Book CopightN". &^ CDIVRIGHT DEPOSIT. SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION ,^ By Dr. J: M. RICE Author of 'the public school, system op the united states, "the rational spelling book," etc. NEW YORK PUBLISHERS PRINTING COMPANY 1913 0^^ V ^^\ <^^ Copyright, 1912, by J. M. RICE ©C1.A328742 y\^ " 1 . INTRODUCTION This book consists of a collection of twelve arti- cles bearing upon the causes of success and failure in the teaching of the so-called essential branches in the elementary schools. The essays, which were based on tests extended to a large number of chil- dren attending schools in various parts of our coun- try, were published at intervals in The Forum. Although the total number of pupils examined was not far from 100,000, I did not utilize the work of more than some 50,000 for strictly scientific pur- poses. Upon the other papers, I did considerable labor as well, but I decided to discard them be- cause the investigation was interrupted for a time through pressure of work after I had become the editor of the magazine, and I thought it advisable to begin anew with fresh material when its con- version into a quarterly gave me the required leisure to resume it. Moreover, I also felt that I could safely dispense with the older papers, as I was satisfied before publishing the later articles that the 50,000 sufficed to furnish all the data needed to answer the purpose for which the tests had been intended. The material that I shall place before the reader will be presented in practically the same form in [v] INTRODUCTION which the articles originally appeared. By means of a careful revision, it would have been possible for me to curtail the discussion to some extent in the first four chapters. However, as, in certain re- spects, the work is admittedly the first of its kind that has ever appeared in print,^ I decided, if only for whatever historical interest there may be in it, to give it here substantially as it first appeared. Moreover, with a single exception, the articles are in their original order. The exception was made in the case of the chapter on Educational Research, to which, by reason of its scope, I gave the leading position, although, chronologically, it would be the sixth. The motive that had prompted me to take upon my shoulders this task — which, as the reader may well imagine, was not a very simple one — was the desire to learn whether or not it was possible so to extend the curriculum as to include the subjects demanded by the new school of education without detriment to the three R's. In the series of articles that I had previously written for The Forum as a result of visits to the schools of thirty-six cities,^ I had laid stress not so much on results as on the contrast in the class-room spirit that existed be- tween the old-fashioned, mechanical schools, with their narrow curriculum, on the one hand, and the * See Note at close of Introduction. ^The series was composed of nine articles which appeared in the issues from October, 1892, to June, 1893, inclusively. The essays, with considerable additional material, were subsequently published in book form by the Century Company, as "The Pub- lic School System of the United States." [vi] INTRODUCTION modernized schools, with their extended curriculum, on the other. And while few, if any, appeared to express doubt in regard to the desirability of main- taining the modern spirit, doubt was expressed on many sides from the standpoint of practicability, the claim of the doubters being that, when too many branches were introduced, and things were made too pleasant for the children, the results in the essentials were bound to suffer. In opposition to this, however, the progressives claimed that the new spirit and curriculum did not tend in the least to militate against results in the essentials, but that, on the contrary, the pupils in their schools were much better grounded in the essentials than those in the old-fashioned, mechanical schools, with their much narrower curriculum. As the question here involved was clearly one of facts, I at least attempted to settle the controversy from that standpoint, thus making a departure from the course ordinarily pursued in endeavoring to solve problems in the educational field. Nor do I believe that the attempt was made altogether in vain, because I feel confident that I have discovered not only the fundamental cause of the unsatisfac- tory results that are found in so many of the ele- mentary schools of our country, but also a remedy that is capable of eliminating it. Moreover, the remedy does not partake of the nature of a fad, but is also fundamental in character, because it means no less than the introduction of scientific management into the conduct of our schools. In speaking of scientific management, in this con- [vii] INTRODUCTION nection, the reader will be likely to gain the im- pression that I am referring to the business side of school affairs, while, in fact, it is the educational side that I have in mind. The school has but a single purpose, which is that of educating children. Consequently, in the strict sense, scientific manage- ment in education can only be defined as a system of management specifically directed toward the elimination of waste in teaching, so that the chil- dren attending the schools may be duly rewarded for the expenditure of their time and effort. And, as will be seen in the text, my investigation indi- cated that, insofar as the results in the essentials were concerned, this was the case in not over one- third of the schools examined, two-thirds of them falling below a reasonable minimum standard, and half of these verj?^ far below, the difference between the best and the poorest third representing the equivalent of about two years of schooling, while in the more extreme instances the difference was even greater. But these figures do not show the whole truth, because this is not appreciated until we consider the other side of the story, namely, that when the pupils of the poorer schools graduate after an attendance of eight years, they are no farther advanced than the pupils of the better schools who are still in the fifth or sixth grade, and therefore have from two to three years of elementary educa- tion still before them. That a phenomenon of this nature would appear to indicate that there was something wrong with the management in education goes without saying. [ viii ] INTRODUCTION There is, indeed, but one contingency that would serve to render such a conclusion invalid, namely, that the differences in the results could have been accounted for by the differences in the conditions. However, as I was fully aware, before starting the investigation, that the results of my tests would be worthless for scientific purposes unless the con- ditions were fully considered, I made an effort to study the latter from every conceivable point of view, so that, in this regard, my work is not vul- nerable. Indeed, I carried the idea so far that the working tables upon which my articles on spelling were based contained no less than sixty-eight col- umns, one of these only showing the results, while sixty-seven showed the conditions. This matter will be fully commented on in the respective chapters; but I wish to say here in passing that the differ- ences in the results could not be accounted for by the difference in the conditions, excepting, perhaps, to a very small extent. For this reason, but one de- duction from my tests is possible, namely, that the differences in the results were due to differences in the quality of the teaching, so that it is upon this side that we must concentrate our attention in our efforts to improve the schools. That the business affairs of the schools should also be managed scientifically goes without saying, because there is naturally an advantage in an ad- ministrative system that works smoothly and effi- ciently, and without unnecessary waste of funds. But matters that strictly belong to the functions of the school board bear no direct logical relation [ix] INTRODUCTION to the results obtained in the individual branches in the class-room; the latter being a field that lies altogether within the province of the professional corps. The school board, as a body representing the people, may be logically empowered to deter- mine what branches shall be taught beyond the essentials, and also to decide what shall be done for the benefit of the exceptional children, as well as what special institutions shall be maintained. Or, in other words, it has a logical right to attend to all matters that could be intelligently deter- mined by the referendum. This, moreover, would include the power to make at least certain appoint- ments to the educational staff, although how far it should be empowered to go in this direction beyond the appointment of the superintendent is still re- garded as a debatable question. If it should be given the authority to go very far, it is evident that it could exert an unfavorable influence on the results, in the positive sense, by failing to make the best appointments for the money at its disposal, thereby affording an opportunity for the educational heads to shift the responsibility for the results, at least in part, upon the shoulders of the members of the school board. And what is true of the appointment of the educational workers is no less true of their discharge. However, as- suming that the conditions are such in any given locality that the members of the board are actuated by the highest motives only, and therefore make it possible for the educators to travel along the lines of least resistance in developing the educational [x] INTRODUCTION work — a condition that is not infrequently found — the board does not thereby exert a favorable in- fluence on the results, in the positive sense. What it does, under those circumstances, means no more than to refrain from putting any needless obstruc- tions in the way of the educators, as a consequence of which the responsibility for the results in the branches that are taught is placed where it prop- erly belongs, namely, upon the educational heads. The philosophy of this is that, while a board composed of members who are disposed to take ad- vantage of their powers for selfish ends, whether political or otherwise, may directly exert an un- favorable influence on the results, this cannot be said of the converse, because the highest stand that a board can take in respect to the attainment of results, insofar as the curriculum extends, is the negative one of refraining from hampering the edu- cational workers in their efforts to obtain the best possible results. And the negative stand cannot, of course, exert any direct influence on the side of improvement, because results do not spring into being spontaneously. The ideal basis for the achievement of results, then, would appear to be represented by a system under which the educational heads were given full opportunity to do what they believed to be the best in regard to the branches that they were authorized to teach, among which, naturally, the three R's are always included. Now, what we should expect to find, under these circumstances, would be, of course, that the results were on a higher plane in the lo- [xi] INTRODUCTION calities where the schools were conducted on that basis than in those where they were not. As it so happens, however, that the data collected during my investigations failed to show any such condition, it is evident that the mere separation of the busi- ness from the educational side of school affairs will not in itself suffice to assure the achievement of satisfactory results. That the separation would serve to pave the way for the attainment of the best possible results in the class-room seems to me to be non-debatable. But my data would appear to prove that actual success cannot be depended upon even under those conditions unless the proper thing is done by the educational workers after they have been given their pedagogical freedom. That, from the standpoint of scientific manage- ment, the school board cannot be regarded as the head of the educational department in matters pedagogical may be made clear in a very few words. Thus, the pedagogical system, as a unit, may be looked upon as a scries of five elements placed one above the other; being, from below upward, the child, the teacher, the principal, the superintendent, and the top. In practice, things are so arranged that the child is instructed and supervised by the teacher, the teacher by the principal, and the prin- cipal in turn by the superintendent. This arrange- ment is theoretically justified on the ground that, in the pedagogical sense, the teacher is supposed to be wiser than the child, the principal than the teacher, and the superintendent than the principal. Leaving aside the fact that this theory does not [xii] INTRODUCTION always hold in practice — because not all principals are pedagogically wiser than their teachers or all superintendents than their principals — and assuming that it does, then it is obvious that we can only go from the sublime to the ridiculous if we place above the superintendent, for the purpose of direct- ing him pedagogically, persons who are not sup- posed to have any pedagogical qualifications what- ever ; so that, from this point of view, they can only be looked upon, theoretically, as occupying a posi- tion that is even a step lower than that of the teacher, being, in fact, intermediate between herself and the child. Now, when, in consequence of the recognition of the contradiction, the educational is separated from the business department, this particular absurdity is eliminated. Nevertheless, that a change of this nature does not constitute a solution of the problem is evident from the fact that it simply takes away the restraining hand of the board, without putting anything else in its place. In other words, what happens, under those circumstances, is that a trans- formation takes place as a result of which there is no longer in existence an authorized entity that stands above the superintendent, to whom he is directly responsible for his work. In this way, the superintendent becomes the official top of the sys- tem — a law unto himself, and the sole judge of his own efficiency. Under these conditions, the results achieved in the schools of his community will be purely a matter of chance. If he has the qualifica- tions needed to bring about efficiency, the general [xiii ] INTRODUCTION run of the work in his schools will be good; if not, it will be poor; and the children must be satisfied with what they get. In my opinion, then, the solution of the problem will lie not in eliminating the fifth element, thus converting the superintendent into the top, but in placing at the top, in lieu of the school board, an entity to which the superintendent will be logically subordinate in the pedagogical sense, however great his qualifications may be, or however great they may become. This means that we must use as the top something that will be intrinsically worthy of recog- nition as such at all times and under all conditions, and above which no logical one is cither possible or conceivable. This is neither more nor less than the truth, to the extent that it is known. In prac- tice, this would be represented objectively by a series of standards based upon the results that have been achieved in the more successful schools laboring under ordinary conditions. While standards of this nature do not yet exist, the facts to be presented in this book will suffice to prove that their establishment lies well within the range of possibility. And when they shall have been not only established, but utilized in the proper way, there is no reason why the schools should not be, on the whole, very much improved. Although a system of this nature could not be expected to bring about perfection, there is no doubt that it could at least serve to lead to a very much greater degree of equality than we have to-day, and this mainly as a result of raising the standard of the [ xiv ] INTRODUCTION truly weak schools to such an extent that they would be able to meet the requirements of a fixed reason- able minimum. A scientific system of pedagogical management would demand fundamentally the measurement of results in the light of fixed standards. But while this proposition will no doubt seem both reasonable and plausible to the uninitiated, it nevertheless stands for a complete revolution in the educational field, because under its terms the basis of super- vision would be no longer represented by personal opinions, but by standards based on facts derived from the school of universal experience. And if we wish to accept this as a guide in the conduct of our schools, it will simply be necessary to inaugurate a system with that in view. In the individual chapters, we shall feel our way toward the goal; and in the final one I have given the outline of a plan that I look upon, at least in the main, as both practical and feasible. What must, of course, be borne in mind is that the establishment of standards will not in itself suffice to raise the results to a higher plane, as it is evident that this can do no more than furnish us with a rational basis for laboring in the right direction. In order that the standards might serve the purpose for which they were intended, it would be necessary to see that they were properly utilized by the superintendent. This, however, could not be depended upon unless some form of supervision should be exercised over the superintendent him- self. At the first glance it might appear that this [xv] INTRODUCTION suggestion simply carried us back to our starting point in calling for a human element to direct the work of the superintendent. But this is a mere de- lusion, because the supervision would be exercised from an entirely different standpoint. Thus, what would now be done would not lie in telling him what to do and how to do it, but the supervision over him would be limited to a study of the results achieved in the individual schools and class-rooms, and then seeing that the work was improved in those instances in which it did not come up to the demanded standard. And, if the standards should be clearly defined, this would not require any special pedagogi- cal insight, but would be a matter coming within the range of any intelligent citizen sufficiently interested in learning whether the school attended by his own children was doing as well as it could be expected to do under the existing conditions. In conclusion, I desire to say a word in regard to what I look upon as the essential difference be- tween scientific and unscientific management. And I cannot express my views upon this subject more tersely than to declare that, in my opinion, the former bears the same relation to the latter as the conception of universal bears to that of individual experience. Thus, as I see it, scientific manage- ment indicates that it is the intention of the de- partment to direct its activities upon the basis of the best that is known, and unscientific management the intention to direct them upon the basis of the past experiences of the individual at the top, re- gardless of what those of others may have been [ xvi ] INTRODUCTION in regard to the issues in question. Consequently, under unscientific management, the one at the top is a law unto himself, while, under scientific man- agement, he is subordinate to the higher law. Or, in other words, in the one case the individual occupies a position above the universal, while in the other he oc- cupies a position subordinate to it. And no extended discussion is required to explain how inordinately wasteful the methods are liable to become when the person in charge fails to avail himself of the benefit of the knowledge to be derived as a result of the combined experiences of the hosts of others who have labored in the same field. Since the publication of the last article in this series, I have given a great deal of thought to the particular nature of the force that would be re- quired to prevent the individual at the top from taking a position above the truth, that is, a position where he would have an opportunity to ignore the facts derived from universal experience, and, in- stead, give to his own opinions the right of way. And, as a result of such reflection, I have succeeded in devising a method of supervision on a basis that would, I believe, make it possible for us to carry out this ideal in practice. Naturally, a plan of supervision of this nature would not apply to edu- cation alone, but would be applicable to all depart- ments in the public service. The work in which the idea is embodied will logically follow the present one. Note. — In support of my statement that this is admittedly the first work of the kind to appear in print, I shall quote a [ xvii ] INTRODUCTION few references. The passages are particularly gratifying to me because of the rather unusual circumstance that the re- sults of the initial investigation were so very closely, if not coni})letely, verified by those that were subsequently made by others. "EnucATTOKAL PSYCHOLOGY/' by Edward L. Thorndike, Professor of Educational Psychology, Teachers' College, Col- umbia University: " Dr. Rice's study is quoted at some length, because it was the first of a series of studies of the actual results of school work, still few in number, but destined to increase ra])i(lly willi increasing scientific interest in school adminis- tration." (Pj). Ii35 and h26.) "The near future will doubtless see a rapid increase in the number and improvement in the quality of studies of the environmental causes of individual differences in mental traits. Rice's investigation of the differences due to different features of administration and teaching has been followed by similar studies by Cornman ('02), Stone ('08), Courtis ('09), and Thorndike ('10). Experts in education are becoming experi- mentalists and (juantitalivc thinkers, and are seeking to verify or refute the established beliefs concerning the effects of educational forces upon human nature. Students of history, government, sociology, economics, ethics, and religion are be- coming, or will soon become, quantitative thinkers concerning tlie shares of the various ])hysical and social forces in making individual men differ in j)olitics, crime, wealth, service, ideal- ism, or whatever trait concerns man's welfare." (P. 135.) "Sim:m,in(5 in TiiK Elementary School," by Dr. Oliver P. Cornman, Asst. Supt. of Schools, Philadelphifi, Pa.: "One extensive statistical inquiry, however, has been con- ducted by Dr. J. M. Rice. Conspicuous not only for the singularity of its presence within the field of ])edagogical discussion, but equally so for the skill and discernment with which it was carried to a conclusion, this investigation has done much to clear up vague o})inions as to the place of spelling in the elementary school, and to establish many im- [ xviii ] INTRODUCTION portant facts concerning the effect of the age, environment, etc., of the pupil, and of the methods and other factors of teaching upon the results of instruction. The writer has found this investigation very suggestive, and has employed some of Dr. Rice's tests in experiments to be described later." (P. 5.) "I have quoted this conclusion of Dr. Rice's because it paraphrases so well the deductions which I believe should be made from the evidence which has been submitted, and it seems especially appropriate to emphasize in this way the arrival at the same point by two such different routes as those taken by Dr, Rice and the writer." (P. 39.) "These conclusions indicate the comparative unimportance of the spelling drill as contributory to accuracy in spelling. They suggest also that we may not only agree with Dr. Rice in his contention that more than fifteen minutes daily spelling drill is time thrown away, but may go farther than he felt warranted in going, and dispense with the si)elling drill alto- gether without prejudice to the educational interests of the pupils." (Pp. 44 and 45.) "AiuTiiMETiCAL ABILITIES," by Dr. Cliff Winfield Scott, a dis- sertation for the Ph.D. at Columbia University: "So far as the author is aware, the only previous compre- hensive attempt to determine and account for arithmetical Abilities is that of Dr. Rice. While, as will be pointed out, there are several limitations to this study, its importance can hardly be overestimated. Previous to it, practice was almost entirely based on opinion; and the success of practice was almost entirely judged by the enthusiasm of those who de- fended their opinions." (P. 95.) "Environment })robably has little effect on arithmetical abil- ities. Of the five highest systems, the majority of pupils of one came from a crowded tenement district, those of two from exceptionally good homes, and those of two from fair. Prac- tically the same distribution is found among the five systems standing lowest." (P. 44.) "As anything less than .25 indicates little relationship and [ xix ] INTRODUCTION the average of the averages of these coefficients is only .176, there is little relationship indicated between the time expended by these twenty-six systems and the abilities produced." (P. 59.) "The greatest need shown by the research is standards of achievement. That the great variability herein shown would exist if school authorities possessed adequate means of measur- ing products is inconceivable; and it is believed that the present study will help standardize the work in arithmetic for the first six grades. Anyone who wishes may know how his system or school compares with the representative systems of the country." (P. 90.) [xx] CONTENTS PAGE I. Educational Research 1 II. Obstacles to Rational Educational Reform 20 III. The Essentials in Elementary Education . 37 IV. Economy of Time in Teaching .... 53 V. The Futility of the Spelling Grind . . 65 VI. The Futility of the Spelling Grind, II . . 82 VIL A Test in Arithmetic 100 VIII. Causes of Success and Failure in Arith- metic 126 IX. Talent vs. Training in Teaching— Arith- metic Concluded 151 X. The Results of a Test in Language . . 180 XI. The Need of a New Basis in Education . . 220 XII. The Need of a New Basis in Supervision . 250 [ xxi ] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION Althottgii many of the problems concerned in elementary education have confronted the world for centuries, and many great thinkers and practical educators have endeavored to aid in their solution, the entire field is still involved in uncertainty and indefiniteness. We have opinions innumerable, but no facts are at hand in support of our opinions. Educators are divided into creeds ; and while the members of the same creed are frequently in har- mony with one another, and sometimes form a mu- tual admiration society, there are few points on which the different creeds themselves agree. It may be said, therefore, without any exaggera- tion, that up to the present time the science of peda- gogy has been in its entirety a structure based on no stronger foundation than one of opinions. In this regard pedagogy represents a remarkably anomalous condition; for, as the department that points the way to the development of the sciences, 'July-September, 1902. [1] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION it has itself failed to adopt what it has long been recommending to other scientific pursuits, namely, the inductive method of study. Its works consist of opinions, of reviews of opinions, and of opinions based on opinions, and therefore of a mass of con- tradictory material; and no really sustained for- ward movement may be expected until the conflict- ing views are subjected to analysis in the light of clear and unmistakable facts. In view of the circumstance that during its long period of existence pedagogy has established no facts, that side by side with it, in other fields, facts have multiplied and developed into sciences, it is perfectly legitimate to ask whether pedagogy will admit of purely scientific treatment, whether it is possible for us to accumulate such facts as will lead to the discovery of certain fundamental pedagogical laws and certain methods and processes upon which all educators must agree. Those who have never looked upon the educational problem from this rather novel standpoint will in- stinctively answer the question in the negative. They will say that the problem is complicated by so many elements which enter into the development of the child mind that no definite conclusions can be drawn. They will be supported in this view by the fact that even broad-minded teachers of wide ex- perience differ on the most elementary points com^ ing under their daily observation. And this further item may be mentioned in their favor, that even the same teachers are continually changing their views, that they no longer believe in one year what they [2] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH firmly believed the year before, and that a year later they will begin to feel that their second theory was wrong and the first was right, and so on indefinitely. The evidence in favor of the negative side, though exceedingly strong, is, however, not at all conclu- sive. That in spite of all efforts the whole field of pedagogy should be still so very indefinite proves without doubt that, as a whole, the problem is a complicated one ; but it does not prove that we have availed ourselves of all possible means that may be of service in its solution. It may be that the nature of the child mind is so elusive, and the influence of natural endowment, heredity, and environment so varied, that all definite observation is rendered im- possible. Or, on the other hand, it may be that we have not yet applied the proper methods of ob- servation. If the former is true, we shall have to abandon the idea of ever developing a real science of pedagogy, and continue to grope our way in the dark. If, on the other hand, the latter is the case, then we must see what can be done to improve our methods of observation. In my opinion, both propositions may be answered in the affirmative, and this for the reason that the problem of elementary education presents two dis- tinct phases, one of which is involved in subtleties and belongs to the department of philosophy, while the other is much more superficial, and is, in large part, a question of science. Each one of these phases has its special goals, and each its special means of reaching those goals. The trouble lies in the fact that the two sides have never been properly [3] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION discriminated. The first includes all those factors which relate to the development of character, while the other is concerned with the acquisition of knowl- edge and skill. Broadly speaking, the means employed in the development of character — the will, the tastes, the habits, the feelings — are represented by the course of study as a whole, and concern the ques- tion of what the schools shall teach, the branches, and to a certain extent the material in each branch. As the composite picture of what the future man or woman should be differs in different individuals and is a matter of philosophical creed, the broader aims of the elementary schools will always differ more or less in accordance with creeds. Therefore, in countries, such as the United States, where in- dividual communities are free to conduct their own schools as they choose, the courses of study will con- tinue to differ in different localities, and will repre- sent the nature of the inhabitants, the stamp of the members of the school board, and the individual opin- ions of the superintendent. The means employed in the acquisition of knowl- edge and skill, on the other hand, represent the ele- ments involved in carrying out the mandates of the course of study, and are matters of detail in school work. They include the division of the material of each branch into parts suitable for each grade, the amount of time to be devoted to each subject in each grade, the methods of teaching each subject, etc. Although this aspect of the problem, as well as the other, has been thus far treated from the [4] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH standpoint of creed, it is not a matter of creed, but one of scientific inquiry, and calls for treatment on the inductive plan. That it constitutes the heart of the problem of practical pedagogy, and merits careful consideration on the part of all thinking people, I shall endeavor to make clear during the course of this chapter. On the practical side of school work, two ques- tions are always before us: (1) How much time shall be devoted to a subject? and (2) what results shall be accomplished? These two questions have been discussed ad nauseam in pedagogical works and at educational meetings ; but educators are no nearer to an agreement at present than they have ever been. The difficulty is that they have never taken into consideration that there is a relation between the two questions. They have simply tried to answer them independently, and on a basis of philosophical creed. In consequence, we have a mass of philosophi- cal opinion as to what results shall be accomplished in each branch, and a mass of philosophical opinion as to how much time shall be devoted to each branch. And there the matter ends. Now as the ship of pedagogy, with respect to these two questions, has become waterlogged in a sea of opinions, efforts should be made to point the ship in a different direction and find whether we cannot get out of the trough. In this case, the matter is a very simple one: it is merely necessary to change the form of the proposition in order to be able to forge ahead. Instead of stating what results [5] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION shall be accomplished, let us ask, "What results can we get?" This changes the position of the edu- cator from a dogmatic one to one of scientific in- quiry. It opens the way to investigations which will enable us to learn what results the schools of our country have been getting — the good, the mod- erate, and the poor — and therefore what results may be reasonably expected. Our demands may then be stated in very definite terms. The results demanded are reasonable results. As to the amount of time to be devoted to a sub- ject, the answer is, "A reasonable amount of time to get reasonable results." To arrive at a con- clusion in this matter we must find how much time has been given to a subject in the schools where reasonable results have been obtained, and make our calculations accordingly. The element of time is the saving clause. If we were to demand results alone, we should be in dan- ger of going back to the methods employed in the old-fashioned, mechanical schools. But this cannot occur when we limit the time in which the prescribed results must be secured; for if more than a reason- able time is absorbed in accomplishing the demanded results, the school is below the standard. It is clear that the plan of measuring results in units of time is limited in application. It cannot be applied at all to abstract qualities represented by traits of character, and perhaps not to certain phases of knowledge and skill; but it can be very readily applied to spelling, penmanship, language, and arithmetic — the branches to which, on the aver- [6] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH age, about seventy per cent of the school time is now devoted. I base this claim not on mere opin- ion, but on actual investigation. The plan of application is very simple. It lies in subjecting children taught under different systems to one and the same test — which must be fair and prac- tical — and comparing the results. Eacli branch re- quires a special treatment of its own. In spelling, words are dictated to the children in columns and sentences. In arithmetic, a set of questions cover- ing such work as is undertaken in all schools is given. In language, a story is read to the children, and the pupils reproduce it in their own words. The pen- manship may form a part of the test in language. The papers will show the legibility and neatness of the handwriting, etc. By subjecting the pupils of the schools of differ- ent cities to the same test in any one branch to which the plan is applicable, we can, without doubt, get at the comparative standing of different cities in that branch, and substitute facts for opinions in regard to whether or not the teachers of those cities have been successful in the teaching of that branch. If in arithmetic, for instance, the questions are so selected, grade for grade, that no exception is taken to them by the teachers of any city, and the results show that the pupils in city A can do the examples without any difficulty while those of city B can scarcely do them at all, then the facts prove that the children in A are a great deal stronger in arith- metic than those in B, and that there is probably something radically wrong with the arithmetic in B. [7] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION At the time of writing (May, 1902), I am in the midst of a test in arithmetic; and what I have just stated is not an imaginary, but an actual, case. The differences in results in different cities are so great as to be almost incredible. In the highest grammar- school grade, for instance, the class averages have thus far ranged between eleven and ninety-one per cent. As my test consists of eight examples, this means that while in the best class examined every child was able to perform correctly more than seven problems out of the eight, in the poorest they did not average even one right to the pupil. Several of the highest grammar-school classes averaged under twenty-five per cent, while some averaged over eighty per cent. And what is true of these differ- ences in individual classes is representative of differ- ent cities as a whole. In other words, while in some cities the percentages in general were high, in others they were extremely low. The schools were not selected, but taken at random; care being exercised simply as to neighborhood, so that the well-to-do, the middle-class, and the poor districts might all be represented. While excellent results in city A and miserable results in city B, secured on a perfectly fair test, taken under the same conditions, will convince the average man of affairs that the children of A are stronger in arithmetic than those of B, these results do not necessarily carry the same meaning to school superintendents and teachers, who, as a class, are not supposed to be people of affairs, but philosophers and psychologists. If the pupils of A should obtain [8] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH an average of ninety-five per cent, and those of B should average not more than five per cent, some educators, with pronounced opinions as to methods, would not be swerved from their belief that the pupils of city B were really the stronger, if they happened to believe in the methods used in B ; and they would argue that the comparative strength in arithmetic, as between the pupils of two cities, could not be demonstrated by any test devised by man. Fortu- nately, however, many school superintendents are taking a much more rational view of the question than they did only a few years ago. They are really anxious to know what their pupils can do in com- parison with those of other cities ; they appreciate that the results obtained through my tests have an important bearing on the question; and if their pupils fail they sincerely wish to know it as well as the reasons for the failure. For all practical purposes, then, I think we have a right to declare that we can determine how the children in different cities compare with each other in certain branches as regards results; that from this standpoint we can classify the cities into good, fair, and poor; and that we can strike an average upon which we can base a reasonable demand. But the results alone do not tell us the whole story. They merely give us, commercially speak- ing, an account of the articles purchased, without indicating whether good value has been received for the capital invested. The child's capital is repre- sented by time; and whether certain results are to be lauded or condemned depends upon the amount [9] . SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION of time expended in obtaining them. Children in all cities have about the same amount of capital at their disposal for school purposes, three hundred minutes a day ; and the practical problem lies in discovering how this capital may be expended on sound economi- cal principles, i.e.y without waste. Applying this principle to arithmetic, it might be said that, if the cities devoting sixty minutes a day to the subject should secure a general average of sixty per cent, while those giving only forty min- utes should obtain an average of forty per cent, all these children were receiving equal value for the capital expended. It would then become debatable whether it was well to spend one-fifth of the capital on arithmetic, or