.tfS&G&Q TZZ£3 SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. This series of Books for Teachers began with the issue in 1875 of Common School Law for Common School Teachers. Within six years more than one hundred books were issued, with an aggregate sale exceeding three hundred thousand copies. That no teacher's library is fairly complete without at least several of these books is com- monly admitted, and the titles of some of the more important are hereto appended, those most recently published being in CAPITALS. Besides his own publications, the undersigned deals largely in all Teacher's Supplies. He makes a specialty of works on Pedagogy; in other words, of works intended for the use of Teachers, as distin- guished from Educational Text-Books. His catalogue of over 400 such works will be sent for two three-cent stamps; and he will endeavor to fill promptly and cheaply orders for any American or English publications of this character, it is his intention to keep constantly in stock every reputable pedagogical book now published; and he also keeps close watch of auction sales, both in this country and abroad, in order to secure such works as are now "out of print." but which have present or historical value. Correspondence is solicited, •and will receive attention. C. "W. BARDEEN, Syracuse, N. Y. Agalite SL new rece deen. 11 POST-R satisfacti To cover 103 feet: 200 feet, 400 feet. Aids to Sc Checks, ! LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Shelf___S_:±_ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. m entirely W. Bar- n tin boxes ed to give 00 75 25 00 icates, 120 Per box.. Supplied separately, per hunttrett, iiall Merits, 10 cts; Cards, 15 cts; Checks, 40 cts; Certificates, 50 cts. Alden (Joseph) First Principles of Political Economy. Cloth, 16 mo. , pp. 153. Bradford (W. H.) The Thirty Possible Problems of Percentage. embracing a full and exhaustive discussion of the theory of General Percentage, with one hundred illustrative examples. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Flexible Cloth, 16mo., PP. 34 JBeebe (Levi N.) First Steps among Figures. A Drill Book in the Fundamental Rules of Arithmetic, based upon the Orube Meth- od. Teacher's Edition. Cloth, 16mo. , pp. 326 Pupil's Edition. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 143 Buckham (Henry B.) HANDBOOKS FOR YOUNG TEACH- ERS. No 1, FIRST STEPS. Cloth, 24 mo., pp. 152 No. 2, Lessons and Discipline. In preparation. 1 25 75 25 00 45 75 Bardeen (C. W.) Common School Law. A digest of statute and common law as to the relations of the Teacher to the Pupil, the Parent, and the District. With 400 references to legal decisions in 21 different states. To which are added the 1400 questions given at the first seven New York Examina- tions for State Certificates. 7th thousand. Cloth, 12mo., pp. 188 and Appendix... _ _ _ 50 Roderick Hume. The story of a New York Teacher. Cloth, 16mo., pp. 295 1 25 Bulletin Blank Speller. Designed by Principal H. B. Buckham, Buffalo Normal School. Boards, 5fx7£, round corners, pp. 40 15 Book-Keeping Blaiiks. Day-Book, Journal, Ledger, Cash Book, Sales Book. In sets or singly. Press board, 7x8£, pp. 28 15 Composition Book. Designed bv Principal H. B. Buckham, Buffalo Normal School. Manilla, 7x9, pp. 34 15 Class Register. Designed by Edward Smith, Superintendent of Schools, - Syracuse, N. Y. Press board covers, Two Sizes, (a) 6x7, for terms of twenty weeks, (b) 5x7, for terms of fourteen weeks. When not otherwise specified the smaller size is always sent. Pp.48 _ 25 School Ruler, marked on one side by inches and metres, and containing on the back an immense amount of condensed sta- tistical information. Two Styles, (a) Manilla, 12 inch, (b) Card- board, 6 inch. Each 3 cts. Per hundred 1 00 Colored Crayon, for Blackboard, per box of one dozen, nine different colors — Red, orange, yellow, green, lake, brown, light brown, blue, lilac 25 Common Scliool Thernionieter, in box, post-paid 50 Cooke (Sidney G.) Politics and Schools. Paper, 8vo., pp. 23 25 Craig" (Asa H.) The Question Book. A general review of Com- mon School Studies, to be used in schools in connexion with text-books. Invaluable to teachers as a means of giving a Normal Training. 42d Thousand. Cloth, 12nv\ : pp. 340.1.. 1 50 De Graff (E. V.) PRACTICAL PKOEICS. A comprehensive study of Pronunciation, forming a complete guide to thelftudy of the elementary sounds of the English Language, and con- taining 3000 words of difficult pronunciation,"with diacritical marks according to Webster's Dictionary. Cloth, 12mo., pp.. 108 75 POCKET PRONUNCIATION BOOK, containing the 3000 words of difficult pronunciation, with diacritical marks accord- ing to Webster's Dictionary. Manilla, 16mo., pp. 47 15 Ihe School Room Guide, embodying the instruction given by the author at Teachers' Institutes in New York and other States, and especially intended to assist Public School Teach- ers in the practical work of the school room. Tenth Edition, with many additions and corrections. Cloth, 12mo., pp. 449. . 1 50 — The Song Budget. A collection of Songs and Music for schools and educational gatherings. Paper, small 4to., pp. 72 15 — The School-Room Chorus. A collection of 200 Songs, suitable for Public and Private Schools. Boards, small 4to., pp. 147. . 35 \ V THE ADVANCED Including in one volume the Dime Question Books on General Literature, General History, Astronomy, Mythology, Rhetoric, Botany, Zoology, Chemistry, Geology, and Physios. with COMPLETE ANSWERS, NOTES, QUERIES, ETC, BY ALBERT P. SOUTH WICK. ^ y No. 3 AS. Mr (k- °£" washing^ SYRACUSE, N. Y.I C. W. JBARIDEEN, PUBLISHER, 1883. Copyright, 1888, by Albert P, Soutfawick. -■■<■■ Since 1866 the Regents of the State ef New York have held examinations three times a year in all the Academies and Academic Departments of the Union Schools, granting certifi- cates to such pupils as pass satisfactorily, and apportioning npon these certificates a large sum of money among the schools of the State. As pupils begin the study of the higher branches after passiDg this examination, the questions are made to em- brace all that is 'practical in the above branches. In all these 9,000 questions not a single unimportant or " catch " question can be found. They are now used as text-books in many of the leadiDg schools of the country. Cornell University, and most other colleges, recognizing their practical character, now admit, without any further examination upon these subjects, pupils who have passed an examination upon these questions. Students must pass these examinations before tbey are ad- mitted to Teachers' Classes in Academies, and by the new rules of the New York Court of Appeals, applicants for ex- amination or for clerkship, shall, if not college graduates, first pass one of these examinations. The following TEN EDITIONS are published : 1. The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar and Spelling, complete, with Keys to the Arithmetic, Geography and Grammar Questions, 16mo, cloth $106 t. The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar and Spelling, Complete, cloth 1.00 8. The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic, manilla, cloth back .. .95 4. Key to the same, manilla, cloth back 85 6. The same, each on slip of Card-board, in box,withkey 1.09 8. The Regents' Questions in Geography, manilla, cloth back 95 7. Key to the same, manilla, cloth back .15 8. The Regents' Questions In Grammar, manilla, cloth back.. „ 95 9. The Regents' Questions in Grammar, with Key, with references upon every point to all the leading text- books now in use, thus forming a Compabatiyb English Grammar, cloth 1.00 10. The Regents' Questions in Spelling manilla, cloth back .15 Any of the above will be sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of the prices annexed. Address, C, W. BARDEEN, Publisher, SYRACUSE, ii.V. s> LITERATURE. 1. Give a definition of Literat/wre. 2. What was the origin of Literature? Ans. — Egypt had her literature in the form of hi- eroglyphics (priestly writings). These characters — 685 in number — were the germ of an alphabet and were in part phonetic. The cuneiform, wedge-shaped or arrow-headed characters of the Babylonians and Assyrians were not truly phonetic. "It was reserved for the Phoenicians to adopt the apparently simple, yet ingenious and beauti- ful, device of determining the few elementary sounds of language and appropriating one distinctive character to represent each sound." Note.— The Hindoos had a voluminous literature containing the three Vedas— supposed to have heen written about 4,000 years ago—; the Persians, the Zendervester (or Zend Avesta) of Zoroas- ter and other writings. The Old Testament is an example of the Hebrew Literature. Query.— What are the " Seven Bibles " of the world? What was the " Rosetta Stone "? Who was Firdousi? 8. What is the history of the alphabet? Ans. —The Greeks derived their alphabet from the Phoenicians. The Romans adopted the Greek, and the Roman alphabet is the basis of our modern ones. Pliny states that " Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phce- 6 Dime Question Books. nicia into Greece, to which Palamedes, in the time of the Trojan war, added four more, and Simonides afterwards added four." Note.— The origin of languages, like that of natlons4s frequently lost in the darkness that shrouds primitive history. Modern schol- ars have proved that Cadmus is a mere fabled name signifying " the East." Still the transition from the Phoenician to the Greek may be readily seen by examining their alphabets. 4. What were the first forms of literary art? Ans. — The Greek Literature. The oldest poems (poetry preceded prose) are the epics of Homer, — 880 B. C, — the Iliad (from Ilium, the name of Troy,) and the Odyssey. The Iliad is a history of the Trojan war, and the Odyssey de- scribes the adventures of Ulysses, King of Ithaca, after the fall of Troy. Note.— Read Pope's or Bryant's translation. Query.— Who was Penelope ? What is an epic poem ? What English scholars have written on the authorship of Homer? Ans.— Barnes, Gladstone, and Blackie. Professor Joshua Barnes, of the University of Cambridge, England, in the reign of Queen Anne, who edited Homer, Anacreon, and Euripedes, wrote a poem to prove that Solomon was the author of the Iliad. His object was to raise money to publish his Homer. 5. What works constitute the " Bible of the Greeks"? Ans. — The writings of Homer and Hesiod (who lived about 789 B. C), because they put in writing the belief about the gods. The writings of Hesiod are the " TJieogo- ny" and " Works and Days." Query.— When was the " Legendary Age " ? 6. What writers were of later origin ? LlTEBATUliE. 7 Ans. — TyrtSBus — a lame school-master at Athens (720 B. C.) wrote elegies — whose stirring songs had a great in- fluence in the Messenian war. Also Simonides of Ceos. Sappho, Alcssus, Anacreon, and Pindar (522 B. C.) are the most famous names in lyric poetry. The drama, during the age of Pericles (469-399 B. C), was distinguished by Such names as Aeschylus. Sophocles, and Euripedes, in tragedy, and Aristophanes, Phrynicus, and Menander, in comedy. Note.— The writings of Euripedes are Hecuha, Orestes, Me- dea, Alcestis, Bacciiw, Ion, Andromache, Suppliants, Iphigenia in Taurus, Hercules Furens, Cyclops, etc., etc. Those of Aristopha- nes are AcJiamians, Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Frogs, Peace and Birds, Jjysistrate, etc. Aeschylus was killed hy the descent ef a tortoise, which an eagle let fall on his bald pate, mistaking it for a rock. Query.— What is the fable of Cymon and Iphigenia ? 7. Who was Herodotus ? Ans. — The celebrated Greek historian, styled "The Father of History," born in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor, about 484 B. C, and is supposed to have died in Thurii, Italy, about 420 B. C. He is said to have been exiled from Halicarnassus by the tyrant Lygdamis, and travelled in Greece, Africa, Asia, and Europe, noting the manners and customs of the people whom he visited, the scenery, cities, temples, etc. He returned to Halicarnassus about 455, and assisted in expelling Lygdamis. He removed soon after to Athens, and occupied himself with the composition of his great work, which is comprised in nine books. Its principal subject is the internal struggles of the Greeks, but he has introduced narratives of the histories of the Per- sians, Medes, Egyptians, and other peoples. He is consid- ered the most reliable of all ancient historians, the only drawback being his undue love for the marvelous. When S Dime Question Books. he writes fr< m his own observation, he is truthful and ac- curate. His style is elegant and harmonious, and his book is prized as a rare composition as well as a history. Note.— Information in regard to Egypt was, until the present century, derh ed chiefly from Herodotus, from some fragments of a history written in Greek by Manetho, an Egyptian priest, in the third century, B. C, and from the writings of Diodorus Siculus, who lived in the first century. Query. -What were the results of the excavations of Dr. Bchliemann (1869-73) on the site of Troy ? 8. Name the other Grecian Historians. Ans.— Thucydides, (born 471 B. C); Xenophon, (born 441 B. C); Polybius, (born second century B. 0.), and Plutarch, (second century A. D.) Note.— Thucydides wrote the Peloponnesian War. Xeno- phon, the Anabasis, Memorabili, Gycropc&dia (education of Cyrus), Hellenics, and minor works. Plutarch's ;< IAves " are called the Bible of Heroisms. Query.— What is the origin of the expression "He's a brick"? Ans.— Very few of the thousands who use this slang term know its origin or its primitive significance, according to which it is a grand thing to say of a man, "He is a brick! " The word used in its original intent implies all that is brave, patriotic, and loyal. Plu- tarch in his life of Agesilaus, King of Sparta, gives us the meaning of the quaint and familiar expression : On a certain occasion an ambassador from Epirus, on a diplomatic mission, was shown by the king over his capital. The ambassador knew of the monarch's fame— knew that, though nominally only king of Sparta, he was ruler of Greece— and he had looked to see massive walls rearing aloft their embattled towers for the defence of tbe city, but he found nothing of the land. He marvelled much at this, and spoke of it to the king. " Sire," he said, "I have visited most of the principal towns, and I find no walls reared for defence. Why is this? " " Indeed, Sir Ambas- sador," replied Agesilaus, " thou can'st not have looked carefully. Oome with me to-morrow morning and I will show you the walls of Sparta." Accordingly, on the followiug morning, the king led LlTERATH&E, 9 Ms guest out upon the plaiu where his army was drawn up in full array, and, pointing proudly to the patriot host, he said t " There thou beholdest the walls of Sparta— ten thousand men, and every man a brick." 9. Who were the Grecian philosophers? Ans. — Thales, who lived in the sixth century B, C, the founder of the Ionic school; Pythagoras, who belonged to the same century, and established the Pythagorean school; Socrates, (469-399 B. C.) who did not teach any especial system of philosophy, but was engaged in breaking down prejudices and exposing fallacies; Plato, (429-347 B. O.) the founder of the Academic school, and Aristotle (384-322 B. C.) the originator of the Peripatetic school, in the Lyceum at Athens. Query.— Who were the " Seven Wise Men "? Who established the deductive system of reasoning? Who is the " father " of the in- ductive system? 10. By whom was oratouy practiced ? Ans. — Solon, Pisistratus, Miltiades, Aristides, Themis- tocles, Protagoras, Pericles, Aeschines, and Demosthenes. Note.— The teachings of her philosophers, and the orations of her statesmen form a prominent feature in the literature of Greece. Plato's works remain in the form of his " DialoguM.'' Demosthenes' " Orations " are published in five volumes. Quer y — What was tbe ; ' Phillipic "? How was Demosthenes cured of stammering? 11. What are the four fine arts ? Ans. — Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, and Music. The three classic forms of architecture are the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian. Sculpture and painting were highly cultivated among the Greeks, the former by 10 Dime Question Books. Phidias and Praxitiles; the latter by Parrhasius, Zeuxis, and Appelles. Note.— Pliny 's anecdote of the contest between Parrhasius and Zeuxis will serve to illustrate the excellence to which these artists had attained. Zeuxis painted a cluster of grapesi. Upon their exhibition, the birds were deceived, and flew at them as if they were real ; whereupon the painter boasted of his success'. His rival, Parrhasius, not to be outdone, determined to deceive Zeuxis himself. One day he introduced the painter of the grapes to his studio, where was the picture which was to excel what Zeuxis had done. " Draw aside the curtain," said Zeuxis, " that we may see the painting." The curtain itself was the picture, and the painter of it was declared the greatest, beeause he had deceived the man who had deceived the birds. Query.— What is lyric poetry ? What are some of the depart- ments of literature for which Greece was famous f Name some prominent writer in eacn department. 12. When was the beginning of Roman litera- ture? Ans.— The early history of Rome is given in an un- broken narrative by the Roman writers, but these romantic legends can no longer be regarded as real. The records of the early days of Rome are known to have been destroyed when the city was burned by the Gauls (890 B. C); and Livy, the earliest writer on Roman affairs whose works have come down to us, wrote 750 years after the founda- tion of the city, or about the time of the Christian era. About the commencement of the second century before Christ, we have the beginning of that Latin literature which we still read. Ennius was the father of Roman poetry; Platjtus, his contemporary, was a man of rich poetic genius; the elder Cato was the first prose writer of note; while Terence was the most famous of the comic poets. 13. "What was the "Golden Age" of literature? LlTEEATUEE. 11 Ans.— The Reign of Augustus, 27 B. C. to 14 A. D. Horace, Virgil, and all the most celebrated Latin poets and scholars were his friends. Among these were Ovid, author of the Metamorphoses, Heroides, Art of Love, etc. ; Cornelius Nepos, the biographer ; Titus Liyius (Livy), the great historian of Rome ; and Sallust, the his- torian of the Jugurthine War and the conspiracy of Catiline. Note.— Among other distinguished writers of this age or the times immediately preceding it are Lucretius ; Catullus, " author of lyrics tliat are among the sweetest and most poetic things in the Latin language " ; Martial, the writer of epigrams ; Pliny, the writer on natural history (killed, 79 A. D., hy the great eruption from Vesuvius, which buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum) ; Juvenal, the satirist; and Tacitus, the histo- rian, during the " last days of Rome." 14. What is the Aeneid ? Am — An epic poem by Virgil, author of the Georgics, Bucolics etc., which relates the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, who flees from burning Troy (see Homer's Iliad), and, after years of wandering, lands in Italy and founds a city. Note.— Horace, who was a witty and vivacious song- writer, Is the author of many poems, odes, satires, and epistles. Tacitus wrote The Annals, The History, The Germania, and Agricola. Query.— Wherein does Poetry differ from Prose? What are the chief departments of Roman literature? Name a prominent au- thor in each department 15. Before the "Dark Ages" what books were written ? Am — Following the decline of Rome were the "Dark Ages "—extending from the fifth to the fifteenth century — which were unproductive of real literature, but immedi- 12 Dime Qitestion Books. ately preceding them there arose a set of theological writ- ers both in Greek and Latin, who are known collectively as the " Christian Fathers." Among the most famous of these are:— Tertullian, born at Carthage 160, who was the first of the Latin writers of the church. His chief work " Apo- logy for Christians," 'was written about 198. Origen, born in Egypt 185, was the editor and com- mentator of the Scriptures and wrote in Greek. Cyprian, who was Archbishop of Carthage in the mid- dle of the third century, wrote " Unity of the Church" and suffered martrydom under Valerain. Ambrose, born 340 in Gaul, was Archbishop of Milan. His chief work is "Be Officis." Athanasius, born in Alexandria, end of the third cen- tury. Gregory Nazianzen, born early in the fourth century in Cappadocia,— for a while Patriarch of Constantinople— noted as a writer of theology and religious poetry. Jerome, born in 340 in Dalmatia. He was especially learned in Hebrew, was the founder of monasticism. and his chief work is a translation of the Bible into Latin (known as the " Vulgate," a version for the common peo- ple: — from vulgus.) Augustine, born in Numidia, in Africa, 354. He was Bishop of Hippo in Africa, was called the father of Latin Theology and his chief works are " On the Grace of Christ" "Original Sin," "City of God" and "Confessions," (an autobiography). Chrysostom, (Gold-mouth, from his eloquence), was bora the same year at Antioch. Like Gregory he was also Patriarch of Constantinople. His works are written in Greek. Notk.— These dates are all A. D, 16. When was the u Revival of Learning " ? Ans. — A new literature began to spring up in French, Spanish, Italian, and German about the time of the cru- sades (1096-1192), The first language to develop a new literature was the Romance of Southern France. The romance languages are the French, Spanish, and Italian. "While Europe however was sunk in the grossest ignorance, the Saracens were actively engaged in the cultivation of science, learning, and the arts. "The schools of Cordova vied with those of Bagdad in the collection of books and the encouragement of science, and from them proceeded nearly all that was original in the medicine, physics, and metaphysics of Europe during the middle ages." Note.— Even Charlemagne (742-814) was a great patron of learning and learned men. Fond of literary pursuits, lie pursued the whole range of mental science. The Middle Ages were not as dark as the name indicates. Query.— What are palimpsests? Who were the "Venerable Bede " and Alcuin ? 17. What Universities were founded ? Ans. — The University of Oxford in England is said to have been founded by King Alfred (ninth century), but it was not a flourishing seat of learning till the eleventh century. In the year 1201, it contained 3,000 scholars. The University of Paris became famous at the beginning of the twelfth century, under the teachings of Abelakd. The University of Bologna had a roll of 1,000 students in the twelfth century; while the University of Paris, in the fifteenth century, numbered 25,000 students. Cambridge was founded in the thirteenth century. The earliest Ger- man university was that of Prague, established in 1350. Note.— In the eleventh and twelfth centuries was the rise of the new " scholastic philosophy," the chief feature of which was 14 Dime Question Books. the application of the art of dialectics to subtle questions of meta- physics and theology, made famous by such Schoolmen as Aquinas, Scotus, Eoscelin, Anselm, and Peter Lombard. One of the ques- tions discussed with great interest was "How many angels can stand on the point of a needle ? " 18. Who were Roger Bacon and Albertus Magnus ? Ans— Bacon was an English monk who with Magnus began to investigate mathematical and scientific questions, in the thirteenth century. They made wonderful advances in tru 2 knowledge, but each had to pay the penalty of being in advance of his age, for they were both punished as ma- gicians. 19. "When was the beginning of Modern Lit- erature ? Ans. — A native literature had begun to spring up in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The principal speci- mens are the German collection known as the Nibelungen Lied, the Spanish romance of the Gid, and the cycle of poetry relating to the British Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. The real beginnings of our modern literature are the works of Dante, 1265-1321, and Chau- cer, 1328-1400. Note.— Read Longfellow's translation of Dante's Divina Corn- media (Divine Comedy). The first period of. the literary history of Italy also includes the names of Petrarch, 1304-1374, the lyric poet; and Boccaccio, 1313-1375, author of the "Decameron ," in prose. Chaucer visited Italy, is supposed to have seen Petrarch, and was At least much influenced by the literature of that country. 20. What are Chaucer's works ? Ans. — The principal one is the Canterbury Tales. It la Literature. 15 a collection of admirable daguerreotypes of the various classes of English society, and consists of twenty-four stories supposed to have been told by a company of pil- grims on their way to Canterbury. The others are the Bomaunt of the Base, Court of Love, Chaucer's Dream, Bok& of the Duehesse, Legend of Good Women, etc. Extract: — " And the rivere that I sat upon, It made such a noise as it ron, Accordaunt with the birdes armony, Methought it was the beste melody That mighte ben y heard of any man." Cuckow and the Nightingale. Note.— The works produced in England from 450 to 1050 were In Anglo Saxon, now a dead language ; Semi-Saxon, from 1150 to 1250; Old English, from 1250 to 1350; Middle English, from 1350 to 1550; and Modern English, from 1550 to the present day. The first three divisions have quite a voluminous literature, well worthy the study of the devoted student. Query.— Who was called the " Morning Star of the Reforma- tion " ? 21. What are the nine periods of English lit- erature ? Ans.— I. The Age of Chaucer, 1350-1400. II. The Age of Caxton, 1400-1550. III. The Elizabethan Age, 1550-1625. IV. The Age of Milton, 1625-1660. V. The Age of the Restoration, 1660-1700. VI. The Age of Queen Anne, 1700-1750. VII. The Age of Johnson, 1750-1800. VIII. The Age of Scott, 1800-1830. IX. The Victorian Age, 1830-1882. 22. Name other writers of Chaucer's age. 16 Dime Question Books. Am.-— (I) William Langland (13321400), Piers the Plowman. (2) John Go wer— "Moral Gower," Chaucer calls him— (1320-1408) was the author of three great works, Speculum Meditantis, in Norman French; Vox Clamantis, in Latin ; and Confessio Amantis (A Lover's Confession), in English. English Prose Literature begins with (3) Sir John Mandeville (1300-1371), author of a book of Travels. (4) John Barbour (1316-1396) was the great Scottish poet of this age. 23. Who were the writers of Caxton's age ? Ans — William Dunbar (1465-1520), The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins. James I. (1394-1437), wrote a collec- tion of love verses under the title of the King's Quhair. (i. e. Quire or Book). John Skelton (1460-1529), Colin Clout, etc. Sir Thomas Moore (1503 1542), author of Utopia, a philosophical romance, written in Latin, Wyatt, Blind Harry, Surrey, Tyndale and Coverdale. 24. What was the Elizabethan age ? An?. — The most glorious era of English literature. It is renowned for its three writers — Spenser, Shakespeare* and Bacon — either of whom would have made an age illus- trious. The first name is that of George Gascoigne (1530- 1577) one of the founders of the great English school of the drama, " Steel Glass," "Fruits of War." Thomas Sack-- ville (1536-1608), "A Mirrour for Magistrates." Edmund Spenser (1533-1599) " TU Faerie Q#een," "Shepherd's Cal- endar " (a series of pastorals similar to Virgil's Bucolics), and " Mother Hubbard's Tale." 25. Who has been called the "myriad- minded"? ■ »— - ■■ " ■ ■ ■ . ii —. i- ■ i ■ ■■■■ ■■ — ■ " ■■ ■■.■■I. ■■■..I — ^— ^i *Most Shaksperian scholars now spell the name Shaksperc. Literature. IT Aks, —William Shakespeare, the greatest dramatist, and probably the greatest genius of all time, (1564-1616). His dramas are thirty-seven in number. Othello, Lear, and Ram- let are distinctly tragedies. As You Like It, Merry Wives of Windsor, Taming of the Shrew and Twelfth Night are comedies, while the rest are termed Historical Plays. Yenus and Adonis, "the first heir of his invention," was published in 1593. Extracts: — " Sweet are the uses of adversity ." — " As You Like It," Act I, Sc. 3.— Dtjse. '■"We are such stuff as dreams are made of." — "Tem- pest," Act IV, Sc. 1.— Prosfero. "Misery acquaints a man with strange bed-fellows." — " Tempest," Act II, Sc. 2.--Trth. "And the imperial vot'ress passed on In maiden meditation, fancy free," "Midsummer Night's Dream." Act II, Sc. 1. Oberon. " I'll put up a girdle round the earth in forty minutes." Same as above. — Puck. "Then must you speak of one that lov'd not wisely, but too well. ,, —' < Othello," Act Y, Sc. 2. 26. "Who was the author of the " Novum. Organum " f Ans. — Sir Francis Bacon, known as Lord Bacon, (1561- 1626). This was the second part of his Instauratio Magna, a work to consist of six books, three of which only were finished, a brief extract being given of the fourth. His Essays are the most popular. Selections :— ' ■ Knowledge is power. " "A little philoso- phy inclineth a man's mind to atheism, but depth in phi- losophy bringeth men's minds about to religion." Compare 18 Dime Question Books. this with Pope's, " A. little knowledge is a dangerous thing." 27. Who were the dramatic poets of this age? Am— Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593), " Tamburlane," and " Faustus." Bare Ben Jonson (1573-1637), second to Shakespeare only, u Every Man Out of his Humor" "Al- chemist" "Catiline" "Epicene, or the Silent Woman," "Fall of Sejames," "Tale of a Tub," " Masques," etc. Beaumont (1586-1615) and Fletcher (1576-1625), "who worked together with so intimate a union that it is impossi- ble, in the works composed before their friendship was dissolved by death, to separate their contributions," were the authors of " Maid's Tragedy," "A King and No King" "Laws of Candy," "Beggar's Bush," "Mule a Wife and Have a Wife," " Spanish Curate," etc. Philip Massinger (1584-1640), " Fatal Dowry," "Roman Actor" "Maid of Honor" "Unnatural Combat," "New Way to Pay Old Debts," etc. John Ford (1586-1639), " Witch of Edmonton," " Lover' » Melancholy," "Love's Sacrifice," etc. John Webster, "Duchess of Malfy" '''Guise, or the Massacre of France," " White Devil," etc. Note.— To this bright galaxy of names may be added Chap- man, Dekker, Middleton, Marston, Taylor, Totirneur, Broome, Hey wood, and Shirley. Query.— Who wrote " A Womani KiUed with Kindness " t Who was Sir Philip Sidney ? What courtier, soldier, adventurer, and writer, is the author of a History of the World (written in prison)? Who was the " well-languaged Daniel "? " Holy George Herbert " wrote what? Eoger Aschara (1515-1568) was tutor to Princess (Queen) Elizabeth; what are his works ? 28. What other great writers wore there in the sixteenth century ? LrrBBAxusE. 19 Aks. — In Italy, the historians Guicciardini (1482-1540); Machiavelli (1469-1527); the poets Ariosto (1474-1533), author of "Orlando Furioso "y Vittorio Colonna (1490- 1547); and Tasso, who celebrated the First Crusade in his "Jerusalem Delivered.' 1 ' Cervantes (1547-1616) was a renowned Spanish writer. His immortal work is "Don Quixote." Rabelais (1483-1533), a famous French satirist, was a priest, and wrote a book called the " Life of Gar- ganiua and Pantagruel." . Montaigne (1533-1592) was a judge and mayor of Bordeaux, the author of "Essays.** Camoens (1524-1579), a Portuguese poet, is known princi- pally from his great work called the " Lusiadr" which celebrates the chief actors in, and events of, the history of Portugal. Query.— Who were Michael ADgelo, Raphael, Titian, Durer, Holbein, Copernicus, Galileo, and Tycho-Brahe ? 29. Who is the author of "Paradise Lost" f Ans. — John Milton (1608-1674). His principal poetic works are " Paradise Regained ," " Comus" " Lyddas" " L* Allegro" and " H Penserosv." His prose writings are too numerous to mention. The writers of his age are the so-called metaphysical poets, and theologians. Query*— Who was Izaak Walton? What are the works of Jeremy Taylor? Who is the author of " Beligio Medici," (.Religion of a Physician)? 30. Who is the greatest author of the "Res- toration Age " ? Ans.— John Dryden (1631-1700), who wrote dramas, poems, and essays, "Duke of Guise," " Wild Gallant" "Rival Ladies," "Hind and Panther," "Ode on St. Ceci- tia'sDay," "AUfw Love," and a " Translation of Virgil'* Aeneid." ■20 Dime Question Books. Selections*— "Men are bnt children of a larger growth, " "Great wits are sure to madness near allied, And thin partitions do their bounds divide." " Three poets in three distant ages horn, Greece, Italy and England did adorn." Query.— What three poets? Note.— Samuel Butler (1612-1680) is the most illustrious literary representative of the Cavaliers. His great work is the burlesque Batire of " Hudibras." A large mass of Butler's miscellaneous writings have been published. 31. Who were the contemporaries of Dry- den? Ans. — Locke, Newton, Boyle, Temple, Evelyn, Bun yan, L'Estrange, and Samuel Pepys (1682-1703), the author of a "Diary," which is a complete scandalous chronicle of a society so gay and debauched that the simple descrip- tion of what took place is equal to the most dramatic pic- ture of the novelist. Note.— There is a strong contrast between the drama of Eliza- beth and that of the Eestoration, and the latter part of the seven- teenth century produced a constellation of splendid dramatists, Sir George Etherege wrote the "Man of Mode or Sir Fopling Flutter"; William Wycherley, "Love in a Wood," "Country Wife," etc.; Sir John Vanbrugh, "Provoked Wife," "Aesop," and "Relapse "; George Earquhar, "Love and a Bottle," " Twin Rivals," " Stage Coach," and "Beaux' Stratagem." William Congreve, who stands at the head of comic dramatists, wrote " Old Bachelor," "Double Dealer," "Love for Love," (his master-piece), "Mourning Bride," and "Way of the World"; Thomas Otway, " Orplian" and " Venice Preserved"; Nathaniel Lee (died 1692), " Theodosius," "Mitliridates," and " Lucius Junius Brutus "; Thomas Sontherne, "Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage ," and the pathetic drama of " Oroonolto ": Nicholas Rowe. "Jane Shore," " Fair Penitent " and " Lady Jane Gray"; George Lille, " George Barnwell " and " Fatal Curiosity." Literature. 21 32, What other great names in the literature of the seventeenth century ? Ans. — Calderon (1601-1681), a distinguished Spanish dramatist wrote about five hundred pieces. La Fontaine (1621-1705), aFrench poet, wrote " Fables." Moliere (1632- 1673), aFrench dramatist, wrote many charming comedies, such as " Ls Bourgeois GentWiomme" (a text-book at Har- vard), "Le Misanthrope" and " Tartufe." Boileau (1636- 1711), a noted French poet, was remarkable for the moral tone of his writings, viz., "Satires," "Epistles" and "Lutrin." Racine (1639-1699), the most celebrated of the French dramatists, wrote " Aiidromaque" Phedre" and " Iphigenie" Fenelon (1651-1715), a French author whose best known work is the romance of " Telemaqus." Cor- neille (1605-1684), born at Rouen, wrote the great tragedy of the "Cid," and "Horace" and " Oinna." Query.— Who were Vandyck, Rembrandt, Murillo, Rubena, Pascal, and Bossuet? 33. Who were the literary representatives of Queen Anne's age ? Ans. — Pope, Addison, and Swift. Alexander Pope (1688-1744) wrote " The Rape of the Look," a translation of the Iliad and Odyssey, " Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady" " Epistle from Sappho to P/iaon" " Dunciad," " Ode on St. Cecilia's Day," (see Bryden), etc. Selections: — "To err is human; to forgive divine," (Essay on Criticism). "Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, etc." (Essay on Man). "I lisped in numbers, for the numbers came." Joseph Addison (1672-1719), wrote the " Tragedy of Cato," " Tatler," " Spcctaio-r," "Trawls in Italy" 22 Dime Question Books. " The Campaign" and "Guardian" Jonathan Swift (1667-1745), is the author of " Gulliver's Travels," " TU Tale of a Tub" "Journal to Stella" and innumerable pam- phlets. Not®.— This was called the Augustan age of English litera- ture. The other writers of this period were William Collins, a fine lyric poet, author of " Ode to the Passions," " How Sleep the Brave "; Matthew Prior, who wrote *« Alma" " Solomon," "Coun- try Mouse and City Mouse"; John Gay, " Frivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London," "Three Hours after Marriage," and "Beggar's Opera"; Edward Young, " Love of Fame, the Uni- versal Passion," "Night Thoughts"; Sir Edward Steele, one of the writers for The Taller and The Spectator; Allan Ramsey, " Pas- tor Fido," "Galatea"; Lady Mary Montagu, " Letters "; Daniel Defoe, " Robinson Crusoe," " Adventures of Captain Jack," "Moll Flanders," etc; James Thomson, " Castle of Indolence " and the " Seasons"; Garth. Parnell, Doddridge, Tickell, etc. Query— Which preceded the other in point of time, Dryden or Pope? Name the leading work of each. Who were the contem- poraries of Shakespeare? Who is called the father of the modern novel? Ans, Defoe. What is the character of Addison's style? From what great writer is English literature generally supposed to date its origin? 34. Who was Oliver Goldsmith (1728*- 1774)? Anb.— He was an Irishman, full of oddities and eccentri- cities, and remarkable alike for his strength and his weak- ness. Johnson said of him that "he wrote like an angel, but talked like poor Poll." His principal poems are " The Traveller," and " Deserted Village." "The Vicar of Wake- field" (a novel), "She stoops to Conquer" (a, comedy), a " Life of Beau Wash," " Chinese Letters," " Good- Matured Man," and variotis " Hisiones " comprise the remainder of his works. ♦His epitaph toy Dr. Johnson says Nov, 29th, 1781. Other ao- ounts state that he was born in 1729. Ltteratube. 23 Selections:— "Then pilgrim turn, thy cares forego, All earth-born cares are wrong; Man wants "but little here below, Nor wants that little long." "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty cheer' d the labouring swain," etc. ""When lovely woman stoops to folly, And finds too late that men betray," etc, 35, Name other authors of the Johnsonian Age. Aug.— Thomas Gray (1716-1771), "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard," Odes " On the Spring" "On the Death of a Favorite Gat" " On a Distant Prospect of Eton College," "The Bard," and (s To Adversity." Robert Burns (1759-1798), "Highland Mury," " Auld La \g Syne." " The Goiter's Saturday Night," " Tarn O'Skanier," " To a Mountain Daisy" " Bonny Doon," "Ye Banks and Braes" "Man icas Made to Mourn," "Scotch Drink," etc. Selections: — "Had we never loved sae kindly, Had we never loved sae blindly, Never met or never parted, We had ne'er been broken-hearted." "Fare thee weel, thou first and fairestl Fare thee weel. thou best and dearest," etc. " Oh wad some power the giflie gie us To see oursels as iihers see us ! " ^ William Cowper (1781-1800), "John Gilpin," "On Re- ceiving my Moilier's Picture, " ' ' The Castaway, " " Bymns, " and " The Task" (a long poem in six books). Samuel Johnson (1700-1784). who was at the head of 24 Dime Question Books. English writers of this age. His principal poema are "London" "The Vanity of Human Wishes," and his trag- edy of '''Irene." In prose, he wrote " Rasselas" (a romance), " The Rambler " "Lives of the Poets," and "Dictionary of the English Language " His biography was written by James Boswell" (1740-1795), Edmund Burke (1730-1797), the great orator, is the author of " An Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful," " Re- flections on the French Revolution," etc. ("There is, how- ever, a limit at which forbearance ceases to be a virtue. "\ Laurence Sterne (1713 - 1768), an irreligious parson, author of " Tristam Shandy" and " Sentimental Journey." Note.