 " 4 (( 6.0 " 0.33 a 1.0 " 1 ii 2.0 " Experiments in In some comparative experiments coming under our notice feeding different \}^qyq -were two lots of three bulls each, fed upon the product for in so cos- |j^jj,|-y days, also two lots of sheep of twenty-two head each were submitted to the same fattening process for forty-six days. The results obtained with either fresh or dried cossettes -were almost identical. Certain indications, however, w^ould lead one to sup- pose that if the experiments had extended over a longer period, the results would have been even more encouraging, and pos- sibly in favor of the dried product. Apparently one part of dried pulp is equal to eight of fresh pulp. Animals fed with both pulps gave milk of the following composition: Composition of Milk from Cows Fed on Fkesh or Dried Cossettes. Composition of milk. Density Butter fat Milk sugar Casein Mineral substances Total solids Water Fresh cossettes. Dried cossettes. 1.04 1.045 3.90 6.35 3.08 3.00 7.97 11.42 1.10 1.14 16.05 21.61 83.95 78.89 EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 203 In other experiments, with 24 cows yielding between 14 and 20 quarts per head and per diem, the feeding lasted 80 days, divided into four periods of 20 days. During the entire time of feeding, all the cows had regular rations of 12 lbs. hay, 2.2 flax flour, 2.2 cotton flour, 4.4 lbs. arachide flour, 6.6 lbs. barley bran, and 22 lbs. oat straw, to which was added during the first and fourth periods, 110 lbs. forage beets, during the second period, 17.6 lbs. dried cossettes, and 1.67 lbs. siloed pulps dur- ing the third period. . The nutritive value of these rations may be better understood by examining the table herewith: Comparative Nutritive Values of Eations Varied by Addition of Different Beet Products. Varied periods of feeding. ' Nitrogenous substances. Carbohydrates. Fatty substances. 1st and 4th periods- 2nd period 3rd period 3.15 kilos. 3.11 " 3.14 '' 13.05 kilos. 13.09 " 13.07 " 0.49 kilos. 0.51 " 0.49 " 1 See paragraph above for rations fed. From which we may conclude that apparently there was very little difference in the theoretical nutritive value of the combina- tion used in each case. The practical results obtained showed that the quantity and composition of milk obtained was as follows: Comparative Analyses of Milk given when Different Beet Products were Fed. Varied periods of Weight of milk. Composition of milk. feeding. ^ Dry substances. Fatty substances. 30.25 lbs. 31.00 " 31.60 " 26.64 '• 12.87 12.88 12.72 12.72 3 51 2nd period 3.60 3 45 3 45 ■ See paragraph above for rations fed. 204 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The forage beets produced inferior results to the dried or siloed cossette residuums. All facts considered, in these special ex- periments everything appeared favorable to the siloed product rather than the dried. According to Vibrans it is impossible to feed as much of the dried cossette product as animals can consume. Experience seems to show that it is unnecessary to feed ha}' to animals in conjunction with dried cossettes. Maercker and Morgen have published considerable data on their investigation relative to the feeding of this product to cattle and the profits that resulted. The first experiments were those made at Schlanstedt with five groups of oxen. The ration fed was as follows: Theee Experimental Eations Fed to Oxen (Maeeckeb & Morgen). Components of Ration. Cossettes Distillers' slops Hay Cereal balls Rice flour Lupine Total Dry substances Assimilated nitrogenous sub- stances (Stutzer) • • . • . • . . Assimilated non-nitrogenous substances • Series I. kilos. 20 30 2.5 3.08 2.27 1.35 59.20 kilos. 12.33 kilos. 1.518 " 6.95 " Series II. 5.18 kilos.2 30 2.5 2.84 0.54 1.47 42.53 kilos. 12.73 kilos. 1.490 " 6.93 " Series Til. 6.93 kilos. 2 30 2,83 " 0.54 " 1.88 " 42.18 kilos: 12.32 kilos. 1.471 " 6.92 " ■ Siloed. = Dried. The amount of rice flour was decreased in the second and third series and the hay ration was entirely done away with in the third series so as to give every possible advantage to the cossettes and determine within what limits they could take the place of this forage. The amount of lupine used was made to vary so as to keep the nitrogenous substance up to the desired standard. The results are shown in the table herewith: EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 205 Kesults of Experimentai, Eations (Maeecker& Morgen). Items of Profit. Series I. Series II. Series III. Daily increase in weight Money value of the increase. Money value of droppings considered as a fertilizer. • 1.195 kilos. 118.5 pfennigs. 38.8 " 1.377 kilos. 130.4 pfennigs. 35.8 1.438 kilos. 134.0 pfennigs. 35.1 Total 157.3 pfennigs. 129.6 166.2 pfennigs. 123.8 169.1 pfennigs. 118.9 Cost of daily ration Profit 27.7 pfennigs. 42.2 pfennigs. 50.2 pfennigs. The advantage is, without doubt, in favor of dried cossettes. In other experiments made in Germany, six milch cows were fed during ten days with a ration consisting mainly of siloed cossettes, then ten days on a ration of dried cossettes, and finally ten days on soured cossettes. These experiments are of less practical value, as the animals fed were sick during the first and second periods of the investigation. Herewith are the le- sults of the experiments: Experimental Eations Fed to Six Cows. Components of ration. 1st period. 3rd period. Average of 1st and 3rd periods. 2nd period. 25 kilos. 1 30 2.5 2.0 1.0 1.29 " 2.52 " 25 kilos. 3 30 2.5 2.0 1.0 1.28 2.95 4 51 kilos * Distillers' slops Hay 30 '* 2 5 " Cereal balls 2 '• 10 "■ Cotton seed flour Wheat bran 1 58 " 1 25 "• Total 67.31 kilos.' 67.73 kilos. 67.52 kilos. 45.84 kilos. ' Siloed. 2 Dried. = Soured. 206 FEEDING WITB SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Experimental Kations Fed to Six Cows — Continued. Components of ration. 1st period. 3rd period. Average of 1st and 3rd periods. 2d period. Containing: Dry substances 15.65 " 16.28 15.97 " 15.84 " Digestible nitrogen- ous substances 1.75 " 1.86 " 1.81 " 1.80 " Digestible non-nitro- genous substances- 8.41 8.61 " 8.51 " 8.72 " Production of milk per head and diem. 17.03 17.97 17.50 " 17.84 " Fatty substances 0.564 " 0.558 " 0.561 " 0.547 " Increase in weight per head and diem 0.068 " 0.104 " 0.086 " 1.320 " Items of profit. Average of 1st and 3rd periods. 2nd period. 175.0 pfennigs. 38.0 178.4 pfennigs. 33.9 " Value of dropping considered as Total 213.0 pfennigs. 162.5 212.3 pfennigs. 155.7 " Profits 50.5 pfennigs. 56.6 pfennigs. The profits appear to be very much smaller than they should be, but it is important not to overlook the increase in weight of the animals fed. This increase, besides its intrinsic value, shows beyond cavil the healthy condition of the animals during the entire period of feeding, and this item is of an im- portance that cannot be estimated by figures. All facts considered, there can be no doubt that the dried re- siduum has a most favorable action on milch cows, which has also been demonstrated in the experiments of Kellner and Andra, who substituted 27.5 kilos of forage beets for 4.4 kilos of dried cossettes, which resulted in an increased milk produc- tion of 0.9 kilos per diem. Another interesting experiment we may mention is that made EXPERIMENTS IN FEEDING. 207 at Hadmersleben, Germany, with two series of sheep fed for 101 days with the following rations, for ten animals per diem: Experimental Rations Fed to Ten Sheep (Hadmeesleben, Germany). Components of ration. Cossettes Distillers' slops Pea straw Cereal balls Lupine Poppy oil cake Eice flour Water directly consumed Total Contents of ration: Dry substances Digestible nitrogenous substances • • • Digestible non-nitrogenous substances Total water consumed — 1st series. 29.4 19.60 2.38 3.00 1.47 0.88 1.79 1.74 kilos. ' 60.66 kilos. 13.91 1.63 7.26 46.75 2nd series. 5.45 kilos. ^ 19.60 " 2.22 " 3.00 " 1.47 " 1.14 " 0.98 " 9.12 " 42.98 kilos. 13.95 " 1.67 " 7.61 " 29.03 " ' Siloed. = Dried. Items of profit. 1st series. 2nd series. Money value of increased weight for ten animals fed 90.2 pfennigs. 18.5 - 41.2 107.2 pfennigs. 21.3 40.4 Money value of droppings considered Total 149.9 pfennigs. 120.3 ■' 168.9 pfennigs. 118.9 29.6 pfennigs. 50.0 pfennigs. The last series of tables herewith shows the economy and the profits of this system of feeding. Notwithstanding the heavy percentage of water contained in the soured cossettes, sheep, in order to quench their thirst, were obliged to drink water placed at their disposal, which in all cases was ad libitum. They con- sumed an additional 1.8 kilo, per diem and per capita, which in other words means 61 per cent, more than the animals fed 208 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. with dry cossettes. Under these circumstances it is evident that this enormous quantity of water must have an important influence on the digestibility of the albuminoids of the animals being fed, influencing to a considerable extent the deposit of fat and production of muscular tissues, which will consequently be decreased in considerable proportions. The experiments of Maercker and Morgen demonstrate that notwithstanding the low price at which dried cossettes may be produced, there follows an important increase in weight as com- pared with that realized with other feeding stuffs. In these dis- cussions the enormous comparative value of the resulting manure from the animals fed with dry cossettes is generally overlooked, and shows to what extent these substances have been digested by the animals under observation. The average of the experi- ments of Maercker and Morgen with sheep has shown that there is an increased profit of 3.76 marks per 100 kilos of dried cossettes; with oxen, 3.06 marks; with milch cows, 2.18 marks. Maercker and Morgen show that the average profit from the use of dried cossettes is 21 pfennigs for large cattle fed, per in- dividual and per diem. It has a specially advantageous effect on working cattle, as they have in their intestinal tubes and stomachs a moderate amount only of nutritive substances, and experiments and observations have shown that the work they are able to accomplish is greater and their general health is better than are attained by animals fed with siloed and fresh cossettes resulting in full stomachs. Potato feeds, such as are used in Germany, for swine, may advantageously be put aside in favor of dried cossettes. Under all circumstances it is found desirable to submit the fodder to a preliminary heating with hot water. Beneficial Horses have excellent health when fed with this residuum, effects. Q^^ upon general principles all animals without distinction, as long experience has shown, derive great benefit from this dried cossette feeding. Many of the complications that have been noticed in feeding with forages in general have disappeared when this residuum has been used; for example a paralysis of a special kind in sheep. The milk of sheep appears to be better, ACTUAL ECONOMY. 209 and the lambs are in a more healthy condition than when fed with other forages. There is nothing surprising in this, for the simple reason that the milk is less subject to alteration even in the udder than when siloed cossettes are fed. When one substitutes dried cossettes for intensive fodders Actual economy, there follows a much greater profit, as is also shown by the ex- periments of Maercker and Morgen. In Germany, 100 kilos of oats cost 17.8 marks and contain 8 per cent, of digestible nitro- genous substances and 53.3 per cent, of digestible non-nitrogen- ous elements. These may be replaced by 88.4 kilos of dried cossettes and 7.6 kilos of cotton seed flour, costing 5.68 marks. The profit is consequently 12. 11 marks, or 68 per cent. Maercker and Morgen show that in numerous rations, where this intensive forage is used, it may be entire!}^ replaced by the dried cos- settes, to which other forages are added to make up the lacking elements. Eations fob Live Stock. Composition of ration. Digestible nitrogenous substances Digestible non-nitro- genous substances. . Hay Straw Dry cossettes Palm flour Pea straw •• Potato distillery wash. Wheat bran Cotton oil cake Peanut oil cake Poppy oil cake 14 Milch cows. Ration per head and diem. Kilos. 1.25 6.25 2.50 4.00 3.00 3.43 1.14 Kilos. 1.75 7.00 2.50 4.00 3.00 1.00 3.14 2.03 Steers. Ration per head and diem. Kilos. 1.50 7.50 2.50 4.00 5.00 3.33 1.50 Kilos. 1.75 8.00 2.50 4.00 5.00 3.97 1.94 Working oxen. Ration per head and diem. Kilos. 1.00 6.25 2.50 4.00 4.00 2.79 0.56 Kilos. 1.50 7.50 2.50 4.00 4.00 4.70 1.28 Sheep. Ration for ten sheep of a total weight ot 500 kilos" Kilos. 1.50 7.50 2.50 4.00 333 7.00 0.25 1.00 Kilos, j Kilos. 1.75 ! 1.50 8 00 2.50 4.00 7.50 2.50 1.74 1.00 7.50 2.50 4.00 3.33 2.50 20.00 1.29 0.54 1.00 CHAPTER III. Early Prejudice in the United States Against Feeding Cattle \\'ltli Sxigai' Beets and Kesidimni Cossettes. Respecting American experience in diffusion pulp utilization, we "u-ould say that the farmers were at first opposed to it; and the total product of the diffusion batteries of the Portland factory, for the first year's campaign, was thrown into the bay. In subsequent years a portion of it was sold; those who experi- mented with it give some valuable testimonials regarding its nourishing value. Messrs. George Blansee & Co., of Cumber- land, for example, estimated that it was worth, as a fodder for cattle, at least $5 a ton. The difficulty with which that com- pany had to contend may be judged from a letter a New Eng- land farmer writes to one of our weekly papers, as follows: " The Maine Beet Sugar Company expected the farmers to buy back the pulp at $2 per ton, but could not make them see it! The pulp of potatoes * at the starch factor}^ is worthless, and is shoveled into the mill-race. Why should that of the beet be any better ?" It is to be regretted that communications of this character should receive public attention through the press or otherwise, and the writer would have been only too glad not to call attention to them, but it seems best to explain or rectify such statements. In the first place, the shoveling of potato pulp into the mill-race is a wasteful practice, as this refuse has a decidedly practical value as a fodder. It is in Europe gener- ally combined with other roots, and in no case is it thrown away. These are facts that the farmer quoted above has over- *In France this potato pulp has many industrial applications, the most im- portant being the manufacture of poudrette for manuring purposes. It is also largely used in the manufacture of tobacco boxes; it is also mixed with coal, etc. , for fuel. If, after boiling, it is applied to cotton or woolen goods, it will give them a rich brown hue. (210) EARLY PREJUDICE IN UNITED STATES. 211 looked, and in his ignorance and prejudice he advocates that a still more valuable pulp from the beet should meet the same fate as that from potatoes. If this pulp utilization was a new idea, the question might be open to discussion; but the practice has existed in France for the past seventy years, and far from the diffusion pulp being refused by the farmers — as perhaps the above quoted correspondence would convey — they are unwilling to grow beets unless a certain proportion of the weight is re- turned in pulp, for which they pay a reasonable price. If the Maine Beet Sugar Company was unfortunate enough to have this contention with farmers who are unable to see what is to their own interest, that is no reason why all American factories should have the same difficulty. In conclusion it should be said, that the refuse from a starch factory has no more relation to the secondary products of a beet-sugar factory than the primitive roots have to each other. If, at the first, the nourishing equiva- lents of the beet and the potato had been compared, all would have been in favor of the latter; but the various processes of starch manufacture have attained a greater degree of perfection than those of the product of the beet. The problem of starch manufacture is far easier, because the numerous saline difficulties are not presented. This becomes more apparent when the re- sults obtained at numerous starch factories are considered; the refuse from those at Watertown, for example containing only 0.01 to 0.1 per 'cent, of the original starch found in the potato. At the Delaware factory the demand for the beet pulp was so great that the company was unable to supply even one-half of what might have been sold. The same may be said of the Franklin Company. The Alvarado factory at first was not so fortunate, but California farmers now commence to appreciate the value of this refuse, as is demonstrated by the dairying ex- periment of the current campaign. Of the annoying prejudices against pulps and beets we may mention one coming under our notice in the Northern States, where it was asserted that the amount of milk a cow would give per day would be diminished, and the milk would have a taste that might or might not be objectionable. Another example: One of our friends at Bryn Mawr, near Philadelphia, was feed- 212 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ing an infant with the railk of a cow, and positive!}' declined to give beets in an}' amount to the animal that supplied the ele- ments of existence to his beloved child, contending that the result might be disastrous to the infant's constitution, and also asserting there could be no possible doubt that the milk was directly acted upon by the food the animal consumed. There was nothing new in all this, but there was error when bad qualities were attributed to the milk yielded by cows fed upon green roots. There is scarcely any limit to similar examples, the patience of the reader must not be overtaxed by relating them; it need only be said that they have little force of argu- ment. Similar theories were upheld against the potato prior to its introduction to our markets. After Sir Walter Raleigh was successful in convincing the inhabitants of Great Britain of its importance, it became, and is at present, the principal article of subsistence in Ireland; and when that crop fails there, famine is the usual result. The same rule applies now to the beet, and we can positively assert that, if it were no longer grown in the northern parts of France, it would give rise to a serious panic in that country. The number of cattle and the resulting revenue from their sale would necessarily diminish for the want of a substitute for the usual food, and the farming population would be the sufferers. The prosperity usually so great in the districts named would revert to the condition existing before these valuable roots were grown. In the foregoing an instance of American prejudice as it ex- isted sixteen years ago was given, and a recent and very extraordi- nary conclusion arrived at in Minnesota is quoted. The following items taken from the local press show in a most characteristic manner the complete ignorance of certain officials about sub- jects they are called upon to discuss. In the Minneapolis Tribune we read: "It is quite likely that the health commissioner, in conjunc- tion, with the dairy and food department of the State, will take action against the dairymen who are feeding their milch cows refuse from the beet-sugar factory at St. Louis Park. " The commissioner took steps in the matter several months ago, but allowed it to drop because his authority in the prem- EARLY PREJUDICE IN UNITED STATES. 213 ises was questioned. Now, however, he is free to act as he pleases, because of an act passed by the last legislature, entitled, 'An Act to prevent fraud in the sale of dairy products,' etc., which act places beet-sugar pulp in the same category as distil- lery waste, etc., and prohibits its use as food for cows in any part of the State of Minnesota. "Many authorities claim that beet pulp is a wholesome food for cattle, but the dairy and food department of Minnesota ap- parently does not, and some action, therefore, may be looked for." The Minneapolis Journal says: "The point has been generally overlooked, but the last legis- lature did single out sugar-beet refuse for discrimination and put it on the forbidden hst. H. F. No. 499, entitled "An Act to prevent fraud in the sale of dairy products, etc.,' drawn by the dairy and food department and expressing its ideas as to the necessary laws for the preservation of the dairy industry and the pubhc health, under chapter 5 distinctly places sugar-beet pulp in the same category as distillery waste, etc. , and prohibits its use as food for cows in any part of the State. The only qualification is that it may be used if properly pre- served in silos. "So far as known none has been so preserved, and so far as it has been used it has come from the big pile lying alongside the sugar factory. Under the law the pulp in its present con- dition is not being properly preserved, and milkmen who use it are doing so at their peril. The commissioner or anybody else who is convinced that the public health is being endangered by its use can take steps to stop it if so inclined. * * ^ "The head of the dairy department took some pains last winter to look into the matter. ^ ^ -^ J will admit that the smell from the decaying surface of the pulp piles was not appe- tizing. But there is no reason in the world why a few inches underneath it should not be as fully preserved as if kept in an air-tight silo. There will be more or less fermentation, probably the same as in the silo, but that fact in no way detracts from the wholesomeness of the stuff as a food for milch cows or any other stock. The decayed pulp on the surface is, of course, wholly unfit for use. 214 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. " The chemist of the Department of Animal Husbandry took practically the same view of the case. He was unaware of the fact that the law had declared against the use of beet pulp, and thought it was a mistake to do so on the ground that the facts did not warrant such a law. "Nevertheless, with all the authorities seemingly against them, it is understood that the dairy and food department of the State is prepared to enforce the law as it stands on the statutes. ' ' Numerous similar examples could be given of tops and leaves, etc., being declared worthless for cattle feeding, the milk and butter being said to have unpleasant taste and flavor. It has been apparently overlooked that frequently these pro- ducts had been poorly siloed and when fed were in a semi- decomposed condition. A very recent example is given in Bulletin No. 74 of the Utah experiment station, the title of which is "Lead in sugar-beet pulp." We extract from its pages as follows: "Though the intrinsic feeding value of sugar-beet pulp is so well established, there come to the station frequent inquiries concerning the pos- sible danger in the use of beet pulp as a stock feed. Com- plaints are sometimes made that cattle are sick and dying, and as the only unusual condition was the beet pulp that they were receiving, the blame was unjustl}^ attributed to the use of that food. It was discovered that beet pulp had been shipped in cars that had been used for hauling lead ore, and that the particles of ore remaining in the imperfectly cleaned cars had become mixed with the pulp, were eaten by the stock and had resulted in numerous cases of lead poisoning. The beet pulp should be shipped only in wagons or cars that have been thoroughly cleansed. In Utah, the dan- ger from contamination with lead and other ores that remain in railroad freight cars is very great." This difficulty could in a large measure be overcome by introducing a suitable dryer at the factory, as dried pulps in bags would not be contaminated by exterior influences. Argue as one may the fact remains that there exists great carelessness in the shipping, and as a result the general utilization of this valuable residuum will be very EARLY EXPERIMENTS AT CHINO. 215 considerably retarded. Man}^ fanners do not seek for the cause, but are content to observe facts, their argument evidently now being that beet pulp contains lead ores and should not be used for cattle feeding. The intelligent feeder will avail himself of the Utah experience and insist upon a hitherto unknown care in cleaning cars that are to be used for the transportation of the product from the factory to the farm. In California the question of feeding cossettes to cattle has Successful intro- become very important. Among the early experiments we may duction otpulp mention those near Moro Coso, where success is assured. After '^'l ^"^ '" one year's keeping the siloed product was so hard that it could be cut with a knife. Cattle showed greater preference for it than for any other fodder. The silo pits used are planked on both sides and bottom, with drainage box beneath. When the pits are filled the upper surface is covered with straw. Arrangements are said to have been made to use the sand hills for siloing, and to feed the pulp this year. Efforts made at sun-drying beet residuum did not prove a success. The experiments at Chino in beet feeding are not sufficiently far advanced to report any special results. It is interesting, however, to call attention to some efforts made at the Linwood dairy of feeding bran and alfalfa with fresh beet pulp. At a later period Mr. Gird took up the question on a very Early experiments thorough basis. At one time he wrote that the steers at Chino. fattened were brought from Arizona and fed on siloed pulp and hay, in the ratio of about 5 pounds of chopped hay to 60 or 70 pounds of siloed pulp. It is recommended not to use the beet pulp until it has been in silos for at least 60 days. An interesting example may be given of the excellent effects to be expected from feeding beet pulp to cattle. During the campaign about 60 wandering cattle were brought to the ranch; they were thin and in very poor condition; "they are now," says Mr. Gird, " as fine as any cattle I ever saw." At first, they were fed on raw pulp, and afterwards on the siloed pulp, when the fresh product was exhausted at the end of the campaign. "They did much better on the siloed material than on the fresh," continues Mr. Gird, "I find that pulp. 216 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. either crude as it comes from the factory or after it is siloed, is the best sheep feed I have ever used. With a very small amount of whole straw or hay with the beet pulp, the sheep fatten surprisingly soon, and their meat is very fine. Six weeks are sufficient to make a sheep as fat as needful, and as profitable and agreeable to use as mutton can be, and the trouble of feeding them is but little. As to dairy cows, only 60 pounds of siloed pulp are fed per diem." " Although in the fall of the year the cows are by no means fresh, still they are doing as well as they would in the spring season on the best of green grass; the butter is of a fine quality, naturally hard and not in the least oily, as is the case with butter from alfalfa-fed cows; in fact, the butter is of a superior quality to any I have made from other classes of feed," Mr. Gird further says: "I have about 1,000 cattle in the pens, and am feeding as above stated. They are doing finely and take to the feed in the course of about a week, when they seem to eat it with more relish than anything that can be placed before them. I think it important to chop the hay, and intimately mix it with the pulp. I am using cornstalks, and by mixing with the pulp in this manner the}'' eat every particle, and nothing is wasted." "My silo is 500 feet long, 60 wide and 10 deep; the pulp is delivered into it from cars run on a trestle and taken out on two racks laid on the bottom of the silo on each side of the trestle, which I find a very convenient plan. I have from 10,000 to 12,000 tons of pulp in the silo now in magnificent condition; the cossettes (after having been freed from most of the moisture b}^ drains and other appliances) have about the consistence of old cheese." In a speech before the Dairymen's Aasociation of Southern California, Mr. Gird expressed himself as follows: " M}^ ex- perience has been, that the dairy cattle will produce about the the same amount of butter, and of even better quality, when fed upon beet pulp than upon the best grass of pasture land. Late in the winter of last year, when grass was exceedingly good, after having fed pulp up to the time when it gave out, my dairy foreman informed me that the amount of butter was EXPERIMENTS AT OXNARD. 