whether it was advisable to be con- tent with less of that branch and devote part of the sixty minutes to some other subject. But if city A with its forty minutes should obtain an average of sixty per cent, while city B with its sixty minutes should secure an average of only forty per cent, then it would be evident that, for some reason or other, the children of A were not only paying thirty-three per cent less for their arithmetic than those of B, but that for the lower price they were getting a far superior article. The actual proportion as to price stated in units would be as forty to ninety. The problem lies in finding a reasonable market price. Now my tests, which cover schools in a large num- ber of cities, show without any doubt whatever that educators have no idea of price, that the results bear no relation to the time expended, that some schools pay a very high price for a very poor article, and [10] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH others pay a very low price for a very good article, while all sorts of prices are paid for the identical article. For example, in my spelling test, which was taken in nineteen cities, the variations in results were small, but the time given to the subject in different cities varied from ten to forty minutes a day. Computa- tion showed that, taken all in all, the children did not do any better where they had spent forty minutes a day on spelling than in the schools where they had spent only ten. Or, stating the matter com- mercially, some children were paying a dollar for an article that other children were purchasing for twen- ty-five cents. In arithmetic, as I have already indicated, the variations in results have been enormous ; but while they have been very good in some cities and extreme- ly low in others, the results have borne no relation to the time given to the branch. The schools in which the children have been making a very poor showing have devoted just as much time to the subject as the schools where the problems have been solved without any difficulty, and in some instances more. The constant cry on the part of citizens for more time to spelling and more time to arith- metic is ridiculous. Whatever the shortcomings may be, the remedy does not lie in an increase of time. What I have said in regard to the time element In teaching is in one sense a solution of the most important educational question of the day, namely, "Can the schools cover a wide range of subjects without neglecting the essentials?" If my investi- [11] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION gations have proved any one thing, it is that time given to a subject beyond a certain point is not re- warded by additional return, that nothing can be gained by pressure; and the indications are that all the benefit that can be obtained through instruc- tion in the formal studies — reading, spelling, pen- manship, language, and arithmetic — can be had in two hours a day at the utmost. This means that we can enrich the course of study abundantly with- out detriment to the three R's, and that if the results are below a reasonable standard, in any locality where a reasonable amount of time is given to the formal studies, the failure is not due to a lack of amount of instruction in these branches, but to some other cause. But when we know what results can be accom- plished and the time in which reasonable results ought to be obtained, we have simply secured the needed foundation for the study of pedagogy on the inductive principle. It is not enough to know that some schools are very much more successful than others ; we must also try to learn the reasons why some have succeeded and others have failed, and in this way endeavor to discover certain funda- mental laws of teaching which may be applied by all. Upon this matter we are all at sea to-day. There are plenty of theories, but my investigations have proved that our preconceived notions have no foundation in fact. Many elements must be taken into consideration, such as the age, nationality, heredity, and environment of the pupils, the train- ing and personality of the teacher, the methods of [12] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH instruction, the views of llio superintendent, etc. But iny figures j)r()ve that the infUienee of these factors is to-(J;iy unknown; and unless we secure a working- basis It must fori'ver remain unknown. For examph', every one seems to take it for granted that, spelling Is a cjuestion of heredity; hut if this is the case, how Is It that the [ilghest J)er- ci'ntage in l\\v United States, on my test, was se- cured In a school where ninety-five per cent of the pupils were children of Bohemian cigar-makers? In arithmetic, the children In the slums of some cities did a great deal better than those of the Ijest dis- tricts in others. This does not agree with our theories of environment, at least as far as arith- metic is concerned, '^^i'hen, again. If all dej)ended on the training and personality of the teacher, we should not find good results In the large; majority of instances In one locality and the opposite (con- dition In another, while the tea(;hers may be fully as well trained and carefully selected In tlu? one comnjuru'ty as In ihe other. Nor can the difference be accounted for on the score of methods alone; as some teachers do well with certain methods, while others comf)letely fail with them. The size of classes must also l)e ruled out, the results being .just as liable to be favorable In large as they are in sm/iU chisses. Perhaps the demands of the suf)erlntendent play an Important })art; and this, again, is a [)oint calling for most careful study. The mere fact that very good results can be obtained among children whose home surroundings are of the poorest, while very inferior results are frequently found where the [13] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION conditions are iill iliat can he dosircd, Is sufficient evidence to upset many of our previous calculations. Now that it has heen (h'nionstrated that we have a ready means of h\ii-nin^ with wliat success each leaclier is meeting, and therefore a hasis for study- ing* wliy certain schools are successful and others are not, tliere ou^ht to he no d. Hut why shovdd we wait twenty-five years? Why not act at once? If the ways of red tape and philosophy are slow, who is to com{)el us to em[)loy these a^'encies? Hut who is to further the work if not these estab- lished ins! ilul ions? Why, those who are most di- rectly intirested in the si'hools, the people them- selvi's. In this matter our country is fortunately situated; for the pi>oplc> of each connuunity own their own schools and are free to conduct them as they choose, so that they need not wait for the [U] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH good-will of others if they desire to branch out in any progressive direction. The plan is practical and its effects are immediate, and it is therefore one for the practical people to take in hand. The people as a whole are not interested in pedagogy, because they do not understand it, and they are not in sympathy with pedagogues, because they do not understand their subtle minds. But the people are intensely interested in the schools, for the sup- port of which they are willing to dip down into their pockets to almost any depth, with reverence, and, as a rule, without the slightest murmur. That they have never taken an intelligent interest in the schools is not their fault, but that of the educators them- selves; for how can they be expected to distinguish the true from the false when the leaders in the pro- fession do not agree as to which is the one and which the other? The system I recommend is in- telligible to all ; and if it should be carried into ef- fect, laymen could take a really intelligent interest in their schools. It would give them an opportunity of knowing what returns they were getting for the capital expended, because it would enable them to learn with what success each individual teacher was meeting as compared with that of other teachers. Even people who spend money lavishly are anxious to make the best bargain for what they do spend. Now, any community can carry out the system if the citizens are willing to pay for the special services required. While the plan is simple, it entails con- siderable labor; and in order that the work may be properly and systematically performed, some one [15] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION must be designated to do it and to be held respon- sible for it. As the city superintendent has his hands full enough at present, a special office must be created for the purpose. To the superintendent, however, such assistance would be of great value. Upon him devolves the work of supervising teachers, and largely that of recommending their appointment or reappointment, of preparing courses of study, time tables for the different grades, etc. ; and in all these matters the records prepared by a special as- sistant would be an invaluable guide. Moreover, by repeating the tests from time to time, he would have a much clearer idea of how his recommenda- tions were working out than he can have when he shoots at random, as he now does, and there is no one to tell him when he hits or misses the target. Besides taking tests and tabulating results, the work of the special assistant would lie in endeavor- ing to account for the differences in results on the part of different teachers in his locality; and it would be the duty of the special assistant in each city to work in harmony with similar assistants in other cities, in order to account for differences in results in various branches in different localities. Under these circumstances, the children could at once receive the benefit of every new discovery. The small additional expense involved in maintaining an office of this kind should not be considered any more than people consider whether, by reason of expense, their school halls shall be illuminated with candles or electric lights. If one enterprising city will take the initiative, others will be sure to follow, just as [16] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH others followed the leader in engaging a city super- intendent. My plan of investigation first appeared in print in my article on "Obstacles to Rational Educational Reform," which was published in The Forum for December, 1896, and which is Chapter II of this book; and in a way that I had not anticipated I brought it directly to the notice of the Department of Superintendence at its annual meeting in Indian- apolis, in February, 1897. I had been invited to conduct a round-table discussion on the three R's, and had expected a handful of people to talk the matter over quietly and leisurely. But it so hap- pened that the round-table turned out to be a mass meeting, including the picked educational people of the country. After a few opening remarks, I en- deavored to arouse discussion on a question which I stated somewhat as follows: In some cities ten minutes a day are devoted to spelling for eight years ; in others, forty. Now how can we tell at the end of eight years whether the children who have had forty minutes are better spellers than those who have had only ten.'' I had expected, in this way, to draw out the ideas of those who believed in much teaching of spelling and those who believed in little of it, and thus to labor for a compromise; but, to my great surprise, the question threw consternation into the camp. The first to respond was a very popular professor of psychology engaged in training teachers in the West. He said, in effect, that the question was one that could never be answered; and he gave me a [17] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION rather severe drubbing for taking up the time of such an important body of educators in asking them silly questions. The next speaker was a prominent superintendent, who did not like the way I had been treated and tried to come to my rescue. After this, quite a num- ber took the platform in response to calls from the audience, and spoke on spelling in a general way ; but no one attempted to answer the question. Then followed comments among the audience which were anything but flattering to me. There was a general agreement that my meeting had been a fail- ure. I heard one remark to the effect that the after- noon had been wasted. Another accused me of try- ing to lead the superintendents into a trap. The only comments which seemed to run contrary to the current were those of a well-known superintendent, who said to me, " I am not quite sure that the meet- ing was so very much of a failure," and of another, who said, with a smile, "We don't know anything." After the meeting of the superintendents in 1897, the question of educational results was not, to my knowledge, again brought before them until five years later (February, 1902), when Dr. Paul H. Hanus, Professor of Education at Harvard Univer- sity, came out in the strongest terms in support of the same idea. Professor Hanus's paper was pub- lished, somewhat modified, in The Forum for April, 1902, under the title "Our Chaotic Education"; and to show the firm position taken by him in regard to the matter, I shall quote the following passages : [18] EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH No physicist or biologist would ignore his fellow-workers in this way. When Roentgen announced his discovery, other physicists confirmed his discovery. The facts of embryology and their bearing on the theory of evolution are similarly con- firmed by each biologist under the conditions which led to their discovery. The principles of science once established in this way, no one can doubt or belittle them. Each experi- menter then sees clearly what conditions must be observed to secure certain results, and the application of principles pro- ceeds intelligently, no matter how varied the circumstances under which the application is made. So it must be in edu- cation, if we are ever to escape from the quagmire of ran- dom and isolated experimenting in which each worker seeks to find the way out for himself, disregarding the landmarks and sign-posts that have already been set up by his predeces- sors. Briefly, then, we must organize our educational experi- ence just as we must organize our educational doctrine, if we are to make real progress. Under such circumstances we could face the teaching profes- sion and the general public with facts, instead of opinions. The enormous diflFerence between the weight of these two very diflFerent things in educational affairs still remains to be experienced. . . . The only comprehensive attempt known to the writer to secure definite information concerning the actual achievement of the schools in the school arts, with a view to establishing just how much time can be saved by suitable restriction and selection of subject-matter, was made by the editor of The Forum. His investigations would naturally be of great im- portance for any future researches that might be undertaken. The articles referred to were published in The Forum for December, 1896, and January, February, April, and June, 1897, being Chapters II- VI of the present work. [19] II The purpose of the present article is to point out how, in my opinion, the obstacles to rational educa- tional progress may be overcome, and the coopera- tion secured on the part of all forces toward the development of an ideal system of schools. While in former years I entertained the belief, in common with others, that the cause of the obstacles to educational progress might be attributed to public indifference and its consequences — politics in school boards, incompetent supervision, insufficient preparation on the part of teachers, etc. — further study and reflection have led me to the conclusion that these elements are not the ultimate cause of the evil, but constitute only the symptoms of a much more deeply hidden disease which permits all sorts of havoc to be played with the schools. The evil to which I refer is this ; namely, that educators them- selves cannot come to an agreement in regard to what changes, if any, are desirable or feasible. Many educators — men of learning and experience — do not appear to be in sympathy with the system of educa- tion advocated by reformers. Others, while admir- ing the spirit of the so-called "new education," ques- * December, 1896. [20] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM tion the feasibility of carrying out its demands in the common schools. Last, the great mass of our teachers, who have not entered into the intricacies of the problem, finding that there are many sides to the question, are in a state of doubt, ready to be led by any faction. The ultimate cause of the lamentably slow progress toward the introduction of educational reforms may be traced, therefore, beyond the province of the general public, into the professional circle itself; to an inner strife and turmoil consequent upon the un- certainties in which the entire problem of elementary education is involved. Consequently, in my opinion, the fate of educational reform rests entirely in the hands of educators, and will be decided by what is done, through their efforts, to dispel the uncertainties which have led the public to hesitate. In other words, if the educators can be brought to an under- standing, the obstructions from without will take care of themselves. But is it possible for all educa- tors to meet on a common ground and together lay out definite plans of action .^^ If the source of the difficulty could be traced to a material difference in point of view in regard to the purpose of elementary education — what, under ideal conditions, the elementary schools of our coun- try ought to accomplish — then of course, endeavors to bring the various educational factions to an agree- ment would be as fruitless as endeavors to secure religious unity. A careful consideration of educa- tional discussions, however, shows that a difference of opinion on the general purpose of our schools [21] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION does not exist; for there is substantially an agree- ment to the effect that the general aim of the ele- mentary schools of our country is to develop a moral individual, endowed with the power of independent thought, the ability to earn an honest livelihood, culture, refinement, and a broad and intelligent in- terest in human affairs. As the source of the con- flict cannot be traced to the problem of educational purposes, we cannot fail to conclude that it must be sought at the practical end of the problem. And it is here that the difficulty actually lies. For, while we are agreed that the ultimate purpose of elemen- tary education is to develop a good citizen, in the broadest sense of the term, we are by no means clear in regard to what to do, in order that the child may receive the benefit of all that can be done for him. In matters pertaining to the practical conduct of the schools, our notions to-day are not much more definite than they might have been a century ago. Indeed, so crude are they that no sooner do we dip beneath the surface in our inquiries than we find ourselves surrounded by utter confusion. The state- ments made on practical questions, even among our leading educators, are conflicting to the point of absurdity. And, as there are no proofs to offer as to who is right and who is wrong, we are left com- pletely without a guide; so that we do not know which way to turn. Everything is speculative : noth- ing is positive. "I think" and "I believe" are the stereotyped expressions of the educational world: "I know" has not yet been admitted. If our ideas on the practical side should be vague only in regard [ 22] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM to certain subtle questions now under discussion in our leading pedagogical circles, and involving hair- breadth metaphysical distinctions, the weaknesses would certainly be pardonable. Perfection cannot be found in any department of learning. But the complexion becomes entirely changed when we con- sider that we have absolutely no definite knowledge in regard to the most elementary questions ; that our ideas in regard to a proper treatment of the old subjects — reading, spelling, penmanship, grammar, composition, and arithmetic — are fully as indefinite as they are in regard to what course to pursue in the sciences and the arts, or in the training of the moral character. Our leading educators are not even agreed, for example, as to whether the results secured by a five-year course in technical grammar are better than those secured by a one-year course, or whether the results will not be just as good if technical grammar be entirely omitted from the elementary schools. And, again, they are by no means agreed as to whether or not children who de- vote forty minutes daily to spelling turn out to be better spellers than those who devote, say, not more than five or ten minutes daily to that subject. The element which, above all others, leads our peo- ple to doubt the feasibility of the new education con- cerns the problem as to whether or not there is enough "time" at our disposal to secure satisfactory results in reading, writing, and arithmetic, if new subjects be freely introduced into the schools. In view of what I have just stated; namely, that the opinions of the most experienced vary enormously [23] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION on the question of the time required to do a piece of work, it may readily be seen that whatever may be said on the subject at present is merely a random guess. Many of our reformers have endeavored to evade this question altogether by arguments to the effect that the three R's are merely the tools of knowledge, and that, consequently, they are of much less educative value than the matters on which the new education lays stress. But such arguments will not aid the cause; for, whatever our individual notions on the point at issue may be, we cannot escape from the fact that the citizen who is not properly grounded in the three R's labors at a dis- advantage in the struggle for existence, so that duty compels us to check our individual inclinations and to bow gracefully to the inevitable. Until the truth is known concerning the possibility of broadening the curriculum without detriment to the three R's, educational conflict will not abate, and the road to progress will continue to be barred. Therefore, the work which, above all others, ought now to engage the attention of our people, in order that the children may receive the benefit of all that it is possible to do for them, is to undertake meas- ures that will lead to the positive discovery as to how much time is actually required to secure satis- factory results in reading, writing, and arithmetic. That to-day we are utterly unable to give an intelli- gent answer to this question is due simply to the fact that we have not yet made an attempt to dis- cover the landmark which must serve as a guide in directing our judgment. And, before we shall be [21] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM able to make any progress in the solution of this problem, it will be necessary definitely to locate the central point around which the entire problem of educational reform revolves. The landmark to which I refer is simply this: namely, a clear definition of what is meant by the term "satisfactory results." If we do not know what we mean by satisfactory results, how shall we be able, with any degree of in- telligence, to judge when our task has been satis- factorily performed? If we have no definite goal, who can tell how long it will take to reach it, or what road will most directly lead to it? Until we come to a definite understanding in regard to this matter, our entire educational work will lack direc- tion, and we shall continue, as heretofore, to grope our way along passages completely enveloped in darkness, in an endeavor to land we know not where. If we might have a standard which would enable us to tell when our task had been completed, our at- tention might be earnestly directed toward the discovery of short cuts in educational processes, which would enable the child, by the expenditure of very little time, to acquire the demanded knowledge and skill in branches whose educative value is small. Thus, by securing a standard of measurement for determining the results in the three R's alone, our progressive educators might become freed from the fetters of prejudice, to labor, without restraint, to- ward the realization of higher ideals. Moreover, in the branches 'that are distinctively educative, a definite goal is necessary in order to determine the feasibility of certain methods of instruction. How, [25] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION for example, will it be possible to determine whether or not satisfactory results can be secured in history and geography, if these subjects be unified in instruc- tion, unless we have an understanding in regard to what is meant by satisfactory results in these branches? Or, how shall we be able to tell to what extent arithmetic may be successfully taught in con- nection with other branches, unless we know what is meant by satisfactory results in arithmetic? When a standard is recognized in regard to the knowledge and skill which the child ought to possess in spelling, reading, penmanship, language, arith- metic, and so on, then all teachers may benefit from the labors of others directed toward the discovery of both economical and interesting methods of teach-v ing. For want of such a standard, each individual teacher has, thus far, been a law unto himself ; per- mitted to experiment on his pupils in accordance with his own individual educational notions, whether inherited from his grandmother or the result of study and reflection, entirely regardless of what was being done by others. So long as this condition is pos- sible, pedagogy cannot lay claim to recognition as a science. In the recognized fields of science, such as physics, chemistry, medicine, etc., the members of the profession are not only willing to learn from each other, but they are compelled to do so under penalty of the law. Those who fail, in practice, to give due recognition to important discoveries are held responsible for the consequences. Before ped- agogy can be recognized as a science, it will be nec- essary to discover at least some truths in regard [26] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM to educational processes which, if ignored by the teacher, will make him fully as liable to prosecution for malpractice as the physician who has bungled in setting a bone. Until an accurate standard of measurement is recognized by which such truths may be discovered, ward politicians will continue to wield the baton, and educational anarchy will continue to prevail. It may here be argued that it would be impossible to secure a definite standard for measuring results, generally applicable in our country, on the ground that the needs of our people vary in different locali- ties. While this sentiment deserves recognition, it will become apparent, during the course of this chapter, that proper attention to local conditions, in the conduct of our elementary schools, would not tend in the least to alter the plan as a whole. At present, our ideas in regard to what the ele- mentary schools are in duty bound to accomplish, or how much may be reasonably expected of the pupil, do not extend beyond a few very general notions. There is an agreement, first, that the child, on leaving school, should be able to read; second, that he should possess the ability to write a letter or a composition in a neat, legible hand, without mistakes in spelling, grammar, or punctuation; third, that he should be skilled in the use of figures ; fourth, that he should have some knowledge of geography; and, fifth, that he should know some history. That we have no definite standard, however, in any one of these branches, becomes apparent so soon as we seek for definite information. How [27] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION many and which words should the child be able to spell, on leaving school, without referring to a dictionary? Ought our citizen to be a litterateur, or will the ability to write a good English sentence be satisfactory? Shall the child's penmanship, on graduating from the elementary school, be of suffi- cient elegance to enable him to earn money by writ- ing visiting cards, or will a legible hand suffice? A very important question that arises in connection with this apparently insignificant subject concerns a definition of what is meant by a legible hand. How far-reaching this matter actually is may be seen when we consider that the desire to secure an ele- gant instead of a neat handwriting may exert a great influence on the entire school course. The extra amount of time required in travelling from legibility to elegance might be, in itself, sufficient to crowd nature-study out of the curriculum. More- over, the desire to secure elegant penmanship might necessitate a movement so slow in everything that the child was obliged to write as to interfere seriously with his development in other directions. Again, shall the child, when he graduates from the elemen- tary school, be able, on demand, to solve any arith- metical puzzle that any one may choose to place be- fore him? Or, last, shall he be able, on call, to rattle off the boundaries of Ethiopia? If not, where shall the limit be drawn? For lack of a definite standard, the selection of material for instruction has been made, thus far, in an arbitrary way, under no control other than that of tradition and individual opinion. The old- [28] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM fashioned schoolmaster's method of procedure has been bj far the easiest. His plan has been to set aside a certain number of hours each week for in- struction in a given subject, and, during that time, to crowd into the child's mind as many things as possible, in the hope that some of them will be re- membered, but without any particular regard for the question as to what good they would do even if they should happen to be retained. The new school of educators, on the other hand, has endeavored to solve the problem by selecting material that will in- terest the child, whereby much has been done to relieve the work of needless drudgery. But this method, also, has failed to give satisfaction; for, while the reformers have criticized the old-fashioned system as wasteful, in so far as too many useless facts are taught, the criticism passed on the new plan of work has been that it is too indefinite, and that, in consequence, it destroys the backbone of the old system without putting anything definite in its place. That so much conflict should exist in regard to what ought to be accomplished in each branch is not due to the fact that there is no guide which will enable us to determine what is our duty. It is simply due to the fact that, for want of re- search in the proper direction, our notions on the subject have never become clear. When the mat- ter is regarded in its proper light, it will be seen that, in solving the problem "What to teach," the individual educator is not entirely free to choose, but that, within certain limits, the matter is governed by definite laws. By reason of the fact that, within [29] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION the prescribed limits, the same laws apply to all alike, a study of the laws which govern this matter would enable us to find a standard of measurement on which all our educators might agree. The law by which the selection of material is gov- erned is represented, at least in part, by the demands of society for a definite amount of positive knowledge and skill. That we cannot agree in regard to what must be done is due simply to the fact that we are not properly acquainted with what is needed. Con- sequently, the work which, above all other, should now absorb the attention of our educators is that work which will lead to definite information in regard to what is required, and how much can be expected of the child, in individual branches of knowledge. When our ideas on this matter are clear, it will be possible to secure a selection of material that will be no longer provided in an arbitrary way, but will be such as to satisfy the demands of all. When we are clear in regard to what is needed, it will be pos- sible to determine what results in individual branches may be deemed satisfactory, and how much time will be required to reach this goal. By securing an agreement in regard to what must be accomplished by all, the educator would not be deprived of his individuality. On the contrary, he would be much more free than he has ever been; for, so long as the demanded results were obtained, he would be at lib- erty both to present the desired material in any form that he might choose and to do as much else as he might deem fit. How the necessary data which [30] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM would lead to definite conclusions on this subject might be secured will be pointed out later on. The establishment of a standard to enable the teacher to tell when his task in a given branch has been satisfactorily performed constitutes only one of the practical problems with which the educator is confronted. The remaining problem is concerned in the discovery of a standard by which may be de- termined how much time it is necessary to devote to a subject in order to complete this task. By the establishment of such a standard, we should be given a basis for testing the comparative economy of different educational processes. That the impor- tance of labor in this direction cannot be overesti- mated becomes apparent when we consider that the extent to which the child's education may be broad- ened depends almost entirely upon the time required to secure satisfactory results in reading, writing, and arithmetic. That, at present, we are absolutely unable to form an intelligent judgment in regard to how much time ought to be consumed in completing a piece of work is proved by what has already been stated; namely, that educators are not even agreed as to whether better spellers will be produced by de- voting forty minutes daily to spelling than by de- voting not more than five or ten minutes daily to that subject; or whether the results secured by a five- year course in technical grammar are superior to those obtained by a one-year course. Our lack of knowledge on this point, however, is not due to the fact that nothing positive can be [31] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION known in regard to the comparative economy of different educational processes. It is due simply to the fact that the proper steps have not yet been taken which will give us the required information. That educators should thus far have failed to throw the needed light on the subject may be fully ex- plained by the fact that they have endeavored to solve the problem by means of hypotheses based on psychology, whereas facts alone can tell the tale. In a word, they have made the fatal mistake of exactly reversing the true order of things. Instead of prov- ing the accuracy of their hypotheses by a study of the results of a given process, they have endeavored to prove, in advance, what the results of methods based on these hypotheses must be. The plight into which this mode of procedure has brought us will become obvious by a simple illustration. For example, psychology will permit one to argue that ideas will not be clear unless they have absorbed the entire attention for a time. This would indicate that, in arranging a school programme, it was neces- sary to set aside a certain period — entirely arbi- trary, however — to be devoted to instruction in spelling. On the other hand, we are as fully justified in reasoning that in school the child is obliged to devote a considerable amount of time to writing; that whenever he writes he spells ; and that, in conse- quence, it is not necessary to provide any special time on the programme for spelling. Which of these two methods of reasoning is correct can be deter- mined only by a study of results. That general psychology, in itself, should fail to [32] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM be of direct assistance in determining the question of economy of effort is due to the fact that this subject is purely a qualitative science, treating of the qualities of the mind, while economy of effort in teaching is strictly a quantitative problem. Psychol- ogy teaches us the laws in accordance with which the mind digests ideas ; but it gives us no information whatever in regard to the number of ideas that can be digested within a given period, or how much time is required to complete the digestion of a given num- ber of ideas. To illustrate : We learn from psychology that the concrete precedes the abstract. This has led many to believe, for instance, that in the early lessons in arithmetic the child should handle objects, in order that he may secure a clear conception of the mean- ing of numbers. But how many hours of the child's school time ought to be consumed in acquiring a clear conception of numbers up to ten cannot be learned from psychology, being purely a question of expe- rience. Again, ias I have already stated, we are all agreed that when the child has completed his ele- mentary school course he ought to be able to write an ordinary letter without gross mistakes in grammar. But what amount of time must be devoted to techni- cal grammar in order to accomplish this result; whether it will necessitate a five-year course, or a one-year course, or whether it can be accomplished simply through incidental hints — these are questions upon which the most learned dissertations on the origin and psychology of language cannot throw any light whatever. There is only one method by [33] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION which such matters can be determined, which is that of discovering how much time has been consumed by the most successful teachers in reaching a certain end. It is only in this way that we shall be able to learn how much time it is necessary to consume in order to complete a given piece of work, and, again, to discover which particular educational processes will serve to accomplish a given task by the expendi- ture of the smallest amount of time. What must be done, then, in order that our system of education may be placed on a secure foundation is to institute researches toward obtaining facts that will lead, first, to the establishment of standards by which the teacher may be able to determine when his task in a given branch has been satisfactorily per- formed ; and, secondly, to the establishment of stand- ards which will enable us to judge how much time is needed to secure a definite result. Once these truths are recognized, the factional lines between conservatives and radicals will cease to exist, and all will become co-laborers in the discovery of the laws that apply to all our educators, regardless of pedagogical creed. In order to test the feasibility of researches such as I have outlined, I have devoted the past two years to examining children taught by every conceivable method, in schools representing a very large section of our country. By means of examinations in a number of school branches — spelling, penmanship, English composition, and arithmetic — I hoped to be able, first, to establish certain goals through the discovery of what our children might reasonably be [34] OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM expected to accomplish; and, secondly, by a com- parison of results, to arrive at some definite con- clusions concerning the comparative economy of different methods of teaching. The number of chil- dren examined has thus far reached nearly one hundred thousand; and care was exercised to secure exact information, not only in regard to the methods employed, but also in regard to the age, nationality, and environment of the children, in order that the influence of conditions might be duly taken into consideration. These examinations have brought some things to light, which, in my opinion, are des- tined to destroy many of our preconceived notions. The results will be published in detail during the course of this work. The labor involved in taking the tests, in marking the papers, and in the preparation of the very elabo- rate statistical tables has been so great as to require the undivided attention of myself and a number of special assistants. Although for individual enter- prise the undertaking may be considered as almost unwieldy, I have become fully convinced, as the result of my researches, that, by means of concerted efforts on the part of teachers, or by the establish- ment of a bureau supported by our National Govern- ment, not only would the work become comparatively simple, but it would lead to the very speedy solution of a number of vital educational questions, and would thus