— Additionally, were Samuel Richardson, "Pamela," " Clarissa," and " Sir diaries Grandison" ; Henry Fielding, " Jo- seph Andrews," " The Mfe of Jonathan Wild the Great," w Tom. Joms"~&n& Amelia"; Tobias George Smollett "Roderick Random," "Peregrine Pickle," "The Adventures of Ferdinand,Count Fathom" and a translation of "Don Quixote"; David Hume (171 1-177&), the in- fidel philosopher, author of a" Histoid of England" and a "Treatise on Human Nature"; Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), " Study of Litera- ture" and "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire"; Sif ; Philip Francis, supposed author of the unsolved political mys- tery, the " Letters of Junius " ; Eichard Brinsley Sheridan, (1751- 1818) said by Byron to have made the best speech— that on the Begums op Oude— , written the two best comedies, the " Rivals " and the " School for Scandal "—, the best opera, the "Duenna" — and the best farce, the "Critic "; John Wolcot, David Garrick, Samuel Foote, Cumberland, Walpole, Paley, Eeid, ami Hannah More (" Coelebs in Search of a Wife.") Query— Can you regard Burns as an illustration of the adage, Poeta nascitur, nonfit (Poets are born, not made) ? Why ? From what author is it quoted ? What is meant by the statement, " Goldsmith was an intensely subjective poet " ? What is meant by the Shakespearian-Bacon controversy ? What extracts can you give from Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Merchant of Venice, and Richard III ? 36. What were the literary impostures of the eighteenth century ? LlTERATUBB. 25 Aks,— The poetical forgeries of Macpherson, Gkatfcer- fcon, and Ireland. James Macpherson (1738-1798) pretended to have ac- cumulated in his travels through the Highlands of Scot- land an immense mass of fragments of ancient poetry- composed in the Gaelic or Erse dialect common to that country and Ireland, which he published under the title of thei* reputed author, " Ossian" Thomas Chatterton 0-752-1770), the "marvelous boy,'- deceived nearly all the scholars of his age by his imitations of Old English poetry, William Henry Ireland (1777-1885) indulged in Shakes- pearian forgeries, among which was a play entitled " Vorti- gern," in which John Reinble acted in 1795, Qwerfr.— Can you give the birth-place of Dryden ? of Shakes- peare ? of Milton ? of Chaucer ? of Sterne ? of Cowper ? By what authors were these selections written ?— "Man's inhumanity to man makes countless thousands moura." " O, consistency, thou art a jewel! " H The only amaranthine flower on earth is virtue." " Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." "All is not gold that glitters." Ans. " All thai glistens is not gold,'* Shakespeare; "But all things lohieh that shineth as the gold, Ne is no gold, as I have heard it told," Chaucer; 24 Yet gold all is not thai doth golden seem," Spenser; " All, as they say, that gUtUrs is not gold," Dryden ; and by Gray, Middleton, and others. 37. What was the Age of Romantic Poetry ? Ans.— This name is frequently applied to the Age of Scott. The authors of this age were George Gordon Noel Byron (1788-1824), who wrote M Child* Harold," " The Dream," "The Prisoner of ChiUon," " Mazejya," "TU 26 Dime Question Books. Bride of Abydos," "The Giaour," "Cain," "Manfred,* and "Don Juan.'" Extract from " Maseppa": — "For time at last set all thiBgs even? And if we do but watch the hour, There never yet was human power That could evade, if unforgiven, The patient search and vigil long, Of him who treasures up a wrong." Thomas Campbell (1777-1844), "Gertrude of Wyoming," " Hohenlinden," " LochieVs Warning," "O'Connor's Child." Extract from "Pleasures of Hope " : — "' Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, And robes the mountain in its azure hue." John Keats (1795-1821), " Endymion," " T lie Eve of Si. Agnes" "Hyperion," etc. 38. Who were the " Lake Poets " ? Ans. — "Lake Poets" is a nickname given by the Brit- ish "to a certain brotherhood of poets, who haunted for some years about the lakes of Cumberland," and who were erroneously thought to have united to some settled theory of composition and style, "Wm. Wordsworth (1770-1850), who wrote the "Excursion" the "Prelude" and several other poems noted for beautiful references to natural scenery and nature generally; Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), the philosophic poet and critic, whose life was made miserable by the use of opium, author of "Lectures on Shakespeare ," " Chrisiahel" and " Rime of tlie Ancient Mariner"; and Robert Southey (1774-1843), writer of " Thaldba" "Joan of Arc," " The Curse of Kehama" etc., were regarded as the chief representatives of this so called school ; but Lamb, Lloyd, and Wilson were also included under the same name. Note,— The other writers of this age were Tom Moore, "Lalla Literature. 27 Bookh," " Loves of the Angels,'" "Anacreon," "Irish Melodies," " Veiled Prophet," " The Last Rose of Summer," etc. ; Percy Bysslie Shelley, "Queen Mab," "Prometheus Unbound," " Cenci," "Adcnais," " Rosalind and Helen," "The Skylark," etc.; Leigh Hunt, "Story of Rimini," "Captain Sword and Captain Pen," "A Legend of Florence"; Walter Savage Landor, "Conversations." '* The Hellenics," "The Last Fruit of an Old Tree "; Thomas Hood, "The Bridge of Sighs," "Eugene Aram," "Song of the Shirt"; Charles Lamb, "Essays of Elia," "Farewell to Tobacco," "The Child Angel," "Rosamond Gray"; Thomas De Quineey, "Confes- sions of an English Opium Eater," "Flight of the Kalmuck Tar- tars"; Mrs. Hemans, "Lays, Lyrics, etc.," " The Graves of a Household"; Bryan Waller Proctor (Barry Cornwall), "Miran- dola," "English Songs," etc.; and Samuel Rogers, L. E. Landon. Joanna Baillie, Pollok, Hallam, Arnold, Marryatt, Miss Mitford. Countess D'Arhlay, Stewart, Lord Brougham, Dr. Chalmers, etc. Query.— What are the principal works of Sir Walter Scott ? Who wrote "Come, ye Disconsolate"? Who is the author of " Prom Greenland's Icy Mountains " ? With whom did English prose begin? Ans. "Venerable Bede." Who was the father of English printing ? Who created the historical novel? Ans. Sir Walter Scott. Who was the "Wizard of the North "? Why? How long was Gray writing his "Elegy " ? Note.— The Sorrows of Genius. Horner was a beggar; Plautus turned a mill; Terras was a slave; Paul Borghese had fourteen trades, and yet starved with them all; Tasso was often distressed for five shillings ; Bentivoglio was refused admittance into an hospital he had himself founded; Cervantes died of hunger; the celebrated writer of the "Lusiod" ended his days, it is said, in an almshouse; Vagelasleft his body to the surgeons to pay his debts, as far as the money would go ; Bacon lived a life of distress ; Sir Walter Raleigh died on the scaffold; Milton sold his copyright of "Paradise Lost" for fifteen pounds at three payments, and finished his life in obscurity; Dryden lived in poverty and distress; Otway died in hunger and neglect; Lee died in the street; Steele lived all his days fighting the sheriff's ofScers; Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield v was sold for a trifle to save him from the grip of the law; Fielding lies in the burying-ground of the English factory at Lisbon, without a stone to mark the spot; Savage died in prison at Bristol, where he was confined for the debt of eight pounds ; Butler lived a life of great poverty, and died poor; Chatterton, th© child of genius and misfortunes, destroyed himself. 28 Dime Question Books. 39. Who wrote "William Tell"? Ans.— James Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862) wrote the play of "William Tell "in English, and the greatest dra- matic work of Schiller (1759-1805) was "WilMm Tell," of course in the German language, Knowles was an Irish- man famous as an actor, elocutionist, and dramatic author of such plays as "Virginius" aud "William Tell.' 1 He became a Baptist minister in his old age, wrote some con- troversial works, and died at Torquay. Schiller was, next to Goethe, the greatest German poet, and the author of "Wallenstein," the "Bobbers," etc, 40. Who were the French authors of the eighteenth century ? Ans.— Montesquieu (1689-1755), "Lettres Persannes" "Esprit ties Lois"; Voltaire (1694-1778), "Henriade* "Age of L&uis XIV.," "History of Charles XII."; Buff on (1707- 1788), "Hisioire NaiurelU" '; and Rousseau (1712-1778) who was obliged to ieave France on the publication of his noble," and the Semitic is named for Shem, the son of Noah. These two great races have always been antagonistic to each other, and in the contests the Aryans have almost invariably triumphed. 7. Who were the Phoenicians ? Ans.— A Semitic race who were the earliest commercial and colonizing people on the shores of the Mediterranean. It is believed they were emigrants from Chaldea. They founded the colony of Carthage and, pushing their way beyond what the Greeks called the "Pillars of Hercules H General History. 43 (Strait of Gibraltar), built the city of Gades (Cadiz), and visited the southern ports of the British Islands. Their chief cities were Tyre and Sidon. The former was cap- tured 585 B. 0., by Nebuchadnezzar, after a siege of 13 years, and again by Alexander the Great, 332 B. C, when 8,000 Tyrians ware massacred, and 30,000 sold into slav- ery. 8. Give an account of the Persians and Hin- doos. Ans.— -They are the two Asiatic representatives of the great Aryan race, The Persians, who were emigrants into Persia, were originally subject to the Medes. After Cyrus had thrown off the Median yoke, the two peoples became united, under the empire of the Medes and Persians. As before stated, Cyrus captured Babylon, and his son Cam- byses, a cruel, bloodthirsty tyrant, conquered Egypt, 525 B. C. Darius I. was the greatest of the Persian monarchs. His son Xerxes, invading Greece, was ignominiously defeated, The empire was finally overthrown by Alexan- der the Great at the battle of Arbela> Oct. 1st, 431 B. C. The Hindos, leaving their native seat, first settled in the northwestern part of India about the year 3000 B. C. The first historical notice that we have of India in relation with Europe is by the invasion of Alexander the Great, 326 B. C. Its condition then corresponds almost exactly with what may be seen at the present day. Query.— From what was the dye of the celebrated Tyrian par- pie made? What are the four cosies of the Hindoos? What is the Shah Namehf Who was Zoroaster ? What was Maglanism ? What is Buddhism ? 9. When was the beginning of Grecian his- tory? 44 Dime Question Books. Ans. — Its earliest history is involved in mystery of which the myth-makers have taken the fullest advantage, giving the world a system of mythology that has always been a subject of study as well as a source whence the pcets of subsequent ages have drawn many of their choic- est embellishments; but its history proper begins with the first celebration of the Olympian games, 776 B. C. Note.— The Heroic Age, so called from the exploits of heroes which are related in the myths, legends and poems of Homer, ex- tended from the earliest times to about 1100 B. C. From the Iliad we derive our record of the Trojan War, which occurred 1184 B. 0. Venus promised Paris, the son of Priam.king of Troy, and Hecuba, that he should have to wife the handsomest woman in the world, Helen, wife of Meneiaus, king of Sparta. In the absence of her husband, Paris carried Helen to his home in Troy, and to obtain her, the princes of Greece, under command of Agamemnon, a brother of the injured husband, undertook an expedition that resulted in the restoration of Helen and the destruction of Troy after a siege of ten years. 10. What are the three periods of Grecian history ? Ans.— From the Dorian migration to the beginning of the Persian Wars (1100-500 B. C.) 3. From the beginning of the Persian Wars to the subjugation of Greece by Philip of Macedon (500-338 B. C). 3. From the subjugation of Greece by Philip to the Roman conquest (338-146 B. C,). Note.— The two leading races were the Ionians and the Dori- ans. The Greeks always called their country Bellas and them- selves Hellenes. The four principal cities, Athens, Sparta, Cor- inth and Thebes, are said to have been founded about 1500 B. O. 11. Give an account of Sparta. Ans.— She was the first to rise to prominence, and the ascendancy which she acquired over the other states of General History. 4fr the Peloponnesus was mainly owing to her peculiar insti- tutions founded by Lyeurgus about 850 B. C. His leading idea was the elevation of the state above the individual, and he divided the people into three classes, the Spartans, the Laconians, and the Helots, or serfs. After the laws of Lyeurgus had been confirmed by the oracle at Delphi, he caused the Spartans to bind themselves by an oath never to change them until his return from a journey he proposed to make, Upon this he went away and was never again heard of. 12. What eity was the great rival of Sparta ? Ans.— Athens, Until the death of Codrus, 1068 B. C, it was governed by kings ; afterward by nine elected offi- cers, who were called Archons, These, in conjunction with the nobles, constituted the supreme court of the Areopagus, established by Solon 594 B. C. Note.— The wise laws of Solon aimed at the gradual erection of a democracy, and Athens was the first real republic, but they were frustrated for a time by the tyrant Pisistratus and his two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. Hippias, usurping the govern- ment of Athens, B. C*. 560, enjoyed a splendid reign of 33 years, after which Hipparchas was slain in a popular tumult, and his brother was expelled from Athens 510 B. C. Query.— What is meant by Spartan bravery ? What was the Code of Di^aco ? Who were the " Seven Wise Men"? What is ostracism ? 13. What were the Grecian wars ? Ans. — Sparta was engaged three times in war with her neighbors in Messenia, 743 to 723, 685 to 668, and 464 to 455, and the Persian War, which grew out of trouble between the Greek colonies on the Asiatic coast and Per- sia, commenced about 495 B. C. by the Ionian revolt. This 46 Dime Question Books. was easily cruslied by Darius, and, the first expedition sent to conquer Greece, in 492 B. C, having proved abor- tive, he organized an extensive army and landed on the plains of Marathon in the year 490 B, C. The one hundred thousand invaders were met by an Athenian army of ten thousand men under command of ten generals, among whom were Miltiades, Themistocles and Aristides, and were totally defeated. Only 193 Greeks fell, 14:. When was the second invasion \ Asrs. — In the year 485 B. C. A mighty host, variously estimated, (Herodotus says it consisted of 2,600,000 men), under Xerxes, met the Spartans and Athenians at the Pass of Thermopyl®. Leonidas with 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- pians, after a traitor had betrayed to the Persians a pas- sage over the mountains, repulsed two chosen bodies of troops, but being attacked in front and rear they all per- ished, fighting desperately. The Spartans abandoned the Athenians and commenced fortifying the Isthmus of Oor> inth. Athens was burned by the Persians. 15. Give an account of the battle of Salamis. Ans. —Themistocles, availing himself of the fleet that his foresight had provided, gained so complete a victory that Xerxes in despair commenced a hasty retreat, leaving, however, an army of 800,000 men, which attacked the peo- ple of Attica in the spring of 479 B. C. The Greeks rallied under Pausanias and Aristides, and defeated the enemy with tremendons slaughter at Platcea. On the same day, the Persian fleet was nearly wholly destroyed at MycdU. For the succeeding ten years there were conflicts between the Greeks and Persians, but in 469 B. O. a peace was con- cluded which ended the Persian rule. General History, 47 Query.— What became of Themistocles, Miltiades and Pausan- ias? When was the "Golden Age of Pericles "? What is the Par- thenon? Who were the writers of comedy and tragedy? By whom was oratory practised? Who was Pheidippides? Ans.— The Athe- nian runner boy who ran two days, two nights, " over the hills, under the dales, down pits and up peaks," from Athens to Sparta, to demand aid for life city against the Persian. As reward,on the Marathon day he was allowed to run again, with the tidings, "Re- joice, we conquer! " but the "joy in his blood bursting his heart, he died," his country freed. 16. When was the Peloponnesiaii War? Ans. The prosperity of Athens caused jealousy on the part of the Spartans, and in 430 B. C. the Peloponnesiaii states formed an alliance to oppose the Athenians and their allies. The conflict was maintained with varying fortunes until 404 B. C, when the power of Athens had vanished, and it was placed under the government of the "Thirty Tyrants," illustrious, aristocratic Athenians, who were the allies of Sparta. Note.— Xenophon's Anabasis gives an account of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (who went to assist the revolt of Cyrus, the younger son of Artaxerxes, king of Persia,) after the defeat ol Cyrus at Cunaxa, and the killing of the Greek generals who had been invited to a cowicil. 17. Who was Epauiinondas ? Ans.— The general of Thebes who defeated the Spartans at Leuctra 871 B. C, by which Thebes became the leading state, 18. When was the Macedonian Conquest ? In the year 838 B. C., the Great Philip, king of Mace- Son, in spite of the efiorts- of Demosthenes and the- valor 48 Dime Question Books. of the Thebans, gained the battle of Chcermea, the Athe- nians and their allies were defeated, and Greece was never again free. Query.— When was the Corinthian War? What was the " Aclusan League "t Name the battles of Alexander the Great. Who were Archimedes and Hippocrates ? What are Philippics f 19. Who was the "Mistress of the World"? Am— Rome. Her history extends from the foundation of the city by Romulus, 753 B. C, to its destruction by the Vandals, A.D, 455. The three periods of her history are: 1, The mythical and traditional age of the Kings, 753-510 B. C. ; 3, The heroic age of the Republic, 510-27 B. C; and, 3, The Golden Age of the Emperors, 27 B.C. -455 A. D. The Gauls sacked the city 389 B, C, destroying all the records, and the trustworthy history of Rome really begins no earlier than 281 B. C. Note.— The legends of the age of seven kings tell us of the wonderful preservation of Komulus and Semus; the rape of the Sabine women; the wise reign of Numa Pompilius, and his con- ferences with the nymph Egeria; the wars of Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Martius; the combat between the Horatii and the Curatii; while the early traditions tell us how Tarquinius Priscus founded the Capitol, and recount the murder of Tarquin and his successor, Servius Tullius, and the final banishment of the last of the kings, Tarquinius Superbus, The people were at first divided into patri- cians and plebeians. After the expulsion of the Tarquins, the supreme authority was placed in the hands of two officers, called at first proelors, afterward consuls. The stern Lucius Junius Bru- tus and Tarquinius Collatinus were the first to hold this office. Query.— Have you read Macaulay's " Lays " ? Who was Cin- clnnatu3 ? Who were the decemviri ? 20. What is the date of the Punic Wars ? Am— After becoming mistress of all Italy, by contests GrENEBAL HlSTOKY. 49 with the Samnites and other peoples, Home began to ex- tend her conquests outside of her dominions. The Romans and Carthaginians had become jealous of each other, and the pretext for a "war was found when the inhabitants of Sicily invoked the help of Rome against Carthage. The first Punic war, beginning 265 B, C, in which the Roman General Regulus was defeated, made a prisoner, and it is said was put to death with horrible tortures, resulted in the confirmation of the claims of Rome upon Sicily 242 B. C, and in the payment of the expenses of the war by Carthage, amounting to $2,500,000. Hannibal, the Car- thaginian general, reopened hostilities by encamping in Italy in 218 B. C. Superseded by Paulus, the battle of Cannae was fought, in which 80 senators and 47,000 Roman citizens perished, but Scipio Afrieanus forced Hannibal to leave Italy for the protection of Carthage, and at the battle of fiania, 203 B. 0. s routed the Carthaginian army. In the third Punic war, 149-146 B. C, Carthage was utterly destroyed, and her territory became a Roman province. "note.— Besides these wars, the Eomans were Involved in three with Macedonia. I. 214-205 B. C; II. 200-197 B. C; and in. 172- 158 B. C, terminating by the battle of Pydna. The power of Rome was now supreme, Qiiery.—Who were the " Gracchi f " "When was the Numidian War? Who were the Cimbrt and Teutones ? What was the Social War? Who was Spartaeus? Who was Folybius? 21. What was the Triumvirate? Ans.— The rule of three men, Pompey, Csesar, and Crassus. Pompey had defeated Mithridates, king of Pohtus, in three wars, and the Poi tian kingdom w<->3 an- nexed to Rome. After the union of these men, Pompey remained in Rome, Crassus went to Syria where he was 50 Dime 'Question Books, killed, and Julius Csesar reduced the Belgians, Gauls, and Helvetians, 51 B. 0. The death of Crassus left the supreme power to be struggled for by his two associates. Caesar crossed the Rubicon and marched on to Rome. Pompey fled, buJ collecting an army met Csesar near Phar- salus in Thessaly and was defeated, August 9, B. C, 48. He escaped to Egypt where he was assassinated. Note.— In the Roman calendar, the ides mea,nt the thirteenth day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was the fifteenth day. The ides of March was the day on which Csesar was assassinated in the Senate house by Cassius, Brutus, and other conspirators, 44 B. 0. 22. When was the Second Triumvirate form- ed? Ans.— In the year 43 B. 0., by Mark Antony, Oetavius and Lepidus, As soon as possible, Lepidus was deprived of all power, while Oetavius strengthened himself in Rome, and Antony lived in luxury with Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. The absolute government of the Roman world was decided at the battle of Aciium, 31 B. 0. Antony and Cleopatra fled, and both died by their own bands. Oeta- vius, who was now supreme ruler, took the new title, Augustus. His reign is termed the Augustan, or Golden Age of literature. 23. What was the Prsstorian Guard ? Ans.— The body-guard concentrated by Tiberius (A. D. 14-37), the stepson and successor of Augustus, near Rome under General Sejanus. They became the real sovereigns of the empire. Tiberius was succeeded by Caligula, one of the most bloodthirsty tyrants that ever lived, and, after him, Nero reignea from 04 to 68 A. D. He was followed Genebal History. 61 by Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, A. D. 68-70, and Vespasian A. D. 70-79. Note.— Vespasian was succeeded by his son, Titus, the Soman general that destroyed Jerusalem in 70, and Titus by his brother, the tyrant Domitian, who was the last of the Twelve Cos&ars. Numerous emperors ruled the empire down to the year 476; the mild Nerva: Trajan, the test; Hadrian, the patron of literature; Pius, the loving, etc. ; but Eome was in a state of decline from the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180, until its division by the sons of Con- stantine the Great into the Eastern and Western Empire, 364, and its final destruction by the Vandals. Query.— Who was Tacitus? When was. the first eruption of Vesuvius? Who was Caracalla? By whom was Zenobia made a prisoner? 24. Give an account of Constantino the Great. Ans. — His reign (324-837) is remarkable for the estab- lishment of Christianity as the religion of the Roman Em- pire. On his march home from Gaui, where he had been employed, he is said to have seen in the heavens a flaming cross inscribed in Greek words, " In this emblem conquer " (In hocsigno vinces,) which led to his inscribing his banners and shields with the cross, In 325 he convened the cele- brated Council of Nice, and declared Christianity to be the official religion. Byzantium, the capital, was called Con- stantinople in his honor. At the division of the empire by his two sons, Valens took the eastern half, with his capital at Constantinople, and Valentinian, the western, with the capital at Rome, 25. Who were the Goths and Vandals 1 Ans. — The influx of the ferocious Huns into Europe in 375, led to the downfall of the Western Empire. Alaric invaded Greece in 395, advanced toward the west in 403, and the next year frightened the Romans Into a promise of 52 Dime Qoestiojn Books. an annual tribute. In 409 and 410, he captured the city twice, and the second time pillaged and partly burned it. The last victory achieved in the name of Rome, was the defeat of Attila, " the Scourge of God,' 5 king of the Huns, at Chalons, in France, 451. A third tribe of barbarians, the Vandals, under command of Genseric, their ablest monarch, after surprising Carthage, entered Rome in June, 455. ' ! For fourteen days the city was devoted to fire and pillage, and large collections of its valuables were carried away to Carthage." Romulus Augustus, the last of the emperors, a handsome, but feeble youth, was pen- sioned off in 476. Odoacer, a son of one of the ministers of Attila, became the Gothic King of Italy. 26. When was the last of the gladiators ? ANS.—In the year 404, Telemachus, an eastern monk, suddenly appeared in the Arena of the Colosseum at Rome between two gladiators, and, with prayer and gesture, bore his testimony against these unchristian games. The Praetor Alybius immediately ordered his slaughter. Struck with his grand heroism, the Emperor Honorius abolished the shows, and never after were they permitted. Telem- achus was canonized, and is now in the Saint's Calendar. 27. Who were the Saracens ? Ans. — The term is applied to the Arabs and their descendants, who conquered a large part of Asia, Africa and Europe, early in the seventh century. They were Mohammedans, or believers in Mohammed (or Mahomet), who was a camel driver of Mecca. He preached a new religion, called Islam, "salvation." The written creed is the Koran. The inhabitants of Mecca, disgusted with the tenets of the new religion and the personal habits of Mo- hammed, drove him from the city in 623, This is the General History, 53 Mohammedan era, and from the prophet's flight, the Eegira, time is reckoned among the Turks and Saracens. Query.— What is the history of Italy down to the time of Char- lemagne ? What became of Odoacer ? What is feudalism,? When were the " Dark Ages "? Define chivalry. 28. Who was Peter the Hermit ? Ans, — Jerusalem was taken by the Turks in 1073, and the Christians were taxed, plundered, persecuted or slaugh- tered. Stories of these troubles were brought back by returning pilgrims, some of whom had been unable so much as to enter the city whose streets they so longed to tread, but no exaggerations were sufficient to deter the deluded people of Europe from continuing their pilgrim- ages, Among these "palmers" was Peter the Hermit (1050-1115), who, being encouraged by a vision he pro- fessed to have seen while in the Holy City, began, in 1094, to preach the deliverance of the Holy Land through all the countries of Europe. Note.— The empress Helena.mother of Constantine the Great, (following the example of the faithful, who from the earliest Chris- Han times had been in the habit of visiting different places made sacred by the life of our Savior) marked her pilgrimage by churches which she #.used to be erected. Her son built a church over the supposed site of the Holy Sepulchre. Pilgrimages were encour- aged by every possible means, and their neglect was at a later period regarded as impiety. 29. Give the history of the Crusades ? Ans —Pope Urban, at the Council of Clermont in 1095, instigated his hearers to release that illustrious land (Pales- tine) from a race of heathen.. The extension of the Truce of God, which was an effort on the part of the church to mitigate the evils arising from the private wars of feudal times, furthered the plan, and finally Peter's eloquence, \ 54- Dime Question Books. acting first upon the masses, then upon the higher nobility, moved the sovereigns to join in the Crusades. August 15, 1069, was the day fixed for the first great expedition, but early in the spriDg, the Hermit, impatient of delay, started with a great rabble under Walter the Penniless. These soon returned. Godfrey de Bouillon, Duke of Lorraine, started at the appointed time, conducting his great army to Constantinople, capturing the city of Nice in 1097, and arriving at Jerusalem in 1099. The attack was made on July 14th, and the next day they entered the city, massa- cring the Turks in great numbers. Bouillon was made king with the title of Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. Note.— In all there were eight crusades. The third (1187) was the most important and interesting, from the great men prominent in it— Saladin, Frederic Barharossa, Philip II. , Richard I., Cwitr de lAon. Following, the fourth was the strange crusade of the children in 1212. The four following, of minor interest and impor- tance, occurred in the years 1217, 1228, 1248, and 1270. 30. When began the rise of Popery ? Ans„— The papacy first became a temporal power at the close of the eighth century. Pepin, of France, invaded Italy to rescue it from the Lombards, and gave Ravenna to the pope. During the next three centuries, the sover- eigns were endeavoring to restrict the power of the eccle- siastics, and this antagonism culminated in the outbreak between Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, and Pope Gregory VII., better known by his surname, Hildebrand. There have been more than two hundred ond fifty popes from the earliest date to the present time. Their history has complicated the events of every country in Europe. After the Reformation (1520), the influence of the Pope gradually declined. His temporal power ended in 1870, when Victor Emanuel, King of Italy, took possession of the " States of the Church." - General History. 55 Qttety.—WbSil were the ■■ investttureat " What absolution did Henry IV, undergo? Who were the Guelphs and Ghibellines? When did the popes reside at Avignon? 81. Give an account of Venice. Ans. —Venice rose into distinction as a republic early in the fourteenth century, as Genoa was losing her politi- cal independence, though the Venetians boast immemorial freedom. The city was a commercial power before Genoa and Pisa had entered mercantile pursuits, and she was in a position to be enriched by the crusades. NOTE.-From 1350 to 1500, there is no general history of Italy, for the cities were ruled by local families, and the period is marked by a succession of dissensions and civil wars. 82. Who was Beatrice Oenci ? Ans.-— A remarkably beautiful girl who was born about 1583, and executed in September, 1599, when she was but sixteen years old. Her father, Francesco Cenci, subjected her and her step mother to atrocious cruelties. Beatrice vainly appealed to Pope Clement VIII. for protection, and the she and her step mother determined to rid themselves of their unnatural persecutor. On September 9th, 1598, they drugged Francesco, and Beatrice introduced assassins into his room, where he was murdered while asleep. One of the murderers made a full confession of the homicide, im- plicating Beatrice, her step mother, and two brothers as being parties to the crime. They were tried for murder, and all, save the younger brother, were found guilty, and subsequently executed. To the last moment, Beatrice dis- played the most heroic courage, and her youth and beauty were so great that her execution caused a thrill of horror throughout Rome. 56 Dime Question Books. "guido's masterpiece." There stands, on one of Rome's far famous hillg, The palace of the Barberini race: Within, amidst the varied art which fills The walls, there hangs the painting of a face. 33. What are the six dynasties of the German empire ? Ans.— -The Carlomngian, (481-911); the Savon, (919- 1024); the Franconian, (1024-1125); the Suabian, or Holien- staufen, (1138-1254); the house of Eapsburg, (1273-1438) j and the house of Austria, (1438-188.3). Note.— From the " migration of nations" about 370, we can trace the origin of the Germans from the Franks and Burgundians of the Visi-Goths, or West Goths. Charlemagne (742-814) was a wonderful man, worthy to be, as he was, Charles the Great, and Charles the First, both of the French and German and Roman empires. He was crowned " Emperor of the West" by the Pope of Rome, Christmas day, 800, and after married Irene, Queen of Byzantium. This coronation revived, in name, the Roman Empire. But the new empire depended on him alone, as his death fully proved. In 722, he began a war for the extension of the Christian religion. He defeated the Lombards, subdued the Saxons, and was obliged to interfere between the Moors and Arabs in Spain. 34. What is said of his successors ? Ans.-— They were men of inferior capacity. The first, Louis le Debonnaire, (778-S4Q), in 807 divided his empire among his three sons. France, Italy and Germany thus became practically independent of one another. Louis II., 846-879, was succeeded by Charles III., 822-888, cabled the Fat, who, proviDg weak and imbecile, was deposed by the German princes, and his nephew Arnulf elected as his successor. The Carlovingian line ended in his son, Louis III. General History. 57 35. Who were the rulers of the Saxon dynasty? Ans.— Henry I., 876-936, who conquered the Sclavonic ans and Hungarians at the battle of Musebarg; Otho the Great, 912-973; Otho II., 955-983, called the Bed from his complexion, and the Bloody from his cruelty; Otho III., 080-1002; and Henry II., 972-1024, Note.— During the reign of Otho the Great lived the Bishop Hatto, whose name is associated with the legend of the "Mouse Tower " on the Rhine, upon which Southey has founded a ballad, though the story of his having been devoured by rats is thought to be of much later origin. 36. Who was Conrad the Suabian? Ans. —The first ruler under the Franconian Dynasty, succeeded by his son, Henry III, 1017-1056, and followed by Henry IV.,— to whom reference has already been made — Henry V., and Lothaire, 37. What noted incident occurred in 1140 ? Ans.— Conrad III., the first emperor under the Hohen- staufen Dynasty, in 1138 made war against Guelphus, Duke of Bavaria, and laid siege to the city of Weinsburg. The women, finding that the town could not possibly hold out long, petitioned the emperor that they might be allowed to depart out of it, carrying their "dearest jewels." Conrad, knowing that they could not convey away many of their effects, granted their petition, when, to his great surprise, the women came out of the place bearing their husbands on their backs. The emperor was so moved at the sight that he burst into tears, and after having extolled the women for their conjugal affection, gave the men to their wives, and received the duke into his favor. 68 Dime Question Books. 38. Who was Frederic Barbarossa ? Ans.— The most powerful and brilliant emperor that Germany has ever had. He died in 1190, while on the third crusade, and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI, 1165-1197. Note.— The reign of many of these emperors was signalized by the never-ending conflicts of the Guelphs and the Ghibellinee ; Interrupted by the rule of Frederick II., from 1194 to 1250. / ^39. Who were the Rulers of the 11 House of Hapsburg ? Ans.— Count Rudolph, 1218-1291. AdoJphus of Nas- sau, who died in 1298, and was succeeded by the son of Rodolph, Albert I,, a severe and despotic ruler, who wan murdered in 1308. The Swiss Republic was founded this year, and its independence acknowledged in 1499. To this period belongs the legend of William and his shooting of Gessler. Henry VII. was elected emperor in 1308, anc! died in 1318, During the reign of Charles IV., Rienzi, 1313-1354. made an effort "to realize the bright dreams of Italian unity, which have fatally inspired so many patriot i from Dante to Mazzani and Garabaldi." Wenceslaus, the son of Charles, was defeated at the battle of Sempach, 1386, by the Swiss, through the sacrifice of Arnold von "Win- kelried. Note.— The mariner's eompass, gunpowder and cannon came into use early in the 14th century. The invention of printing is claimed by the Germans and Dutch. Gntenburg, a German.print- ed a quarto Bible about 1450, a copy of which in excellent preser- vatiod was sold for S8,000atthe Brinley book sale, Hartford, Conn., April llth, 1831. Query.— Who was John Huss ? When were the Hussite Wars? Who were Jerome and John Zischka ? What was the Hanseatic League? the Suabian League? Give the history of Maximilian I. General History. 59 40* What was the Reformation % Am — Tetzel, agent of Pope Leo X., had been sent to preach indulgence to those who gave money for the build- ing of the church of St. Peter at Rome, and he did so in such extreme terms— absolving the holder of an "indul- gence " not only from sins committed but even from sins that he intended to commit— that he aroused Martin Luther, 1483-1546, a theological lecturer at the University of Wit- tenberg, to publish, in 1517, a series of ninety-fine theses, boldly opposing this traffic. Summoned before the Diet of Worms, Luther was ordered to retract, but boldly refused to do so. BurniDg a bull of the pope, in which his writings were denounced, in 1520, he was declared a here- tic. The people, in pursuance of what they supposed to be his wishes, engaged in riotous proceedings, and this was followed by the Peasants' War of 1525, causing the loss of 100,000 lives and the destruction of many monasteries and castles of the nobles. The " Augsburg Confession" was signed by seven princes and fifteen cities, who protested against the resolutions of the Diet of Spire in 1529. The treaty of Augsburg (1555) granted religious liberty to the Protestant states^)f Germany. 41, Who was Charles V J Ans.— Successor to Charles IV,, of Germany, and usually called Charles I., of Spain. In 1524, he com- menced war against Italy. The French, who held north- ern Italy, were driven out, and their king, Francis I., 1494-1547, was sent as prisoner to Madrid. .The celebrated Chevalier Bayard was killed at the beginning of this war. In 1555, he abdicated his throne, giving the dominion of the Netherlands, Spain, Naples, and the New World to his son, Philip II. Daring his reign, 1540, arose the order of Jesuits, under their leader, Ignatius Loyala, 1491-1556, 60 Dime Question Books. 42. When was the Thirty Years' War? Ans.— Germany was the theatre of a succession of wars from 1618 to 1648. They arose from the differences of religious faith. The two noted men during this war were Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, who was killed at the battle of Luizen, November 6th, 1632; and Aibert von Wallenstein, who led the imperial forces against Gustavus, and was assassinated in 1634. Note.— After this war Germany never regained its former proud position, and the two kingdoms of Austria and Prussia rose into great importance. Leopold I., of Hungary, 1840-1705, held his country against violent attacks of the Turks, and was engaged In three wars with Louis XIV. , of France. In the last was fought the celebrated battle of Blenheim, in 1704, 43. Who were the five great generals of mod- ern times? Ans. — Prince Eugene, who gained the battles of Peter- wardein (1716) and Beldrade(1717), Wellington, Napoleon, Marlborough, and Frederic the Great. 44. When was the Seven Years' War? Ans. — It was fought at the same time of our French and Indian war; i. e, t from 1756 to 1763. Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI., engaged in this war with Fred- eric the Great, which gained glory for Prussia, but was of no advantage to Austria. 45. What Austrian Monarch fought Napo- leon? Ans.