217 reduced nearly one-third in the week after stopping the feeding of beet pulp." * * * " On December 16, 1893, I put 20 steers in a corral by them- selves, and fed them each about 70 pounds pulp per day, with about five or six pounds rough hay or straw. * ^ * They weighed the day they were put in the corral 40,465 lbs., and were fed on pulp for 48 days. On February 2, 1894, they were taken out and weighed, their total being 43,125 lbs., or a gain in 48 days of 2,660 lbs.; this was 133 lbs. each, which is very good. ^ * ^ "I have a silo calculated to hold 18,000 or 20,000 tons of pulp, being merely an immense trench dug in the ground, 60 feet wide, 10 feet deep and about 500 feet long. * * ^ i add a very small amount of salt to the pulp while being siloed. * >i< * The ease with which this pulp can be siloed and kept, is the great point in its favor, as it not only practically siloes itself, but becomes better as it gets older." ^ * *^ No better evidence could be given of the increasing demand Experiments at for the residuum beet cossettes than the description given of the Oxnard. Oxnard stock yards as described in the Courier. They were built in 1900, and there are four, the two larger ones being on an average 275 feet long, 45 feet wide and 9 feet deep, and the two smaller ones 250 feet long, 35 feet wide and 9 feet deep. The sides are sloping and the pulp is filled in to a level with the surface of the ground. The two smaller ones were the only ones filled in 1900, and contained 224 cars of pulp with an average weight of 35 tons to the car, making the amount of pulp stored approximately 6000 tons; this means the weight when first put into the excavations — it shrinks about one-third by the time it is fed to stock. The yards are north of the silos, and are divided into four rows of large corrals, between which the cars run. There are twenty-three of these corrals, and ten mangers of pulp troughs in each one just inside the fence by the car track. Nine of them are filled with pulp and the last one with salt. At the side of each corral opposite the places where the pulp is fed, hay and straw are placed. The cars which contain 8 tons of pulp are drawn up the track between the corrals and the pulp is unloaded into the troughs with forks. In 218 TEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. this way 100 lbs. pulp and 14 lbs. of straw from wagons on the other side are fed to each animal each day. The ratio in 1899 was 10|- lbs. of straw and 112 lbs. of pulp to each animal. The corrals are built on sandy coast-land, and are well drained. Experiments at At Watsonville several thousand cows are fed upon siloed Watsonville, Cal. cossettes, which is an important progress as compared with the first years of the factory's existence. The residuum costs about one dollar delivered as it is used, and this includes loading, hauling, etc. A recent government report states: " There was a time when the Pacific Slope used to call upon the Mississippi Valley for her butter and upon the Eastern States and New England for her cheese, but since the introduction of the beet sugar industry California has rapidly forged to the front as a dairy State. A large part of this change has been brought about by the introduction of beet pulps as food for the dairy. One of the most interesting examples of this fact Avill be found at Watson- ville, Cal. Dairies have sprung up in all directions in that vicinity. Milk trains are running to San Francisco, and the dairy interests in that vicinity are almost wholly the result of pulp feeding. * * * It happens that the creameries there pre- ceded the sugar factories." A herd of 200 milch cows kept near a beet-sugar factory about 40 miles south of San Francisco, is given a daily ration of 60 lbs. pulp, 5 lbs. of mixed ground grain and a little hay. The cows milked averaged almost two gallons each per day. The milk is shipped to a dealer in San Francisco, who pays 12^ cents per gallon for it the year through. The production is greatest from February to May. Butter made from milk of this herd for experimental export was found to have exceedingly good body, a satisfactory flavor and an apparently first class keeping. Near Watsonville 100 lbs. are fed to each animal. It is said that beet tops from certain California beet fields sell for $3.50 to $4.00 per acre on the ground. IMany farm- ers fed the tops alone. Experience seems to show that with the addition of bran the results obtained are more satisfactory. Only in some exceptional cases were there complaints respect- ing the flavor imparted to butter through top feeding. An CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION. 219 example of this top feeding may be given of a dairj'man who brought his entire herd of 90 grade Durham and Holstein cows to the farm when he had bought the privilege of using the tops. The owner stated that their milk yield doubled in a short time. The beet tops in some cases are fed several months in the year. The butter from top-fed cows may be packed in rolls and covered with brine and be kept for months. A correspondent of the California experiment station expresses Conclusions of himself as follows: "It would be difficult to economically feed the California pulp away from the factory, as the transportation and handling " ''! are quite expensive. Factories sell pulp at from 10 to 25 cents per ton, the former price having been the custom when taken away from the factory, the latter when conveniences and facili- ties for feeding cattle have been furnished at or near the factory. I doubt any profitable use of pulp for beet feeding at over 25 cents per ton. At this price and the usual value of grain and hay or straw, it will cost from $9.00 to $12.00 per head to put the animal in a good marketable condition. ^ * * I believe that small farmers Avho do their own work can functionalize cattle and fatten them and sell at a profit." As for dairy cattle feed- ing, it is claimed that 20 to 25 lbs. per head daily is a sufficient amount of pulp for a dair}^ cow, and to it there should be added 25 to 30 lbs. of uncut hay and 5 pounds of middlings. Another dairyman of some importance does not hesitate to feed 80 lbs. per diem, combined with 6 to 7 lbs. of hay and 6 lbs. mixed "chop" feed. A well known authority declares that the climate of California is not the most suitable for feeding pur- poses, especially in winter. Another correspondent advances views that are of considerable interest: " When cattle are once started on pulp feed, particularly when they are to be fattened for beef, it is advisable to continue them at that until fully fat, and then slaughter them. If cattle have been fed on this feed for a season, it is highly advisable, if they have reached the desired stage, not to take them on green pasture, as this affects them seriously." Messrs. Jaffa and Leroy Anderson, discussing the question of cossette feeding from a California point of view, say that cos- settes when fed in connection with other dry feed not only serve 220 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. to keep the digestion in a healthful condition, but add materi- ally to the store of actual food substance. It may be that 25 to to 30 lbs. per day of pulp will induce as large a flow of milk as 80 lbs. per day Avhen the rest of the feed is dry; the idea be- ing that the lesser quantity gives the cow all the succulent food and change of diet which she really requires for the best pro- duction. When the pulp must be hauled a long distance and the cost of transportation is therefore great, it would undoubt- edly be unwise to feed it in larger amounts than just to give the necessary succulence to the ration, and 25 lbs. is probably suffi- cient for this purpose. But when the dairy is situated adjacent to the sugar factory, as at Alvarado, it might pay to feed the pulp in much larger quantities. In California the general feeding with residuum cossettes has on the whole been very satisfactory, and a very extended trial has been given. The allowance per diem is 80 to 100 lbs. per 1,000 lbs. live weight. In some cases 10 to 12 lbs. of lima bean straw combined with the residuum have given satisfactory re- sults; in others, 10 to 15 lbs. uncut hay and 25 to 50 lbs. finely rolled barley. The fattening lasts about 90 to 100 days. In one case 8,000 head of beef cattle were fed for four months. It was found that the meat from pulp-fed cattle was very much better than the alfalfa. "The meat was of fine flavor, good color, marbleized, and killing very white as to fat." The opin- ions as to the value of the residuum per ton is very varied, some saying 50 cents while others place the price at one dollar. The California experiment station says that "the value of tops for feeding purposes may be estimated at $1.58 while for fer- tilizing purposes they would be worth $1.65. It is declared that if tops are used as food and the manure is saved, about three- fourths of the fertilizing value of the original substance is still retained. While this is true theoretically, it is hardly ever so practically, particularly with reference to the nitrogen, the most costly of the fertilizing elements. In very few instances, unless the animals are pastured, is the urine saved to the soil, and this part of the excreta contains the major part of the nitrogen. The nitrogen in the manure is not by any means all available, at best not more than 50 per cent. , and in most cases not even so CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT STATION, 221 much. On this basis the fertilizing value of the manure would be about 80 cents (three-fourths of the potash and phosphoric acid and one-fourth of the nitrogen). This added to the value as food, $1.58, increases the net value to $2.38 and the differ- ence (73 cents) between this sum and the fertihzing value is fully made up in the green manurial value of the vegetable matter in the tops." The California station does not recom- mend the tops for dairies that supply milk to be consumed as such on account of the bitter taste imparted to the milk " Ex- penments in feeding sugar-beet cossettes were not numerous but the herd fed during a period of ten weeks showed that when no beet pulp was used, the cows ate on an average about 20 lbs of hay per head daily in addition to 8 lbs. of grain, while when eatmg beet pulp, the daily consumption of hay varied from 6 to 10 lbs. The beet pulp seemed to impart no foreign or disagree- able flavor to the milk. The milk was delivered daily to'cus- tomers m Berkeley and no complaint was made. The effect of the pulp upon. the flow of milk was on the whole beneficial Most of the cows were decreasing in yield up to the time when we began to feed beet pulp, after which all increased in quan- tity, and continued to hold out well until the beet pulp was ex- hausted when there was a noticeable decrease." The official report of the notes upon dairying in Cahfornia says pulp has a tendency to fatten and is given to beef cattle without any other food, but for milch cows its effect is found to be best when used with a httle grain or hay. Without the latter it is supposed to produce a thin and watery milk. When pulp is fed in consid- erable quantity the animals do not care for water and may go for months without drink. A feeder who has been using this by- product for several years complains that when his cows have been fed for a long time on pulp their calves are likely to come weak and troubled with sores. In Nebraska the subject of feeding beet pulps to cattle is being very generally agitated, and farmers who have given the matter a trial are pleased with the results obtained. The fact that very little cotton-seed meal, oil cake, etc., is used in rations for milch cows does not prove that these are not beneficial. Many other by-products may take their place when heavv feeding is 222 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. desired. The siloed pulp analyzed by the Nebraska station had the following composition : Water 88.64; acidity 0.19; dry matter 11.36; ether extract .09; crude protein 1.24: crude fibre 2.94; nitrogen-free extract 6.69; ash 0.39. Experience at At Grand Island, Neb., a stock feeder who has had con- Orandlsland.lNeb. siderable experience with residuum cossettes says that when the feeding commenced he fed for several days 20 to 25 lbs. of pulp with hay and grain or meal mixed with it. This was gradually increased to 40 to 50 lbs. He also tried 80 to 90 lbs. per head, but considers this a disadvantage in fattening cattle, as they eat less grain and meal. Pulp helps to digest the food and lessens the danger of overfeeding. After feeding from ninety to one hundred days, he advises going back grad- ually to 20 or 25 lbs. of pulp per day, increasing the grain food, etc., and finds it better to give ground feed with pulp rather than whole grain. The pulp-fed cattle will sell as readily as any other, as they dress and ship as well, even for export. Cattle will eat poor and damaged roughage, which they other- wise would not touch, if it is mixed with pulp. Experience at The leading pioneer of residuum pulp feeding in Nebraska Ames, Neb. has been the Standard Cattle Co., at Ames, and extracts and comments giving in considerable detail their experience from the beginning are quoted. Several years since the following statement was made: "Beet pulp cannot be profitably used, as I think, except when fed to animals that are sheltered in a warm place." No experiments had been made; this was simply an assertion. Since that time Mr. Allen, of the com- pany, has given the question a great deal of attention. He says : "The average amount of ground feed that we have given cattle in out-door lots, in mid-winter, ranged from 25 to 28 lbs. per day; indoor fed cattle, 16 to 20 lbs. Last winter we shipped pulp-fed cattle that had been fed only ten pounds of grain; some that had been fed only six pounds through three- fourths of their feed." As regards cattle fed on grain, it is assumed that the number is 3,000,000, and the cost of food of each animal is estimated at This means $57,000,000. The saving for cattle feed alone EXPERIENCE AT AMES, NEB. 223 would be $20,000,000 by beet-pulp feeding. The beet-tops and leaves are estimated to be worth S2 per acre for feeding pur- poses. By the proper utilization of these, combined with the residuum pulp from factories, there would follow a valuable saving over the average cost of to-day. Prof. Nicholson at the time stated, that the Standard Cattle Co. at Ames, Nebraska, fed pulp in three rations: First, ten pounds of oil cake and corn meal to from seventy to ninety pounds of pulp; second, six pounds of oil cake and meal lo one hundred pounds of pulp; third, twenty-three pounds of ensilage to seventy pounds of pulp. Mr. Allen some time since addressed to a government official the following remarks on silos which would hardly be acceptable in Europe: "The surplus that accumulates beyond requirements is thrown from the cars near the factory into a large pile awaiting use after the campaign is over and the fresh supply from the factory is cut off. From our experience I judge it is not neces- sary to take pains to preserve the pulp. At some sugar factories more or less expensive silos have been made, one, for instance, at Ogden, Utah, and similar ones at Lehi. I have no doubt there is a saving of pulp by the use of these silos, but I should judge the interest on the cost of these silos and the additional labor required in getting the pulp out would exceed the value of the pulp lost." The experiments of the Standard Cattle Co. continue to be a pronounced success. The resident of the company wrote to a trade journal two years since as follows: " The past winter we fed on pulp 30,000 sheep which were fed regularly — the figures herewith are averages and include all classes of sheep. The heaviest wethers sold averaged 135 lbs. and heaviest lambs 100 lbs. at market. Some of the sheep sold on the Omaha market killed out 52 per cent, of dressed mutton. " We have not, even to the largest sheep, fed to exceed eleven pounds per head a day at any time and our maximum average feed was ten pounds a day. We are inclined to think that this is too large a feed of pulp for grown sheep, and that seven or eight pounds is rather more than should be fed to lambs. " At first the effect of heavy pulp feed is not perceptible, but 224 FEEDING WITH SUCxAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. after a while it is extremely diuretic in its effects and, we thought, produced a malady from which a number of sheep died. "We regard seven pounds of pulp per day to lambs and ten pounds to sheep a maximum beyond which it is not safe to go. The total pulp fed was 11,971 tons." In a recent correspondence with Mr. Allen upon the subject, he says: "There is no extended information respecting feeding pulp to cattle, as this is the first winter in which we are using it in any volume, and the feeding season is not yet half through; therefore, the only figures I can show you are those of sheep feeding. It will take years before there is any valued recorded experience in pulp feeding. I send you figures regarding our cattle feeding in order that you may see what a variety of pro- ducts are fed to cattle and where the pulp will come in. No doubt we are this winter making a valuable saving of food pro- ducts by the use of pulp, but we cannot demonstrate it in figures. I send you also some of our tables v^^hich may aid you a little. "We are this year feeding 4,000 cattle and 31,500 sheep, which are being fed on pulp with other products. And we have also been able to make very good use of the beet tops left in the fields, having grazed our cattle altogether through a period of more than 60 days on as many as 1500 acres of beet fields after harvesting, getting therefrom possibly as much as $10,- 000.00 in food. " In this part of the country where corn has been the onl}'- food product understood and appreciated by farmers, pulp has been little appreciated, and probably some experiments of feed- ing in midwinter have not been successful. It is gaining ground, however, in public opinion. Where it can be fed without freez- ing, its value is no doubt great enough to be well worth consid- ering in a sugar proposition. I have been very careful about what I have said about pulp, but we feel now that it has greater value than we have ever yet felt free to claim for it. I append hereto our superintendent's opinion as to the value of beet pulp. " In feeding 300 steers in one yard, we fed from one and one half to two loads of cut fodder per day with all the pulp they would clean up. The fodder weighs about 3,000 lbs. to the EXPERIENCE AT AMES, NEB. 225 load. This year we figure 30 per cent, corn in the fodder which would make from 6 to 8 lbs. of corn to the steer per day, besides all the pulp he could eat. We got some of the Awards up to 60 lbs., but they eat from 40-50 lbs. to the head per day. So I believe the cattle, which are on from 8-10 lbs. of grain, a fill on beet tops once a day, and all the pulp they can eat, will make a better gain than on a full feed of grain alone. By the time our beet tops were used up we had the cattle, as you are aware, up to a fair grain ration of about 10 lbs., besides what was in the fodder. As soon as we stopped feeding pulp we were compelled to feed each yard of 300 cattle from 30 to 50 cwt, of cut fodder more than they had been getting, and still with this increase the cattle did not look nearly so well. I am of the opinion that cattle, say on a 15 lb. ration of grain and 40 lbs. of pulp, will make a better gain than cattle on a 25 lb. ration of grain without any pulp; the only trouble that exists is that cold weather stops feeding outside. If one could have cattle ready to feed as soon as the pulp could be obtained, say September 15th to December 15th, this would give three months of good Aveather, and with the proper care, if one wanted to crowd either cattle or sheep, they would be in pretty good shape for a grain finish by that time. I believe one gets better results, or at least is able to see the results better, on older cattle than on younger. There were a number of milch cows on the place being fed on pulp and straw, without any grain whatever, and they kept up a good flow of milk and also gained in flesh. "I believe pulp fed with corn fodder, straw or other dry foods creates better digestion, and animals are consequently able to get more good out of each product. Making a rough estimate I should say that where a person has stock, beet tops are worth from $5.00 to $8.00 per acre. With grain the price it is this year, I would value pulp at $4.00 per ton." The Ames factory can slice about 500 tons of beets per diem; there remains consequently over 200 tons residuum pulp. The fact is the factory was the outcome of cattle feeding, and one of the main objects in view was the securing of the requisite pulp for the stock yards, while the reverse was the case of the Oxnard Co. 15 226 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, In Michigan, when there were only ten factories, they offered their combined pulp production to the stock yards of Chicago, simply asking that it be hauled away. It seems almost laugh- able that they did not avail themselves of it at once, but pre- ferred to make investigations and thus the opportunity was lost, Nearly 50,000 head of cattle could have been fattened under most favorable conditions. Michigan experi- The Michigan Slate College Experiment Station has given the ment station, question of sugar beet cossettes serious attention, and an out- line of the conclusions relating to the same is of great interest. Since the establishment of the several beet sugar factories in the State, a new stock feed has been placed at the disposal of the farmers. There is an urgent claim that the farmers have the product delivered to them containing 20 per cent, dry matter; this by usual means of pressing is hardly to be expected. In Michigan alone, even with the thirteen existing beet sugar factories, the annual output of the residuum cossettes is not less than 300,000 tons. It is to be regretted that most of this valuable product is lost, being simply taken from the factories by a conveyor, dumped and left to decay. Under these circum- stances, the hygienic condition of the environment is in danger, and the residents in man}^ cases make justified complaints. The Michigan station undertook the experiment, in a practical way, of testing the 'Walue of beet pulp as a succulent food when combined with dry feeds." The first experiments were conducted on the Grafton farm near Alma. The main object in view w^as to feed several hundred steers with as little outlay as possible, while in experiments made at Pearl, in western Michi- gan, the steers were to be fattened as rapidly as possible. On the farm at Alma, the "herd was divided into two lots, one containing thirty steers to receive pulp, and the other twenty steers to be fed the same basal ration but no pulp. Prior to the beginning of the experiment, all of the steers had received pulp. It was necessary, therefore, gradually to remove the pulp from the twenty steers that were to receive none during the experiment. A comparison of the amount of feed required to produce a hundred pounds of gain indicates that 3,885 lbs. of pulp was equal in feeding value to 881.3 lbs. of stover, 1,086 MICHIGAN EXPERIMENT STATION. 227 lbs. of hay and 186.6 lbs. of grain. . . . The gain with the pulp-fed steers up was 2,845 lbs. or 93.8 lbs. per steer, while without pulp the twenty steers gained 1,120 lbs. or 56 lbs. per steer. ... To carry a steer through thirteen weeks of winter, simply keeping the animal thrifty and growing, without an attempt to make the gains made in the interval pay for the feeds, required per steer 5.024 lbs. of pulp with 775.7 lbs. of mixed hay, 356 lbs. of shredded stover and 224 lbs. of grain. Without the pulp, it required per animal 275 lbs. more hay and 364 lbs. more stover. Taking these figures as a basis, and remembering that each pulp-fed steer gained 67 lbs. more in weight in the thirteen weeks, it is possible to estimate the value of the pulp as a factor in a ration designed to carry steers through the winter cheaply, if that form of cattle feeding is ever desired. The director of the Michigan station, discussing these results, says : "It required per day and steer with the pulp-fed lot 55 lbs. of pulp, 8.5 lbs. mixed hay, 4 lbs. of shredded corn stover and 2.4 lbs. ground grain. On this ration the steers made an average daily gain of 1.42 lbs. The lot receiving no pulp had for a daily ration 11.5 lbs. of mixed hay, 8 lbs. of shredded corn stover and 2.4 lbs. of grain, and made a daily gain of 0.684 lbs. Comparing the amounts of food consumed by each pen, to produce a hundred pounds of gain, and com-, puting from this data the value of a ton of pulp as an additional succulent fodder, the tests show that under the conditions exist- ing, a ton of pulp, fed with the other factors of the ration took the place of 421.5 pounds of corn stover, 274 pounds of mixed hay and 68.8 lbs. of grain. The experiments at the Pearl farm are of equal interest. In this case a herd of twenty steers were divided into two lots, to one of which was given a ration of mint hay, wheat bran, and corn meal, while to the other lot was given the same ration and beet pulp in addition. The pulp-fed steers made an average daily gain of 2.52 lbs., while the steers which had no pulp made a daily gain of 1.84 lbs. Consequently a ton of pulp took the place of 244 lbs. of mint hay, 32.6 lbs. of wheat bran, 296 lbs. of corn meal and 27.2 lbs. of oats. It is interesting to recall the experiments in feeding dairy cows in the winter of 228 FEEDING WITH SUGAE, BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. 1898-99. The pulp used was hauled on cars from Bay City to Lansing, and it neither froze nor fermented, but kept fresh until eaten. It one case cows for some unknown reason refused to eat the residuum. Without going into the details of this experiment, it is impor- tant to note that with pulp there resulted 128.4 lbs. of butter fat, while without pulp the yield was 130 lbs., which was not in favor of the pulp-fed cows, and apparently no advantage was gained. As regards milk production, there was a decided advantage in favor of pulp, for in this case there were 7,258 lbs. milk, and without pulp 6,844 lbs., a difference of 415 lbs., which is considerable. The practical feeders of Michigan ex- press their opinion favorably as regards the expected advantages to be derived from residuum cossette feeding. With fresh beets the results were favorable, but, as might have been expected, with the frozen product complications arose. It is interesting to note what one farmer from Kalamazoo says: "I commenced feeding on one half a bushel of pulp a day and increased gradually until my cows were eating one bushel a day, but at that point they seemed to get tired of it, and the effect on their bowels was bad." It remains to be seen whether the pulp or the other coastituents of the ration were responsible! Cossette drying. In Michigan the question of cossette feeding has now been considerably extended, and a special appliance has been intro- duced for drying the residuum. Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer gives a description of it, as follows: "The pulp after leaving the factory contains 90 per cent, moisture. From the conveyor it goes to a set of apple-graters, where it is cut into small pieces dropping into large vats, where sufficient water is added to enable the pumps to handle it. Then it is forced through filter presses. There will be two presses of 40 cells each. The plates will be of wood, octagon in shape, covered Avith perforated brass plates No. OG gauge. Between the plates are steel rings 35 inches in diametei by 4 inches wide. The pulp enters the press in three different places, and is evenly distributed to each cell by a spiral screw going through the center; the pressure carried is from 60 to IGC lbs. per square inch. Leaving the pressure with 60 per cent. NEW YORK. 229 moisture, it drops into a screw-conveyor, the low-product mo- lasses with it, and contains about 25 per cent, of water just before entering the dryer. The dryer is a large drum, made similar to a sugar granulator, being 6 feet in diameter and 40 feet long. There will be two of them making 6 revolutions per minute. Inside the drum enters a hot-air conduit (cone- shaped) perforated with 600 4-inch holes. There is an inner shell, one-half inch from the outer, running the full length of the drum, having shelves similar to a sugar granulator. This inner one is to protect the outer from coming in contact with the vapors, and also to retain the heat. The heat is generated by a coal or coke furnace, and is drawn through the drum by a suction fan at the discharge end, the heat being very intense on entering, but leaving the drum at only 130°. After traveling 40 feet in 35 minutes the pulp leaves the dryer, containing from 7 to 11 per cent, moisture. After passing through a set of roll- ers, being ground as fine as bran, it is then sacked for foreign shipment and baled so that a ton will go in 72 cubic feet. A 40 H. P. engine will supply all the power needed, and the build- ing has two floors 50 feet wide b}^ 75 feet long. . , . The cost is . . . $16,000, and the expense is about one dollar per ton of dry pulp." The official reports appertaining to the success of this plant were not favorable, while at Alma, where the second plant has been introduced, they are much more encouraging. New York may be considered one of the important dairying New York. States of the East, as it there has an influence directly and in- directly upon the entire rural question. During a long period of years farmers have been feeding brewers' wastes, and realize that the milk and butter from cows thus fed have been bene- fited. No other product within the past few years met the requirements of cheap dairying production better than this. Hence there has been comparatively little trouble in inducing the farmer to handle the product from the existing beet-sugar factories. This has been a considerable financial assistance to the Binghamton factory, who were able to dispose of their resi- duum at an average price of about 75 cents per ton. At one time New York farmers were somewhat alarmed at 230 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. the prospect of an invasion of live stock to be sent from Montana, which was to utilize the residuum of the beet-sugar factories, Itah. At Utah several thousand head of cattle are fattened almost at the door of the factory. They consume over 100 lbs. of the residuum per diem, to which are added about 15 lbs. hay. From the early building of the Lehi factory provisions were made for the pulp utilization, with the view of extending the dairying interest of the State. Several thousand head of cattle are fed. New Mexico. In New Mexico 5000 sheep were fed in pens not far from the Carlsbad i&ctoYy. No complaints were offered to this system of feeding, and the results taken on the whole were most satisfac- tory. Besides this attempt at feeding, the dairying farmers of the locality availed themselves of the opportunity. At Eddy there have been fattened over 1000 head of sheep, etc., and the experiment met. with success. The fattening reached nearly ^ lb. per diem. The residuum pulp was com- bined with alfalfa. Oregon. The Oregon Sugar Co., during the last campaign, was able to dispose of several thousand tons of the residuum, which was considered encouraging, and, after it has been fed to sheep, other sales may follow; 10,000 tons of pulp remained, and nearly all of it appears to have found a ready market at a price which varied, according to quantity, from thirty to sixty cents per ton. Minnesota. At Minnesota the Saint Louis Park factor}^ has been fortunate in being able to dispose of its pulp as fast as produced. The selling price of the residuum is only about 20 cents per ton. Colorado. From Colorado we learn that the Lockhart Live Stock Co. has this year been feeding 4,000 head of cattle with 30,000 tons of beet pulp. During the campaign previous the farmers took very little interest in this question of pulp utilization. At pres- ent they are entitled to 20 per cent, of all the residuum and are availing themselves of the opportunity. Iowa. The importance of feeding pulp and beets to cattle was well expressed in a speech made in Iowa by our Secretary of Agri- culture: "The managers of the Agricultural College of Iowa, IOWA. 231 where the finest animals of the United States are found, and where the best beef, mutton and porlc ever taken to Chicago are finished, find it necessary to have roots; and I have no hesita- tion in saying that the Iowa farmer can afford to grow roots for his animals, no matter how cheaply he can get other feeds. The Iowa farmer can afford to grow sugar beets for the pulp alone. We must keep an eye on the South American republics. The Argentine Confederation has learned to grow alfalfa, and is sending very fat grass-fed animals to the European markets," PART FOURTH. CHAPTER I. Molasses for Feeding'. Early experi- T^^ first one to suggest molasses as a fodder was Hermstadt, ments in molas- in 18J1. A special forage was, as early as 1830, made up of ses feeding, chopped straw and 100 kilos of molasses, as a total daily ration for 80 head of cattle, 2000 sheep and 20 horses. Petibval, who is a thorough believer in the importance of this utilization, especially for horses, at that time declared that with molasses half a ration of oats was sufficient, and numerous other ex- amples could be given of the same kind. In Germany, the first efforts to be recorded in this direction were by Stockhardt, in 1850, and later by Henneberg and Stoh- man, who fed to cattle a mixture of molasses, oat-straw and hay. The}^ limited the amount of molasses to be absorbed to 8 kilos per 1000 kilos live weight of the animal fed. In 1860, Fromenn and Rhode did not obtain very satisfactory results with milch cows fed with flour, straw and molasses. Gohren, on the other hand, had most excellent returns later on. At this same period (1860), the use of molasses became very general in France and Russia. In the last-mentioned country it was noticed that molasses, when combined with straw or chopped hay, overcame certain existing diseases. Excellent results were also obtained on these lines in Bohemia. In England, the use of molasses for cattle was not general be- fore 1870. With the exception of the investigations of Rimpau and Christiani nothing remarkable was noticed in favor of molasses feeding. On the contrary, the peasants looked upon this product with apprehension, as they feared diarrhoea. Furthermore, the cost of molasses increased owing to the fact that it had a certain use in for the separation methods in sugar (232) MOLASSES FEEDING IN AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 233 factories after most of the sugar was extracted and it was, in a measure, rendered worthless for feeding purposes. In 1885 the sugar crisis demanded that certain measures be taken to find some means of increasing the sugar consumption in continental Europe, and therefore molasses was proposed as a forage. The cost of this residuum upon the market decreased, thus rendering its utilization feasible, and as a result numerous in- vestigations were made and taken up by the community in gen- eral. As matters now stand, the combinations may be consid- ered a staple commodity on the usual markets, so much so that in Germany, in .1895, of 220 beet-sugar factories replying to General use of questions put to them by a well-known authority, 130 declared "lo'asses for that they sold their molasses for feeding purposes in the propor- tion of 10 to 100 per cent, of their production. Twelve of these establishments gut rid of all their molasses. The amount of molasses used for feeding purposes in Ger- many represented 27.6 per cent, of the total production during the campaign of 1901, and this fact alone shows to what extent the subject has been taken up in that country, it being not only the agricultural community that has become interested, but also the army at large. The advantages for horses are self-evident. Stift says it is Increasing pop- much to be regretted that, in Austria, there still exists a certain "''"''*^ "' mnlaccpc fppfj- prejudice against molasses combinations, mainly due to the bad . . ,. management of the middle-man. The army of the country is Hungary, the sufferer. In Austro-Hungary, during 1900 and 1901, 6 per cent, of the total molasses production was used as a forage. In this same country 127 of the sugar factories got rid of their molasses in this way. It was fed directly to cattle, or in a diluted form, mixed with chopped straw, cereal waste, concentrates, peat, etc. Certain factories manufacture this feeding stuff, made up of molasses and peat, dried cossettes, brewers' grains, palm-oil cake, etc. In Bohemia, two establishments prepare this fodder and col- lect the raw material at the factory proper. As an industry it would have attained an even greater extension in that country 234 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. had not the beet-sugar factories found it advantageous to use this residuum for various purposes themselves. Possibilities of It is estimated that the yearly production of molasses in molasses feeding France is 320,000 tons; if one divides this by the number of in France, ^^y^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^jg would give 876,712 kilos per diem. If we admit that each animal receives only one kilo, there would be sufficient to feed 876,712 heads; but this represents only a very small portion of the total number of animals of the country which without considering the swine is 9,466,000, showing that however large the molasses residuum from beet-sugar factories may be, it would have to be several times greater in order to meet the demand, if molasses feeding were generally adopted. Never before did molasses render a greater service to France than during the recent dry spell. Farming produce that would have been considered worthless for feeding purposes, has, by the addition of molasses, been made most palatable. A great mis- take has been made in taxing this residuum beyond a rational limit. As a result the government has derived certain advan- tages, that have been neutralized by the limited utilization of the product among the large and small dairying centers. A paradoxical fact relating to the fiscal molasses question is, that the manufacturer has every advantage in selling his residuum to distillers or for exporting purposes, rather than to the tillers of the soil, who, from an agricultural standpoint, have the first claim. This fact explains why there should be, at this late day, an effort to look after farming interests from a molasses-utiliza- tion standpoint. The recent proposed changes make the ques- tion still more complicated. Molasses utiliza- ^ beet-sugar factory, to work on a profitable basis, must tion one of the utilize its residuums. Pulps, molasses and filter scums are pro- essentials for clucts having a money value, and if not sold for their money protitable sugar gq^^jvaient should at least find some market or utilization and not be allowed to go to Avaste, which is the case with the beet sugar factories in the United States. The total daily capacity of existing beet- sugar factories in this country is about 33,000 tons, and the resulting residuum molasses is about 1,000 tons or 2,000,000 lbs., sufficient to feed 250,000 head of cattle for the en+'^'e working companies. RIVALRY AMONG MANUFACTURERS. 