serve, in a comparatively brief period, to place our schools on a rational foundation. Moreover a study of this nature would lead, inductively, to the development of an educational psychology, of which [35] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION we have long been speaking, but which, in fact, does not jet exist. In closing, I desire once more to emphasize tlu^ point I hat the plan proposed in this chapter would not had to the destruction of the individuality of the teacher, but that, on the contrary, it woidd mean a degree of individual freedom far beyond any that has been hitherto enjoyed. While the necessity for completing a definite task in each school branch is recognized, notlilng is co!itained in the plan that would Interfere with the employment of any peda- gogical scheme, or wllh the devi'lopment of the child In any direction, so long as the teacher would be able, by her methods, to secure the stipulated results. And, in my opinion. It Is not initil the standards that I have pointed out shall have been established that we shall have an Inti'lllgent basis upon which to con- struct a course of study, or to apportion the time in the arrangemeid of a school progrannne, or to form the slightest conception concerning the possi- bilities of elementary education. [36] Ill THE ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION * In the preceding chapter I discussed the possi- bility of securing satisfactory results in the so-called essentials if the course of study in the elementary schools were materially enriched. I argued that nothing definite could now be said on this subject, because no agreement had yet been reached, either in regard to what is essential, or as to what results in individual branches may be deemed satisfactory. Until our ideas are clear on these matters, we shall of course be unable to estimate how much time it is necessary to devote to the formal studies, and how much should be set aside for work that is purely educative in its nature. Before it will be possible to decide how far the curriculum may be safely broadened, then, two ques- tions will have to be answered much more satisfac- torily than has been thus far the case. In the first place, it will be necessary to arrive at a much clearer understanding as to which of the things commonly taught in the elementary schools are in fact essential, and which of them could be eliminated without ma- terial detriment to the child; and, secondly, it will be incumbent upon us to establish standards that ^January, 1897 [37] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION will serve as guides in enabling us to tell how much time is required to cover satisfactorily the indispen- sable ground. In the present chapter, I shall try to throw some light on the first of these questions, while the next will be devoted to a discussion of the second. In endeavoring to define the legitimate limits of the positive knowledge and skill that may be regarded as essential, a process of exclusion will be required. It will be necessary to exclude, first, matters belong- ing to the category of mental gymnastics, i.e., meas- ures introduced into the school course solely with a view to the development of the faculties, and, second- ly, matters of detail that the layman is not expected to possess in the form of ready knowledge, and which are found in the school course simply because they have been handed down by tradition. At present the time devoted to the three R's alone, in the mechanical schools, is about 70 per cent. It might be possible, however, through a process of exclusion such as I have indicated, to reduce this time by 50 per cent or more. Indeed, so great might be the change brought about that what is now re- garded as the body of the work of the elementary school might, perhaps, become merely a side issue. If this should be true, then naturally the possibilities of enriching the course of study would be almost unlimited. Moreover, the exclusion of unnecessary material would form only one part of the reduction in cime. An equal reduction might be secured by an exercise of economy in actual teaching — a subject that will be discussed in the next chapter. [38] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION As I have drawn a line between the essentials in a course of study and measures of educational dis- cipline, it may be thought that I do not appreciate the value of the latter. This, however, is by no means the case. My reason for making the distinc- tion is that, while I am of the opinion that the people are fully justified in demanding certain results in matters of useful knowledge and skill, I believe that in questions of educational discipline no universal course should be laid down, but that considerable freedom should be allowed to the exercise of judg- ment on the part of individual educators. The prob- lem of mental gymnastics is still so completely veiled in obscurity, and opinions among educators in regard to the relative values of disciplinary measures vary so markedly, that dogmatism is entirely unjustifiable. While some educators believe that the most valu- able disciplinary work lies in pushing the formal branches of study beyond a reasonable point, others are of the opinion that the disciplinary value of the formal studies is far inferior to that involved in content studies ; and that, in consequence, the time not devoted to instruction in what is actually indis- pensable, in the formal lines, should be devoted to such branches as the arts, the sciences, history, and literature — subjects having a direct influence in developing aesthetic taste, as well as interest in nature and humanity. It follows, therefore, that while the individual educator oversteps the limits of his au- thority when he fails to give due recognition to the conventional side of education, the people overstep their authority when they needlessly condemn the [39] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION child to a life of drudgery, and deprive him of elevat- ing influences, by demanding more than their due in the way of conventionalities. One more point requires to be mentioned before entering into the discussion of details. It may be argued that, as our ideals are not fixed, the essentials of a school course cannot be clearly defined. While it is true that the demands of society are constantly changing, and that what may now be regarded as useful knowledge may not be so regarded at some indefinite period in the future, history nevertheless proves that the process of evolution is so slow, that, if standards should be set in accordance with the demands of to-day, they would answer the purpose for many years to come. Indeed, I do not think it an exaggeration to say, that, if standards should once be fixed, the labor involved in changing them, to keep pace with the process of evolution, would be, figuratively speaking, as insignificant as that involved in repairing a building, from time to time, as required by ordinary wear and tear. The time may arrive when every individual will be permitted to spell as he chooses. But the educa- tor who to-day should prepare his pupils for such an era would not be entitled to encouragement. Nor are we justified in believing that the period is near at hand when neat and legible writing will be no longer regarded as a necessary accomplishment. Again, the ability to use good English and facility in handling figures will not grow out of fashion within the next decade. Taken all in all, then, what- ever may be said of the evolution of pedagogical [40] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ideas, we cannot consider as serious any arguments to the effect that, because we do not know exactly what the future may bring forth, we cannot tell what should now be taught in the elementary schools. The dividing line between positive knowledge and skill, on the one hand, and mental gymnastics, on the other, may be made clear by a simple illustration. Society expects, for example, that the individual shall be able to write a letter in well-constructed sen- tences and without grammatical errors. It is not concerned, however, as to whether or not the writer is able to analyze the sentences or to parse the words in his letter. If facts should prove, beyond question, that individuals who could parse and analyze with facility were able to construct better sentences than those who were unfamiliar with technical gram- mar, this subject might rightly be placed among the essentials of school work. If, however, it should be proved that the English employed by those who had not studied technical grammar was practically as good as that employed by those who had had a thorough grounding in the subject, then it could not be regarded as essential, but would belong to the do- main of mental gymnastics. In the latter case, the question of introducing technical grammar into the school course would be purely and simply a problem of relative values, i.e., a question as to whether it would pay better to devote, say, thirty minutes daily, for four or five years, to grammar, or whether more profit would be derived by devoting this time to matters of impor- tance and interest now crowded out of many of our [41] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION schools on the plea of lack of time. Whether, or in how far, it is possible to lead the child to use good English without instruction in technical grammar is an entirely different question. It is one, however, that cannot be decided by a priori reasoning. Noth- ing short of the study of results will suffice to bring the truth to light. As in language, so in arithmetic, the question of mental gymnastics plays a prominent part. While facility in ciphering, to a certain point, is demanded of every individual, whatever is done in this branch beyond what is directly useful and practical must be regarded as disciplinary in its nature. Consequently, the question arises, whether, in the arrangement of a school programme, it is advisable to allow a certain amount of time for purely disciplinary arithmetic, or whether this time might not bring a greater return if given to matters more directly destined to elevate our social ideals. The importance of such questions of relative values becomes strikingly apparent when we consider that thirty-five minutes a day is equivalent to an entire year out of the eight devoted to elementary education. Therefore, by economizing only a little here and there, by the exclusion of merely a part of the disciplinary measures of minor or doubtful im- portance — such as drill in arithmetical puzzles, in superfine penmanship, in parsing and analysis be- yond what is actually needed — it might be possible to save as much as the equivalent of two school years, which might then be utilized toward enriching the course of study, without in any way neglecting [42] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION the essentials. When the time wasted in reading aloud merely with a view to the development of oratorical power is taken into consideration, the estimate of two years is probably too conservative. When the purely disciplinary elements in instruc- tion are clearly determined, one step will have been made toward defining the limits of the indispensable. The next point will lie in a process of exclusion applied to matters of detail that lie beyond what the individual may be reasonably expected to possess in the way of ready knowledge and skill. This would mean, in large part, the elimination of many things now taught in the schools, not because they are sup- posed to meet any particular requirement, but simply because no concerted effort has ever been made to exclude them from the traditional course of study. The subjects that, without harm in any direction, will bear a rigid test of exclusion are spelling and penmanship. Every moment devoted to these subjects beyond what is actually needed may be regarded as wasted. When we consider that, in spite of their lack of educational value, nearly one-fifth of the time in some of our schools is devoted to these two subjects, it becomes apparent that the importance of exercising economy in teaching these branches cannot be overestimated. In determining the ground to be covered in spelling, it is necessary simply to secure an agreement as to where the line may be drawn between words that the average individual ought to be able to spell without referring to a dic- tionary and those that might be safely relegated to the latter. This would lead to the omission of a very [43] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION large number of words now taught in the schools and which the child may never be called upon to use. In penmanship, it will be necessary to determine what standards of legibility may be deemed satis- factory. Owing to the importance of this subject, I beg to repeat what I stated in the preceding chap- ter, namely, that overattention to penmanship, for the purpose of securing elegant writing, may mean the waste, both directly and indirectly, of an enor- mous amount of time. As the child, during the entire school course, is obliged to do considerable writing, apart from that intended to improve his penmanship, undue slowness in the use of the pen must be regarded as a waste of time against which provision should be made. In arithmetic, aside from the disciplinary element, the question of how much ground it is necessary to cover in order that the pupil may be sufficiently well equipped to meet the ordinary demands of life re- quires careful consideration. By exercising a wise process of exclusion, the course might be consider- ably abbreviated. It would be necessary here to make a careful distinction between those parts of arithmetic with which every one ought to be con- versant, and those parts concerning the more com- plicated calculations belonging to special lines of business, and which need to be mastered only by the specialist. In English, in addition to the problem of mental discipline, the question as to how high the goal should be placed comes into play. In written lan- guage, limitations that do not appear in any other [ 44 ] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION subject are set by the immaturity of the child-mind. In other branches, however high the goal may be placed, there is a reasonable assurance that it will be reached, provided the instruction be thorough, and ample time be provided for the purpose. In composition, however, in establishing our aims, the powers of the child must be taken into consideration. Consequently, before instruction in this subject can be conducted without undue waste, it will be neces- sary to learn just what the child is able to do under the most favorable circumstances. When we have learned what the most successful teachers have ac- complished, and how much time they expended in reaching their ends, we shall have a sensible basis for determining what may be reasonably expected of the child, and how much time it is wise to devote to this branch. Complaints to the effect that the results in written language are highly unsatisfactory are commonly heard from individuals in all walks of life, and par- ticularly from instructors in high schools and uni- versities. As the unsatisfactory results are usually attributed to insufficient attention to the subject in the elementary schools, the demand is made that still more time be devoted to English. But if the cir- cumstances should be such that it was impossible to lead the average child beyond a certain point, how- ever great the pressure might be, then of course the time expended in endeavoring to do so would be wasted. An important point to be decided before definite goals can be established is the question of literary [45] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION style. When we know the average child's limitations in this direction, we shall be able to tell whether or not it will pay to spend a great deal of time in en- deavoring to lead the pupil to acquire the ability to write an original story, a reproduction, or a description, in good style, on the first draft. Again, we shall be able to determine whether or not time and energy expended in rewriting will be sufficiently rewarded to warrant the teacher in compelling the child to labor over a composition until he feels that he can no longer improve it. That the pupil may be trained to appreciate good literary style when he finds it in the writings of others is quite possible ; but whether he can be trained to imitate it in his own writings is an entirely different question. Next, geography, and particularly that phase which treats of the location of places, the boundaries of states and countries, the length of rivers, the height of mountains, etc., offers a broad field for ex- clusion without true loss in any particular. How much waste there is in the old-fashioned method of teaching this subject becomes apparent when we con- sider how exceedingly little the average individual has to show, a year or two after leaving school, for the numerous hours a week, during five or six years, devoted to this study. And not only from the stand- point of economy, but for other reasons as well, would the elimination of cut-and-dricd facts, that properly belong to books of reference, exert a most salutary effect. For, while geography when treated in the traditional manner is one of the most burden- some subjects in the curriculum, yet, when the mat- [46] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION tcrs of minor importance are excluded, and sub- stituted by valuable ideas, it becomes converted into perhaps the broadest as well as the most interesting in the entire list of school branches. While the num- ber of facts in topographical geography that the individual is required to know in order that he may be able to take an intelligent interest in the affairs of the world is considerable, it is, nevertheless, very small when compared with that which the child is compelled to acquire in the traditional course of in- struction. Indeed, so great, in my opinion, is the discrepancy between what the child is compelled to memorize in the old-fashioned schools and what the citizen is expected to know, that I do not regard it as an exaggeration to say that the traditional course in topographical geography might be short- ened by 70 or 80 per cent without neglecting what is useful. Last, I desire to call attention to the waste in a mechanical course in history. As in geography, so in this study would the preparation of a list of facts, limited to what is helpful and what the individual may be expected to possess as ready knowledge, bring about an enormous reduction in memory ma- terial. Of course, there are many facts that the individual ought to know and that every educated person is expected to know. But just what these facts are, and how many might be excluded, without impairment, from the traditional course, are matters that have never been properly determined. By a wise substitution of historical ideas for cut-and-dried facts of minor importance, history, like geography, [47] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION would be converted from a mechanical study into a most valuable and interesting one. What is needed, then, in order that a beginning may be made toward the solution of the problem of the course of study, is to undertake measures that will speedily lead to a clear definition of the essen- tials. In my opinion, the most rational plan would be to place the matter in the hands of committees, appointed preferably by the National Educational Association. If committees of, say, ten members should be appointed for each branch, the labor so divided that proper attention could be paid to de- tails, and meetings held at frequent intervals, enough might be done in a single year to clear the course of study at least of those matters that are retained simply by tradition. In drawing conclusions in regard to what to retain and what to omit, ordinary experience would suffice to set the matter well under way. For the rest, it would be necessary to undertake researches leading to the discovery of the exact limits of our social demands. But the latter course would represent a later stage, which might be carried on in a more leisurely manner. In order that the work might be thoroughly conducted, a special appropriation should be made by the Government, to be placed at the disposal of the Association. Besides defining the essentials, it will be necessary to secure standards that will give us a basis for judging what results in the essentials may be deemed satisfactory; and not until we have these standards can it be determined how much pressure it is ad- [48] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION visable to put on the conventional side of school work, and which methods of teaching are the most economical in point of time. But, to obtain such standards, ordinary experience will not avail: noth- ing short of careful research, on a very broad basis, will supply the needed information. In our country, where elementary education is characterized by absence of system, it is not unusual for individuals, whether educators or laymen, to examine a class on a set of questions selected in an arbitrary way, and to judge by the results whether or not the teacher has done satisfactory work. So long, however, as we have no standards, judgment based on the results of an examination, in a single room, school, or city, is not only absolutely worth- less, but may mean a gross injustice in estimating both the qualifications of the teachers and the value of the methods employed by them. Under existing conditions, there is only one way in which definite information in this matter can be obtained. It is by extending a reasonable test to a large number of classes, in different localities, so that all methods and conditions may be represented, and by judging of the results on a comparative basis. In this man- ner we are enabled to learn what results were secured by teachers in general, which classes exceeded and which fell below the average, and how much time was consumed by different methods in securing the various results. It is only in this way that we can judge whether the results obtained in any particular class, school, or city may be regarded as satisfac- tory. [49] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION It was with a view to the development of standards for measuring results, as well as to discover the most economical methods of teaching, that the tests in spelling, penmanship, composition, and arithmetic, to which I have referred, were made. In penmanship and composition, it is of course a simple matter to employ tests that are universally applicable. In spelling and arithmetic, although the ground cov- ered in different cities varies considerably in regard to details, I nevertheless found that, by exercising carej the tests might be so formulated that they would cover a common ground, and thus be suitable for the schools of any locality. In spelling, three different tests were employed. One was a column of fifty words; another consisted of sentences, fifty test words being employed in the lower, and seventy- five in the upper grades ; and, third, the spelling in the composition test was examined. In arithmetic, the questions were so arranged as to fit the various grades. In penmanship, the general written work was used as a test. And, finally, in composition, I employed as a test the reproduction of a story read by the teacher to the children. This story was writ- ten specially for the purpose, and was accompanied by a picture intended to aid the children in their work. The grades examined included the fourth to the eighth school years. The results are given in detail in future chapters. While such work as this represents only a tem- porary stage in the development of standards, I nevertheless believe that it will suffice to lead to definite information on the most important educa- [50] ESSENTIALS IN ELEMENTARY EDUCATION tional problem of the day; namely, whether or not it is possible to broaden the curriculum without detriment to the three R's. To reach a conclusion on this point, it is but necessary to learn whether or not the results in the formal studies obtained in the progressive schools compare favorably with the results in the formal lines obtained in the mechanical schools. If the pupils educated in the schools in which the bulk of the work is thoughtful and inter- esting should do as well in the formal studies as those brought up in the schools where the work is almost entirely formal, the feasibility of the new education would be practically proved. Until the essentials are clearly defined, then, the question of satisfactory results must be decided on a purely comparative basis. For, so long as the ground to be covered represents a very wide area, and no discrimination is made between matters of primary and those of secondary importance, the re- sults of an examination in a given school might be apparently so unfavorable as to convey the impres- sion j:hat the teaching had lacked in thoroughness, while in fact the results would compare quite favor- ably with those secured in other schools. By a comparative study of results, even on a much nar- rower basis than I have indicated, a great deal might be accomplished in a very brief period toward the solution of the problem of methods. It would simply be necessary for superintendents and teachers in nieghboring localities to cooperate in a series of tests which would show the rate of progress under different methods. [51] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION When the requirements in positive knowledge and skill are limited to a reasonable point, the ideas will have an opportunity to become more thoroughly assimilated, and definite results may be demanded. Under these circumstances, it is possible that, in the course of time, absolute standards might be devel- oped, so that it would be no longer necessary to draw comparisons on a wide basis before reaching conclu- sions in regard to the qualifications of a particular teacher or the excellence of a particular school. [52] IV ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING ^ Having shown in the preceding chapter how con- siderable waste might be eliminated in the elementary schools through the exclusion of matters that did not appear to answer any definite purpose, I shall, in the present chapter, endeavor to point out what might be done toward the elimination of waste in actual teaching; thus providing still further op- portunity for the introduction of purely educative material. Of course, until an understanding is reached as to what is indispensable in an elementary-school course, and our goals are established accordingly, the study of the time element in teaching will be to some extent hampered. Nevertheless, the problem presents spe- cial features of its own that admit of separate con- sideration. The point at issue involves the discovery of pro- cesses which, other things being equal, will perform a given task in the smallest amount of time. As reliable information of this nature can be obtained only by comparing results, the problem will bear solution only in so far as results can be approxi- mately measured. Having no means at hand with * February, 1897. [5S] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION which to measure general intellectual strength, we are not able definitely to determine what methods of intellectual training will accomplish most in a given period ; so that the relative economy of measures of mental gymnastics must remain, at least for the near future, purely a matter of speculation. Posi- tive knowledge and skill, however, being directly amenable to measurement, it lies within our reach to ascertain the time consumed by different teachers in obtaining certain positive results, as well as to discover what processes have proved the most eco- nomical. That, in spite of our extended experience with a great variety of methods, this problem is still awaiting solution is due to the fact that the results of our experiments have never been so utilized as to lead to the discovery of scientific truths. The fundamental points in the time element in teaching to which I shall direct particular attention are: (1) the limits of incidental instruction; (2) the influence of fatigue; and (3) the question of mental maturity. Of these factors, that of incidental teaching is, under existing conditions, perhaps the most im- portant. About 70 per cent of the time in some of our schools being devoted to the formal branches, a radical change would be effected if the forms of expression — reading, spelling, penmanship, gram- mar, and language — were taught as incidental feat- ures. Indeed, much would be gained if results should prove that the formal studies could be subordinated, even if to a limited extent only, to the content studies. The possibility of incidental instruction de- [54] ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING pends upon whether or not we are able to do more than one thing well at a time. If so, then some mental labor must necessarily be performed by sub- ordinate states of attention or consciousness, and the practicability of incidental instruction will de- pend upon whether such can be utilized in teaching. That the performance of more than one act at a time is not only possible, but under certain condi- tions inevitable, is clearly shown by the fact that, in writing a composition, it is necessary to attend simultaneously to at least four distinct elements — thought, language, spelling, and penmanship. To what extent incidental instruction may be carried can be discovered only by a study of results. As in some of our progressive schools the work in the formal branches has been tending for some years toward incidental instruction, opportunity is already offered for such study. In endeavoring to solve the problem by discussion, our educators are only wast- ing energy and losing valuable time. The possibilities of incidental instruction are not limited to the formal studies, but extend to the con- tent studies as well. In the latter, however, the ground covered in the different schools varies so markedly that we are unable to formulate tests which will lead to the comparative study of results. Investigation in the content studies will not be fruit- ful, therefore, until our goals are more definite and our notions clearer in regard to what results in these branches may be regarded as satisfactory. Moreover, as most of the time in the mechanical schools is devoted to the formal branches, incidental [55] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION instruction in the content studies is a less urgent problem, at least for the present, than it is in the case of the formal ones. When I speak of incidental instruction, I do not mean that satisfactory results might be secured if a branch were left to take care of itself. Incidental instruction, to be worthy the name, is not a laissez- faire system, but must be as carefully planned and as thoroughly and systematically conducted as if the subject were separately taught. If the teacher, for instance, should act on the theory that, in time, the pupil would learn to write neatly and legibly just because he writes, and accordingly would accept manuscript in any form in which it was presented, she would not be imparting incidental instruction, but would simply be neglecting penmanship. Inci- dental instruction in that branch would be repre- sented by a consistent effort on the part of the teacher to secure neatness and legibility in every- thing that was written. Whether it is possible to carry this out, with little or no special drill in pen- manship after the forms of the letters have been learned, is purely a matter of experience. The second factor, mental fatigue, relates directly to the apportionment of time to individual branches. Experience proves that the results of teaching do not necessarily correspond to the amount of time devoted to a branch, or, in other words, that an increase in time beyond a certain point does not lead to a proportionate increase in results. In order that the labor may be fully rewarded, a lesson must close at the proper point, and work in that particular [56] ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING subject must not be resumed until the mind is again ready for it. In this problem, therefore, a double element is involved: first, the length of a recitation; and, secondly, the frequency of recitations in a given subject. Closely related to the question of fatigue is that of the powers of mental assimilation. The number of ideas that can be digested in a given period is limited, and therefore in the apportionment of time the question of assimilation must be considered as well as that of fatigue. The two are, indeed, so closely connected that it is impossible to say where the dividing line should be drawn. The arrangement of a school programme on a purely logical basis may involve, therefore, an enor- mous waste of time, for more reasons than one. In a recitation sixty minutes in length, twice as much ground can be covered, it is true, as in a recitation only thirty minutes in length; and, again, in four recitations a week in a given subject, twice as much ground can be covered as in two. It is not, how- ever, the number of ideas presented to the child, but only those assimilated, that count. An in- dividual who takes twice as much food as another does not on that account weigh twice as much. In- deed, one who loads his digestive organs with more food than can be absorbed by the system may not thrive so well as one who takes no more than he can digest, and thus saves those organs from a needless strain. In the old-fashioned system, where the material for instruction is selected largely on the principle [57] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION of filling out time, matters are poured into the mind without regard to its assimilative powers. Under this, the cramming method, facts may be remem- bered for a brief period; but, failing absorption, they are likely soon to fall into oblivion. By ex- traordinary pressure, enough ideas may be crowded into the mind to enable one to pass a good examina- tion on an appointed day; but many of them will be forgotten so quickly that the results secured In an examination unexpectedly given only a few weeks later will not be nearly so favorable. Again, the brain-cells might reach the saturation point for one class of ideas, but be still in perfect condition to absorb ideas of another kind, just as the amount of food of one kind that can be assimi- lated in a given time is no indication of how much can be assimilated if it is presented in proper vari- ety. Thus, by carefully distributing the work, we might secure a full return in a great variety of subjects, while the same amount of time devoted to a few subjects might involve considerable waste. That the results in a given subject are not deter- mined by the amount of time devoted to it is clearly indicated by the fact that in Germany, although the classes are fully as large as they are here, the children in the first few years, with only three hours' daily instruction, appear to thrive on reading, pen- manship, language, arithmetic, geography, nature- study, literature, religion, music, and drawing. Moreover, what is learned in the German schools is learned thoroughly. When viewed from this standpoint, overburdening [58] ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING the course does not mean teaching a large number of subjects, but introducing so many details in the subjects taught that certain brain-cells must neces- sarily labor beyond the point of fatigue and beyond the power of assimilation in order that the specified ground may be covered. What the length of a recitation period should be, and how much should be taught in a single lesson, can only be deduced from the results of years of teaching. The number of recitations a week in a subject must be determined by the amount of time required for brain-cells that have been in active operation fully to recover their strength, and again be pre- pared for the process of assimilation. If they are set to work earlier, they labor under unfavorable conditions, and less will be accomplished in a given time than if the recuperation had been complete. And it is, in fact, an open question whether the results of five recitations per week in a given sub- ject will be much greater than those secured by three. This point can only be determined by com- paring the results obtained under a different ap- portionment of time. If, in particular instances, the results of instruction are not satisfactory, it is absolutely unsafe to draw the conclusion, as our conservative citizens are apt to do, that not enough time has been devoted to the subject. Before de- ciding, it would be wiser to learn whether the time set aside for the purpose had been properly em- ployed. In recent years, fatigue, as an element in education, has received considerable attention; but the observations thus far made are only of sugges- [59] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION tive value, and will not directly aid in settling the points here discussed. The third factor presented in our problem, men- tal maturity, concerns the period of school life when the various branches of study may be most profit- ably begun. If subjects are presented too early, the process of assimilation will be slow and imper- fect ; while, if reserved for the proper period, pos- sibly as much might be accomplished in a single year as otherwise in three or four years. The subjects at present offering the most fruitful field for research of this nature are arithmetic and technical grammar. In regard to the former, the belief is growing that the time given to it in the first two or three years is in large part wasted, or, in other words, that if children should begin arithmetic in earnest at the age of nine or ten, they would soon overtake those who began at five or six. Whether or not this is true cannot be determined without positive data. The suggestion, however, is a valu- able one. To solve the question, it is necessary to compare the results secured by pupils whose early education in arithmetic has been neglected, with the results obtained by those who have passed through a systematic course from the start. In technical grammar a still more positive stand is taken. While in a few schools this subject is begun in the fourth year, and in most schools in the fifth, it is the opinion of many educators that all the time devoted to it below the eighth year, if not below the high school, is wasted. This again can be learned from results only. [60] ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING To guard against waste in apportioning the time for instruction in individual branches constitutes only one part of the problem of educational economy. The other lies in the elimination of waste in the process of teaching; for, if the time is not profitably employed, the specified results will not be obtained within the allotted period. In teaching, both science and art are brought into play. Science tells us, for example, that the great- est amount of labor is performed with a given amount of energy when the channels of least re- sistance are employed. This condition obtains in teaching when the ideas are introduced through channels that naturally appeal to the interests of the child. When the instruction is interesting, it will attract the attention and hold it during the recitation. If, on the other hand, the child is not interested, his mind will wander, and either he will not attend at all, or his attention will be incomplete ; a part of the energy being wasted in overcoming the elements of distraction. As the time at the dis- posal of the teacher will not be fully utilized unless the mind of every child is at work, interest must be regarded as a fundamental factor in educational economy. To render instruction so interesting as to keep the mind of every child occupied will re- quire intuition, judgment, and experience, as well as a knowledge of the theory of teaching. A second point lies in securing a condition favor- able to the assimilation of ideas. It is not enough to render instruction interesting. It is necessary as well to create a state of mental hunger — a desire [61] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION for further knowledge when the recitation is over — so that the next lesson on the subject will be im- patiently awaited. When the child is thus prepared for the acquisition of new ideas, and these ideas are presented at the proper moment, the process of assimilation will be most active. Therefore, although the powers of assimilation are limited, it yet lies within our reach to produce a mental attitude that will insure the greatest possible absorption of ideas. To carry this point successfully will tax the teacher's ingenuity to the utmost. The third important factor for the elimination of waste in teaching lies in taking into account the individuality of the pupils. A teacher in charge of fifty children cannot, of course, be expected to consider all their peculiarities. Nevertheless, a great deal might be done if only this one point should re- ceive attention, viz. : the differences in the degree of facility with which pupils grasp particular branches. Recitations properly adapted to one who readily comprehends new principles in a given sub- ject cannot be followed with advantage by one who experiences great difficulty in learning them. Con- sequently, the teacher should avoid placing such pupils in the same group, or in some other way should exercise her ingenuity toward remedying the more glaring defects of this nature. The teacher will find an abundance of opportunity for the exer- cise of judgment by so instructing the class that, so far as possible, each child shall make even progress in the various branches of the grade. To attain this end, a child who was quick in [62] ECONOMY OF TIME IN TEACHING arithmetic and slow in spelling, for example, might be excused more or less frequently from the regular recitations in the former, and be permitted to devote the time to the latter. Or, again, the brightest pupils might perform a valuable service in the way of individual instruction by helping those who are slow. To some extent a plan of mutual assistance might be instituted whereby children would help their comrades in one branch, and receive assistance from them in another. Teachers who have tried some such plan as this have found that children are often more successful than they themselves in clearing away the difficulties. One who has recently passed through certain difficulties appears better to understand where they lie than one who guesses at them from reminiscences or on purely theoretical grounds. Finally, much waste is involved in keeping a child back because a low mark in one or two branches reduces his general average below the standard re- quired for promotion. To compel a child to spend six months or a year in going over perfectly familiar ground in geography and arithmetic because he had failed in spelling and grammar, is, in truth, not wasting time, but stealing it; and it is worse than ordinary theft, because stolen time can never be replaced. Moreover, such an error of judgment in regard to promotion may rob the child of all am- bition, kill his interest in intellectual work, and turn the entire current of his life. Having pointed out the principles upon which an ideal system of education might be founded, I [63] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN RDUCATION shall, in future cliaj)ters, discuss tho data that I have collected through the practical application of these principles. As ihe problem is endless in its ramifications, I do not entertain the hope that my facts — which show the results of teachin^^j in the case of a very large number of children — will be accepted as a positive solution. I shall, indeed, feel that my labor has been amply re})aid if they should do no more than convince my readers that our ele- mentary schools are conducted without regard to economy of effort, and that, so long as this condi- tion prevails, the possibilities of elementary educa- tion will remain an unknown quantity. [61] In tlic opening chapters, I endeavored to prove that the first step toward placing elementary edu- cation on a scientific basis must necessarily lie in determining what results might be reasonably ex- pected at the end of a given period of instruction. I there contended that if we had no definite notions in regard to what our teachers ought to accomplish, our ideas must be doubly vague as to how much time need be devoted to each branch. And, so long as this question remains unanswered, no well-founded opinion can be given concerning the possibility of broadening the course of study without detriment to the formal branches — the point around which the entire problem of educational reform revolves. Believing that the most rational method of deter- mining what our teachers might be expected to ac- complish would lie in discovering what results the more successful ones had been able to obtain, I ven- tured to undertake the series of research(,\s to which I have called attention, in the hope that it might serve as an initial step toward bringing this problem to a solution. And it is to the discussion of the data thus collected that this and the remaining chapters will be devoted. » April, 1897. 165] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION The material to be submitted in this chapter and the next is intended to show what our teachers have accomplished in spelling, and what, therefore, may be reasonably demanded of our schools in that sub- ject. The traditional standard in spelling is per- fection ; but this standard is unreasonable, and can- not be too soon abandoned. In view of the fact that in many cases the spelling faculty is weak, perfec- tion could not be attained even if the number of words taught in an eight-year course should not exceed a thousand. And when we consider that the number of words in ordinary use is certainly not less than 15,000, including derivatives — and the de- rivatives are frequently difficult to spell — the ab- surdity of our demand becomes evident. Moreover, as some of our most scholarly people are deficient in spelling, and as, in this subject, some of the brightest pupils cannot keep pace with the dullest, our high-pitched sensibilities on the spelling question may be regarded as one of the mysteries of civiliza- tion. If these facts were more fully considered, we should undoubtedly feel more inclined to pardon an occasional mistake in spelling, and to refrain from abusing the schools for a weakness which, whatever might be done by our teachers, could not be over- come. My researches in spelling were begun in Feb- ruary, 1895, and extended over a period of sixteen months. During this time three different tests were made; the number of children examined reaching nearly 33,000. In the present chapter, I shall merely state the results of these tests, with certain [66] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND conclusions that I have drawn from them ; deferring to the next the details concerning the methods of teaching, and the influences of certain modifying conditions, such as age, nationality, and environ- ment, which were studied as closely as possible in order that the comparisons might be fairly drawn. The results of the various tests, which are shown side by side in the accompanying tables, will be fully explained. My first test consisted of the following fifty words: furniture, chandelier, curtain, bureau, bed- stead, ceiling, cellar, entrance, building, tailor, doc- tor, physician, musician, beggar, plumber, super- intendent, engine, conductor, brakeman, baggage, machinery, Tuesday, Wednesday, Saturday, Feb- ruary, autumn, breakfast, chocolate, cabbage, dough, biscuit, celery, vegetable, scholar, geography, strait, Chicago, Mississippi, Missouri, Alleghanies, inde- pendent, confectionery, different, addition, division, arithmetic, decimal, lead, steel, pigeon. These Words, together with a set of questions concerning the methods employed by the teachers, as well as particulars in regard to the pupils, were sent to school superintendents in various sections of the United States. Of these superintendents, some twenty responded ; sending me, in total, the work of more than 16,000 children. Of the two tables pre- sented with this chapter, the first shows the general average obtained in individual cities by grades, every class-room examined being represented in the fig- ures ; while the second shows the results in individual schools — the most characteristic among those ex- [67] SCIENTIFIC MANACJKMKNT IN EDUCATION amincd Iiavln/r Ixcn sclcchi'd for j)ul)Iic;ili()n in ilils form. In llic (irsl. luhic llic results of I wo tests only are shown; wliile the second Inchides the results of the three. As It was thoii/^ht inadvisable to j)uhlish the names of the localities from which the j)a|)ers were received, the variouH cities have been represeidcd hy numbers, and the individual schools hy letters. On directing;' our attention to the results of the first test, we /ire startled by the enormous variations, when 1 he extremes are consie<5^wOj-*i2<2f;^®«'^^ 1l n t a <*> -d ^ 1^ •j^ oSbjoav 10 in r-4 c» ci» a> 00 uo oD a5 00 00 00 10 Ol 228 rH 0» to t- CT> 1 10 c» O) I-: ■# . 00 CO xi t- 00 iSiBSJ •xa aiodnj -o^m of-^:>fo^iciDoo OQ a^ cj lO 00 »- 00 Sg • a. a;. CO- 00 r-' • GO I- CI 00 ig^Lo c> •o3v" o3tMOAV <£> CV CO -J< CO ir> t' CO -r -t i.S -^ 10 10 10 lO -coco : 10 M< i »o •t-too> • 10 .0 -r : o 1^" •;j{ oi;/L'a.)AV -oC 0000 t \ \ -or— ?2 •Xa H.hHl»J -01^ t- : :'c3 ■■cr>-0 § : CIO c, .- ^ S 1 H •<(, OSU.COAV OD ( - lO 03 I- go -f- r-i c> -t ci CO oi ci -^ 00 oOoo>»ooo64>i;-t-oot-oo 00 to -^cj oq «- 10 CO r- o> ci cr> I- r- 00 ^- 1> 00 1- 00 f- 53' •xa siodcj -OM CO f- t- ^ •* CO 01 r- 01 r/J Tj- Cf -+ CT> f- CJ CO 00 'T T-lrH ,Hr-l \ny-*Oi rl 5|SS|^S2?2 ^ J^ •o3v oScjOAV CO 00 00 1.0 1- 00 CI -^ CO -t t CO -4 r6 -^ -r -^ -4 toco • Tj-«(<«oooooioo5eoooo • cor-t-.-ia>oo eo >AV C^OSOOeOt- C>Jt-<£>r-l . t- .CT. CO c> CO 00 CO CO cj CO CO CO CO ! "* ci I co' c-) co co co cj ■^ 10 •j^ oSujOAV s 1.0 00 coca t-t- CO* ^12 CI 10 •xa sjodud: -0^ 1 : «5 CO cow CO 10 1-* 1 •jj oSuio.vv i-i«>o>coio to-* COC^Cl OCO-:i<cj«>-<»*»o M r-I CO 0> r-i M VH C» CJ ^ «o • 10 .-1 oj 10 c»< CO <0 r-oo » Ot-J (N CO ^ 12SJ5 2S M 1 < [74] ^ 4th Year. 5th Year. 6th Year. 7th Year. 8th Year. j 1 1 1 4 < 1 i ■■*" ! < 1 I' 1 1 1 i ■l f ■§ 1 1 1 1 1 1 B 8 1 '1 i 1 1 a 1 a 1 1 1 1 1 < i" s 1 3 1 1 i 1 i .i 1 1 i- < 1 < s s .1 a J .6 12 81 79.6 12.8 45 79 77.2 13.9 20 90 76.7 14,8 25 80 77.1 1 A 8 96,8 11.2 50 80 72.6 _97.4 12 50 90- 77,7 98.8 13 50 87 .13.7 40 94 83 86,1 99.6 15.3 20 .P3S6 75 1 R 96.7 -95:9 97,5 11 -TO 11.2 45 40 77 4 81,8 "We 79,4 98.4 -97:8 98.3 12,8 "TO 12 35 ^2r 15 88 68 71^:5 -54:2 73.4 98.2 97.8 98.6 13.6 T2l 12.9 40 20 40 -7-9- 84 78 98.7 99.4 14.7 14.1 13 6 30 93 ■84^ 99 99.4 15.2 14.9 30 83.4 77.6 1 7 C 6 40 84 35 64.5 75.2 '^^ ii.i 20 73 m.i 11,9 11.4 30, 40 66, 80 71,1 80 12.9 . 13.4 45 50 78 83 8l!l -95?? 99.3 13,8 J 3.6 13.4 30 15 83 87.2 86,7 99.4 _9a3 14,9 30 68.4 77.9- 7 B 97.4, 11.2 35 57 98,6 12.4 15 81 99:1 12.8 13.4 ■ 35 45 79 30 83 14.6 15 65,0 7 C R 11.1 40 78 815 Ii6.b 72,8 13.6 35 97 85.6 14.8 50 92,7 76.6 9 A ■1 96.1 96.8 88.5 74.8 76.8 9V.b 97.9 12.3 45 83'' 73.2 73.1 -761 79.4 98,7 98.4 14 13,7 13,6 13,6 35- 45 86 JiRJi 99.4 39.3 V,.G 60 85.7 77.7 9 B 4 11.5 40 70 97 93 35 8.^ 84.7 15.3 20 87.6 77.9 9 C 78 80 79,5 99.2 98,6 15.4 20 80 83.5 82.5 99.3 99.1 15.6 20 70.2 76.2 10 A 4 9 9G.6 11,5 35 70 75 76.6 77.2 98.6 98,9 12.3 13.1 ,20 75 71 72.7 99,2 13.1 14.1 20 10 11 B 3 6 10,5 25 70.4 70.6 87 63,4 6,'5,8 13 13.b 25 83 76 13,9 14,8 30 91 ,86.4 15.1 40 76,9 72 A 4 8 96,3 97,9 11,5 '35 69 74.b 81.8 97.9 98.5 12.2 25 80 ■ 74' 68,0 13.8 30 81 80 98,8 14.3 40 90.5 80.7 99,1 14.8 40 74.7 79.1 11 B 2 66.4 73 75 75,7 78.3 86.3 90.3 -90 94.6 83.9 "8073 88.6 73.9 12 A 3 2 18 74.4 79 10 "78.4 9 90 13 13 79,0 13 B 73 73.4 96.8 97.4 57 71.5 97.7 98.1 76.7 98.3 98.7 99 90.4 73.4 IS B 3 20 81.6 83.6 20 68.3 72.7 20 84'' 20 20 78.8 15 D 8 97 96.6 15 70.4 74.4 79.4 97.8 98.3 20 75.2 72,8 69.6 88.5 4)8.1 20 86.4 '80.6 98,7 20 87. G 89.4 99.3 20 75.2 77,3 15 E 1 20 66.3 76.3 79.1 25 71.8 69^ 76.2 25 85 ;81.4 25 90,0 89.9 89.* -84- 89.9 "*1 35 72.5 77,9 15 II 6 2 97.4 97,9 10.6 20 63 73.6 76.4 Hi m 12,7 15 70 61.9 97.6 98.7 -98JI .97.7 13.7 20 -75 11:1 -98.3 9.8.8 '14.7I, 20 83 99:1 99.4 "0811 1.5.1 6 67.6|73,0 16 A 4 97,9 10.2 60 67 70.6 74.4 -66:8 76,6 11,9 20 68 13, iry -'78 ' 75.3 ■J8.5i 99,3|,13,5 10 "79 1,5.3 5 65,673.7 10 B 8 20 67 12.8 40 74 ;68.8 72 sa 69J — 13.7 14.7 _35_ .30 83 78, 84 14.2 81 84.3 15.5 -73.473,8 19 A 4 4 1 11.8 40 73. 78.2 76 $4' 15.9 30 87,5 85 86.8 15.8 74.773.3 19 B B Indicates first hall, and small >. second halt, ol school year. FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND School A, No. 9, I compared the papers of the individual pupils who had taken part in the first test with those presented bj the same pupils on the second. Most of these pupils, in the meantime, had been promoted to the fifth grade. Of course, if their papers had again shown the same degree of perfection, it would have been but fair to conclude that the figures at first secured were reliable, and that we had simply discovered a remarkable group of children. The second examination proved, how- ever, that these children had not been born in Won- derland, but that they were of the very same stamp as other children had proved to be. In fact, the average made on the second test by those who had received 95.3 on the first was only 73, or exactly the same as that made by the pupils of School A, No. 7, who on the first test obtained not more than 41. In Schools E and H, No. 15, the figures are re- liable, as the words were dictated by myself. Again, in City 18, the examinations were made in my pres- ence, the words being dictated by the teachers. In no instance in which the tests were made under my supervision — the words being pronounced by either the teacher or myself — was the class average for the fourth year, in boys' or mixed schools, higher than 59 per cent. I desire to say, in passing, that the results in the girls' schools were higher than those in the boys' and mixed schools. In the accompany- ing tables the girls' schools have been omitted; otherwise the comparison would have been mislead- ing. They will be considered separately. [75] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION Leaving the first test and directing our attention to the others, we are confronted by a number of interesting phenomena, almost equally manifest in both. The most striking of these are: First, that in the vast majority of instances the results are very close when the averages for entire buildings are compared. In fifteen of the twenty-one schools on my list, the averages on the second test, as the table shows, run from 73.3 to 77.9. Second, while the results in the lower grades of different schools show considerable variation, those in the eighth-year classes, which represent the end of the school course, are remarkably even. In twelve of the seventeen eighth-year grades, the averages are from 84 to 88, the A and B classes being taken together. And in fifteen of a total of twenty sets of eighth-grade compositions examined for spelling, the variations were only three-tenths of 1 per cent, the results lying between 99.1 and 99.4, the A's and B's being taken as one. These facts are doubly remarkable when we consider that the twenty-one schools not only represent institutions in many sections of the coun- try, but that they are samples of schools conducted under all conceivable conditions. For example, No. 7 is a Western city of moderate size, while No. 15 is a large city in the East. Again, most of the children attending School A, No. 7, are of Ameri- can parentage, and their home surroundings are particularly favorable; while the children attending School B, No. 7, represent the foreign laboring ele- ment. Further, from a pedagogical standpoint, all varieties of schools are included; some of them be- [76] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND longing to the most mechanical, while others are among the most progressive, in our country. If the best results had been secured in the me- chanical and the poorest in the progressive schools, the question would arise whether the small additional return would warrant the latter in placing addi- tional pressure on spelling at the expense of other subjects. But even this question does not arise; for it did not happen that the results in most cases were best in mechanical schools. Indeed, in both the mechanical and the progressive schools the re- sults were variable ; so that while, in some instances, the higher figures were secured by the former, in others they were obtained by the latter; and the same is true of the lower figures. For example. School B, No. 11, in which the best average (79.4) was obtained, belongs to a very progressive system; while School A, No. 12, which made only 73.9, be- longs to one of our most mechanical systems. And it is a peculiar incident that, in both these cities, the results in the only other school examined are exactly reversed, although the environment is about the same. Further, just as it is impossible by the results to distinguish the mechanical from the progressive schools, so it is impossible to distinguish the schools attended by the children of cultured parents from those representing the foreign laboring element; the results from this standpoint also varying equally. Consequently, so far as spelling is concerned, the influence of environment appears to be insignificant. The second point to which I have referred, [77] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION namely, the small variation in the eighth-year re- sults — regardless of how nmch time had been de- voted to spelling, or what methods had been em- ployed, or under what home influences the children had been reared — is also well worthy of considera- tion. And it is no less striking that the same level was reached in the end, regardless of wliat had been accomplished in the lower grades, a fact which be- comes obvious on comparing the results in the eighth-year classes with the average obtained by the entire school. In the composition test, where the results in fifteen of the twenty sets of eighth-year papers were within three-tenths of each other, this fact is still more clearly demonstrated. To make a further study of eighth-year results a few varia- tions in the tests were tried, but no modifications were found. For example, in a special test of twenty-five very simple words, I examined four eighth-year classes representing three different cities. The extremes did not vary more than two points; the results being respectively 92.0, 93.2, 93.6, and 94.4. In one school, the compositions were written from the picture alone, so that the pupils were ab- solutely free in the selection of the story and the choice of words. The average was 99.3. Do not these results indicate that, in learning to 6-^ spell, maturity is the leading factor, while method /plays only a subordinate part? And, if the supe- riority of the old-fashioned spelling grind cannot be demonstrated, is it not our duty to save the child from this grind? Moreover, as the results prove [78] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND that, beyond a certain minimum, the compensation for time devoted to spelling is scarcely, if at all, appreciable, have we not here discovered an element of waste, which, if eliminated, would open the way to an equal enrichment of the course of study with- out detriment to the formal branches? It might still be argued that while pressure could be omitted in the case of pupils who were likely to complete the grammar-school course, it would nevertheless be needed for those who cannot attend school longer than four or five years. But, in view of my results, this argument is equally controverti- ble. For, in the first place, while the fourth and fifth grades, individually considered, show consid- erable variation, we find many instances in which a low fourth-year average is followed by a high fifth, and vice versa; so that when the two grades are averaged together, the results for the different schools are very, close. Again, while the differences in the fourth year are marked, the results do not speak in favor of mechanical primary schools. On the contrary, the poorest fourth-grade results — Schools A and B, No. 12 — were obtained by the pupils of primary departments as mechanical as any to be found; while, on the other hand, among those who did best were included some of our most delightful primary schools, such as School A, No. 7, and School B, No. 11. That no dogmatic statements on this point can be made on either side, however, is proved by the fact that a contrary state- ment would be equally true; for in some of the me- [79] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION chanical schools the fourth-grade averages were high, while in some of the progressive schools they were comparatively low. In the majority of instances, the results of the first test, also, were confined within narrow limits; for, in twelve out of eighteen cities — Nos. 1 and 9 being excluded — tlie averages ranged from 70.6 to 74.8, the number of correctly spelled words thus lying between 85 and 37. On the second test, the general averages in seven cities out of nine ranged from 73.5 to 70.8. The smallest variations, how- ever, were found in the results of the composition- test, where, in spite of the great variation in the character of the institutions, the extreme differ- ence in ten schools out of eleven was only five-tenths of 1 per cent— 98.2 to 98.7. Finally, as in most localities the general results Vere nearly equal — those secured under the same system of instruction varying as much as those obtained under different systems — it is clear that the remedy does not lie either in a change of method or in an increase of time. And this conclusion ac- cords with the fact that the dissatisfaction with spelling is as great in communities where this sub- ject constitutes a special feature as in those where spelling plays only a subordinate part in the schools. Whether or not the spelling in a particular lo- cality is actually below the average can only be learned by comparing the results of an examination conducted on the same basis in many localities. By examining children in any one city, on a set of arbi- trarily selected words, the question cannot be solved, [80] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND because the results in other places, on the same list of words, would remain an unknown quantity. A common standard is offered, however, by a composi- tion-test such as I have undertaken. And when a test of this nature shows results similar to those presented in this article, interested citizens may rest assured that the spelling in their own schools is no worse than it is in those of most other localities. [81] VI In the preceding chapter I showed what our teachers had been able to accomplish in spelling, and, consequently, what standards in this subject we were justified in establishing. Thus far, the feasibility of establishing definite standards has been denied, on the ground that the influence of instruction was so profoundly modified by condi- tions inherent in the pupils that the results obtained in one class-room would not necessarily indicate what we had a right to expect in another. In the present chapter, however, I shall endeavor to prove, by an analysis of the factors involved, that, so far as spelling is concerned, the results are not de- pendent on conditions over which the teacher has no ♦ control, but that, whether satisfactory or unsatis- / factory, the causes may be found on the side of in- I struction. When my analysis is completed, I shall present an outline of what my investigations have led me to regard as the most rational plan of treat- ing the subject. In presenting my data, I shall first direct atten- tion individually to the factors brought into play by the pupils, viz., age, nationality, heredity, and ^June, 1897. [82] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND environment, and show how the mysteries are dis- sipated when the first ray of light is thrown upon them. The elements involved in instruction will then be considered in the same manner. If the ability to spell were influenced by age, the results, naturally, would be in favor of the older pupils. That the averages received by these were not higher than those obtained by the younger ones, however, is proved by the figures presented in Table No. 1. These figures show, on the contrary, that in the majority of instances the results were in favor of the younger pupils. This may be ac- counted for by the fact that the younger children in a class are frequently the brighter and the more mature, having overtaken the older pupils by rea- son of these characteristics. Moreover, that the best spellers are to be found, as a rule, among the brightest pupils, is shown by Table No. 2, which indicates the influence of intellect on spelling. As the task of computing the results by ages, intellect, and so on, from the papers of individual children was found to be very laborious, not all the papers received were utilized for this purpose. As in the preceding chapter, the cities are indi- cated in the tables by numbers, and the individual schools by letters. The first test, it will be recalled, consisted of a column of fifty words, and the second, of sentences ; fifty test-words being employed in the fourth and fifth, and seventy-five in the sixth, seventh, and eighth-year classes. The third test, spelling in compositions, will not be considered here. In Table No. 2, which shows the influence of intellect on spell- [83] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION Tabm: No. FOURTD YEAR. FUrniTKAB. SIXTH yiCAR. BKVEirrn tear. Eionrn tkah. >> .t: 1 J 8, < of i •as 0<] 1 11 1 i II f 1 &-11 i;n 73.5 0-13 107 78. »-13 72 85.0 9-14 88 88.5 13-14 24 04.4 g i3-ir> 78 (57.'] 1.3-17 Oi) 75.0114-17 50 84.0 1.5-17 :{8 8t>.(i 1.5-18 00 03.5 "JT «-12 1((7 51.5 "lO-lT l.S« flT Tl-18 r;{7 77. 11-1.1 '82 mA) 12-14 70 00.9 t L'J-HJ 10 55 . 1 13-15 57 59.0 14-17 or? 74.1 14-1 (! 105 h:m 15-10 111 HO. 3 u «-ll 111 5071 10-13 (il 70. 1 io-i;j 112 75.1 U-14 "77 H;r2 i;5-15 •61 00.5 "^ 12-15 104 ■W.l l;M« 01 m.: 14-17 74 78. ;^| 15-18 ca 84. 10-18 13 91.7 9-11 13£15 8-10 nj-1^3 9-11" 13-15 00.51 50.1 0870 50^ 70. L 01,7 10-13 13-15 10-12 i:m5 10-12 i;m5 81. 7H.>^ MM 78^0 7575 70 . 2 t3-18 14-10 I'2-13 14-10 ri-13" 14-10 70.0 08.3 ?',r2 08.. 3 73T1 74.7 13-14 15-17 1'2-14 lj5-17^ 13-14 1.5-17 70 77. H 70 . ( 77_^b 80.2 80.5 13-14 ir)-n 1'2-14 15-17 86.9 84^ 87.3 84.8 Tadlb No, 2. i-6 1 i 0) < 4 1 ■4 32 •SI t > N <1 1 8 ,4 6 6 10 113 78.7 169 70.5 1.53 58.8 54 51.1 8 i« 33 117 104 80. ■ 88.7 239 -26T 77.7 84.3 166 71.1 59 61.6 3 '183 78. 69 73 7 3 7 19 116 03.4 216 88.3 155 77.5 59 79.3 _2_ _8_ 8 66 ' 94. 09 89.3 97 87.8 30 81.5 Table No. 8 Oradk. 1 ■'S 6 •s i i i < \ §1 1 •^ 65^ f , Fourth Fifth Sixth 21 21 21 21 119 1'26- 100 3700 3500" 3'I07 53 , 5 "(UT.s "75T0 1051 'n2(i 1032 53. m . 8 74T0 '815 814 700 53. 670 6T9 584 304 53.3 ^^' 65.1 64.3 74.1 SO , <» 74.3 Seventh I Eighth 81. Oil 79. 3,1 71 2088 84.3 (Ids s.^.-f :Mr-) ^5 . 204 83. td Fourth ......... Fiftli ,..1 Sixth 4 .27 m 64.7 155 65.0 159 64.9 129 63.5 S,: 4 ' 29 830 76. 153 77.4 157 70.7 120 74.5 P,S 1 4 23 778 69.7 W^ 69.6 105 70.3 119 70.4 Seventh Eighth 4 18 566 78.8 81 83.5 53 81.5 55 76.8 M 4 19 528 83.1 ■ 73 83.2 frl 83.2 76 65. [84] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND ing, "Intellect 1" indicates the brightest, and "In- tellect 4," the dullest pupils. The difference in favor of the brightest pupils, when compared with the dullest, is very striking. The lesson to be learned from Table 2 is that an unusually high or low class-average may now and then be accounted for by an exceptionally bright or dull set of pupils. Occasionally, therefore, the teacher may be allowed to plead " dull pupils " as an excuse for poor re- sults. While this might offer a loophole for an in- competent teacher, the danger of being misled by such a plea is not great, because, in most instances, the teacher's statement can be verified by reference to the principal. Teachers habitually cursed with dull pupils cannot be placed too soon on the retired list. If the results throughout a building should be unsatisfactory, to plead "dull pupils" would, of course, be ridiculous. Next, a comparison of the results obtained by children representing the foreign element with those secured by the American element (Table No. 3) shows that the influence of nationality on spelling is nil. Indeed, the percentages, if not identical, are slightly in favor of the foreign element. These fig- ures, computed from the papers of pupils attending schools of all varieties, are substantiated by the fact already mentioned ; viz., that the results in schools attended almost entirely by children of foreigners were fully as good as those in schools where most of the pupils were from American homes. Moreover, in spelling, nationality furnishes a very broad clue to heredity. And as the excellent spelling so fre- [85] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION quently found among the children of foreigners can- not be regarded as the perpetuation of a family trait, the influence of heredity on spelling must also be put down as immaterial. In Table No. 3, the influence of environment is also shown; the results obtained by children of un- skilled laborers, whose home surroundings are pre- sumably unfavorable, being compared with results obtained by all classes of children examined. And here again, strange as it may seem, the percentages were practically equal; thus showing that home en- vironment exerts, apparently, as little influence on spelling as the other factors that I have discussed. As the facts I have presented would indicate that the results of instruction in spelling were not ma- terially modified by conditions over which the teacher had no control, it is evident that the causes of success and failure must be sought among the elements brought into play by the teacher. The most important of these are: (1) the amount of time devoted to spelling; (2) the methods of teach- ing the subject; (3) the selection of words; and (4) the personal equation of the teacher. These points will now be individually considered. -^ Concerning the amount of time devoted to spell- ing, I need only repeat what was mentioned in the preceding chapter, namely, that an increase of time beyond a certain maximum is not rewarded by bet- ter results, or, in other words, that all the time be- yond this maximum is simply thrown away. This, in my opinion, was conclusively proved by the table presented in that chapter, which showed that the [86] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND results obtained by forty or fifty minutes' daily in- struction were not better than those obtained where not more than ten or fifteen minutes had been de- voted to the subject. As the time element is the central point around which the possibility of en- riching the course revolves, my researches would have been a.mply repaid if they had led to nothing beyond this discovery. Those who regard as incredible my statement concerning the time element in spelling may possibly find some food for reflection in Chapter III. Again, conviction may be carried by the facts presented in a letter from Dr. Eucken, Professor of Philosophy in the University of Jena. Professor Eucken writes as follows: Jena, April 19, 1897. My Dear Doctor: I have read your articles in The Forum with great inter- est; and I am pleased that you are laboring with so much energy toward the exclusion of useless matters from the course, so that attention may be centred on the essentials. The results presented in your last article, "The Futility of the Spelling Grind," are also very interesting, and cannot fail to lead to serious reflection. That instruction, particularly in the lower grades, is in need of simplification, we have had occasion to experience with our own children. It appeared to us that, for the little the chil- dren actually acquired in the public schools, they were obliged to spend far too much time in the schoolroom. We therefore organized a small private class (3 to 5 children) for the purpose of covering the work of the lower grades. The children received from 5 to 8 hours' instruction per week. The results were perfectly satisfactory. The requirements were met excellently, so that the children were enabled immediately to enter the next higher grade. No doubt the number of pupils played an important part [87] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION in the achievement; but the success must certainly be largely attributed to the better methods employed in our little pri- vate school. I therefore wish you all possible success in your endeavors. Obviously, in America, they are duly recognized and appre- ciated. Very respectfully yours. Dr. J. M. Rice. R. Euckest. Next, concerning the influence of methods, a very comprehensive study was made, through personal interviews with some two hundred teachers whose pupils had taken part in my tests. These teachers were questioned, to the minutest details, in regard to the course they had pursued. As the table show- ing a summary of these interviews side by side with the results was found too complicated for publica- tion, I shall be able to present only the deductions to be drawn therefrom. (In brief, these deductions may be summarized in the statement that there is no direct relation be- tween methods and results. In other words, the results varied as much under the same as they did under different methods of instruction. For example, among the points that have given rise to endless discussion is that concerning the value of oral spelling; some believing it to be vital, while others claim that it is actually detrimental. My tests showed that, while in some of the schools where a special feature had been made of oral spell- ing the results were favorable, in others they were unfavorable. And the same conditions were shown where oral spelling had been abandoned. Secondly, much discussion has arisen as to whether, in written [88] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND spelling, the words of the lesson should be placed in columns or in sentences. But the claim of su- periority in favor of sentence over column spelling was by no means corroborated, the results of the sentence method varying just as much as those of the column method. In addition to questions on the fundamental ele- ments, an inquiry was made concerning the details relating to these methods ; such as the mode of dividing words into syllables, both in oral and writ- ten spelling, the different ways in which misspelled words were made up by the pupils, the frequency of reviews, and so on. But no direct relation between devices and results could be traced. A very careful study was made as to whether there is any founda- tion for the theory that when children learn to read by the phonic method they fall into the habit of spelling phonetically, and therefore become poor spellers. The analysis showed that some of the best results had been obtained where the phonic method had been employed ; that, in fact, the phonic method had long formed a feature in the cities where the highest averages were made. Another theory, that the best spelling is produced in schools where the most general reading is done, also proved unfounded. Nor did the schools where the most time was de- voted to written language make the best showing. A device known as the sight or flash method has also found its way into some of our schools. This method, in brief, is as follows : A word is written on the board by the teacher, who permits the pupils to glance at it for a moment. The word is then [89] / SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION erased, and the pupils are called upon to reproduce it on the board from memory. In this way, one word after another is written until the lesson is com- pleted. Some who have used this method look upon it as a panacea: others have no confidence in it whatever. Judging by my results, the claims in its favor are not warranted. On the contrary, in some of the schools where it had been faithfully tried, the results were particularly discouraging. The facts here presented will, in my opinion, admit of one conclusion only; viz., that the results j are not determined by the methods employed, but j>y the ability of those who use them. In other 1/ words, the first place must be given to the personal equation of the teacher, while methods and devices play only a subordinate part. It seems to me, therefore, that the evils now ascribed to uncontrollable circumstances should be attributed in large part to a lack on the part of the teacher of those qualifications which are essen- tial to success. Consequently, when reasonable de- mands are not met within a reasonable time limit, we are justified in inferring that the fault lies with the teacher and not with the pupils. An instructive experience I once encountered will serve to illustrate this point. On leaving a class-room in which I had heard a few recitations, I complimented the teacher on the intelligence of her pupils. She replied : "You must not give me credit for that. These children are Russians; and one can do anything with Rus- sians.'' It so happened that on the next day, I visited a class-room, in which the children were ex- [90] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND ceptionally dull. On this occasion the teacher re- marked : "You must not blame me for their stupidity. My pupils are Russians; and one cannot do anything with Russians J"* Finally, I shall call attention to an important factor, on the side of instruction, whose influence, though manifest, is not affected by the spirit of the teacher. I refer to the selection of words for the spelling course. It is in this element only that I can find an explanation of the most puzzling feature shown in the tables accompanying the preceding arti- cle, namely, that classes which received exceptionally low averages on the column test did just as well as others on the sentence and composition tests. That these poor results cannot be attributed to lack of experience in writing words in columns is proved by the fact that, in most of the schools where they were secured, column spelling had formed a regular feature in instruction. Nor can they be accounted for by the fact, previously mentioned, that the ex- ceptionally high percentages were not trustworthy; for the results to which I now refer were far below those obtained in some instances where the words were dictated by myself. I believe, therefore, that the lack of success on this particular test was due to the fact that it contained certain classes of words on which these pupils had not been drilled ; although, with few exceptions, the words employed were very common ones. A careful analysis showed that in most instances where the low averages on the column test were obtained, the spelling-book had been abandoned; [91] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION although where it had been set aside the results were not always low. In many such cases, the words are selected entirely from the other school-books — reader, geography, history, arithmetic, science, and so on — when opportunity for using them in school work arises. Words not directly needed are liable to be neglected, however common they may be. Thus, in selecting words for the needs of the school- room, rather than of life, the danger arises of giv- ing precedence to technical and unusual words, while the common ones play a subordinate part only. It is claimed in favor of this method of selection that it is the more natural one. In my opinion, however, no method of teaching can be more un- natural ; for, when the words are thus selected, the pedagogical principle — from the easy to the diffi- cult — is disregarded, and systematic progress aban- doned. Moreover, from a practical standpoint, the method is a most wasteful one, because much of the time which should be devoted to practical spelling is spent in studying words seldom used outside the schoolroom. When the need for such words arises in life, resort may be had to the dictionary. If the dictionary must be more or less frequently employed, in spite of instruction in spelling, it is safer to run our chances with the unusual words than with those in constant use. The danger of leading children into bad habits if we permit them to misspell words in their written work could be obviated without completely perverting instruction in spelling. It would be necessary simply to tell the pupils how to spell the uncommon and technical words, or to [92] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND place them on the board, when occasion required. Thus, children might be led incidentally to learn how to spell the rarer words, while the spelling pe- riod proper might be spent on practical work. The absurdities incident to the so-called "natural method" were shown very clearly during one of my visits to a fifth-year class, when the pupils, who had studied the pine, were about to write a com- position on the subject. In preparation, the spell- ing-lesson of the day consisted of the following words : Exogen^ erect, cylindrical, coniferal, irregu- lar, indestructible, pins, resinous, and whorls. First, as for systematic progress in spelling — from the easy to the difficult — a more absurd combina- tion could be scarcely devised. And, secondly, from the practical point of view, such words as exogen, coniferal, whorls, are entirely out of place — at least until