— Francis I., in 1809, entered upon a very disas- trous war, costing him a large portion of his territory, forcing him to enter into an alliance with the French em- General History. 61 peror against Russia, and allowing Napoleon to marry his daughter, Maria Louisa. His successor, Ferdinand L, "was engaged in the conflict with Louis Kossuth in 1848. Note,— Frederic the Great, of Prussia, was succeeded by Frederic William II., 1744-1797; Frederic William III., 1770-1840; Frederic William IV., 1795-1861; and William I., 1797 . Query.— What was the Sehleswig-Kolstein difficulty? When was the battle of Sadowa fought? Who is Prince von Bismark- Echcenhausen? • 4:6. What is the history of France ? Ans.— The first king of France was Eudes, or Hugh,, crowned in 888, He was succeeded by Charles III., who was so intimidated by the northman s Chief Rollo, that in 912 he gave to him the hand of his daughter, with the present territory of Normandy as dowry. Rollo became the first duke of Normandy, and the ancestor of William the Conqueror, Note.— The history of France, under the Carlovingian dynasty and the House of Capet, is intimately associated with that of Germany. A succession of petty wars and the participation of its monarchs in the crusades are the only matters of interest up to the founding of the House of Valois in 1328. 47. What was the Hundred Years' War ? • Am— A struggle on the part of England for the crown of France. By the battle of Agincourt, October 15, 1415, most of the French territory was given up to the English, but, in 1429, Jeanne D'Arc, the "Maid of Orleans" a young peasant girl twenty years of age, at the head of the French army, animated by enthusiasm, gained some minor victories. Subsequently she was taken by the Eng- lish, and burned alive in the market place at Rouen. Charles VII,, though treating this tragedy with indiffer- ence, entered upon the war with so much vigor that by 62 Dime Question Books. 1453 the whole of France, excepting Calais, was restored. His successors were Louis XI., Charles VIII., Louis XIL, and Francis L, whose reign is remarkable for the persecu- tions of the Protestants. 48. When was the massacre of St. Bartholo- mew? Ans. — It occurred on 6fc. Bartholomew's Eve, August 24, 1572. The dreadful work began upon the ringing of the bell of the church of St. Germain 1' Anxerrois opposite the palace. The victims in the city were estimated as high as 10,000. By royal order of Charles IX., the massa- cre was extended to the provinces, where 80,000 more were slain. 49. What was the Edict of Nantes ? Ans.— An Edict by Henry IV. (Navarre) in which he granted religious toleration to the Protestants. It was passed April 13, 1598, and revoked by Louis XIV., October 22, 1685. The revocation caused the emigration of 50,000 Prostestant families, some of whom settled in Charleston, a c. 50. How was the Honse of Bourbon estab- lished ? Ans.— -By a severe contest, in which Henry VI. defeated Mayenne, general of the "League," at the battle of Ivry, in 1590. The Bourbons ruled from 1589 to 1793. Louis XVI. was guillotined on the 21st of January "amid the wild shouts of the people," and in less than a month after the Queen Marie Antoinette was beheaded. These were the days of the Revolution, in which the National. Assem- General History. 63 bly ruled France; the Bastile was stormed; the streets were drenched with human blood; and the names of the crafty Talleyrand, the good Lafayette, and the notorious Danton, Marat, and Robespierre, are written on her Tiistory. 51. Who was known as "Le Petit Corporal >3 ? A:NS.~-This was a term of endearment applied to Napo- leon Bonaparte, 1769-1821, by the French army, From the time of his dispersion of the National Guard, October 4, 1706, to his final defeat at Waterloo, June 18, 1815, he was successively engaged in establishing himself as Em- peror of the French; crowning his brothers Joseph, King of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland; subduing Italy; ihumbling Austria; conquering Spain; and defeating the allied armies of Russia, Prussia, and England. Note.— The house of Orleans, established in 1830, was ended i>y the revolution of 1848. From the latter date to 1852, a republic existed under the presidency of Louis Napoleon, who, by Ms coup d' etat of December 2, managed to have himself proclaimed em- peror, as Napoleon III. Uniting his forces with those of Victor Emanuel, the two emperors gained the battles of Magenta and Solferino over the Austrians, in June, 1869. Query.— When was the Franco -Prussian War? What was the result of the battle of Sedan f Who was first president of the new French republic? Who is the present incumbent? 52. Give the history of Spain, Ans. — In 711, the Moors, Arabs, or Saracens as they are also called,, came from Africa and conquered nearly the whole of Spain, establishing their capital at Cordova. Their supremacy was gradually reduced, and, in 1492, all Moors and Jews were banished from the country by Ferdi- nand and Isabella. Ferdinand was succeeded by Charles I. 64 Dime Question Books. also emperor of Germany, who abdicated in favor of his son, Pliilip IL The principal aim of Philip's life was the extension of the Komish Church. He was engaged in cccflicts with the Pope, the Sultan, and Henry II. of France. Upon his return, he attended an auto-de fe, act of faith, at which fourteen Protestants, condemned by the Inquisition, were burned at the stake. His "War with the Netherlands," and the "Invincible Armada" sent against England were both unsuccessful. Note.— The independence of the United States of Holland was formally acknowledged In 1648. The southern provinces called Belgium, after varying fortunes declared themselves independent in 1830, placing Leopold I. on the throne. Her independence was acknowledged by Holland in 1883. 53. When was the naval power of Spain Ans.— In 1805, at the battle of Trafalgar, when Lord Nelson, at the cost of his own life, gained a decisive vic- tory over the allied fleets of Spain and France under the command of Count Yilleneuve, Note.— The remainder of Spanish history is principally that of a series of internal dissensions and revolutions, the partisan warfare carried on by Don Carlos within the past few years Deing a sample of the afflictions of Spain. 54. Who were the Angles ? Ans. — Savage tribes dwelling in the lowlands of North Germany, who, with the Jutes and Saxons, invaded Briton about 450 and waged war on both Romans and Britons. The country became known as Angl eland from the Angles, and this name finally became the modern name England. The German invaders and the native Britons never coal- esced. The latter were gradually exterminated and driven into "Wales and Scotland. General History. 65 55, Who were the conquerors of England ? Ans. — The Danes. After many invasions of the days of Egbert, who became king of England in 827, they con- quered the country and ruled it from 1013 to 1041. Again, after having lived on the coasts of France, the same. peo- ple, as Normans, under ^William the Conqueror overcame the English under King Harold at the battle of Hastings in 1060, 56. How long did the Plantagenets rule ? Ans.— From 1154 to 1485. Henry II., the first of this line of kings, is the one "who held the stirrup for Pope Alexander to mount his horse." His reign is tarnished, by the murder of Thomas & Becket in 1170. Henry was suc- ceeded by Richard I., who started for the Holy Land sooa after his coronation, leaving his brother John to rule Eng- land. The gentle outlaw of the Sherwood forest, Robin Hood, lived at this time. From John the nobles forced the signature of the Magna Gharta, on the meadow of Runny- mede, near Windsor, June 15, 1215. Note.— John was followed by six kings, the last of whora.Rioh- ard II., 1368-14CO, was only 11 years old at the time of his acces- sion, the affairs of the kingdom being managed by his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster, York and Gloucester, whose family quarrels led to the Wars of the Roses in 1455-1485. Query.— Who were the three kings of the House of Lancaster ? When was Jack Cade's Eebellion ? Who was the " King-maker"? What three kings had a white rose for a badge ? What happened at Bosworth ? 47. Who were the Tudors? Ans. — The reigning family of Great Britain from 1485 to 1603. 'The first monarch, Henry VII., married Elizabeth, sister of the princes who were supposed to have been mur- 66 Dims Question Books. dered by Richard III,, thus uniting the houses of Lancas- ter and York. He was succeeded by Henry VIII. with his six wives, Edward VI., Mary, and Queen Elizabeth. The latter was a patroness of literature, and her reign was a golden one. She gave aid to the Huguenots, took up the cause of the people of the Netherlands, and totally destroyed the Spanish Armada sent against England by Philip II,, her former suitor. She was succeeded by James L, the beginning of the Stuart line. His son, Charles I., was beheaded on January 30, 1649. 58. When was the rule of the Commonwealth ? Ans — Under Cromwell's Protectorate, from 1649 to 1660, when the Stuart line was restored in the person of Charles II. His reign was troubled with the insurrection of the Fifth Monarchy Men, the Great Plague, the Great Fire, the Rye House Plot, etc. Note.— The house of Stuart and Nassau succeeded the revolu- tion of 1688 and consequent flight of James II. to France, by the suc- cession of William and Mary. Queen Anne reigned from 1702 to 1714. Then the House of Brunwick which still rules the destinies of Great Britain. The present sovereign, Queen Victoria, com- pleted her sixty-third year on May 24th, 1882, an age which has only been exceded by eleven of her predecessors, dating from the Norman conquest, viz : Henry I., Henry III., Edward I. ; Edward III., Queen Elizabeth, James II., George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. To-day (Juue 20th) she has reigned for forty-five years, a reign which has been exceeded in length by only the three kings,. Henry III., Edward III., and George III. Query.— Who was Guy Fawkes? When was the battle of Naseby fought? Who tortured the Covenanters? Who was judge of the " Bloody assize " in 1685. When was the battle of Culloden fought? Who was king of England during the Revolutionary War? Give the history of Horatio Nelson. Who was called the First Gentleman in Europe? What victory was won by Sir John Moore? General History. 67 59. What was the rise of the Dutch Republic? Ans. — The Netherlands belonged to Spain at the time of the Reformation, but revolted in 1567 on the introduc- tion of the Inquisition, Against Philip II., they made a determined resistance, led by "William the Silent," of Nassau, Prince of Orange. The war ended in 1009. 60. What is the history of China and Japan ? Ans. — But little was known, accurately, of these coun- tries until the present century. China has a very ancient civilization, dating back to at least 2,000 B. C. The reli- gion of the country is Confucianism, from Confucius, its founder. The Chinese are said to have invented the mari- ner's compass and gunpowder. 61. Who was King John Sobieski ? The ruler of Poland when she became one of the great powers in Europe. He compelled the Turks to raise the siege of Vienna in 1683. After this Poland rapidly de- clined, becoming a prey to internal dissensions and the rapacity of her neighbors. By the infamous agreement entered into between Austria, Prussia, and Russia, she was "partitioned" among these powers in 1772. A sec- ond and a third partition, in 179.2 and 1795, wiped her from the list of nations. The unfortunate Poles made a gallant defence of their liberties, but in vain. 62. What country belongs to the Slavonian race % Ans.— Russia. The early history of this country is unimportant. It w T as overrun by the Tartars in the 13tb century. The invaders held the country for a long time, % 63 Dime Question Books. and the Russian Dukes were considered vassals of the Tartar Khans. Ivan HI., who became czar about the time that Elizabeth ascended the throne of England, delivered Russia from Tartar supremacy. Note.— Peter the Great, who lives in the memory of Russians as the i( Father of his Country," the head of the present royal famil: , was born in 1672, and was crowned when only ten years old. The familiar story of his working as a common ship-earpen- ter in Holland is too well known for recital. The war with Sweden was the great event of his reign. He died in 1723. 63. Who was Catherine the Great ? Ans. — Next to Peter the Great, the ablest and most suc- cessful of the Russian autocrats. During her reign of thirty-four years (1762-1790), she achieved the conquest of the Crimea, and won still more by her share in the *' Par- tition of Poland." Suwarrow was her great general. She was succeeded by her son Paul, an eccentric, half- crazy creature, who was murdered in 1801, His son, Alexander I., came to the throne, and he was great-grandfather of the present Alexander III., who lives in mortal dread of the Nihilists- Query.— What was the result of the Crimean War? When was the charge of the Six Hundred? How was Alexander II. assassin- ated? When was the battle of Warsaw ? Who was Kosciusko? 65. Who were the rulers of Sweden ? Ans. — Sweden, belonging originally to Denmark, had revolted towarsl the end of the 15th century. Gustavus Vasa, leading the Swedes to victory, was crowned king in 1527. The next sovereigns were Queen Christiana, Charles X., Charles XL and Charles XII., the "Madman of tfie North" The latter, after defeating th,e Poles and Danes^ attacked a force of Russians ten times his own army, at General Histosy, 69 Narva, and totally defeated them. Laying siege to PvJr towa, his army was destroyed, and he was obliged to flee to Turkey with 300 followers. He was fiaally killed by a cannon ball while besieging the castle of Fredericshall, in Norway, 1718. The head of the present family was Ber- nadotte, 1765-1844, a French officer, who took the title Charles XIV. He owed his elevation to his military repu- tation, and to the suffrages of the Diet. Mnemonics. i7*o_cq i Seven Years' War in Europe, i/ou-o*jce Question Books. compared to which a mass of white hot iron is as cold as ice. They shine, or give out light, because they are white- hot. At their surfaces, masses of metals and other sub- stances are mingling together with a heat more fierce than anything we can imagine. The planets are comparatively small bodies travelling around the sun at various distances from him, Our earth is one of them. They are all dark bodies — obscure, or non-self 'luminous— and obtain their light and heat from the sun. The moon is a planet of the earth; it is to the earth what the earth is to the sun. In the moon we have a specimen of a third order of bodies, called satellites, or companions. The comets and nebulae are quite distinct from stars and planets, for they are in part masses of gas. Note.— The nebulas lie far away from us, some of them perhaps out of our universe altogether: the comets rush for the most part from distant regions to our/sun, and, having gone round him, they go hack again, and we see them for ar small part of their journey only. Nebulae and comets, like the stars, shine because they are white-hot; but in the case of stars we are dealing with incandes- cent, solid, liquid or densely gaseous matter, while in the case of the nebulae and eomets, we are dealing with gas in a very rarefied state, and probably also at a lower temperature. 5. What is the difference in the appearance of a fixed star and of a planet ? Ans. — Those stars which shine v/ith a clear, distinct light, and change their position with respect to the others, are called planets. Those which remain immovable, and shine with a shifting, twinkling light, are termed fixed stars, although it is now known that they also are in motion. 6. What are the two branches of Astronomy? Astronomy. 77 An3.— 1. Physical Astronomy, which deah with the laws of motion and the structure of the heavenly bodies; and, 2, Practical Astronomy, which teaches us how their movements may be made to help mankind. Query.— From what two Greek words is the name Astronomy derived? What was the "Saros" or "Chaldean Period"? Eudoxus, who lived in the fourth century B.C., invented the theory of the Crystalline Spheres. What was it? 7. WhowasThales? Ans.— One of the Seven Wise Men in the seventh cen- tury B, C, who established the first school of Astronomy in Greece, He taught that the earth is round, and that the moon receives her light from the sun. He introduced the division of the earth's surface into zones, and the the- ory of the obliquity of the ecliptic. He also predicted an eclipse of the sun, which is memorable in ancient history as having terminated a war between the Medes and Lydi- ans. These nations were engaged in a fierce battle, but the awe produced by the darkening of the sun was so great that both sides threw down their arms and made peace, One of his pupils, Anaximander, erected the first sundial at Sparta, 8. What is the Ecliptic f Ans. — The great circle of the heavens, along which the gun performs his annual peth, so-called because when either sun or moon is eclipsed it is in this circle. Or the plane of the sun's apparent, and the earth's real motion. Note.— From the remotest antiquity, the stars have been classified into groups called constellations, each constellation being fancifully named after some object which the arrangement of the Stars composing it was thought to suggest. 9. When was the first classification of stars? 78 Dime Question Books. Am— About the year 150 A. D., made by Ptolemy, of Alexandria, who arranged the 1033 stars observed at Rhodes by Hipparchus, the Bithynian astronomer, of the second century B. C. His catalogue contains 48 constella- tions; two were added by Tycho Brahe, the celebrated Danish astronomer, and to these fifty (called the ancient) constellations, have been added in more modern times 59, carrying the number up to 109. 10. What is meeant by " magnitudes f" Ans.— All of the stars visible to the naked eye are divided into six classes of brightness, called magnitudes, so that we speak of a very brilliant one as "a star of the first magnitude "; of the feeblest visible, as a star of the sixth magnitude, and so on. 11. What are telescopic stars? Ans.— The number of stars of all magnitudes visible to the naked eye is about 6 } 000; so that the greatest number visible at any one lime— as we can see only one-half of the sky at once—is 3,000. If we employ a small telescope, this number is largely increased, as that instrument ena- bles us to see stars too feeble to be perceived by the eye alone. Such stars are called " telescopic stars" Note.— -The zodiacal constellation $ are to foe distinguished from the signs of the zodiac bearing the same name. In English and in rhyme these are under : "The Earn, the Bull, the Heavenly Twins, And next the Crab, the Lion shines, The Virgin and the Scales, The Scorpion. Archer, and He-goat, The man that bears the Watering-pot, And Fish with glittering tails." 12. Who was Pythagoras ? Ans. —The founder of the second celebrated astronomi- Astronomy, 79 cal school, at Orotona, at which were educated hundreds of enthusiastic pupils. ,He knew the causes Of eclipses, and calculated them by means of the Baros. He was most emphatically a dreamer. He conceived a system of the universe in many respects correct; yet he advanced no proof, and made few converts to his views, which were soon well-nigh forgotten. 13. What was the Copernican system? Ans. — A revival of the theory of Pythagoras by Coper- nicus, the Prussian philosopher, about the middle of the I6th century. He was followed by Tycho Brahe, who propounded a modification of this system. Rejecting the ideas of cycles and epicycles, he was influenced by certain passages of Scripture to maintain with Ptolemy that the earth is the centre, and that all the heavenly bodies revolve about it daily in circular orbit. t Note.— Kepler, a pupil of Tycho, adopted the Copernican the- ory. His three laws were : 1. Planets revolve in ellipses, with the sun at one focus. 2. A line connecting the centre of the earth with tiie centre of the sun passes over equal spaces in equal times. 8. The squares of the times of revolution of the planets about the sun are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. Query.— What discoveries did Galileo make? What recanta- tion was he obliged to make? Name some of the northern constdr .ntions— the southern ones. 14. Name the first magnitude stars. Ans. — The twenty brightest stars in the heavens are as follows : Sirius, in the constellation Oanis Major. Canopus, " '■ " Argo. Alpha, '■ Centaur. Arcturus, " " Bo5tes. 80 Dime Question Books. Rlgel, in the constellation Orion. Capella, " " Auriga. Vega, " Lyra. Procyon, " " Canis Minor. Betelgeuse, " " Orion. Achernar, " Er id anus. Aldebaran, " " Taurus. Beta Centauri, " Centaur. Alpha Crucis, " " Crux. Antares, " " Scorpion. Altair, " Aquiia. Spica, " i( Virgo. Fomalhaut, " " Piscis Australia. Beta Crucis, " " Crux. Pollux, " " Gemini. Kegulus, " " Leo. Note.— Although the stars, and the various constellations, re- tain the same relative positions that they did in ancient times, they are, nevertheless, in motion; and in some of them nearest to U3 this motion, called proper motion, is very apparent, and it has been measured. Thus Arcturus is travelling at the rate of at least 54 miles a second, or three times faster than our earth travels around the sun. Our Sun is approaching the constellation Her- cules at the rate of 4 miles a second, carrying its system of planets, including our Earth, with it. 15. How many motions has the earth ? Give velocity of each. Ans.— The earth has two motions— the motion of the earth in space about the sun at the rate of about 1,000 miles per minute; and the diurnal revolutions of the earth on its own axis. Different points upon the earth's surface revolve with different velocities. At the poles the speed is noth- ing, while at the equator it is over 1,000 miles per hour. At Quito, the rate is about 1,038 miles per hour, at the ASTBONOMY. 81 mouth of the St, Lawrence about 450 miles. In latitude 40° and 41°, the speed is respectively 795 and 780 miles per hour, Query.— Why do we not perceive this wonderful velocity? What would be the result of a sudden cessation of the earth's rotation? If the rate of rotation were to increase ? What are apparent motions? Haw caused? 16. What is the Milky Way f Ans.-— Winding among the stars is a beautiful belt of pale light spanning the sky, and frequently so situated as to divide the heavens into two nearly equal portions. It Is composed of stars^so faint, and apparently so near together, that the eye can only perceive a dim, continuous glitter. Of the 20,000,000 stars visible in powerful tele- scopes, at least 18,000,000 lie in and near the milky way. 17. What are the classes of stars ? Ans.=— Double, Multiple, and Variable. Stars which appear single to the naked eye, appear double, triple, and quadruple, and, in some instances, the number of stars revolving round a common centre is even greater when viewed through a telescope, A beautiful star in the con- stellation of the Lyra appears as a faint single star. An opera-glass suffices to show it double, and a powerful instrument reveals the fact that each star composing this double is itself double; hence it is known as "the Double- double." Note.— More than 6,000 douhle stars are now known, and of these motion has already been detected in nearly 700, the motion In some cases being very rapid, The brilliancy in the component stars varies so that a star of the first magnitude may have a com- panion of the tenth, twelfth or fourteenth magnitude. Sirius has, at least, one such companion. Stars in which the variation in the 82 Dime, Question Books. light is, as it is generally, slow, regular, and within certain limits, are.called variables. Query.— What are physical couples f optical couples 1 What are new stars, lost stars, and temporary stars f Name some of the red, blue, green, yellow, and white stars. Do the colors of the stars change? What are occults f What are star-clusters? What is the Pleiades? 18. What are the classes of nebulae ? Ans.— 1, Irregular nebulse. 2. Ring nebulae and ellip- tical nebulae. 3. Spiral, or whirlpool nebulas. 4. Plane- tary nebulae. 5. Nebulae surrounding stars. Some of the irregular nebulae— those in the constellations Orion and Andromeda, for example, — are visible to the naked eye on a dark night. Note.— The nebulae vary slightly in color from a greenish white tinge to a planetary and bluish light. An idea of the extreme faintness of the more distant nebul sb may be gathered from the fact that the light of a single sperm candle viewed at the distance of a quarter of a mile is 20,000 times more brilliat than the nebula. A true 7iebula is a mass of glowing or ineandescent gas. 19. What is the " nebular hypothesis " f Ans. — It supposes that all the matter which makes up the sun and the bodies revolving around it was at one time in a gaseous state, and whirling around a centre. By its centrifugal force, rings of matter were thrown off from the outside, which, obeying the law of attraction, formed into globes. These globes became the planets, the earth among the number. 20. Of what is the " solar system " composed 3 Ans.— It consists of: 1. The sun — the centre; 2, the major planets — Vulcan (undetermined), Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune; 3, the Astronomy. 83 minor planets, at present 140 in number; 4, the satellites or moons, 20 in number, which revolve around the differ- ent planets; 5, meteors and shooting stars; 6, nine comets whose orbits have been computed, and over 1,200 of which but little is known; 7, the zodiacal light* 21. Describe the Sun. Ans.— The centre of the universe, whose beam comes to us as simply motion of ether- waves, yet it is the grand source of beauty and power. Its heat, light and chemical force work everywhere the miracles of life and motion. The light of the sun is equal to 5,563 wax candles held at the distance of one foot from the eye. Its diameter is 853,- 380 miles. More than 1,200,000 Earths would be required to make one Sun. Astronomers express this by saying that the volume of the sun is 1,200,000 times greater than than that of the earth, but as the matter of which the sun is composed weighs only one quarter as much, bulk for bulk, as do the materials of which the earth is made up, taken together, 300,000 Earths only would be required in one scale of a balance to weigh down the sun in the other. That is, the mass, or weight of the sun, is 300,000 times greater than that of our earth. Note.— The average distance of the sun from the earth is about 91,500,000 miles. It seems a little larger to us in winter than in summer, as we are 3,000 miles nearer to it. The rotation of the sun on its axis was discovered by observing the spots on its sur- face. 22. What is meant by the plane of the Eclijh tic? Ans. — Imagine the earth floating around the sun on a boundless ocean, both sun and earth being half immersed 84: Dime Question Books. in it. This level, called the plane of the Ecliptic, is used by astronomers in precisely the same way as we common- ly use the sea level. A mountain is so high above the level of the sea. Astronomers say that such *a star is so high above the plane of the ecliptic. Query.— How many motions has the sun? What are sun spots? How many motions have they? What is the meaning of umbra and penumbra f What i s the protosphere ? nucleus ? Note.— The spots on the sim appear to have been noticed as early as 807 A, D., although the telescope was not invented until 1610, and Galileo discovered the solar spots in the following year. 23. What are the Equinoxes ? Am— The points of intersection of the ecliptic and equator. When the sun occupies these positions in spring and autumn of the northern hemisphere, there is equal day and night all over the world, a small circle near each pole excepted, The poles of the ecliptic are the points where the axis of the earth's orbit meets the celestial sphere. 24. What is the celestial sphere ? Ans. — It is the blue arch of the sky, as it appears to be spread above us. The sun appears to be about half a de- gree in diameter, so that 860 disks like the sun, laid side by side, would make a half circle of the celestial sphere. Note.— The apparent yearly motion of the sun is so important that astronomers map out the celestial sphere by a second method, in order to indicate his motion more easily: for as the plane of the celestial equator, like the plane of the terrestrial equator, does not coincide with the plane of the ecliptic, the sun's distance from the celestial equator varies every minute. To get over this diffi- culty, they make of the plane of the' ecliptic a sort of second celes- tial equator. They apply the term celestial latitude to angular distances from it to the poles of the heavens, which are 90 degrees from it north and south. They apply the term celestial longitude Astronomy. 85 to the angular distance— reckoned on the plane of the ecliptic— from the position occupied by the sun at the vernal equinox, reck- oning from left to right up to 360 degrees. Tins latitude and lon- gitude may be either heliocentric or gmcentric : that is, reckoned from the centre, either of the sun or oi the earth, respectively. 25. What is the Zodiac? Ans.— -It is a belt of the celestial sphere, 8° on each side of the ecliptic, divided into twelve equal parts of 30° each. It is of very high antiquity, having been in use among the ancient Hindoos and Egyptians. Note.— These signs, with their symbols, are as follows: Spring Signs. Summer Signs. Autnma Signs, Winter SignB, f Aries. © Cancer. ^ Libra v3 Capricornus. b Taurus. SI Leo. tie. Scorpio. & Aquarius, n Gemini, tij, Virgo. $ Sagittarius, x Pisces. At the time these signs were adopted, the sun entered the con- stellation Aries at the vernal equinox, and occupied, in succession, the constellations bearing the same names; but at present, owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the signs no longer correspond with the constellations, which must not therefore be confounded with them. 26. What is the Zodiacal Light t Ans.— A faint light, shaped like a sugar-loaf, is some- times seen stretching obliquely upward in the heavens, from 70 to 100 degrees, from that part of the horizon where the sun is about rising or had just set. This phe- nomenon is known as the "zodiacal light." It is brightest and most distinctly defined in tropical regions, where it is visible most of the time. In high latitudes, it is seldom clearly seen, except during March and April just after sun- set, and in September and October immediately before dawn. There are various theories as to its Ollgifl, but XhQ cause of the zodiacal light is unknown. 27. T7hat are the classes of planets? 86 Dime Question Books, Ans.— Inferior and Superior. The first, or those which travel around the sun within the earth's orhit, are Mercury and Venus. And the latter, outside of the earth's orbit, are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Note.— Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, being visible to the naked eye, were known to the ancients. Uranus was discovered i» 1781 by Sir William Herschel, from whom it was first commonly called Herschel. Its discoverer gave it the name of Georgium Sidus, in honor of King George III. Both these names were discarded for the mythological one by which it is at present known. The first of the asteroids, Ceres, was discovered in 1801 by the Sicilian astronomer, Piazzi. Pallas was added to the list in 1804, Juno in 1804, Vesta in 1807, and the remainder since 1844. Neptune was discovered in 1846, by Dr. Galle, of Berlin. It was first called Le Verrier, in honor of an eminent French astron- omer, who, by a sertes of calculations, established the fact that there was a more distant planet than Uranus, and instructed Dr. Galle in what part of the heavens to look for it. •28. What are the " conjunctions f " Ans.— When an inferior planet is in a line between the earth and sun, it is said to be in inferior conjunction with the sun: when it is in the same line, but beyond the sun, it is said te be in superior conjunction. When a superior planet is on the opposite side of the sun, — that is, when the sun is between us and it,— we say it is in con- junction. 29. What is " opposition f " Ans. — When a superior planet is in the same straight line, but with the earth in the middle, we say it is in opposition, because it is then in the part of the heavens opposite to the sun. 60. What is a " transit?" Astronomy. 87 Ans — The passage of an inferior planet across flie sun's disk. 81. What is " occuliationf " Ans. — When a planet or star is hid from the view of an observer on the earth, by the interposition of some other heavenly body, it is said to suffer occitltatton, or to be eclipsed. Query.— What is the meaning of horizon, zenith, and nadir? What is the sensible horizon ? Define the rational horizon. 32. Describe the Moon. Ans. — The earth is attended by one satellite, called the Moon, — a beautiful orb which ''rules the night" with its gentle brilliancy, produces in part the tides, and sensibly affects the earth's motions by its attraction. Its diameter is 2,165 miles, but its apparent size is almost equal to the sun's in consequence of its nearness to our planet. Its density is not much more than one half that of the earth, and it contains about one-eightieth as much matter. S3. What are its motions ? - Ans.— It is about 240,000 miles from the earth, and revolves about the latter so as to reach the same point rel- atively to the fixed stars in 27 days, 8 hours. To reach the same point relative to the sun loquires 29 days, 13 hours, since the earth has itself meanwhile advanced in its orbit. 34. What is the meaning of Perigee and Apogee ? Aks. — When nearest the earth, the moon is said to be 88 Dime Question Books. in her perigee, and when farthest from it, in. her apogee. The terms perigee and apogee (which mean near Hie earth, and away from the earth) are also applied to the apparent posi- tion of the sun. When the earth is at its perihslion, the sun is said to be in perigee; and when the earth is at its aphelion, the sun is in apogee. Note.— The tides are caused by a great wave, which, raised by the moon's attraction, follows her in her course around the earth. The sun, also, aids somewhat in producing this effect; but as the moon is 400 times nearer the earth her influence is far greater. 35. What is meant by the phases of the moon ? Ans. —The moon revolves around the earth from west to east in about 29-|- days, and the changes of her illumin- ated surface from a thin crescent to a circle, and vice versa, are called its phases. These changes depend upon the position of the moon relative to the earth and sun, for it is only the half of the moon facing the sun that is illum- inated, and the whole of this portion can be seen from the earth only when the san, earth and moon are in a straight line. The plane of her orbit does not coincide with the ecliptic, but is inclined to it- at an angle of 5° 8' 47.9", and intersects it in two opposite points called nodes. The "ascending node" is the point at which the moon pene- trates the plane of the earth's orbit in passing from south to north. The "descending node" is crossed by the moon in returning south. If the moon happens to be new or full&t either of these points, in one case we shall have an eclipse of the sun, and in the other an eclipse of the moon. If the moon's motion were performed in the plane of the eclip- tic, we should have a solar eclipse at every new moon, and a lunar eclipse at every full moon. When the moon is not quite at a node at the time it is new or full, it is only partially eclipsed. 86. What is quadrature f Astronomy. 89 Ans.— It is the position of one heavenly body in respect to another when distant from it 90° The moon is in her quadrature when at an equal distance from the points of "conjunction" and " opposition," 37. Has the moon an atmosphere ? Am— Two reasons have been given why the moon has no atmosphere: 1, Because we never see any clouds there, and, 2, because when the moon's motion causes it to travel over a star, or to occult it, as it is called, the star disappears at once, and does not seem to linger on the edge, a3 it would do if there were an atmosphere; but during the recent total eclipse of the sun (May 17th, 1881,) the savants of the French expedition claim to have discovered a lunar atmosphere, 38. Is the moon inhabited '? Am— This question is often asked in reference to all of the heavenly bodies, but no evidences of inhabitants have ever been discovered, even in the moon, which is the nearest to us. Nothing, however, seems to be created without an object, and if the planets are inhabited, it must be by creatures constituted very differently from the hu- man race. Surrounded by entirely different circumstances as regards temperature, gravity, atmosphere, etc., the inhabitants of the different planets must be races distinct from each other. 39* What is an eclipse of the sun or moon? Ans. — An eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon passing between it and the earth, andinterceptiug its rays. When the moon intervenes between the sun and the earth at such a distance from the latter as to make her apparent 90 Dime Question Books. diameter less than the sun's, a singular phenomenon is exhibited. The whole disk of the sun is obscured, except a narrow ring around the outside encircling the darkened centre, This is called an Annular Eclipse, from the Latin annulus, a ring. An eclipse of the moon is caused bj r the earth getting between it and the sun. Note.— The moon also turns on its axis in exactly the same time that it takes to revolve around the earth, and in the same direction. The consequence is that she always presents the same side to the earth. Nearly one-half of our fair attendant we never see, and to the inhabitants of half her surface, if she has any, we are invisible. 40. Describe the appearance of Mercury, and where seen. Ans.— Mercury is nearest to the sun of any of the defi- nitely known planets. Under favorable circumstances, it may be seen, at certain times of the year, for a few min- utes after sunset or before sunrise, twinkling with a pale, rosy light. As the evening star, its elevation increases daily, but never exceeds 80° Its mean distance from the sun is 35,000,000 miles. Its diameter is about 3,000 miles, and it revolves about the sun at the rate of 30 miles per second, completing the revolution in 88 days. Its volume is about one twentieth that of the earth. 41. What is Yenns? Ans. —The most brilliant of all the planets. So bright is Venus that it is sometimes visible at mid-day to the naked eye, and in the absence of the moon casts a percepti- ble shadow. When visible before sunrise, it was called by the ancients Phosphorus, Lucifer, or the morning star, and when it shone in the evening after sunset, Hesperus, Vesper, or the evening star. It presents the same appear Astronomy. 9 1 ance as Mercury. Its diameter is 7,600 miles, and its mean distance from the sun is about 66,000,000. The vol- ume of this planet is about four-fifths that of the earth, while the density is about the same. It completes its revolution around the sun in 225 days, at the mean rate of 22 mile3 a second. Note.— The orbit of Mercury is the most eccentric of any of the eight principal planets, so that although when in perihelion it approaches to within 28,000,000 miles, in aphelion it speeds away 15,000,000 miles farther, or to the distance of 43,000,000 miles. The distance of Venus only varies at aphelion and perihelion within the limits of half a million miles. 