235 For many j^ears past the question, from a cane molasses point importance of of view, has been discussed before the Sugar Planters' Association, molasses utiiiza- an account of which may be found in The Louisiana Planter. ^I"" '" Many used three-quarters of a barrel per day for eighty head of stock, the consumption averaging about 5 lbs. per head per diem. It is found that the quantity of hay and grain food needed is considerably diminished by this utilization. In Texas the cane tops are sprinkled with molasses and then fed, stock appearing to prefer it to grain. Some planters fed molasses to their mules and horses, and found that they con- sumed on an average 12^ lbs. per diem. The following additional facts respecting beet molasses are considered ver}' important. Molasses from sugar cane contains glucose; beet molasses is free from this sugar, but retains a larger percentage of salts and other impurities; hence the prob- lem of feeding this product from a beet-sugar factory is more complicated than when handling a cane residuum. In both cases, however, it is mainly the sugar that represents its nutri- tive value, and the importance of it for the development of work, etc., is now admitted by all who have examined the question. Between the various modes of preparing the molasses fodder, Rivalry among there has come into existence considerable rivalry, the various manufadnrers inventors condemning their competitors, and in this way retard- *•' ""''^sses ing the progress that would otherwise have been made in the general introduction of the product on farms. The fact, how- ever, remains that cattle fed upon the product have their appe- tites stimulated and eat more straw and like products than they would otherwise. As soon as there was a possibility of making the molasses fodder very general, the selling price of the resi- duum went up, which necessarily meant a set-back as far as its general introduction was concerned. Since 1850 many arguments have been advanced that molasses contains all the nutritive elements that are requisite for feeding cattle. One of the first experiments that may be mentioned was that of Krocker, who substituted in sheep feeding one-third of a pound of molasses for one pound of hay per head and per diem. The excellent results that were obtained have been fol- forages. 236 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Composition of molasses. Albumen not contained in molasses, Varied opinions respecting the value of amides. lowed by numerous experiments, which have been more and more convincing. In the meantime several failures have been recorded, but these were followed by successes. The average composition of molasses is about as follows: Molasses upon general principles may be considered as a pro- duct containing sugar that cannot be crystallized by any known method. Its composition is only then, to a reasonable extent, variable, and is about as follows: Water 20 per cent. Dry substances containing: Nitrogenous substances 10 per cent., sugar 50 per cent., non-nitrogenous 10 per cent., salts 10 per cent. Molasses contains from 1 to 1^ per cent, nitrogen, sometimes more. According to Briem, molasses contains 8 per cent, of digestible protein. This proportion is apparently excessive, as molasses analyzed by Bej^er contained 1.47 per cent, of nitrogen, of which 5.3 per cent, was protein, 29.3 per cent, of organic substances, such as betaine, glutamin and asparagin, and 48.3 per cent, of amide compounds. The remainder was not determined. Kiihn is responsible for the assertion that of 100 parts nitro- gen, 22.7 to 75.7, or an average of 34.4 per cent., are amides. One of the interesting features of this residuum is that the albuminoids are entirely absent; but there are besides the amides, certain acid and nitrate combinations of these sub- stances. As a general thing, however, the nitrogen is found as an organic combination. From these discussions, a mistake is committed in asserting that the nitrogenous substances of molasses are only amides, which are said to have no nutritive value and which cannot consequently take the place of elements containing protein. Recent experiments have shown, as previously explained, that amides have nearly the same digestibility and nutritive power as carbohydrates. Previous investigations in this respect have shown that the theory that two-thirds of the nitrogen in molasses, which we considered as albumen, is erroneous. Authorities, such as Kiihn, Ramm and Momsen, assert that these nitric substances have a very doubtful nutritive value, certainly not greater than that of carbohydrates, as their use for flesh and milk production is infinitesimally small. They have BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF MOLASSES FEEDING. 237 neither the chemical composition nor the action upon the organ- ism that is possessed by albnmen. They are mainly thrown out in the urine. Weiske and Schulze declare that they are without nutritive value and are simply acid amides; hence it is argued that no allowance should be made for them in the calculation of a ration. Along with the amides, molasses contains from 40 per cent. Substances other to 46 per cent, of sugar, besides which we may add 16 |)er cent, than amides and of non-nitrogenous substances, meaning those which are not their influence, precipitated by lime during defecation. Molassic salts are mainly carbonate of potassium and sodium, and also chlorids. They contain also lime, sulphuric acid and a small percentage of phosphate. A certain nutritive value must be placed upon the non-sugar of molasses, as it has the property of exciting digestion and facilitating certain biological phenomena, such as the produc- tion of fatty substances and increasing the percentage of dry matter in milk. This property, attributed to nitrogenous sub- stances and the salts of molasses, cannot be obtained by the use of salt alone. It is mainly this inexplicable property that con- stitutes the real value of molasses; consequently, one cannot deny that the nitrogenous substances of molasses have a certain nutritive value and other special actions which in no way depre- ciate the market value of the residuum. Even if we may make no allowance for the nitrogenous substances of molasses, its nu- tritive value is always greater than its market valuation. Notwithstanding the great variations that have been found in Beneficial effects the composition of molasses, up to the present time no instances of molasses have been recorded of any toxic effects that have followed from ^^^^'m- molasses feeding; but it has very correctly been noticed that a certain diarrhoea is apt to follow, due to the organic salts it con- tains. This is the outcome of an excessive use of this residuum for feeding purposes, and it is to be noticed that an excess of any feed would have the same effect. Consequently the farmer has every advantage in keeping the molasses percentage of a ration within the limits of a standard, just as is done with every other substance entering into its composition. The salts contained in molasses, far from being objectionable, are on the contrary rather an advantage. 238 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Physiological action of sugar and hydrocarbons. The special nourishing value of molasses must be attributed to the percentage of its extractive elements, Avhich, when com- pared Avith its caloric power, is very high, and demands an almost insignificant physiological work; thus sugar has an important value, as compared with all other hydrocarbons — being soluble in water, it does not necessarily demand the action of the gastric juices or the expenditure of latent forces of the organism for its assimilation. Experiments have shown that sugar added to forages is with- out doubt an excellent, healthy and economical substance, producing at the same time flesh and fat. It furnishes, fur- thermore, the requisite caloric for the animal, and materially assists in the production of mechanical energy. Sugar-molasses possesses greater activity than sugar alone. Many investiga- tions show that animals fed with molasses and the same quan- tity of sugar have always given better results than when fed with molasses only. One need only compare the enormous benefit that man de- rives from eating sugar to realize the possible fattening results to be expected from feeding this substance to cattle. Throwing aside the nitrogenous value of the molasses constituents in estimating the commercial money value of the residuum, and considering only the hydrocarbons it contains, one realizes that it in reality has a greater money value than has hitherto been admitted; and all facts taken into consideration, when com- pared with barley, rice, various brans of wheat, etc., it holds its own. Of all the carbohydrates sugar may be considered the most valuable. Being soluble in water, it does not demand any special digestive action, which is within itself a saving for the vital energy of the organism. Furthermore, it is pointed out that sugar, being diffusible, soon passes, by osmosis, through the intestinal tubes, while other non-nitrogenous extractive elements, such as starch, pentosanes, etc., must undergo many modifications, lasting for a considerable time, before assimila- tion is possible. The osmotic action of a sugar solution is very rapid, so much so that the new theories claim that its complete oxygenation is MILCH COW FEEDING WITH MOLASSES. 239 impossible. The blood not being able to supply the oxygen necessary for its transformation, there results a stored-up energy for subsequent tissue and fat formation. The other carbohydrates, under the influence of the gastric juice and other active principles secreted by the stomach, intes- tinal canal, etc., are transformed into sugar only after an interval of time, under which circumstances it frec[uently hap- pens that the sugar thus formed is entirely consumed by the combustion of the body, and but little remains for tissue forma- tion. Killner advances the theory that there are always certain carbohydrates very difficult to digest, and they, with starch, help the formation of methane in the intestines. No such transformations occur with sugar, and its purpose consequently is almost entirely one of organic production. Several agrono- mists point out that this fact alone gives sugar an advantage over all other carbohydrates for fat formation, and hence its value for cattle-feeding, either as it is found in molasses or in other forms that the farmers have at their disposal. Experience shows that it is desirable to commence the feed- Manner of ing with molasses in small quantities, gradually increasing the feeding, amounts; we may admit about one-quarter of the ultimate ration as a beginning. Even under these circumstances certain physical organic difficulties at first occur; but there is no reason for alarm, as they subsequently disappear. Among the numer- ous precautionary measures to be taken in feeding molasses, mention may be made of avoiding the exceptional molasses which contains excessive saline elements. The residuum from sugar refineries or factories where the sugar is largely ex- tracted demands special attention, and hence in certain cases it may be found desirable to have made an ash estimation of the molasses that is to be used for feeding purposes. While the nitrogen percentage of the dry matter of regular molasses is 2.16, this percentage falls to 0.69 in molasses from the strontia process. In certain cases there has followed a slight decrease in weight ivijich cow upon feeding molasses to milch cows, but the fact that the flow feeding with of milk has been increased must not be overlooked. Without molasses, doubt the product has an important action upon the milk 240 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC, secreting glands, and this secreting influence results in an in- creased flow of milk, which continues for several days after the molasses ration has ceased to be fed. There then follows a gradual decrease, which in certain cases falls below the normal. Hoppe attiibutes this exciting influence to the amides, such as asparagin, contained in the molasses; Ramm, on the other hand, at one time declared that the stimulation must be attrib- uted to the salts of the molasses, but he has of late changed his opinion. The relative amount of fatty substances contained in the milk of molasses-fed cows decreases during the period that this special fodder is placed at their disposal, but its absolute quantity in- creases. Allowance is always made for the absence of fatty constituents of molasses, by giving to the animals larger amounts of fatty substances, such as oil cake. The milch cows in Kamm's investigations at first refused a ration consisting of equal parts of molasses and palm oil meal, but the same animals ate this forage when, later, the amount of molasses was lessened. When one compares the results ob- tained by molasses and other constituents, there can be no doubt that the resulting milk contains a heavier percentage of fatty and dry substances with molasses than is realized with other feeding stuffs. The quantity of milk is also considerably increased. Holbrung and Kaiser fed to milch cows one kilo of molasses in one experiment, and 2 kilos per diem in another. This was either diluted in water, or represented a substitute for 2 kilos of bran. With the exception of one special case, the milk secre- tion was notably increased. Molasses is apparently favorable to the production of milk, not only on account of the nutritive elements it contains, but also owing to the exciting action, due probably to the amide constituents, thereby causing an increase in the amount of milk per diem under certain conditions. With 2 to 4 per cent. molasses the fatty substances remain almost stationary; but as soon as 5 kilos per head are fed per diem there is to be noticed a decrease in the fatty substances, which frequently attain 0.5 per cent., hence the importance of adhering to a certain standard MOLASSES FOR FEEDING HORSES. 241 within reasonable limits. Without doubt, as before stated, the milk is of an exceptional quality. As regards the evil effects that have resulted to milch cows receiving molasses in their daily rations during gestation, this is difficult to explain, and possibly the feeder was more at fault than the animal fed. Then again, the nature of the molasses may have been responsible, and among the authorities who argue from this basis, we may mention Hoppe, who says that the composition of molasses plays a most important role. He justly declares that molasses having become even slightly soured should never be used. Among the interesting theories as regards the physiological influences of molasses, may be mentioned the excessive increase of the urine secretion of milch cows, which has a pernicious in- fluence upon the heart and kidneys. The protein percentage of milk does not appear to be influ- enced. This would show that molasses causes slight increase in protein, which would, in a measure, explain why the ani- mals fed lose in weight. The relative amount of dry substances is slightly decreased, but to this very little importance need be attached, as is shown by the Fleischmann formula for milk analysis. The absorption of molasses increases the acidity of milk— especially the evening milk. Such milk will coagulate spontaneously after three or four days, while milk from cows that have not been fed with molasses will coagulate only after seven or eight days. Experiments in the fermentation of milk by the Walter and Gerber method were less favorable with the product from molasses-fed cows than with normal milk; but these results are far from forcing the conclusion that the milk in question is un- healthy. The quality of the butter is not influenced. The data relating to this analysis show it to be normal, only the butter is a little harder and its melting-point is a few degrees Centigrade higher than other butters. There have been noticed no perceptible differences in the taste of the two products. Experiments in feeding residuum molasses to horses were con- Molasses for ducted by L. Grandeau, who has published an account of same, feeding horses. It is interesting to note in a general way what he says respect- 16 242 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. ing the role residuum molasses could play in feeding not only horses, but cattle in general. Regular weighings at regular hours made known each day the live weight of the horses, during rest, when working and after work. The horses drank at their discretion at given hours, and the water drunk was accurately measured. The weight and the composition of the rations fed were accurately determined, as was also the quantity of food not eaten. Under these circumstances, what each horse had absorbed was known with mathematical preci- sion. The droppings were collected with great care and imme- diately analyzed. If out of 100 grams of nitrogenous substances fed, 30 grams were found in the urine and excrements, the co-efficient of nitric elements was then said to be 70, this same plan being adopted for all other substances of which the ration consisted. It was found that sugar had the highest coefficient of digestibility under whatever form it was found or fed in the fodder; the coefficient in this case was 100, meaning that all the sugar had been digested by the animal — none was to be found in the droppings. It is interesting to note that for horses of 410 kilos [902 lbs.] live weight the nitric elimination per diem through the hair, perspiration, etc., amounted to about 2.5 grams per diem. This item is mentioned simply to show with what care these experiments were conducted. The daily ambient temperature and conditions of moisture, rain, etc., influencing the experiment were allowed for, and morning and night the temperature of each horse was taken. We cBnnot in this writing enter into other details; suffice it to say that when the horses were working, they received, beside their regular daily rations, which consisted of straw and oil cake, 2.5 kilos of Vaury's molasses preparation. This represented a little more than one kilo of molasses or 450 grams of sugar. The result of the experiments was as follows: MOLASSES FOR FEEDING HOESES. 243 Work Performed by Horses, Molasses Being Fed (Grandeau). Work done. Empty wagon. Wagon containing two persons of 70 kilos each. Velocity per hour 10.38 kilometers. 9.614 kilometer. '>4S .Sq? b in 254 649 k m Duration of the work 4. 23 hours. 4.59 hours. Distance traveled 46.431 kilometers. 47.912 kilometer. Average traction 23. 494 kilos. 27 kilos. Total average work 1,089,684 k. m. 1,269,000 The amount of water drunk was about three liters per kilo of dry substance of the ration, amounting to a fraction less than that taken with rations without sugar. Contrary to the general supposition, sugar does not increase the thirst of horses. These figures speak for themselves and show that there are great advantages to be gained by feeding molasses to horses during active work. Jorss has fed horses with forages consisting of palm oil meal and molasses. The animals suffered from colics and presented an unhealthy appearance. He substituted 3 lbs. of cereal waste for 3 lbs. of this molasses combination, and he realized a considerable profit when the accounts of the year were balanced. The horses were in an excellent condition under this regimen. Respecting molasses feeding, successful experiments may be cited in which broken down horses have been brought to their normal condition by feeding them with chopped straw thor- oughly moistened with a solution consisting of 5 quarts of molasses and 25 gallons of water. This mixture was prepared 24 hours in advance of feeding, and to it was added some well- cooked cereal. In certain sections of Germany molasses is fed to the horses of the omnibus company on a very extended scale. The fact is, this molasses feeding to horses is also coming very much into vogue in the German army, and it is only a question of time before it will become generally adopted. In France, 244 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. also, the question is being seriously considered, and recent ex- periments apparently show that a satisfactory ration should consist of 15.4 lbs. oats, 11 lbs. clover hay, 11 lbs. wheat straw. During the first few days, about one pound molasses was diluted in water and took the place of one pound oats. This was con- stantly increased, until reaching the sixth day, when 2.2 lbs. molasses were used and 13.2 lbs. oats, instead of 15.4 lbs., as per regular ration without molasses addition. The results ob- tained were in every way satisfactor}' — there was a slight in- crease in the horses' weight, without in any way diminishing their power for work. The molasses fodders are decidedly advantageous, especially for working horses, and Kunze claims that molasses, when properly used, will give them great vigor during excessive work- ing. It will quicken their appetite, even in case of animals that are poor feeders. One may feed 1.5 to 2.5 kilos per diem, which means 1.2 to 1.9 kilos of molasses. The hair of the animals fed retains its glossy hue, and their general health gives reason to believe that the product is to be highly recommended in every respect. Sheep feeding Albert and Ramm have obtained excellent results with sheep, with molasses. ^^^ ^-^^ health of the animals being fed has remained quite sat- isfactory by feeding 3.6 per cent, of the animal's live weight combined with barley. Greater amounts, such as 4.8 per cent, to 5 per cent., brought about some digestive complications. There has never been noticed the slightest increase in wool pro- duction. For sheep being fattened one may give a ration in which there are 250 grams molasses. This feed should never be used for these animals during the period of gestation. Sheep thrive on molasses, but there is one objection to molasses feeding in the case of sheep, which is that the wool becomes soiled; this, however, can be thoroughly remedied by washing. Steer feeding It is interesting to observe which live stock is the most with molasses, benefited by this molasses feeding. For steers being fattened during the summer, 4 kilos per 1,000 kilos live weight are suffi- cient, while in winter 6 kilos are necessary. When this limit STEER FEEDING WITH MOLASSES. 245 is reached, certain softening of the bony structure is noticeable, which, according to several leading authorities, is to be attrib- uted solely to molasses, and the explanation given is its low percentage in phosphate of lime and also the formation of cer- tain acids in the digestive tubes, due to the sugar it contains. This acidity decreases the alkalinity of the blood, which then dissolves the calcic phosphate. This difficulty may be overcome by adding 50 grams of pre- cipitated phosphate, as suggested by Maercker. Experience shows that since this product has been used there has not been a single instance of bone softening; consequently, when 4 kilos of molasses are given to a full-grown ox, it is desirable to add to the ration at least 100 grams of calcic phosphate per 1,000 kilos live weight. Vibrans has obtained excellent results with working oxen, and claims that no other feeding substances can take the place of molasses. His manner of feeding is to chop hay very fine, combine it with straw, and sprinkle the whole with molasses. Concentrates are thrown over this and subsequently mixed. At the Hohenau sugar factory (Germany) they have been feeding these molasses forages to oxen for more than twenty years. During the first month IJ kilos per head and per diem are fed, and the following months 2 kilos of molasses are mixed with cossettes in the daily ration. It is recorded that the animals had a better appetite and were rapidly fattened. From what has just been said, we may conclude that steers and oxen are very much benefited by this molasses feeding. A question that is open to much discussion is that of influ- ence of molasses combinations upon the ultimate quality of the meat. Experiments were made at Leipzig (Germany) upon steers fattened at Lauchstadt with the following ration for the first group: 5 kilos hay, 8 kilos straw, 8 kilos dried cossettes, 6 kilos peat molasses, 6 kilos bran, and 3 kilos cotton-seed meal. The second group received 5 kilos hay, 8 kilos straw, 8 kilos dried cossettes, 12 kilos bran-molasses combination, and 3 kilos cotton-seed meal. The cattle were subsequently slaughtered and their meat was pronounced of first-class quality. On a French farm visited by the writer, the ration for steers 246 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. weighing 320 to 350 kilos was 10 kilos wheat middlings, 3 kilos molasses, 3 kilos crushed barley and 1 kilo oil cake. After fifty days' feeding the steers were in an excellent condition. There can be no doubt as to the possibility of substituting oil cake for residuum cossettes. but it must be done gradually. Pig feeding Very little data has been published respecting experiments in with molasses, pjg feg(jii^g^ ^^t those that are known may, upon general principles, be considered . favorable. For example, Jorss records that after seven days feeding of two pigs with 2 kilos of molasses per diem there followed an increase of weight corre- sponding to 835 grams per diem on an average. This authority is an advocate of liquid molasses, and recommends it in this form for pigs. It must be diluted with two to three times its volume of hot water, to which is added some cereal waste, the whole being left in a heap in that steeping condition for 24 hours. Experience shows that it is not desirable to feed pigs with molasses until they weigh at least 50 kilos. When this weight is reached one ma}^ feed 1 per cent, of their, weight of this pro- duct. Sows, on the other hand, should not be allowed more than 0.5 per cent. Molasses produces an excellent meat when fed at the same time as corn, and under no circumstances should it ever be lacking in a pig-feeding establishment. However, certain precautions are necessary so as not to push this quantity to an excess, as in reaching a limit of 3 per cent, there are dan- gers of intestinal complications, which means an impossibility of sausage-making. According to Miesol and Bersch, the non-sugar of molasses takes a great part in the phenomenon of assimilation, as experi- ments with 1 kilo of molasses upon pigs showed when com- pared with sugar and starch fed under like circumstances. Both the meat and the fat were of excellent quality. Fay and Frederikson have fed pigs with skimmed milk and beaten milk, and likewise milk waste. As soon as the animals reach 25 kilos in weight the forage consisted of barley, corn, pollen, oil meal, one-third flour, and two-thirds molasses. The amount of forage molasses fed was increased so as to con- stitute one-third, one-half, or even two-thirds of the ration, but experience showed that the increase of weight was not propor- tional to the increase of the amount of molasses fed. PERNICIOUS EFFECTS OF MOLASSES FEEDING. 