perfection. in common words has been reached. And that drill in common words was still sorely needed in this instance was shown by the results obtained by the pupils on some of the simple words in my sentence test ; the forty- four papers submitted showing errors as follows: running 9, slipped 27, believe 17, changeable 30, baking 7, piece 11, care- ful 12, waiting 9, getting 9, driving 11, and hopping 17. In the grade representing the latter half of the fourth school-year, containing pupils soon to be pro- moted into the class just spoken of, the results in forty papers on words in my column test showed the following errors: bureau and chocolate 39, 36, Wednesday 34, dough 31, autumn 27, cabbage pigeon 38, biscuit, celery, vegetable 37, February [93] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 24, h^edstead, beggar, steel 23, tailor 22. Are we justified in such cases as these in spending our time on unusual words? Having presented my data, it will now be in place to say a few words concerning the course in spell- ing which I have been led to regard as the most rational and fruitful. First, as to oral and written, column and sentence, spelling, I shall say only this, that the wise teacher will acquaint herself with as many methods and devices as possible, and change from one to the other, in order to relieve the tedium and to meet the needs of individual children. Be- fore all, she will beware of running off at a tangent with any particular method, because none yet dis- covered has proved a panacea. / Secondly, under no circumstances should more '{ than fifteen minutes daily be devoted to the subject. / Whatever benefit the pupils receive from their in- ^ struction in spelling will be obtained within this period. Thirdly, I should recommend that the words be carefully graded, not only in regard to orthographi- cal difficulties, but in accordance with the vocabulary of the child as well. In this way, the course in spelling might become as systematic as in other subjects. Fourthly, precedence should be given to common words, while technical and unusual words should be taught incidentally. By excluding words of the latter classes, the course would be materially abridged, and the chances of producing good prac- tical spellers proportionately increased. [94] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND Fifthly, the course should be further abridged by excluding words that contain no catch, i.e., words which naturally spell themselves. My researches on this point would indicate that more than half the common words belong to this category and conse- quently need not be studied. The ideal ground to be covered in spelling would be represented, there- fore, by a carefully graded list of the common words most liable to be misspelled. The number of words in this list, according to my estimate, would be be- tween six and seven thousand. When the words have been selected, the next step will lie in a systematic treatment of the difficulties. And here again the course is open to simplification, by separating the words that may be learned col- lectively from those which must be mastered in- dividually. The words that can be acquired collectively are those to which rules of spelling apply. While, in some instances, the exceptions are so numerous as to rob the rules of their value, a few of them, never- theless, are very reliable, at least for all practical purposes. And, as these few rules govern thou- sands of words, it would be much less burdensome to master them than to memorize such words individu- ally. Among these rules, two are particularly com- prehensive, and should be taught, year after year, until applied automatically. They are: first, the rule referring to the doubling of the consonant, as in run-running; and, secondly, the rule concerning the dropping of the final e, as in bake-baking. That so many children, even in the highest grammar [95] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION grade, should spell lose with two o's does not neces- sarily throw discredit on the teacher; but that a child who has attended school four years or more should write "While runing he sliped," or "She was bakeing cake," is as unpardonable as if he were unable to add 2 and 2. And yet out of 252 pupils in the fourth school-year, whose papers were ex- amined with reference to this point, running was misspelled by 94, slipped by 126, and baking by 69. That little advantage is now taken of rules is indicated by the fact that, broadly speaking, as many errors were made on words governed by rules as on those to which they did not apply. The com- parison is shown in the following table, which is based on the sentence test : Table No. 4 No. of Schools. (Jrade. No. of Pupils. General Average. Results on words under the rule. Results on words not under rule. 3 4 252 66.4 60.9 69.0 3 5 232 76.4 72.6 78.2 3 6 311 71.0 73.2 70.2 3 7 191 80.9 81.9 80.6 2 8 62 86.3 91.4 85.4 In the fourth and fifth year classes, it will be seen that the results were in favor of words not under the rule. In the sixth year classes, however, the scale began to turn. The words that must be studied individually are those in which no clue is given, either by sounds or [96} FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND rules. The best to be done with such words, until our spelling is reformed, is to bring them to the notice of the child, and trust to chance for the results. The simple reform of dropping the silent letter in the last syllable of such words as beggar, driver, doctor, mantel, bundle, metal, would enable us to strike no less than 15 per cent of the words from the described list. Again, in the long vowel sounds the difficulties are endless ; the same sound being represented in so many different ways that it is a marvel to be able to master them at all. To illus- trate: blue, to, too, two, who, shoe, you, ewe; lieu, view, new {knew); no {know), sew, beau, toe, owe, oh, dough, goat. Again, the choice between ee and ea, as in feed, read, is extremely puzzling. What a boon to our children it would be to rid spelling of such peculiarities as these ! The difficulties in English spelling were most vividly demonstrated by the numerous ways in which the younger children endeavored to get at some of the words. In a fourth year class of forty pupils, for example, the word physician was misspelled in forty different ways, chandelier in 32, machinery in 27, bureau and chocolate in 23, vegetable in 19, furniture in 18, biscuit in 17, Wednesday in 15, celery and pigeon in 14, baggage in 13, February and cabbage in 11, dough in 9. Some of the com- binations were as follows: For physician: fasition, fesition, fisition, fusition, fazition, fisision, facision, fizeshon, fazishon, fusa- shon, physichan, phyzision, physicion, phacicion, physision, phisishon, phasichian, phisishon, vasition, [97] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION vecition, fasision, fosishen, fursishon, fushistion, fe- shishon, phisican, fusison, fesision, phsislien^ fazui- sheriy phosion, fusion, fusion, fazshen, fisJion, pha- siariy phacion, fegtion, pliyasishen, phsam; for chocolate: chocolate^ choclate, choclet, chocklet, chocklate, cliocholit, chocJdod, choJcolat, chokelate, chokelaty chalkolet, chaclote, chaclate, chalket, cholet, cliolate, clioalate, chalcolate, choctlet, choak- late, clioclelot, cJiouilet, cacklet; for bureau: huro, huroWy huroe, huerow, hurreau, burro, burou, buero, beauro, beaurow, beaurew, beuro, beuroe, berro, berow, berrow, biro, beiro, brewro, bewer, beroueo, broe, b^errobe; for vegetable: vegitahle, vegitabels, vegatable, vegtahle, vegtible, Vegtibale, vegeatabel, vegitble, vegitbul, vegatobol, vegitale, vetable, vege- able, vegubale, veguahle, vegatable, vegitalb, vegtful, vestuble; for furniture: furnature, furnishture, fune- ture, funiture, furnutor, furnisher, furnachure, furnichure, fruniture, furiture, furnerchur, feri- chure, furicher, furichur, furuner, ferichrue, furer- curc. Finally, I would suggest a separate list of those puzzling small words, which, though constantly used in writing, are yet so frequently misspelled. Among these may be mentioned to, too, there, their, hear, here, any, many, much, such, which, those, whose, and does. In all such a list need not include more than 150 or 200 words. As these words cannot be too often brought to the notice of the child, the drill should be begun as early as possible and con- tinued throughout the entire course. Even in the highest grammar grade, a considerable number of [98] FUTILITY OF THE SPELLING GRIND pupils will write dose for does, who^s for whose, there for their, to for too, etc. The sentence, "Too much food is harmful," was given to very many children East and West; and in the sixth year classes from 40 to 75 per cent of the pupils began the sentence with "To." Although a liberal admixture of methods and a judicious selection of words would be of material assistance, nothing can take the place of that per- sonal power which distinguishes the successful from the unsuccessful teacher. Consequently, our efforts should be primarily directed toward supplying our schools with competent teachers. As the number required precludes the possibility of limiting the selection to those who are born for the profession, our only course lies in developing the requisite powers, as well as we can, where they are naturally weak. To this end, I believe that no means can be more effective than to prescribe a definite task, to be completed in a given time, and to make the tenure of office depend on the ability to meet the demand. If my proposition should consider the results alone, then of course it would be fraught with the danger of leading us back to the era of endless mechanical drill ; but so long as the time limit is a sine qua non, this danger is entirely averted. [99] VII A TEST IN ARITHMETIC ^ In the present and the following two chapters, I shall present the facts secured by a test in arith- metic, and I shall concentrate attention chiefly upon the two fundamental questions by which teachers are confronted whenever a subject is incorporated in the school programme : (1) What results shall be accomplished? and (2) How much time shall be devoted to the branch? Intimately associated with these questions is a third, namely: Why do some schools succeed in se- curing satisfactory results with a reasonable appro- priation of time, while others cannot get reasonable results in spite of an inordinate provision of time? This question introduces a problem which is much more involved than the others. Although no previ- ous attempts have been made to discover which schools have really met with success in the teaching of a subject, under a given time allotment, and which have not, the facts are not difficult to secure. They must, however, be determined before any sus- tained forward movement in pedagogy becomes pos- sible; otherwise our basis of pedagogical reasoning is liable to be false. Every practical educator who ^ October-December, 1902. [100] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC endeavors to influence other members of the pro- fession must necessarily base his pedagogical utter- ances on the assumption that the teaching in his own schools has been successful. In the absence of facts his word must be taken on faith, while the facts may prove that our adviser is wrong and that success has been met where it has been least expected. As I have said, to get at the facts in regard to the results of instruction is a comparatively simple matter. Their explanation, however, is by no means easy. The educator of to-day finds no difficulty in explaining results, because he starts out with psy- chological theories and determines the results of his methods by a process of reasoning. He states, for example, that if such and such methods are used, such and such results must follow; but the results which he explains by the methods are the products of his own imagination. As long as he feels assured that certain results must follow his methods, why should he waste time in seeing that they do ? When, however, we come into possession of real facts, we find that they differ widely from imaginary ones, and that theories which are a perfect fit to imag- inary facts may not in any way fit the actual ones. In my researches I look for the genuine facts ; and if the facts I find look queer and fail to bear out some of our long-cherished theories, do not let us blame the facts, but let us reconstruct our theories. The test in arithmetic on which this article will be based was taken in the early part of the present year (1902). I made a similar test some six years [101] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION ago, soon after I had completed the one in spellmg; but my editorial duties at the time prevented me from following up the investigations in a satisfac- tory manner, and I therefore did not publish the results. In my recent test the examinations were made — in each instance during my presence — in eighteen school buildings, representing seven cities. In all, about 6,000 children were examined. While the number of pupils tested was, therefore, not nearly so large as in the case of my examinations in spelling, the investigation, nevertheless, sufficed to show the general conditions equally well from several points of view. The test itself consisted of eight examples. In the first two schools ten were given, but some curtail- ment seemed advisable. As in my earlier tests, so in the recent one, the examinations were given to the pupils of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth school years, representing, generally speaking, the grammar grades. They were not given below the fourth year, because the principal point, after all, is to see what the children are able to do on leaving school, and very few leave before the end of the fourth year. In preparing my questions I endeavored to ar- range them in a way that would suit the individual grades of all schools, regardless of the methods or systems employed. From this standpoint I was suc- cessful, excepting that in a very few instances two of the examples were beyond the scope of the pupils in the first half of the fourth year, because they had not yet learned to multiply or divide with figures [ 102 ] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC above twelve, and in the first half of the seventh year, where the classes had not yet had much prac- tice in percentage. These points were carefully noted; but when the papers were marked it was found that the effect upon the entire school average would not in any case exceed two per cent. I wish to add, furthermore, that for the purpose of study- ing the growth of mental power from year to year, some of the problems were carried through several grades. Thus, of the eight questions for the fourth grade, five were repeated in the fifth, and three in the sixth, etc. Moreover, this repetition will enable us to see not only, for instance, how the results in the fifth and sixth grades, in regard to certain prob- lems, compare with those of the fourth in the same school, but also how the results in the fourth grade of some schools compare in these examples with those of the fifth and sixth grades of others, etc. The problems for all the grades may be seen on pages 122, 123, 124, and 125. A discussion of the results will now be in order. In my investigation of the spelling problem, the striking feature, in regard to the results, was the fact that the differences were small, and particularly so in the upper grades. In arithmetic, on the other hand, the differences were large all along the line, and much greater in the seventh and eighth year classes than in the earlier ones. In the seventh year, the class averages ranged from 8.9 per cent to 81.1, and in the eighth year, from 11.3 to 91.7. The averages for schools taken as a whole varied between 25 and 80 per cent ; and the extremes did not repre- [108] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION sent isolated cases, but were merely the ends of a graduated scale. In some schools low marks in two or three grades were offset by high marks in the others, producing a fair percentage. In others, fair results, grade for grade, produced a fair school aver- age. In another class of cases the marks were good throughout, and in still another low throughout. Table I gives two averages for each grade as well as for each school as a whole. Thus, the school at the top shows averages of 80.3 and 83.5, and the one at the bottom, 25.2 and 31.8. The first repre- sents the percentage of answers which were abso- lutely correct ; the second shows what per cent of the problems were correct in principle, i.e., the aver- age that would have been received if no mechanical errors had been made. The difference represents the percentage of mechanical errors, which, I believe, in most instances, makes a surprisingly small appear- ance.^ For the sake of uniformity, I shall use the figures of the first column as the basis of comparison, although, in view of the very small differences, the ^ The method of computing the mechanical errors requires an explanation. In examining the papers, only those exam- ples that had been correctly worked in p»rinciple w^ere consid- ered; the others were marked wrong, and no further account was taken of them. Consequently, the percentage of mechan- ical errors is represented by the errors of that nature in the problems that had received credit for the principle. Thus, the figures for the school at the top show, in round numbers, that out of every 83 examples correct in principle, 3 con- tained mechanical errors. The latter are therefore represented by the fraction %3, which is equivalent to 3.6 per cent. In the case of the school at the bottom, the fraction is %i, equiva- lent to 19.3 per cent. In the table the percentages are slightly diflferent, because the decimals also were considered. [ 104 ] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC same remarks would have applied to the other col- umn as well. If, for the purpose of analysis, the schools be divided into three classes — good, fair, and poor — the question of distribution becomes interesting, be- cause, in nearly all cases, the different schools of an individual city will be found to belong to one and the same class. Thus, every one of the four schools of City I made a very good average ; the three schools of City VI and the three of City VII show, without exception, very poor results ; and of the four build- ings in City IV, three did fairly and one did poorly. The only marked exception is to be found in City III, one of whose schools heads the table, while the other did only fairly well. As for City I, by comparing the percentages for each grade with the general average for that grade, i.e.y the averages for all schools examined taken collectively, it will be seen that in one only of the nineteen classes represented did the grade average fall below the general average, the results in all other instances being above. On the other hand, of the fifteen classes of City VI, one only crossed the gen- eral average for the grade, while the results in the others were far below; and of the fifteen classes of City VII, one only touched the general average, several of the others being very far below. City IV saved itself from a low classification through favor- able results, for the most part, in the fourth and fifth years. The single school in City II secured high marks in the fourth, fifth, and sixth years, but did poorly [105] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION in the seventh and eighth ; while the single school in City V just met the general average in the fifth and eighth years, but fell far below it in the others. After this review of the figures, it will be appro- priate to ask why the results in the schools of City I were so much more favorable than those in the schools of Cities VI and VII. The layman would be disposed to reply at once that arithmetic had been better taught in the schools of the former city than in those of the latter. On the other hand, many thoughtful educators would not accept this offhand statement, but would claim that so many factors come into play in the education of the child that it is impossible to tell to what extent results are due to the teaching and in how far they are modified by other causes. It is evident, therefore, that in seeking an expla- nation for the differences in the results, two factors must be taken into consideration: first, the influence of the teaching ; and, secondly, the resistance against that influence due to circumstances over which the teacher has no direct control. It may be argued that if the resistance be great, superior teaching may be followed by poor results, and, on the other hand, that if the resistance be small, inferior teaching may be rewarded by excellent results. But it must also be admitted that if the resistance be equal, good re- sults in one case and poor results in another must be credited to a difference in the quality of the teaching. That the amount of resistance offered by non- pedagogical influences is to-day unknown does not [ 106 ] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC bj any means indicate that it must forever remain unknown. On the contrary, the problem of modify- ing conditions is not at all difficult to solve if we will but look it squarely in the face, divide it into its component parts, and study each factor inde- pendently. Analysis of the problem will show that the essential elements of which it is composed do not exceed three in number: (1) The home environ- ment of the pupils; (2) the size of the classes; and (3) the average age of the children. Now there is no mystery in regard to any of these points. All the facts may be readily ascertained and their value determined without great difficulty. As to the home environment of the pupils, the neighbor- hood in which a school is placed will be frequently sufficient to tell the story. Some schools are at- tended, for the most part, by children whose parents are considerably above the average in culture and material possessions; in others, the majority of the pupils are from homes where the parents themselves are less cultured and less favorably situated finan- cially, but are fully as solicitous for the welfare of their children ; while some schools are situated in the slums, where the pupils have the poorest of super- vision at home. In regard to the size of the classes and the average age of the pupils, the facts are, of course, at hand. A study of the figures in the table from these several standpoints will show conclusively that the influence of all these factors has been very much exaggerated, and, therefore, that the cause of un- favorable results must be sought, largely, at least, [107] SriENTlFlC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION yA < ^ tKtm nmiA a X jfl' a a ^ »' a' s » ^ a ^ »i s ^^% -ii-<<:- t-cot-T-i»0'-i-^?Dcooc^)i0 0oicvjt^^a: ^ ■ ~ w JO 0^ Tji i- «D 00 i> C-' lo CO o T-. o oi CO id ^ o o: X) -I •ju.>.> J.M CO ^ 0:1 T-< oi CO 00 a» ■* oc iX' c) 00 o >* .17 0* 10 r- OC 00 t- *.- l- « -^ 0, T}< rf 'Sl* Tj< -t}< 0- JO 00 00 CO 00 T-i c> id C5 CD ? 1^ id g CiooT-Hcc-.OT-Hioiooi-oot-OTHo:No- >j> 00 1 •oidpaiJ.i « c» Ci »0 10.00 rH CO Lt' 10 .-1 05 0> CO' r-. CC- Cr Tt< •Hra»H rH c) Tfi CO CO T-i ^-H c( ■r'j 00 T-< cp CO id 01 r- C» 00 t-> I- CC* 05 »0 Tf C» Tt* >* « >.-0 C* C^ rH ,- COC^OCIOOC-C-T-4 , CO Oi UO CO Oi r-. Tr r- 00 f •oidi-^una o> /-^ i~- 'O CO ^ • cr.^ 05 oj CO -rt^ 1.0 CJ CO 00 CO Ci> 00 00 ; CO T-H 00 C:* C^ CO 05 r-H ,- ^ t^ rH J>t- OJ j^ liO o •eidpaijy -H 06 -rfi oi id i.t' cr^ >^o X 1 ■^ .aS T-i ci to f- cr cc 00 oc 00 £n c- t- Tp « to uo "^ rr !.- Tt* 00 CO >t-.0>00 0iC0THC0i-n0C^OCC J> IITIBOII ^SS^S?:5S§3^^S^^:-?o1S:: § »c000i-iC0C0C0Ot-0C»0t-O»>coo^ibcDcoc--^ 10 I- 00 »Ot■•CO^-00H C6 -Tf -^f vir .-)K so CO 10 CO r- 00 1.-7 no 00 id i- t- 3; ob t^ t^ I- 1.0 ti t^ c*6 Ai cp 00 rf CO 0: CD l>Tf .O00t-c:^-rt<00r-0)00f-05C}C0CNiC C^> cc c» * •oidpuna co' »-< '. CD CO c- o> CO CI cj cj CO T-< »-i "-;fe£;S> > >» 3J 'gs ^1 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^i ^ 1 ,-i^ i^"' §.^ J2;. Cow y c c c OC c c oc; c w Ow [ 108 ] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC on the pedagogical side. I shall not attempt, in the present paper, to enter into the discussion of the pedagogical aspect of the problem, but shall try to throw some light on that phase in the next chapter. Here I shall merely endeavor to show that in sug- gesting a standard as to time and results, the com- plicating conditions have all been considered. If the part that is played by the home environment should be as important as it is generally supposed to be, we should, of course, expect to find that the schools represented in the upper part of the table had been attended by children from cultured homes, while those in the lower part had been attended by those whose home environment was very poor. How- ever, if a line should be drawn across the middle of the table, and the schools above it compared with those below, such a condition would not be found. Indeed, careful inspection would show that the odds were certainly not in favor of the "aristocratic" dis- tricts. Of the eighteen schools, three in particular are representative of the latter, and the best of these secured the tenth place, while the others ranked eleventh and sixteenth, respectively. The school that ranked seventh was distinctively a school of the slums. That is to say, the school laboring under the poorest conditions in respect to home environment obtained a better standing than any one of the so- called aristocratic schools. The building which stands fifth is representative of conditions just a shade better than those of the slums. And when I add that, from the standpoint of environment, the schools of City I did not average a single degree bet- [ 109 ] SCiKNTi FU' IS! AN V(;F.Mi-,N'r IN i-'.nrcwrioN l(M- Ih.ni Ihosr of CW'ws W n\u\ >11, I li.-ivr s!\'h\ oiu)Ut;li to show Mint I In* poor n^siills sct-unul in i\\c \n\icr fitiivs cannot he coiulonvd on [\\c t;roiiiul of imf.'ivor.iblt^ rnvironnnMil . 'IMiiis, ms in .spflliiii;-, so in .'iril lmu*t i<\ I Ins niounl.'un, upon flosi* nisptn-lion, thvlndh's tlown to tlio sizo of :\ niolt'lull. iMpiallv surprisnii;-, if nnli>tul not nior»> nuTt^dihti', may appi\'ir tlu* stattantait that no altt>waiu-i> wliat t'\rr is to hi* niatii* for tl»t> si/r iA' \\\c fh'iss ni jud^ini^ [\\c results o( niv ti\st, I sliall not rnt«M- nito tin* ilt>- tails in rt'i;aril to tins point, hut will tlisnuss it with tlu- irniarU that tlu> ninnhiM- oi' pupils por class was laii^iM* in t hr hiolu'sl si\ si'hools than it was in the schools o( City \ 1, and that tlu> classics wen* <*\ccj)- tit>na.lly small in the siluu)l that stands at the lower 'V\\v relation ht^twtHMi the ai;i* of t lu^ pupil and his arit hniet ii'al power is a (|uesti(»n which has been yi>ry wiilily disciissiui. Some educators hayc takiai the stand that tluMi> is not miu'h objiu'l in layint;' stress on arithmetic in t hi* early years; that arithmetical [)ower increases naturally with ai;e; and that any dt*(ii'iency that may be manifest in the lower tirades will be reailily com[>ensati*d for by the rapidity with which the children proi;ress when they t*nter the hii;lier ones. The belief has, therefore, l)ecoine (|uite i^eneral that there is a direct relation betwi*en ai^e and results; and for this reason many teachers mii;ht bt* uicIiiuhI to attribute the >ariations in results to difTerences in the a^es of the pupils, n-rade for i^rade, in the liilVerent schools. As in other ped a ironical problems, so in this, facts " I 110 1 A 'J I'.S'J" \S AIMJ/IMI'/I H: |>r(>v«' liow little fj< (xridcricc is to \>f p\;i('(<\ on a priori rruHoriin^. 'J'liut. tjicrc is a r<'^ij|;j.r irnf>rr>v(- ifurit- in arit.firnct.ic- an t.fic cJiilrJ at. hcJkjoJ arivanctcH in years i,s fxrfcct.ly inic ; anrj t.fiiH point: in very clearly sliown \)y \.\u- fact, that,, wit.li very i'<-w exr;ep- t.ions, ifjc class averages on tin- rcfxat.erJ prof^hriis irri|:)rov(; i'votii ^rarJc f,o ^rarJ<-. [Jut. tfiis in itself cJocm not. jL(Jve us the jfi forrriatifui we ar(t seeking. Jri \.\\(: first. f)lace, \hc ii^nn-.s alon<* (Jo not. UU us to what, cxt.cnt. i}i(; irnf>rovefnerit. was dut; t.o tifrc, in Fiow far it. was fh<- result, of practice , or wfia-t. pjiirt. h^ifJ heen [)lay((J \>y inst.ruct.ion. iJcsifJcs, it. sfjouhJ not. he for^^ot.t.cn tfiat. the f)rohlcfn wit.fi wfiirtti wc arc now dealing is not. a rjualit at.jvc, hut. a quantit ;ji.five, one. 'J'fiat. cfiildrcn iifi[)rovc as t.fic^y advan(;c i'fon\ ^raric to /^radc may t)c taken for ^rant.ecJ. Jt, is t.lu; rato of progress with wliicfi wc sire. r;onc.erried. '^I'tiat tfie ditIerenc(fH in results in tfje hc[ioo1h ex- arrnn(;(J went no\. rJue to differenc(;H in a^e may Int readily sliown \)y eliminating t.fie a^e factor entirely, which may h<.' done hy taking the a^e of tfie pu[)ilH inst.(.'ad of tfje frnulc as the hasis of comf>arison. I'or this [>urf)Ose 'J'afJe IJ has Ix-en [>rej)ared. 'J'hat, t.ahle is hased on t.h<; results ohtained upon f)rofjlems t.fiat. wi-nt carried t.firou^h t.firee ^rarJes. '^J'he fourth, fifth, arifi sixt.fi yap(;rs cont.;j.irierJ three profj- lerns in common, and t.iiis is true also of the paf>ers for tfj(; sixth, sevr.ntfi, and eigfitfi ^rarJes.' The taf;le shows, first, tfi'r results ohtained in the fourtfi, fifth, aruJ sixth grades oi' the fii^hest six scfiools as 'Sf<* ttie, first t.Fire.c prot)Jf;rns tor ttie bixtti urxi ei^^htti years Of I pagCH 1^3 arid l^/>. [Ill 1 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION compared with the lowest six, taken collectively, upon the repeated problems ; secondly, those obtained upon the repeated problems in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of the highest five schools as compared with the lowest six ; and, thirdly, the average ages of the pupils in the grades and schools stated. I did not have an opportunity to obtain the ages of the pupils of all the schools considered in Table II. However, in computing the average ages the majority of these schools were represented, and the complete returns could not have changed the figures more than a month or two one way or the other. If the comparisons had been made between the schools v/here the ages had all been obtained, the showing would have been practically the same as in the table. Moreover, in arithmetic, the differences in the results are so very marked all along the line that microscopic distinctions are in no way called for. rT^ XT Table II. * 1 5 6 1^ 0) < §3 a. < Six highest schools . . . Six lowest schools 11.9 11.0 62.8 29.0 12.6 12.0 84.3 49.8 13.4 13.4 96.3 61.4 6 7 8 Five highest schools . . Six lowest schools 13.4 13.4 49.5 11.0 14.1 13.11 71.9 29.0 14.11 14.5 90.4 38.0 [112] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC A glance at the ages will show that the average age of the pupils of the schools that showed the best results was about five months higher than that of the pupils of the schools that did poorest. For the fourth grade the difference was nine months, and for the fifth and eighth grades, six months. In the sixth and seventh grades, however, the ages were practically the same. But the factor of age may be completely eliminated by comparing the results of a given grade of the successful schools with those of a higher grade of the unsuccessful ones. Thus, in the fourth grade of the successful schools the average was 62.8, as against 49.8 in the fifth year, and 61.4 in the sixth year of the unsuccessful ones. Consequently, in this instance, the results in the unsuccessful schools did not equal those of the successful ones until the pupils were nineteen months older and had had the advantage of two years' addi- tional instruction and practice. Similar comparisons in regard to the higher grades show even a greater disparity, as the eighth year pupils of the unsuccessful schools did not even catch up to those of the sixth year of the successful ones. In the case of the sixth and seventh year classes, where the ages were practically alike, the full class averages may be compared. For the sixth year they were 75.6 as against 41.1 ; and for the seventh year 61.4 as against 22.8. These facts cer- tainly constitute a striking blow at the theory of those who believe that arithmetic is a matter of natural evolution. One other point here calls for consideration. The [113] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION idea is generally accepted that an examination in arithmetic fr'wvn in the mornin^r will show much more favorable results than one given in the afternoon; and it irilglil, therefore, be supposed that the schools that did best had been exairu'ned in the niorninfr, and vice versa. When the table is analyzed from this standpoint the indications a[)f)ear to favor I he theory; but the (juant.itative asf)ec;t has certainly been exaggerated. Looking at the facts, we find that the first four schools in the order of merit had been examined in the morning. However, in the school which stands (irih, I he examination was given in the afternoon, and the average was (54 j)er cent, or only li [)er cent lower than that of the school next preceding, and 5 per cent lower than the school that ranked third. The point of particular interest is the fact that the school, by being examined in the afternoon, did not lose its classification. The first three schools of City I were examined in the morning and did well. I'he fourth school of that city was examined in the after- noon and also did well. In ('ity VI, School 1 was examined in thc^ morn- ing, and did ♦$ f)er cent better than those examined in the afternoon, obtaining an average of 39 as against 3() ; and School 1, City VII, by being ex- amined in the morning, secured an average of 40 per cent. In a word. Schools 2 and J3, City VI, were examined in the afternoon and did poorly; School 1 of the same city was examined in the morning and also did j)oorly. And the sairje remarks apply to City VII. Thus, while there seems to be some ad- [11-1] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC vantage in an examination given in the morning, the figures appear to leave no doubt that a school that can do well in the morning can also do well in the afternoon, and, conversely, that a school that does poorly in the afternoon will also do poorly in the morning. I have heard it stated that the differ- ence between a morning and an afternoon examina- tion will probably reach 20 per cent. If so, what would have been the result if School 1, City VI, and School 1, City VII, had been examined in the after- noon? Now, taking all the facts into consideration, which of the schools examined may be said to have made a satisfactory showing? Personally, I believe the demand is not placed too high when the line dividing the satisfactory from the unsatisfactory schools is drawn across the table under School 4, City I, the last of the buildings making creditable averages in all the grades. In the school next in order the results were more than satisfactory in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, but unsatisfactory in the seventh and eighth. All the other schools showed too many weak spots to be passed as satisfactory. The general average for all schools examined was, in round numbers, 55 per cent, made up as follows: GO per cent for the fourth year, 70 per cent for the fifth, 60 per cent for the sixth, 40 per cent for the seventh, and 50 per cent for the eighth. In view of what the satisfactory schools have shown, it seems to me that 60 per cent for the fourth grade, 70 per cent for the fifth, and 60 per cent for the sixth are reasonable expectations. However, 40 per cent for [115] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION the seventh grade and 50 per cent for the eighth are too low, as these figures are not at all representative of what the successful schools have been able to ac- complish, but result from the fact that, in the ma- jority of instances, the seventh and eighth grades were lamentably weak. As the average for the seventh grade of the five successful schools was 61.4, and that for the eighth grade 77.2, I think that less than 50 per cent for the seventh year and 60 per cent for the eighth should not be regarded as satis- factory. This would raise the general average from 55 to 60. But a school average of 60 per cent or more should not be looked upon as satisfactory un- less the grade averages were met in four cases out of the five. A provision for failure in one grade is reasonable, because there may have been particular causes of failure in an individual class. The chil- dren may have been exceptionally dull, or the class may have been in the hands of a substitute, etc. But, in my opinion, failure in more than one grade denotes a weakness which calls for a remedy. The above figures apply to a test taken at, or any time after, the middle of the year. In suggesting a standard, it is, of course, under- stood that the figures mentioned in the last para- graph would only be applicable to an examination whose degree of difficulty was the same as my own. Teachers desirous of knowing how their pupils com- pared with those of other schools could try the ques- tions as I have given them; or, if they feared that the publication of the problems had diminished the value of the test, they might change the figures with- [116] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC out altering the degree of difficulty. However, in due course of time there ought to be no difficulty in establishing standards in arithmetic with mathe- matical precision. This may be quite readily done by selecting types of examples and determining by research what percentage ought to be obtained on each of them by the class for which they are in- tended. When this point has been reached, a stand- ard will also have been fixed for a combination of examples of various degrees of difficulty. In the present chapter I shall not endeavor to sug- gest a standard in regard to the mechanical side of arithmetic, as a discussion of the details of that phase of the question would carry us too far. I merely wish to call attention to a fact which may appear strange to the majority of teachers, namely, that, from the standpoint of results, the mechanical side of arithmetic has shown itself to be very closely related to the thought side. In other words, the schools that showed the best thinking also made the smallest number of mechanical errors. Indeed, when we compare the first six schools in the table with the last six, we find the school average 69.7 as against 35.8, or double, while the percentage of me- chanical errors is 6.1 as against 13, or half. There- fore, broadly speaking, a stipulated demand in re- gard to the thought side of arithmetic includes, indirectly, a demand in relation to the mechanical side. A glance at the general average of mechanical errors shows a marked improvement from the fourth grade to the sixth, the percentages being 14.8, 8.1, [117] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION and 3.9, respectively. Thus, in round numbers, only half as many errors were made in the fifth year as in the fourth, and only half as many in the sixth year as in the fifth. That the improvement in me- chanical arithmetic should be so decided from grade to grade may be readily explained by the fact that simple computation appeals altogether to the mem- ory, which fixes the various combinations of numbers more and more firmly as the result of endless repeti- tion. The figures show that the number of mechanical errors was larger in the seventh and eighth years than in the sixth. This, however, does not indicate retrogression, but is due to the fact that the basis of comparison was not the same. In the upper two grades the mistakes were made principally in the placing of the decimal point — an element that did not come into play, to any considerable extent, in the lower grades. The seventh and eighth year classes, however, are again compared on practically the same basis, and, as before, the difference is marked in favor of the higher grade. Let us now see what can be learned from Table I as to the relation between the time devoted to arith- metic and the results. We shall then be in a position to form an estimate regarding the amount of time that should be allowed with a view to the accom- plishment of satisfactory results. A glance at the figures will tell us at once that there is no direct relation between time and results ; that special pressure does not necessarily lead to [118] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC success, and, conversely, that lack of pressure does not necessarily mean failure. In the first place, it is interesting to note that the amount of time devoted to arithmetic in the school that obtained the lowest average, 25 per cent, was practically the same as it was in the one where the highest average, 80 per cent, was obtained. In the former the regular time for arithmetic in all grades was forty-five minutes