42. What is the meaning of eccentricity? Aks. — The eccentricity of an orbit is the distance of either focus from the centre of the orbit. Greek, (&Jc) from, and (Jcivrpov) the centre. The eccentricity of the earth's orbit is about 1% millions of miles. Note.— As the axis of Venus is very much inclined from a per- pendicular, its seasons are similar to those of Mercury. The tem- perate and torrid zones overlap each other, the polar regions hav- ing alternately at one solstice a torrid temperature, and at the other a prolonged arctic cold. The inequality of the nights is very marked. The heat and light are double those of the earth, while the circular form of its orbit gives nearly an equal length to its four seasons. 43, What would be the result if the axis of the earth were perpendicular to the ecliptic ? Ans. — The sun would always appear to move through the equinoctial: that is, those parts of the earth which lie under the equator would be constantly opposite to the sun; and as, in that case, the sun would at all times of the year be vertical to those places equally distant from both 92 Dime Question Books. poles, so the light and heat of the sun would be dispersed with perfect uniformity toward each pole; we should have no variety of seasons; day and night would be of the same length, and the heat of the sun would be of the same intensity throughout the year. There would be near the equator a fierce torrid heat, while north and south the climate would melt away into temperate spring, and, lastly, into the rigors of a perpetual winter, 44. Give a description of Mars. Ans, —It is the first of the superior planets, and the one most like the earth. It appears to the naked eye as a bright red star, rarely scintillating, and shining with a steady light, which distinguishes it from the fixed stars. Its ruddy appearance has led to its being celebrated among all nations. The Jews gave it the appellation of "blazing/* and it bore in other languages a similar name. At conjunc- tion, its apparent diameter is only about 4"; but' once in two years it comes into opposition with the sun, when its diameter increases to 30". Mars not only has land and water and snow like us, but it has clouds and mists, and these have been watched at different times. The land is generally reddish when the planet's atmosphere is clear; this is due to the absorption of the atmosphere, as is the color of the setting sun with us. The water appears of a greenish tinge. Note.— Mars revolves about the sun at a mean distance of about 140,000,000 miles, completing the revolution in 686 clays, with an average velocity of 15 miles per second. Its diameter is a little less than 5,000 miles, while its volume is about one-fourth that of the earth. 45. What is the largest planet? Ans.— Jupiter. It is bright enough at times, in spite of its great distance, to cast a shadow like Venus, and ia Astronomy. 93 surrounded by an atmosphere so densely laden with clouds that of the actual planet itself we know nothing. "What are generally known as the belts of Jupiter are dusky streaks- which cross a brighter background in directions generally parallel to the planet's equator. Its mean dis- tance from the sun is 475,000,000 miles, and its velocity is about 500 miles per minute. The year at Jupiter contains 4,332 days. Its diameter is about 88,000 miles, and its volume is 1,400 times that of the earth. 46. When, by whom, and by 'what process, was the velocity of light ascertained ? Ans.— It was first found in 1676 by the Danish astron- omer Roemer, by observations of the eclipses of Jupiter's moons. When the earth w r as nearest to Jupiter, the eclipses appeared about 8£ minutes too soon for the calcu- lations, and when the earth was most remote from Jupiter, they were about 8£ minutes too late. Roemer concluded the reason to be that it required about 17 minutes for light from the planet to traverse the diameter of the earth's orbit, which measured the difference of the distances of the earth from Jupiter. If the diameter of the earth's orbit is 185,- 000,000 miles, that divided by 17 X 60 = 181,372 miles a second. Bradley and others have verified the results, though some astronomers place the orbit at 182,000,000 miles, and deduce by a rule of three problem that light travels about 186,000 miles a second. Note.— As the axis of Jupiter is but slightly inclined from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, there is but little difference In the length of its days and nights, winch are each of about five hours' duration. At the poles, the sun is visible for nearly six years, and then remains set for the same length of time. The sea- sons vary bat slightly. Summer reigns near the equator, while the temperate regions enjcy perpetual spring. \)± Dime Question Books. 47. What is the planet next in size to Jupi- ter? Ans. — Saturn, which is not only belted like Jupiter, but is surrounded by a series of rings, one of which, the inner one, is transparent. It is to the rings that most of the interest of this planet attaches. We may well imag- ine how sorely puzzled the earlier observers, with their very imperfect telescopes were by these strange append- ages. The planet at first was supposed to resemble a vase, hence the name Ansae, or handles, given to the rings in certain positions of the planet. It was next supposed to consist of three bodies, the largest one in the middle. The true nature of the rings was discovered by Huyghens in 1655. Note.— This planet revolves about the sun at a mean distance of 872,000,000 miles, completing the revolution in 10,759 days. Its diameter is about 72,000 miles, and its volume nearly 750 times that of the earth. The light and heat of the sun at Saturn are only one one-hundredth that which we receive. The axis of Saturn is inclined from a perpendicular to the plane of its orbit about 31°. The seasons, therefore, are similar to those on the earth, but on a larger scale, each of them lasting more than seven of our years. 48. What is said of Uranus? Ans. — It may be seen by a person of strong eyesight in a perfectly dark sky, if he previously knows its exact posi- tion among the stars. It is very faint, and this is due to its great distance from the earth. Were it as near the sun, it would appear twice as large as Jupiter, It revolves about the sun in 84 of our years, or 31,000 days. There being no spots on the surtace, we are unable to fix the period of its revolution on its axis. Its distance from the sun is 1,754,000,000 miles, while its diameter is about S3, 000 miles. ASTKONOMY, 05 Note.— We know but little of the seasons of Uranus. Since its axis lies in the plane of its orbit, the sun winds in a spiral form around the whole planet. The light and heat are only three-thou- sandths of that which we receive ; the light is about the quantity which would be afforded by 300 full moons. The inhabitants of Uranus can see Saturn, and perhaps Jupiter, but none of the plan- ets within the orbit of the latter. 49. Describe Neptune. Ans.— It is .the far-off sentinel at the very out posts of the solar system, being the most distant planet of which we have any knowledge. It is invisible to the naked eye, and appears in the telescope as a star of the eighth mag- nitude. Its discovery is one of the greatest triumphs of which science can boast. Owing to its great distance from the sun, nothing is known of its physical peculiari- ties. It revolves about the sun at a mean distance of 2,750,000,000 miles, though its motion in its orbit is the slowest of any of the planets, being only 12,000 miles per hour. Note.— Its annual revolution is completed in 165 terrestrial years, or 60,000 days. Its diameter is about 87,000 miles, while its volume is nearly 100 times that of the earth. As the inclination of its axis is unknown, nothing can be ascertained concerning its seasons. Its density is a little less than that of water, or about the same as that of Uranus. 50. How many moons have the planets ? Ans. — The earth has one. Jupiter has four, and all but one of these satellites exceed our earth in size. The larg- est would sometimes be visible to the naked eye as a very faint star, were it not lost in the superior brightness of its planet. It has been inferred from the fact that their light varies, and that they are always brightest and dullest hi the same positions with regard to Jupiter and the sun, that 96 Djme Question Books. they rotate on their axes in the sarne time as they revolve around Jupiter. Three of them are totally eclipsed during every revolution by the long shadow -which the planet casts, and the fourth is very often eclipsed. Saturn is surrounded by eight moons, seven of which were known for GO years before the eighth was discovered. The larg- est of them has a diameter about half as large again as our moon. Mars has two moons. Uranus is attended by four moons, of which little is known, except the curious fact that their orbits are nearly perpendicular, to the plana of the earth's orbit, and that they move from east to west, unlike the satellites of the other planets. Neptune has at least one moon, distant from it about as far as ours from us. The revolution of this about the planet, which is accomplshed in six days, has furnished materials for cal- culating the mass of Neptune. Query.— When cannot Jupiter be seen? How are Saturn's rings prevented from falling in upon the planet? How can Jupiter be eclipsed? Which one of the planets shines with a *' steady, pale, yellow light"? 51. What is the comparative size of the ? _ Ans.-~ -For illustration, taking a globe some two feet in diameter to represent the Sun, Mercury would now be proportionately represented by a grain of mustard seed, revolving in a circle 164 feet in diameter; Venus, a pea, in a circle of 284 feet in diameter; the Earth also a pea, at a distance of 215 feet; Mars, a rather large pin's head, in a Circle of 654 feet; the smaller planets by grains of sand, in orbits of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet; Jupiter, a moderate sized orange, in a circle nearly half a mile across; Saturn, a small orange, in a circle of four fifths of a mile; Uranus, a full-sized cherry, or small plum, upon the circumference ASTBONOMY. 97 of a circle more than a mile and a half; and Neptune, a good-sized plum, in a circle of about two miles and a half in diameter. Note.— As some difference exists in the statements of various authorities regarding the time of revolution, distances, etc., two leading tables are presented. From Hersehel's'' Outlines of Astronomy" (1838): Name. Distance from Sun in miles. Yr. expressed in Earth's d'ys. Diameter in miles. Mercury 88,890,000 68,770,000 95,298,000 145,205,000 $ from 210 to301 I millions. 495,815,500 909,029,700 1,828,048,000 2,802,404,000 83 225 S65& 687 from 1,191 to 2,051 4,333 10,759 80,687 60,128 3,TS3 8,108 Earth 7,S26 4,546 esti'tedatfrom 100 to 1,000. 90,734 Jupiter.... 76,791 Uranus 85.307 Neptune 89,793 From Lockyer's " Elementary Lessons in Astronomy (1876) : Distance In Period of revolution Diameter miles. around the sun. In miles. D. H. M # Mercury 85,392,000 87 23 15 2,962. Venus.. 6(5,130,000 224 18 48 7,510. Earth 91,43 V'OO 865 6 9 7,901. Mars 139,312.000 €86 23 81 4,000. Jupiter 475,H93.<00 4.332 14 2 85,390. Baturn 872,135.000 10,759 5 16 71,904. Uranus 1.752,851,000 80,686 17 21 83,024. Neptune .....2,746,271,000 60,118 36 620. It is to he remembered that as the orbits are elliptical, the plan- ets are sometimes nearer to the sun than at other times. 62. WhatisBode'slaw? Ans — If we write down 3 6 13 21 43 03 and add 4 to each, we get 4 7 10 16 23 53 100 and this series of numbers represents very nearly the dis- tances of the ancient planets from the sun, as follows:— 93 Dxmb Question Books, Mercury, Tenus, Earth, Mars, — - — -, Jupiter, Saturn. This singular connection was discovered by Titius, and is known by the name of Bade's Law, The fifth term has apparently no representative among the planets. This fact acted so strongly on the imagination of Kepler that he boldly placed an undiscovered one in the gap. Up to the time of the discovery of Uranus, the undiscovered planet did not reveal itself. Note.— When it was found, however, that the actual position of Uranus was very well represented by the next term of the series, 196, it was determined to make an organized search for it, and for this purpose a society of astronomers was formed, the zodiac was divided into 24 zones, each zone being confided to a member of the^ society. On the first day of the present century, a planet was discovered and named Ceres, which, curiously enough, filled up the gap, 53. Which of the asteroids can we see ? Ans.— None of these planets, except occasionally Cere3 and Vesta, can be seen by the naked eye. Their chief characteristic is, that the largest minor planet is but 223 miles in diameter, and many of the smaller ones are less than 50. Note.— The planet nearest the sun i9 (8) Flora, whose journey around the sun is performed in 854 years, at a mean distance of 201,000,000 miles; the most distant one is (65) Maximiliana, whose year is as long as 6% of ours, and whose mean distance is 813,000,- 000 miles. 54. What is the supposed origin of the aste- roids ? Ans.— It has been suggested that they may be the frag- ments of a larger planet, \yhich some believe to have originally revolved between Mara aad Jupiter, and by Astronomy. 99 some tremendous catastrophe to have burst into frag- ments. Note.— The asteroids are comparatively so diminutive that the force of gravity on their surfaces must be very small. A man placed on one o. c them would spring with ease sixty feet high, and sustain no greater shock in his descent than he does on the earth from leaping a yard. On such planets giants may exist ; and those enormous animals which here require the buoyant power of water to counteract their weight, may there inhabit the land. 55. Which one has a hazy appearance ? Ans.— (2) Pallas; and it is supposed from this, that the planet is surrounded by a dense atmosphere. This may also be the case with the others, as their colors are not the same. There are also evidences that some among them rotate on their axes like the larger planets, 56. What are Comets? Ans. Bodies, probably white-hot, shining by their own light, which perform their journeys around the sun in every plane, in orbits which are either ellipses, parabolas, or hyperbolas. They differ very much in appearance; but, for the most part, they consist of a nucleus, which is a very bright spot, apparently denser than the other portions; an envelope, or coma (hair), which is a luminous fog-like cover surrounding the nucleus; and a tail, which appears to be an expansion of the envelope produced by solar heat. Note.— The tails of different comets differ greatly in shape and extent. In some, this appendage is entirely wanting; in others, it has been found to extend 112,000,00? miles. Several tails have been exhibited at the same time : the comet of 1744 threw out no less than six— like an enormous fan, over the heavens. Even in the same comet the tail keeps changing, being largest when near the sun, and diminishing as it recedes from that body. In 1853, the bright star Arcturns was seen through the tail of 100 Dime Question Books, Donati's comet, at a place where the tail was 90,000 miles In diam- eter. It is worthy of remark that in the year of the Norman in- vasion, 1066, a fine comet with three tails appeared, which in the Norman chronicle is given as evidence of William's divine right to invade England. Query.— When is the next return of Halley's comet? How many tails had the comet of 1823? What are short-period and long-period comets? Which comet divided itself into two por- tions? When was DeVlco's comet last observed? How near did the comet of 1680 approach the sun? 57. What are Meteors ? Ans,— -Bodies which are called, according to their brill- iancy, meteors, bolides, or falling or sJiooting stars, travers- ing the heavens in elliptic orbits around the sun. They are hot scattered uniformly in the space comprised by the Solar System, but are collected into groups, and what we term a shower of meteors is due to the earth breaking through one of these groups. It has been calculated that the average number of meteors which traverse the atmos- phere daily, and which are large enough to be visible to the naked eye on a dark, clear night, is no less than 7,500,000; and if we include meteors which would be visi- ble in a telescope, this number will have to be increased to 400,000,000. JErolites are those stony masses which fall to the earth. Historical Note.— On April 26, 18^3, a brilliant fire-baU (meteor) was seen traversing Normandy with great velocity, and some moments after, frightful explosions, like the noise of can- non or roll of musketry, were heard coming from a single black cloud hanging in a clear sky; they were prolonged for five or six minutes. These discharges were followed by a great shower of stones, some weighing over 21 pounds. One of the earliest accounts of star-showers is that which relates how, in 472, the sky at Con- stantinople appeared to be alive with flying stars and meteors. In some Eastern annals we are told that in October, 1202, ".the Astronomy. 101 stars appeared like waves upon the sky. They flew about like grasshoppers, and were dispersed Srom left to right." 58. What is a sidereal day ? Ans. — Star time, or it is the exact interval of time In which the earth revolves on its axis. It is found by mark- ing two successive passages of a star across the meridian of any place. This is so absolutely uniform that the length of the sidereal day has not varied one-hundredth of a second in 2,000 years. 59. What is a solar day % Ans.-— Sun time, or the interval between two successive passages of the sun across the meridian of any place. 60. What causes the difference between a sidereal and a solar year ? Ans.— If the earth were stationary in its orbit, the solar day would be of the same length as the sidereal ; but while the earth is turning around on its axis, it is going forward at the rate of 380° in a year, or about 1° per day. There- fore, when the earth has made a complete revolution, it must perform apart of another revolution through this additional degree, in order to bring the same meridian vertically under the sun. One degree of diurnal revolution is about equal to four minutes of time; hence the solar day is about four minutes longer than the sidereal day. 61. What is the distance of the fax^d stars ? Ans.— The distance of the fixed stars is absolutely in- conceivable. None of them can be less than 19,200,000,- 000,000 miles from the earth, while the greater part are far more remote. Their diameters are found to be enormous, 102 Dims Question Books. in one case not less than 200,000,000 miles. Sirius, if set in the place of our sun, would look 125 times as large as he, and give us 125 times as much light. Trillions of miles away, as it is, it dazzles the eye when seen through a powerful telescope. Note.— The idea of distance is often best conveyed by some every-day illustration. When the poet wrote, " Sic itur ad antra" —Thus one travels to the stars— he was not thinking of railroads. But they are familiar enough to us. In a lecture by Dr. William Huggens, the eminent English astronomer, as to the results of spectrum analysis as applied to the heavenly bodies, this striking statement was used to give some faint notion of the enormous dis- tance of the stars : "The earth's orbit," said the lecturer, "which is more than one hundred and ninety million miles in diameter, at most of the stars dwindles to a mere point, and has no sensible size whatever. If you suppose a railroad from the earth to the nearest fixed star, which is supposed to be twenty trillions of miles from us, and if you suppose the price of the fare to he one penny for every hun- dred miles,— not, mind, a penny per mile,— then, if you take a mass of gold to the ticket office equal to the national debt (three billion, eight hundred million dollars), it would not be sufficient to pay for a ticket to the nearest fixed star. And I think I should not be wrong in saying there are stars so far off that, at the price of one penny for every hundred miles, the whole treasure of the earth would not be sufficient to pay for a ticket." 62. Do we ever see the stars ? Ans,— "We do not. This assertion seems almost para- doxical, hut it is strictly true. The stars are so far re- moved from us that we see only the light they send, but not the surface of the planets themselves. 63. How is it that the days and nights are not always equal ? Ans,— The days and nights are equal all over the world ASTEOHOMY. 103 on the 22d of March and the 22d of September, which dates are called the vernal and autumnal equinoxes for that very reason — equinox being the Latin for eqnal night. If we were living in Greenland at the spring equinox, we should find the Arctic circle half in light and half in shade. One half of the twenty-four hours (the time of one rota- tion), therefore, will be spent in sunshine, the other in 8hade. Gradually, however, as we approach the summer solstice (going from left to right), we find the circle coming more and more into the light, in consequence of the incli- nation of the axis, until, when we arrive at the solstice, in spite of the earth's rotation, we cannot get out of Hie light. At this time, we see the midnight sun due north i The sun, in fact, does not set. The solstice passed, we ap- proach the autumnal equinox, when again we shall find the day and night equal, as we did at the vernal equinox. But when we come to the winter solstice, we get no more midnight suns: all the circle is now situated in the shaded portion; hence, again, in spite of the earth's rotation, we cannot get out of the darkness, and we do not see the sun even at noonday. 64. To what is the sun's heat equal ? Ans — The heat thrown out from every square yard of its surface is as great as that which would be produced by burning six tons of coal on it each hour. The surface of the sun contains 2,284,000,000,OCO square miles, and there are 3,097,600 square yards in each square mile. How many tons of coal must be burnt, therefore, in an hour, to represent the sun's heat? 64. To how mauy full moons is the sun's light equal ? 104 Dime Question Books. Ans.— It would require 800,000 full moons to produce a day as brilliant as one of cloudless sunshine* 66. What are the three classes of stars in our latitudes % Ans.—I. Those northern stars which never set (north- ern circumpolar stars). 2. These southern stars which never rise (southern circumpolar stars). 8. Those stars which both rise and set. 67. Where is the northern celestial pole ? Ans.— It lies in Ursa Minor, and a star in that constel- lation very nearly marks the position of the pole, and is therefore called polaris, pole star, or the north star. One of the most striking circumpolar constellations is Ursa Major (the Great Bear) the Dipper, the Plough or G/iarles 's Wain, as it is otherwise called. Two stars in this are called pointers, as they point to the pole star, and enable us to find it easily. Note.— The best way to obtain a knowledge of the various constellations and stars is to employ a celestial globe. When the positions of the constellations are thus known some star-map should be referred to, and used in comparison with the sky itself. 68. Name other constellations. Ans. — The other more important circumpolar constella- tions are Cassiopea, Ceplieus, Cygnus, Draco, Auriga (the brightest star of which, Capella, is very Eear the horizon when below the pole), and Perseus. The principal south- ern circumpolar constellations which never rise in this country are Crux, Centaurus, Argo, Lepus, Eridanus, and Dorado. Note.— The apparent movement of the celestial sphere Is com- pleted in the same time as the earth's rotation, and if, for instance, ASTRQNOMYA 105 we observe the Great Bear, we shall In six hours see it advance from one of its positions to the next— ninety degrees from the starting point— completing the revolution around the pole star in li hours. 69. How do we measure the distance of the sun? Ans.— Of the two principal methods, one depends on the gravitating force of the sun upon the moon, and the other upon the velocity of light. Now, we know from the phenomenon of aberration that light passes from the sun to the earth in about 498 secends. If the velocity of light is 186,300 miles per second, the product of these two num- bers gives the distance of the sun in miles. Practical Questions. Who invented the planisphere? Which is the "Dog- star"? What are the chemical ingredients of the Sun? What is the meaning of planet? of solstice? What is ab- erration of light? How many moons would it take to make one earth? What is a digit? When does the moon become gibbous f What, is meant by "mean distance"? Define azimuth, declination, and right ascension. What is the synodic period? What occasions the change of seasons? What is meant by the "precession of the equinoxes"? What are the November showers f Of what magnitude are the miner planets ? What is a vertical circle? When does Venus mane its next transit? What words are derived from rpiitoa (trepo) I change t What is the meaning of zodiac? To what is the term vialaciea applied? Describe mutation. What are faculse? A gnomon is what? How 108 Dime Question Books. determine the latitude by a circumpolar star? What day does the clock measure in twenty-four houi$? In what phases of the moon do eclipses of the sun and moon occur? How much higher and how much lower does the moon run than the sun? What were clepsydrm? Who was Anaxagoras? What was EirehoiFs theory of the consti- tution of the sun? When we say " The earth is in Libra," what do we mean? Why can we not see the stars by day as well as by night? Locate seven stars of the first magni- tude. MYTHOLOGY. MYTHOLOGY, ■O : >~ 1. What is Mythology? Ans.— The word mythology Is compounded of two Greek words, nvSoS, a fable, and A 6yo% t a discourse; and signifies a system of fables, or the fabulous history of the false gods of the heathen world. 2. Name its divisions. Ans. — 1. Cosmogony and Theogony. 2. The Gods- Superior and .Inferior Deities. 8. The -Demi-Gods and Heroes. 4. Mythic Fictions. Note.— By Cosmogony, we understand the legends relating to the creation of the worlds; by Theogony, those relating to the ori- gin of the gods. On both points we have to deal with the Greeks alone, since the Romans never indulged in any researches of this kind. All that their poets have to say on the subject iSi without exception, borrowed from the Greeks. 3. What was Chaos ? Ans.— Chaos,— dark, unbounded space, containing- all the seeds of nature, — was first, according to Hesiod; then from Chaos were produced Earth (Gaea or Ge), Eros (Love), Erebus (Night), and the Universe. Tartarus (the abyss beneath the earth) severed itself. Earth was one of the most ancient oracles and deities in mythology. She pro- 110 Dime Question Books. duced Uranus (heavenX the mountains, and Pentns (tlie sea). 4. Who were the first gods ? Ans.— Those produced of the earth partly by Uranus and partly by Pontus. From her union with Uranus sprang the Titans, the Cyclopes and the Centimanes (hun- dred handed); from her union with Pontus, various sea deities. Notb.— According to some mycologists, Love is of all gods the most ancient, and is said to have existed before all generations, and first incited Chaos to bring forth darkness, out of which sprang Ether and Day— it is said that his union with Chaos gave birth to men and the animals which inhabit the earth;— that even the gods themselves were the offspring of Love, before the founda- tion of the world. 5. Who were the twelve Titans ? Am— Six males— -Oceanus, Coeus, Crius, Hyperion, Japetus, and Cronus; six females— Thia, Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, Phoebe and Tethys. Note.— Many marriages took place among the Titans. The numerous sea-nymphs are descended from Oceanus and Tethysj from Hyperion and Thia come the deities of the light— Helios (sun), Selene (moon), and Eos (dawn) : from Coeus and Phoebe, the deities of thejiight— Leto (dark night), and Asteria (starry night.) 6. Describe Nox, or Night. Ans.— Night covers and conceals, and for this reason she is made the mother of the horrible, as well as of the charming. From uncreated night, Daylight arose, by which all formations are developed, and all creatures enjoy life. She is, likewise, according to some, the mother Mythology, 111 enjoy life. She is, likewise, according to some, the mother of the inexorable Pares; of the avenging Nemesis, who punishes hidden crime; of the Furies, who torment the wicked; of Charon, the Ferry-man of Hell; and of the twin brothers, Sleep and Death. Note.— Slie is also the mother of Dreams; of the Hesperides, who guard the golden apples; of Deceit enveloping himself in darkness; of malicious censure; of fretting grief; of trouble and hunger; of destructive war; of duplicity of speech; and, finally, of perjury. Among the children of night are comprised all those things which she conceals; or which Fancy, herself, would fain cover with nocturnal darkness. In night there is something of which even the gods stood in awe, for Homer says: "When Jupiter was angry at the god of e sleep,"Night covered him with her vail, and the thunderer restrained his wrath, fearing ;to offend swift Night." (Iliad XIV, 256.) 7. What was Pan \ Ans.— The Universe; to whom various origins have been given, one of which has already been mentioned. Among the most learned of the ancients, Pan was consid- ered as one of the oldest divinities, and, according to the Egyptians and the most learned of the Grecian sages, he had neither father nor mother, but sprang from Dernogor- gon (the genius of the earth) at the same instant with the fatal Parcse. 8. What did his figure represent ? Am— The universe; and is a delineation of nature and the rough face which it first wore, while his spotted robe of a leopard's skin represents the starry heavens. His person is a compound of various and opposite parts; so is the world;— an all-governing mind and heterogeneous, pro- lific elements pervade and constitute it. Note.— Pan's symbol of the pipes is most eloquently express- ive of Nature's divine, harmonious constitution, and of the ordei 112 Dime Question Books. and measure that govern all lier works, producing that solemn movement called the music of the spheres; imperceptible indeed to our material organ, but so delightful and pleasing to the ear of the mind. This wondrous reed on which he incessantly plays is composed of seven pipes, unequal among themselves, but fitted together in such just proportion as to produce the most unerring and melodious notes, calling forth the echo, which poets have made the object of his love. By the Arcadians, he was venerated as the chief of the rural deities. The cause of sudden fright was ascribed to him; hence our word " panic," fear without cause. Query.— What were the mental qualifications of the gods? What was their employment? Who were Mors, Somnus, and Mor- pheus? 9 Who was chief of the celestial deities ? Am— Zeus (Jupiter) the son of Kronos (Cronus) and Rhea. Uranus, fearing lest his last-born sons, the power- ful Cyclopes and Centimanes, might one day seize his power, buried them directly after birth, in the deep abyss beneath the earth. This displeased Gsea, their mother, who thereupon prompted the Titans to conspire against their father, and induced Cronus, the youngest and bravest of them all, to lay violent hands upon Uranus. Uranus was mutilated, cast into chains, and compelled by his sons to abdicate his sovereignty, which now passed to Cronus, but the latter was not long destined to enjoy the fruits of his crime. The curse of Uranus, who prophesied that he would suffer a like fate at the hands of his own .son, was fulfilled. So anxious was he to avert such a catastrophe, that lie swallowed his children immediately after their b'rth. Five had already suffered this fate— Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But their mother, Rhea, grieved at their lot, determined to rescue her next son, Zeus, by a stratagem. In the place of her child, she gave to her suspicious and cruel husband a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, which he swallowed with- Mythology, 113 out further examination, Zeus, who was thus rescued, was reared by the nymphs in a grotto on Mount Dicte, in Crete. The she-goat Amalthse served as his nurse, while the bees brought him honey to eat. In order that the cries of the child might not betray his presence to his suspicious father, the Curetes, or attendant friends of Rhea, drowned his voice in the clashing of their weapons, Zeus remained thus hidden until he had become a young but powerful god. He then attacked and overthrew his father Cronus, whom he also compelled, by means of a device of Gaga, to bring forth thet children that he had devoured. One part of the Titans submitted without hesitation to this new ruler of the world. The others, refusing allegiance, were after a contest of ten years overthrown by Zeus with the help of tho Cyclopes and Centimanes. 10. Who were Poseidon and Hades ? Ans.— The two brothers of Zeus, with whom he shared the empire of the world. The former he made ruler of the ocean and waters; the latter he set over the infernal regions; everything else he retained for himself. The resentment of Gsea, however, led her to produce with Tar- tarus, her youngest and most powerful son, the giant Typhosus, a monster with a hundred fire-breathing dragons' heads, whom she now sent to overthrow the dominion of Zeus. A great battle took place, which shook heaven and earth. Zeus, by means of his never-ceasing thunder-bolts, at length overcame Typhceus, and cast him into Tartarus, or, according to later writers (Pindar and Virgil), buried him beneath Mount iEtna in Sicily, whence at times he still breathes out fire and flames toward heaven. Note.— Some poets tell of another rebellion, that of the Giants, against Zeus. These are said to have sprung from the drops of blood which fell to the earth from the mutilated body of Uranus. 114 Dime Question Books. From the plains of Phlegra, in Thessaly, the land which bears the clearest traces of natural convulsions, they sought to storm Olym- pus by "piling Pelion on Ossa." But after a bloody battle, in which all the gods took part, the two were conquered and sent to share the fate of the vanquished Titans in Tartarus. No hostile attack ever after disturbed tbe peaceful ease of the inhabitants of Olympus. 11. Name the wives of Zeus. Ans. — The earliest wife was Metis (prudence), the daughter of Oceanus. Zeus devoured her, fearing lest she should bear a son who would deprive him of the empire it had cost him so much to attain. It was soon after this that he produced Pallas Athene (Minerva) from his own head. His second goddess wife was Themis, one of the Titans, by whom he became the father of the Horse (Sea- sons) and the Moerse (Fates). Dione appears as the wife of Zeus of Dodona, and the mother of Aphrodite (Venus); while Arcadian Zeus was wedded to Maia, by whom he had Hermes (Mercury). By Demeter (Ceres) he became the father of Persephone (Proserphine, the goddess of veg- etation); by Eurynome, a daughter of Oceanus, of the Charites (Graces); by Mnemosyne (Memory), of the Muses; by Leto (Latona), of Apollo and Artemis. The youngest of all his divine wives, who was recognized by later mythology as his only legitimate queen, wa3 his sister Hera. By her he became the father of Ares (Mars), Hephsestus (Vulcan), and Hebe. 12. Who was Iris ? Ans.— The goddess of the rainbow and the constant at tendant of Hera (Juno). 13. Give an account of Pinto. Ans. —Pluto or Hades was the god of the lower regions, Mythology* 115 the entrance to which was guarded by the dog Cerberus, " with three heads and a serpent's tail fawning upon those who entered, but showing his horrible teeth to those who tried to pass on." Those who entered the domains of Pluto had to cross the river Styx, and only those whose bodies had been properly buried were ferried across by Charon, the ferryman. He charged a small fee for his services, and a piece of money was always put in the mouth of the dead man to insure his passage across the river. The river Lethe was also said to exist here, whoso waters if tasted by any one would cause utter forgetful- ness of the past. Query.— Who were the Erinnyes? Name the four rivers of Hades. What was the location of the celebrated gardens of the Hesperides? Who was the god of the smooth sea? The Nereides, or nymphs of the sea, were how many in number? Who was Electra? Who was Proserpina? 14. "Who was clown among the gods ? Ans.— Momus (Mockery) a son of Night, was the god of raillery and repartee; at the feasts of the gods he played the buffoon. His office was to reprove the faults of the gods, which he did in so sarcastic a manner as to put him- self out of favor. He blamed Vulcan, because in the human form which he made of clay, he had net placed a window in the breast, by which whatever was done or thought there might easily be brought to light. He cen- sured the house made by Minerva, because it was not movable, by which means a bad neighborhood might be avoided. For his various illiberal reflections upon the gods, he was finally driven from Heaven. He is generally represented raising a mask from his face, and holding a small figure in his hand. 15. What is the legend of Galatea? 110 Bimb Question Books, Ans.— She loved Acis, the hendsome shepherd, and the monstrous Cyclop, Folyphemos, sued in vain for her favor. On a certain occasion, the monster beheld the nymph at ihe foot of Mount Aetna embracing his handsome rival. He became distracted with furious jealousy, and, tearing up a rOck from its roots, raised it in the air, and hurled it upon the lovers in order to bury them under its weight. The nymph swiftly escaped into the sea, but Acis, over- whelmed by the massive stone, sprang forth from beneath it as a purling brook, the waters of which produced a meandering stream that bore his name. 16. "Who were the Grsese (Gray-maids) ? Ans.™ Perphredo (horrifier), Enyo (shaker), and Demo, (terrifler), three decrepit virgins, who were gray with age from their very birth. Their abode was at the end of the earth, where reigns eternal night. 17. What was the Sphinx ? Ans. —A monster with the face of a woman, the breast, feet and tail of a lion, and the wings of a bird. Juno, always hostile to the city of Dionysos, sent this monster to ravage the territory of Thebes; She had been taught rid- dles by the Muses, and from the Phicean Hill propounded one to the Thebans. It was this: "What is that which has'one voice, is four-footed, two-footed, and at last three - footed?" The oracle told the Thebans that they would not be delivered from the Sphinx until they had solved the riddle. They often met to try their skill, and, when they failed, the Sphinx carried off and devoured one of their number. At length Haemon, son of Creon, having become her victim, his father, by public proclamation, offered his throne and the hand of his sister, Jocasta, to whoever Mytholo&y. 117 should solve the riddle. Aedipus, -who was then at Thebes, hearing this, came forward and answered the Sphinx that it was man, who when an infant creeps on all fours; when a man, goes on two feet; and when old, uses a staff, a third foot. The Sphinx then flung herself down to the earth and perished. Query.— Who were the Gorgons ? What came from the blood of Medusa? What was the name of the two-headed dog? How was the Chimera represented? What were the orders of nymphs? 18. What tradition had the Greeks ? Ans. — That of a great flood which swept away the whole human race except one pair, Deucalion and his wife Pyrrha, who were preserved and landed on Mount Parnassus when the flood abated. By the direction of Jupiter, he and his wife threw stones behind them, and those which Deucalion threw became men, and those thrown by Pyrrha women. 