247 Experiments seem to show that molasses will not take the place of grain in feeding. However, the quality of the fat and of the meat of the pigs increased very materially under molasses feeding. As a general thing the animals increased in weight in a very marked degree. Experiments furthermore appeared to show that molasses contributed to the excellency and superiority of the resulting hams. For a long time past it has been pointed out that molasses Pernicious effects feeding was generally followed by miscarriage in the case of of molasses pregnant cows, and the mortality among calves fed with fading, molasses was exceptionally high. Efforts were made to deter- mine the reason, and Friske declared that it was the outcome of a special acidity that calves brought with them when born. Kopisch maintained that the milk soured in the stomach of young calves, and was changed into cheese. He even went so far as to feed the young animals with milk of lime to dissolve this cheese. But Lachau showed that the death rate was caused by the infection of the environment, and that it was sufficient to change the locality in order to decrease this death rate. It may, however, be attributed to a decrease in the per- centage of molasses in the ration. It has been noticed that the most difficult problem to overcome was to convince the breeder that exaggerated quantities of molasses were harmful — the farmer always feeds this residuum in excess of what should be given. Even 5 kilos per head, Ramm declares, is an exagger- ated allowance for milch cows. Certain complications, such as fever and tremblings, have followed when this amount has been exceeded, and even when reaching this limit great care is neces- sary, for several instances are_on record where certain signs of weakness were apparent; the bony structure underwent some changes which were attributed to molasses, and which were explained bj' the small percentage of phosphoric acid and lime the residuum contains, and the formation of certain acids in the digestive canal. It was suggested by Maercker that 50 grams of precipitated phosphates per head and per diem be added to the ration, and since the advice was put into practice there has never been a 248 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC, complaint about any weakness resulting from the molasses- cossette feeding. Some agronomists declare that it is advis- able, when feeding more than 4 lbs. molasses (per 1000 lbs. live weight) per diem, to add 100 grams of a basic phosphate to the ration per 1000 lbs. live weight of full-grown oxen. Molasses has an exciting influence on the organism of animals in general. The appetite is increased for the consumption of other fodders, and in this way it renders great service in the case of animals that decline to eat, as often in cases of moment- ary sickness thej^ will eat molasses forage when they will refuse everything else. As regards the nutritive value of molasses, it is difficult to Nutritive value obtain exact data. It has been compared with oil cake from and variations various sources. Further on its effects will be shown. Its action upon animals in general has resulted in certain complications, which, as a rule, have been the outcome of faulty modes of its usage. This action has generally been attributed to the alkaline salts producing undoubted purgative effects. If we may rely upon the observations of Hoppe, we should consider the alkaline saccharates responsible, and above all the potassic saccharates, rather than the potassic salts, properly speaking. Diarrhoea has been obviated by estimating exactly the quantity of molasses fed, and giving to the animals other suitable feeds at the same time. Evident beneficial Experience further shows that molasses-fed animals have an effects. excellent appearance; this is especially so in the case of horses. The horses' coats, under these conditions, have a brilliant hue. Molasses has, furthermore, a special action upon horses; it cures colics permanently. Practical com- Ii^ certain districts of northern France recently visited by the parative experi- writer, molasses has been given some practical tests in horse ments in ^nd cattle feeding. The horses had previously been fed with molasses feeding 2g 4 i|jg_ of oats per diem; this w^as worth 41 cents. At the present time each horse consumes 22 lbs. of oats, worth 34 cents, and 6.6 lbs. of molasses, worth about 4.8 cents, which means a saving of about two cents per diem upon each animal fed; besides which it was noticed that horses under the molasses ration were in a far better condition, had better appetites and MOLASSES FEEDING IN FRANCE. 249 were entirely free from intestinal complications. The molasses is always combined with two or three times its volume of water. In fattening oxen it was found that molasses offered an economy of 1|- cents per diem as compared with other rations. The 13 oxen fed with pulp and molasses gave a total weight of 14,630 lbs.; 13 other oxen fed upon residuum pulps and oil cake, weighed 22 lbs. more; this was after first weighing. But when weighed twenty-two clays later, it was found that the molasses-fed had gained 143 lbs. over the others, the weight of residuum pulp fed in both cases having been the same. The method of feeding the molasses offers special interest. The residuum molasses was simply poured on the cossettes prior to each feeding, three times a day. When chopped straw was mixed with this ration, the cattle did not eat it with the same avidity as they did the molasses and cossettes. It is important also to note that in direct contradiction to what is generally sup- posed, the excrement of oxen fed upon molasses is not more liquid than when fed upon other fodders. Butchers of the locality had no hesitation in declaring that the resulting meat was equal in every way to that obtained with the standard rations. The above figures are only approximate, and it is important to pass in review some experiments made at Berthonval (France). In every case there were two lots of animals, one lot receiving the molasses ration and the other the regular ration, such as adopted on most of the leading farms. The molasses was used in two ways, either as an addition to a ration or as a substitute of some element. When fed to sheep under the first condition, the daily ration consisted of 10 lbs. of beet cossettes, combined with chopped straw, 1.5 lbs. cotton oil cake, 0.7 lbs. molasses. The mixture was made 24 hours before feeding, so that there followed a slight fermentation, which added to its digestibility and resulted in its being eaten with greater avidity. After 40 days' feeding, the average daily in- crease in weight was 7.3 ounces for sheep fed with molasses added to the ration, and 5.0 ounces increase with regular ration. In the second experiment the oil cake was replaced by one pound of molasses. Under these circumstances the ration had 250 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. the same money value at the locality where the experiment was made. The increase per diem for molasses-fed sheep, without oil cake, was 6 ounces, and 5.5 ounces with oil cake. Experi- ments in feeding heifers were also interesting. The ration con- sisted of 5.5 lbs. clover, 5.5 lbs. oat straw, 35 lbs. beets cut into slices, 1.8 lbs. oil cake. The first lot of heifers received 1.5 lbs, of diluted molasses combined with the cossettes 24 hours before feeding. In this case the daily increase of weight was 2 lbs. 4 ounces, as compared with 1 lb. 12 ounces on the regular ration. In France, where these experiments were made, considerable money profit resulted from the advantages the molasses offered. Experiments having for their object the determination of the influence of molasses upon the flow of milk are also most inter- esting. Notwithstanding the difficult}^ of the experiment, it was found that molasses-fed cows gave J-pint more milk per diem. Experiments- in The comparative experiments made at Lauchstadt (Ger- Germany. j-nany) were with swine. The first ration consisted of 60 lbs. potatoes, 35 quarts milk skimmings. 17.7 lbs. barley balls per 1000 lbs. live weight; this corresponds to 5 lbs. protein sub- stances, 28 lbs. non-nitric substances. The daily increase in weight was a fraction more than a pound. The second ration consisted of 60 lbs. potatoes, 35 quarts of milk skimmings (mixed with equal parts of barley balls and third-grade sugar), 17.7 lbs. barley balls and 12 lbs. sugar per 1000 lbs. live weight. In this case the daily increase was 2 lbs. The pigs experi- mented with weighed 110 lbs. to 121 lbs. The pigs were sold at 10 cents a pound, which means that the sugar used at calcu- lations made was worth 5 cents a pound during the first part of the experiments, and if the feeding continued its worth would be reduced 2.5 cents a pound, which means considerable money for a low-grade product. Upon the market no complaint was made as regards the quality of the meat; on the contrary, butchers declared that the hams, etc., were of an excellent quality. During the feeding it was noticed that the pigs were ver}^ thirsty, and an important essential for the success was that an ample supply of water be placed at their disposal. It is also VARIED MOLASSES COMBINATIONS. 251 important not to give salt during the feeding, as the residuum molasses contains sufficient for all emergencies. About 25 grams of precipitated chalk and 25 grams of phosphate of lime are added to the ration each day. Recently it has been proposed to make a mixture of 40 parts Varied molasses corn-meal cake and 60 parts molasses. This special oil cake is combinations, very rich in protein, and naturall}^ constitutes a valuable nutri- ent. It has since been proposed to mix 75 parts molasses and 25 parts peat. In France this molasses combination costs about $1.60 per 100 kilos (about 78 cents per 100 lbs). Three popular combinations are as follows: (1) 2 parts molasses; ^ part wheat bran; IJ parts flour. (2) 2 parts molasses; 3 parts malt sprouts. (3) 2 parts molasses; 3 parts rice flour. • As regards the last mixture^ it is interesting to call attention to the fact that according to Briem, rice flour is not suitable for the preparation of a molasses forage. For horses he recom- mends especially two parts molasses, three parts oat waste; for swine, two parts molasses and two parts lentil waste. Weiske manufactures a forage containing ^ molasses, ^ wheat bran, ^ fish powder. Under these circumstances he obtained a forage rich in nitrogenous substances and possessing a heavy percentage of calcic phosphate. As a synopsis of the action of all the forages named, one need only pass in review the experiments of Gerland with molasses forages, which had the following compositions: Molasses Forages (Gerland). Molasses, 50 p. Palm oil cake, 50 p. Molasses, 50 p. Bran, 50 p. Molasses, 50 p. Distiller's mash,50p. Molasses, 80 p. Peat, 20 p. Molasses, 40 p. Corn sprouts,40 p. The experiments were preceded for fifteen days by a prepara- tory feeding, so as to accustom the animals, little by little, to the standard combination upon which they were to live during the period of the experiment. The experiment proper lasted ten days. The sheep were fed three times a day. They re- ceived first an intensive forage, then a ligneous forage with the remains of the intensive forage. In the morning water was 252 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. allowed at will, and during the first days they were permitted to run around the stable for a quarter of an hour. All these rations are calculated upon a basis of 1,000 kilos live weight. The increase in weight per individual during the ten days with different combinations varied from to 0.7 kilos. The preparations experimented with were accepted by the animals fed with one exception, and this was possibly due to the fact that it contained cacao v^^astes, which are bitter. Another ration resulted in a violent diarrhoea. It contained 4.8 kilos of molasses for 1,000 kilos live weight, while the others, of which the effects were not unfavorable, contained only 4 kilos of molasses. With this molasses forage sheep were in a most excited condition, which is contrary to the obser- vations of Ramm, who has never been able to notice an unfavor- able influence upon the animal or its wool from molasses feeding. The increase of weight caused by a kilo of sugar consumed represents in value 54 pfennigs (about 5 cents per lb.), but sugar in the molasses is only worth 14 pfennigs (about 1|- cents). Consequently the feeding with molasses may be considered very lucrative, while feeding with sugar is supposed to be quite the contrary. Desirable limits The quantity of molasses it is possible to feed depends partly in molasses upon the suguar it contains. The salt constituents of such feeding. molasses do not all possess the same action, and are not con- tained in all molasses in the same proportion. Hoppe has noticed that acid molasses gives far better results in feeding steers than when the residuum is alkaline. The forage added to the molasses during feeding also has an important influence and brings about very varied results. The general nature of the animal fed is also a factor to be taken into consideration. Herewith are the quantities recommended b}' some authori- ties: MONEY VALUE OF MOLASSES. 253 Varying Molasses Rations for Different Animals. Animals fed. Working oxen per 1000 kilos live weight. . Growing steers per 1000 kilos live weight. . Milch cows per 1000 lbs. live weight Milch cows, during gestation, per 1000 \ lbs. live weight J Growing sheep per 1000 lbs. live weight. . . Lambs per 1000 lbs. live weight Full grown heavy sheep Horses Briem. 3 to 4 kilos. 4 to 6 kilos. 2% lbs. >^lb9. >^lbs. Klbs. r Commence with 2 lbs. then 1 33^ to 4 lbs. /Commence with 2 lbs. then t 23^ to 4% lbs. (■Commence with J^ lb. then \ J^lb. f Commence with 2 lbs. then \ 4 lbs. For swine commence with 34 kiio per 1000 kilos live weight and gradually increase to 1 kilo. Schende (Germany) sugar factory. The selection of feeds to be given at the same time Avith molasses should be made with care, alwa37s allowing for the special properties of each of them, to say nothing of their market prices. Making allowance for their price upon the market and their nutrients, they may be classified as follows: molasses and palin oil cake, wheat bran and molasses, distillers' waste and molasses, peat and molasses, corn sprouts and molasses, cos- settes and molasses, and finally, but far down in the scale, is sugar from the first strike of the pan. It is for the breeder to determine from experience what com- bination is best suited to his animals. Opinions differ very much as to the manner of absorbing the molasses and the in- gredients that are to be used for this purpose. If the question is considered on a mathematical basis, taking Money value of existing prices of fodders and their unit value based upon the molasses, valuable nutritive elements they contain, it is shown that in France molasses would have to sell at $14.40 per ton, to actually cost more than rice flour, and even then it would be possible for the residuum to compare favorably, dollar for dollar, with wheat and rye brans. Prof. Grandeau says, even admitting both costs to be the same, that molosses has within itself a superiority for feeding purposes, as the non-nitrogenous ele- ments, as previousl}^ explained, are superior, owing to the high percentage of sugar entering into their composition. It is for 254 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. the farmer of each locaHty, either in California, Nebraska or elsewhere, to determine just how it may be to his pecuniary ad- vantage to carry the residuum from factory to the farm. Classification of Molasses may be used for feeding purposes in several differ- molasses feeds, gj^^^ manners: (A) In its raw state; (B) Combined with dried or pressed cossettes; (C) Combined with some absorbent such as peat, bran, etc.; (D) Combined with blood, (E) In various combinations baked in an oven, and (F) Bread molasses. Diluted and com- Molasses may be fed to cattle in two forms: either in a liquid bined molasses gtate or mixed with a feed. They both have certain advantages or ceding. ^^ ^^^^^i gg disadvantages, and it is for the farmer to determine his preference. Molasses may be diluted in water and fed as a drink; or it may be sprinkled over a forage such as chopped straw. Molasses is not readily dissolved in cold water, and therefore solution is effected mainly in hot water. For dilution, warm water may be used, either with or without steam, and after being carefully measured, it is emptied into the feeding trough. It has been proposed, in order to avoid the use of warm water, that the molasses be placed in a small bag, and that this be suspended at night in the trough from which the animals drink. The molasses will gradually pass through the bag and will slowly ooze out in thin streams, which readily dilute at the bottom of the receptacle containing the water, it being sulEiicient to stir the liquid slightly in the morning in order to obtain a homogeneous solution. One may also dissolve molasses in dis- tillers' mash in cases where this special residuum is used in cattle feeding. The diluting of molasses is considered excellent, for the simple reason that the animals being fed become gradually accustomed to this new regimen. But while diluted molasses feeding may be economical, it is upon general principles a mis- take, and has many inconveniences. Its transportation- is both difficult and unpleasant. The mixing of same with feeds is also no easy operation, and a trough in which it is poured can be subsequently over-charged with micro-organisms of various kinds that ultimately cause sickness. Without doubt molasses residuum as it leaves the sugar MOLASSES FOR DIGESTIBLE FORAGE. 255 factory would be very unpleasant, and consequently not accept- able to live stock in general. It is sticky in its nature and adheres to everything with which it comes in contact. All receptacles in which it is handled have to be washed with hot water before becoming properly cleaned, which offers no difficulty where the water and steam may be had ad libitum, but would prove a question of difficult solution for the smaller farmer. Notwithstanding the fact that the use of molasses preparations is becoming more and more general, it is apparently the direct manner of feeding, without preliminary mixing, that still con- tinues in vogue in Germany, Austria and Sweden. However, molasses combinations have, without doubt, great advantages, as they may be readily handled, and are moreover possessed of considerable keeping power. The use of molasses without mixing, in the long run, would cost more, and when taken alone there is always danger of diarrhoea; but there are many exceptions to this rule. Some years since it was claimed that it was" possible to form Diluted followed with molasses a readily digestible combination for live stock by concentrated feeding. Among the advantages claimed was that of over- ""'lasses for coming the diuretic and laxative effects of molasses, due tQ ^^g •'•a^stibie forage, excessive salt percentage. The feeds of the combination are submitted to a preliminary treatment. For example, when saw-dust is combined with molasses, before the object aimed at is realized a large quantity of herbs must be used, and in order that the bitter constituents contained in the herbs shall become active, the product is submitted to a sort of preliminary steeping in diluted molasses. It is claimed that whereas concentrated molasses or syrup may be considered antiseptic in its action and will consequently arrest fermentation, a diluted solution of molasses on the other hand will hasten fermentation. Conse- quently, as soon as herbs which contain the essential sour sub- stances are steeped in diluted molasses, there follows an acid fermentation, which tends to destroy the glycosides, at the same time liberating the active elements of the plants; now if this is followed by a concentrated molasses treatment, there will result specific advantages from a nutrient standpoint, during the 256 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. action of digestion. The practical working of this mode con- sists in using an herb rich in glycosides, which is chopped up dry and moistened with a 1 per cent, solution of molasses. The mixture is left for several days at the ambient temperature, and 2"\r to -g-Q concentrated molasses is added to it, which has been previously mixed with some fibrous substance, saw-dust, chopped straw, and finally with lime. During the first phases of fermentation, instead of using the sour herbs alone, 5 to 10 per cent, of saw-dust may be added to them before starting the fermentation with diluted molasses, which will then be unusually active. The main feature of this mode consists in bringing about a decomposition of the glyco- sides by fermentation through the intervention of diluted molasses. Proskowetz pours concentrated molasses over forages and then does the mixing with suitable pitch-forks. With this combina- tion he has fed li to 2 kilos of the residuum per diem to sixty steers, while fifty other steers were fed with the ordinary' rations. The experiment showed that there was an increase of one-fifth kilo per diem for the molasses-fed animals. Ramm undertook a very interesting series of investigations of feeding milch cows with liquid molasses. Twelve animals were fed with rations consisting of 10 kilos hay, 3 kilos wheat middlings, 50 kilos of forage beets, 4 kilos flour, and 8 kilos of molasses per diem per 1000 lbs. live weight. The molasses was heated to 70° C. and spread over the forage. The total was thoroughly mixed, and the product was eaten with relish. Ex- j)erience appears to prove that when a cow does not derive any benefit from this feed, there are no known means by which the animal may be accustomed to even diluted molasses. These experiments showed that this residuum was most excellent for the production of milk: its percentage of dry and fatty sub- stances increased, and the milk and butter Avere absolutely normal. It is interesting to note that the conclusions from these ex- periments were to a certain extent in contradiction to previous observations made by the leading agronomists, viz., when this molasses forage combination was fed to cows during gestation, MOLASSES FOR DIGESTIBLE FOKAGE. 257 and even after the calf was born, no evil effects followed, either for the cows or for the calves. Hoppe discussing this question has declared that the health of the animals fed was most excellent, and no digestive compli- cations Avere noticed, even when seven months had elapsed from the time of pregnancy, and 5 kilos of liquid molasses were mixed with concentrates per 1000 kilos live weight. According to this authority the laxative action could not be attributed to the salts, but to the saccharates, and especially to saccharate of potassium. With the other cows fed, that were not undergoing this period, the result was that there was a simple increase of milk without augmentation of weight. On the other hand it is claimed that a milch cow fed with the molasses combination during gestation will subsec^uently not only give more milk, but will also increase in weight under this special residuum feeding. 17 CHAPTER IL Molasses Cossette Combinatioiis. Cossettes, fresh The cossette-m classes forage is most important for the sugar and dried, mixed inclustry. This feed is prepared in two ways, either by using with molasses for dried cossettes with the molasses, or moist cossettes as they cattle feeding, jpf^yg ^he presses, the combination in each case being heated. The first method is not practicable, because, as the molasses combines only with great difficulty with dried cossettes, the mixture is very difficult to realize without the use of a special machine for grinding a large portion of the cossettes. The dried cossettes, however, constitute an excellent combina- tion with molasses by mixing them in the proportion of from 5 to 6 parts molasses for 100 parts of this dried product. The average composition of the combination is: Water 8.5, protein 8.7, cellulose 14.0, fatty substances 0.3, non-nitrogenous 62.0, ash 6.6. Wusterhagen adds pressed cossettes to both hot and cold molasses and subsequently submits them to drying. It is rational to mix these two products in the same proportions as they are obtained at the factory. Under these conditions one obtains for 100 parts of dried cossettes six to seven parts of molasses, sometimes ten. Under all circumstances it is desir- able not to use an excess of molasses in order to prevent the combination from being sticky. Werner and Pfleiderer have a special apparatus for this mixing, which is heated by steam and in which dried cossettes may be combined with molasses under satisfactory conditions. This forage is now recognized as a staple commodity in Ger- many. Its average composition is about as follows: (258) MOLASSES AND DRIED COSSETTES IN COMBINATION. 259 Per cent. Moisture 80.1 Ash 6.47 Fatty substances 0. 40 Nitrogenous substances • 8.77 Cellulose 17.61 Non-nitrogenous 60.31 Molasses and dried cossettes have a more favorable action upon the organism when considered from a general point of view than has molasses when fed separately; furthermore, owing to the more or less resisting texture of the residuum in question, the substances that fill the digestive canal have greater consist- ency, which is certainly an advantage, as it obviates all possi- bility of diarrhoea that molasses in a certain degree always creates. It would thus appear that molasses increases in cer- tain cases the assimilation of the nitrogenous substances of the cossettes, and one may notice, with this forage, an important augmentation in the weight of the animals to which it is fed. Natanson has attempted to prepare molasses cossettes in an Molasses entirely different way. While this method has never been cossette prtpar- practically accepted, it is, nevertheless, interesting to give it a ^*.'**" '" *''^'"' passing notice. Into the diffusors proper, containing the exhausted cossettes, molasses is introduced in a more or less diluted form. The sugar that it contains passes, by osmosis, into the interior of the cells of the cossettes and accumulates in increasing quantities. The operation is stopped when the excess of molasses in the cossettes is such that the compound contains 63.47 per cent, of carbohydrates, of which 41 per cent, is sacchaiose. According to Petermann these cossettes will keep for a period of six months without undergoing the slightest change. Strohmer says that a good mixture may be obtained with 2 Molasses and per cent, dried cossettes, 10 per cent, water, and one per cent, dried cossettes molasses heated to 40° C. After cooling and having remained '" coinbination. for several days in a cold environment, the product can be put in bags, or it may be pressed into cakes, the form in which many of the staple oil meals used in cattle feeding are often found on the market. In some cases it is found desirable to 260 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. grind the dried cossettes before mixing. Many of these dried cossettes and molasses combinations are patented. The preparations of dried cossettes and molasses mentioned above, correspond to the production of 2.5 residuum molasses after a sugar campaign. Herewith are the analyses of some molasses and dried cossette combinations, according to the best German authorities: Analyses of Molasses axd Dried Cossette Combinations. Water Nitrogenous substances Fatty substances Sugar Non-nitrogenous Cellulose Ash Silica Per cent. 7.67 *10.00 0.85 23.09 39.33 12.40 6.37 0.30 Per cent. 5.77 t9.65 0.70 11.98 49.17 17.17 5.42 0.14 Per cent. 9.00 i8.9 0.35 20.20 39.25 14.40 7.60 0.30 Increase of weight from the start. Dried cossettes and molasses better than pressed cossettes and molasses. * six per cent, protein. 16.45 per cent, protein. % 5.65 per cent, protein. The dried cossettess and molasses constitute an excellent forage, and the only one, according to Ramm, which will give from the very start of its feeding, an increase in the weight of the animals fed. This is just the opposite result obtained with most beet-molasses forages, as during the early days of feeding there is generally an incomprehensible decrease in weight. A well-known expert declares that the molasses and dried cossettes never form gases in the intestinal canal, which are always to be dreaded with palm oil meal. The influence upon milk production is very considerable, and much more so than is that of liquid molasses feeding. The experience of Olschbauer, who undertook a series of comparative experiments with milch cows, one series being fed with molasses and dried cossettes and the other Avith pressed cossettes, demonstrated that the best results were obtained when the cossettes were dried, provided, however, that the residuum product could be had at a reasonable price. Satisfactory results have been obtained by mixing the pressed residuum cossettes with molasses before siloing; but this mode is not to be recommended on account of the excessive fermen- tation that is sure to follow. EARLY EXPERIMENES WITH PEAT MOLASSES FEEDING. 261 Wagner attempted to overcome the action of potassic salts Early experi- upon the digestive system and at the same time give molasses |||^|'_J^^J^'^^^^^^^^^^ certain keeping qualities by mixing it with peat. Among the early practical experiments in the peat-molasses combinations may be mentioned those in Sallschutz (Austria) in 1895, which were the outcome of the exceptionally high sell- ing price of farinaceous products. The early mixtures consisted of molasses containing 48 per cent, sugar, to which was added oil meal. This proportion was later changed to 40 parts oil meal and 60 parts molasses. The addition of molasses to other feeds was abandoned after several experiments. The 60 per cent, molasses fodder had the following composition: Water 21.4 per cent., nitrogenous substances 11.1, fatty substances 0.7, non-nitrogenous 53.5, of which 28.8 per cent, is sugar, 6.7 per cent, cellulose, and 6.9 per cent. ash. The peat-molasses combination became popular in 1896, Avhen 20 parts peat were combined with 80 parts molasses. This combination contained 38 to 40 per cent, sugar, and the product sold for 80 cents for 220 lbs. , or ^ cent per pound. The peat absorbs the molasses, so that the ultimate forage is very uniform. The acids of peat neutrahze the salts of molasses and render them harmless when fed. The peat used should be fine in texture and possess a very considerable absorbing power. This pulverized product can absorb, according to Schwartz, three or four times its weight of molasses without losing the ad- vantage of forming a combination that may be easily handled. Experience shows that for practical purposes the best results are obtained by mixing it with twice its weight of molasses. Under these circumstances one obtains, according to Weigmann, a forage having the following composition : Per cent. Water • 24.85 Protein 8-34 Fatty substances • 0-87 Ash 7.54 Cellulose • • 5. 80 Non-nitrogenous 52. 