a day, but some addi- tional time was given. In the latter the time varied in the different classes, but averaged fifty-three min- utes daily. This shows an extreme variation in re- sults under the same appropriation of time. Looking again toward the bottom of the list, we find three schools with an average of 36 per cent. In one of these, insufficient pressure might be sug- gested as a reason for the unsatisfactory results, only thirty minutes daily having been devoted to arithmetic. The second school, however, gave forty- eight, while the third gave forty-five. This certainly seems to indicate that a radical defect in the quality of instruction cannot be offset by an increase in quantity. From these few facts two important deductions may be made : First, that the unsatisfactory results cannot be accounted for on the ground of insufficient instruction; and, secondly, that the schools showing the favorable results cannot be accused of having made a fetich of arithmetic. These statements are further justified by the fact that the four schools of City I, which, on the whole, stood highest, gave [119] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION practically the same amount of time to arithmetic as the three schools of City VII, which stood lowest. Now, bearing in mind tlie standard suggested in regard to the results, what should be set down as a reasonable time allowance? A glance at Table I will show us that out of the eighteen schools examined, five only succeeded in obtaining satisfactory results, and that the time de- voted to aritlmietlc in these schools varied from forty-five to sixty minutes a day. Taking the schools in the order of merit, the time allotment was fifty- three, sixty, and forty-five minutes. That the high- est two schools had given fifty-three and sixty, re- spectively, does not indicate that they could not have met the demand If tlie time had been limited to forty-five. Indeed, the results secured in the school at tlie top show such a very large margin above the demand that a reduction of elglit minutes per day could not have sufficed to shatter the structure, and a similar assumption may be made in the case of the school standing next. As the conditions under which the five successful schools labored were not in any way exceptional, I think it is perfectly reason- able to say that the results ought to be satisfactory if the time be limited to forty-five minutes a day. All the schools that succeeded proved their ability to do tlie work in forty-five minutes, and most of the schools that failed proved their inability to suc- ceed in spite of even a larger appropriation of time. While the facts appear to indicate that forty-five minutes will suffice, they do not show that that amount of time is actually required to accomplish [120] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC satisfactory results. It is true that out of the five schools giving less than forty-five minutes, the re- sults were unsatisfactory in four. Of the latter, one school gave forty-two minutes and obtained an aver- age of 40 per cent, an average so far below the margin that an additional three minutes could not possibly have saved the day. Similar remarks are applicable to the school where a time allotment of forty minutes was followed by an average of 45 per cent. In City VI, the schools that gave thirty and thirty-three minutes, respectively, obtained aver- ages of only 36 and 39 per cent; but in the other school of that locality, where the time was forty- eight minutes, the results were not any better. It is clear, therefore, that the failure in these four un- successful schools was not due simply to the fact that the time was less than forty-five minutes. In spelling, it was not difficult to draw conclu- sions as to the limit of useful instruction — the point where attention and effort cease and beyond which additional pressure is not rewarded by additional return. A large proportion of the schools having reduced the time, it was possible to institute compari- sons on a broad scale between the results obtained where much time had been devoted to spelling and those secured where but little time had been given to it; and it was seen that the schools devoting forty minutes a day to spelling did not do' any better than the schools where but ten or fifteen minutes had been given to the subject. This proved that there was nothing to be gained by continuing the instruction beyond fifteen minutes a day. In arithmetic, on the [121] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION other hand, the basis of comparison from the stand- point of time is not nearly so wide, as it is still the custom in the vast majority of the schools to devote at least forty-five minutes daily to the subject. For the present let us accept forty-five minutes as a rea- sonable time allowance for arithmetic ; but let us reduce the allowance if we should succeed in finding a reasonable number of schools showing satisfactory results with less instruction. The discussion in the preceding pages has tended to show that arithmetic presents certain difficulties which are quite readily overcome in some schools, while seemingly insurmountable in others. As the teachers, taken all in all, were apparently as con- scientious and as well trained in the schools that failed as in those that succeeded, it is reasonable to suppose that the principal cause of failure has been a matter of misdirected effort. But whatever the trouble may be, it is evident that its nature must be clearly understood before remedial measures can be intelligently discussed. Therefore, the next step in our researches must lie in endeavoring to discover the source of the trouble ; and I shall present some facts regarding this point in the next chapter. FOURTH YEAR. 1. A man bought a lot of land for $1,743, and built upon it a house costing $5,483. He sold them both for $10,000. How much money did he make? 2. If a boy pays ij^2.S3 for a hundred papers, and sells them at four cents apiece, how much money does he make? 3. If there were 4,839 class-rooms in New York City, and 47 children in each class-room, how many children would there be in the New York schools? [ 122] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 4. A man bought a farm for $16,575, paying $85 an acre. How many acres were there in the farm? 5. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 6. A lady bought 4 pounds of coffee at 27 cents a pound, 16 pounds of flour at 4 cents a pound, 15 pounds of sugar at 6 cents a pound, and a basket of peaches for 95 cents. She handed the storekeeper a $10 note. How much change did she receive? 7. I have $9,786. How much more must I have in order to be able to pay for a farm worth $17,225? 8. If I buy 8 dozen pencils at 37 cents a dozen, and sell them at 5 cents apiece, how much money do I make? FIFTH YEAR. 1. A man bought a lot of land for $1,743, and built upon it a house costing $5,482. He sold them both together for $10,- 000. How much did he make? 2. If a boy pays $2.83 for a hundred papers, and sells them at four cents apiece, how much does he make? 3. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 4. If I buy 8 dozen pencils at 37 cents a dozen, and seU them at 5 cents apiece, how much money do I make? 5. A flour merchant bought 1,437 barrels of flour at $7 a barrel. He sold 900 of these barrels at $9 a barrel, and the remainder at $6 a barrel. How much did he make? 6. How many feet long is a telegraph wire extending from New York to New Haven, a distance of 74 miles? There are 5,280 feet in a mile. 7. A merchant bought 15 pieces of cloth, each containing 62 yards. He sold 234 yards. How many dress patterns of 12 yards each did he have left? 8. Frank had $3.08. He spent 1^4 of it for a cap, ^ of it for a bail, and with the remainder bought a book. How much did the book cost? SIXTH YEAR. 1. If a boy pays $2.83 for a hundred papers, and sells them at 4 cents apiece, how much does he make? 2. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 3. If I buy 8 dozen pencils at 37 cents a dozen, and sell them at 5 cents apiece, how much do I make? [ 123] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION 4. A flour merchant bought 1,437 barrels of flour at $7 a barrel. He sold 900 of these barrels at $9 a barrel, and the remainder at $6 a barrel. How much did he make? 5. If a train runs 31% miles an hour, how long will it take the train to run from Buffalo to Omaha, a distance of 1,045 miles? 6. If a map 10 inches wide and 16 inches long is made on a scale of 50 miles to the inch, what is the area in square miles that the map represents? 7. The salt water which was obtained from the bottom of a mine of rock salt contained 0.08 of its weight of pure salt. What weight of salt water was it necessary to evaporate in order to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt? 8. A gentleman gave away y^ of the books in his library, lent Yq of the remainder, and sold % of what was left. He then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? SEVENTH YEAR. 1. If a map 10 inches wide and 16 inches long is made on a scale of 50 miles to the inch, what is the area in square miles that the map represents? 2. The salt water which was obtained from the bottom of a mine of rock salt contained 0.08 of its weight of pure salt. What weight of salt water was it necessary to evaporate in order to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt? 3. A gentleman gave away 14 of the books in his library, lent Yq of the remainder, and sold y^ of what was left. He then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? 4. A farmer's wife bought 2.75 yards of table linen at $0.87 a yard and 16 yards of flannel at $0.55 a yard. She paid in butter at $0.27 a pound. How many pounds of butter was she obliged to give? 5. If coffee sold at 33 cents a pound gives a profit of 10 per cent, what per cent of profit would there be if it were sold at 36 cents a pound? 6. Sold steel at $27.60 a ton, with a profit of 15 per cent, and a total profit of $184.50. What quantity was sold? 7. If a woman can weave 1 inch of rag carpet a yard wide in 4 minutes, how many hours will she be obliged to work in order to weave the carpet for a room 24 feet long and 24 feet wide? No deduction is to be made for waste. [ 124] A TEST IN ARITHMETIC 8. A fruit dealer bought 300 apples at the rate of 5 for a cent, and 300 at 4 for a cent. He sold them all at the rate of 8 for 5 cents. What per cent did he gain on investment? EIGHTH YEAR. 1. If a map 10 inches wide and 16 inches long is made on a scale of 50 miles to the inch, what is the area in square miles that the map represents? 2. The salt water which was obtained from the bottom of a mine of rock salt contained 0.08 of its weight of pure salt. What weight of salt water was it necessary to evaporate in order to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt? 3. A gentleman gave away ^ of the books in his library, lent Yq of the remainder, and sold % of what was left. He then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? 4. A man sold 50 horses at $126.00 each. On one-half of them he made 20 per cent, and on the other half he lost 10 per cent. How much did he gain? 5. Sold steel at $27.60 a ton, with a profit of 15 per cent, and a total profit of $184.50. What quantity was sold? 6. A fruit dealer bought 300 apples at the rate of 5 for a cent, and 300 at 4 for a cent. He sold them all at the rate of 8 for 5 cents. What per cent did he gain on his invest- ment? 7. The insurance on % of the value of a hotel and furniture cost $420.00. The rate being 70 cents on $100.00, what was the value of the property? 8. Gunpowder is composed of nitre 15 parts, charcoal 3 parts, and sulphur 2 parts. How much of each in 360 pounds of powder? [125] VIII In the preceding chapter I presented the results of my test in arithmetic, and the figures showed enormous variations. The results, however, were distributed with striking regularity ; the differences in the percentages obtained by the different schools of a given community being, for the most part, small. That the expenditure of time and effort on the part of the pupils should be duly rewarded in some localities and very poorly repaid in others indicates that in some communities a remedy is called for. However, to be effective, the remedy must have an eye to the cause, so that our search for remedial measures must be, in the first instance, directed to- ward the discovery of the cause of success in some case^. and of failure in others. With this in view, it will be necessary to consider the results in the light of each of the elements that enter into the edu- cation of the child, as it will not be possible in any other way to find the controlling one. The number of factors calling for consideration is large. However, the problem may be simplified through classification ; and in the preceding chapter ^January-March, 1903. [126] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC I showed how, in the first instance, it might be di- vided into two principal parts: (1) The elements relating to the pedagogical side; and (2) those of resistance offered to the influence of the teaching over which the teacher has no direct control. The major portion of that chapter was devoted to a discussion of the second part of the problem, the pupils' side; and I pointed out that the variations in results could not be accounted for by differences in the circumstances under which the teachers labor — differences in the home environment of the pupils, their average age, or the size of the classes ; showing that the cause of the variations would have to be sought on the pedagogical side. In the present chapter, I shall direct attention to the latter aspect of the problem, and I believe the discussion will not be fruitless. The pedagogical side of the problem may also be subdivided into two principal parts: (1) The fac- tors brought into play by the teacher; and (2) the elements relating to those appointed to direct and supervise the work of the teacher. These factors will now be considered in turn. The elements brought into play by the teacher, though numerous, may be, for practical purposes, resolved into three primary factors : 1. The time devoted to arithmetic; 2. The methods of instruction ; and 3. Teaching ability, as represented by a combina- tion of education, training, and the personality of the teacher. The first of these points received attention in the [127] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION preceding chapter ; and it was found that the results did not bear a direct relation to the amount of time devoted to arithmetic, so that this element could not be looked upon as the controlling one. I shall here merely recall the fact that the schools whose results were satisfactory proved their ability to do credit- able work with a time allotment of forty-five minutes a day, while some of the schools whose results were unsatisfactory failed in spite of a larger appropria- tion of time. After my first article on arithmetic appeared in print, the point was raised that the demand in the way of home-work might have been greater in the successful schpols than in those that had failed, indicating that, possibly, in some instances, more time had been devoted to arithmetic than showed on the surface. During subsequent visits to the same schools I looked into this matter with consid- erable care; and I found, much to my surprise, that by far the greatest amount of home-work in arith- metic was required in City VII, whose schools had obtained the poorest results. In this locality, it had constituted an important feature of every grade from the fourth year onward ; the requirement in some instances being truly inordinate. On the whole, the average time devoted to it was certainly not less than thirty minutes a day. On the other hand, home- work in arithmetic was looked upon with disfavor by the teachers of all the schools that I have called suc- cessful, the first five in the table, and had been prac- tically abandoned in nine cases out of ten. These facts show conclusively that home-work in [ 128] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC arithmetic is not the controlling factor in the ac- complishment of results. Moreover, they ought to carry their lesson to every superintendent in the land. In view of the results and of my interviews with principals and teachers, I feel confident that home-work in arithmetic means a tax upon the time and energy of the pupil for which he receives very meagre, if any, compensation. Consequently, I wish to add to my suggestion, as to the amount of time to be apportioned to arithmetic, that the forty-five minutes daily should stand for the preparation and recitation combined. Secondly, methods of teaching can certainly not be looked upon as the controlling element. In most schools, the methods nowadays employed are modern, though they may vary in regard to details. In some instances, special methods, based on special psycho- logical theories, had been followed; and while the teachers who used them were, as a rule, enthusiastic in their praise, they did not seem to have proved a panacea. In the schools that passed my test satis- factorily no special methods had been in use. There is, however, one thing in relation to the teaching of arithmetic that must be regarded as unusually important, and which should receive the attention of every educator. At one point in my investigation I had been led to believe that it was the controlling factor ; but further observation com- pelled me to abandon the notion. The idea is this, that no new step in arithmetic should be taken until all the principles previously acquired are perfectly clear in the minds of the pupils. Where this plan is [129] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION not observed, the teachers labor upon the theory that the pupils on entering a new grade are per- fectly familiar with everything that had been covered in previous grades, and are therefore prepared to enter into the new work without any delay. On the other hand, where the principle is recognized, the teacher of the new grade does not take such knowl- edge for granted. One seventh-year teacher told me that she does not assume any knowledge on the part of the pupils beyond that of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of whole numbers. In such instances, the teacher, on receiving a new class, does not at once begin with the work laid down for her grade, but takes up previous work, chapter by chapter, until she strikes a weak point, where she lingers as long as she thinks necessary. Indeed, I have found a number of schools where the teachers are accustomed to devote several weeks to reviewing the work of previous grades before even touching upon their own grade work. Here progress is ap- parently slow ; but by securing a firm foundation at the outset, the pupils are so much better prepared for the new work that they grasp it much more readily than otherwise, and before the end of the term the grade work is covered without any diffi- culty. Where the teachers proceed from chapter to chapter without any regard for previous work, the pupils are apt to sail along in a hazy atmosphere; and when taken out of their routine path, they do not know which way to turn. Thoroughness is, undoubtedly, one of the secrets of success. Indeed, I do not see how success may be [130] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC expected without it. However, I soon discovered that the review as described does not in itself insure success. Failure in spite of its adoption may be accounted for in two ways. In the first place, the review may be formal, rather than thorough, and therefore lacking in the spirit that makes for suc- cess. Secondly, the teacher's work may be thorough without stimulating thought, and the results are not satisfactory unless the pupils are capable of inde- pendent thinking. Consequently, something else is required to assure success. The next point to claim our attention, the quali- fications of the teacher, natural and acquired, is popularly regarded as the controlling one ; hence the adage, "As the teacher, so is the school." However, that the variations in the results cannot be accounted for by differences in the general qualifications of the teachers is proved by the manner in which the results are distributed. Few will take exception to the statement that marked individual variations will be found among the members of every corps of teach- ers. Therefore, if general ability were the con- trolling factor, the extreme variations in results should be found in the different class-rooms of the same locality. But this condition does not appear in the table, where it is shown that in certain locali- ties practically all the results were good, while in certain other cities practically all the results were poor. It might be argued, in explanation of this circum- stance, that, in spite of individual variations, all the teachers of some communities are professionally com- [131] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION petent, while in some others they are all incompetent. But this, again, does not accord with the facts ; for if a line should be drawn across the table under, say, the seventh school, and the teachers of the communi- ties above it compared with those of the localities below, no marked differences would be noticed. In all the cities represented some teachers may be found who have had both a high-school education and a normal-school training; some who have had a high- school education only ; some with much and others with little experience; some with considerable and others with little natural endowment. And as to care in selection, the most favorable conditions will probably be found in Cities IV and VI ; and still these localities failed to reach the standard. We have now exhausted the principal factors brought into play by the teacher, as we have those that belong to the pupil, and as yet the controlling element has not been found. If my investigation is to be rewarded, the object of our search must, there- fore, exist among the elements brought into the problem by those employed to supervise and direct the work of the teachers. And the facts have led me to believe that it is here that the controlling factor lies. My conviction is based on the circumstance that, in every instance, a variation in the results ap- pears to accord with a variation in a special phase of the supervision. If my interpretation of the facts is correct, we are forced to conclude that the results secured in the average class-room do not represent the powers of the average teacher, but the response to what is expected of her; so that, ultimately, the [132] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC problem of results becomes a question of demand and supply. And my deduction is this, that the teachers will supply what their supervisors demand, provided the demand be placed within reasonable bounds. A deduction of this nature is by no means an unnatural one ; for it is a matter of common experience that the services rendered by a set of employees are deter- mined by the demands of the management rather than the efficiency of the individuals, assuming, of course, that due care is exercised to see that the demands are enforced. And the facts appear to show that, in this regard, the school does not differ from other institutions. The leading pedagogical functions of the superin- tendent, under an ideal system of supervision, may, perhaps, be put down as five in number : 1. The preparation of the course of study; 2. The apportionment of time to the individual subjects; 3. Offering suggestions to teachers, during meet- ings and visits, as to methods of teaching and the treatment of children; 4. The establishment of demands in regard to results ; and 5. The testing for results to sec whether the teachers are living up to these demands. Let us now look into each of these factors and try to find the crucial point. Owing to differences in educational ideals, the courses laid down for arithmetic vary considerably in different localities. Therefore, it may be argued that, from a comparative standpoint, the results [133] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION obtained in different communities will depend upon the character of the test ; that the pupils of a given locality might do well with one test and poorly with another, and vice versa. But, in the preparation of a test to be submitted to different localities, the objection may be allayed by bearing in mind the dif- ferences in the course of study, and, in consequence, rejecting all problems of a special character, while selecting from those belonging to general arithmetic, and which, therefore, come within the scope of every school. The general verdict was that my problems were fair to all. Even in the localities that failed no exception has been taken to my test, which is in itself convincing evidence that the questions did come within the scope of every curriculum. Conse- quently, the differences in the results cannot be at- tributed to differences in courses of study. In some instances, it was instinctively felt by superintendents and teachers that the pupils would fail, because the questions were presented in a form differing from that to which the children had been accustomed; and, as a rule, the predictions were verified. In other localities, nothing out of the ordinary was found in the questions ; and, as a rule, the schools did well. This did not indicate fundamental differ- ences in ideals, but rather that the work of some schools was more routine in character than that of others ; so that the variation in the results showed, primarily, that the pupils of some localities were more ready than those of others in the practical application of principles. In other words, the in- [ 134] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC struction had done more to stimulate thought in some instances than in others, without regard to funda- mental aims. Another point relating to the course of study also deserves consideration. It is, namely, that in some localities the ground is covered more rapidly than in others, and, therefore, that several of my prob- lems may have come too early for certain schools. This would apply particularly to the seventh-year paper, which contained several rather difficult prob- lems in percentage. To allay all doubts on this score, however, it will be simply necessary to discard the seventh year entirely and take the eighth year as a basis of comparison. But the differences in results in the eighth year were fully as marked as they were in the seventh; and as there was not a problem in the eighth-year paper beyond the scope of any eighth grade, this objection also becomes invalid. The next point, the amount of time devoted to arithmetic, has been already considered, and requires no further discussion here to prove that this is not the controlling element. The third point involves that feature of supervi- sion which renders the superintendent an inspirer of teachers, and which, in recent decades, has been receiving an ever increasing amount of attention. In some localities this feature is carried so far as to convert the entire school system into a permanent training school for teachers. Here the superintend- ent is in constant communication with his teachers, through general and grade meetings and visits to [135] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION the schools ; and when he is imbued with modern pedagogical ideas, his influence on the spirit of the schools is marked, and the atmosphere of the class- room assumes an entirely different character from that which prevails in the old-fashioned, mechanical school. The relation between teacher and pupil is no longer that of master and servant, but resembles rather the relation of parent and child. This spirit is governed by the idea that the pupil is an indi- vidual who can think, feel, and act, and not merely a passive recipient of facts. There are many localities in our country where the inspirational system of supervision has been carried to its logi- cal conclusion, and where liberty without license prevails. But the inspiration of the teachers by the super- intendent is not the controlling factor in the accom- plishment of results ; for superintendents' meetings and visits have been as much in vogue in the localities that did poorly as in those that did well. Conse- quently, the inspirational element must also be eliminated. We have now considered all the important factors except the establishment of standards and the test- ing for results; and these, strictly speaking, merely represent two sides of a single element. As I have already stated, the facts tend to prove that the results are regulated by the demand ; and the latter, in my opinion, is represented by the character of the tests to which the pupils are periodically submitted. This means, in other words, that the controlling, factor in the accomplishment of results is to be found [IS6] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC in the system of examination employed, some systems leading to better results than others. The test, however, has two different meanings, which must not be confounded with each other. In one instance, it is intended to determine the fitness of the pupil for promotion; while in the other its purpose is that of demonstrating the rate and char- acter of the progress made by the class as a whole, i.e., whether the teacher is doing satisfactory work. As the system of testing for promotion has been practically abandoned in every city examined, this factor is common to all, and may, therefore, be here disregarded. As a rule, the pupil's fitness for pro- motion is now determined by the character of his daily work, supplemented by the teacher's opinion, while the examination as to fitness is reserved for those pupils whose term work has been unsatisfactory or who appeal from the teacher's adverse judgment. The controlling element lies, therefore, in that form of examination which is intended as a test of the^ teacher's progress. The nature of this test varies in different localities ; and, as the results appear to vary with its character, a detailed description is called for. The tests of the teacher's progress may be con- veniently summed up in four general classes: 1. Tests made from time to time by the teachers themselves. Each teacher formulates her own ques- tions, marks the papers of her own class, and sub- mits the results to the superintendent; but no tests are made by principal or superintendent. 2. Tests made in the same way by the teachers; [137] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION but the teachers' tests are supplemented from time to time by those of the superintendent. 3. Tests made from time to time by the principals, each principal formulating the questions for his own school. The results are reported to the superintend- ent, but the latter does not make any tests of his own. 4. The same system of testing by the principals ; but the principals' tests are supplemented from time to time by those of the superintendent. The first system means that the demand is fixed by each individual teacher, who is made the judge of her own progress. As the questions prepared by the teacher, when left to her own resources, will natu- rally accord with the lines upon which she has been teaching, the tendency will be toward routine work. Under these circumstances, the minds of the pupils will be kept running in a groove, in which they may work with remarkable facility, but outside of which they are all at sea. In other words, the pupils will be able to solve certain problems without any diffi- culty when they are presented in the customary way, but entirely incapable of solving them when they are stated in a different manner. I was once present in a class-room when a pupil was called upon to analyze a problem in mental arithmetic. He rose to his feet, but was silent. After the teacher had waited a little while, she said to the child: "Don't you know? That's the kind that begins with 'since.' " This suggestion was sufficient to enable the pupil to go through the analysis according to rule. Such methods as this will account for the fact that [138] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC a class which will regularly obtain an average of 80 to 90 per cent on the teacher's test may obtain less than 20 per cent on a test such as my own. The plan of limiting the tests to those of the teacher has been in vogue in City VI, and the results may be judged by a glance at the table. I could find no other element in this locality to account for the failure. In fact, in every way the conditions are here above the average. The home surroundings of the pupils are, for the most part, favorable; the classes are small ; the teachers are selected with more than ordinary care; and the superintendent does his share from the inspirational standpoint. The only thing that seems to be lacking is the test from a broader point of view than that of the teacher. If the superintendent would inaugurate a system of examinations of a different order, there is little doubt in my mind that in the course of a year or two the results in arithmetic would be improved by at least 50 per cent. In City IV also the conditions are favorable, but the testing is not very systematic. Under the second system, the degree of success seems to depend upon the nature of the tests pre- pared by the superintendent. If he should not demand anything beyond a fair knowledge of the term's work at the end of the term, and if he should have an eye to principles rather than ingenuity in their application, his tests may be as routine as those of the teacher, and fail to exert a stimulating influence. This criticism applies to City VII, where the second plan of examinations has been in vogue; and when my own test was here placed before the [139] sciKNTii'ic MANA(;i:ivii':N'r in j^:j)U(:a'1'ion piij)lls, llic result WHS chaos. Tlie siipcriiitcrulcnh nnd Icaclicrs seemed at once to appreciate the nature of the (lidiculty; and I hey feel confident that if I should try their schools a^ain, after ^ivin^- I hem a little chance to wake up, they would l)e ahle to show much belter i-esulls. In another locality, the prin- cipal of a school that failed atlrihuled the failure to the routine character of the tests to which his pu{)ils had heen accustomed. Under the third system, the tests are made ])y llie princi[)al. Instead of the icacher, thus hrui^in^- uito play a hroadei- point of view than the first plan. It has the advantage that, in the first instaru'c, it is not the teacher herself, hut the principal, who Is made the jud^'e of I he teacher's |)ro^ress; ])ul, lackni^- the superintendenrs test, the system has the weakness of making- the pi-incipal the .pid^e of the pr()«4i'ess of his own school. This indicates simply that the tests will represeid the demands of the individual principals. The pi-incipal of a ^iven school may he pell y, and guided hy the desire to make a ^ood show- ing, or he may lack the proper j)erspecl ive. In either case, the tests may run alon^ routine lines, with an eye to ^rade work, and l)i-in^- forth mai'vellous per- centages fi-om pupils who would fail com|)letely on tests reciuirin^- independent thou/:;ht. On the other hand, tlu' piinci|)al may he a man of l)r()ad calihi'e, or an ori/^inal ^-enius, whose primary aim does not exist in i he endeavor to show \u'^\\ pei-cenl a^-es, hut in stimulating |)upils to use their minds. I lis tests will call for IndejX'ndeid thought, and I hey cannot he passed unless the teachers have taught the pupils to SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC fliink i'or tlicrnsclvcs. 