19. Who was the most beautiful of the gods ? Ans.— Apollo. Like other sons of Zeus, he is a god of light, and, indeed, the purest and highest representative of this mighty power in nature. As the bright god of heaven, to whom everything impure end unholy is hateful, we find Apollo, soon after his birth, preparing to do battle with the evil powers of darkness. With his arrows he slew both the giant Tityus and the serpent Python, the latter a monster that inhabited the valley of the Plistus, near Del- phi, and destroyed both men and cattle. 20. Who was Artemis (Diana) ? Ans. — The feminine counterpart of her twin brother Apollo, with whom she entirely harmonizes when regarded from her physical aspect. Like him, she is a beautiful and 118 Dime Question Books, propitious deity; but like him, too, she can deal out, at times, death and destruction amoDg mankind, 2L Who was the god of the sea % Ans.— Poseidon (Neptune). He is represented as bear- ing a trident, and driving a chariot with horses over the water, Amphi trite was his wife and the goddess of the sea. 22, Who was the god of war % Ans.— Mars; who represents war from its fatal and de- structive side, by which he is clearly distinguished from Athene, the wise disposer of battles. Homer, in the "Iliad," paints in particularly lively colors the picture of this rude " man- slaying " god of war. He here appears as a deity who delights only in the wild din of battle, and is never weary of strife and slaughter. The usual attendants and servants are Fear and Terror. Popular belief made Mars the father, by a vestal virgin, of Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of Rome. His wife appears to have been Nerio; but she enjoyed no honors at Rome. Note.— It must be remembered that the Bomans adopted from the Greeks the popular conceptions regarding the gods. They transferred existing myths, and fathered them on their own gods and goddesses that bore the closest resemblance to the Greek di- vinities, and harmonized best with their natural interpretation. Thus it was that the Eoman Jupiter was identified with the Greek Zeus, Juno with Hera, Minerva with Athene ; though for peculiar deities, such as Janus, they could find no Greek prototype. 23. Who was transformed into a cow ? Ans.— Io; a daughter of Inachos, loved by Jupiter, and persecuted by Juno; who, after her transformation, was furiously driven over the whole earth, until she found a Mythology 1 ] 9 resting place in Egypt. There she had a temple erected, and was worshipped as a goddess (Isis), She gave a son to Jupiter, called Epaphos, from whom sprang a royal race, that afterward reigned in Greece, founding their right of royal authority on descent from old Inachos, Query.— From whom is tbe word "Martial "derived? How many eyes had Argus? Who was Phoroneus? What was tbe Alpheios? What was the origin of the fountain Arethusa? 24. How were the gods punished ? Aks.— If any of them were guilty of perjury, Jupiter obliged them to drink of the water of the Styx, which for a whole year lulled them to senseless stupidity, and for the nine following years they were deprived of the nectar and ambrosia of the gods. 25. Who was the goddess of love ? Ans. —Venus, In the " Iliad," she is represented as the daughter of Jupiter and Dione, but this account was grad- ually replaced by another which prevailed among the later poets, who related that she was born of the foam of the sea, and first touched land on the island of Cyprus, which was henceforth held sacred to her. She' figured among the Greeks as goddess of beauty and sexual love. Note.— The story of her love for the beautiful Adonis is of Asiatic origin, but underwent various alterations on its way through Greece. The germ of the story may be easily distinguised, as it clearly represents the decay of nature in autumn, and its re- suscitation in spring. Adonis was killed, when hunting, by a wild boar. Inconsolable at her loss, Venus piteously entreated Father Jove to restore his life. Jupiter at length consented that Adonis should spend one part of the year in the world of shadows, and the other in the upper world. 26. Give an account of Mercury, 120 Dime Question Books* Ans.— He was born in a grotto of Mount Cyllene, in Arcadia, whence he is called Cyllenius. We know the stories of his youth chiefly from the so-called Homeric Hymn, This relates in a delightful manner how he gave token, soon, after his birth, of his cunning and dexterity, the chief features of his character. Growing in a wonder- ful manner, as only gods can grow, he sprang, only four hours after his birth, from his mother's lap, and finding a tortoise, he placed strings across its shell, and thus invented the lyre, on which he immediately began to sing the loves of Jupiter and Mala. Then towards evening, impelled by a resistless craving for meat, he hurried to Fieria, where he stole fifty bulls from the herds of Apollo. After killing two of them, and thus satisfying his hunger, he returned to the grotto of his mother and lay down in his cradle as though nothing had happened. Apollo, however, soon remarked the theft, and hurried after the impudent rob- ber. Mercury now played the innocent, and obstinately denied the charge; but Apollo was not to be deceived, and forced the young thief to accompany him to the throne of Jupiter to have their quarrel decided. Jove ordered Mer- cury to restore the cattle, but Apollo gladly made them over to Mercury on receiving the newly invented pipe. Thus the latter became the god of shepherds and pastures, while Apollo henceforth zealously devoted himself to the art of music. Mercury became afterwards the messenger of the immortals. 27. Who was the blacksmith of the gods ? Ans. — Vulcan, the god of fire and the forge, was com monly regarded as a son of Jupiter and Juno. According to Hesiod, he is the son of Juno alone, who in this wished not to be outdone by Zeus, who had produced Minerva from his own brain. He was weak and delicate from his Mythology, 121 birth, for which, reason he was so disliked by his mother that she flung him from Olympus. He was received by Thetis and Burynome, and dwelt with them for nine years in a grotto, surrounded by Oceanus. According to later writers, he was educated with the rest of the gods in heaven, and was expelled from Olympus by Jupiter. Juno raised a storm, which drove Hercules out of his course at sea. Jupiter then tied her hands and feet together, and suspended her between heaven and earth. Vulcan at- tempted to free his mother, and for this act he was kicked down from heaven by his father. The island of Lemnos is said to have received the god. Note.— His first work is said to have been a throne of gold, which he presented to his mother, to avenge himself for her want of affection towards him— upon which Juno was no sooner seated than she found herself unable to move. The gods attempted to set her at liberty by breaking the chains with which she was confined; but to no purpose, as Vulcan alone had the power to unloose them. 28. Who was Hestia (Yesta) ? Ans. — The guardian angel of mankind, who guards the security of the dwelling, and is, in consequence, regarded as the goddess of the family hearth, the centre of domestic life. In the temple at Delphi a fire was kept ever burning in honor of Hestia. The character of the goddess was as pure and untarnished as flame itself. Not only did she herself remain a virgin, though wooed by both Neptune and Apollo, but her service could be performed only by chaste virgins. 29. What is said of the vestal virgins ? Ans.— The service of Vesta occupied a far more import- ant place in the life of the Romans. Her most ancient temple, which was supposed to have been built by Nema 122 Dims Question Books. Pompilius, was situated on the slope of the Palatine oppo Site the Forum. It was built in a circle, and was of mod- erate dimensions, being, indeed, little more than a covered fire-place. In it the eternal fire, a symbol of the life of the state, was kept burning. Here, too, the service was per- formed by virgins, whose number was at first four, but was afterward increased to six. Their chief occupation was to maintain the sacred fire, and to offer up daily prayers at the altar of the goddess for the welfare of the Roman people. The extinction of the sacred flame was esteemed an omen of coming misfortune, and brought severe punishment on the negligent priestess. The choice of vestals lay with the Ponlifex Maximus. They were chosen between the ages of six and ten years, always out of the best Roman families, For thirty years they remained bound to their sacred office, during which time they had to preserve the strictest chastity. At the end of this time they returned to civil life, and were permitted to marry if they liked, 30. From what god is the name January de- rived ? Ans.— From Janus. In Italy, he was usually repre- sented with two faces, one before and one behind, and hence called Bifrons and Biceps. Sometimes he is -represented with four faces, and is then called Quadrifrons. There was an ancient statue of this deity in the Forum, said to be as old as the time of Nurna, of which the fingers were so formed that those of one hand represented three hun- dred (CCC), those of the other, fifty-five (LV); the number of the days of the ancient lunar year, 8L Who was Qnirinus? Am— -A purely Roman divinity. In his symbolic Mythology. 123 moaning he bore a great resemblance to Mars. He was the national god of the Sabines, who came to Rome with Titus Tatius, Query.— Winch of the goddesses made the chase her favorite amusement? Of what god did the Eoman consuls ask a blessing? Who were the Penates? Where were the workshops ol Vulcan? Who was the Argus-slayer? 32, Who alone of the secondary deities en- joyed divine honors ? Ans.— Eros (Amor, or Cupid), who was reputed to be the son of Venus and Mars. A boy of wondrous beauty, on the verge of youth, his weapon is a golden bow, with which he shoots forth his arrows from secret lurking- places, with an unfailing effect that represents the sweet but consuming pangs of love. 33. Eelate the fable of Cupid and Psyche. Ans.— The beauty of Psyche aroused the jealousy of Venus, who sent Cupid charged with the mission of in- citing her to love some common man. Cupid made the visit, but was so smitten with her beauty that he fell in love with her, and carried her to a fairy palace in the vale of Paradise, where they lived happily. Bat Psyche was not allowed to behold Cupid with her eyes, and tempted by her sisters to satisfy her curiosity she took a lamp and Stole to his bed-side when he was asleep. A drop of hot oil falling from the lamp awakened the god, who charged her with disobedience to his commands and deserted her. Having searched for him long she at last found her way to the palace of Venus, who, after exacting from her Various kinds of menial service, ordered her to go to the lower world and bring a box of beauty's ointment from "124 Dime Question Books. Persephone. On returning and opening the box, ehe sank overpowered by the odor. Cupid, unable to resist longer, came to her help and brought her back to life. The wrath of Venus was appeased, and Cupid and Psyche were mar- ried, the latter obtaining immortality. Note.— Psyche signified originally " th& soul," but came after- ward to mean " a ~buttcrpj," the likeness of the two being not dif- ficult to see. The object of the story seems to be to illustrate the three stages of the soul's existence : its pre-existence in a happy state, its abode on earth with trials and sorrow, and the future state of happy immortality. 34. Who was Hjmengeus (Hymen) ? Ans. — A personification of the joys of marriage; who was, however, only recognized by later writers and by later art. He is protrayed as a beautiful youth, winged like Cupid, but taller, and of a more serious aspect. His indispensable attribute is the marriage torch. 35. Name the nine Muses. Ans. — Clio, Melpomene, Terpsichore, Polyhymnia, Thalia, Urania, Euterpe, Erato, and Calliope. Pindar gives the following account of their origin: After the defeat of the Titans, the celestials besought Jupiter to create some beings who might perpetuate in song the mighty deeds of the gods. In answer to this prayer he produced with Mnemosyne the Muses. They sing of the present, the past, and the future, while Apollo's lute accompanies their sweet strains, which gladden the hearts of the gods as they sit assembled in the lofty palace of Father Zeus, in Olym- pus. Looked at in connection with Nature, there is lit- tle doubt but that the Muses were originally nymphs of the fountains. The veneration of the Muses first arose in Pieria, a district on the eastern declivity of Mount Olym- Mythology 125 pug, in Thessaly, from whoso steep and rocky heights a number of sweet rippling brooks descend to the plains. The preception of this natural music led at once to a belief in the existence of such song-living goddesses. Their seat was subsequently transferred from the declivities of Olym- pus to Mount Helicon, in Bceolia, or to Mount Parnassus, at the foot of which the Castalian fountain, which was sacred to them, had its source, Originally the muses were only goddesses of song, though they are sometimes repre- sented with instruments on vases. In early times, too, they only appear as a chorus or company, but at a later period separate functions were assigned to each, as presid- ing over this, or that, branch of art. Note.— According to the art-distribution, made probably at the time of the Alexandrine school, Calliope represents epic poetry and science generally, her attributes being a roll of parch- ment and a pen. Clio is the muse of history, and is likewise char- acterized by a roll and pen, so that it is sometimes difficult to dis- tinguish her from Calliope. Eutherp represents lyric poetry, and is distinguished by her double flute. Melpomene, the muse of tragedy, generally appears with a tragic mask, a club or sword, and a garland of vine-leaves. Terpsichore is the muse of dancing, and has a lyre and plectrum. To Erato is assigned erotic poetry, together with geometry and the mimic art; she generally bears a large stringed instrument. Thalia, the muse of comedy, is distin- guished by comic mask, an ivy garland, and a crook. Polyhym- nia presides over the graver chant of religious service; she may be recognized by her dress, wrapped closely around her, and her grave, thoughtful countenance, but is without attribute of any kind. Lastly, Urania, the muse of astronomy, holds in one hand a celestial globe, and in the other a small wand, 36. Who were the Carnenae % Ans.— The Romans venerated a number of fountain- nymphs of song and prophecy under this name, among -whom the Egeria of the history of Numa is well known. 128 Dime Question Books. The Roman writers seem at pleasure to have identified these goddesses with the Muses. 87. What does tlie name Atlas signify ? Am— The Endurer, and Homer calls him the wise or deep4hin7cing, who knows all the depths of the sea, and keeps the lorg pillars which hold Heaven and Earth asun- der. The Atlas of Homer and Hesiod is not the personifi- cation of a mountain. In process of time, however, when the meaning of the earlier legend had become obscured or lost, Atlas, the keeper of the pillars that support Heaven, became a mountain of Libya. Note.— According to one mythologist, Atlas was a king of the remotest west, rich in flocks and nerds, and master of the trees that bore the golden apples. An ancieat prophecy delivered by Themis had announced to him that his precious trees would be plundered by a son of Jupiter. When, therefore, Perseus, on his return from slaying the Gorgon, arrived in the realms of Atlas, and, seeking hospitality, announced himself to be a son of the king of gods, the western monarch, calling to mind the prophecy, attempted to repel him from his doors. Perseus, inferior in strength, displayed the head of Medusa, and the inhospitable mon- arch was turned into the mountain which still bears his name. 38. What other account is given ? Ans. — That he was a man of Libya, devoted to astron- omy. Having ascended a lofty mountain, for the purpose of making observations, he fell into the sea, and both sea and mountain were named after him. His supporting the heavens was usually explained by making him an astrono* mer and the inventor of the sphere, 39. How was the formation of man accom- plished ? Am —Prometheus took a piece of earth, a portion oi Mythology. 127 clay still impregnated with divine particles, moistened it with water, and formed man after the image of the gods; so that he alone raises his look to heaven, while all other creatures bend their eyes to the ground. Note.— Prometheus is said to have been the first to secure the use of fire for mankind, which he succeeded in doing by stealing it from heaven. Asa punishment for the theft, he was condemned to be chained alive to a rock in the Caucausus mountains, while every day a vulture came and ate of his liver, which grew again as fast as eaten. Hercules set Prometheus free, and destroyed the vulture that preyed on his liver. Prometheus out of gratitude warned him not to go himself to take the golden apples of the Hes- perides, but to send Atlas for them, and in the meantime to sup- port the Heaven in his stead. The hero did as desired, and, at his request, Atlas went to the Hesperides and obtained three apples from there. He then proposed to take them himself to Eurys- theus, while Hercules remained to support the sky. At the sug- gestion of Prometheus, the hero feigned consent, but begged him to take hold of the heavens till he made a pad to put upon his head. Atlas threw down the apples aud good-humoredly consented, when Hercules.of course, left him hi his former position and made off with the prize. 40. Who was Pandora ? Ans.-— When Jupiter descried the light of fire upon the earth, he formed the design of punishing men through their own folly. He therefore requested Vulcan to make awoman of clay, which he intended sending to Prome- theus for a wife; he directed him to knead earth and water till it assumed the form of a virgin, like the immor- tal goddesses, and then to give it human voice and strength, Jupiter also desired Minerva to endow her with artist- knowledge, Venus to give her beauty, and Mercury to inspire her with an impudent and artful disposition. When formed, she was attired by the Seasons and Graces, and each of the deities having bestowed upon her the desired gifts, she was called Pandora (All gifted). Jupiter then 129 Dime Question Books. gave her a beautiful box, which she was ordered to pre- sent to the man who married her; and, by the commission of the god, Mercury conducted her to Prometheus. In the box was enclosed the whole train of evils that threaten mankind. Prometheus, aware of the fraud, rejected the dangerous gift, and sent Pandora away without suffering himself to be captivated by her charms. 41. How did the misfortunes appointed to men come upon them ? Ans. — Through the inconsiderate Epimetheus, who, although warned by his brother Prometheus, suffered him- self to be captivated by the charms of Pandora, who, after he married her, opened the pernicious box, out of which all imaginable evils spread themselves over the whole earth, inflicting misery upon mankind. Pandora immedi- ately closed it again, but the evils had all escaped, and nothing remained in the box but Hope; who, according to Jupiter's decree, would in time afford some consolation to mortals. • Query.— What was the Pyrtaneum? Who erected a temple to Venus Genetrix? How did Rome receive the shield of Mars? What is the Venus of Milo? How high is Mount Olympus? Of what is Nike (Victoria) a personification? 42. Who was Hebe (Juventus) ? Ans —The cup-bearer of the gods, to whom, at meal, she presents the sweet nectar. It may at first seem strange that the daughter of the greatest of the divinities of Greece (Jove) should be relegated to so inferior a position. This, however, is easily explained by the old patriarchal custom of & the Greeks, by which the young unmarried daughters, Mythology, 129 even in royal palaces, waited at table on the men of the family and the guests, 43. .By whom was she succeeded ? Ans— By Ganymede, sou of Tros, the king of Troy, who was made immortal by Jupiter, and installed as cup-bearer of the gads. Neither Homer nor Pmdar, however, relates the episode of Jupiter sendiug his eagle to carry off Gany- mede. This is first found in Apollodorus, The Roman poet, Ovid, then went a step farther, and made the ruler of Olympus transform himself into an eagle, in order to carry off his favorite, 44. Who was the god of healing ? Ans.™ Asclepius (iEsculapius). The worship of this deity, who was said to be the son of Apollo, appears to have originated in Epidaurus, the seat of his principal ehrine, and thence to have become generally diffused. In the year 291 B. C„ the Romans, suffering from a severe pestilence which had for years depopulated town and county, consulted the Sibylline books, which recommended that iEsculapius should be brought to Rome. The story goes that the sacred serpent of the god followed the Roman embassadors of its own accord, and chose for its abode the Insula Tiberina at Rome, where a temple was at once erected to iEsculapius. 45. Who was the god of wine and de- bauchery % Ans. — Dionysus, or Bacchus (Liber); who, growing up amidst the solitude of the forest and strengthening him- self by his contests with its wild beasts, at length planted ISO Dimk Question Books. the vine, Both the god and his attendants soon became intoxicated with its juice; after which, crowned with wreaths of laurel and ivy, and accompanied by a crowd of nymphs, satyrs, and fawns, he ranged the woods, which resounded with the loud and joyful cries of his in- spired worshippers. The legend says his education was then completed by Silenus, the son of Pan. 46. What is the storv of Ariadne ? Ans.— She was the daughter of Minos, king of Crete. The Attic hero, Theseus, after escaping the dangers of the Labyrinth by her means, had taken her away with him from Crete in order to marry her. He deserted her, how- ever, while asleep on the island of Naxos, either of his own accord, or because warned of the god in his dream. The indescribable anguish and consternation of Ariadne, on awakening to find herself alone and deserted on a for- eign strand, were only equalled by her joyous surprise when Bacchus, returning from his travels in India, found her and made her his bride. Query.— Who was Cybele? What is the story of L.r favorite, Attis? "Who obtained divine rank by a leap into the sea? How did Glaucus become a god? What were Dryads and Satyrs? 47. Name the pastoral goddesses. Ans. — Vertumnus, the self-changing one; Pomona, the goddess of the fruit harvest; Pales, venerated by the shep- herds; Terminus, who presided over boundaries; Ceres, patroness of all the arts connected with agriculture; and Persephone, who may be regarded as a type of the grain. 48. Who was Tantalos (Tantalus) ? Ans.— King of Phrygia, who, offending the gods by Mythology. 131 Ms overbearing and treacherous conduct and the cruelty he practised on his own son, was doomed in Tartarus to stand in water up to his throat, while he could not stoop to quench his burning thirst, and to have luscious fruit hang over his head which he could not reach, though suffering with constant hunger. The real significance and force of the word tantalise thus appears. 49. What is the story of Ixion ! Ans.— A king of Thessaly, who, for an unnatural crime, was banished from the society of mankind to the realms of Jupiter, where he made an attack upon the virtue of Juno. The angered gods seized him, and Mer- cury bound him upon the everlasting wheel over the abyss of Tartarus, and then compelled him to consort with the Magnesian mares on the planes of Pelion. Here was born the giant Centaurus, from whom a race of Centaurs filled the earth. Half horse, half man, the world trembled at their daring. Aesculapius was one of their students. IXION. Permitted with the feasting gods to sit, The bright, sun-clad, inflaming scene Within his blood the fires of passion lit, He dared to love Jove's queen. Smitten with thunder, hurled from heaven's height Headlong to hell— him Hermes bound Upon the wheel, which through eternal night Circles its restless round. % A myth symbolic, living from the old, Voicing through time, the well-earned fate Of him, who, spurning charms of mortal mould, Would with a goddess mate. a. P. S. 50. What other celebrated criminals were there l 132 Dime Question Books. Ans. — Tityus, who, offering violence to Leto, was chained to the earth, while two vultures continually gnawed at his ever-growing liver. Sis} r phus, formerly king of Corinth, had provoked the wrath of the gods by his numerous crimes, and was condemned, inconsequence, to roll a block of stone up a high mouutain, which, on reaching the top, always rolled down again to the plain. The Danaids, or daughters of Danaus, were condemned to pour water continually into a sack full of holes, which never could be filled, for killing their husbands on tho wedding night. 51. What was the Palladium ? Ans.— A small wooden image of Pallas (Minerva) which Originally fell from heaven upon the city of Troy. Upon the capture of that city, it was carried to Greece, and from thence to Rome. The safety and existence of the Roman Empire, they thought, depended upon the preservation of this figure. 52. Who was Proteus ? Ans. —A sea deity who could, assume any form at pleas- ure, changing himself into fire or water, plant or animal, Which rendered him difficult of access; and sometimes, when consulted, he evaded an answer by a sudden meta- morphosis. To those only who held him fast with vigorous arms did he appear in his real character, and by his spirit of divination reveal to them the truth. 53. For what is Amphion celebrated ? Ans.— The melancholy fate of his sons and daughters, He married Niobe, the daughter of the Phrygian king, Mythology. 133 Tantalus, and sister of Pelops. The heart of Niobe was lifted up with pride at the number of her children,* and she ventured to prefer herself to Leto, who had only two; she even went so far as to forbid the Thebans to offer sac- rifice to Leta and her children, and to claim these honors herself. The vengeance of the offended -deities, however, now overtook her, and all her children were laid low in one day before, the unerring arrows of Apollo and his sis- ter. The parents did not survive this deep affliction. Amphion slew himself, and Niobe, already paralyzed with grief, was turned into stone by the pity of the gods, and transferred to her old Phrygian home on Mount Sipylus, though even the stone has not ceased to weep. 54. Who was the goddess of three faces? Ans. — Hecate; who was supposed to preside over all nocturnal horrors, and not only to haunt the tombs and cross-roads herself in company with the spirits of the dead, but also to send nightly phantoms from the lower world, such as the man eating spectre Empusa, and other fabu- lous goblins. 55. Who were Thanatus and Hypnus? Ans. — The twin brothers Death and Sleep. The Romans had a personal god of death, whom tbey called Orcus; he was represented as an armed warrior dealing out mortal wounds among mankind. 56. What was Action's transformation ? Ans.— Into a stag; changed by Artemis while hunting ♦Homer gives her six sons, and as many daughters; Hesiod and Pindar, ten sons, and ten daughters; but the most common account allows her fourteen children. 134: Dime Question Books. one day on Mount Cithaeron, and torn into pieces by his dogs. The cause of her anger was either that he had boasted that he was a more skilful hunter than Artemis, or, according to the tradition that ultimately prevailed, that he had surprised the virgin goddess bathing., 57. What is the fable of Narcissus ? Ans. — Echo, a Boetian nymph, was consumed by love for the beautiful youth Narcissus, a son of the river-god Cephisus, and finding that he did not reciprocate her affec- tion, she pined away until nothing was left of her but her voice, which occupied itself in mocking everything it heard. Venus revenged this injury to her sex by causing Narcissus to fall in love with his own image, which he saw reflected in the water, while bending down to quench his thirst from a spring as clear as crystal. He, too, pined away from grief, and was punished by being changed into the flower which bears his name. 58. Relate the fiction of Phaeton (Phaethon). Ans. — He was the son of Helios and the ocean nymph Clymene. Venus intrusted him with the care of one of her temples. This distinguished favor of the goddess ren- dered him so vain and aspiring that Epaphos, to check his pride, disputed his claims to a celestial origin. Phaeton, to refute this bitter reproach, resolved to know his true origin; and, at the instigation of his mother, visited the palace of the Sun, to beg that Helios, if he really were his father, would give him some proof of his paternal tender- ness, and convince the world of his legitimacy. Helios swore by the Styx that he would grant him whatever he required. The ambitious youth instantly demanded per- mission to guide the solar chariot for one day, in order to prove himself the undoubted progeny of the Sun-god. Not Mythology. 135 daring to violate the oath by Styx, and finding entreaties and remonstrances unavailing to persuade him from his perilous enterprise, Helios complied with his wish, and Phaeton mounted the chariot of the Sun. The result was that the celestial coursers, guided by a feebler hand than that of Helios, ran a zigzag course towards the heavens and earth, causing the mountains to blaze and the rivers to dry up, and when Earth in her extremity besought Jupiter for help, the king of gods struck Phaeton with one of his thunderbolts/precipitating him into the river Erida- nos. •59. Who was Orpheus? Ans.-— The son of Apollo and the muse Calliope. His wife, a nymph named Eurydice, died from the bite of a serpent. Orpheus, disconsolate at her loss, determined to descend to the lower world, and obtain permission for his beloved Eurydice to return to the regions of light. Armed only with his lyre, he entered the realms of Hades, and gained an easy admittance to the palace of Pluto. At the music of his "golden shell," to "borrow the beautiful lan- guage of ancient poetry, the wheel of Ixion stopped, Tan- talus forgot the thirst that tormented him, the "Vulture ceased to prey on the vitals of Tityus, and Pluto and Pro- serpina lent a favoring ear to his prayer. Eurydice was released on condition that Orpheus should not look back on her till he reached the upper world. Orpheus, however, violated this condition, and Eurydice was once more lost to him. He himself, not long afterward, while wandering in his despair over the Thracian mountains, was torn ic pieces by some women in the mad excitement of theii nightly Bacchanalian orgies. EHDYMION, As once on the mountains, dreaming, Eudymion lay at aight, 136 Dime Question Book. DIan, while stars were gleaming, Looked from the realms of light; Looked, and swiftly descending, (Her mission of joy and bliss) Over the shepherd bending, Wakened him with a kiss. 60. What was Grimalkin? Ans. — A cat; changed by Venus into a beautiful woman at the wish of a devoted lover. While in the embraces of her husband, upon seeing a rat, she immediately jumped from the bed and, the feline nature asserting itself, pur- sued the animal. 61. Why has the river Pactolus golden sands ? Ans.— Pan, the favorite of the Phrygian King, Midas, wished to compete with Apollo in the art of which the lat- ter was master. Pan commenced the contest, and Midas repeated his songs with enthusiasm, regardless of his celes- tial rival, when, to his surprise, Midas felt a pair of ears, long and shaggy, pressing through his hair. Alarmed at this phenomenon, Pan tied. Midas made his w T ife the con- fidant of his misfortune, and she, longing to tell the secret but daring not, for fear of punishment, sought a retired and lonely spot, where she threw herself upon the ground and whispered, " King Midas has the ears of an ass:" and the reeds that arose ia this place repeated as the wind passed through them, "King Miclas has the ears of an ass." Enraged and terrified, the king sacrificed to Bac- chus, who, to console him, desired him to ask whatever he wished. According to his desire, everything he touched turned to gold, even his food and drink. He then prayed to Bacchus for deliverance from this plague, and, directed by the god to wash in the river Pactolus, gave to that stream golden sands. Mythology. 137 62. What is the fable of Cymon and Iphige- nia? Ans.— It simply relates how, under the accidental in- fluence of female charms, Cymon's character is gradually moulded, and from a rough boar he is transformed into a gentleman of elegant manners and delicate feelings. 63. What trial of valor was assigned Bellero- phon? Ans.— The destruction of the fire- vomiting Chimsera, who had the head of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon. To this bold adventure the gods lent their assistance, granting him the winged horse Pegasus. The hero bestrode him, and then in the air commenced the fight. The monster defended herself to the utmost, sending from her mouth whole masses of fire, and coiling hor dragon tail in formidable windings. But after a per- severing and obstinate struggle, the monster lay stretched on the ground, weltering in her blood. Yet the happiness of the hero was of short duration; for when, elated by this and other victories, he attempted by means of Pegasus to ascend to Heaven, Jupiter, incensed at his boldness, sent an insect to sting the steed, which made Pegasus bound so furiously in the air as to throw his rider to the earth, where he wandered in solitude and melancholy until death relieved him of his fate. 64. What is the fiction of Atalanta? Ans.— She first distinguished herself in the Calydonian- hunt, and, at the funeral games of Pelias, won the prize in wrestling. .Her father wished her to marry, to which she consented, on condition that her suitors should run 8 138 Dime QtnssnoN Books. race with her, promising, if she should be vanquished, to become wife of the victor; but the vanquished suitor should be shot by one of her own darts. As she was al- most invincible in running, many of her suitors perished in the contest. Hippomenes, however, imploring the as- sistance of Venus before venturing to enter upon this dan- gerous race, received from her three golden apples which, one after another, he let slip from his hand during the course. Atalanta, whose eyes were dazzled by the glitter and beauty of this golden fruit, repeatedly stopped to take it up from the ground, and thus Hippomenes gained time to reach the goal before her. Note.— Hippomenes thus gained the maid of the chase, but unmindful of the benefit which he owned to the goddess of love, both were obliged to atone for his offence against Venus. Pro- faning a sanctuary of Cybele,— upon the impulse of Venus,— they were transformed into two lions, that under one yoke drew the chariot of Cybele. 65. What were the twelve labors of Hercules? Ans. — Hercules wa3 the son of Jupiter by Alcmena. and was destined by the god to occupy the throne of Per- seus, but by the contrivance of Juno was superseded by Eurystheus, whom he was ordered to serve twelve years; but was promised that after he had achieved twelve great works he should be translated to the gods. The labors are enumerated as follows: 1. The fight with the Numean lion, which he attacked with a club, and finally strangled, bringing the carcass to Mycense. He afterward used the head of the lion as a helmet, and the impenetrable skin as a defence. 2. The destruction of the Lernsean hydra, which had nine heads, eight mortal and one immortal. As each head was crushed, two new ones sprang up, until his companion, Iolaus, seared the necks with burning brands, which prevented the growth of new heads. He then Mythology. 139 dipped his arrows in its gall, thus rendering the wounds inflicted by them incurable. 8. The capture of the Ery- manthean boar, which he chased up to the snow-covered .rammit of a mountain, and then caught alive. 4. The cap- ture of the Stag of Diana, famous for its swiftness, golden horns and brazen hoofs. He pursued it for a year, and at length, wounding it with an arrow, caught it. 5. The killing of the Stymphalides, or carnivorous birds, which ravaged the country, feeding on human flesh. He startled them with his rattle of brass, and shot most of them, as they were flying away. 6. Cleaning the Augean stables, where 3,000 oxen had been kept for 30 years. This he accomplished in a single day, by turning the river Alpheus, or Peneus, through the stable. 6. The capture of the wild bull of Crete. 8. The abduction of the four mares of Dio- medes, king of the Bistones, a warlike tribe of Thrace. He slew Diomedes, and threw his body to the mares, which became tame after eating their late master. 9. The seiz- ure of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, 10. The capture of the oxen of Geryones, a monster who lived in the island of; Erythia, which were guarded by the giant herdsman, Eiirytion, and the two-headed dog Oretheus. 11. Seizing the golden apples of the Hesperides. 12. The capture of Cerberus, the three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades. Pluto consented to his taking Cerbe- rus, on condition that he should master him without using any weapons. Hercules seized the furious beast, chained him, choked him into submission, and, after showing him to Eurystheus, carried him back to his place in the lower world. QQ. Who is the Jupiter of the Norse Mythol- ogy ? Ans. — Odin, or Wodin;^ from whose name we get our 140 Dime Question Books. word Wednesday— Wodin's day. From the name of his wife, Frigga (Venus), we derive the word Friday, 67. Who was Thor (Donar)? Ans.— The eldest son of Odin, surnamed the "Thun- derer " who is represented as driving through the clouds in a car drawn by two goats, and holding a hammer in his hand. From his name we obtain the word Thursday. Note.— In Norse mythology, Balder was called the " shining god." Loki was the spirit of evil. Valhalla was the banquet hall: and there were elves, giants, andrifwar/s. 68. Who compose the Hindoo trinity 9 Aks.— Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. Mytliologiquo* What were Scylla and Charybdis? Who was Circe? Who was the Vedic god, Dyaus? What is the Phoenix? Who were the minor deities, Veritas, Virtus, Honos, Pax, Fidelitas, Felicitas, and Amicitia? What is the history of Perseus? Who wore a snake necklace? What were the labors of Theseus? Who were Castor and Pollux? How did Jason obtain the golden fleece? Who founded Thebes? What became of Semele, the mother of Bacchus? Who were the Amazons? How did Odysseus succeed in passing the Sirens? What was the fate of Laocoon, the Trojan priest of Apollo? Whom did Zeus change into a nightin- gale? How was Dirce punished? The word " mercenary " is derived from what? What are the attributes of Minerva? Who had his ears licked by serpents while asleep? What maid was changed into a spider? What were the Eleusi- Mythology, 141 nean Mysteries? Have you read Saxe's "Pyramus and Tiiisbe" ? What were the Lares? Whose sons were 9 Cubits in width and 9 fathoms in height? How was Orestes punished? What pious couple was changed into an oak and a lime? What is the fiction of Leto and the frogs? What is the Salamander? How did Achilles receive a fatal wound in the heel? How did Penelope keep her suit- ors waiting? Caledonian hunt? Praxiteles? Triton? Herse? Origin of Ursa Major? Who was Medea? What was the infula f RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION, RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION. 1. What is Rhetoric ? Ans. — It is the science which treats of discourse; and by discourse is meant any expression of thought by means of language. Discourse may be either oral or written. Note.