60 Dr. Albert says there follows a considerable increase in weight, 262 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. much more than can be obtained with bran-molasses com- binations, and that it is, in every way, far superior to liquid molasses. Peat and In the investigations that were made at Lauchstadt, Ger- molasses better many, it was noticed that in a mixture with bran or peat, the than bran and molasses gave a better result than in its raw state, which was molasses, g^j^jg^-^^jy explained by its better sub-division. The advantages to be thus gained more than compensate for the expenses of its manipulation. The advantage of this forage is that it is gradually absorbed in the digestive canal and the constipating action of peat is thus counterbalanced. The influence of potassic salts is no longer felt. One would especially notice the advantages of these prop- erties if it were fed at the same time as beet leaves. Peat, thus absorbed, has the advantage of increasing three- fold the amount or quantity of molasses possible to be fed to live stock per diem. Possible intes- Some investigators declare that peat causes intestinal troubles, tinal complica- ^nd can, furthermore, owing to its power of absorbing mois- tions through ^^ bring about dangerous inflammation. The question is feeding frequently asked. Will intestinal complications not follow the feeding of peat, a product that is in reality indigestible? This has not proved to be the case, and very few complaints have been made. If four pounds of peat-molasses are fed, the quan- tity of the indigestible powder passing through the alimentary canal is only ^ lb. , which is so small that it need not be con- sidered. Doctor Albert has made post-mortem examinations of animals fed upon this peat-molasses combination up to limits of 4 kilos per diem, and declared that these assertions are very much exaggerated, as he has been unable to trace the shghtest inflammation of the mucous membrane of the intestines. He has, moreover, been unable to find any peat deposits in the intestines. According to Jorss, it is precisely to the peat's power of ab- sorbing moisture that the advantages of this fodder are due. The experiments of Albert have only demonstrated, in a prac- tical manner, the advantages of this forage, and it is now being DIGESTIBILITY OF PEAT. 263 used with great success in the cavah-y of Germany, Austria, Belgium, Denmark and Russia. In the experiments in cattle feeding made at the Moecken Digestibility o\ agronomic station, the main object in view was to determine the ^^^^' coeflBcient of digestibility of peat, and it was concluded that the product is indigestible; which means that it passes through the alimentary canal without being assimilated, and its presence diminishes the digestibility of the other elements of which the fodder is made up. From a practical point of view, peat has no money value; but this conclusion differs from that of many other investigators, and for this reason a few hints respecting the manner in which the experiments were conducted are of more than passing moment. Sheep were first fed with hay alone, with hay and molasses, and with peat-molasses combina- tions. The coefficient of digestibility is obtained by comparing the amount of sugar, nitrogenous elements, starch, etc., con- tained in a given quantity fed to an animal and that thrown out and found in the excrement. If 100 grams of starch were fed and 85 were found in the excrement, the coefficient of digestibility would then be 65. This is by no means a constant quantity, for it can be made to increase or decrease by the addi- tion of other substances, as is the case with peat-molasses com- binations, and the digestibility of hay was very much reduced by the presence of peat. The averages of these experiments were as follows: In the peat there were 200.6 grams organic substances; 12.2 grams nitrogenous substances; 112.1 non- nitrogenous substances; 4.9 raw fat; 71.3 raw cellulose, and in the excrements there were 216.5 grams organic substances; 19.6 nitrogenous substances; 122.1 grams non-nitrogenous; 4.1 grams raw fat, and 69.9 grams raw cellulose. These figures show that there was more nutrient thrown off than the peat contained; consequently it was drawn from the ha}^, which is an actual money loss. Hence the agronomist who undertook these ex- periments concludes that peat does not offer for the purpose the advantages claimed, and some other substance should be com- bined with the molasses residuum when cattle feeding is the object sought. Consequently it is very justly concluded that peat within 264 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. itself does not possess any nutritive value, but diminishes the feeding properties that would have otherwise existed. Opinions differ Great variance of opinion exists as to the nourishing value of as to the value ^|-ig peat-molasses combinations; for example, Maercker says of peat-molasses ,1 . -^ ^ ^^ .,. ^ ■,-,,, for feedinq same nuritive value as molasses and wheat bran; Jorss asserts that weight for weight it is equivalent to wheat, and that, furthermore, it is much more economical, the appetite of the animals fed increases, and there are no evidences of colics. Certain authorities, such as Gerland, Hassen, Vibrans and Keller, do not favor jDeat-molasses. They argue that when purchasing peat-molasses one pays for not only the price of the molasses, but also for the peat, which is simply ballast, and does not contain protein. One is obliged also to pay for the manual labor for the mixing and other expenses. Kellner, Zahn and Gillan show that peat, instead of possess- ing a nutritive value, carried out with the excrements smal^ quantities of nutrients that would have, or at least should have, been taken up or assimilated by the animal fed. Molasses fodders gain nothing in nourishing value by being combined with peat; hence it is urged that this product is simply a useless ballast in the stomach. Conclusions as Peat offers advantages in more ways than one, and after to value of weighing all the arguments for and against this so-called ballast peat-molasses ^^-^ ^^^ stomach, combined with our personal observations, the conclusion is drawn that up to the present time but few sub- stances have been found offering the advantages of this product. It is important, notwithstanding, to pass in review the various arguments brought forward. All the molasses fodders proposed and used have one advan- tage, they are very simple, and the farmer with only a very limited knowledge of the essentials for cattle feeding, may com- bine his rations so as to obtain most satisfactory results. Peat, as used in France, has the following composition: Water 18.90 per cent., ash 2.32 per cent., cellulose 13.20 per cent., pentosane 8.83 per cent, black substances 14.40 per cent, (containing 5.13 per cent, nitrogen), various nitrogenous substances (averaging 6.25 per cent, nitrogen) 1.80 per cent., unknown substances 40.5 per cent. A fact not generally known is that the nitre- VALUE OF PEAT MOLASSES FOR FEEDING. 265 genous substances of peat are those black elements which are soluble in ammonia. Experiments under special official auspices have shown that when they are submitted to artificial digestion the nitrogenous elements remain inactive; for 1.3 total nitrogen there was only 0.08 that had become soluble. The other elements of peat are apparently not assimilated, and if they offer no objectionable features during their absorption, com- paratively little fault may be found with their use. That it is a ballast appears a secondary consideration as compared with the advantages it offers as a wonderful molasses absorber. The Toury peat molasses combination has the following composi- tion: Water 19.00 per cent., ash 8.91 per cent., sugar 31.70 percent., various soluble substances 20.93 percent., insoluble substances 19.46 per cent. This molasses fodder consists mainly of 24 per cent, peat and 76 per cent, slightly steam- diluted molasses. Experience has shown that horses eat it with avidity, and in every respect there are striking advantages to be derived from its use. The nitrogenous substances it contains are those black compounds before alluded to, and they may, with the amides, be considered as the calorific elements and be added to the carbohydrates. Experience in France has shown that the total cost of 100 kilos of this forage, as delivered at the factory, is one cent per pound or one dollar per hundred pounds. As an example of a practical ration for horses per 1000 pounds live weight, may be mentioned crushed wheat 7.65 lbs., hay 6.00 lbs., wheat bran 1.50 lbs. In France this ration costs about 50 cents. It has been found advantageous during June only, due to the special climatic conditions found in the country, to substitute another ration consisting of crushed wheat 3.4 lbs., peat molasses fodder 3.00 lbs. and hay 6.0 lbs., costing about 32 cents. After July the ration consists of crushed wheat 3.37 lbs., peat-molasses 3.5 lbs., hay 6.5 lbs. At the Toury factory this ration appears to offer considerable economy, amounting to over fifty dollars per horse per annum. Furthermore, the horses were kept in a most healthy condition. No colics followed, and their appetite continued good through- out the period of feeding. The molasses-peat combination should be sold at a reasonable 266 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. price, BO as to be within reach of all; its market price should vary with that of molasses, and the salts of which it consists, to which must be added the cost of manufacture. It possesses special keeping powers, for even after several months the sugar percentage of the product does not decrease. The mixture of molasses with peat is rapidly attaining an im- portant place among the standard fodders. Wagner dries the peat obtained from moss, which is found in considerable quan- tities in northern Germany. Under the name of " molassion " it is used in the German artillery for feeding horses, and it has become very popular. Varied peat The Krantz-Boussac combination is very original and deserves molasses combi- ^q ^g considered. It consists in utilizing skimmed milk in con- nations, j^^nction with molasses. The great difficulty has been the transportation of the product, which was increased by its ten- dency to sour after a few days. A new combination con- sists of molasses, peat meal and skimmed milk. Experience seems to show that skimmed milk in the combination just men- tioned will no longer sour, is a solid product and may be easily handled. It would appear that the salts contained in the residuum molasses combined with the antiseptic principles of the peat prevent the lactic acid reaction; the product under consideration is made up in various forms. Feeding peat Some data has been received said to come from one of molasses to the officers in the German army, who has been making some liorses. important experiments in feeding horses with a compound of molasses and peat which has proved to be highly satisfactory. It is claimed that the fodder increases the animal's appetite, facilitates digestion and gives the hair of horses a brilliant lustre; colics among the animals fed almost entirely disap- peared. At first, the ration consisted of ^ lb. of peat flour and molas- ses, the quantity being gradually increased to 3 lbs. During the early stages of this feeding the horses refuse it, the hlack color and odor of the product being evidently not pleasing, but later the compound was eaten with avidity. The standard ration was 3 lbs. of molasses compound per pound of oats. When used as a complementary fodder, about one pound per WORKING OXEN FED WITH PEAT MOLASSES. 267 diem appears to meet the requirements, and may be fed through- out the year. The best results in all cases were obtained with horses that were poor feeders. At Guhrau (France) the horses all received their regular oat ration and horse beans in which 500 grams of molasses are replaced by one kilo of peat-molasses. After three days' feeding all the animals accepted their new ration, and after eight days they ate it with avidity. Colics and other intestinal complica- tions were not encountered, and the hair and general appearance of the animals were most excellent. During the hard winter work the quantity of molasses allowed was increased to 1.5 kilos. Milch cows may be advantageously fed with this product, but Feeding peat certain precautionary measures should be taken, and under no "i^'a^ses to circumstances should it be given to cows during their calving. Later on, the reverse is the case, and there are many authori- ties to show that it is a mistake to feed more than 1.1 kilo of molasses per diem. At the Guhrau beet-sugar factory in 1896 the milch cows received 500 grams of palm oil meal combined with molasses, and during the following two years 1.25 kilos cotton seed meal and 2 kilos peat molasses Avere added to the regular forage. The quantity of milk obtained was all that one could desire. Hollrung obtained satisfactory results in milch cow feeding b}^ using 2|- lbs. For oxen he used 4.4 lbs., for horn cattle 6 lbs., for horses 2 lbs., and for sheep half a pound per capita. Working oxen have also been very much benefited b}^ one Working oxen kilo peat-molasses per diem, their ration consisting of cotton ^"*' "^^'t'* ^^^ oil cake, hay and fermented cossettes, to which were added beet ^ tops. Little by little the peat-moksses fed was increased until 2.5 kilos were added daily to the regular ration; but this amount was found to be excessive and it was reduced to 2 kilos. The oxen had an excellent appearance. For working cattle one may feed without hesitation 1^ to 2 kilos of peat-molasses per 1,000 kilos live weight, and the hydrocarbons that this residuum con- tains are a great assistance in the work that is to be accomplished. Young steers may be fed 1.5 kilos peat-molasses per head and per diem. Experience shows that it is a mistake to add molasses to beet leaves, owing to the heav}'' percentage of sal', that the ration would contain. 268 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Pigs fed with For pigs no one can doubt the advantages of peat-molasses peat-molasses, combinations, and their droppings show bej'ond cavil that there has been a complete assimilation of this fodder in their digestive tubes. Strange as it may seem, the unpleasant smell noticeable in all pig-sties is hardly perceptible when these molasses com- binations are fed, showing that no butyric fermentation has occurred in the digestive canal. One may feed without hesita- tion 5 kilos of peat-molasses per 1,000 kilos live weight. It is very important to notice that this combination should not be fed to excess. Schwarts mixes one part peat to two parts of molasses, with boiled skimmed milk, and thus obtains a combination that is easily handled. Oat flour and The mixture of oat flour or crushed oats has also some im- molasses com- portant advantages, and forms when combined with molasses a very valuable forage. The arguments advanced in favor of its introduction are based mainly on the supposed fact that peat is lacking in nutrients and is certainly very indigestible. The manner of feeding the oat flour and molasses renders it readily assimilable and digestible. The manufacture of this product consists in making a hot mixture of oat flour which is allowed to settle and undergo a partial drying, kneading it during the interval. The final product has the aspect of a fine flour and possesses a slightly glue-like texture. An interesting fact pointed out is that the flour-like oat-molasses combination is certainly very much more acceptable to cattle in general than any known peat mixture would be. The combination under consideration contains 23 per cent, fatty substance and protein, and for this reason it is claimed that it is a superior fodder for horses and working oxen. Molasses has not the same nutritive value as oats, but the desirable proportion of nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous sub- stances in a ration in which these relations are 1.6, can be reached by the addition of a fodder rich in these substances, such as brewers' grains, for example. Wheat molasses In most of the existing combinations peat is used to give the combination, molasses compound a dry appearance and thereby to facilitate its handling. Some interesting experiments have been recently made that promise very favorable results. In most countries WHEAT BRAN MOLASSES COMPARED WITH CORN GERMS. 269 wheat is sold on the market at prices depending upon its quality and the modes of cleaning it, etc. During the process of clean- ing the inferior wheat is separated with other impurities, and is sold separately; and while its market price is much lower than the high grade wheat, it actually competes with wheat and has a tendency to lower the price of the superior article. If these low-grade wheats were combined with molasses they would help the farmer in many ways. The price of good wheat would rise and the inferior wheat would be advantageously utilized both for horses and cows. Experiments show that 3 lbs. of the in- ferior wheat can take the place of 4.5 lbs. of oats in the ration of a horse, and when brought down to a money basis this means an economy of several cents per diem. The new molasses com- bination Avith the flour of the wheat in question has the follow- ing composition: Water 5.5, nitrogenous substances 11.8, fatty substances 1.27, sugar 30.05, glucose and dextrin 11.53, starch 22.53, cellulose 19.8, and mineral substances 5.09, These per- centages speak for themselves and show the advantages they ' would offer if used as a fodder. Certain authorities have made comparisons between the action Corn germs and of corn germs and molasses and that of corn combined with "lol^sses corn- colza oil meal and wheat middlings so that the total nutritive ^^''^, ^' substances were the same lor both, lo growmg sheep there were fed 7.5 kilos of this germ-molasses product, and 6.3 kilos of corn. The results obtained were favorable to molasses. Schultz obtained with milch cows the same results as could be realized with forage beets and oat bran. These last combina- tions are most excellent, as every one knows, for the production of milk, and may be replaced by the corn-germ molasses pro- duct in cases where beets cannot be had. Albert fed to bulls 4 kilos per 1,000 kilos live weight. This was ultimatel}' increased to 6 kilos. The results obtained were in every way satisfactory. Dyk compares Avheat bran molasses with corn germs, IJ kilos Wheat bran being combined with f kilo of colza oil meal. In the experi- molasses com- ments made the totals of these two forages were substituted for ^^^^^ ^'*'' the same weight of bran-molasses; in other cases, gradually commencing by ^, ^, and f , all the forages were finally substi- tuted for bran-molasses. There was obtained an increase of 33 per cent, in the quantity of milk per diem. 270 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Bran and A mixture that is frequently recommended contains 50 parts molasses com- bran and 50 parts molasses. The molasses is heated to 80-88° C. bination. before adding the bran and the residuum is rapidly absorbed. Bran may be used in any and all rations. Professor Maercker, some time since, undertook some special experiments upon twenty -four steers with the idea of determin- ing the value of the molasses combinations. The animals were divided into four groups, all receiving the same quantity of Bran compared digestible nutrients per 1,000 kilos live weight, viz.: 3 kilos with peat. qJ digestible protein and 15 kilos of digestible non-nitrogenous substances. Two groups of steers, one in the stable and the other in the yard, received the peat-molasses rations; the two others the bran-molasses ration. The conclusion was that the bran-molasses was superior to the peat-molasses; consequently the high-priced peat product may be advantageously replaced by the bran mixture. However, it was claimed that peat had special physiological advantages, which the leading authorities have never been able to account for. Moss molasses Among the original efforts at introducing molasses for cattle combination, feeding is the attempt at combining the residuum with certain mosses of the Sphagnum variety. The important advantage claimed is that the substance in question has the special absorb- ing powers so much sought after when cattle feeding is the object in view. This moss is composed of nearly pure cellulose. It may be taken from the prairies in its natural state, and grows again almost immediately after a crop is gathered. Before be- ing used the moisture should be removed by means of an ordi- nary hay press, and the cakes thus obtained be subsequently air dried. It is possible to dry it just as hay is dried. It is delivered to the factory in this desiccated condition, and is then chopped up into small particles and mixed thoroughl}'-, by hand or mechanically, with 6 or 8 times its weight of molasses. It is then stored in a dry loft, and before being fed to cattle is mixed with cereal waste, chopped straw, palm oil cake, corn flour, rice flour, or other substances that the local environment may offer. In order to obtain the cake-like product one pound of moss is mixed with 25 lbs. of any of the substances just mentioned, and molasses added. Attention may be called to ABSORPTION OF THE BY-FODDER AND MOLASSES. 271 the fact that in most of the peat molasses combinations, if the product is pressed between the fingers, the molasses at once oozes out between the pores of the peat, while on the other hand the moss-molasses and palm-oil meal comj)ound may be sub- mitted to considerable pressure without even a drop of molasses coming to the surface. Over two pounds of this product is pressed into a cake and dried at a temperature not above 100° C. An important essential in this instance is that the molasses and moss should be first thoroughly combined and then the other product added; if the order is reversed the compound would consist of dried moss and granules, the feeding value of which would be very doubtful. A German patent for preparing molasses fodder makes the Boiling water following claim: facilitating tlie A process for preparing molasses fodder, characterized by the absorption of fact that substances, such as bran or oil meal, etc., when sub- ^""^ •'J''^'"'''^'' mitted to boiling water, change their texture so that they may become saturated with molasses. After this treatment, there may be added nutritive substances, such as crushed cereals in varied forms. The inventor explains that hot vi^ater macerates the bran so as to render soluble the sticky or gummy substance with which the pores are impregnated. The molasses, instead of remaining on the surface of the substances, penetrates the pores and forms an intimate fusion with them. This molasses fodder, recom- mended for horses, is prepared as follows: Three hundred kilos of rye bran are moistened and left for an hour to soften. Upon this are poured from 500 to 600 liters of water at 100° C. This is covered ^and left for an hour so that the glue-like substances may have time to dissolve. About 200 kilos of wheat bran are added, followed by kneading for half an hour or an hour, so that the gummy substance from the wheat bran may also be dissolved. There follows a continued stirring, and then about 30 kilos of chopped straw and 30 to 50 kilos of ground oil cake are added, and the product is subsequently energetically kneaded; then about 250 kilos molasses are added. If it is desired to add salt or stimulants this must be effected before the molasses is added, these solutions being dissolved and distributed throughout the pasty product. 272 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. After this, cover the mass for an hour or two, to allow the fodder combination time to completely absorb the molasses. Then knead energetically, adding by degrees 150 kilos of crushed maize, 100 kilos of crushed barley and 100 kilos of crushed oats, which results in a consistent pasty product. The latter is now left for 2 or 3 hours and is then cut into pieces, which are run through rollers to be made into cakes 10 to 15 mm. thick, and subsequently dried. The mass is then ready to be used as a fodder. The inventor claims that these ground cakes, prepared with the ingredients and in the proportions indicated, form a com- plete fodder on which an animal, if need be, could be exclus- ively fed. As the fodder already contains chopped straw, there is no necessity for additional constituents. It is important to follow the operations in the indicated order, and it is also essen- tial that the diiferent substances be thoroughly mixed. Glucose and rice The Delattre molasses combination, while it was introduced flour molasses several years since, has not met with the success that was combination, j^^pg^j^ notwithstanding the fact that it has many very valuable characteristics. Up to the time that it was introduced the main use of molasses in cattle feeding was simply for sprinkling hay and forages, but the residuum was never considered as an actual mainstay in feeding. In this Delattre method, it was claimed that molasses was the mainstay, the basis upon which the feeding depended. The composition consisted of 100 parts glucose and 50 parts rice flour combined with molasses. These combinations undergo certain variations, but in all cases the ingredients introduced are such as to keep the general propor- tions of the constituents about the same, viz.: Proteids 26.7 percent., fatty substances 5.40 per cent., carbohydrates 21.16 per cent., sugar 20.82 per cent., water 12,45 per cent., ash and cellulose 13.44 per cent. Feeds sprinlded Not long since A. Guttmann addressed a German agricultural with molasses j^ieeting on molasses feeding, and as he has given the product a and heated un- pj-^g^j^al trial during a period of ten years what he says is of more than usual interest. Five hundred to 600 working oxen and 300 horses are used on his farm. For several years past 5 kilos of molasses have been fed per diem to each animal of 550 to 600 PEANUT SHELL MOLASSES COMBINATION. 273 kilos live weight, no distinction being made between stall-fed and working animals. One year 645 steers were fattened dur- ing a period of 90 days. The forage was finely chopped and ■then sprinkled with molasses to be subsequently heated under pressure of two to three atmospheres. The steers received their rations in six meals per diem, the fodder being sprinkled with molasses each time, and after an interval of a few days they declined eating until the molasses was added. The steers kept in an excellent condition when fed with straw, cereal middlings and molasses. The ration for horses was 1.5 kilos to 2 kilos per diem. In this form swine received one kilo to 1.5 of molasses per diem, no allowance being taken of their live weight. It is interesting to call attention to the fact that during the Peanut sliell first experiments at Toury of horse feeding with peat-molassec!, molasses com- the ration contained 883 grams of digestible albuminoids, which bination. meant 9.8 per cent, of the total nutrients. Experience has shown that in this ration 498 grams of digestible albuminoids are sufficient to meet the requirements of the average emer- gency. This amount of protein means about 7 per cent, of the total nutritive substances. From this practical experience the astonishing result has been obtained, that the protein may be diminished 385 grams, or 40 per cent., without in any way changing the practical working power of the animal fed. From a common-sense standpoint, it is evident that it is desirable for the horses fed to receive not only an apparently useful element, such as sugar, but also nitrogenous substances in a reasonable proportion, which, all facts considered, would represent a ration suited to the farm-horse in general; for feeding when considered from a general standpoint always means the consideration of many factors, among which not the least important is the ne- glect or care of the animal's keeper. M. Lambert, and others, claim to have found in peanut shells the essentials for the emergency. The composition of these is as follows: Water, 7.28 per cent. ; ash, 3.39 per cent. ; digestible nitrogenous, 1.40 per cent. ; indigestible nitrogenous^ 4.25 per cent.; amides, 2.57 per cent.; fatty substances, 6.17 percent.; pentosane, 37.58 percent.; cellulose, 4.75 per cent. ; 18 274 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. unknown substances, 9.86 per cent. This analysis shows that the peanut wastes are poor in digestible nitrogenous substances, but are, on the other hand, rich in fatty substances and pento- sane. Even taking these facts into consideration, their nutri- tive value is very limited. They, however, have the advantage of being readily mixed with molasses, and in more ways than one they appear to offer certain striking practical advantages over peat. When combined with residuum beet molasses, the product has the following composition: Water, 12.61 per cent. ; ash, 7.02 per cent.; digestible nitrogenous, 0.95 percent.; in- digestible nitrogenous, 2.35 per cent,; amides, 7.50 per cent.; fatty substances, 1.70 percent.; sugar, 22.60 percent.; pento- sane, 10.4 percent.; cellulose, 24.83 percent.; unknown sub- stances, 10.01 per cent. This combination calls for 45 parts peanut shells and 55 parts slightly diluted molasses, or 51.4 per cent, molasses at 44°. The product costs about 81 cents per 100 lbs. Efforts were made to give this combination a practical test. The ration per 1000 lbs. live weight consisted of 3. 36 lb. crushed oats, 4.90 lbs. peanut shell molasses combination, 6.00 lbs. molasses. The horses fed flourished, and the resulting econ- omy meant 12 cents per diem for each animal fed — in other words 25 per cent., an item not to be overlooked. Unfor- tunately a serious practical objection followed — it was a pasty compound, not relished by the animals, and in this respect did not prove practical. Notwithstanding this fact, there appear to be many advantages to be derived from the use of this forage, and some claim that it is superior to peat-molasses combina- tions. From a farmer's standpoint, it is entirely deficient in protein; while from a manufacturer's standpoint, whose main object is to get rid of his residuum molasses under the best possible conditions, when he undertakes to manufacture the fodder himself, peat offers special advantages. However, fur- ther efforts have been made to push the peanut shell combina- tion with certain oil cakes, such as the oriental sesame, to which must be added oat flour or crushed wheat, etc. The sesame and peanut-molasses combination has about the fol- lowing composition: W^ater, 12.74 per cent.; ash, 8.07 per HAY, STRAW AND MOLASSES. 