'Jlic percentage's Ijrou^lii out by fiis tests may not bo n(.'ar]y so Jii^fi as tliosc; ob- tained in tfie school just dc-scribed ; so tfiat, in tlie superintendent's records, fiis scliool may stand much h>w(.'r tfian the other. However, wfien a test is applied wfjich calls for thought, rather than form, his pupils will not be mentally paralyzed, and their previous training will tell. I'he (.'i^hth-^rad(; teacljer of the school at the head of the; tabh- — a school where; the tests arc made by the principal — told uw. that slie did not think my probh^ms fair, l>ecause* they did not t(;st the power of her pu[)ils. Slie was not at all proud of them because- Intr class averaged 91 per cent. She; thought they should have- done.' much better than that. And she- was ne)t incline'd to change heT mind whe;n she' le'arne;d that the- eighth ^rade; in many oi' the.' schools did ne)t average; .'iO pe-r cent. ^J'he princif)al of this school is ce>nstantly afte-r tlie; pupils, wIh) are', there;fe)re, at all time.'S, re.'ady for the unusual. In localities where- the; principal is made* the; judge of his own preigress, he; be;comes a v(try im[)ejrtant factor in the schoe)l syste;m. Inde-ed, in one sense', he assumes the functie)ns of a supe'rintendeTit. '^Vo this there can be; no valid objection; for the super- intende;nt, espe-cially in the larger citie.'s, cannot come; into close tou(;h with eve-ry class-re)om. Jlejw- ever, under this plan the te-ndency will be toward the developme-nt of gr(;at ine-qualities in the; diffe^rent schools of the same* community; each school repre- senting the f)roclivitie;s of its principal, rather than those of the city superintendent. [141] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION The fourth system differs from the third in this only, that the independent tests of the principal are supplemented once or twice a year by uniform tests prepared by the superintendent. Here the principal is not left entirely to his own resources, but, from time to time, is himself subjected to a test. The advantage of this plan lies in the fact that it is capable of bringing to light the comparative prog- ress of the different schools, which is not the case when the results reported to the superintendent from the various schools are based on tests of varying degrees of difficulty. The knowledge on the part of the principal that his school is to be judged by tests other than his own cannot fail to exert an influ- ence on the nature of the tests prepared by himself, which will be guided by the character of those sub- mitted by the superintendent. If the latter call for independent thought, the principals must see that the teachers will train their pupils to think; other- wise their schools will not be likely to make a good showing. Even under these conditions some of the schools will fail, because the principals themselves are not equally competent or equally ambitious ; but the tendency will be to stimulate those who are ambitious, and who wish to stand well among their colleagues. Therefore, the best principals of the town will be likely to do better work, and among the less competent the number of failures will be smaller. This system of examination describes, in a general way, the plan in vogue in City I. In the foregoing I have attempted to point out, first, why some schools succeeded in passing my test [ 142] Success and failure in arithmetic and others failed; and, secondly, what mode of pro- cedure, according to the facts, is destined to lead to the most favorable results. However, I do not wish to convey the impression that I claim to have solved the educational problem. I fully believe that my data, though comparatively meagre, justify the deduction that, other things being equal, the results obtained by the teacher will vary with the demand, which simply shows a further application of a very well-recognized fundamental law. Further investiga- tions may prove that I am wrong, and that the controlling factor is an altogether different one. But taking it for granted, for the sake of argu- ment, that my deduction is correct, this does not indicate that I have really solved the problem. If we are willing to accept the statement that the re- sults are controlled by the demand, we are simply carried to the threshold of another, and much larger, problem. Assuming the organization of a school system to be ideal, that is, that the principal is broader than his teachers, and that the superintend- ent is broader than his principals, then the deduction is logical that it is fitting for the demand to be fixed by the superintendent. This, however, merely leads us to the question: What principles shall guide the superintendent in formulating his demands ? He must ask neither too much nor too little of his teachers. If he asks too much, the consequence will be a waste of effort in the attempt to do the im- possible. On the other hand, if he asks too little, the pupils will not be sufficiently taxed to develop the best that is in them. [143] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION But how is the superintendent to determine the mean? Thus far no higher law has been recognized than that of personal opinion ; so that all standards now in existence are purely arbitrary in their nature. Nevertheless, there is a higher law, and one which will have to be brought to bear on the educational problem, if permanent progress is looked for. The law is this, that the demand must be based on the normal mental capacity of the child, that is, on a knowledge of what the average child ^ who has been well taught is capable of doing in an individual branch, at a given period of school-life, when a given amount of time has been devoted to that branch. This is not a question of opinion, but a question of fact, a problem whose solution depends upon ex- tended investigations. If we look over the pedagogical field to get our bearings from the standpoint of the mental capacity of the child, we can find as yet no definite landmarks to serve as guides in the establishment of standards. Under these circumstances, the superintendent's de- mands cannot be representative of anything more definite than his personal opinion — a condition that must necessarily prevail until a more or less substan- tial literature on the child's capacity has been de- veloped. In the meantime our educators must resort to expedients ; and, for the present, the wisest course, it seems to me, lies in the adoption of a system of examinations as outlined in plan number four. ^ Recognizing that no two individuals are alike, some educa- tors take exception to the term "average child." However, there can be no objection if we accept it in a figurative sense, taking the class as a unit. [ 144] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC However, the mere inauguration of a fruitful sys- tem of examinations does not itself insure success. As I have already stated, the nature of the results will be determined, for the most part, by the char- acter of the tests prepared by the superintendent. If the problems do not call for independent thought, and if they can be solved without any difficulty should the teacher have devoted her entire attention to drilling the pupils in the work of her own grade, then the tests of the principal will follow this lead, and the examinations will be as routine in character as those which are made by the teachers themselves, in accordance with plan number one. To be of the highest value, the superintendent's questions must be suggestive and stimulating, both to the principals and the teachers. They must aim to take the latter out of the groove, and be so formulated that they will call for a thorough grasp of the entire subject as far as the pupils have advanced, as well as a readiness on the part of the latter to comprehend a problem that comes within their scope, regardless of how it is stated. When I say that the standard implied by a test of this nature is not an impossible one, and that its attainment is purely a matter of training, I am not merely expressing a personal opinion, but I am speaking from actual facts — as witness, in the table, 81 per cent against 8 in the seventh year, and 91 per cent against 11 in the eighth. A further illustration of the same fact was given a few weeks ago when I submitted an apparently simple, but rather puzzling, little problem to the [ 145 ] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION pupils of the eighth year of a number of schools. In one instance, where the pupils had failed on my general test, the class average on this little problem was 10 per cent only. I asked the teacher how she accounted for the failure, and her reply was : "Chil- dren don't think." If she had spoken more truly, she would have said: "These children don't think," or "My pupils have not been trained to think"; for in another instance, in the school that stood first on my general test, the class average on the same prob- lem was as high as 60 per cent. It might be argued that, perhaps, in the one school the pupils had pre- viously had problems similar to the one I gave, while in the other they had not. This is just the point. If not, why not? In some schools it is difficult to find practical problems that are not in line with previous work; and, therefore, almost any practical question seems quite familiar to the pupils. But in other schools the pupils seem to be able to look in one direction only, so that questions from other points of view represent to them merely so many Chinese puzzles. The conclusion that the controlling factor in the accomplishment of results is to be found among the duties of the superintendent may be open to the criticism that I started out with a theory, and that, in interpreting my data, I was influenced by the desire to prove my theory — a form of criticism to which investigators are not infrequently subjected. However, to this charge I must enter the plea, "Not guilty." That I have had, for some time, a rather strong leaning in a certain direction, I shall not deny. [146] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC But my belief was that the variations in the results were due, primarily, to differences in the personality and qualifications of teachers — a theory which the facts compelled me to abandon. And I did not see what I now believe to be the controlling factor until every element I had mentioned had been critically examined and found wanting. It is gratifying to me to be able to say that the facts were not interpreted in the light of the con- clusion, but that the conclusion was formed in the light of the facts. Nevertheless, when I recall my educational experiences of a decade ago, I am some- what surprised that my impressions did not favor, from the outset, the theory to which the facts have led me. In January, 1892, after spending consid- erable time in studying the school systems abroad, I entered into an agreement with The Forum to visit the schools of our own country, and to prepare a series of articles embodying my observations. I started out early in January of that year, and traveled continuously for over five months, during which time I had an opportunity to visit schools in session in thirty-six cities, and to consult a large iiumber of superintendents, teachjers, and others more or less directly interested in education. At the end of that period I felt that I was ready to express some opinions, and the publication of my series be- gan in October, 1892, and did not close until June, 1893. It was not my purpose at the time to study the results of instruction, but rather the spirit of the schools. I had long believed that elementary educa- [147] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION tlon should take into account the normal activities and interests of the child ; that the latter should be introduced to the beauties of nature and art ; and that he should be as free in his schoolroom as or- derly development would permit. From the stand- point of spirit and breadth of curriculum, I found all sorts and conditions of schools. In many lo- calities, the sitting-still school, with all its me- chanical appurtenances, still flourished ; in some, the endeavor to break away from the old-fashioned, mechanical grind was in evidence; and in not a few instances I found localities where my idle fancies had been more than realized. The most striking feature of my observations was tlie fact that, from the standpoint of spirit, any one school of a given locality was, broadly speaking, representative of the schools of its locality as a whole. When the repression of the child was found in the first school that I visited, it was found in the other schools as well; and, in the same way, when in the first school I found spontaneity, it was an indication that I should find freedom in the other schools also. This was strong evidence to the effect that the spirit of the schools of every locality must be controlled by a central authority ; and the ac- cumulated data led me to the conclusion that the tone of the class-room was representative of the per- sonality of the superintendent, provided he had had charge of the schools long enough to make his per- sonality felt. And this conclusion, I believe, has stood the test of time. The term superintendent is [148] SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN ARITHMETIC here used in the larger sense, which includes the members of his staff. From the deduction stated the inference is nat- ural: "If the superintendent is responsible for the spirit of the schools, why is he not also responsible for the results?" If the superintendent wishes to develop a good school spirit, it is necessary for him to work for spirit. If he is desirous of accomplish- ing results of a high order, it is necessary for him to work for results. In view of what I have said, the aim of super- vision is clearly a double one. In the first place, the superintendent must see that a wholesome spirit is developed in the schools ; and, secondly, it is also his duty to see that due attention is paid to results. This again gives rise to an important question: Is it possible to keep the results in view without at the same time crushing the spirit? Or, conversely. Is it possible to develop a delightful class-room atmos- phere without at the same time destroying the results ? Judging by my own impressions, acquired by a twofold study of the question, spirit and results are in no way incompatible. The criticism aimed at the modern school spirit, that it means a milk- and-water system, a weak sentimentality rather than mental discipline of a wholesome kind, does, perhaps, apply to the schools of those localities where the mere utterance of the word "results" is looked upon as sacrilegious — schools that are in a transitional stage, just emerging from an antiquated system, [ 149 ] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION and not yet accustomed to their new surroundings. But the criticism does not apply to localities where a good spirit has already become an established fact, and additional aims can be held in view without los- ing sight of the fundamental proposition. In itself, a good school spirit does not indicate weakness any more than a poor spirit is an indication of strength. In some of the delightful schools, it is true, the results are by no means praiseworthy; but, on the other hand, the results are frequently of a very inferior order in typical schools of the antiquated kind. There is, indeed, no logical reason why results may not be kept in view without in any way neg- lecting the spirit; for "subjects" are taught in the modern as well as in the antiquated schools, and the time devoted to the formal studies is, in most in- stances, ample to lead to satisfactory results. If the modern idea should stand for the abandonment of the three R's, it might be deemed unworthy ; but it does nothing of the kind. The matter simply resolves itself into a question like this: "All other things being equal, will forty-five minutes a day devoted to arithmetic in the schools in which the pupils are active and responsive accomplish as much as forty- five minutes devoted to arithmetic in the schools where the pupils are repressed and passive?" The facts compel us to answer this question in the affirm- ative. Therefore, there is no reason to doubt that a good school spirit and satisfactory results may without difficulty go hand in hand. [150] IX CONCLUDED In Chapter VII, I presented the results of a test in arithmetic. The test had been submitted to the pupils of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth year classes in eighteen school buildings, represent- ing seven cities, and the total number of children examined was not far from six thousand. While the figures obtained were surprising in many ways, they were particularly so in these two points: (1) That the results obtained in the different schools varied to a remarkable extent, the averages per school ranging from 25 to 80 per cent; and (2) that when the schools were listed in the order of merit, those of an individual locality were, with a single exception, so close together that the results obtained in a given school were, to a large extent, representative of all the schools examined in that locality. In other words, when the results were good in one building they were good in other build- ings examined in the same locality; and the same was true where they were fair or poor. In addition to the study of results, I entered into a detailed inquiry concerning the conditions under 'April-June, 1903. [151] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION which the results had been obtained, in the hope of finding the cause or causes of success or of failure. Among the points considered were the age and home environment of the pupils, the size of each class, the methods of instruction, the qualifications of the teachers, natural and acquired, the time devoted to arithmetic, and the character of the supervision. A study of the results from these various points of view led me to the conclusion stated in Chapter VIII, namely, that the controlling element in the achieve- ment of success lay in a single phase of supervision, that is, in the training afforded to the teacher through systematically testing the progress of her pupils by means of examinations consisting of prob- lems that cannot be solved unless the children thor- oughly understand the principles of arithmetic — from the beginning of the subject up to the time the examination is given — and are possessed of the power of applying them. After the appearance of my second article on arithmetic (Chapter VIII), two important points were raised in criticism of my deductions ; and, for the sake of throwing light on the subject from ad- ditional points of view, I shall devote the present chapter to answering them. They are: 1. That in placing the responsibility for the re- sults primarily upon the supervision, I had under- estimated the value of the personality of the teacher ; and 2. That a single test will not suffice to bring out the comparative strength of the pupils; that the ideals in arithmetic differ in different communities; [152] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING and that if the test had been of a different character, the order of merit might have been reversed. In regard to the first point, I desire to impress not only the fact that my conclusion was based upon the results, but also that it does not in any way conflict with generally accepted pedagogical views. Indeed, all advanced educational legislation is based upon the belief that pedagogical talent, like any other talent, is subject to development through training. In evidence of this we find not only that institutions for the training of teachers are grow- ing more and more in favor, but that our elementary school systems are planned upon the idea of the need of continuous training. Hence, our supervis- ing principals, special supervisors, and superin- tendents of schools. At the same time, it cannot be doubted that natural endowment is of inestimable value in teaching, as in every other field; so that the question at issue really resolves itself into that of the relative value of talent and training. That this question may be studied from the standpoint of statistics, I have, in Table I (p. 156), arranged the figures in a way that will show the influence of the personality of the teacher as compared with that of training; but before entering into the discussion of that table, I shall cite a few instances to illustrate that even from a theoretical standpoint a deficiency in talent can be overcome by training. Let us first imagine two individuals, one of whom is a pedagogical genius, while the other is absolutely devoid of the pedagogical instinct. In this case, there is little doubt that the former would always [153] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION be the better teacher, even if she should have no training whatever, and the hitter should have the benefit of the most thorough training that the world can afford. Next, let us imagine two individuals one of whom is not really a genius, but whose pedagogical talent is considerable, represented, say, by 75 per cent, while the other is not altogether pedagogically weak, but possesses native ability to the extent of 25 per cent. Under these circumstances, it is not at all impossible to conceive of conditions under which the efficiency of the latter could rise to the level of that of the former. If both these individuals should pass through the same course of training before re- ceiving their licenses to teach, and then should se- cure positions in the same school building, i.e.y under the same principal and superintendent, it is quite rational to assume that their relative native effi- ciency would tell, and that the work of the one would always be far superior to that of the other. But if, after receiving their licenses, the young lady with considerable talent should obtain a position in a school where the principal and the superintendent permitted her to drift, while the other should enter a system where the superintendent was vigilant, and a building whose principal was not only a thoughtful and tireless worker, but in addition had a genius for developing the best that was in his teachers, is it not conceivable that, in time, the teacher who had been permitted to drift would accomplish less than her native talent would warrant, showing an effi- ciency of not more than 50 per cent, while the [ 154] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING teacher who had been put on her mettle would so have developed her native ability that her efficiency would have risen to 50 per cent? And, thirdly, let us imagine two teachers whose native efficiencies were 60 and 40 — and these are really representative of the average persons who enter the profession — is it not conceivable that, un- der the conditions just outlined, the efficiency of the former, who had no specially marked bent for teach- ing, would fall to 30, while that of the other, who was not particularly weak at the outset, would rise to 70, so that at the end of a given period the odds would be strongly in favor of the teacher who had started out in life with less in her favor? That, in this instance, theory is duly borne out by the facts is very strikingly indicated in Table I, which shows, side by side, the influence of the teacher's personality as compared with that of the system of schools in which she is employed. The figures represent, first, the results obtained in every class-room of the four schools examined in City I, where the test of the character described is used by both the superintendent and the principal ; secondly, those obtained in the three schools of City VI, where no tests are made by superintendent or principal ; and, thirdly, those secured in the three schools of City VII, where tests are made by the superintend- ent, but the problems are limited to the grade work of the class. That the personality of the teacher is not the controlling element in the achievement of success is, in my opinion, amply proved by the fact that in [155] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION Cities VI and VII the results, with few exceptions, fell below a reasonable standard in every class- Table I 4 5 6 7 8 o S3.b l> 1? O :::: 4i!6 86.8 28!i > '6 59;3 47!4 41.1 u 85.6 85.3 84.9 83.5 79!6 77.8 75.0 74.6 71.1 66.8 .... > O 5516 45!3 38.1 a > 1? 5 8112 55!i 52!4 49!6 37!5 '6 88.8 si 5 > i ^ > '6 > '6 e 86.6 86!9 72.' 7 66!5 61.0 > '6 .... 35.2 26!9 23.3 i?'4 79^4 72:4 72.2 71.1 eiii •••' 63.3 62.7 56*8 68!3 7i;7 65.1 62.0 58 !3 54!6 48:8 41.7 33.5 30.5 id.5 17.3 10.0 8.9 .... .... 56.4 51.8 :::: 46!i 46.0 3415 46*2 34.0 27;6 27.3 26.5 36!6 21 !6 20.4 isig 11.3 room examined, while in City I, with few exceptions, they rose above that standard. However, the fig- ures do not show that nothing is to be credited to the personality of the teacher ; for while in Cities VI and VII the results, on the whole, were low, they were not equally low; and, on the other hand, [156] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING although, in general, the results in City I were high, they were not equally high. That is to say, differ- ences in percentages allowing for differences in the personality of the teachers were well marked in all these cities, but the results were on a different plane. The scope representing the teacher's personality is represented by the differences in the individual col- umns, i.e., by the percentages obtained in the dif- ferent class-rooms of the same grade in any one locality, while the influence of the school-system as a whole is seen when the figures of one column are compared with those of another. Taking the individual columns of grade 4, we find that in City I the class averages run from 51.8 to 83, showing an extreme variation of 31.2; in City VI, they vary from 28.1 to 41.6; and in City VII, from 41.1 to 59.3. If we now compare the figures of one column with those of another, we can see the influence of the system; and by drawing a line across the three columns of grade 4 at 50, we find that all the classes examined in City I are above it, while, with a single exception, all those of Cities VI and VII are below. In the 5th grade, barring a single instance, the poorest grade average of City I is 11.8 per cent higher than the best of Cities VI and VII, and 29.3 higher than the poorest. In the 6th grade, again leaving out an exceptional instance, the poorest average in City I is 21 per cent higher than the best of Cities VI and VII, and 40.6 per cent higher than the poorest. In the 7th grade there is no exception, the lowest average in City I being 8.2 per cent better [157] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION than the highest in the other cities, and 32.8 per cent better than the lowest. And in the 8th grade of City I, the lowest average is 25.8 per cent better than the highest in the other cities, and 49.7 per cent better than the lowest. Looking at the matter from another point of view, we find that in 30 class-rooms out of the 33 exam- ined in Cities VI and VII, the highest marks were below the poorest obtained in the 38 class-rooms examined in City I.^ But the influence of the sys- tem is brought out most strikingly when the lowest averages of Cities VI and VII are compared with the lowest of City I, as this shows most directly the gen- eral uplift given by something in the latter's system, which I believe to be the stimulating test. It may be believed that some of the questions were too difficult for grades 4, 6, and 7. If so, we may leave these grades out of consideration, and confine our attention to the 5th and the 8th, where the problems should not have been beyond the pupils. But this does not change in any way the compara- tive standing of the schools represented. In spite of the figures, it is difficult to say just how many counts out of 100 should be attributed to the personality of the teacher and how many counts to the system. The diflPerences are, perhaps, as marked in the columns which allow for the one as they are in the comparisons representing the other. But the variations in the individual columns * To avoid needless overcrowding of the column, two class- rooms, averaging 77.1 and 71 respectively, were omitted from City I, grade 5. [158] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING do not represent the influence of the teacher's per- sonality alone. Here allowance must be made for another important factor, namely, the differences in the ability of the classes, which are sometimes very marked. But the potency of the system is clearly indicated by the fact that under its influence the poorest teachers will be able to make some kind of a show- ing with the poorest of classes. Taking City I, we find that while in the 4th grade three of the classes fell below 60, not one of them fell below 50 ; and that while two classes in the 7th grade fell below 50, not one of them fell below 40, although the 7th year test proved to have been exceptionally severe. In the 5th and the 8th grades, where the suitability of the questions can scarcely be doubted, the lowest averages in City I were 66.8 and 61, re- spectively, against 37.5 and 11.3. Taken all in all, I do not think I exaggerate when I say that the system is the equivalent of 25 counts. That is to say, speaking from my own deductions, I am inclined to believe that if Cities VI and VII should introduce a system of testing similar to that employed in City I, and its introduction should be accompanied by a specific demand upon the principals and teachers, it would not be very long before a test equally diffi- cult as my own would result in school averages of 60 to 65 per cent, in place of 35 to 40 per cent, as was the case when these schools were examined a year ago. From the foregoing analysis, I believe we are justified in concluding that the question of the rela- [159] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION tive value of talon t and training lias a theoretical and a practical side. From a theoretical point of view, I am willing to concede in favor of personality even more than the figures show, and to go so far as to say that one who is exceptionally endowed by nature is able to rise above her surroundings, and can do as well if left to her own resources as under the closest of supervision. The figures do not do justice to this teacher, because she is sim{)ly a link in a chain, and the puj)ils may enter her class- room so f)ooily j)re{)ared that it will recjuire a her- culean eflort even on her part to raise them merely to a moderate degree of proficiency. From a practical j)()int of view, however, the situ- ation seems to be controlled by the training afforded by that form of supervision which tends to stimulate the teacher to do her l)est, because the vast ma- /jority of the teachers are persons of moderate abil- ity, who are in need of a stimulus from an outside source if they are to do the best work of which they are capal)h'. And, taking a conmiunity as a whole, the suf)[)()rt aH'orded by such a stimulus as an ideal system of testing — in which the superintendent and the principal are factors of equal importance — seems to be sufficient to raise considerably the efficiency of the entire corps. The teachers' meeting is valu- able, because It gives the teacher ideas; but the meeting must be supplemented by the test, in order that the superintendent may be assured that the Ideas accjulred at the meetings are afterward applied in practice. 1 desire to add here that in the present stage of [160] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING our pedagogical knowledge, when we are guided alto- gether by theory, poor results in a given locality do not in any way speak against the efficiency of the superintendent. Wide-awake superintendents are in the habit of following the trend of advancing pedagogical thought; and if that trend is in the wrong direction, the superintendent is not respon- sible. The tendency for some years past has been for example, to oppose examinations of every form; and, in view of this circumstance, the superintendent has been fully justified in abandoning them. If, however, further investigations should substantiate my contention, and facts should prove the exami- nation to be a sine qua non, then the tests will prob- ably be the most speedily reintroduced by the very men who were most ready to set them aside. It is in questions of this kind, where strong forces are arrayed on both sides, that the value of educational research is most clearly apparent; for some of the most practical points of school administration upon which agreement cannot be reached through opin- ions may be decided without difficulty by statistics. Let us now direct our attention to the second point, and endeavor to learn whether the results obtained by my test are representative of the com- parative strength of the schools examined, or whether a test of a different nature, based upon different ideals, might have shown strength where weakness was manifested, and vice versa. In formulating my problems, I did not lose sight of the fact that the courses in arithmetic vary in different communities ; and I therefore endeavored [161] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION to secure questions that would call for a knowledge of arithmetic such as would naturally come within the scope of all schools, regardless of what their ideals might be. In spite of my precautions, it is possible that some of the problems were beyond the scope of certain schools. If so, the matter can be easily remedied by eliminating them and drawing our conclusions from the others. But just as the exclusion of certain grades in their entirety would fail to alter the relative positions of the schools, so the exclusion of certain selected problems would not alter their relative positions. In order that the comparisons may be made by the reader from a very broad point of view, I shall place before him, first, the results that were ob- tained on each example in the five schools that passed the test satisfactorily and those obtained in the lowest six. And, secondly, I shall enter into the analysis of a sufficient number of the problems to show wherein the examination was characteristic and in what manner the pupils went astray in their work. The classification of the errors will show that, at least in the majority of instances, the mis- takes in the lower grades were due to lack of judg- ment in the application of elementary principles, while in the upper grades they were due, for the most part, to a lack of knowledge of the principles involved. The errors made by the pupils in the stronger schools were exactly the same in character as those made in the weaker ones, the diflference being simply in the number of pupils who failed. The results obtained on the individual problems [ 162] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING CO i •aid -paw 15.6 147 84.0 85.3 CO 00 im»9a oeoor-i w SJ »i •eid -paiJd CJCOCJt- CO ipiKm OOCl«DT-t Jo « 1 -eid -paija eoioQOQO oooc* i-J CO COl- QO o» CD "linsau CCrfCDQO CO w; II •»ld linSdH CO <£> O CO CO io uiS 00 ^* II "Old -pujJJ O W O r-( ooooot- o •linsoa Oi CD CO CO -^' CO CO -ti ob I- 1- 1- CO « if •Old 05 CO CO C> CO •«nsou Scot- 00 ? M IP o •eid -puMd CDtHCJCO CD 00 •Jinwu oi co" C> CO «0 t-OOOD -■ Ml •Old -puw s •Jinsau OS M<>0» CO H •o,d -puMd CD 30 O t- cdo »ocd Tj* CO t- t- 05 IliiSdU l>CO t> '"*' «o i k 1 eg 6 "3 : 11 1^ 1^ o •Old -puiJd 00 00 CO ■^ i ••»in89u I! o •Old -papd CO ■<**'0>0 CO CO i~ I- r- s 0. •«ld -PU|J«I rHW ,-100 OSOOOCO ■<1© 00 linBoij CO ■rH CO 0> ^3coa8 8 m -joiiia OlOCDOJ s •tinaau. I- i lo^jy ©lOt-oO i •linsou <» O T-; 05 St- 00 00 CO feOQ •Old -papd 0,1 OOM •linsda OOOCDCO >o 1-! o -^ i-ooojcb w s tt -4 as ■< •Did -puiij »Ot- JOOO c» CO e» CO «0 CD 00 00 LO t- •linsau COC^lOO iiocoaiod rl<»Ot- t- i i 3 : ti : > K OS « [163] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION in the schools mentioned will be found in Tables 2 to 5. Two percentages are given upon each example. The first represents the number of cor- rect answers, while the second represents the prob- lems correctly performed in principle, but wherein mechanical errors led to wrong results. For the sake of clearness, the problems have been arranged in the order of difficulty as manifested by the test, not that in which they were presented to the pupils. For facility of reference, each problem is indicated in the tables by a suggestive word or two. The questions were printed in their original order at the close of Chapter VII. Now, if the question of ideals should play a part in the comparative standing of the schools, the comparative degree of difficulty of the various prob- lems should be found to vary in different localities according to the special lines along which they had been working. It ought to be found that while, on the whole, some of the schools fell far behind the others, they nevertheless manifested superiority in certain directions, and would have outranked the others on a test based more generally upon those lines. On looking over the tables, however, such a condition is in no wise manifested. On the con- trary, the tables speak forcibly against such an assumption, and in two ways : First, they show that the schools that passed the test satisfactorily out- ranked the others on every problem, and in many instances to a very large degree. And, secondly, the figures are still more striking in that they show that, broadly speaking, the comparative degree of [164] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING ill ■<■< ei -pnyj •Jinsaa <^<3S<3> **^ •aid . . •aid ■puFJj •aid TH Ift O lO 1-HCi «0-»fi •aid •pajjj ■unsaH •aid •linsaH •aid ■puiij ■^pisaH •aid puiod •aid ■pund Qoaoa CO (M CO CO 00 A 00 e»t-oo tHCOOCO 1 i •aid -paMJ 1.5 6.7 24.7 49.1 -JinsaH 1 •aid -pnpj •* ^ -unsaa o 1 •aid -pnnj t- •:iinsaa CO 00 OS lO a ^ ii! •aid •puud 00 03 040 1-1 •iinsag oocot-o 00 3 1 •aid •PUM o •lineaa r-l •* •aid ooocoeo •«tisaK p 1 9 i 1 =3 : H [165] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION (O 1 •9ld ■paPd t-eouie* s •«ns3H 4.3 33.3 50.5 80.0 t^ i •aid -oo^ o t- 00 — ; o •linsDa coooc^ c i ■3|d -: '-9 9 *9 00 •linsaa ,-cOOO lO O 00 00 i-HOQO w> i •aid -papd 0.5 75 4 94.2 00 •liniaa oop l>CJ »C ?■> lO •+ i V 1 u O •aid -papd •jinsaa lO 1© O f-' M pi z; 2 -pouj 05 oo r-i S CJ ^ S •■Jtneaa 0>00»-i 00 lO Xi (~^ e« ^ ■Old •papj o •linsaa 1-1 c^ r* s - .^[(j o •» 'i' t- iO ■••- iigs o i •3{d •puuj lO t-«o — '■ o i> c6 •Jinsaa -^005 t> i 1 i 1 5 1 85 55 tea fi O difficulty of the va- rious examples was found to be the same in every locality; in- dicating that work along special lines, if such there was, did not tell in a test of judgment. The de- cline in the percent- ages from the firsti problem to the eighth is especially marked in the upper two lines ; the occasional elevations or depres- sions following no gen- eral rule. It is most clearly marked in the first line of Table 5, where the descent re- sembles a veritable avalanche. The tables are in- structive from another standpoint, namely, as indicating the child's capacity for arithme- tic at different periods of school life, thus aiding in the develop- ment of standards. In [166] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING regard to the mental powers of children, teachers are altogether too apt to generalize upon the basis of what their own pupils are able to do ; and when a teacher is not successful, she is apt to think but little of children's minds. Lines 3 and 4 of the tables in- dicated show that children can reason, and that their reasoning powers, as regards arithmetic, are capable of development to a remarkable degree through training. As to the variety of errors, these may be most conveniently studied under certain general classifi- cations. Although the number of groups into which they could be divided is almost without limit, never- theless, if we disregard the mechanical blunders and the problems in which the pupils failed in part only, an idea of the nature of the errors may be obtained for general purposes by studying them in four gen- eral classes: 1. Errors due to a complete absence of thought. 2. Errors in problems correctly performed in prin- ciple, but due to lack of reasoning in the processes. 3. Errors due to misinterpretation of a problem. 4. Errors due to lack of knowledge of arithmetical principles. Of the total number of errors made, the vast ma- jority appear to have been due to a complete ab- sence of thought. Whether in such instances the children did not read the problems carefully, or whether they read them but did not understand them, I am unable to say. What they did was sim- ply to work with the figures, stated or implied, add- ing, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing at random. [167] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION The result of these combinations was called the answer, and the pupils did not stop to consider whether such answers bore any relation whatever to the question. For instance, problem 1, grade 4, reads : If there were 4,839 class-rooms in New York City, and 47 children in each class-room, how many children would there be in the New York schools? The problem did not appear to present much difficulty to the children in any of the schools, and the total number of errors was comparatively small. Nevertheless, nearly 13 per cent of the pupils failed, and of these all but a few divided, giving as their answer 102fy children. It may be reasonably argued that children do funny things; but this does not explain why the number of children who do funny things is so much larger in some schools than in others. In problem 2, grade 4, three numbers are stated, giving greater scope for variety. The method is, of course, 1,743 + 5,482 = 7,225. 10,000 - 7,225 = 2,775. The varieties presented by the pupils were: 1. 1,743 + 5,482 + 10,000 = 17,225. 2. 5,482 - 1,743 = 3,739. 10,000 - 3,739 = 6,261. 3. 1,743 + 5,482 = 7,225. 7,225 X 10,000 = 72,250,000. 4. 1,743 - 5,482, etc. The endeavor to subtract a large number from a small one is quite common, and the process in this instance was performed in four ways : ( 1 ) By bor- [168] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING rowing; (2) by disregarding the thousands; (3) by bringing down the last figure of the upper line ; and (4) by bringing down the last figure of the lower line : 1,743 1,743 1,743 1,743 5,482 5,482 5,482 5,482 6,261 2,61 1,261 5,261 On looking over the tables, we find that no par- ticular difficulty was experienced in three of the cities with the first five examples of the 4th grade test; so that the errors may be attributed in some measure to carelessness on the part of pupils who could have done better if they had tried. However, when we direct attention to the results obtained on the remaining three, it becomes apparent that difficulties were here presented which did not occur in the others, and that these difficulties were suffi- ciently great actually to place the problems beyond the grasp of many of the stronger pupils. On the first five problems the total number of failures was 22 per cent only. But on the sixth example 40 per cent failed, on the seventh, 45 per cent, and on the eighth, nearly 70 per cent. As the number of failures on the eighth example was large in all the schools represented in the table, the conclusion is justified that it was too difficult for the grade. Examples 1-5 having proved them- selves too easy for a test of power, and example 8 too difficult, the actual test was confined to problems 6 and 7. Table 2 shows that the schools represented [169] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION in the lower two lines did somewhat better than the others on the easiest problems, considerably better on the really difficult one, and much better also on the problems that proved to be the true test of their power. Surely, Cities VI and VII must have been working along the lines of one of these three groups of problems, but they were outranked by the others on all. Under these circumstances, it is difficult to imagine a fourth year test that would reverse the position of the schools, unless it might be purely upon abstract work. But this point is also con- sidered in the tables, where it is shown that Cities VI and VII made not only more errors in reasoning than the others, but also a larger percentage of mechanical errors. When we consider the nature of problems 6 and 7, it is difficult for the mature mind to see why so many of the pupils should have failed upon them not only in the fourth year, but even in the sixth, i.e.y among those who had nearly completed their arithmetic. It will be noticed that problems 6, 7, and 8 were repeated in the test for grades 5 and 6. The questions were: 6. What will 24 quarts of cream cost at $1.20 a gallon? 7. If a boy pays $2.83 for 100 papers, and sells them at 4 cents apiece, how much money does he make? As to the character of the errors in these problems, the same is true as of the others, namely, that they were thoughtless combinations of the numbers stated. In the sixth, most of the pupils who failed simply multiplied or divided $1.20 by 24, disregarding the [170] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING 4 entirely; and of those who used it, many mul- tiplied 24 by 4, thus giving 96 gallons as the equivalent of 24 quarts. The typical errors were: $1.20 X 24 = $28.80; $1.20 -^ 24 = $5 ; 24 X 4 X 1.20 = $115.20; and 24 ^ 1.20 = .20. The difficulty seemed to lie in the fact that the question contained two distinct terms, "quarts" and "gallons," and that a conversion from one into the other was required before proceeding. If the ques- tion had been stated in two parts — (1) How many gallons are 24 quarts.? and (2) If one gallon of cream costs $1.20, how much will 6 gallons cost.? — there is no doubt that most of the children would have performed the example correctly. In the seventh example the variations in the an- swers were endless. In this problem, also, two dis- tinct terms are stated, a "hundred" and "apiece," and it is necessary to convert before proceeding. Thus, again, the question would, undoubtedly, have been very well handled if it had been presented in two parts: (1) If a boy sells papers at 4 cents apiece, how much will he get for 100? and (2) If a boy buys 100 papers for $2.83 and sells them for $4, how much money does he make.? The typical errors in this problem were two in number : $2.83 X 4 = $11.32; and $2.83 -^ 4 = .70|. Among the others the following are interesting: 2.83 + 4 = 2.87; 2.83-4 = 2.79; 2.83X4 = 11.32- 100 = .11; 100X4 = 4.00; 2.83-4.00 = .83 ; 2.83 X 4 = 11.32 -^ 4 = 2.83. Here the pupil added: *'The boy did not make anjrthing. " [171] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION In a sixth year class, where the pupils had evi- dently had a thorough drill in decimals, the follow- ing remarkable process was found in two instances: 2.83 -^ 100 = .283 X. 04 = .01132. 