— Rhetoric in its primary signification referred solely to the art of oratory, as is shown in the etymology of the word, the original Greek prjropikr} (rhetorike) meaning the art of speaking, from the verb peoo (rheo) to speak. 2. What are the divisions of Rhetoric ? Ans. — Two; Style and Invention. Note.— Rhetoric may be regarded as both a science and an art. As a science, it investigates, analyzes, and defines the principles of good writing; as an art, it enables us to apply these principles, or, in other words, teaches us the best method of communicating our thoughts. 3. Define Style. Ans, — It is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the mode of expression. The word Style comes from the Latin stylus, a small steel instrument used by the Romans for writing on waxen tablets. The stylus was to the Roman writer what the pen is to us, and became, by an easy metaphor, the means of expressing any o- method of composition, just as we now, by a like metaphor, speak 146 Dims Question Book. of a gifted pen, a ready pen, meaning thereby a gifted or a ready author. 4 What topics are included in Style ? Ans.-—1, Punctuation and Capitals; 2, Diction; 8, Sen- tences; 4, Figures; 5, Special Properties of Style ; 6, Versi- fleatien; 7, Poetry; 8, Prose Composition. 5. Discriminate between Grammar and Rhet- oric? Ans.— Any verbal expression of thought, even in its lowest and plainest forms, brings us within the domain of Grammar. But, beyond the bare expression of the mean- ing, we can conceive of it as being uttered awkwardly or elegantly, plainly or figuratively, concisely or diffusely, and in a great variety of other ways; and the considera- tion of these various methods of expression takes U3 at once beyond the region of Grammar, and brings into that of Rhetoric. Note.— Rhetoric is closely allied, on the one side, to Grammar, which determines the laws of language, and, on the other, to Logic, which determines the laws of thought, An expression may violate no rule, either of Grammar or of Logic, and yet be rheto- rically incorrect. 6. How may taste be defined ? Ans. — As " the power of receiving pleasu. from the beauties of nature and of art." Its characters are delicacy and correctness. It is a faculty common in some degree to all men. It may be improved by study, comparison, ob- servation, and discussion. Query.— For what end do we study Rhetoric? What is the best style? Give five rules for using capital letters correctly. Give a RHETO&IO AHD COMPOSITION. 147 general rule for the use of the comma, colon, and semicolon. Re- write the following selection, restoring capitals and punctuation marks:— know then this truth enough for man to know virtue alone is happiness below pope 7. What term do the French apply to rhetoric and kindred branches ? Ans. — Belles-lettres. At the Lyceum of Arts in Paris, this department comprehends general grammar, languages, rhetoric, geography, history, antiquities, and mathematics. In America, the term is generally used in a more limited sense, to denote polite literature, including criticism, taste, the pleasures of the imagination, etc 8. What is Criticism % Ans. — The art of judging with propriety concerning any object or combination of objects. Every branch of lit- erary study, as well as each of the arts, has its proper criticism. 9. What advantages are gained by the study of Rhetoric ? Ans. — First, it enables us to discern faults and beauties in the compositions of others; and secondly, it teaches us how to express and embellish our own thoughts, so as to produce the most forcible impression. 10. Give an analysis of the English language. Ans. — The Saxon words on any page of ordinary Eng- lish will be found to be nearly nine-tenths of the whole number. The Norman-French words introduced into English after the Conquest are generally words of Latin 148 Dimb Question Books. origin. Many "modern French words, such as depot, bou- quet, romance, etc., have become by common consent incorporated into our language. Latin words and phrases are common, introduced through the medium of scholars and educated men. The Celtic elements are prominent in such examples as tartan, plaid, flannel, etc, and new dis coveries of science having rendered an enlargement of our technical nomenclature necessary, recourse was had to the Greek, as illustrated in the words telephone, phenomenon, and the numerous endings in logy and graphy, and their numerous derivatives. Almost every known language has its representation in our language by one or more words. Note.— The original language of Britain, the old British or Cel- tic language, that which was spoken by the half-naked savages that Caesar saw, still exists. It is a living, spoken language. But It is not our language. Though spoken in parts of England, it is QOt the English language. Englishmen and Americans are lineal descendants of the Anglo-Saxons, and our language is the Saxon language. 11. What are the seven groups of language 2 Ans. — 1. The Indie, or the languages of India. The ancient original language of India is the Sanskrit, which ceased to be a spoken language at least 309 B. C. 2. The Iranic, the language of Iran, or Persia. 3, The Celtic. 4, The Italic. 5, The Hellenic. 6, The Teutonic. 7, The Slavonic. Query.— These seven groups form what family? Name some of the modern dialects of the Indie. From what source are the following words derived: Alcohol, rattan, chintz, coffee, czar, nan~ Heen, caravan, squaw, and virtuoso f In what hook do we find written the purest Saxon? What does the term alphabet signify, and from what is it derived? 12. Who first introduced the mode of writing from left to right ? Rhetosio and Composition. 149 Ans. --The Phoenician language was written from right to left. The Greek at first followed it in this respect, but was in course of time written from right to left, and from left to right, alternately, as land is ploughed. The laws of Solon were engraved in this style, about 600 B. C, as also many inscriptions still to be seen on ancient monu- ments. Soon after this period, however, the present manner of writing, from left to right, came into general use. It had been introduced many years before by Pin- darus, who, according to some, was a teacher of Homer. 13. How have rules in Rhetoric been formed ? Ans. — From examination and comparison of those great productions which in all ages have elicited the admiration of men, Thus Aristotle, who was the first to lay down rules for unity of action in dramatic and epic poetry, did not arrive at them by a train of inductive rea- soning, but by close observation of Sophocles and Homer. 14. What is Diction 1 Ans. — It is that part of Rhetoric which treats of the selection and the right use of words. The importance of having a great number of words at one's command cannot be over-stated. Some persons have by nature a special talent for this species of acquisition. An acquired talent is to be obtained only by an enlarged course of reading, by habits of observation in regard to words met with, and by linguistic studies. 15. What are the divisions of this subject ? Ans.— Purity, Propriety and Precision, The only standard of purity is the practice of the best writers and speakers. A violation of this standard is called a Barbar- ism. 150 Dime Question Books. Query.— What are obsolete words? What is meant by sus- pended animation of words? What is meant by florid, nervous, or labored style? Of what kind of style is the following an example? Beside yon straggling fence that skirts the way With blossomed furze unprofltably gay; There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule, The village master taught his little school. 16. What is the law of verbal formation? Aars,— That the component parts of a word should be of similar linguistic formation, This rule is violated when a word is made-up of two parts, one of which is Saxon, the other Greek or Latin. Note.— The termination -ity, which is of Latin origin, corre- sponds in meaning to the termination -ness, which is Saxon. Ity should therefore be used in making words from Latin stems : ness, In forming words from Saxon stems. Telegraph is legitimate, but cablegraphis barbarous. "Which of the following are pure? Gal- lantness, fastly, obligate, walkist, converser, preventative, incer- tain. 1?. What is the safest plan in regard to new words ? Ans.— That stated by Pope in his Essay on Criticism— " In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold, Alike fantastic, if too new or old; Be not the first by whom trie new is trled t Nor yet the last to lay the old aside." 18. What is Campbell's Law ? Ans.— The Use which determines authoritatively wheth- er a word is legitimate must have these three marks: 1, It must be Refutable, or that of educated people, as op- posed to that of the ignorant and vulgar; 2, It must be National, as opposed to what is either local or technical; 3, It must be Pkesent, as opposed to what is obsolete. Rhjstoeio and Composition. 151 Norn.— In former years, there was a passion for Latin, as there Is at present a great fondness for French; and Gallicisms, or words and idioms from this language, are abundantly interspersed In the current compositions of the day. But all this is wholly unnecessary, and savors of pedantry and affectation. 19. What is the difference between purity and propriety ? Ans. — Parity of diction refers simply to the question ■whether a word is, or is not, in good and current use, as an established part of the language; but propriety asks whether the word is used correctly in the sentence in which it occurs; that is, does it express the meaning of the writer, Note.— A constant use of the Dictionary and observation of the way in which words are used by good authors are the proper methods of obtaining propriety of diction. Words change from their original and etymological meaning, as illustrated in the case of liquidate, which once meant " to meet," whereas it now means "to pay a debt." Query,— What distinction should be observed in the use of falseness, falsity, and falsehood f Are husband and wife a mar- ried couple ? What are solecisms, vulgarisms, colloquialisms, pro- vincialisms, and technical terms ? What are synonyms ? 20. Define Precision. Ans.— That property of style which consists in the use of such words as exactly convey the meaning. The term is derived from the Latin pmcidere, to cut off, which shows how it is used. This can be very forcibly illustrated by the different uses of surprise, astonish, amaze, and confound. Make the necessary alterations in the following by strik- ing out the offending word:— M. D.'s death has left a (vacant or empty) seat in the House.— Lemons are (healthy 152 Dime Question Books. or healthful).— He has eaten (enough or sufficient) and must go. —Morse (invented or discovered) the telegraph. Note.— Som6 rhetoricians use a fourth division of style called Perspicuity, which, to a certain extent, involves the three already considered. Its purpose is to distinctly indicate the meaning of the writer or speaker. 21. What are the faults opposed to Per- spicuity ? Ans. — Obscurity, Equivocation, and Ambiguity, The first is the result of a variety of causes, such as an improper ellipsis, bad arrangement, complicated sentential structure, the use of technical terms, etc. 22. What is a Sentence ? Ans.— Aristotle's definition is, "A form of a speech which hath a beginning and an end within itself, and is of such a length as to be easily comprehended at once." 23. What is the Rhetorical Classification of sentences ? Ans. — They are divided into Periodic, Loose, Balanced, Short, and Long, A periodic sentence is one in which the several members are linked together, and hang upon one another so that the sense of the whole is not brought out till the close. A loose sentence is one where the sense is formed into short independent propositions, each complete within itself. A balanced sentence is one containing two clauses which are similar in form and to some extent con- trasted in meaning. The terms short and long are self- explanatory. 24. Give examples of these five classes. KhETORIC AMD COMPOSITION. 153 Ans. — " If you look about you, and consider the lives of others as well as your own; if you think how few are born with honor, and how many die without name or chil- dren; how little beauty we see, and how few friends we hear of, how many diseases, and how much poverty there is in the world ; you will fall down upon your knees, and, instead of repining at one affliction, will admire so many blessings which you have received from the hand of God." 2. "We came to our journey's end, | at last, j with no small difficulty, I after much fatigue, j through deep roads, | and bad weather. 3. Worth makes the man, the want of it the fellow. 4 and 5 unnoted. 25. How is clearness in the construction of sentences to be attained? Ans.— By avoiding ambiguity, which is of ten produced by the improper position of the adverb and adverbial clauses and adjuncts. Notice the following inaccuracy of Dean Swift • " Many act so directly contrary to this method that, from a habit of saving time and paper, which they acquired at the university, they write in so diminutive a manner, that they can hardly read what they have writ- ten." He certainly did not mean that they had acquired time and paper at the university, but that they had acquired this habit there. Make the necessary corrections in the following sen- tences: "A purse was lost in the street which contained money." "I only bring forward some things." "We hope you are and will succeed in your work. " "Keats, a little before he died, said, c I feel the daisies growing over me. " "He called to John mildly. " " I do not mean the bulk only of any single object." "Thus I have fairly- given you, Sir, my own opinion, as well as that of a great majority of both houses here, relating to this weight/ 154 Dime Question Books affair} upon which I am confident you may securely reckon." 26. What is meant by squinting construction? Ans. — A word or grammatical expression, thrown into the middle of a sentence, in such a place that it looks both ways; that is, it can be connected in meaning either with what goes before, or with what follows. Ex,— " When I hear a person use a queer expression, or pronounce a name in reading differently from his neighbors, it always goes down, in my estimate of him, with a minus sign before it."— Dean Alford 27. How else may the arrangement of sen- tences be faulty ? Am—- From the effect of bad construction, which does not help so much to make the sentence ambiguous as to render it obscure. Query.— What is the fault in the sentence, " He was exeedingly beloved both by King William and Mary, who nominated Dr. Tenuison, Bishop of London, to succeed him " ? What is Quiutil- ian's Rule ? What is Blair's Remark in regard to such adyerbs as only, wholly, at least ? 28. What are the two main parts of the sen- tence 1 ANS.—The Principal Subject and the Principal Predi- cate, The principal subject is mainly that about which the writer intends to say something. It is not necessarily the grammatical subject;, though ordinarily the two are the same, Notbj.— The most common and natural plaoe for this subject Rhetoric and Composition. 155 Is at the beginning of the sentence, but there may be cases in which the sense is rendered more striking by placing the subject at the end. One of the common contrivances for producing inver- sion is the use of the expletives there and it. Qualifying elauses and adjuncts may sometimes precede the subject without affecting its prominence; e, g., ** In the vacant space between Persia,Syria, Egypt and Ethiopia, the Arabian peninsula may be conceived as a triangle of spacious but irregular dimensions." 29. Where should the Principal Predicate be placed ? Ans. — No definite rule can be given, prescribing when the predicate should be placed at the beginning, the end. or elsewhere. It requires in each case the exercise of taste and judgment, the writer ever bearing in mind which words constitute the leading subject and predicate, and so arranging the subordinate matter as to make these words prominent. Note.— The words constituting the principal predicate should be placed where they will receive natural emphasis. The sentence 11 That our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, quoted to excess, it would be the blindness of partiality to deny," should be arranged thus, " It would be the blindness of partiality to deny that our elder writers, to Jeremy Taylor inclusive, are quoted to ex- cess," placing the principal predicate where it would be difficult for a reader not to make it emphatic. 30. What is meant by Unity ? Ans. — It consists in the restriction of a sentence to one leading proposition, modified only by such accessories as are materially and closely connected with it. The first requirement is that during the course of the sentence the sceue and the subject be changed a« little as possible; the second, thai one sentence should not be crowded into another; the third, that a sentence should not be compli- cated by hanging a relative clause upon another relative 150 Dime Question EookSc clause which is itself in a dependent position j the fourth is, to avoid parenthesis; and the fifth, not to add a supple- mentary clause after the sentence has been apparently brought to a close. 31. Give an illustration of violations of the third and fifth requirements. Ans.-— 3; ' 'Cicero was opposed by a new and cruel afflic- tion, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia; which hap- pened soon after her divorce from Dolabeila; whose manners and humors were entirely disagreeable to him." 5. With Cicero's writings, young divines are more conversant than with those of Demosthenes, who, by many degrees, ex- celled the other: " at least as an orator." 32. Define Strength. Am— This quality is variously designated as energy, animation, vividness, etc., but it consists of such use and arrangement of words as make a deep impression on the mind of the reader or hearer, 83. How is a sentence made stronger ? Ans.— By leaving out redundant words. It may be taken for granted, that whatever in a sentence does not add to the meaning enfeebles it. Every redundant word is so much dead weight. 34. Illustrate redundancy, Ans,-~ " There is nothing which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of language." "To return "is "togc back." The expression, " returning back" is therefore re- Rhetoric and Composition. 157 dundant. " Good satisfaction ! " as if satisfaction was not good. Note.— Our authors copying from Blair claim that the expres- sions, "The man I love," "The dominions we possessed," err in the opposite direction, i. e., that the relative should be sup- plied; but as these expressions are intelligible and decidedly poet- ical, we consider them an allowable form of ellipsis. 35, What is said of the use of " intensive ex- pressions? " Ans,—A sentence is made stronger by avoiding the toq^ frequent use of very, and of other superlative expressions. A feeble effusion would read as follows: The emotion most certainly is extremely delightful, hut still it is altogether of a very serious and solemn kind. Note.— Avoid concluding sentences with the prepositions of, to, from, with, by. Grammar tell us that such expressions are inelegant; they are decidedly unrhetorical. "Which house do you live in? " should be " In which house do you live? " "Avarice is a crime which wise men are often guilty of " is properly ren- dered, "Avarice i3 a crime of which wise men are often guilty." Yet in familiar discourse such expressions must occasionally be admitted, to prevent a feeling of constraint in style. 36. What is " splitting particles ? " Aws. — It consists in separating a preposition from the noun which it governs. Ex. He took it from, and would not return it to, the child. It is a violent separation of things which ought to be clearly united, and results in producing an unsatisfied and displeased feeling. Note.— Considerable skill is needed in the management of and, for from its use arises the apparent paradox that while the object of the conjunction is to join words together, so as to make their connection more close, yet we often effect a closer connec- tion by omitting the connecting word. On the other hand, when 158 Dime Question Books. the writer wishes us to rest a moment on each Item In an enume- ration of particulars, the conjunction is repeated after each. A similar effect is produced by the repetition of or and nor. Drills : In the following sentences, make such corrections and alterations as are necessary: " Alfred the Great, of England, was one of the most remarkable and distinguished men that we read of in history."—" Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, nor his friends, nor his reputation." — " Censure is a tax for which a man pays the public for being eminent."— "It was a case of unpardonable breach of trust and gross disregard of offi- cial duty, to say the least" 37. What is Climax '? Ans. — It is the arrangement of a succession of words, clauses, members, or sentences, in such a way that the weakest may stand first, and that each in turn, to the end of the sentence, may rise in importance, and make a deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded it. The term is derived from the Greek word klimax, "a leader. " 38. What is the most noted example of cli- max? Ans. — That of Cicero in his oration against Verres, " To bind a Roman citizen is an outrage; to scourge him is an atrocious crime; to put him to death is almost a parri- cide; but io put him to death by crucifixion, — what shall I call it?" Query.— What Is the difference between climax in sound and climax in sense? What is a minor climax? Is it desirable to end sentences with the compounds clear up, bring about, come over to, with it, or to it? Should a sentence end with an adverb? What should determine the form of a sentence? 39. What is Harmony ? Ans.— A term used to denote that smooth and easy flow Rhetoeio and CoMPOsrnoif. 159 which pleases the ear. It consists in the use of euphonious, or pleasant-sounding words; the euphonious arrangement of words; and the adaptation of sound to the sense it ex- presses. 40. What words are to be avoided as unhar- monjous % Ans. — 1. Derivatives from long compound words; such as barefacedness. 2. "Words containing a succession of consonant sounds; such as sti'ik'st. 3. Those containing a succession of unaccented syllables; as, mercinariness. 4. Those in which a short or unaccented syllable is repeated, or followed by another that closely resembles it; as, holily. Note.— Words which by themselves are sufficiently euphoni- ous sometimes displease the ear on account of their proximity to certain other words in the sentence. Illustrated by his history; he will wilfully persist. 41. How is harmony promoted ? Ans. — 1. By arranging the words in such a manner that the accents come at convenient and somewhat meas- ured intervals. 2. By a due attention to the cadence at the close. 3. By the prevalence of pleasant sounds. 4. J3y adapting the sound to the sense. 42. What is meant by Figurative Language? Ans.— A Figure, in Rhetoric, implies some departure from simplicity of expression or deviation from the plain and ordinary mode of speech, with a view of making thi meaning more effective, There are three other classes: figures of orthography, figures of etymology, and figures of syntax. Note.— Figures of orthography are intentional deviations from 160 Dimu Qukstion Booxs. the ordinary spelling of words. They are two in number: Ml- me'-sis, which consists in imitating the mispronunciation of ft word, by means of false spelling; as, "I'll argify," and Ar'-cha- ism, or spelling a word according to ancient usage. The figures of etymology and syntax are treated of in Grammar. 43. Name the figures and explain their origin. Ans.— The most common figures are Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Epigram, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Interrogation, Exclamation, Apostrophe, Personification, Hyperbole, and Irony, Their first source is the barren- ness of language, and the second, and principal one, is the pleasure which they give. Note.— Figures of words in distinction from figures of thought are called tropes. The ancients carefully observed this distinction, hut at present the one term, figure, is used to cover the whole subject. 44. Define Simile. Ans. — The comparison of one object to another, and is generally denoted by like, as, or so; as, " Thy smile is as the dawn of the vernal day." The object of Simile is to increase the effect intended in the main assertion, whether that intention be to exalt or to degrade, to dignify or to burlesque. Note.— Similes which have become trite and commonplace should not be used. Neither should those drawn from ob- jects in which the likeness is too faint and remote (far-fetched), or those drawn from objects with which ordinary readers are un- acquainted, be introduced into speech or writing. 45. Define Metaphor. Ans.— It is a figure founded upon the resemblance which one object bears to another. Hence, it is nearly Khetorio and Composition. 161 Billed to Simile, of which it is really a sort of abridgment. Ex, * * Wild fancies gambolled unbridled through his brain. " 46. What is an Allegory 1' Ans. — A narrative of ficticious events, whereby it is (Sought to convey or illustrate important truths; or it is a combination of kindred metaphors. Shorter allegorical combinations are more frequently called Fables, or Parables. 47. What rule is used in Allegory ? Ans. — The principal, almost the only rule, in regard to Allegory, is to avoid mingling the literal signification with the figurative. 48. Antithesis is what ? Ans. — It consists in putting two unlike thiDgs in juxta- position, so that each will appear more striking by the contrast: as, Flattery brings friends; truth brings foes. 49. What is the meaning of Epigram ? Ans. — Originally, it meant an inscription on a monu- ment. As such inscriptions are usually short, containing as much as possible in a few words, Epigram came next to mean any brief paying, prose or poetical, remarkable for brevity and point, and the word is even yet used largely in this sense. Ex. Language is the art of conceal- ing thought. Note.— Epigram in one sense consists mainly in a play upon words, and so leads to that last species of wit tliat the French cal ]eu de mots, ana what we recognize in English as the pun, or plar 162 Dime Question Book. upon words. To examples of paronomasia, may be added conmv drums, rebuses, and riddles. " And the Doctor told the Sexton, And the Sexton toUed the Dell."— Hood. EPIGRAM ON A SHBEW. " They tell me that your brow is fair, And is surpassed by none ; To me the cause is very clear— You brow-beat every one." 50. What means a change of name? Ans. — Metonymy. This is a figure in which the name of one object is put for some other object, the two being so related that the mention of one naturally suggests the other; as, " The drunkard loves his bottle*' and when, foi instance, gray hairs are put for old age, as " to bring one'f gray hairs with sorrow to the grave." 51. Define Synecdoche. Ans. — It is using the name of a part for that of the whole, the name of the whole for that of a part, or a defi- nite number for an indefinite, as, " The sea is covered with sails," i. e., ships; "She has seen sixteen sweet summers (years'); "Ten thousand were on his right hand/' i.e., a great number, 52. Explain the term Interrrogation. Ans.— We often ask a question, not for the purpose of getting an answer, or of receiving information, but as a means of expressing ourselves more strongly. It is as much as to say, there is but one possible answer to this question. By Interrogation, then, is meant the asking of questions, not for the purpose of expressing doubt or Rheto&ic and Composition. 163 obtaining information, but in order to assert strongly the reverse of what is asked. Example: " Doth God pervert judgment?" This is equivalent to saying, with strong emphasis, " God doth not pervert judgment" 53. What figure is similar to Interrogation ? Ans,— Exclamation. Instead of stating a fact simply and calmly, the writer or speaker utters an expression of surprise, or of emotion of some kind, on seeing that the thing is so. Note.— Exclamations belong only to the stronger emotions of the mind; to surprise, admiration, anger, joy, grief, and the like. Both interrogation and exclamation, and, indeed, all passionate figures of speech, operate upon us by means of sympathy. Lyric and Dramatic poetry abounds with examples, and Hymns, being mainly expressive of emotion, afford more than any other species of composition. Query.— Which book of the Bible contains constant employment of the rhetorical figure, Interrogation? What is Amplification? What was Curran's Pun? State advantages resulting from the use of figurative language. Give original illustrations of Simile, Metaphor, and Metonomy. 54. What is Apostrophe ? Ans. — It is an address to a real person, but one who is either absent or dead, as if he were present, and listening to us. It also addresses the inanimate as though animate, and occasionally indicates a high degree of excitement. Byron's "Apostrophe to the Ocean H is the most notable Instance. 55. Define Personification. Ans. — It is the attributing of sex, life, or action, to an inanimate object; or the ascribing of intelligence and per 164 Dime Question Books. sonality to an inferior creature; as, The mountains sing together. The moon shines in her radiant splendor. The sea saw it and fled. 56. What are the three degrees ? Ans.— The lowest form is that produced by adjectives; e. g., the thirsty ground; 2, That produced by verb3; as, The trees of the fields shall clap their hands. 3, That in which personification is combined with apostrophe. In such a case, an inanimate object is personified, and is at the same time addressed. 57. What is Hyperbole ? Ans.— Exaggeration. It consists in representing things to be either greater or lees, better or worse, than they really are. Note.— Hyperbolical expressions are of frequent occurrence In common conversation ; we often say as cold as ice, as white as enow, waves mountain high, etc., in all which phrases the quality is exaggerated beyond the bounds of truth. Their frequency is to be attributed to the imagination, which always takes pleasure in magnifying the objects before it, 58. Irony is a form of what ? Ans.— Ridicule. The language in its literal acceptation is exactly the opposite of what the author means. The true meaning is indicated mainly by the tone of the voice, the words being spoken with a sneer, and hence it is sometimes called a figure of Elocution. Examples: " Oh ! as the bee upon the flower, I hang Upon the honey of thy eloquent tongue." Elijah to the priests of Baal, " Cry aloud, for he is a god. M Note.— Other figures are used in Ehetoric, such as: (1) Vision B.HETOKIO AND COMPOSITION. 165 or Imagery, representing past events, or imaginary objects and scenes as actually present to the senses. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against Catiline : "I see before me the slaughtered heaps of citizens," etc. (2) Apophasis, Paralipsis, or Omission, is the pretended suppression of what one is all the time actually men- tioning. (3) Onomatoposa is the use of a word or phrase formed to imitate the sound of the thing signified, as bow wow to express the barking of a dog; or buzz, buzz to indicate the noise made by bees. Drills: Analyze the figure or figures in each passage :— "Ignor ance is a blank sheet, on which we may write; but error is a scribbled one, from which we must first erase." "Are thy years as man's days? " ''Drowsy night." " He smokes his pipe." "And Brutus is an honorable man." **Ti ue ease in writing comes from art, not chance. As those move easiest who have learned to daaco." M I am dying— Egypt— dying; Hark! the insulting foemau's cry« They are coming! Quick, my falchion t Let me front them ere I die. Oh ! no more amid the battle Will my heart exulting swell, Isis and Osiris guard thee. Clisopatk a— Home— fare well J" 50, Name the Special Properties of Style. Ans. — Sublimity, Beauty, Wit, and Humor. The term Sublimity, for which Grandeur is by some used as an equivalent, is applied to great and noble objects which pro- duce a sort of internal elevation and expansion. The principal source of the sublime is might, or power in a state of active exertion. 60. "What are the various sources of Sublim- ity? Ans. — The simplest form in which sublimity develops itself is vastness. The second circumstance that may be 166 Dime Question Books. named as producing a feeling of the sublime is' great power. A third source is a certain degree of awfulness and solemnity. A fourth is obscurity. Another is great loudness of sound. And last, hut not least, is that feeling awakened by the contemplation of anything strikingly great or noble in human actions; usually called the morally sublime. 61. What are examples of moral sublimity ? Aks.— 1. Generous self-sacrifice, as instanced in the case of Damon and Pythias; Coriolauus and his mother; Codrus, the last Athenian king. 2. Self possession and fearlessness, as illustrated in the case of Cassar crossing the stbrmy sea. 3. Exalted patriotism, as exhibited in the dying moments of Wolfe, Montcalm, and Warren. 62. Relate incidents illustrating these charao* teristics. Aws. — An example of heroism is shown by Mucius Bcsevola, thrusting his arm into JPorsenna's camp-fire, to show how he scorned his threatened tortures, and keeping it there ^with unmoved countenance till it was entirely con- sumed. Porsenna was so struck with the act that he gave the youth, who had come to murder him, his life, and subsequently negotiated a peace with Rome. An English transport, carrying passengers and troops, sprang a leak upon the Indian Ocean. Held to their duty by a young ensign, the four hundred troops gave up the life-boats to the passengers; and, forming in rank and file on the deck as the loaded boats sailed off to a safe distance, the pas- sengers caught the sound of the young Ensign's voice, as he shouted, standing face to face with death: "Fire, my boys, a parting salute to Old England!" There came a volley of musketry, and when the smoke had cleared Rhetokio and Composition. 167 away, not even a floating spar told where the vessel and her gallant freight had gone down beneath the waters. Note.— Darkness, solitude and silence, which have a tendency to fill the mind with awe, contribute much to sublimity. Night scenes are generally the most sublime. The supernatural, includ- ing ghosts and goblins, enters into its composition. It is only a particular kind of loud sound that produces the feeling of sublim- ity. It is the roar of the storm, the cataract, or the bursting of a eannon, and not the shriek of the locomotive. 63. What are the essentials of sublimity in a literary composition ? Ans.— First, it is necessary that the subject be sublime; that the description be of natural objects capable of pro- ducing the emotion of grandeur; or, in other words, of what is vast, mighty, magnificent, obscure, dark, solemn, loud, pathetic, or terrible. To give effect to the descrip- tion, a clear, strong, concise and simple style must be employed. The greatest thoughts must be presented in the fewest words. Simplicity is no less essential, and the writer's own enthusiasm must be awakened, or he cannot hope to excite emotion in others. Blank verse, owing to its freedom and variety, is the best medium for the expres- sion of sublime ideas. 64. To what fanlts are writers of the sublime liable? Ans.— Frigidity and Bombast. The first consists in degrading an object or sentiment which is sublime in itself, by our mean conception of it, or by a weak, low, and childish description. The second consists in attempt- ing to raise an ordinary or trivial object above its level, and to endow it with a sublimity it does not possess*. 168 Dime Question Books, Buch attempts Illustrate the old saying that " there is but a step from the sublime to the ridiculous." 65. What are the leading elements of beanty ? Ans.— -Color, Figure, Smoothness, Motion, Complexity, Smallness and Delicacy, and Design. The requisites to beauty in composition are (1) that the subject of discourse be of an agreeable character, and (2) that the subject be handled in an agreeable manner. Conciseness is not as necessary an attribute, as it is to sublimity. Query.— What is meant by moral beauty? Define gracefulness. What is music? What is meant by the " beautiful in writing? " Which is the best representation of complex beauty? What are the two divisions of Figure? 66. Give the definition of Wit. Ans.— It is that quality of thoughts and expressions which excites in the mind an agreeable surprise, not by means of anything marvellous in the subject, but merely by employing a peculiar Imagery, or presenting in a novel and singular relation ideas remotely connected* 67. How is this agreeable surprise produced ? Ans. — 1. By degrading elevated things. 2. By aggran- dizing insignificant things. 3. By representing objects in an unusual light by means of singular imagery. 4. By paronomasia, 68. What is said of the habit of punning? Ans. — The habit of punning should be avoided, both !n writing and in conversation. Facility in making puna Is soon acquired, and when acquired, almost always leads Rmetqsio and Composition. 169 to such, an excess as to weary both readers aud hearers. There are, of course, exceptions to the rule. But, in gen- eral, there are few greater bores than an inveterate pun- ster. 69. Of what does Humor consist? Ans. — For the most part, in a representation of imagi- nary, short-lived, or over-strained emotions, which display themselves preposterously, or so as to excite derision rather than sympathy. Humor is not, like wit, sudden and short-lived; a brilliant scintillation, which flashes forth, and is then lost in obscurity, It often extends through entire producticns; and, indeed, forms the staple of comic writing in general. TO. What is the aim of Humor! Ans. — Simply to create a laugh. When there Is an ulterior object— that is, when it is sought by means of this laugh to influence the opinions and purposes of the hearer or reader, — then humor becomes Ridicule. In this case, a keener contempt of the weakness under review must be awakened than in the case of humor, 71. What is Versification? Give classifica- tion. Ans. — Versification is the art of making verses. A verse is a metrical line of a length and rhythm determined by rules which usage has sanctioned. A hemistich is half a verse. A distich, or couplet, consists of two verses rhyming together. A triplet consists of three lines rhym- ing together. A stanza is a regular division of a poem, consisting of two or mure lines, or verses. 170 Dime Question Books. Query.— What Is a, quatrain? What Is the definition of foott What Is meant by " the length of a line ? " What are the names of lines of one foot, two, three, four, five, and six feet respectively? Upon what does the kind of foot depend? To what is a long syl- lable equivalent? How is the quantity indicated? 72. Name the disyllabic feet. Ans. — They are four in number, and illustrated as fol- lows: Iambus, <-* — , (awake). Trochee, — ^, (mercy)* Bpondee, , (dark night). Pyrrhic, *-» *-*, (hap- j plly). 73. How many trisyllabic feet? Anb.— Eight. Anapest, ^ ^ — , (rSffiiBe). Dactyl, — -■»'-», (merciful). Amphibrach, *-n — ^>, (rgdiindant). Amphimacer, — *-+ — , (winding sheet). Bacchius, *•+ ■, (the dark night). Antibacchius, <~», ((Bye-s6rvant). Molossus, , (long dark night). Tribrach,^- ^ ^, (insu- | pentble). Note.