275 cent. ; digestible nitrogenous, 9.34 per cent. ; indigestible nitrog- enous, 2.0 percent.; amides, 5.25 percent.; fatty substances, 3.66 per cent.; sugar, 2.0 per cent.; pentosane, 6.54 per cent.; cellulose, 15.03 per cent.; unknown substances, 17.43 per cent. It is to be noticed that the laxative effects of the molasses are, in an imj)ortant measure, done away with by the contrary in- fluence of the sesame. It is claimed that the nutritive value of the combination is high, as, besides its equivalent in sugar, it contains a considerable proportion of fatty constituents, with other hydrocarbons readily assimilated. The final combination for horses, as adopted at Toury, consists of oat flour, peanut shells and molasses; its composition is as follows: Water, 16.69 percent.; ash, 5.62 percent.; digestible nitrogenous, 3.20 per cent.; indigestible nitrogenous, 1.80 per cent.; amides, 3.19 per cent.; sugar, 15.98 percent.; starch, 13.20 per cent.; pentosane, 9.32 per cent.; cellulose, 14.64 per cent.; unknown substances, 10.97 per cent. It is made up of 36 per cent, molasses (44 per cent, sugar), 35 per cent, crushed oats, and 27 per cent, peanut shells, to which must be added the water absorbed during eat- ing. The nutritive value of the compound is self-evident. It is declared by M. Lambert, that of all the combinations thus far proposed, none offer the special advantages of the one just mentioned. The early experiments with sheep were with 2 lbs. hay per ^gy ^^fgy^ ^„^_ diem and subsequently with 1 lb. of hay and one-quarter pound molasses, molasses; the animal remained in an excellent condition. Later experiments show beyond cavil that when oxen were fed with a mixture of molasses and barley straw, or a mixture of straw and oil cake, they could be kept in a good healthy condition during the winter. The maximum limit that should be fed per diem was found to be 8 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight. It was claimed that larger amounts could not be assimilated and would therefore be wasted. For milch cows, the molasses was simply added, and there was no decrease in the milk production as is usually the case when changes are made in the regimen. Fed in quantities of 2.2 lbs. per diem, the percentage of fatty sub- stances in the milk was increased. In 16 cows under experi- ment the fat percentage rose from 3.71 to 3.94, and in another 276 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAK, ETC. series of experiments upon 60 cows this percentage rose from 2.89 to 3.3 per cent., the quantit}' of milk in this case increas- ing by 10 quarts per diem. In another series of the early experiments made with 12 cows in Austria, the quantity of molasses fed was daily increased from one pound to 2^ pounds. The total molasses fed was about 100 lbs., and as a consequence the volume of milk increased by 35 quarts during the last five days of the experiment. Mention may be made of Kamm'sf experiments, in which the standard ration of the cows was 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. chopped straw, 50 lbs. forage beets, 4 lbs. of flour per 1000 lbs. live weight. Here again the quality and quantity of milk was considerabl}^ increased. In Vibrans' ex- periments the hay and chopped straw fed were sprinkled with molasses and subsequently thoroughly combined; then sprinkled with cotton-seed flour and again mixed. The results obtained were far more satisfactory than had hitherto been realized. The first mentioned experimenter gave to sheep 36 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight. With pigs only 4 lbs. per 1000 lbs. live weight could be advantageously fed. Vibrans has been able to make an excellent fodder, which is very compact and dry, by combining 3 per cent, residuum molasses with 1 per cent, pulverized straw. The straw has an important advantage over peat, as in itself it contains important nourishing properties. The use of beet molesses for cattle-feed- ing is not new, and in France, as early as 1829, M. J. J. Ber- nard diluted molasses to 20° B. and combined it with chopped straw and fed it to cattle, horses and sheep. IVIolasses and Molasses and straw combinations were at one time very much straw combina- jj-^ vogue. In order to make the mixture the straw had to be reduced to a powder, and it was claimed that it would have all the advantages and none of the disadvantages of the peat- molasses compounds. The apparatus needed is most simple and may be managed by any farmer. Seidel mixes diluted molasses with chopped straw for grow- ing steers, which have been fed during the first month with 1^ kilos of molasses per head and per diem; then 2 kilos per head and per diem, which means about 4 per cent, of the animal's Aveight, and he thereby obtained excellent results, the meat tion. brewers' grains and molasses. 277 being irreproachable in every respect. Working oxen received between November and May IJ kilos of this residuum per diem. However, in this exceptional case the results obtained with milch cows were not very satisfactory. If one wishes to mix the residuum with chopped straw or other forages, it is recommended that the product be always diluted, and that atomizers or sprinklers be used for the pur- pose, which method is becoming very popular. After sprink- ling, the mass is turned over and thoroughly mixed. This combination is much liked by cattle in general, who eat the same with avidity. Of late Wrede proposed that straw be submitted to a regular crushing, which treatment suitably facilitates its power of absorption of molasses. The coefficient of digestibility of straw would be increased by this operation. When it is desired that the diluted molasses be fed at once, certain precautions should be taken, such as great cleanliness of all the mixing appliances, as there are dangers of fermentation which might subsequently affect the animals seriously. Experience shows that excellent combinations have been Potato pulp anrf made by adding potato pulp to molasses. Maercker submitted ""•'^^ses. this pulp to the action of lime in a large receptacle, subse- quently washing it with a jet of water and pressing in a special rolling combination. The product was ultimately dried in special troughs, having spiral agitators. In the proportion of 1 part molasses to 4 parts potato pulp, the molasses is imme- diately absorbed. The pulp contains only 30 per cent, of dry substances, and is very much improved in this respect by the mixture of molasses containing 85 per cent, dry matter. Fur- thermore, this combination may be dried in a Buttner-Meyer furnace. Among other interesting experiments may be men- tioned those in which the combination consisted of equal pro- portions of wheat flour and molasses. Seidel fed 2 kilos of brewers' grains, combined with molasses. Brewers' grains in the proportion of one part molasses and one part grains, to ^"'' ''"''^^^^^• 150 working horses and 10 saddle horses, and he declares they were in far better condition than if they had been fed on oats alone. Only one case of colic was noticed, and this after a time binations. 278 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. disappeared. Two kilos of this forage took the place of 2 kilos of oats, with a considerable money saving to all interested. The molasses-brewers' grain combination also produced excel- lent effects upon young cattle, pigs, etc. The Poppelsdorf (Germany) experiments demonstrate beyond doubt that these molasses combinations constitute an excellent fodder for milch cows. Combinations made up of powdered oil meal and brewer's grains undergo many alterations. The excessive acidity may in a measure be overcome by adding a certain amount of lime, leaving 20 per cent, moisture for the combination. In damp climates it is almost impossible to keep the product in question for any length of time; but when it is to be consumed at once, these transformations have but a secondary importance. Palm oil and In the Hollrung experiments the forage contained 50 per molasses com- cg^t. residuum molasses and 50 per cent, so-called palm-nut meal. The composition of the product was as follows: Nitrog- enous substances, 11.4 per cent.; raw fatty substances, 3.18 per cent.; non-nitrogenous substances, 44.03 per cent.; cellulose, 17.53 per cent.; ash, 6.3 per cent; water, 17 per cent. The daily ration was 2.8 lbs. for milch cows, 4.5 lbs. for oxen, 2.2 lbs. for horses, and ^ lb. for sheep. These experiments were very successful. It was shown that the intestinal canal was kept thoroughly clean, and in no instance was there recorded a case of colic. The palm meal molasses combination has now be- come a very important industry in Bohemia, and there is an establishment that makes nothing else. Voigt's experiments were with compounds of palm and coco oil meal and molasses, which were fed to 16 omnibus horses, their regular rations being 19 lbs. corn, 9 lbs. hay, 9 lbs. straw, 2.2 lbs. chopped straw. The corn in the ration was reduced to 14.3 lbs., and instead of the 4.7 lbs. there was used an oil meal molasses mix- ture. The results were so satisfactory that the preparation was fed to 850 horses. It is important to note that the use of oil meal or substances of any kind that have undergone the slightest organic alteration is a great mistake when a healthy ration is the main object in view, and herein is the difficulty in all these compounds with PALM OIL AND MOLASSES COMBINATIONS. 279 green molasses and the superiority of liquid molasses. The ob- jection to oil cake and molasses was that its use could not be made general; under certain circumstances its mixing with rations was impossible, hence bran and molasses in equal amounts was found to be better suited for general feeding purposes. The palm oil and molasses product may be ground to flour, and combined with 80 to 100 parts in weight of heated molasses, at a temperature of 60° to 100° C. This is mixed upon a cemented platform, using wooden shovels for the purpose. The hotter the molasses the more complete will be its combina- tion with every particle of oil cake, and the ultimate product will be so much improved. At first this combination is more or less fluid, but after a time it assumes a dry aspect, and in reality is sufficiently free from moisture to be placed in sacks and shipped almost the same as flour. A man may prepare from two to two and a half tons of this forage in a day. The workshops of Selwig and Lange, at Brunswick, have de- livered to the sugar factory at Schende (Germany) a special and well-arranged mixer, permitting the preparation of 50 tons of this forage per diem. Herewith is the composition, as pre- pared at two factories: Two Analyses of Palm Oil and Molasses Combinations. Constituents. Moisture Ash Fatty substance Nitrogenous substance Cellulose substance . . . Non-nitrogenous • ScliAvanberg Alt Jauer sugar factory. sugar factory. Ter cent. Per cent. 17.7 15.38 6.13 5.96 ■ 3.18 4.27 11.39 12.81 17.53 12.15 44.07 49.4 This forage produces the best effects upon the general health of animals to which it is fed. It is not used solely for cows and sheep. Since 1896, an omnibus company, organized in Berlin, has fed 850 horses with this forage. The hordes have 280 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. been in excellent health, and the combination has resulted in considerable profit to the company. On certain French farms where diffusion j)ulps had been combined with wheat straw and 2 kilos of oil cake, 3 kilos of molasses were substituted for the latter. The steers con- tinued to fatten, and were in much better condition than in former years. In the case of working oxen, 2 kilos of molasses were used instead of 1.250 grams oil cake, while horses received 1.500 kilos of molasses per diem. Suitable I'eceptacles for raw molasses and its transportation form difficult problems for the farmer, whereas molasses-forage combinations may be shipped in bags. The first efforts in this direction were those made with palm-oil cake, for the simple reason that it was possible to obtain a combination con- sisting of 60 per cent, molasses and 40 per cent, oil cake, which was mainly used for milch cow feeding. Blood molasses There is another forage to which a great deal of attention has combinations, i^een given of late, and that is a mixture of animal blood with molasses. For many years molasses has been mixed with fresh blood to form a forage for pigs and also for horses and lambs. Blood has a very considerable nutritive value, which has been long since demonstrated by Sanborn. Its principal function consists in forming muscular tissue, and this is made evident by examining its composition, which is, according to BungCj, about as follows: Globules, Serum, 31.87 per cent. 68.13 per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Water - ' 19.12 ' ' "" '62.22 Hemoglobulin and albumin . , 12j3§ ...-.,:. 4.99 Unknown organic substances . ■ 0.24... 0.38 Ash ^ 0.15 • 0.54 According to Misl and Strohmer, the average composition for ten analyses of blood-molasses combinations as now used was: Water, 77.93 per cent.; protein, 20.88 per cent.; unknown organic substances, 0.96 per cent.; ash, 0.82 per cent. MOLASSES ACTS AS ANTISEPTIC, 28l When one reflects upon the possibilities of this molasses Possibilities of utilization, appalling facts become apparent. In the ordinar}^ blood-molasses slaughter-houses of most of our popular centres the volume or combinations, quantity of blood that remains is something stupendous — as, for example, in Vienna, where it reaches 6,000 tons per annum. If we should combine residuum molasses with this product, we would have at once at our disposal enough forage to feed the majority, if not all, of the live stock of that empire, and there would be very little call for other feeding stuffs. Molasses-blood combinations are always made up of other in- Molasses acts gredients, such as bran, oil cake, etc. In these mixtures, as antiseptic, molasses, according to Fredericksen and Clausen, prevents the putrefaction of the blood, owing to the presence of a large per- centage of sugar. The activity of micro-organisms in this com- bination is thus paralyzed. Experience appears to show that it is a mistake to add more than 10 per cent, blood to the molasses. It is interesting to note that in order to obviate organic changes entirely one may heat the forage at a tempera- ture of 80° to 100° C, which means to desiccate the product so that it will ultimately contain 15 to 20 per cent, moisture. Without doubt this has an excellent effect, as it obviates the contamination of many diseases, such as tuberculosis. The disinfecting action of molasses was discovered as follows, the present arguments being the outcome of the observations of Stein, at Copenhagen. A servant accidentally upset a certain amount of molasses into a receptacle full of blood. In the desire to make amends for his individual shortcoming he endeavored to procure other blood, but not being successful he admitted the accident. The receptacle which had previously contained the overturned blood was forgotten and put aside, and when examined later it was noticed that the blood had been completely preserved through the intervention of the molasses, and it was in no way altered from its primitive organic condition. Fresenius has endeavored for a long time, but without suc- cess, notwithstanding even the action of micro-organisms, to bring about a putrefaction of a molasses-blood combination, by keeping it in an oven, at a temperature of 37° C, during a long period. 282 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Method of pre- Haefke gives the following description of Frederik sen's paring blood- method for preparing a blood molasses feed. This mode has molasses combi- hitherto been considered a secret. The blood is collected in a nations. - i i • i • -, . receptacle, and m order to prevent its coagulating a small tur- bine is placed in the midst of the product to keep it in constant motion and to break up any particles that it may contain. It is then run into a large mixing tank with an agitator having a vertical shaft with horizontal arms. There is added to the blood 25 per cent, of molasses. Subsequent to the mix- ing a pump forces the mixture to a last compounding appliance, where the porous substance is added, such as bran, etc. This compounding apparatus consists mainly of two rollers moving in opposite directions, so that the paste shall be thoroughly mixed. Finally the forage is dried in what is known as the Otto furnace, used for the drying of distillers' grains. This dryer consists of two compartments or troughs, one over the other, heated by steam, and in each of which there is an agitator consisting of coils through which expanded steam circulates. This heating brings about a sterilization of the combination. From the first trough the forage falls into the second, through which it passes, and ultimately leaves the apparatus entirely dried. The composition of the blood-molasses combination such as is made at Copenhagen, Berlin, Hamburg, Hanover, Milan, etc., is as follows: Per cent. Water 9.40 Amides 3.56 Albumin (nitrogen X 6.25) = 24.19^ Fatty substances • 3.15 Ash 7.6 Cellulose • 8.6 Non-nitrogenous elements • 43.5 Varied absorb- Besides bran the blood may be absorbed by brewers' grains, ents may be dried cossettes, etc. , and subsequently mixed in the desired used. proportions with molasses. Under these conditions it is readily ^ Ninety-six per cent, is digestible. ELIMINATION OF FIBKIN. 283 handled and possesses all the qualities looked for in molasses mixtures. The composition of these various combinations is as follows: Analyses of Three Blood-Molasses Combinations. Constituents. Water Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances-. Fatty substances Sugar Non-nitrogenous not specified Cellulose Ash Sand Blood+ wheat bran+ molasses. Per cent. 7.33 24.62 3.32 1.04 7.50 42.20 7.02 6.10 0.87 Bran+blood+ brewers' grains +molasses. Per cent. 8.51 25.00 2.88 0.14 12.90 35.20 9.77 5.35 0.25 Blood-f-dried cossettes+ mol asses. Per cent. 8.53 29.55 3.51 0.22 16.69 30.69 6.24 4.44 0.13 In the four analyses given it is to be noticed that there is a considerable percentage of albuminoids and sugar, all of which are easily digested. Notwithstanding the sterilization of the compound, the digestibility of the albumen of the blood remains higher than the digestibility of vegetable albumen. Maercker found that 95.9 per cent, of this albumen could be assimilated. Jolles eliminated the fibrin of the blood and then submitted it to a centrifugal action in order to separate the serum. The globule-like paste thus obtained is four times richer in nitro- genous substances than was the fresh blood, and has greater keeping qualities, which may be still further increased b}' add- ing 10 per cent, of molasses. It has been suggested that this compound shall be absorbed by suitable porous feeds, and then it need not be submitted to a desiccation in order to give it excellent keeping qualities. It consists of concentrated forage of great nutritive value and possessing exceptional digestibility, which is admirably suited for cavalry purposes, Already 24 regiments of Germany have adopted it. Its composition varies with the manner in which it is prepared. Herewith are two analyses of interest: Eliminatien o! fibrin. 284 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Two Analyses of Blood-Molasses Combinations (Fibrin ELimNATED] Water Nitrogenous substances Non-nitrogenous substances • • Fatty substances Sugar Cellulose Ash Sand Non-nitrogenous not specified • Total Per cent. 7.40 44.66 1.68 0.82 7.90 6.67 5.21 0.10 25.56 100.00 100.00 Feeding horses The health of horses under this feeding appears to be excel- with blood lent and the digestive energy is in no way impaired. Certain molasses, authorities declare that for horses the product should be given gradually, in order that the animals may become accustomed to it little by little. It is impossible to feed protein to excess and decrease the fatty substances. It is, furthermore, impossible to substitute more than one-half of the oats ration by this feed. In many cases 2 kilos are given per diem, and the oats ration is reduced from 6 kilos to 3 kilos. By this arrangement good results are obtained, and after a year's feeding the health of the animals is all that can be desired". A saving in money always follows its use. Some authorities deplare that the milk production is increased 5 per cent, per diem. Experience seems to show that it is possible in the case of milch cows to substitute for certain oil meals this molasses-blood forage combination. feeding cows. Lienthal has obtained very favorable results in feeding cows. He estimates that the profits from this feeding may be put down at 40 pfennigs [10 cents] per head and per diem. The results obtained with pigs were less satisfactory. Feeding pigs. This, according to Maercker, seems paradoxical, as this forage would appear to be easily assimilated and adapted to the in- testinal digestion of pigs. These results are absolutely in contradiction with those ob- tained in America with blood-feed combinations, and Maercker believes it is mainly to the absorbing material used that we must MONEY VALUE. 285 look for the difficulty that has rendered it objectionable for this special purpose. On the other hand instances may be given in Austria of feeding over 2,000 pigs for a year with blood- molasses, and an enormous number of their young were nourished during this interval. Results published relating to blood-molasses combination all show that excellent effects may be expected from its use. It may safely be said that chickens, geese, ducks, oxen, etc., Feeding to will relish it. In the case of steers the quality of the meat is animals in materially improved. general. Ramm and Mintrop have fed 6 to 8 kilos of this product per diem without the slightest complications. The general secre- tions were favorable, showing that the assimilation in every re- spect had been satisfactory. There are many German authorities to show that these com- Feeding to binations have given excellent results in cases where certain horses, muscular force is needed, such as for horses; and in most instances there have been considerable money savings, owing to the substitution of this product for oats and corn. Without doubt this con^bination has a future, and some fac- Extension given tories that are actually in existence in Continental Europe which to blood-molasses utilize this beet-sugar molasses in combination with blood can- '^^'''na- not meet the demand for the product. The cost of this com- bination cannot be determined with great accuracy, for the simple reason that it depends upon so many factors. Under all circumstances one should consider the market value of the con- centrates used and make allowances for the facility of obtaining it in the quantities needed. When molasses is to be used the fact must not be overlooked that allowance must be made for its money cost. In order to Money value, establish the price that one can reasonably pay for a forage- molasses combination, one allows for the sugar percentage upon the accepted basis of 50 per cent, of sugar in the residuum. The price of the mixture may be then calculated without trouble. The ration should contain sufficient fatty and albu- minoid substances in order to make up for what is lacking in the molasses, for in this there will always be found the requisite non-nitrogenous substances. 286 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. General rations. The quantity of the ration that may be fed without danger to different animals is as follows : Growing steers 4 to 6 kilos per 1000 kilos live weight. Working oxen 2 to 3 kilos per 1000 kilos live weight. Milch cows 1 to 1 J kilos to animals of an average weight. Growing pigs ^ kilo to animals of an average weight. Growing sheep 200 grams to animals of an average Aveight. Superior sheep 100 grams to animals of an average weight. Horses 1 kilo to animals of an average weight. These figures cannot be taken as absolute, as they vary with the characteristics of the animal being fed, and a certain care is always required to accustom the animals to it. Experience shows that the best results are obtained by feed- ing one-fourth of the ultimate ration per diem, and increasing the amount week by week. Under these circumstances all the objectionable features of this forage are overcome. Preparing the The ideal utilization of this molasses-blood combination would blood-molasses ^^ ^^^ ^Yie farmer to compound his own mixtures as the occa- fodder on the . • i ^ i i . . ■, . . ^^^^ sion might demand, usmg a special machme not costing much, which could be carried from place to place as required. The Shraeder apparatus in a measure combines these requi- sites. The mixture is heated, either by steam circulating directly beneath the dryer, or preferably directly over the tire, taking the precaution to have a double bottom in which hot water circulates. The blood, forage, and molasses, are fed to the apparatus by a rotating distributor whose working is regular, and which may be arranged so as to meet any demand. The molasses and the feed are then mixed in a cylinder, in which there are special agitators. By the use of an apparatus of this kind one can overcome in a measure the losses during keeping and thus economize an amount of mone}' that will more than compensate for the cost of the machine and do away with the profits and demands of the third party. Difficulties in The keeping of this special product has offered some diffi- keeping. culty, as the sugar percentage of most of these compounds is such as to cause rapid alteration owing to fermentation. The VAURY WHEAT FLOUR MOLASSES COMBINATION. 287 bacteria formed exert their influence, causing diarrhoea among the animals. It has already been noticed in Germany that these transformations of the blood-naolasses may be so intensive that the mass becomes heated, and spontaneous combustion follows. Ex]3erience shows that it is desirable to take certain pre- cautionary measures in order to overcome this difficulty. Under all circumstances the product should never be placed in bags before it is completely dry. Furthermore, it should never be kept in any warehouse where wood is stored. The store- house should be built entirely of stone, and the product itself should not be piled up too high. The Vaury preparation having been so generally accepted in Vaury wheat France, it is interesting to follow up the combination in some flour molasses detail. The inventor says that his effort Avas to combine a combination, product that could be carried without difficulty and would not possess any of the objectionable features of the molasses-peat combination; for why introduce into the stomach a mass of inert substances that are not assimilated? Animals under this regime are obliged to waste their powers in masticating a substance that is worthless, so far as their general health is concerned. Whatever may be the worth of the arguments against peat combinations, they continue to be in vogue. The object Vaury had in view was to use other constituents, offering all the advantages and none of the disadvantages of the previous com- binations. Wheat flour of a superior quality was the basis adopted. The thorough mixing was one of the essentials for success, and this was follow^ed by a limited fermentation and baking, the result being bread, in the general acceptance of the expression, in which all the ingredients are assimilated. There are used 100 parts of wheat flour and about 70 parts molasses. This is mixed and kneaded so as to form a paste, as is done in bread-making. To this paste or dough should be added a suitable ferment. It is run through special mechanical appliances in which the thickness, etc., of a standard dimension are obtained. These cakes are baked in an oven and subse- quently broken into pieces. The bread-molasses thus obtained may be fed in a dry condition to horses, or in a semi-moist 288 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. state to, animals in general. Experiments in general thus far made appear to show that this combination is entirel}^ digest- ible. It is claimed that there are no dangers of colics through its use, that the desired fattening results are realized, etc. It is said that the Vaury bread-molasses combination has the follow- ing composition: Nitrogenous substances, 10 to 12 per cent.; hydrocarbons, 50 to 60 per cent., of which 25 to 50 per cent, are saccharine substances, 12 to 15 per cent, moisture, and 10 to 12 percent, mineral substances. All facts considered, the molasses combination, just described, deserves more than a passing con- sideration. Solid molasses is made by combining the residuum with saw- dust; it may be readily carried in that condition. The mixing consists in using 100 parts molasses for 15 to 20 parts sawdust, and evaporating during constant agitation, lasting for over an hour. The final product is brown in appearance, not sticky, and has the characteristic odor of molasses. The sweet water of exosmosis may be treated in the same manner. The saw- dust does not prevent fermentation, nor is it in the way when the residuum is to be incinerated. The apparatus used for this purpose may be employed for the preparation of molasses fodders, etc. Requisite keeping Molasses, as it leaves the beet-sugar factory, seldom contains qualities of more than 22 per cent, water and may be kept for a consider- molasses. ^j^jg period; but when this percentage reaches even 25, altera- tions are to be dreaded. In the preparations of molasses fodders, it is always desirable to concentrate as much as possible and not to dilute the product. According to observations at the German agricultural stations, those forages belonging to the same class as molasses should not contain more than 20 per cent, water, and not over 25 per cent, for peat molasses combination, as the higher this moisture per- centage is, the greater are the chances of decomposition during its keeping. These fermentations are always accompanied by considerable sugar losses. It may be mentioned that after a year's keeping almost all the sugar has disappeared, which is often the cause of considerable litigation between the seller and the plirchaser, DISHONEST DEALINGS IN MOLASSES. 289 the latter never finding an equivalent for his money; but manu- facturers of this molasses forage combination declare that the disappearance of the sugar does not necessarily signify that the forage has lost its nutritive value. The money value of the nitrogenous substances of molasses is also a factor which has a pecuniary import not yet settled in practice. Furthermore, it is important to add that the analyses of molasses forages are very difficult operations. According to Gormermann, it is mainly in oil cake feeds that rapid alterations are to be found. The acids contained in differ- ent substances with which the molasses is mixed favor all sorts of fermentations. The acid in distillers' and brewers' slops is lactic acid. In oil cake it is oleic acid, while in peat there is a long series of acids, the principal one of which is humic acid. As regards brewers' slops, it would be useless to attempt to neutralize it in order to increase its keeping qualities, as it is precisely this acidity that is so much relished b}' the animals to which it is fed. Oil cake has the advantage that the oleic acid which always brings about digestive complications is neutralized by the addition of lime and molasses. It must be noted that this addition of lime does not entirely do away with the action of certain micro-organisms of oil cake upon the fatty sub- stances which they contain. The existing acids are neutralized, but if one wishes to do away entirely with these micro-organic transformations it is essential not to attempt the keeping of this special forage. Molasses forages in Europe have a disadvantage of being ex- Dishonest deal- pensive, on account of the industry, in many cases, being in theings in molasses, hands of a very few, who thus make their own prices. In order to avoid the frauds committed by the middle-man, it is found preferable for the purchaser, who is the user, to deal directly with the manufacturer, whereby one is more sure of what is being bought. The appearance of this fodder, or even its odor, does not enable one to distinguish Avithin what limits organic transformations have taken place, and if one is depend- ent on the dealer it is recommended to have the product properly analyzed by a competent chemist. Both analytical and microscopical analyses should be made. Unfortunately 19 290 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAE, ETC. the existing fraud is very general. For example the agri- cultural station of Halle (Germany) found one-third of the samples examined for a period of one year misleading, and over 8 per cent, absolutel}^ fraudulent. Keeping Qualities Peat-molasses mixtures have considerable keeping qualities, of peat molasses, as peat in itself does not favor the development of micro-organ- isms. Experience appears to show that if these fodders are kept in some warm place, they will lose 50 per cent, of their moisture. It is claimed that the losses during the keeping of peat- molasses combinations, as asserted by some, are the outcome of faulty observations, as this forage contains in reality very little peat, and furthermore the slight acidity of the product should be neutralized by the normal alkalinity of the molasses. The objection found to this is that the molasses, which is alkaline, should become spontaneously acid owing to the action of micro-organisms. Experience shows that the general molasses combinations have not the keeping powers they should have, and after less than a year's storage the sugar loss is over 40 per cent., not in- cluding the invert sugar formed. In Germany other experi- ments have shown that this loss means 60 per cent, for the pro- tein and 50 per cent, for the sugar. The leading authorities admit that these losses may be attributed to the combined action of moisture and micro-organisms, hence the reason why such products should undergo a drying process before being placed in bags. Keeping molasses Molasses may be kept on the farm in a very simple way. combinations in Formerly cemented silos were used, but now holes are dug in a general. close clay soil and the molasses poured in. The bottom is clay, and against the sides are placed boards so as to prevent the dirt from falling into the mass. The objection to cemented silos is that the residuum soon acts on the cement. Mr. Guttmann employs molasses mainly to force the consumption of the general wastes of the farm, and uses very little oil meal. Molasses Forage Made at tlie Factory. Attention is called to cakes of molasses made at the Attigny MOLASSES FORAGE MADE AT THE FACTORY. 