2.830000 - .01132 = 2.828886 gain. Other methods in the same class were: 283X100 = 28,300 + 400 = 828,700 gain. 283 X 100 = 283.00-4.00 = $279.00. 283-^4 = 70.75. 2.83X4 = 11.32- 1.00 = . 32. 100X4 = 4.00^2.83=1.17 + 100 = 2.17. It would be interesting to know what the mathe- matical ideals in this class really are. The second class of errors, those occurring in problems worked upon correct principles and due to lack of judgment in performing the various steps, are particularly frequent in problems involving deci- mals. The errors are here made in the placing of the decimal point, and are due to the fact that, in pointing off, the pupils do not exercise any judg- ment, but simply trust to luck or their knowledge of the rule. They do not seem to recognize that a blunder in placing the decimal point is liable to make the answer ridiculous, it matters not how care- fully the problem may have been performed in every other way. The first problem in which considerable scope is given for errors of this nature is example 7, grade 5. The correct answer is $1,263; but, by reason of the displacement of the decimal point, many of the pupils obtained $12.63 for the answer. Owing [172] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING to the nature of the problem, this answer is not on its face ridiculous. It is, however, based on a suc- cession of ridiculous blunders, to wit: 900 barrels of flour at $9 a barrel = $81.00, etc. In the fifth year this error is pardonable, but in the sixth, where the problem is repeated, it should he rare. While in this particular problem the placing of the decimal point in the wrong position did not produce an absurd answer, the reverse is true of problem 6, grade 6. The question is one in division of decimals, and the answer is this : To obtain 3,896 pounds of salt from salt water containing 8 per cent of salt, it is necessary to evaporate 48,700 pounds of the salt water. Those who saw that it was a problem in division of decimals obtained the figures 48,700 without any difficulty; but the plac- ing of the decimal point where it did not belong made the answer absolutely ridiculous. The an- swers varied from 48,700 pounds to 4.87 pounds. The statement that it is possible to obtain 3,896 pounds of salt from 487 pounds of salt water was made by a large number of pupils, even in the 7th and 8th grades, where the example was repeated, and not a few said that that amount of salt could be obtained from 4.87 pounds of water. The ridiculous answers to this problem so late in school life illustrate a weakness in the teaching of arithmetic which seems to be responsible for a large number of blunders in all the grades, namely, the failure to train pupils to .see that a problem in arithmetic is a question which calls for a reasonable answer. If. the pupils were everywhere trained to [ 173 ] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION scrutinize their answers in the light of the ques- tions, it is probable that many errors of the first class would also be avoided, and that answers stat- ing that the number of children in the New York schools is 102|^y, and similar absurdities, would be much less frequent than now. For errors of the second class many teachers are to a certain extent directly responsible, because they believe that a child should receive some credit for a problem if he shows a knowledge of the principles involved. This is, in my opinion, justifiable if a wrong answer should be due to a mechanical error, such as any one is liable to make, in addition, sub- traction, multiplication, or division. But I believe that it is an injustice to the child to give him any credit for a problem when, in the light of the ques- tion, the answer is absurd. An interesting phase in the study of errors is found in the problems that are misinterpreted. Er- rors of this nature very frequently occur in problems in which fractions are involved. For example : Prob- lem 8, grade 5, reads as follows : Frank had $3.08. He spent 1,4 of it for a cap, l^ of it for a ball, and with the remainder bought a book. How much did the book cost? Here many of the pupils looked upon J and j as abstract fractions, not as parts of $3.08, and worked the problem as f ol lows : i + y = ii- 308 -^ = 307f|-, cost of the book, Again, problem 8, grade 6, repeated in grades 7 and 8, reads thus : [174] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING A gentleman gave away i/i of the books in his library, lent Yq of the remainder, and sold y^ of what was left. He then had 420 books remaining. How many had he at first? This problem was treated in many instances in the same way as the one just cited; the fractions being looked upon as purely abstract. The following is an illustration : i + i + i = iU- 420 + ^^^ = 420^^ books at first. But in this problem a class of errors appeared which I was astonished to find among pupils who had long since completed fractions. It is this, that while, in nearly all instances, the pupils under- stood the manipulation of fractions, many had no idea of their value. Nearly all were apparently able to add y, ^, and -g-, and get the sum ^TS"- -^^^ ^^ adding this fraction to 420, a considerable variety in method was found. Some took the numerator as a whole number, thus: 420+107 = 527 books; others so took the denominator: 420 + 210 = 630 books. And some added the denominator to the numerator: 210 + 107 = 317. 420 + 317 = 737 books. The very low percentages obtained in the seventh and eighth grades of most of the schools examined were due in large part to errors of the fourth class, namely, those arising from a lack of knowledge of the principles involved in the problems. This means nothing more or less than a want of thoroughness in the teaching of the higher grade arithmetic. In some instances, it is true, the pupils did not have the needed insight to see what the problems called for ; but in others they did not know how to proceed when they knew what steps were required. Let us take, for example, problem 4, grade 7: [175] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION If coffee sold at 33 cents a pound gives a profit of 10 per cent, what per cent of profit would there be if it were sold at 36 cents a pound? This problem involves the application of two dis- tinct principles in percentage. The first step lies, of course, in finding the cost, and the second in finding what per cent of 30 is 6, the intermediate step being disregarded. The average obtained on this problem in City VII being only 12.1 per cent, it might be supposed that the principles involved were too difficult for seventh-year pupils to com- prehend; but this idea is proved to be erroneous by the fact that in City III, School 1, the average was as high as 96.6. On looking over the work done upon this example in one of the class-rooms of City VII — a seventh- year class, second half — it was impossible for me to tell what impression the question actually made upon the children. Among the first ten pupils, tak- ing the papers as they came to hand, one only did the first step correctly, and found the cost. The work of some of the others was absolutely mean- ingless, as the following illustrations will show: 36 -^ 33 = lOff^— three cases. 36 -100 = .36 gain. .1000-^36 = 27^ profit. 100-36 = 74. 100-33 = 67. 74-67 = . 110 cost, etc. It might be argued that the principles of per- centage involved are not taught in the seventh grade of all schools, and that the problems would have been more generally suitable for the eighth [176] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING grade. But this criticism does not help out City VII, because the pupils in the eighth grade of that city made no better showing than those in the sev- enth on problems based upon similar principles. Problem 6, grade 8, reads: Sold steel at $27.60 a ton, with a profit of 15 per cent, and a total profit of $184.50. What quantity was sold? On this example the average of City VII was 5.1 per cent only, against an average of 88.5 per cent, obtained in City III, School 1. Among the first ten pupils selected at random, in an eighth-year class, not one understood that it was necessary, in the first place, to find the cost of a ton of steel. Four computed the profit by taking 15 per cent of the selling price; three found the number of tons sold by dividing the selling price per ton by .15; two simply made absurd combina- tions ; and the tenth did not attempt to do the problem. Having found so much difficulty with the sixth problem, it is not surprising that they failed on the seventh. In that problem, as in the other, not one of the same ten pupils attempted to get at the cost. The profit was given as 20 per cent of the selling price; the loss as 10 per cent of the selling price; and their difference represented the answer. The data having been presented, it may not be inopportune to inquire, in closing, whether our store of positive knowledge has been in any way enriched by the test. Upon this point opinions differ. A certain number of educators claim that positive [177] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION knowledge docs not come within the scope of peda-i gogy, and from their standpoint all tests must neces- sarily be fruitless. On the opposite side, a number of school men may be found who are not only in accord with the method, but believe that at least some of my deductions are conclusive. And, thirdly, there are members of the profession who are heartily in sympathy with the method, but think that more extended investigations are needed before any posi- tive deductions are warranted. While I believe that these people are not altogether right, I also appre- ciate that they are not entirely wrong. Many of the things I have said or implied may be justly put down as "not proven." But, on the other hand, some of my data point to conclusions so positive that further investigation can neither strengthen nor weaken them. Of these, I shall here mention one only, namely : By reason of the high percentages obtained in certain schools, laboring under ordinary conditions, we must accept as a fact that nearly all children can be trained to solve any ordinary problem in arithmetic, based upon principles they have studied. Consequently, if the normal child is not reasonably proficient in that branch, as far as he has advanced in it, the fault is not his. Naturally, my explanations as to why some schools succeed and others fail represent merely my personal interpretation of the facts and figures. Others may interpret these differently, and further investigations may upset my explanations. Rome was not built in a day. But as long as it has been positively demonstrated that the child's capacity [178] TALENT VS. TRAINING IN TEACHING for arithmetic is considerable, all principals and su- perintendents should deem it their duty to take steps to learn whether the pupils in their charge are skille(l in arithmetic to the extent of their normal capacity, and, if not, to try to discover the reason therefor. [179] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE ^ The test in language on which this article is based was made in April and May, 1903. The examination was undertaken in twenty- two school buildings, rep- resenting nine cities, and the total number of chil- dren examined was over 8,300. As in arithmetic, so in language, the results have varied enormously, with this difference only, that in language the per- centages have run considerably lower. The exam- ination was again given to the pupils of the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth school years, being, in this instance, however, the same for all the grades. The test consisted merely of the reproduction of a story read to the pupils by the teachers.^ As the work was sprung upon the children without any previous preparation, and the first draft only was accepted, the test was naturally a very severe one; but what was fair for one was fair to all. All the tests whose results I shall publish were, as in arith- metic, taken under my personal supervision. In a few cases the story was sent by request to schools that I did not reach, and the work of the pupils ^ October-December, 1903. * The story — an account of Pestalozzi's school at Stanz — will be found on page 213. [180] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE was forwarded to me; but these schools are not in- cluded in the table of results (page 189). Owing to the courtesy of the school people whom I had the good fortune to approach, the collection of the papers proved to be a comparatively simple affair; but it was not an easy matter for me to decide what to do with the material after it had been snugly deposited in my workshop. The value of my tests depends, of course, upon a trustworthy comparison of the results obtained in different schools, which implies a system of marking that is truly representative of the work of each individual set of papers. In spelling, naturally, the marking is no problem whatever. A word is either right or wrong, and the computing of the class average is a purely mechanical affair. In arithmetic, also, the marking is a comparatively simple matter ; although, in that subject, the question of partial credits serves, to a certain extent, to complicate the situation. Nor is it difficult to work out class averages in language when the test in that branch consists of a series of technical questions, to each of which a certain number of credits is allotted. But my ex- amination was limited to a test of the pupil's ability to express his thoughts in writing, a phase of work that apparently does not permit of marking on a percentage basis — certainly the most intelligible one. But after experimenting for some time in one way and another, there suddenly flashed before my mind a scheme that might make the percentage sys- tem feasible; and, to my surprise and gratification, I found, on trial, that it did not only work like a [181] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION charm, but that it possessed the merit of such re- markable speed that it would give me the oppor- tunity to mark personally, within a reasonable pe- riod, every one of the 8,300 papers in my possession ; thus insuring a degree of uniformity in criticism that could not have been expected if the papers had been distributed for marking among a number of clerical assistants. In regard to speed, I may mention that I found no difficulty whatever in mark- ing some of the papers at the rate of sixty to seventy an hour. When I had completed the marking, I began to fear that after all I might have followed a flight of imagination, and that my plan would not stand the test of close inspection. I therefore decided to be on the safe side and go over the work a second time for the purpose of verification. And this I did in the case of all the papers of the sixth, seventh, and eighth school years ; but I did not have time to revise the fourth and fifth year marks before the article went to press. As a result of the second marking, the absolute figures were slightly changed, but the relative position of the schools remained practically the same. For this reason, I feel satis- fied that the percentages really represent, for all practical purposes, what the work of the respective classes was worth from a comparative point of view. It might be supposed that in marking for ex- pression, the judgment of the individual examiner would necessarily enter as an important factor. That the personal equation does play a part in the work cannot be denied; but it is no less true that, [182] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE for our purposes, it is comparatively insignificant. While, in spite of my experience, I could not even now mark a set of papers twice in the same way, nevertheless, this much is certain, that the class average on the two markings would not vary suffi- ciently to make any material difference. For ex- ample, a set of eighth year papers, to make a re- spectable showing, will have to average not less than 50 per cent. Now, if I should mark an eighth year set and the average should turn out to be 30 per cent, it would be positive proof that the work of that class was poor. If, for the sake of verifica- tion, I should then go over the set again, either immediately or at a later period, I might work out a class average of 35 per cent. This, however, would not in any way alter the fact that it was far below the minimum of satisfactory eighth grade work. In a word, I believe that in marking for expression the personal element may be so reduced as to be no greater than it is in marking a set of papers in arithmetic. And the differences in the results in language, as in arithmetic, are so very great that in the present stage of school work the finer distinctions are in no way called for. As I do not wish any of the above statements to be accepted on faith, I shall, in this chapter, publish a number of carefully selected papers which will not only serve the purpose of demonstrating my system of marking, but which will, at the same time, give the reader at least a little insight into the language work as found in the elementary schools. And as these papers will take up considerable space, [183] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION I shall concentrate attention upon them in the pres- ent chapter, and defer to the next the discussion of some further details. As to the plan of marking, it is certainly a very simple one. It lies merely in dividing the papers into five classes — excellent, good, fair, poor, and failure — and marking them on a scale of five; the best papers being given five credits, and the failures one. In changing these figures to percentages, the five's are given 100, the four's 75, the three's 50, the two's 25, and the one's zero. The class averages are then computed in the usual way, by dividing the total number of credits by the number of pupils represented. The examination having been a test in lan- guage, the determining point in the marking was not the thought manifested in the reproduction, but the English — sentence construction, capitaliza- tion, punctuation, paragraphing, etc. Naturally, the judgment could not help being biased, to a cer- tain extent, by the construction of the story itself; but, to allay all doubt as to the actual extent to which the story played a part in the marking, I need merely emphasize the fact that the relation between the character of the English and the con- struction of the story was, as a rule, quite close. That is to say, generally speaking, the pupils who manifested the greatest ability in sentence construc- tion, punctuation, etc., also manifested the greatest ability in the interpretation and reproduction of the story. I shall now define what I mean by the terms ex- [184] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE cellent, good, fair, poor, and failure, and then illus- trate my definitions by the children's work. Beginning at the upper end, I may say that the mark 5 was not dispensed with a lavish hand, but was reserved for those papers that were not only, for the most part, accurate in English, but dis- played, in addition, an artistic touch. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising that the total number of 5s was not very large. But what is really surprising is the fact that in one set of thirty-four eighth grade papers as many as twelve were 5s, while in each of two other eighth grade sets, containing thirty-five and thirty-seven papers, respectively, as many as ten were 5s. When it is borne in mind that the first draft only was accepted, and that all possibilities of fraud were eliminated by the fact that the papers were collected and car- ried off by myself before the close of the session, the work of these classes must be looked upon as very remarkable achievements, and altogether be- yond what we might expect to find in the elementary schools. A single 5, or even two or three 5s, in a set would not necessarily speak in favor of a school, as a few individual pupils with literary taste might happen to drop into a very ordinary class. But when the work of fully one-third of a class is artistic, that of the next third strong, and the work of the last third passable, I must confess that I am tempted to jump to the conclusion that almost every pupil is capable of acquiring the art of writ- ing good English, and that the normal child is not to blame if he has not acquired the power of ex- [185] SCIENTIFIC MANAGExMENT IN EDUCATION pressing his thoughts in creditable English by the time lie graduates from the elementary school. And this conclusion is fortified by the fact that I have in my collection no less than five sets of eighth year papers where the work is acceptable almost to the last pupil. In the closing paragraph of my series of articles on arithmetic, I stated that the test had certainly proved this one thing, namely, that every normally constituted child has the ability to acquire a thorough knowledge of arithmetic, and that if he fails to do so the fault is not his ; and the same now appears to be true of language. One of the schools just referred to, and two others, teach us another important lesson. When I had published my results in arithmetic, the opin- ion was expressed by many that the schools which had made the high percentages in that subject had probably concentrated their attention on arithmetic, and that they would be likely to show lamentable weakness if they should be examined in other branches. I am now in position to say, in answer to this argument, that this theory is not borne out by the facts. Of the eighteen schools examined in arithmetic, six succeeded in obtaining the passing mark, 60 per cent ; and of these six schools four were put through my test in language. Now, it so happens that of these four schools three are among the first five of the twenty-two schools examined in language. This would appear to indicate that a successful teacher of arithmetic is also a successful teacher of language. However, the reverse of this does not seem to hold, for some of the schools that [186] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE were weak in arithmetic did very creditable work in language. Of course, the data that I have collected in regard to this point are too meagre to warrant me in drawing any definite conclusions ; but there are certainly indications to the effect that one who has the power to train comparatively dull pupils to see through complicated arithmetical problems has the power to train them thoroughly in other subjects as well. The papers that I shall now present to illustrate the different types of reproductions, from the 5s down through the Is, have all been selected from eighth year sets ; and, in the marking, I endeavored to adhere to these models, even in the lower grades. Under these circumstances, due allowance will, of course, have to be made for the handicap as we de- scend from grade to grade; and, basing our ex- pectations on actual achievement, the following standards are not unreasonable: Fourth year, 10 per cent; fifth year, 15; sixth year, 25; seventh year, 37.5 ; and eighth year, 50. Owing to the very low standards I have set for the fourth and fifth grades, I did not take these classes into account in computing the average for each school as a whole, but based the latter on the work of the sixth, seventh, and eighth school years. Thus, the passing average of a school has been placed at 37.5 ; and a glance at Table I will show that, of the twenty- two build- ings examined, seven only succeeded in meeting this demand — just the same proportion as in arithmetic. As the above figures do not convey the same meaning as do percentages in spelling or arithmetic, [187] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION because we are not here dealing with the method of right and wrong cases, it might be well to call the reader's attention to the following. Speaking in a general way, a set of papers that averages 25 per cent is composed mainly of papers marked 2 and contains a 3 for every 1. A set that averages 37.5 is composed principally of 2s and 3s and contains a 4 for every 1. A set that averages 50 is composed chiefly of 3s and contains a 4 for every 2. And a set whose percentage is 75 is made up mainly of 4s and contains a 5 for every 3. With the aid of these formulae and the typical illustrations, the reader may form a fairly accurate idea of the char- acter of a set of papers of any given percentage. The following are a few illustrations of the type of reproductions marked 5: About a hundred years ago, in far off Switzerland, there existed the little hamlet of Stanz in which were many poor people. A dreadful war had made homeless a score of little children, and it was to provide for these orphans that a school was originated. Unlike the modern ones of to-day was that little school. It consisted of one room in an old, ruined con- vent. But it was the best and only place the town afforded. Its master, a kind old man and a lover of children, had their interests at heart and desired to make good men of the boys, even though poverty so early retarded their progress. He found it diiEcult to teach the children at first, but after they discovered his feeling toward them, they did their utmost to please him. Owing to the limited space, all their time was spent in the one room. There they ate, slept, and had their lessons, for the teacher had generously undertaken to keep house for them as well as instruct them. He was constantly with them and acted as their companion, even taking part in their sports. As an amusement, he frequently told them stories after lessons were over. But it was not their privilege to remain here long. War, [188] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE I 001 s»jnmni ikjox i^oooot- t- I CO •<3< o -coao • c* ■* CD 00 i> ' O C^ 00 00 rf rH t- 00 TBJO •sapBja 8 pnw 'i '9 — eaBJ9AB lOOqDS Ticococ-oo>-^t--i-n-i •aiJBjaAB sCTio oojoocoot-OT-u>iOeio»oooi>ot-i-oo«c>-«j< •eas aatuaAv «> 05 -* 00 t> ""l^ no OS CO o t- - CO ■«*-^'as05>CCO-^C5COlCCOCC>t~''^CDi-iiO o TJt -^ CO -^ '^ -^ CO CJ CO C* Ci (M C< Ci C* T-1 C» 0» C< 0< C« 1-1 CO ^ -OSB 9»BI3Ay c*Ot-io>®o» .Q0«'i«0£-co-^oocs>eoocsaec*«oo •^ -<1< •«i' CO CO CO • CO CO -^ CO eO CO CO CO CO CO £0 CO CO CO CO 'Siidnd JO jaqninN •8^9AB SSBIO QOaO-<}'00'4T-i|>JO »Ci-*0>i*< ■ oOt- loiot-t-tooocot^c^aoooco eOCOCOCOCJC* • ■?» CO CO O OJ CO C? Oi C? OJ •sijdnd ;o jaqranN t-a0e0(N0it-O>000C0t^t-OC00*£-{>t~<©c0cDC^ •a8BjaAB SSHIO t--rHOSt-OiO>OOC-eOt~-t-iCJOOOOT-nrU>C-«OX>l> U) MxfB OjiaidAV O«0t-C4C000 •00'^«<3»1>GOOOC0-*»0 •«0>Oi-<.0 per cent: 45.0 per cent About one hundred years ago there was an old schoolhouse in a convent in Stanz, Switzerland. In this schoolhouse there was only one room, it was given as a schoolroom, sleeping- room and lunchroom for poor boys whose parents were killed during war. There was an old man who was very fond of children, and took the place as teacher and companion. At this time they were not compelled to go to school, and it was very hard to make them study. [209] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION When they were in not quite a year war broke out, and as there was no other place for the wounded soldiers the school- house was given to them, but the officer asked the teacher in a very kind manner, and the children liad to give up tlieir home they loved so well. So out of this old schoolhouse, there was a home for the wounded and dying soldiers. Middle paper from a seventh year set averaging 19.1 per cent: Once upon a time about one hundred years ago there was a war near a city named Stany, Switzerland. All the people when war broke out enlisted. After the war many fathers and mothers were killed and there were a large number of ori)hans. So the city gave the a convent were they could go to school and learn. It was give to a good kind-hearted old man who was very fond of children. It was not a very comfortable place. But it had to do be- cause the people were not very rich. After it was started and the schoolmaster put them to work they began to dislike him. But after they found out that he was doing it for their good they began to like him. In those days boys and girls do not go to school but work. So it was hard for the school-master to get them to work. In this schoolhouse the children cooked, selpt, and study all in the same room. After a while a war broke out near Stanz and a number of soldiers were killed and wounded. But those who were wounded had no place to go but to go to this little school house in Stanz. So tliis little convent was made in a hospital. Middle paper from an eighth year set averaging 75.0 per cent: About a hundred years ago there existed in Stanz, a town in Switzerland, a little school. This school was provided for a numl)er of poor boys, who had lost their fathers in a ter- rible war. The only place that could be found for this pur- [210] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE pose, was a room in an old convent. It was neither large nor comfortable as the people in Stanz were very poor, but it was the only refuge that could be had for the poor orphans. There was a kind old man, who was very fond of children and he offered to keep house and also teach the boys. As the children were not obliged to go to school in those days, the old man had a great deal of trouble to teach them. But he was very patient with them, and entered into their games, so in a short time they grew to love the old man and tried to learn their lessons, as they found it was for their own good. If we think of having school, eating our meals and sleeping in one room we must certainly think of these little boys as heroes. The school had not been kept a year yet, when an- other war broke out. There was a battle fought near Stanz and a number of wounded soldiers were brought into the town. The officer in charge could find no place of shelter for them, but the little school and sadly told the old man that it would have to be turned into a hospital; and the little orphans were forced to leave the school they had learned to love so well. Middle paper from an eighth year set averaging 22.2 per cent: About one hundred years ago in the little town of Stanz in Switzerland there lived a good many children who's fathers were killed in a war. In this town of Stanz there lived a man, (he was an old man) he said that he would take these children and teach them. As all the other people were poor he had to take them to an old Convent where they had but one room in which to eat, sleep, and have their school. The old man not only taught them but played in their games with them. But as the children did not have to go to school in those days the children of this school did not like the man becaus he said that they all had to do as he said but after a time they understood that it was for their own good and so they got to like him. But the school was not to last long becaus there was an- other war that broke out and one battle was fought near Stanz and when it was over the wounded soldiers were taken into Stanz and when it was found that there was no place but one to put them the children lost their schooling. Be- [211] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION caus the only place to make a hauspittle was the one little room in the Convent wher the children had their school. Two above middle paper of fourth year set aver- aging 22.5 per cent: About 100 years ago there existed a small school for orphan's whose parents were kill in war. The school con- sisted of one room in the Convent. It was not very com- forttabel. This school was in Stanz a city in Switzerland. An old kind man took care of these children and was thier school master. At first the children did not like there master becase he made work. But after awhile they began to see how much good it did to them. But the children did not stay even a year. Another war broke out near Stanz. The capten brought some wounded soldiers to Stanz. The only place he could keep them in, was the school in the convent. The poor boys never knew how they liked home and master till they had to leave the home. The captain came to the old man and asked if he could have the school. So the school was turned into a Hospital for the wounded Soldiers. Two below middle paper of eighth year set aver- aging 22.2 per cent : About one hundred years ago in the town of Stanz there were alot of poor boys who had neither mother nor father. They had lost them in war. Now it came about that these poor boys should have a school. So in the town of Stanz there was a convent and it only had one room in it. Well the peo- ple thought that this room would do becaus the people them- selves were very poor. This class room was neither larg nor comfortable but any- way the people were even glad for this. The man who had charge of the school was an old man but he was very fond of children. He had a very hard time in teaching these children for their were never in school befor. The old man promised to teach and live with the children. He was like a father to them. They had to sleep and eat and study in the same room. [212] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE He would play with the boys at playtime so as to make them happy and was also very kind to them. It happen that children was not in this school no longer than a year when war broke out again. The war broke out right near Stanz and a battle was fought. There was quite a few soldiers wounded and the people were to poor to have a hospital. So the general seeing that the only thing to do was to go and asked to people of Stanz to let them have it. So he went and asked the old man. and he let them have it. So the only school was changed into a hospital. Original Story. A SCHOOL FOR POOR BOYS. I am going to read a short story to you, and then I shall ask you to write one of your cwn about it. About a hundred years ago, there existed, in the town of Stanz, in Switzerland, a little school. It had been opened for the purpose of giving a home to a number of very poor boys, who had lost their parents during a terrible war. The place in which the school was kept was neither large nor comfortable. It consisted of a single room in an old convent; but the people of Stanz themselves were poor, and it was the best home that they could provide for these orphans. The school was in charge of a kind old man, who was very fond of children. When it was opened, he offered to keep house for the little ones, and at the same time to be their teacher. As children were not obliged to go to school in those days, the teacher had a great deal of trouble in getting his pupils to learn. At first they did not like him, because he made them work. But as soon as they discovered that what he did was for their own good, they began to love and obey him. As only a single room had been given to them to live in, this one room had to be used for everything. In it they had their school, took their meals, and slept. The teacher was al- ways with them, and acted as their companion. He not only taught them, and helped them with their tasks, but also en- tered into their games, and often amused them by telling [ 213 ] SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT IN EDUCATION Ihcm stories. Indeed, he did everythinp; he could to make ihcrn happy and to htad them to forget how j)oor they were. Jint it so ha|)})ened that the children were not allowed to remain long uiuler this roof. Before they had been in the hous(; a y<'ar, war broke out again. One day a battle was fought near Stanz, and a nun)ber of wounded soldiers were brought into the town. Unfortunately, the officer who was in charge of them found that there was only one j)lace in which they could be sheltered. It was the school-room in the con- vent. He then came to the teacher Jind sorrowfully told him what he needed. So the school-room was turned into a hos- pital, and the poor children were obliged to give up the little home that they had learned to love so well. (The teacher may write on the board the words "Stanz"and "Switzer- land." The children in the lower Krades should be told that Switzerland is in Europe.) A discussion of the causes of the variations in the results obtained in the different schools will now be in order. The items in the table bearing upon this toj)ic are : 1. The amount of time devoted to language in the various schools; ''A. U'lie average age of the pupils in the individual grades ; and f3. The nationality and environment of the pupils. 1. As to time, the figures in the table are not to be accepted as final. They were computed from replies to printed questions distributed to the teach- ers after the test was taken, and are subject to revision upon closer study. But taking them tem- porarily just as tliey are — and we shall not go very far wrong })y doing so — we find, as in spelling and arithmetic, that there is no direct relation between time and results, that superior results cannot be [214] THE RESULTS OF A TEST IN LANGUAGE attributed to unusual pressure, or inferior results to lack of pressure. As the figures speak for them- selves, it will not be necessary for me to dilate upon this point ; and I merely wish to add here that as long as the same principle appears to apply to all branches investigated, we may now safely accept the proposition that if reasonable results do not follow upon a reasonable appropriation of time, the fault lies in the teaching and not in the time-table. In spelling, the time limit within which reasonable results may be expected was fixed by my data at fifteen minutes daily, and in arithmetic at forty-five minutes. In deciding upon a time limit in language, it will be necessary to consider both oral and written work ; and as the whole question borders very closely upon that of methods and devices, I shall defer its discussion to the next chapter. 2. In studying the relation of age to results in lan- guage, we find, on looking at the general averages, that, as might naturally be expected, the results rise invariably from one grade to the next. How- ever, it will be seen that the ascent is by no means a regular one. From the fourth grade to the fifth, the advance is from 6.8 to 12.2, or 5.4 per cent; between the fifth and the sixth, the rise is from 12.2 to 23.2, or 11.0 per cent; between the sixth and the seventh, it is from 23.2 to 30.6, or 7.4 per cent; and between the seventh and the eighth, it is from 30.6 to 47.0, or 16.4 per cent. These figures look innocent enough, but I have never seen so many suggestive points crowded into so small a compass. For example, a general average of 6 [215] SCN'lN'ril'IC MANA(n<:MKNT IN EDUCATION per cent in I lie loiirtJi grade, 12 in the fiftli, und ''Zli in ilie .sixth Kuggc.st,s tfie .sending of a relief ex- pcdilion in search of iFie innuniils are tlie youngest.^ 1 answer, emj)fiatica,lly : By no THE iti':s[;i/rs of a tkst in ].an(;[ja(;k rrK'uns. 'llw pupils of any ^ivcn {j;ni(U' must, fic judged \)y ilw. standarcJs oi' Uiat, ^rarJc ; ancJ if tficy cannot compete; witfi ofiicrs on ific sarrif,' hasis, t.ficy fJo nof, lulon^ wfjcrc tficy urc Tficrc would fx- no art in d(;visin^ a Kystcrn of promotion wlicrchy IIk; pupils, as a class, would he cnahlcri to ^rafiu;i.t(; from tfif grammar school even at tlic age of twelve. IJut woulfJ they tli(;n he /:^ramrnar school gracJuates in tfic true sr:ns(; of tfie woni, or would they merely \)c f>rimary school gr;j.(Juates f>earing a gramm;ji.r- school lahel? *i. In n^riird to ruitiorKility ji.nd environment, 1 d(.'sire to exf>Iain th;i.t the fi/rures in the column rcf)n;s(rnting tfie percenta/^e of Am(;ri<;an f)arentagc do not exhaust my data on tlx; subject, but are- in- tendefJ to be merely suggestive. Knowing tfic stress tfiat is generally laid uf)on tfiesc factors in consid- ering results in langu;ig<-, I have mad(,* a ratfier close inquiry in rc^urd to their different pliases, and shall publish tfi<; d(,'tails later. S[>eaking not only from the fig-ures in '^J'n.ble I, }>ut also from other fJat;i, ariri from my personal knowlerJge of i\u^ schor)ls, my conclusion is tfiat horrx; c;nvironment is somewliat of a factor in the matter of written lOnglisfj, but f>y no means as important a onv. as it is g(;nerally suf)):)osed to be. In its favor, I am able; to say tfiat in six of th(^ seven sf;hools tfiat have been classefJ as satisfactory, tfie cfiild ren are largely from American homes;' and, of tfjr;se [' 'I'he fi^riints for tli