— Formerly a Heptameter, or a line of seven feet was much in use. What in Hymnologyis called Common Metre was once Heptameter. We have in English the four kinds of verse, growing out of the kind of foot exclusively employed in each, namely, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapestic and Dactylic. 74. What is the difference between Rhyme and Rhythm ? Ans. — Rhyme is a similarity of sound in syllables which begin differently but end alike. Rhythm is the harmonious arrangement of syllables in reference to sound. Rhymes are divided into two classes, perfect and admissible. Ex- ample: " Be thou the first true merit to befriend; His praise is lost who stay3 till all commend." "Good nature and good sense must everj&in: To err is human; to forgive divine." 75. When is a line said to be catalectic f Rhetoric and Composition. 3*?t A K8 . — When a syllable is wan ting at the end to com. plete the measure. One in which there is at the end a syllable over is called hypercatalectic. When there is neither deficiency or redundancy, a line is said to be acatalecttc. 76. Define Blank Yerse. Ans.— It is verse that does not rhyme. Heroic lines, —that is, iambic pentameter, — when constructed without rhyme, constitute Blank Verse, This is the most elevated of all measures, and is the osiy form in which epic poetry should appear. 67. What is the law of English Yerse ? Ans.— The prevailing law of English Verse is that the feet in any one line shall all be of one kind; that is, they shall all be iambuses, trochees, auapests, or dactyls, and the line be accordingly iambic, trochaic, anapestic, or dactylic. 78. What is th3 difference between Ancient and Modern Yerse % Ans. — Modern verse is governed by the accent; ancient verse was governed by the syllables, which had certain fixed and determinate lengths. Modern verse, therefore, is accentual; ancient verse was syllabic. Scan: " There was a gay maiden lived down by the mill, Ferry me over the ferry— Her hair was as bright as the waves of a rill, ' When the sun on the brink of his setting stands still, Her lips were as full as a cherry."— Boker. " The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, And his cohorts wore gleaming fn purple and gold; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea, When the blue wave ro Lis nightly ou deep Galilee. "— Byrom 79, Define Poetry. 172 Dimb Question Books, Ans. — It is the product of an excited and a creative Imagination, with a primary object to please, and ex- pressed in the form of verse. Most of the definitions of Poetry which have been proposed are open to the objec- tion that they apply equally well to certain kinds of prose. They describe what is poetical, rather than what is poetry. A poetical composition bears these three marks: 1. It is the product of an excited imagination. 2. It is the prod- uct of a creative imagination. 3. Its primary object is to please. 80. Name the different kinds of poetry. Ans.— Epic, which treats of the exploits of heroes. Ex. Homer's "Iliad," Virgil's "JSneid," and Milton's " Paradise Lost. " Dramatic, which ranks with the Epio in dignity and excellence, and has nearly all its essential characteristics. The two kinds of drama are Tragedy and Comedy. Ex. The works of Euripides, -Sophocles, and Shakespeare. Lyric is that variety which is adapted to singing and an accompaniment of the lyre or other musi- cal instrument. Of lyric compositions, the Ode is the most elevated. Ex. The Odes of Pindar; "Alexander's Feast," by Dryden; Collins's "Ode on the 'Passions." Elegiac, which is usually of a sad and mournful kind, cel- ebrating the virtues of some one deceased. Pastoral de- picts shepherd life by means of narratives, songs, and dia- logues. An Idyl is a short descriptive pastoral poem. An Eclogue is a pastoral in whith shepherds are repre- sented as conversing. The art of the pastoral poet lies in selecting for his descriptions the beauties of rural life, and carefully avoiding all its repulsive features. Didactic, which aims chiefly to give instruction. Generally devoted to the exposition of some dry abstract subject, it fails to interest the reader unless replete with ornament. Poetry Rhetoric and Composition. 178 of this sort in English is very abundant, the best sped mens being Young's *' Night Thoughts," Pope's "Essay on Man," and Bryant's "Thanatopsis." 81. What is Prose « Ans, — It is the term applied to all composition which is not in verse. It means the ordinary, straightforward man- ner of discourse, in distinction from the inverted forms so common in poetry. Note.— The chief varieties of Prose composition are Letters, Diaries, News, Editorials, Reviews, Essays, Treatises, Travels, History, Fiction, and Discourses. 82. What is a Letter ? Ans. — A written communication on any subject from one person to another. The principal kind of letters are News Letters, Business Letters, Official Letters, Letters of Friendship, Letters of Condolence, of Congratulation, and of Introduction. Example of proper form of date and address: — Muncie, Indiana, Oct. 11, 1881. C, E. Johnson, Esq., My Dear Sib: Note.— The points in a form of a letter requiring attention are the Headi**, the Address, the Subscription, and the Superscrip- tion. It is-remarkable how little attention is paid in epistolary correspondence (generally by those who ought to know better) , to the ordinary form of punctuation, capitalization, and arrange- ment. In addressing a firm do not write Gents. It is a vulgarism, and is an abbreviation only of Gentiles, and not of gentlemen. D'ris an improper contraction of dear. Query.— On what part of the envelope should the postage- stamp be placed? Of what dees the superscription consist? De- fine Farce, Opera, Melodrama, and Burletta. In what measure Is Poe's •■ Raven? » "What is Scanning? What is Verse? Give ».- 174 Dim Question Books. definition of Prologue and Epilogue. What are Satires and Lam- poons? 83. In what respect do essays differ from re- views f Ans.— A review, like an editorial, expresses the opin- ions of some acknowledged representative organ, and its utterances have, besides their own inherent value, what- ever weight of authority has been acquired by that organ. But an essay stands solely on its own merits. It is in form entirely impersonal, or if the author introduces him- self at all, it is in the singular " I," not with the edito- rial "we." 84. What is a Narrative 1 Ans. — A composition which consists, for the most part, of an account of real facts or events; but into which description, arguiueat, exposition, or speculation, may also be introduced. 85. Name its divisions. Ans.— Narratives are divided into Histories, Biogra- phies, Obituaries, Voyages, Travels, and Anecdotes. A History is an account of facts or events pertaining to dis- tinguished places or objects, to communities, nations or States. A detached portion of history, confined* lo any particular era or event, is known as a Historical Sketch. 86. What is a Biography ? Ans. — It is an account of the life of an individual. When the chief incidents only are touched upon,it is called ft Biographical Sketch. The writer should avoid a ten- dency to minuteness of uninteresting detail, aud exagger- Rhbtobio and Composition. 175 ated praise of the person whose life he is treating. The definition of Autobiography is indicated in the etymology of the word: avro$ (one's own), fiioS (life), ypdcpGo (to write). 87. What are the principal kinds of dis- courses ? Ans. — Orations, Addresses, Sermons, Lectures, and Speeches. [Define each.] 88. Part II. of Rhetoric is Invention. What is it? Ans. — It means finding out what to say. It is divided into two branches: 1. Storing the mind with knowledge; 2. Selecting from this general storehouse the thoughts needed for any particular occasion. Note.— The first of these belongs to education and general Intellectual culture, rather than to Rhetoric. If one is to write on any given subject, he can, of course, know better what to say if he is a man of profound and varied knowledge. 89. What is Composition ? Ans. — It is the art of inventing ideas and expressing them by means of written language. A composition is a written production on any subject, and of any length or style. 90. What is Description . Ans. — It consists in delineating the characteristics of any object by means of words. It forms an important part of almost every variety of composition, and allows the widest scope for ornament aud beauty of language. The 116 Diurn Question Books. sty lb used in description should correspond with the char- acter of the object treated, If the latter is grand, the lan- guage in which it is described should be elevated in pro- portion. If beauty is the leading characteristic of the one, it should distinguish the other also. Whatever the nature of the object described, the style, to be effective, should be adapted to it, 01. How should a description of natural scen- ery be made ? Ans— From the following heads: I. Circumstances under which it was seen; whether at sunrise, at noon, at sunset, or by moonlight; II, Natural features of the scene; level or undulating, fertile or barren; vegetation, trees, mountains, streams, etc., within view. III. Improvements of art; whether well cultivated; buildings, and other pro- ductions of human industry. IV. Living creatures that ani- mate the scene; human beings, V. Neighboring inhabi- tants; peculiarities. VI. Sounds: murmur of a stream; noise of a waterfall; rustling of leaves; lowing of cattle; barking of dogs; singing of birds; cries of children; noise of machinery, etc. VII. Prospect, and comparison with any other scene. VIII. Historical associations and emo- tions awaked by these or native contemplation. Amplify the following into a species of narration, draw- ing the obvious comparison: (1) Macbeth started at every whisper of the wind, or shriek of the night-hawk, when he went to murder Duncan; but stood as an " eagle against a sparrow, or a lion against a hare " in the fierce contest with the Norwegian rebels. 92. What is an essential condition to success in describing ? Am —The practice at noting down on the spot the Bhktorio ajsd Composition. 177 things to be described. In personal narrative, we can trust in good measure to recollection. But it is different in description. Here, if we wish to succeed, and to give to others a picture which will be thoroughly true and fresh, and which will bring up to their minds a scene exactly as it presented itself to ours, we must stand before it, pencil in hand, and note down its features while the eye is actu- ally on them. Trace, at length, the points of resemblance between the given subjects that follow : Life— an ocean. Earth— & mother. Uncultivated genius— sm unpolished diamond. Neglected talent— a, flower in the desert. Youth — morning. Old age— sunset. Nots.— A good exercise is to have pupils write a letter to a friend describing what they did in one day; to give an account of the "trip" to and from school; a description of any particular event that may have happened to them or others, or of a visit to city or country. Our class-books offer a variety of subjects for the consideration of advanced pupils. 93. What is a Parallel ? Ans.— A comparison showing the points of similitude and difference between two persons, characters, or objects that resemble each other either in appearance or reality. 94 Define Paraphrase. Ans.— It is the amplified explanation of a passage in clearer terms than those employed by the author, "ex. Wealth begets want. Paraphrase. The desires of man in- crease with his acquisitions. Every step that he advances brings something within his view, which he did not see before, and which, as soon as he sees it, he begins to want. When necessity ends, curiosity begins; etc., ad libitum. 95. What is Abridging? 178 Dime Question Books. Ans. —Epitomizing is the opposite of Amplification, and consists in expressing the substance of a passage, artl* cle, or volume, iu fewer words. Rehearsal. What kind of metre and stanza is the following? ei With a jaunty cloak and swagger, and a jeweled-liandled dagger, And a lute across his shoulder, by a ribbon— blue at that! And his breeches, never bigger than would show his shapely figure, And a fascinating feather in his jaunty little hat. What is meant by sayiug a thing is incongruous? Give an example of the Spenserian stanza. What is a Sonnet? What is a paramount law in all speech? Name three points of excellence in style, and tell what you mean by each. What evils would result from directly imitating the style of another? What illustration can you give of the adage, " de gustibus non disputandum "? What is the standard in taste? Explain the difference between taste and genius. Have you read Campbell's "Essay on Use as the Law of Language "? What is meant by an ideographic system of writing? The following is an illustration of what? — " He lost his wife, his child, his household goods, and his dog, at one fell swoop. What are Burlesques? Give an exam- ple of a " far-fetched " simile. Define a mixed metaphor. Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress" is an example of what rhetorical figure? What does tropes mean? Give the ety- mology of epic. What is meant by repetition ? What are the dangers of wit? What are its advantages? Combine the following groups of statements into one simple or com- plex sentence:— In the Olympic games, the only reward was a wreath of wild olive. The Olympic games were regarded as the most honorable contests. They were so Khbtohio and Composition, 179 regarded because they were sacred to Jupiter, How did the Alexandrine obtain its name? What is meant by pure measure? What are the three common stanzas? Define the Hallelujah metre. What is a Hote? Define Diary, Essay, and Review, Who has been called the "Prince of Reviewers"? Would you write, Yours Very Truly, or, Yours very truly? Why? What are the names given to works of fiction? How do you change expressions from the common to the rhetorical style? What is good Eng- lish ? When should the formal study of rhetoric be intro- duced into schools? What is a Peroration? Write a con- gratulatory letter, Write a composition upon "Gossip," of not more than fifty lines. Can you write a iramstie on Longfellow's " Psalm of Life "? What is meant by a scale of criticism? What is a Madrigal? How can energy be secured? What do you include under the term Invention? BOTANY. 1. What is Botany? Ans. — It is the science of the vegctaoie kingdom, and includes a systematic knowledge of the forms, organs, in- timate structures, growth, history classification and uses of plants. Note,— Physiology Is the study of the way a living being lives, and grows, and performs its various operations. The study of plants in this view is the province of Vegetable Physiology. The study of the form and structure of the organs or parts of the vege- table, by which its operations are performed, is the province of Structural Botany. The two constitute Physiological Botany. 2. Define Plant. Ans. — "It is a cellular body, possessing vitality, living by absorption through its outer surface, and secreting starch," Note.— There is hardly an exception to the fact, that the plantlet exists ready-formed in the seed in some shape or other. The rudimentary plantlet coutained in the seed is called an Embryo. 3. What is the Radicle ? Ans. — It is the root end of the embryo. It was so aamed because it was supposed to be the root, when the inference letween the root and stem was not so well 184 Dime Question Books. known as now A better name would be VaulicU, i. 6., "little stem." 4. What are the axes f Ans. — One part, the root, grows downward into the soil: it may, therefore, be called the descending axis. The other grows upward into the light and air: it may be called the ascending axis. Note.— The root grows on continually from the extremity, and so does not consist of joints, nor does it bear leaves or any- thing'of the kind. The stem grows by a succession of joints, each bearing one or more leaves on its summit, 5. What are Cotyledons ? Asrs.— The seed-lobes. After they are relieved from the nourishment with which their tissue is gorged, they expand into useful green leaves. The little bud of unde- veloped leaves which is to be found between the cotyledons before germination, in many cases (as in the Pea, Bean, etc,,) has been named the Plumule. 6. Describe the cotyledons of the Pea. Ans. — They make up nearly the whole bulk of the seed,' and are so excessively thickened as to become nearly hem- ispherical in shape. They have lost all likeness to leaves, and all power of ever-fulfilling the office of leaves, Ac- cordingly in germination they remain unchanged »wilhin the husk or coats of the seed, never growiDg themselves, but supplying abundant nourishment to the plumule. This pushes forward from the seed, shoots upward, and gives rise to the first leaves that appear. In most cases of this sort, the radicle lengthens very little, or not at all; and so the cotyledons remain under ground. Botany. 185 ?. How is the food deposited? Ans. — The nourishment provided for the seedling plant- let is usually laid up in the embryo, but very often it is around it. A notable instance is furnished by the com- mon Morning Glory or Convolvulus purpureus, The em- bryo consists of a short stemlet and a pair of very thin and delicate green leaves, having no stock of nourishment in them for sustaining the earliest growth. Cutting open the seed we see that the embryo (considerably crumpled or folded together, so as to occupy less space) is surrounded by a mass of rich, mucilaginous matter (becoming rather hard and solid when dry), which forms the principal bulk of the seed. Upon this stock the embryo feeds in germi- nation; the seed-leaves absorbing it into their tissue as it is rendered soluble and dissolved by the water which the germinating seed imbibes from the moist soil. Having by this aid lengthened its radicle into a stem of consider- able length, and formed the beginning of a root at its lower end, already imbedded in the soil, the cotyledons now dis- engage themselves from the seed coats, and expand in the light as the first pair of leaves, 8. What is said of the Root? Ans.— It has no such aspiration. Growing downward from the first moment of its breaking through the seed coats, it persistently avoids the air and light, seeking the dark, damp depths bf the soil. Its innumerable fibres are many months absorbing water and earthy matters, which ascend and mix with the air and gases absorbed by the leaves. Chemical action is induced by the rays of the sun, transforming all into nourishing sap for the life End growth of every part of the plant. 9, What is Albumen ? 186 Dime Question Books. Ans.— -This material store of food, deposited in the seed along with the embryo (but not in its substance ), the old botanists likened to the albumen, or white of the egg, which encloses the yolk, and therefore gave it the same name— the albumen of the seed—a name which it still retains. Food of this sort for the plant is also food for animals, or for man ; and it is this albumen, the floury part of the seed, which forms the principal bulk of the leading grains. Note.— The question of a seed's vitality is interesting at least to the gardener. He accepts all kinds as good.for a year, and, as a rule, rejects such as are known to be older. There are, however, many kinds of seeds which are long-lived. The seeds of Maize and Eye have been known to grow after 30 or 40 years old ; Kidney Beans when 100, and the Kaspberry (according to Lindley) after 1700 years. It is often observed that when from deep excavations earths are first brought to the surface, they are soon covered with strange plants, probably from seeds long buried. After the "Great Fire in London," the Hedge Mustard {SisymlnHum) pre- viously unknown in that locality, sprang up thickly amid the blackened ruins. Query.— What is the meaning of dicotyledonous? Define root, and tell its office to the plant. Wherein does stem differ from root? Describe the "plan of vegetation." Embryos with many cotyledons are said to be what? 10. Describe Buds. Ans,— These regularly appear in the axils of the leaves, that is, in the angle formed by the leaf with the stem on the upper side; and as the leaves are symmetrically arranged on the stem, the buds, and the branches intc which the buds grow, necessarily partake of this symme- try. Notb.— We do not confine the'name of bud to the scaly wintei bud3 which are bo conspicuous on most of our shrubs and trees in Botany. 187 winter and spring. It belongs as well to the forming branch of any herb, at Its first appearance in the axil of a leaf. 11. Distinguish between terminal and axillary buds. Ans.— There are herbs, shrubs, and trees which do not branch, but whose stems, even when they live for many years, rise as a simple shaft. These plants grow by the continued evolution of a bud which crowns the summit of the stem, and which is therefore called the terminal bud. Axillary buds are formed in the trees early in the summer. Occasionally, they grow at the time into branches: at least, some of them are pretty sure to do so, in case the growing terminal bud at the end of the shoot is injured or destroyed; Otherwise they lie dormant until the spring. 12. What is the arrangement of leaves ? Ans. — They are arranged in two principal ways, oppo- site or alternate. They are opposite when there are two borne on the same joint of the stem, the two leaves in such cases being always opposite each other, that is, on exactly opposite sides of the stem. They are alternate when there is only one from each joint of stem — not counting the seed- leaves, which are, of course, opposite, there being a pair of them. 13. What are the various forms of stems? Ans. — 1. Herbaceous, when it dies down to the ground every year, or after blossoming. 2 Suffrutescent, when the bottom of the stem above the soil is a littie woody, and inclined to live from year to year. 8. Suffruticose, when low stems are decidedly woody below, but herbaceous above. 4. Fruticose, or slmtbby, when woody, living from 188 Dime Question Books. year to year, and of considerable size, — not, however, more tliau three or four times the height of a man. 5. Ar- borescent, when tree like in appearance, or approaching a tree in size. 6. Arboreous, when forming a proper tree trunk. 14. What are consolidated plants ? Ans.— Those which are formed on the plan of the least possible amount of surface in proportion to their bulk. The Giant Cereus of the Gila River is a noted example. They are evidently adapted and designed for very dry seasons, and during a long hot season in which little or no rain falls, their stalks and foliage above and their roots beneath being early cut off by drought, the plants rest securely in their compact bulbs filled with nourishment, and retain their moisture with great tenacity, until the rainy season comes round. 15. What is a Bulb ? Ans.— An extremely short subterranean stem, usually much broader than high, producing roots from underneath, and covered with leaves or the bases of leaves, in the form of thickened scales. Bulblets are small bulbs formed above ground on some plants, as in the axils of the leaves of the common Lily of the gardens. They are plainly noth- ing but bulbs with thickened scales. They never grow into branches, but detach themselves when full grown, and fall to the ground, to take root there and form new plants. Query.— 'What purpose do bulbs serve? When Is a bulb said to be tunicated? Define the terras diffuse, decumbent, declined, assurgent, procumbent, scandent, etc., when applied to the direc- tion taken by stems. What are suckers, offsets, stolons, and run- ners? What is a rhizoma f Give examples of tubers. Botany. 189 16. What is Vernation ? Ans.— The arrangement of the leaves in the bud. In She Osmund Ferns, when starting from the ground in early spring, each frond (combination of stalk and leaf) is a coil rolled from the top inward and downward, grad- ually unfolding, scroll-like, as it grows. This mode of bud-folding is termed eircinate. 17. Name the parts of the Leaf \ Ans,-— The principal part of a leaf is the blade, or ex- tended portion, one face of which naturally looks toward the sky, the other toward the earth. The blade is often raised on a stalk of its own, and on each side of the stalk at its base, there is sometimes an appendage called a stipule. A complete leaf, therefore, consists of a blade, a footstalk or leafstalk, called the petiole, and a pair of stipules. 18. Describe the Leaf. Ans. — It consists of (1) the green pulp or parenchyma, and (2) the fibrous framework, or skeleton, which extends throughout the soft green pulp and supports it, giving the leaf a strength and firmness which it would not otherwise possess. Besides, the whole surface is covered with a transparent skin, called the epidermic like that which covers the surface of the shoots. 19. Of what does the framework consist ? Ans. — Wood; a fibrous and tough material which runs from the stem through the leaf stalk (when there is one) in the form of parallel threads or bundles of fibres; and in the blade these spread out in a horizontal direction, to form the ribs and veins of the leaf. The stout main 190 Dime Question Books. branches of the framework are called the ribs. When there is only one, or a middle one decidedly larger than the rest, it it called the midrib. The smaller divisions are termed vein* ; and their still smaller subdivisions, veinlets. 20. Defrne Venation. Ans. — It is the arrangement of the veins, and is of two principal kinds, namely, the parallel -veined and the netted- veined. In parallel veined leaves, the whole framework consists of slender ribs or veins, which run parallel with each other, or nearly so, from the base to the point of the leaf, not dividing and sub dividing, nor forming meshes, except by very minute cross veinlets. In netted- veined (reticulated) leaves, the veins branch off from the main rib or ribs, divide into finer and finer veinlets, and the branches unite with each other to form meshes of network. That is, they anastomose, as do the veins and arteries of the body. Note.— The veinulets branch from the veinlets, then divide or fork, and so end either in the edge (margin) of the frond, or in a fruit-cluster. This kind of veining in the larger veins is styled pinni-veined, pinnately-veined, or feather-veined, and fchat in the veinulets, fork-veined. To the last is added the terms, pal mately, digitately or radiately-veimd. 21. What is said f the leaf ? Ans.— Cordate or heart shaped, Reniform or kidney- sha2)ed, Auriciclate or ear-shaped, Sagittate or arraid-shaped; Hastate or halberd shaped, and Peltate or shield-shaped. Note.— The following terms express the principal variations of the the apex of the leaf : Acuminate, pointed or taper-pointed, Acute., Obtuse, Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, or notched, Obcor- date, Cuspidate, Mucronate, Aristate, awn-pointed, or brUtts- pointed. 23. Name the " particular outlines " of leaves. Ans. — Entire, Serrate or saw toothed, Dentate or toothed, Crenate or scolloped, Repand, undulate or wavy, Sinuate, Incised, cut or jagged. When leaves are more deeply cut, and with a definite number of incisions they are said to be lobed ; the parts being called lobes. Note.— When the depth and character of the iobing needs to be more particularly specified, the following terms are used: Lobed, Cleft, Parted, Divided, etc. Query.— When is a leaf said to be quadrifid ? When trisected t What is meant by the mode of division? Analyze an oak-leaf. What are pinnate leaves? Define phytfcdia. 24. What is the third arrangement of leaves? Ans, — Wliorled or verticillate, when there are three or more leaves in a circle (wlwrl or verticil) on one joint of stem. But this is only a variation of the opposite mode; or rather the latter arraugement is the same as the whorled, with the number of the leaves reduced to two on each whorl. Note.— The shape of leaves depends on the venation. Paimi or palmate-veined leaves, wherein there are several chief veins running from the base of the blade to the margin, will generally 192 Dime Question Books, be broad In outline— as broadly ovate, or orbicular, or reniform; and often palmately trilobate, 5-lobed t 7-lobed, according to the number of veins, 25. What are the organs of Reproduction ? Ans. — The seed, and the fruit in which the seed is formed, and ihefloirer, from which the fruit results. Inflo- rescence, or the mode of floweriDg, is the situation and arrangement of blossoms on the plant. 26. What is the flower? Ans.— The collection of organs which directly or indi- rectly contribute to the process of reproduction by seed. It may consist of essential and non-essential organs. Flowers are either terminal or axillary. The same plant usually produces both kinds of leaf buds, but it rarely bears flowers in both situations. These are usually either all axillary or all terminal, giving rise, to two classes of inflorescence, namely, the determinate and the indetermin- ate. 27. Define the two classes. . Ans. — The Terminal Centrifugal or Definite is that where the flowers are terminated in a single axis, the blos- soming proceeding from the centre outward. The Axil- lary Centripetal or Indefinite is that where the flowers all arise from axillary buds, and while these buds give rise to flowers, the terminal bud goes on to grow, and continues the stem indefinitely. Note.— Of axillary inflorescence W8 may have the following kinds :— 1, Spike, a long axis or raeliis, with clustered, scattered/ or crowded sessile flowers as in Mullein, Plantain. 2. Spikelete; the branches of a compound spike, as in wheat and others of the Botany. 193 grass family. 8. CatMn or Ament, slender spikes, pendent with scaly ducts, as in Oak and Willow. 4. Spaclix, flowers closely arranged on a thick, fleshy rachis, sometimes with a spathe envel- oping it, as in Indian Turnip, 5. Raceme, the same as a spike, except that the flowers are on pedicels, as in the Currant. 6. Umbel, when several pedicels ot nearly equal length proceed from a com- mon centre, giving the appearance of an umbrella. The pedicels may themselves become umbels, producing a compound umbel; the primary pedicels are then called rays, and the secondary um- bels, vmbellets. 7. Corymb, a raceme with the lower pedicels lengthened,making all the flowers stand at nearly the same height It may be simple or compound. 8. Head, a kind of compact umbel, the flowers all sessile on the end of the stem, as in the Clover and Composite. 9. Panicle, an irregular, loose flower cluster, as in Oats. 10. Thryse, a compact, pyramidal panicle, as in the Grape. 28. When is a flower said to be sessile f Ans.— A flower (or other body) which has no stalk to support it, but which sits directly on the stem or axis from which it proceeds, is said to be sessile. If it has a stalk, this is called its peduncle. If the whole flower- cluster is raised on a stalk this is called the peduncle or the common peduncle: and the stalk of each particular flower, if it have any, is called the pedicel ox partial peduncle, 29. What is the rachis f Ans.— The position of the general stalk along which flowers are disposed is called the axis of inflorescence, or when covered with sessile flowers, the rachis (back-bone), and sometimes the receptacle. The leaves of a flower- cluster generally are termed bracts, 30. What are the divisions of determinate in- florescence ? Ans.— 1. Cyme, a level-topped or convex flower-cluster, 194 Dime Question Books. resembling the corymb except that the flowers are centri- fugal, as in the Elder. 2 . Fascicle, like that of the Sweet William and Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded, as it were, into a bundle. 3. Olomerule, a cyme still more compacted, so as to form a sort of head. It may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding centripetally ; i, e., not from the circumference towards the center, or from the bottom to the top. 31. Name the organs of the flower. Ans. — They are of two kinds: first, the protecting organs, or leaves of the flower — also called the floral enve- lopes, — and second, the essential organs. 32. Describe the Floral Envelopes. Ans. — Those in a complete flower are double; that is, they consist of two whorls, or circles of leaves, one above or within the other. The outer whorl, generally green,* sometimes colored, separated, or united into a ring or cup, is called the calyx. Its divisions are called sepals. The inner whorl, separate or united, usually colored, is called the corolla. Its divisions are petals. Note.— If there is but one whorl, it is always the calyx; that ia, there may be a calyx without a corolla, but there cannot be a corolla without a calyx. Both calyx and corolla may be wanting. The calyx and corolla together are sometimes called the perianth. They are not directly concerned in the production of the seed, but are only for protection of the other organs; hence they are called the non-essential organs. 33. What are the essential organs ? Ans.— They are of two kinds, placed one above or with- * In Botany, the term color means any color (including white) except green.,. Botany. 195 la the other; first, the thread-like organs, varying in num- ber from one to a hundred or more, situated just within Ihe perianth are called the stamens. Taken together they are somtimes called the andrecium. The thread-like por- tion of the stamen is called the filament. It is non essen- tial, and sometimes wanting. The anther consists of a closed sac divided into cells, and containing a fine yellow dust called pollen. The use of the pollen is to fertilize the embryo seeds. When the filament, which is but the stalk of the anther, is wanting, the anther is said to be sessile. Second, the organs which occupy the center of the flower comprising the fourth whorl, are called pistils. Taken together they are called the gynecium. A complete pistil is composed of the ovary, style and stigma. The ovary is a closed case containing the embryo seeds, or ovules. The style is the thread-like portion which, when present, bears the stigma on its end. The stigma is the tip, or extremity, of the style, or of the ovary when the style is wanting- The use of the ovary is to bear the embryo seeds (ovules) where they are fertilized by the pollen from the anther falling on the stigma and penetrating the ovary through the style. Note.— Taking them in succession, therefore, beginning from below, or at the outside, we have first, the calyx or outer circle of leaves, which are individually termed sepals ; secondly, the corolla or inner circle of delicate leaves, called petals ; then a set of stamens ; and in the center one or more pistils. The end of the flower- stalk, or the short axis, upon which all these parts stand, Is called the Torus or Receptacle. 34. What is a Typical Flower ? Ans. — A pattern flower, which exemplifies the plan upon which all flowers are made, and serves as what is called a type, or standard of comparison. The Flax and Stone- crop are good examples. The typical flower must be: 1. 196 Dime Question Book. Perfect, provided with both kinds of essential organs, viz., stamens and pistils, 2. Complete, having the four sets of organs arranged in concentric circles. 3. Regular, having parts of each set of the same shape and size. 4. (Symmet- rical, having an equal number of parts of each sort, or in each set or circle of organs. 5. Alternating, having the several parts of each set stand alternating in position to the parts of the next set. 6. Distinct, having all parts dis- connected. 35. What are the variations from the type ? Ans.' — I. Incomplete, deficient in respect to floral enve- lopes : 1. Corolla wanting, apetalous, or mono- chlamydeous. 2, Caylx and corolla wanting, naked, or achlamydeous. II. Imperfect, deficient in respect to essential or- gans: 1. Pistils wanting, staminate, or sterile. 2. Stamens wanting, pistillate, or fertile. 3. Pistils and stamens both wanting, neutral. III. Irregular. IV. Un symmetrical. V. Organs opposite. VI. Cohesion. VII. Adhesion. Note.— The terms "calyx superior," "ovary inferior," " ovary adherent," " calyx adherent," all mean the same as " caylx epig- ynous." The terms " calyx inferior," " calyx free," " ovary free,' all mean the same as " calyx hypogynous." These terms are used frequently in analysis. Query.— What is the meaning of perigynous, epigynous, and hypogynous f What are the characteristic forms of the perianth? The following terms are used to denote the varying duration of Botany. 197 She perianth j define thera. Deciduous, Oaduceous, Persistent, Accrescent, Marescent. What are spurs, crowiivs, and scales f What is the meaning of 4S gamopetalous " and " urceolate? " 36. What is the "numerical plan"' of the flower ? Ans. —Although not readily discerned in all eases, yet generally it is plain to see that each blossom is based upon a particular number, which runs through all or most of its parts. Some flowers of the Stonecrop have their parts in fours, and then that number runs throughout; namely, there are four sepals, four petals, eight stamens (two sets), and four pistils. Mm is the most common number in flowers, and next to this is three. 37. "What relation do flowers bear to branches ? Ans. — Flowers are altered branches, and their parts, therefore, altered leaves. That is, certain buds, which, might have grown and lengthened into a leafy branch, do, under other circumstances and to accomplish other pur- poses, develop into blossoms, In these the axis remains short, nearly as it is in the bud ; the leaves therefore re- main close together in sets or circles; the outer ones, those of the calyx, generally partake more or less of the -charac- ter of foliage; the next set are more delicate, and form the corolla, while the rest, the stamens and pistils, appear under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves, and are concerned in production of seed. 38. What is Cohesion? Ans. — The calyx or corolla is frequently found to bo a cup or tube, instead of a set of leaves. The best examples are the flowers of the Stramonium, Thorn apple, and 198 Dime Question Books. Morning-glory, Where the parts are united, much or little, the corolla is said to be monopetalous and the calyx monosepalous. Where the stamens are united in one set they are said to be monadelplwus ; in two sets, diadelphous; in many sets, polydelphous ; by their anthers, syngenecious. Where the pistils are united they form a compound pistil, the divisions being called carpels. 39. When is the flower said to be "parted f " Ans.— When the parts of the corolla or calyx taken as a whole are separate almost to the base. They are said to be cleft, or lobed, when the notches do not extend below the middle or thereabouts; toothed or dentate, when only the tips are separate as short points; entire, when the bor- der is even, without points or notches. Note.— Other divisions will be found by referring to the char- acteristic forms of the perianth as generally given under five headings. 40. Give examples of the Papilionaceous flower. Ans.— The Pea, Bean, Locust, and nearly all that family. In this we have an irregular corolla of a peculiar shape, which Linnseus (the founder of the science of Botany) likened to a butterfly— from the Latin papilio, "a butterfly." The five petals of a papilionaceous corolla have received different names taken from widely differc t objects. The upper and larger petal which is generally wrapped round all the rest in the bud, is called the stand- ard, banner, or vexilliim. The two side petals are called wings, or alae. The two side anterior ones, the blades of which commonly stick together a little, and which enclose the stamens and pistil in the flower, from their forming a Botany. 