291 sugar factory, France. The cakes in question have about the following dimensions: 9 inches in length, 4 inches in width, and two inches thick, and weighed 650 to 700 grams (an aver- age of about 1^ lbs.). They are obtained by mixing 50 lbs. molasses (45 per cent, sugar), with 25 lbs. flour and 25 lbs. chopped straw. The mass is submitted to a thorough mixing and kneading and is then compressed in regular shapes, in very much the same apparatus as is used for bricks, and the cakes obtained are then baked. The temperature of the oven should not be more than 130 to 135° C. (266 to 275° F.); as otherwise there would be danger of carbonization. The bak- ing lasts IJ hours, during which period about 10 per cent, of the moisture is eliminated ; 100 lbs. of the product will give 90 lbs. of this brick-shaped food. The cakes should be kept in some dry place. In practice it has been found that there are many advantages in having the forage in cakes of a known size and composition, and when the conditions of feeding special live stock are determined, it is sufhcient to give to the feeder full instructions as to the weight of the product to be used for each ration. As the straw used comes from the farm connected with the factory, this means an economy in the combination. The appliances necessary for the manufacture of the molasses fodder under consideration are most simple. The first is a mechanical kneading device for mixing the flour, etc. It is emptied by simply tipping the mixer forward when the opera- tion is finished. To this is a vertical mixer not unlike the machine used for residuum beet cossette pressing; it has a vertical shaft with projecting axis arranged as a spiral. In the cake-making apparatus two bricks are made at the same time,, and the movable oven is about six feet in length. The arrange- ment at the factory in question is only temporary. Its prac- tical working is as follows: Into the mechanical kneader are introduced 50 lbs. molasses and 25 lbs. of flour; after twenty minutes' mixing and kneading the mass is in a homogeneous condition and is emptied over 25 lbs. of chopped straw" at the bottom of a square-shaped box placed in the ground, its dimen- sions depending upon the volume of the product used. The first mixing of the molasses compound and straw is done in the 292 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. receptacle in question with a shovel or pitchfork, and the com- bination is then thrown into the vertical mixer, from which it enters the compressor, and is then cooked in the oven. In cases where this molasses fodder is to be consumed at once it is not compressed, but is simply emptied into small wagons run- ning on narrow-gauge tracks to the stable. At the factory under consideration, about 4^ lbs. of the product are fed to either horses or oxen. The combination in question contains about 20 per cent, moisture, and is consequently dryer than the original molasses. Upon general principles one might conclude that the removal of additional molasses was unnecessary; but this idea is a mistake, for the moisture contained in the products added might be the cause of fermentation unless the drying were continued; and furthermore, both the straw and the flour bring with them certain micro-organisms which sooner or later exert their destructive influence. Molasses combi- 'p]-,g question of the possibility of manufacturing the molasses na ion ma e a (.Qj^^i^jj^ations upon the farm has led to a series of very elaborate the farm. . • i t i investigatrons m the laboratory oi the sugar manufacturers syn- dicate of France. The starting point was the Vaury molasses cakes containing 60 per cent, molasses and having the following composition: 25 to 28 per cent, saccharine substances, 45 to 48 per cent, hydrocarbons, 9 to 12 per cent, nitrogenous substances and 1 per cent, fatty substances. Just what ingredients are used is unknown. Its cost, $1.36 per 100 lbs., is and has been one of the objections to its general use. The first object in vieAV is to utilize any waste material that may be found in the barn and to select a substance that may be used to combine with molasses, so as to form a solid, nearly dry mass which may be readily carried from place to place as it may be called for. In the first series of experiments, the drying of the combinations was done in an oven. First combination : 100 parts wheat flour, 2 parts yeast and 50 parts water, well mixed with 100 parts mo- lasses at 38° to 39° Be. and 80 parts of pulverized oil cake. It is baked in an oven and becomes nearly solid. Second combina- tion: 30 parts wheat flour with the requisite water and yeast, 100 molasses, 80 pulverized oil cake. The resulting cake can be readily carried. Third experiment: 25 wheat flour with the mixing. SIMPLE APPLIANCES FOR MIXING. 293 requisite water and 3'east ferment, 100 molasses, 100 to 110 pul- verized oil cake. It was concluded that the percentage of wheat flour was not sufficient. Fourth experiment: 30 wheat flour with water and the requisite ferment, combined with 100 molas- ses, etc. In the other series of experiments, the preparations were heated in a furnace up to the temperature of 95° to 100°. Corn flour was found preferable to wheat flour the combination used being 100 corn flour, 100 molasses and the I'emainder bran. After a thorough mixing, the ration was cooked in a furnace for from 9 to 10 hours. It was further considered, in a series of practical experiments, what forage was the most suitable to be combined with the molasses, and what was the most desirable duration of the period of heating or cooking in the furnace. In Germany, special molasses mixing appliances are sold for Simple appli- $60, their capacity being nearly 500 lbs. per hour. This appar- ^""^ **"' atus is about 6 feet long, 12 inches wide and 16 inches deep. The mixing shaft has a velocity corresponding to 35 revolutions per minute. An apparatus for mixing 3 tons of the fodder per hour may be had for $150. In this case the revolving shaft turns with a velocity of about 150 revolutions per minute. When the molasses combination is finished, it is emptied on a cemented floor and allowed to cool. Certain precautionary measures are to be taken during the mixing, for there is dan- ger of fire; but this danger may be obviated by having a thick- ness of only 18 inches of the product during the mixing in the special apparatus. After 24 hours' cooling the molasses com- bination may be put up in bags and after several days addi- tional cooling, it may be stored in warehouses just as sugar is. Molasses may be rendered liquid by heating at 70° to 75° R. The concentrate is added, and then thoroughly mixed until cooling. Experience shows that the mixing tanks should be made of wood, rather than iron, and be rather shallow. The cost of this operation is very slight, as one man can prepare fully two and a half tons of this forage per diem. A mixing appliance of the Werner and Pfleiderer system, containing 400 liters, may produce 5 tons per diem. For concentrates, one may use to advantage bran, dried malt, dried brewers' waste, etc. The best proportion for this mixing is one part of each. 294 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The resulting forage will be all that one can desire, having ex- cellent keeping qualities, and not soiling the fingers when touched; it has. moreover, a fine appearance, etc. The farmer has every advantage in preparing his own com- binations, as this always means considerable money saving. Furthermore, he has a certain assurance that the product he obtains is of the quality anticipated. In order to conduct this mixing operation to advantage he can use the waste around his barn, or if he has to purchase outside, he should stipulate that the material in question shall be at a comparatively low rate. Herewith are several German analyses. These compositions, taken as a whole, vary with the concentrate used. Analyses of Various Molasses Eations. Constituents. Palm oil meal + molasses. Corn germ + molasses. Cocoanut cake -1- molasses. Cocoanut wastes -h molasses. Bran -I- mol asses. I. II. I. 11. III. Water Per cent. 16.93 12.93 1.64 26.60 26.14 7.80 7.85 0.11 Per cent. 19.74 12..50 2.12 27.93 15.36 16.20 6.12 0.03 Per cent. 14.68 15.37 3.79 26.51 29.45 3.33 6.82 0.02 Per cent. 2100 Per cent. 17 dfl Per cent. 20.85 15.25 2.19 29 43 20.47 3.07 8.28 0.46 Per cent. 14.10 10.99 1.72 24.28 32.12 7.05 9.74 Per cent. 16 50 Nitrogenous substances. Fatty substances 14.56 14.02 1 3.79 5.78 25.30 26.00 26.70 26.70 2.58 4.32 6.07 5.78 11.31 4.67 24.20 Non-nitrogenous sub- 32 20 5.52 Ash 5 60 Sand Total 100 go' 100 00 ' 100 00 inn ni) inn nn 100.00 100.00 100 00 7.25 7.731 inS7, I Feeding all the Maercker has discussed the question of Avhether a farmer molasses from gj^Q^^j^ fgg^j molasses to his cattle rather than the beets of land ^^om which the residuum was obtained. He says, we may suppose that, to every 2^ hectares (6J acres) there is one head of cattle to be fed with molasses. Each 2J hectares is sub- mitted to a rotation demanding its cultivation only after four years, and the beets resulting from the same correspond to VARIOUS USES OF MOLASSES. 295 40 tons to the hectare (16 tons to the acre). If we assume that from the beets at the factory there is obtained 2.5 per cent, molasses, the said 2.5 hectares, admitting onl}^ ^ is cultivated in beets, will furnish 625 kilos of molasses, which each animal will have at its disposal. This corresponds to 1.7 kilos of molasses per diem during the entire year, which may be readily consumed. But it must be noticed that one does not always obtain 40 tons to the hectare, and furthermore, that the four-years' rota- tion is not always practicable. It frequently happens that one cow is fed from two hectares. Under these circumstances the farmer would have at his disposal only 500 kilos of molasses per annum, meaning an allowance of only 1.250 kilos per head and per diem. However, from what has just been said, it is evident that only under exceptional circumstances one is unable to utilize all the molasses that results from regular farming; that is furnishing the beets to the factory and taking in return residuum, pulps and molasses. Efforts have been made during recent 3' ears to use this Various uses residuum for the preparation of certain chemical combinations. **' ""''^^^*^- Numerous modes have for many years been introduced for the Avorking of molasses in sugar factories, but have not given the results hoped for. Various means have been resorted to with a view of increas- ing the consumption of sugar and molasses. Among these may be mentioned molasses soap; a special introduction for dyeing; also the idea proposed by Vincent, for the manufacture of ammonium chlorid and methyl chlorid; the object in view having been to create an excessively low temperature. The methods of Franck and Nycander for the production of fer- ments may also be mentioned, and those of Schering for the manufacture of levulose. It may seem astonishing, but the facts prove that the only molasses utilization that has great practical value, when allow- ing for its low selling price, is as a feed. This has not received the attention from the agricultural authorities that it justly deserves. 296 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. iWolasses for The utilization of molasses for alcohol manufacture is neces- alcohol manu- sarily dependent generally upon the market prices of this pro- facture. duct, and as there are considerable fluctuations, the industry itself has many elements to contend with. As an example, during many j^ears in France, special advantages were given to molasses distillers, but in 1902 this legislation was changed and the residuum can now no longer be profitably used for that purpose. This would seem to be a great injustice to individuals who have placed their money in an investment which was sup- posed to have been backed up by government security. The alcohol-molasses industry in France for the time being has become a question of the past. In this respect, however, it is interesting to note that it is within the power of capitalists to overcome this difficulty by adding appliances for Avorking up sugar beets to their existing distilleries; but when one considers that the residuum of molas- ses represents only three and a half per cent, of the raw material sliced, it becomes evident that an establishment of this kind would mean an enormous money outlay. Many of the existing distilleries can handle the molasses re- siduum from a plant working 1000 tons of sugar beets per diem. A distilleiy that could work up the mash from such a bulk of fermented beets would handle several hundred tons of roots in the 24 hours, and the cost of the diffusers and the other necessary appliances would certainly not amount to less than $100,000. For many years the molasses-distillers' waste has been utilized for the manufacture of potash, soda and potassic chlorid. It has also been used for feeding purposes, and as a fertilizer. Molasses permits '^^^ "^^ ^* molasses permits the utilization of certain feeds the utilization that have undergone more or less transformation during their of sligiitly mil- keeping. For example, hay that was slightly tainted was eaten (iewed or tainted ^^^jj avidity when combined with 2.2 lbs. molasses diluted in feeds. g g -ji^g warm water and oat straw, which stood for 24 hours in order to undergo a partial fermentation. With this feed there was an increase of weight. The explanation is that the molasses is possessed of certain disinfecting properties. Molasses as a Considered only from a theoretical standpoint, molasses is a fertilizer, most excellent means for returning to the soil the plant foods MOLASSES Ao A FERTILIZER. 297 that have been taken away during cultivation of the crop of beets without resorting to the use of expensive manures in order to retain the fertihty. Without entering into the various bene- ficial results that must necessarily follow from this practice, it suffices to say that it stands to reason that if certain mineral substances have been absorbed by the beet during its develop- ment, these, if returned, will maintain the continued fertility of the soil, which maintenance would otherwise have been impos- sible, and the benefits derived become even greater when defeca- tion scums form part of the fertilizing mixture. However, molasses should never be utilized for fertilizing in its green state, for many of its elements that are worthless for this purpose may render great service in other directions, such as cattle feeding, etc. For the farmer, its money equivalent as a fertilizer must not be overlooked. Unfortunately, however, in the United States the problem of returning the plant food to the soil has been, up to the present, too frequently neglected. If one makes allowance for the fact that molasses contains, on an average, 1.5 per cent, of nitrogen, and 5 to 6 per cent, of oxid of potassium, and that in the excrements of animals fed upon this product may be found 1 per cent, of nitrogen with 5 per cent, of oxid of potassium, 0.03 per cent, to 0.06 per cent, phosphoric acid, 0.3 per cent, to 0.5 per cent, lime, and about 50 per cent, non-nitrogenous substances, one may conclude that molasses, as a forage, has a greater commercial and rural value than is generally supposed, for the simple reason that to its nourishing value must be added its subsequent use as a manure. Nearly all the foods that plants need are found in the droppings of the animals fed. Sugar in the animal economy may play an important role, mainly in the formation of fat. Consequently it is of greater advantage to allow these hydro-carbons to pass through the an- imal's body, than it would be to resort to any preliminary effort of its use as a fertilizer, for the simple reason that the mineral elements always pass through the body of the animal without undergoing chemical changes. In Germany there are produced 400,000 tons of molasses that contain 5,200 tons of nitrogen, corresponding to 28,000 tons of 298 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. Chilien Baltpetre. Furthermore, this product contains 28,000 tons of potassium oxid. It necessarily follows that if all the molasses were utilized, farmers would have at their disposal an excellent fertilizing material of the value of $1,000,000. In Germany it was recommended that, in consideration of the low selling price of molasses, the product be practically used as a fertilizer, but this idea was very illogical, as it would be throw- ing away without any possible profit the money that might be derived from the sugar contained in this residuum, to say noth- ing of the non-nitrogenous substances to be found in it. By the use of molasses as a forage the fai^mer returns all the salts that had been previously taken from the soil, which in other words means all the plant foods that have been extracted by the plant during its growth. Furthermore, there is another advantage derived from this molasses feeding, which is that the money profits derived from the same are generally greater than would have been realized if the residuum were employed for the extraction of sugar. Analysis of The Association of Austrian Chemists, during 1901, made the molasses feeds, following resolutions: That the molasses forage combinations should be thoroughly mixed, and that the precaution be taken to constantly bring to the top the lower strata of the feeds, as it is there that the molasses always settles. An average sample of 500 grams should be dried at 100° C. and afterwards thoroughly pulverized. Without a previous understanding, this sample should be used for the analysis. The desiccation is done in a small tared receptacle having a suitable stopper hermetically closing the same. The total nitrogen is estimated by the Kjeldahl method. To 1 gram of this substance with mercury add 30 cc. concen- trated sulphuric acid. This acid is used in excess on account of the sulphurous acid liberated. The nitrogen of the albuminoids is determined upon 1 gram of the substance sprinkled with 100 cc. of water heated to boil- ing point, 25 cc. of a 6 per cent, solution of copper sulphate and 25 cc. of a 12.5 per cent, caustic soda. The addition of the soda is arranged so as not to precipitate all the copper. This precipitate is rapidly deposited and is filtered, and then washed ANALYSIS OF MOLASSES FEEDS. 299 with water until all sulphate reaction disappears in the filtrate under the action of barium chlorid. It is important to men- tion in the analysis what method has been adopted for the esti- mation, and furthermore to state whether the gastric juice of a pig or commercial pepsin has been employed. First of all the molasses should be removed, and five grams of the pulverized feed are Avashed in 100 cc. of cold water. This water should be added drop by drop, using asbestos as a filtering surface, and then following by an ether extraction. The sugar estimation is made by the usual method of polar- ization. Other non-nitrogenous extractible substances are determined by subtracting from 100 the water, fatty substances, sugar, cel- lulose, ash and nitrogenous substances multiplied by 6.25. The cellulose is determined, according to Weender, with 3 grams of sulphuric acid and caustic potash. The ash is estimated upon 10 grams in a porcelain capsule heated in a special muffle furnace, such as is used in sugar fac- tories. The molasses percentage is estimated by assuming that the sample polarizes 50. The nitrogenous substances, estimated by -using the factor 6.25, should be shown upon the analysis bulletin, and never as raw protein. The nitrogen of albuminoids, determined according to Stutter, multiplied by 6.25, is known as an albuminoid combination. The nitrogenous substances last found are called amide acids. The difference between non-assimilated nitrogen multiplied by 6.25 and the albuminoid combinations is called assimilated albuminoid substance. It is recommended as far as possible to make a thorough mi- croscopic examination of the absorbing substances used. It is desirable, when examining peat molasses feeds, not to estimate the nitrogen in all its combinations, but simply to mention the total nitrogen that it contains. The Miiller method unfortunatel}^ can be applied only to fresh combinations. Twenty-five grams of the forage are constantly stirred up with 250 grams of water. One hundred cc. of this solution are treated by 15 to 20 mgr. of tannin, 10 cc. of sub- 300 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. acetate of lead, 10 cc. of a 5 per cent, solution of alum, and a very small quantity of hydrated alumina. This is mixed, fil- tered and polarized. The molasses added to the forage is sup- posed to contain 48 per cent, of sugar. To determine the fatty substances, the forage is heated in an oven at 100° C. for three hours; it is then reduced to a powder, two grams of which are weighed in a porcelain capsule, and subsequently placed under an air-exhausting apparatus. The molasses is extracted by cold water, the remaining product dried, and submitted to the dis- solving power of ether for 15 hours. Under these circumstances there is no saponification of the fatty substances. The details of the operations that follow it is unnecessary to describe. The fact is that the whole question of molasses fodder analysis has been widely discussed, so much so that a special congress of the German experiment stations was held some years since, and they centered their attention upon the Neubauer method. It is declared that this special forage has but little if any influ- ence on polarized light, and if this molasses combination had any polarizing power it would be necessary to establish special compensating factors for each combination under consideration. As regards the invert sugar that is formed during keeping and is mainly due to the influence of high temperature, it be- comes important to polarize the solution after inversion in order to form some exact idea of the sugar percentage. The polariza- tion gives exact results only for certain forages. According to Emmerling, in order to estimate the nutritive value of a forage made with molasses, one should take |- of the nutritive value of sugar as the nutritive value of nitrogenous non-albuminous substances, of the molasses that are contained in quantities corresponding to eight times less than the sugar and having the same nutritive equivalent as carbohydrates. It is important to estimate the sugar, the fatty substances and the protein. The data obtained is multiplied by the nutritive value of each of these, allowing for the amids of molasses the same equivalent as sugar, and it is upon this basis that one should compensate for any error that might be made and thereby bring about a certain harmony between purchaser and buyer. PART FIFTH. Feeding witli Sugar. What becomes of sugar formed in the liver and carried to all parts of the body by the blood ? What is its role ? Sugar, as its composition shows, contains carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. The carbon throws out in burning, or oxidizing, carbonic acid, water and heat, which may be transformed into work and energy. It is concluded from this that sugar produces at least a portion of the animal heat, and recent experiments show beyond cavil, that we must also look to the same material for the muscular energy or work. It is to Mr. Chauveau that the credit is justly due for the en- tire investigations upon this most important subject, as before his time the theories advanced were certainly most erroneous. A celebrated authority such as Claude Bernard enunciated the theory that sugar disappeared in the lungs. As early as 1856 Chauveau showed that there were traces of sugar in the entire arterial circulation which gradually disappeared in produc- ing heat. He enunciated his ideas about as follows: " Energy devoted to the production of work always means muscular energy, and in all cases has for its principal starting point the combustion of glycogen, with which the tissues of the organs are impregnated. Blood becomes poorer in glucose, during its general capillary circulation, and mainly in the mus- cular tissues." Chauveau has shown that there existed a relation between muscular energy, glycogen production and the destruction of sugar in the blood. These investigations were mainly centered upon horses, showing the exchange that took place in the blood passing through muscles at rest and during work. As an ex- ample the muscles used during mastication and the glands se- creting sahva were watched during this study. The law, which (301) Preliminary remarl(s. Chauveau's theory. 302 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. was the outcome of this experiment, was based upon the influ- ence of the woriv of an organ of the body upon organic combus- tion and also upon the sugar consumed. Chauveau further says: "The work accomplished by the organs during their physio- logical activity, indicates that the amount of sugar that disap- pears during rest is less than during work. It is proportional to the combustion, which is the natural outcome of the working of the organs proper." An example will give a general idea of the contrast between sugar destruction in the blood, during rest and during work. Blood passing through a special muscle of a horse's mouth dur- ing a given time, and while at rest, viz. : when it is not eating, will throw out an amount of carbonic acid corresponding to 20.4. While eating, the amount of carbonic acid thrown off was 69. 55. In other words, during the muscular activity of simple masti- cation the amount of carbonic acid evolved is increased to 69.55 during work, that is, this activity alone demands a consumption in the muscle of over three times that which is necessary during rest. If one estimates the amount of glucose that disappears in the blood that passes through a muscle during rest and during work, as based upon the experiments of Chauveau and Kauffmann, there is a glucose combustion of 0.12 grams in the first case, and 0.41 grams during work. We may conclude from this that the blood passing through a muscle absorbs during its activity more than three times the amount of sugar that is consumed during rest. From this we may further conclude there is a certain correlation existing between the loss of sugar in the blood and in the increased combustion during the physiological activity of the muscle. Such being the case, there is apparently no doubt that sugar is a direct factor in the question of muscular activity, and this has been the starting point for the re-organization of the daily rations allowed, not only to soldiers, but to horses, in nearly all of the European armies. Practical tests Examples almost without limit can be given of tests upon two upon men. regiments of soldiers, one mounted and the other unmounted, one consuming sugar and the other without sugar, where the amount of work accomplished was certainly in favor of the FEEDING OF SUGAR TO CATTLE. 303 sugar ration. Much remains to be done in this special direc- tion, but what has been accomplished is certainly a hint as to future possibilities. Schonberg has noticed the excellent results that may be de- rived from sugar feeding, and which were based upon a very simple experiment of giving only 30 grams of supplementary sugar to a gang of workmen; this alone was sufficient to prolong their efforts for several hours without anj'' perceptible fatigue. Such being the case, it stands to reason that the breeder has Advantages to every advantage, in introducing a reasonable amount of sugar the breeder, into the dail}^ rations of the animals under his care, when the opportunity presents itself. It is interesting to note that investigations relative to the in- fluence of sugar upon muscular energy have become extremely popular during the last few years. It is not long since that the theory obtained that nitrogenous substances were always respon- sible for muscular activity. Hence the animals, from whom considerable work was demanded, were fed upon very narrow rations. Sugar for cattle feeding commenced in the fifties in Continental Europe, but as we have before pointed out, the utilization of sugar for this purpose goes back to the early part of the last century, and, notwithstanding constant agitation arguing in feeding of sugar favor of its importance, it is only within comparatively recent to cattle in the years that the practice has made- any important progress, f^rly part of Strange as it may seem, as early as 1800 the British market was '^^* century, almost glutted with sugar and it was during the years that fol- lowed, that several interesting pamphlets were written upon sugar in cattle feeding. The arguments then advanced are true at the present time, and there is now a threatened overproduc- tion. The sugar consumption was very small a hundred years ago, hence the several sugar islands could more than meet the demand. The situation in 1901 has changed; sugar has be- come almost a household necessity, and the beet sugar and cane sugar, in their efforts to meet the demand, have thrown upon the market a volume of this commodity, which has resulted in a constant fall in price, giving a just cause of alarm to all inter- ested. Efforts are being made in Continental Europe to popu- 304 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. larize and increase the demand for sugar; new theories have been introduced showing that sugar means strength, which is in direct contradiction to the views entertained not many years since by most of the medical authorities. Early arguments for feeding sugar were, that one shilling's worth of sugar will save two shillings' worth of hay, and that dis- solved sugar added to either haj'' or straw will increase the value and quality of the hay or straw. In 1809 it was declared in England that ' ' if the use of sugar once becomes general, the price of butchers' meat must certainly be lower, for this plain reason, a much greater quantity of young stock could be raised in many parts of the kingdom, where they now cannot do it, * * * butchers' meat would come within reach of multitudes. Another good effect arising from the use of sugar would be, keeping at home a considerable sum of money which is sent out every year to the ports of our enemies for butter and cheese." It is interesting to note the important role sugar was to play in the navy, such as in the East India Com- pany's service. For "every vessel going on a long voyage * * * one-half the quantity of ha}^ at present consumed on board ship will be sufficient, with the addition of a little mo- lasses or sugar, which occupies so much less room and comes so much cheaper; so that it will have this good effect. * * * Straw, which may be had in most places, or any coarse matter * * * may, by the addition of a little sugar or molasses, be converted into a most nutritive and wholesome food, much superior to hay in point of quality." It was suggested that experiments be made in feeding horses with sugar; it was even, one hundred years ago, pointed out that a horse fed on sugar will show signs of improved condition and have a glossy shining coat, etc. It was then argued that there were certain dangers of over-feeding with sugar, as the animal would become "soft;" with molasses given in small quantities the same difficulties were not to be dreaded. It was recommended that molasses be given either in their drink in the stable bucket, mixed with water, or properly diluted and sprinkled among their chaff, in which case the quantity of hay may be reduced until by degrees none need be given. The great advantages of sugar for stall-fed FEEDING OF SUGAR TO CATTLE. 305 horses and cattle were thoroughly appreciated in the early part of the century; attention was called to the fact that when put to grass they " will begin to fill and thrive forthwith." On the other hand, "cattle, taken from a straw-j^ard where they have been indifferently fed during the winter, must be a considerable time on the grass before they recover from the starvation, and, consequentl}', take up so much time and food to no other pur- pose, which a thriving animal will convert to immediate profit." Some enthusiasts went so far as to insist upon it that sugar was in reality the principal nutrient found in all feeding stuffs, which has long since been proven to be a very erroneous hypo- thesis. Experiments were made upon various animals to deter- mine the practical effects of sugar-feeding; one of the most interesting of these was on an old horse, eighteen years of age, which had been turned out to grass, but which in time was nothing but flesh and bones, and was condemned to be shot; the first week's feeding was with hay and straw, chaff and one- quarter pound molasses diluted with water; the oats allowance was reduced to a quart a da3^ After eight days the molasses allowance was increased to half a pound per diem, and at the end of a ''fortnight there was a visible alteration in the appear- ance of the horse." After the third week the molasses allow- ance was still further increased and the animal fed underwent a complete change. In feeding cows with sugar some special advice was given. "It is of particular importance to be very economical as to the quantity given; for whilst a small addition of it to their usual food wall be found to improve the quality of their milk, too much, and but a very little too much, will cause them to run to beef more, perhaps, than milk * * * brown sugar is found to contain a considerable quantity of vegetable or essential oil * * * the use of molasses must be the means of a great increase of profit to the butter dairy, and particularly as it can be so conveniently had in winter time, when succulent food is scarce." If sugar were employed in winter, it would diminish the quantity of butter imported. " Sugar or molasses will never from its purity impart any bad taste to the milk, whilst turnips and cabbages, the principal dependence in winter, 20 306 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. are both of them apt to give a most rank and disagreeable taste to both butter and milk." A hundred years ago it was justly argued that "should the plan of using molasses become general, we may soon expect to see butter dairies established in the most remote and barren districts of the kingdom." It was urged in regard to the use of sugar in the West Indies and the British East Indies (for the colonies were badly supplied with beef) that if sugar feeding were resorted to "there is no reason why they should not have beef nearly if not entirely as good as that fed in England." The following original argument was advanced relative to cattle feeding in very hot climates — "the heat of the climate is not inimical to the operation of fattening so much as the rays of the sun, and if this is properly observed it will clear up a mistake very prevalent. The heat of the weather, at least of the West Indies, is verj much in favor of fattening. It is necessary to observe that cattle should be most carefully screened from the rays of the sun. * * * They must be well supplied with water as fresh as possible, into which there should be put as much acid, made of fermented sugar-wash, as will give it a pleasant astringent taste in the mouth, and I would by all means recommend a liberal supply of salt, which is particularly palatable to cattle. * =i^ * A beast getting a sufficient quantity will fatten much sooner, and less food in proportion will do for him than if he did not get any, but above all things it is neces- sary in a warm climate. * * * It is recommended that the wort which is given to cattle in any hot climate be made for some time before using — just long enough to let it go through as much fermentation as will give it a certain vinosity in its taste, and take off from that heaviness which all sweets are apt to have, and which would perhaps otherwise pall upon the appetite and prevent the animals taking a sufficient quantity." Early discussion on cattle feeding with sugar contain many practical suggestions. " Cattle that are out in the open pasture, where they have plenty of water, do not need much attendance; but where they are confined in a house closely tied up, and have not anything but what is given them, a very little neglect on the part of their keeper will show on them; and though the FEEDING OF SUGAR TO CATTLE. 307 cause may remain concealed, the effect will be very evident. An injudicious application of the food, giving too much or too little, neglect of watering, in short, any deviation from what is proper will prevent the beast thriving." It was urged that no experiments in feeding sugar to cattle be done by persons who may neglect details, for the results obtained would be very mis- leading. Oil cake in feeding had at first a certain opposition to con- tend with, but in the end it became popular. Those using the product claimed that the resultant meat had a peculiar taste, which differed from that obtained when the cattle were fed upon grass. An interesting fact was noticed, that cattle thus fed " travelled very badly and fell away on the road. These objec- tions by no means exist in the use of sugar; so far from com- municating anything disagreeable to the beef, it gives it all that fine rich taste and marbled appearance of the finest grass-fed meat. * * * In the West Indian trade it is the custom to feed cattle in those islands with oil cakes. * * * One is surprised that the most nutritive food in nature * * * has been thrown in their way," and not used. As regards feeding molasses to sheep, it was declared that the condition and appearance of the animals would change if the product was given a fair trial. The proposed manner of feeding was as follows: "Let a quantity of molasses, diluted in water, be sprinkled with a common gardener' s-pot and have the sheep driven to the spot; they will not be long there till they find something very palatable in the taste of the grass. * * * They will eat the grass down to the root. By this means they eat away the heart, and in a very short time it will perish and totally disappear, leaving room for a more valuable and useful kind to grow, which the dung of the sheep will contribute to encourage." As regards pen feeding, it was declared that " with molasses and chaff of any description placed in troughs, a mode of man- agement which they will soon come into, they will thrive as well as if wandering over a large pasture. When they once become accustomed to it, the farmer will find it the most ex- peditious mode of fattening and by far the cheapest; a sheep on' sugar-feeding will carry a quantity of fat meat, greater in pro- 308 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. portion than on grass-feeding and in a much shorter time." While it was once thought that it was not desirable to rear litters of pigs during the winter without the assistance of the dairy, it ma)?- be readily "proved that molasses may be used in rearing young pigs with equal advantage as milk, that they will thrive equally well upon it at any season of the year, amply paying for their keeping, and their litters may be reared as well in winter as in summer." The president of the board of agriculture wrote to Ed. T. Waters, Esq., in 1809, asking the following questions in regard to his experiments with molasses in cattle feeding. Question. (1) What had been the food of the stock previous to the experiments? (2) Were they lean, in good order, or advanced in their fattening ? (3) Were they confined to stalls or ranging in the field ? (4) The progress of the quantity of sugar given, and what other food eaten at the same time ? (5) Did the sugar agree with the stock ? (6) Eespecting the state of their dung? (7) Were any trials made on the addition of such substances as would prevent the use of sugar for common domestic purposes? (8) How long was the trial con- tinued ? (9) A local question of price. (10) Was any memorandum made of the water drunk more or less than when on other food ? Answer. (1) Grass. (2) Good store condition on the first of October, when put to molasses. (3) Tied up in stalls the first of October, the time of taking from grass. (4) What hay they would eat, say three trusses per ox per week, with one pound and a half of molasses to three gallon buckets of water; half a pound in each bucket per day. (5) Perfectly. (6) The dung is an object of mate- i-ial attention, as it is the criterion of their doing well or ill; it should come from them in state of consist- ency, not to soil themselves. (7) Certainly not. (8) My vai'ious expei'iments are of two years' standing. (10) They require less than on other food. SUGAR FOR GENERAL FEEDING. 309 (11) Were any observations made (11) Nothing could exceed the on the quality of the flesh produced quality of the flesh, and from the by this food ? If any trials were trial I made on milch cows it cer- made on milch cows, what was the tainly greatly improved their condi- effect on the quality and quantity of tion without any visible increase of the milk ? the quantity of milk. (12) From the result of your trials, (12) The use of the molasses must have you found any estimate of the depend on the price of every other price at which this article of food article of a fattening tendency, would be profitable in the use? (13) Were the stock weighed alive (13) No weight of stock taken at at the commencement of the experi- the time of putting up; their value ment, or the value ascertained by increased in as great a proportion as other means ? if fed by any other means. (14) Were the stock slaughtered (14) The two former sets of oxen from sugar or put to other food? If were slaughtered from molasses; the the latter, were they weighed alive, last two oxen deemed worthy of to ascertain the increase — weight notice at Lord Somerville' s show were gained by the sugar? fed on molasses the 1st of February, and the remaining month upon cake. But between 1850 and 1860 some German investigations were the starting point of considerable information on the subject, and deserve more than a passing notice. It was very natural that as sugar had been used in the form of molasses for forage combinations, the use of sugar alone should have been thought of. The only obstacle in the way was its excessive price; but in 1874, after the duty on sugar had been doi^e away with in England, renewed efforts were made to feed cattle with it, and little by little this has become a regular prac- tice in that country. In Brazil, chickens and the like have been fed with sugar for Sugar for gen- many years back. In India it is frequently customary to sub- f''^' feeding. stitute a portion of cereal for sugar in feeding, with the view to economy. Sugar gives to all animals to which it is fed the best of ap- pearance, explained by the fact that it is a rational substance, and the mammifera consume considerable quantities in the milk during their early feeding. However, it must be noticed that saccharose does not produce the most desirable effects in all cases, and this may be, in a measure, accounted for by de- fective digestive organs which vary with the individual. 310 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. If sugar is not administered too crudely, heavy rations can do very little harm. The absorption is accomplished in the stomach and in the large intestine. There need be no fear as regards intestinal fermentation. In the case of certain animals, such as pigs and horses, large quantities of sugar can be retained in the stomach and yet undergo no fermentation; when this does occur, it will be produced in the large intestine. In the case of ruminants, Werther has noticed various digestive complications. Forages when combined with sugar undergo a slow fermentation in the first stomach, in which comparatively little absorption occurs. A certain portion of the cellulose is dissolved, while the other hydrocarbons undergo changes that are in direct ratio to their solubility and their quantity, and for the stock under consideration, a forage con- taining a large amount of sugar is not desirable. On the other hand, it may be advantageously used in cases where animals have but one stomach. This decreased digesti- bility in the case of ruminants has long since been noticed by Grouven and discussed by him very fully. Lawes has demonstrated that there is every advantage in giving and feeding greater quantities of albuminoids in those cases where considerable sugar is used. Feeding sugar Some very important experiments have been made in the to calves, north of France in feeding sugar to calves. The ration consisted mainly of oleomargarine and raw sugar. Every one knows of the value of milk in feeding very young animals, but it is an expensive food and does not give results commensurate with its cost. For many years past efforts have been made to re- move the cream and substitute in its place a less costly pro- duct, such as cod-liver oil, etc. Several appliances consequently came into existence, permitting a thorough mixing of skimmed milk with fatty substances. The first experiments in this direc- tion were made in this country in the New England States. If oleomargarine is used, it should be heated to 45° to 50° C. (113°-122° F. ), and then placed in the mixer; raw sugar is added in the proportion of two parts sugar for one part oleo- margarine. When this combination was fed to the calves they fattened at a rate of over 2 lbs. per diem. The resulting meat, FEEDING SUGAR TO PIGS. 311 while not of the very first quality, brought a very satisfactory price on the market. The French experiments were upon the same lines. By commencing with 60 grams per diem (2. 10 oz. ) it is possible to force the consumption of oleomargarine to 480 grams (about 1 lb.) for two calves, this being combined with about 18 quarts of skimmed milk. At first about y'^- of an ounce of sugar was used for every quart of milk fed. These experiments lasted from November until February. The orig- inal weight of the calves was 110 lbs., and their final weight 311 lbs., the daily increase being about 2.3 lbs. Practical experiments in Germany seem to show that there is Feeding sugar more money to be made in feeding sugar to pigs at the actual '*• P'S^- price of the market, than to sell it in its raw state. Examples may be given showing that when sugar was selling at $2 per cwt. the resulting increase in swine flesh was worth more than double that amount. Hence if pound per pound increase can be gained by sugar feeding there is that much financial profit. Experiments in Germany were made upon pigs undergoing two modes of feeding: one wdth and the other without sugar. The increase in one case was 570 grams per diem, and the other 600 grams, which data, however, offers nothing especially char- acteristic or interesting. It was proposed that the protein percentage should be in- creased in the rations during a period of four weeks, the normal ration with four pigs being per individual and per diem 550 grams while with sugar it was 1 kilo. This increase of weight of 1 kilo per diem, Maercker says, is a new departure in pig. feeding, and in order to be profitably applied, it demands spe- cial privileges in the way of government taxation. This, it is thovight, may be a starting point for numerous changes in the whole question. The most recent experiments in this direction were with a ration consisting of potatoes, milk, crushed barley and sugar, having a nutritive ratio of 1:8, feeding as much as 12 kilos of sugar per 1000 kilos live weight; pigs of an average weight of 50 kilos to 55 kilos showed an increase in weight per diem of 957 grams, while without sugar, and using the same ration, the increase was only 500 grams. 312 FEEDING WITH SUGAE BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. The Proskau Milk Institution undertook experiments in feeding to pigs a mixture of sugar, rye bran and pulverized meat to determine the- economical yield of milk under the respective influences of the substances mentioned; it was concluded that for fattening, sugar does not give the same economical results as cheap fodders, notwithstanding the fact that its use gives excel- lent results. As to the quality of the resulting meat, its constit- uents were the least satisfactory. Other experiments of the same kind were conducted at another institution, their object Comparison be- being to determine the comparative value of sugar, starch and tween sugar and niolasses. The combinations were such as to retain the same quantities of protein, fatty constituents and non-nitrogenous substances in each fodder used. The molasses was always better than sugar for the purpose in view. Molasses, however, could never prove economical, unless the cost of a pound of sugar in that form was less than the cost of a pound of starch. Molasses did not give any special characteristic to the flesh of the animal fed. Opinions re- According to Zimmermann, 1 kilo of sugar is followed by specting sugar 0.72 kilo increase of weight. Lehmann states that this same quantity of sugar will give ^ kilo of fat. It is to be noticed that the fat produced under these circumstances is flabby, but as a geiTeral rule the marketable meat increases. The amount that can be fed to growing pigs is 0.5 to 0.75 kilo of first-grade sugar per head and per diem. It is found desirable to add to the ration 10 grams of salt. In conclusion, as regards the question of pig feeding with sugar, it is to be noted that the best results are obtained with these animals. They do not like sugar, but their organism is so arranged as to derive a benefit from it. Numerous experiments have been made in feeding sheep with sugar, but most of them have not been a success. Special sugar Mention should also be made of the experiments of Hlavitschka combinations, and Drucker, who have transformed fresh blood into a condition that will possess keeping power, by the addition of salt and alcohol. This product is heated to 100° C. with a forage, and is then covered with a slight layer of sugar. Economic In Continental Europe a question which is constantly dis- considerations. cogged, is the utilization of the over-production of beet sugar. SUGAR RATIONS FOR BULLS AND HEIFERS. 313 Now that there are excellent prospects of the United States manufacturing all the sugar consumed, beet-sugar manufact- urers of France and Germany are asking themselves to what new use can sugar be put? The cheapness of sugar oh the British market has been the starting point of a new jam and other allied industries, and efforts have been made to feed cattle with sugar that sold for two cents a pound. On certain farms coming under the writer's notice satisfactory results have been obtained. In some experimental stations of France the question has been seriously discussed, and the experiments made by M. Malpeaux, professor of an influential agricultural school of the country'' are of interest. The importance of sugar in the development of muscle was above referred to, but it is interest- ing to add that sugar, which is a carbohydrate, also fattens and nourishes man or animal when it is eaten. with certain modera- tion. During the entire century the authorities have never exactly agreed as to the origin of fat in the animal frame, but of late the question has been settled, and the experiments at Rothamsted, England, have demonstrated beyond cavil that sugar could be transformed into fat. The practical experiments recently made in France upon Experimental bulls and heifers are of more than ordinary interest. The ^"^^"^ "*'*"^ daily rations consisted of 4.4 lbs. ^clover hay, 11 lbs. oat straw, . ., 66 lbs. special corn fodder, 2.2 lbs. cotton oil cake, 2.2 lbs. grin dings of rye and beans, to which was added one pound of sugar. The experiments lasted fifty days; during the first twenty-five days only one bull received sugar, the other animal being used as a standard of comparison; the result was a gain in weight of 6.6 lbs. in favor of sugar. The roles were reversed during the next twenty-five days with an increase of 8.8 lbs. in favor of sugar. The increase of live weight for the bulls with sugar rations was 79.2 lbs., while without sugar it was 63.8 lbs., or a gain of 15.4 lbs. With sugar the first bull had a daily increase of 1.5 lbs., and without sugar the increase was 1.3 lbs. ; with sugar the increase per diem of the second bull was 1.7 lbs., and without sugar, 1.3 lbs. With the heifers the increase was even more evident; the first heifer with sugar had a daily increase of 1.7 lbs., and without sugar, 1.5 lb.; with sugar the 314 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. increase per diem of the second heifer was 1.85 lbs., and with- out sugar, 1.4 lbs. The conclusion is that the average daily increase in favor of sugar varied from 0.2 lb. to 0.4 lb. An interesting calculation has been made respecting the money- profits of sugar-feeding over and above the regular rations, and it is found that for the two bulls it was 11 cents, for the two heifers 32 cents, which amounts are hardly worth considering. Influence of Very important observations have been made respecting the sugar upon influence of sugar upon the quantity of milk. Experiments were made upon four cows, and were conducted very much the same as the foregoing. The conclusions were that sugar does not increase the flow of milk, nor does it increase the fatty sub- stances. It was also shown that sugar in the ration has no influence upon the casein and the percentage of lactose is not modified. Mineral salts were found to be 7 per cent, with or without sugar. The proportion of free and volatile acids in- creases in butter from cows having received sugar in moderate quantities. The fact is, none of these experiments can be con- sidered as conclusive; hence the importance of still further in- vestigation. It is thought that if it w^ere possible to determine by a certain formula the amount of sugar to be used in com- bination with a well-combined ration very different results from those under consideration would be obtained, and the advantages of sugar would then be demonstrated; but as this has yet to be done, the present outlook does not seem favorable for its general use when milk, cream and butter are the objects in view. On the other hand, for fattening purposes there can be no doubt that in countries where sugar is very cheap, such as England, a farmer would find it to his advantage to use sugar in the daily rations of animals being fattened. Feeding horses As early as 1880 Prof. Grandeau commenced a series of ex- wrth sugar, periments in Paris to determine what sort of feed was best suited for horses, when at rest in the stable, when walking and trotting, also when working slowly and rapidly, etc. All these experiments, without an exception, have led to the very im- portant conclusion that for the producton of energy and work the most important element to be furnished is an ample supply of carbohydrates; nitrogen entered the working ration to make FEEDING HORSES WITH SUGAR. 315 up for slight muscle losses. The important part of the con- clusion is that there is an actual economy in the utilization of the amylaceous principles of fodders as compared with the nitrogenous elements. During 1898 experiments were made to determine what influence sugar had when fed in different quantities. The full details of the observations are not at hand, but an outline of the principal results is not without interest. The experiments were upon three horses, as near the same build, age, weight, etc., as was possible. All the urine and excrements were collected and analyzed; the weight of the fodder consumed was exactly determined; the volume of water drunk exactly noted; the horses were weighed several times a dsLj. The quantity of sugar fed daily varied from 600 grams to 2.400 kilos (1.32 lbs. to 5.4 lbs.) per diem. The feeds used, either alone or combined with sugar, were hay, oat-straw and corn. Maltine was the principal source of nitrogen. The fol- lowing table shows the results: Experimental Eations Fed to Horses (1898). Feed. Substances digested per horse and per diem. Digestible substances per ] 00 kilos, live weight. Nutritive ratio. Caloric value. Nitrogenous. Non-nitro- genous. Grams. 263.8 318.4 778.1 243.0 Grams. •2,979.5 4,298.2 4,388.6 5,422 Kilos. 7,800 11,300 18,100 13,900 1:11.3 1:13.6 1:5.6 1:22.3 Cal. 13,429.4 Hay and sugar 19,070.7 21,572.6 Corn and sugar 23.339.6 The practical conclusions to be drawn from these different rations are given in the following table: Kesults of Eations as to Work and Weight (1898). Feed. Work accom- plished. AVater drunk per kilo of dry substance. Daily variation in the weight of the horse. Kilogrammeter. 230,189 230,497 221,906 262,920 3,833 3,000 3,900 1,900 Kilos. —0.300 Hay and sugar +0.120 4-0.128 Corn and sugar -0.200 316 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. This data shows that of all the feeds used for working horses, hay is the least desirable for keeping the animal in a normal condition. The maximum work was accomplished with a ration containing the smallest percentage of nitrogenous ele- ments (243 grams ration corn and sugar), and the richest in hydrocarbons, mainly sugar (5.422 kilos, or nearly 12 lbs.). The work increased with the caloric value of the ration, and the sugar ration in every respect was the most desirable. An inter- esting paradox in these experiments, and to many it will be a source of astonishment, was that the thirst of the animal did not increase with the quantity of sugar consumed. The most work was accomplished when the nutritive ratio was only 1:22.3, and the horse receiving the largest amount of nitrogenous feed, accomplished the least. Difficulties to A great obstacle found in the use of sugar as a forage in contend with in Europe, up to the present time at least, has been the fiscal ques- tion, as both in Germany and France the home taxation of the feeding. i • i i • • ^ • product IS such that its expense is too great tor its general in- troduction for feeding. On the part of these Governments, there has always been a certain apprehension of the possibility of frauds arising from the withdrawal of the existing modes of taxation. It has been suggested that sugar be mixed with ver- mouth powder, also lamp soot and salt, so as to render its use for human consumption impossible. Gonnermann has lately proposed the denaturation of sugar by the means of peat. The German government in 1891 made some changes in the existing law and determined that the denaturated sugar should not be taxed provided it was made under the control of the state. FEEDING STANDARDS. 317 Feeding Standards.* A — Per Day aj^td One Thousand Pounds Live Weight, t Cattle fed. Oxen at rest in stall Wool sheep, coarser breeds Wool sheep, finer breeds ■ . • ■ Oxen moderately worked • Oxen heavily worked Horses lightly worked Horses moderately worked Horses heavily worked Milk cows, Wolff's standard Milk cows, Wisconsin standard Fattening oxen, preliminary period. . ■ Fattening oxen, main period Fattening oxen, finishing period . Fattening sheep, preliminary period • Fattening sheep, main period ■ Fattening swine, preliminary period- Fattening swine, main period ■ Fattening swine, finishing period . . •- Growing cattle : Average live weight Age. Months. per head. 2—3 160 Ihs. 3—6 300 lbs. B— 12 500 lbs. 12—18 700 lbs. 18-24 850 lbs. • , Growing sheep : 5—6 56 lbs. 6—8 67 lbs. 8—11 75 lbs. 11—15 82 lbs. 15—20 85 lbs. s ft Digestible. p o '-a o H Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 17.5 0.7 83 9.0 20.0 1.2 10.8 12.0 22.5 1.5 12.0 13.5 24.0 1.6 12.0 13.6 26.0 2.4 14.3 16.7 20.0 1.5 10.4 11.9 21.0 1.7 11.8 13.5 23.0 2.3 14.3 16.6 24.0 2.5 134 15.9 24.5 2.2 14.9 17.1 27.0 2.5 16.1 18.6 26.0 3.0 16.4 19.4 25.0 2.7 16.2 18.9 26.0 3.0 16.3 19.3 25.0 3.5 15.8 19.3 36.0 5.0 27.5 32.5 31.0 4.0 24.0 28.0 23.5, 2.7 17.5 20.2 22.0 4.0 18.3 22 3 23.4 3.2 15.8 19.0 24.0 2.6 14.9 17.4 24.0 2.0 13.9 15.9 24.0 1.6 12.7 14.3 28.0 3.2 17.4 20.6 25.0 2.7 14.7 17.4 23.0 2.1 12.5 14.6 22.5 1.7 11.8 13.5 22.0 1.4 11.1 12.6 ^ 1:11.9 1: 9.0 1: 8.0 1: 7.5 1: 6.0 6.9 6.9 6.2 5.4 6.8 1: 6.4 1: 5.5 1: 6.0 1: 5.4 1: 4.5 1: 5.5 1: 6.0 1: 6.5 1: 4.6 1: 4.9 1: 6.0 1: 7.0 1: 8.0 5.4 5.4 6.0 7.0 8.0 * These feeding standards are taken mainly from German sources, but have been arranged by Armsby, '■ Circular of Information No. 1," Pennsylvania State College. t The fattening rations are calculated for one thousand pounds live weight at the be- ginning of the fattening. 318 FEEDING WITH SUGAR BEETS, SUGAR, ETC. B — Pee Day and Head. (V a Q Lbs. 42.0 34.0 31.5 27.0 21.0 3.3 7.0 12.0 16.8 20.4 1.6 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 3.4 3.9 4.6 5.2 Digestible. Cattle fed. .5 'S 2 Lbs. 7.5 5.0 4.3 3.4 2.5 0.6 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.18 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.38 0.50 0.54 0.58 0.62 1 6 3 o o 1 3 Growing fat pigs : Average live weight Age. Months. per head. 2—3 50 lbs. 3—5 100 lbs 5—6 125 lbs. 6—8 170 lbs 8—12 250 lbs. Growing cattle : 2—3 150 lbs 3—6 300 lbs. 6—12 500 lbs. 12-18 700 lbs. 18—24 850 lbs. Growing sheep : 5—6 66 lbs. 6—8 67 lbs. 8—11 75 lbs. 11—15 82 lbs. 15—20 85 lbs Growing fat swine : 2—3 50 lbs. 3—5 100 lbs. 5—6 125 lbs. 6—8 170 lbs. 8—12 250 lbs. Lbs. 30.0 25.0 23.7 20.4 16.2 2.8 4.9 7.5 9.7 11.1 0.974 0.981 0.953 0.975 0.955 1.50 2.50 2.96 3.47 4.05 Lbs. 37.5 30.0 28.0 23.8 18.7 3.4 5.9 8.8 11.1 12.5 1.154 1.161 1.113 1.115 1.075 1.88 3.00 3.50 4.05 4.67 1:4.0 1:5.0 1:5.5 1:6.0 1:6.5 1:4.6 1:4.9 1:6.0 1:7.0 1:8.0 1:5.4 1:5.4 1:6.0 1:7.0 1:8.0 1:4.0 1:5.0 1.5.5 1:6.0 1:6.5 RATIONS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 319 Table for Computing Rations for Farm Animals.* Digestible Nutrients in Stated Amounts oe the more Common Feeding Stuffs. Kind and amount of feed. SOILING FODDER. Fodder corn, 1 lb Total diy matter. 5 lbs. 15 •' . 20 " . 25 " . 80 " . 35 " . 40 " . Peas and oats, 1 lb • 5 lbs " " 15 " . « " 20 " . ((