199 body shaped somewhat like the keel, or rather the prow, of an ancient boat, are together named the keel or earinum, 41. Describe the Ligulate. Ans.— It is the strap-shaped corolla of most compound floicers. What is called the compound flower of the This- tle, Sunflower, Aster, or Dandelion, consists of many dis- tinct blossoms, closely crowded together into a head, and surrounded by an involucre. A common mistake is to re- gard the whole for one flower, the involucre for a calyx, and corollas of the outer or of all the flower as petals. And this is very natural when the flowers around the edge have flat and open or strap-shaped corollas, while the rest are regular and tubular, but small, as in the Sunflower. In the Coreopsis, the ray -flower consists merely of a strap - shaped corolla, raised on the small rudiment of an ovary; it is therefore a neutral flower, like those of the ray, or margin of the cluster in Hydrangea, only of a different shape. More commonly the flowers with a strap-shaped corolla are pistillate; that is, have a pistil only, and pro- duce seed like the others, as in Whiteweed. But in the Dandelion, etc., these flowers are perfect, bearing both stamens and pistils. And, moreover, all the flowers of the head are strap-shaped and alike. * 42. What is ^Estivation or Prsefloration ? Ans. — ^Estivation (from mtfous, in summer) shows how the envelopes are folded in the bud, or it relates to the way in which the leaves of the flower, or the lobes of the calyx or corolla, are placed with respect to each other in the bud. 43. What are its various forms 1 200 Dime Question Books. Ans.— -The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either over- reach each other in the bud, or they do not. When they do not, the SBstivation is commonly Valvate, Induplicate, Reduplicate, conwlate or twisted, Imbricated (joint breaking). Define each. Note.— When tlie calyx or the corolla is tubular, the shape of the tube in the bud. has sometime to be considered, as well as the way the lobes are arranged. For example, it may be Platted or Plicate; i. e., folded lengthwise; and the plaits may either be turned outwards, forming projecting ridges, or turned inwards, as in the corolla of the Gentian. When the plaits are wrapped round all in one direction, so as to cover one another in a con- volate manner, the aestivation is said to be Supervolute. 44, When are stamens "Gynandrous" ? Ans. — "When they are consolidated with the style, so as to he borne by it, as in the Lady's Slipper and all the Cac- tus family. They are said to be Epipeialous when they are borne by the corolla. 45. How is number in the flower sometimes expressed ? Ans. — By terms compounded of the Greek numerals and the word used to siguify stamen; as monandrous, for a flower having only one stamen; diandrous, one with two stamens; triandrous, with three stamens; and so on, up to polyandrous, (meaning with many stamens) when there are twenty or a larger number, as in a Cactus. Note.— Two terms are used to express particular numbers with unequal length. Namely, the stamens are didynamous when only four in number, two longer than the other two, as in the Mint and Catnip; and tetradijnnmnus when there are six, with four of them regularly longer than the other two, as in the Mustard and all that family. I50TANY. 201 46. Describe Pollen. Ans. — A grain of pollen is made up of two coats; the Duter coat thickish, but weak, and frequently adorned with lilies or bands, or studded with points; the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate, but extensible, and its cavity is filled with a thickish fluid, often rendered turbid by an immense number of minute grains that float in it. When wet, the grains absorb the water and swell so much that many kinds soon burst and discharge their contents. 47. What is said of the Qymnospennous pis- til? Ans. — The meaning of the word is staked- seeded, and it is the mo%t peculiar, and yet the simplest of all pistils. While the ordinary simple pistil represents a leaf rolled together into a closed pod, those of the Cedar, Larch, and Pine are plainly open leaves, in the form of scales, each bearing two or more ovules on the inner face, next the base. At the time of blossoming these pistil leaves of the young cone diverge, and the pollen, so abundantly shed from the staminate blossoms, falls directly upon the exposed ovules. Afterwards the scales close over each other until the seeds are ripe. Then they separate again, that the seeds may be shed. As their ovules and seeds are not enclosed in a pod, all such plants are said to be Gym- nospermous. 48. What are the classes of ovules ? Ans.— 1. Orthotropous, or straight: 2. Campylotropous or curved; 3. Anatropous, or inverted; and, 4. Amphi- tropous, or half-anatropous. As to their direction, they are Horizontal, Ascending, Erect, Pendulous, and Sus- pended. ** 202 Dime Question Books. Query.— What is the " Mlurn " ? Locate the " chalaza." What 6 an annual herb? a biennial? a perennial? Define a shrub. How does a tree differ from a shrub? What is vegetation? What are " aerial roots "? What are Epiphytes? What is meant by the " spiral arrangement " of leaves? Note.— Some very interesting particular laws respecting 1 spiral arrangement " have been pointed out by Braun, a German naturalist. For example, in the elm and many others, the 3d leaf is piaced immediately over the 1st, the 4th over the 2d, and so on. This makes a cycle, which is expressed by the fraction y 2 , the nu- merator denoting the revolutions, the denominator the number of leaves m each, and the fraction the angular distance between the leaves, i. e., y 2 of 360.° In the birch and others the fraction is \&\ in the cherry, apple, etc;, it is -§; in Osage, orange, and others, %. These fractions form a series in which the terms of each are equal to the sum of the two preceding. The next then would be 2 + 3_ 5__ 5 -f 8 ~" 13, which is the cycle of the cones of most of the pines. The next, ■fa, is represented in the house leek and Scotch pine. 49. What is a disk? Ans. — It is a part of ihe receptacle, or a growth from it, enlarged under or around the pistil. It is hypogynous when free from all union either with the pistil or the calyx, as in the Rue and the Orange. It is perigynous when it adheres to the base of the calyx, as in the Biadder- nut and Buckthorn. In adhering both to the calyx and to the ovary, consolidating the whole together, it is some- times carried up and expanded on the top of the ovary, as in the Parsley and Ginseng families, when it is said to be epigynous. 50. What is fruit H Ans.— It is the perfected ovary. It consists of the pericarp and the seed. The seeds are the perfected ovules Botany. 208 and are embryos of the futura plant. The pericarp is the envelope of the seed, or the perfected walls of the ovary. The divisions are called carpels. The pericarp does not always completely enclose the seeds, plants of the pine kind and some others being exceptions. 51. Name the kinds of fruits. Ans. — They are three in number, viz: 1, Fleshy Fruits; 2, Stone Fruits; and 3, Dry Fruits. In fleshy fruits, the whole pericarp thickens and becomes soft (fleshy, juicy or pulpy) as it ripens. Of this the leading kind is the berry, such as the gooseberry, currant, cranberry, blueberry^ tomato, and grape. The orange is merely a berry with a leathery rind. 52. What other forms are there of the berry f Ans.— The Pepo, or Gourd-fruit, is the sort of berry which belongs to the Gourd family, mostly with a hard rind, and the inner portion softer. The pumpkin, squash, cucumber and melon are the leading representatives. The Pome is a name applied to the apple, pear, and quince; fleshy fruits, like a berry, but the principal thickness is calyx, only the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really belonging to the pistil itself. 53. Give examples of the Stone Fruit. Ans.— The cherry, plum, and peach are familiar ex- amples of the drupe, or stone-fruit. In this, the outer part of the thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or softens, like a berry, while the inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which the pistil is constructed, it is evi- dent that the fleshy part here answers to the lower, and the stone to the upper, side of the leaf ;— a leaf always con- 204 Dime Question Books. sisting of two layers of green pulp, which are consider- ably different. Note.— The pericarp consists of three parts, the externa layer, or coat, called the epicarp, the middle the sarcocarp, and the inner the endocarp ; e. g., in the peach the skin is the epicarp the flesh the sarcocarp, and the stone which encloses the kerne the endocarp. Whenever the walls of a fruit are seperable into two layers only, the outer layer is called the exocarp, the inner the endocarp. In dry -fruits, the seed-vessel remains herbaceous in texture, or becomes thin and membranaceous, or else it hardens throughout. 54. What is meant by dehiscence ? Ans. — The opening of the pericarp to discharge the seed is called dehiscence. Some pericarps do not discharge their seeds, the latter being liberated only by the decay of the pericarp, or by its bursting into germination. Such are said to be indeluscent. 55. Name the modes of dehiscence* Ans. — I. Valvular, opening vertically, regularly, and either wholly or partially, around the axis, forming sev- eral pieces called mtoes. 01 these we have four varieties, as follows: I. Sutural, at the sutures of a one-celled or simple peri- carp. 2. Selpicidal, when the separation is between the carpels of a compound ovary. The carpels may then open separately or remain indehiscent. 3. LocuUcidal, when each carpel opens at its back into the cell. 4. Septifragal, when the valves come away from a compound ovary, leaving the partitions (disceptiments) or inner walls of the carpels remaining. II. Porous, as in the Poppy, where the seeds are dis charged by means of orifices at the top of the pericarp. Botany, 205 III, CiRCUMCissTLE, when the whole top of the ovary comes off like the lid of a box, as in Purslane, the Plantain and Henbane. In Jeffersonia or Twin leaf, the line does not separate quite round, but leaves a portion to form a hinge to the lid. Query —What is the Acheniumf To what class of pericarps does elario belong? Name the forms of dehiscent pericarps. Where and how is digestion performed in plants? What are abortive organs? What are the sutures of the pistils? Yv T hatis meant by the parietal placentae of pistils? What is the " organ of respiration" in plants? Describe latent buds. In what three ways is the anther attached to the filament? 56. Of what does the seed consist ? Ans. — Its coats, or integuments, and a kernel. The outer coat is often hard or erustaceous, whence it is called the Testa, or shell of the seed. It varies in different plauts, being membraneous, leathery, bony, horny, woody or fleshy, and sometimes clothed with long hairs (comae), as in the cotton plant, sometimes winged, as in catalpa. The inner coat, called the tegumen, is thin and delicate, and is often scarcely to be distinguished from the testa. 57. What is the Aril or Arillus f Ans.— It is an additional, but more or less incomplete covering, outside of the real seed-coats, as the mace of the nutmeg. Note.— The names of the parts of the seed and of its kinds are the same as in the ovale. The scar left where the seed-stalk sepa- rates is called the hilum. The orifice of the ovule, now closed up and showing only a small point or mark, is named the micropyle The terms orthotropous, etc., and those which express the direc- tion of the ovule or the seed in the cell, such as ascending, etc. apply to seeds just as they do to ovules. 58. What is the kernel ? 208 Dime Question Books. Ans. — It is the whole body of the seed within the coats. In many seeds the kernel is all Embryo; in others a large part of it is the Albumen. The former is the rudiment of the future plant. It is sometimes called the germ. 58. Describe the albumen. Ans. — It is an accumulation of nourishing matter — starch, etc.,— commonly surrounding the embryo, and des- tined to nourish it when it begins to grow, as was ex- plained before. It is the floury part of wheat, corn and buckwheat. But it is not always mealy in texture. In Poppy seeds it is oily. In the seeds of Pssony and Bar- berry, and in the eocoanut, it isflesliy; in coffee it is corne- ous (that is, hard and tough, like horn) ; in the Ivory Palm it has the hardness as well as the appearance of ivory, and is now largely used as a substitute for it in the fabrication of small objects. However solid its texture, the albumen always softens and partly liquefies during germination; when a considerable portion of it is transformed into sugar, or into other forms of fluid nourishment, on which the growing embryo may feed. 60. What is the radicle? Ans. — A rudimentary stemlet, which is sometimes long and slender, and sometimes very short. In the seed it al- ways points to the micropyle, or what answers to the fora- men of the ovule. As to its position in the fruit, it is said to be inferior when it points to the base of the pericarp; superior when it points to its summit. The base or free end of the radicle gives Ase to the root; the other extrem- ity bears the cotyledons. Note.— A little seedling, weighing only two or three grains, often doubles its weight every week of its early growth, and iil Botany. 207 time may develop into a huge bulk of many tons' weight of vegeta- ble matter. How is this done? What is vegetable matter? From whence did it all come, or 61. How does the plant grow? Ans.—GrowtJi is the increase of a living tiling in size and substance. The basis of vegetable structure is the cell. In its active condition it is a closed membraneous sac con- taining a fluid and a solid point or nucleus. The growth, of the plant is simply the multiplication of cells. Cells multiply in some cases with wonderful rapidity, as we see in mushrooms, which reach to a great size in a single night. Though most plants consist of a multitude of cells, a single cell is capable of existing as an independent plant. Diatoms and some species of Confervse consist of single cells. 62. How is wood formed ? Ans. — Of cells which at first are just like those that form the soft parts of plants. But early in their growth some of these lengthen and at the same time thicken their walls; these are called woody fibre or wood cells; others grow to a greater size, have thin walls with various mark- ings upon them, and often run together end to end so as to form pretty large tubes, comparatively; these are called ducts or vessels. 63. What causes the rise of sap into the leaves ? Ans.— To a great degree it is the result of a mode of diffusion which has been called Endosmose, Water largely evaporates from the leaves; it flies off into the air as vapor, leaving behind all the earthy and the 208 Dime Question Books. organic matters—these not being volatile ;— the sap in the cells of -the leaf therefore becomes denser, and so draws upon the more watery contents of the cells of the stalk, these upon those of the stem below, and so on from cell to cell, down to the root, causing a flow from the roots to the leaves, which begins in the latter: — just as a wind begins in the direction towards which it blows. Similarly, elab- orated sap is drawn into buds or any growing parts, where it is consolidated into fabric, or is conveyed into tubers, roots and seeds, in winch it is condensed into starch and stored up for future use. 64. What are the two kinds of wood ? Ans.— The Endogenous Stem; so named from two Greek words meaning " inside growing" because, when it lasts from year to year, the new wood which is added is interspersed among the older threads of wood, and in old stems the hardest and oldest wood is near the surface, and the youngest and softest towards the centre. In the Ex- ogenous Stem, the wood is all collected into one zone, surrounding a pith of pure cellular tissue, and surrounded by a distinct and separable bark, the outer part of which is also cellular. Query.— Is a corn-stalk exogenous or endogenous? What are the medullary rays f Describe acrogenous and thallogenous struc- tures. What is sap-wood, or alburnum ? What is heart-wood, or duramen ? What are the five tissues of plants, according to the form and arrangement of the cells? How is sap transferred from one cell to another. Define plumule. 65. What are the divisions of bark f Ans.— The liber, or fibrous bark; the cellular, or outei bark; the green bark, or green layer; and the corky laj'er, epidermis, or skin of the plant, consisting of a layer of thick sided, empty cells, covers the whole. Botaey. 20.9 66. What gives the green color to leaves ? Ans. — It is owing to a peculiar green matter lying loose in the cells, in form of minute grains, named Chlorophyll (i. e., the green of leaves). It is this substance, seen through the transparent walls of the cells where it is ac- cumulated, which gives the common green hue to vegeta- tion, and especially to foliage. 67. What three elements must the plant's food contain ? Ans.— Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. Water, which it takes in vastly more than anything else, is composed of the first two elements, and it derives the third from car- bonic acid, one of the components of the atmosphere. The latter they take in by their leaves and roots. So water and carbonic'acid, taken in by these means and car- ried up to the leaves as crude sap, are the general food of plants. 68. What is said of motion in plants ? Ans. — The so called sleep of plants is a change of posi- tion as night draws on, and in different ways, according to the species, — the Locust and Wood-Sorrel turning down their leaflets, the Honey Locust raising them upright, the Sensitive Plant turning them forward, one over another, — and the next morning they resume their diurnal position. The leaves of our Wild Cassias, which open their yellow flowers in August, are very sensitive, closing their numer ous leaflets when touched. At Aspinwall, the traveller, first stepping from the car into a dense green patch of Mimosa, is,conf ounded at seeing the whole patch disap« pear, leaving the ground almost bare, and again after a 310 Dime Question Books. few minutes looking as verdant as everl The Venus*s Fly-trap of North Carolina grows where it might be sure of all the food a plant can need, and yet it is provided with an apparatus for catching insects, which it does by an expert and sudden motion. 69. What are the two Series of flowers ? Ans.— The Flowering or PJmnogamous Plants and the Fhwerlesa or Cryptogamous Plants. Thus the vegetable kingdom is parted into two sub-kingdoms, known by the presence or absence^of visible flowers. This division was first recognized A. D. 1682, by John Ray, of England. Note.- -The universal members of classification are Class, Order, Genus, Species, always standing in this order. When there are more, tley take their places as in the following schedule, which comprises all that are generally used in a natural classifica- tion, proceeding from the highest to the lowest, viz : Series, Class, Sub-Class, Order, or Family, Sub-Order, Tribe, Sub-Tribe, Genus, Sub-Genus, or Section, Species, Variety. 70. What is the botanical name of a plant ? Ans.— It is that by which a botanist designates it, and is the name of its genus followed by that of the species. The name of the genus or kind is like the family name or surname of a person, as Smith, or Jones. That of the species answers to the baptismal Dame, as John, or James. Accordingly, the White Oak is called botanically Quercus Botany. &11 alba; the first word, or Quereus, being the name of the Oak genus ; the second, alba, that of this particular spe- cies. The botanical names are all in Latin (or are Latin- ized), this being the common language of science every- where. 71. How are other genera named? Ans.— By bearing the names of distinguished botanists or promoters of science : such as Jeffersonia, named after President Jefferson, who sent the first exploring expedi- tion over the Rocky Mountains. The Apple Moss is known in science as Bartrdmia, a name conferred by Linnaeus, in honor of John Bartram, a Pennsylvania farmer. Note.— The name of the species sometimes relates to the country it inhabits, as Sanguinaria Canadensis, from Canada; more commonly it denotes some characteristic trait, as Sarracenia purpurea, from the purple blossoms. Some species are named after the discover, or in compliment to a botanist who has made then* known ; as, Kaworthia Michauxii, for the botanist Michaux. 72. How do the groups derive their names ? Ans. — The names of tribes, orders, and the like, are in the plural number, and are commonly formed by prolong- ing the name of a genus of the group taken as a repre- sentative of it. For example, the order of which the But- tercup or Crowfoot genus, Ranunculus, is the representa- tive, takes from it the name of Ranunculacem ; meaning Planta Banunculacem when written out in full; that is, Ranunculaceous Plants. 73. How do we analyze plants ? Ans. — By asking first whether it is flowering or flower- less. If the former, to which of the two classes does it beloDg? If we judge by the stem, we ask whether it Is 2i2 Dime Question Books. exogenous or endogenous. To which sub-class is the next inquiry. The ovary tells us this. By the aid of a Manual we trace its divisions and sub-divisions, and after several analyses of this kind, the student will be able to pass rap- idly over most of these steps; he should ordinarily recog- nize the class and the division at a glance, for the study of one plant leads naturally and easily to the knowledge of the whole order or family of plants to which it belongs. Y4. Give the form of analysis of a leaf. Ans. — Life. Are the leaves deciduous or evergreen? Place, How are they folded in vernation? What is their position on the plant? How are they arranged among themselves? Construction. Describe their veins and vernation. Of what numbers are they constituted? Are they simple, or compound? Describe the mode of composition, [outline? Form of blade. What term or terms define their What term defines the apex, or the base? The margin— is it dentate, serrate, or what? Size. State their measurements. [ing. Quality. Describe their surface-quality, or cloth- 75. Indicate the signs used in descriptive botany. An .—(1) An annual plant. (2) A biennial plant. U A perennial plant. ^ A plant with a woody stem. $ A pistillate flower or plant, £ A perfect flower, or a plant bearing perfect flowers. 8 Monoecious, or a plant bearing staminate and pistillate flowers. ? $ Dioecious; pistillate and staminate flowers on separate plants. $ $ $ Polygamous; the same species, with pistillate, perfect, Botany. 213 and staminate flowers. (a cipher), signifies wanting or none; as, "Petals 0." % (placed after); a naturalized plant, f (placed after) ; cultivated for ornament. % (placed after); cultivated for use. oo Indefinite or numerous; al- though if the stamens are carefully counted, they will generally be found some multiple of 5; as 25, 30, etc. t A staminate flower or plant. Query.— How much i3 a line? What are leguminosce ? umbel- liferce? composites? What are the "inorganic materials" of plants? Define proteine. When is a plant diclinous f What is the pleureachymf How can a knowledge of plants best he ob- tained? Name the parts of a perfect flower. Note.— Chocolate is so called from chocolalt, the Mexican name for the cacao-tree. The produce of several of the finest kinds is not exported ; the best that reaches us is from Caraecas, Guatemala, and Berbiee. The method of preparation is as fol- lows: The cacao-leaves are gently roasted, shelled, and reduced to a paste, when vanilla, cloves, cinnamon, rice, almonds, or starch, etc., are frequently added to it; it is put into moulds, and always Improves by keeping. The Nectarine is a fruit resembling the peach, but with a smooth rind. It is a native of Persia, and was introduced into Europe from that country in the year 1562. The mode of cultivation is almost identical with that pursued with the peach, with which it is usually classified. Give descriptions of Prunes, Eaisins, Papaw, Jujube, Dates, ets. f 6. Give an analysis of the Anemone. Ans.— Organ. Zife, iZabit, iVumber, Place, Dehiscence, .Kind, Construc- tion, Form, PIacentation,$ize, Qualities, Appendages. Plant, L. H. S. Q. U> herb 6-10' high, generally smooth. 214 Dime Question Book. Root, L. K. if, oblong, starchy tubers, with fibres attached. Stem, L. H. K. F. Annual, are erect, simple, terete caulis. Tp9VM t p o -P q n *» ra dical, biternate; 2, cauline, Leaves, L. P. C. P. 3. Q. | ^^ gegsi]ej mg . g lobed ; Inflorescence, P. K. A. Terminal, umbellate, involu- crate. Mower, N. C. 3-7, regular, apetalous, hypo- gynous. Calyx, F. Q. | Rose form, petaloid, white. 1 QpnniQ T w P P S Deciduous, 5-10, spreading, aepais, l,. jn. r. jj. | ellipticalj imbricated. Corolla, F. Q. None. Petals, L. N. P. F. None. Stamens, N. P. C. $ , hypogynous, distinct, fila- ment club shaped (clavate). Anther, D. C. F. Oval, 2-lobed, opening later- ally, innate. Style, N. C. F. None, ex very short Stigma, N. F. 6-10, sessile, simple. Botany. 215 Ovary, C. F. Pn. Distinct, simple, oblong, with 1 suspended ovule. Fruit, K D. K. F. Q. Acbenia 8-10, smooth, fluted, ovoid. Seed, N. C. F. Q. A. 1 in each carpel, albuminous, emb. 2-lobed. ~ , .,_. ,_ Locality— Woods, Monroe, Mich., (Date) May 11, 1882. Classification — Phenogamia ; Exogens. Order — Ranunculacese, or the Crowfoots. Name— Latin, Anemone tJialiciroides. — English, Rue Anemone 1 . Bern arks— The caudne leaves serve as an involucre. Note.— A simple form of analysis is given In Holbrook's Plant Record, which may be used to advantage by the young student. Underwood's Systematic Plant Record, a blank-book admirably arranged, will be found almost indispensable for class and private use. 7Y. Name some of the common plants belong- ing to the Pulse Family. Ans.— Beans and Peas, Wild Indigo, Vetch, Red Bud, Senna, Locust, Sweet Clover, Kentucky Coffee-Bean, and Sensitive Plant 78. What is the name of the common Tulip ? Arcs. — T. (Titlipa) Gesneridna, being dedicated to Ges- ner, a Swiss botanist, who saw it blooming in a garden in Augsburg, and first made it public in 1559. The name tulip is f ->m a Persian word signifying a turban, whose gay colors it resembles. 216 Dime Question Books. Note,— The taste for cultivating the Tulip spread Into th% Netherlands, and about 1684 increased to such an extent that all classes began to speculate in the buibs. Houses and lands were sold to be invested in flowers. Ordinary business was neglected* Sudden fortunes were made. Nobles, mechanics and chimney- sweeps alike, flocked to the tulip market. Prices increased until a single bulb (the Semper Augustus) sold as high as $6,000 of our present money. At last this tulip rage ran its course. Prices suddenly fell. The rich of yesterday became the poor of to-day. A commercial crisis ensued. Holland did not recover from the "Tulip mania " for many years. The love for this flower still exists in that country. We import our best bulbs from Holland, and the wealthy Dutchman boasts of his fine tulips, as a rien Eng- lishman does of this horses or paintings. Notes and Tests. T7ie Process of Fertilization. The pollen falls upon the stigma, expands or lengthens into a tube which pene- trates the style, until it reaches the embryo sac of the ovule where by some mysterious process it causes the develop- ment of the ovule into a perfect seed, capable of germina- tion and reproduction. It is the opinion of Schleiden that the end of the pollen tube itself becomes the embryo of the new plant and is only quickened by the embryo sac, which acts as a receptacle or nest for it. Why must the pollen be lodged on the stigma ? As in many cases the anthers are below the stigma or, as in the case of the Iris, they are extrorse, that is, opening and discharging their pollen outward — averse from the stigma— , the question will arise, How does the pollen reach the stigma? Insects are the most common conveyors of pollen, as they roll hemselves in the flower of one plant, and then fly to an- other bearing the pollen adhering to the down of their bodies. In some cases the pollen is conveyed by the winds. The Touch-Me-Not is a representative of what Botany. 217 family? To what family does the Almond belong? What is the time of opening of the primrosel of the goat&beard? the mangold f What is the hour of closing of the dande- lion, t of the primrose f " 'T was a lovely thought to mark the hoars, As they floated in light away, By the opening and. the folding flowers That laugh to the summer's day= Mrs. Hemans. What are Cohorts and Sub-kingdoms? Describe, the roots and rootlets. What is the cambium-layer f Name some distinguished botanists. What is metamorphosis? Define transpiration. What is "true sap"? What is a dicotyledonous embryo? Describe the "cellular tissue." What is meant by the alternation of parts in the flower? Define gluten, What is an involucre? What is chaff? Name all the parts "of a plant, and give the functions of each, Besides furnishing food for men and animals, what are the most important uses of plants? How can aestivation best be seen? What is Phylotaxy? What is meant by spadiv and spathe P Describe a labiate flower. Illustrate the difference between a simple and a compound leaf. What is a Corm? Define Morphology? What plant produces 66 millions of cells in "a minute? Give some examples of the Grchidaceee, If leaves are the lungs of a plant, how do leafless plants respire? What are Stomata or Btomates? What is the typical form of a cell, and what are its contents? What part of botanical study is adapted to primary schools? Why? What is your method of teaching botany ? Give some account of the geographical distribution of plants? What is the Funiculus? How is the five-ranked arrangement ex- pressed? How is assimilation produced? What are bractlets? Describe the germ> Define naked and scaly buds. What are deliquescent stems ? What is an ezcurrent 218 Dime Question Books. trunk? Have yoii read of the "big trees" of Calavera9 Grove? Of what is the Palmetto an emblem? What is derived from the "dragon-root"? What is Saffron? What are monocarpic perennials f Name the 8 species of Trilliums? Tobacco belongs to what family? What is the "silver grain"? To what order does the Cowslip belong? ZOOLOGY. -♦♦»■ 1. Define Zoology, Ans. — Zoology (zoon, animal; logos, discourse) is the science which treats of animals, It includes every kind, from a whale to the tiniest microscopic creature. Special divisions of the animal kingdom form the matter for large treatises, and thus we have various sciences subordinate to Zoology, as Ornithology, Ichthyology, Herpetology, Entomology, etc. Note.— Natural History, in its broadest sense, is the science which treats of the earth and of all natural objects upon its sur- face and within its crust. The term, however, is too often used in a restricted sense as meaning the same as Zoology. In addition to Zoology, Natural Hi3tory also includes Botany, Geology, and Mineralogy. 2. What is the difference between plants and animals ? Ans. — Animals are Jiving beings which are built up wholly by organic food— that is, by vegetable and animal materials — have sensation and the power of voluntary motion, and consume oxygen and give off carbonic- acid. Plants are organisms which are endowed with life, prob- ably as real as that of animals, and perhaps differing from that of the latter only in degree; but, unlike animals, they are sustained and built up by inorganic Dutriment— that is, by earthy materials, water, and gases— and they consume carbonic acid and give off oxygen. The Insect eating plants are an exception. 224 Dime Question Books. Note.— As to the relations of oxygen and carbonic acid to living plants and animals, it must be stated here that the defini- tions given above have to be modified by the fact that Wohler claims to have shown that some kinds of the Infusoria give off oxygen instead of consuming it, as is done by animals in general; and that Schlossberger and Dopping claim to have shown that some kinds of mushrooms exhale carbonic acid instead of con- suming it, as is done by most species of plants. 3. What is said of the line of separation be- tween Animals and Plants? Ans.— Id view of the great difficulty in drawing an exact line of separation between Animals and Plants, Hseckel has recommended the recognition of an intermediate Kingdom, to be cal'ed the Regnum Protisticum, in which all organisms shall be included which cannot with cer- tainty be referred either to the Animal Kingdom on the one hand, or the Vegetable Kingdom on the other. Eeg- num Protisticum literally means the kingdom of simplest organisms. As it is not yet proven that there is really any such intermediate kingdom in nature as is here sug- gested, the recommendation of Hseckel cannot at present be adapted. 4. Give the classification of animals. Ans,-— The entire animal kingdom is divided into Sub- Kingdoms based upon a general common plan of struc- ture. Each sub-kingdom is again divided into Classes, based upon general physiological characters. Each class is divided into Orders, based upon still more particular structure. Each order, in regarding the characteristics of Its individuals with regard to their general form, is divided into Families. And each family, with regard to details of execution in special parts, is divided into Genera (sing., Genus), Each genus is divided into Species, embracing Zoology. 225 all animals which have descended from a common ances- tor. Species are sometimes divided into varieties, based upon certain points of resemblance. 5. Name the grand divisions or sub-kingdoms of animal life, giving the characteristics of each. Ans. — Cuvier recognized four great Branches or Types in the Animal Kingdom— the Vertebrata, the Articulate, the Mollusca, and the Radiata. Zoologists of a later day added a fifth branch, the Protozoa, but Steele's classifica- tion which probably represents tne views of a majority of naturalists gives six sub-kingdoms, viz., Vertebrates, com- prising all animals which have a vertebral column or back -bone; Articulates, containing those having a jointed body and limbs; Molluscans or Monusks, soft-bodied, but usually protected by a shell; Echinoderms (spiny- skinned), distinct from body-cavity; Coelenterates (hollo w-entrailed), not distinct from body-cavity; and Protozoans (first ani- mals) very minute and of simple structure. Note.— The first three divisions include animals with a nerv- ous system ; the fourth and fifth were formerly assigned to the single sub -kingdom of Radiates. Query.— What is a Species? Define the terms breed, races f mongrel, and hybrid. In what way can the first lessons in animals be made most profitable and interesting? Name the points dis- tinguishing animals from plants. What are the 8 systems of organs? What are the modes of reproduction? 6. What are the general characteristics of the vertebrates ? Ans.— -They are usually distinguished by a chain of small bones (vertebras) to which the other parts of the skel- eton are attached; possess a brain, spinal marrow, gangli- ons, etc. 226 Dime Question Books. 7. Name the five classes of vertebrates. Ans.— 1. Mammals. 2. Birds. 8. Reptiles. 4. Amphib- ians. 5. Fishes. The first are viviparous (producing living young. The remaining four are oviparous (producing eggs). 8. Describe the Mammalia. Ans. — The distinguishing features are that they suckle their young, and that their bodies have, in general, a full or partial covering of hair. Their respiration is simple; blood, red and warm; circulation, double and complete; five senses, and heart four-chambered. 9. How many orders have the mammalia ? Ans. — Fourteen; each with distinguishing characteris- tics. Bimana, (man); Quadrumana, (monkey); Carnivora, (cat, dog); Ungulata (horse); Hyracoidea, (daman): Pro- boscidea, (elephant); Sirenia, (manatee); Cetacea, (whale); Cheiroptera, (bat); Insectivora, (mole); Rodentia, (rat); Edentata, (sloth); Marsupialia (opossum); Monotremata, (duckbill). To this Tenney adds Toxodontia (gigantic quadrupeds, now extinct, having bent teeth). 10. To what order does man belong ? Ans. — This order comprises only one family, and embraces a single genus and species. ( Order. Family. Genus. Species. Example. ( Bimana. Hominidse. Homo. Sapiens. Man. The peculiarities which distinguish man from the other mammals are the position of the spinal opening in the middle third of the base of the skull, thereby balancing the head and admitting an upright posture; the ability of opposing the thumb to the fingers; an erect position; pro- Zoology. 227 gression on the legs; he is plantigrade (walking on the sole of the foot); the relatively great development of brain; Is endowed with the power of making the sounds of the voice into words; is cosmopolitan, etc. Note.— By general consent of zoologists, the names of all Families terminate in idee, which are expressed by adding this termination to some case -form of a principal genus of the family. Generally [names are from the Latin and Greek, and usually express some characteristic of the animal. Names of species are formed, as in Botany, from the locality, name of distinguished naturalist, or scientist, etc. 11. What are the three families of quadni- mana ? Ans. — Simiidae, Monkeys of the Old World; Cebidae, monkeys of the New World; and Lemuridae, monkeys of Madagascar. The first named has the two divisions of Anthropoid Apes (without tails), and Monkeys Proper (with tails). Of those without "posterior callosities" are the three following: Genus. Species. Examples. Troglodytes, Niger, Chimpanzee. Troglodytes, Gorilla, Gorilla. Bimia, Satyrus, Orang-outang. (Snub-nosed satyr). 12. Which bears the greatest resemblance to man? Ans. —The Chimpanzee, though inferior in stature and strength. Like the Gorilla, it has its home in the dense forests of Western Africa. Both have been represented as dwelling in huts built in trees, and snatching up the 2&8 Dime Question Books. unwary traveller who passes beneath; whereas, they gen- erally remain upon the ground, eat fruit and vegetables, and merely bend down branches for a seat, and, perhaps for concealment. 13. Describe the Ateles. Ans. — A representative of the Cebidse with prehensile tail. Has four fingers, but no thumb on the anterior extremity. On account of the length, flexibility, and slen- derness of its limbs, it is termed the Spider Monkey. The end of the tail is bare and sensitive, and can be used as a fifth hand to pick up small objects, or to insert into the hollows of trees to hook out eggs. Note.— When the Ateles wish to cross a river, the strongest ascend a high tree overlooking the stream. The leader, hooking his tail firmly to a limb, drops downward, while the next attaches himself to his predecessor, and so on, forming a long chain of monkeys. This swings to and fro until the end monkey grasps a limb upon the opposite bank. Along this living suspension bridge the troop pass over, a mischievous monkey occasionally play- ing off a practical joke on some member as he hurries forward. To get the bridge across, the first monkey lets go and the chain swings over, perhaps ducking one or two, when all unfasten and catching at the branches descend. 14. What is the meaning of " Lemur " ? Ans.— It means spectre, and is descriptive of the noc- turnal habits and stealthy step of the animal. In fact, it is known among sailors as the "Madagascar Cat." The Ruffled Lemur is the largest and handsomest specimen of the Lemuridse. Wrapped up in its long, bushy tail, it passes the day in sleep, and only comes forth at nj^ht to search for food. The Aye Aye has some resemblance to a squirrel, but the form of its head and limbs allies ii to the Zoology. 229 Lemur. The middle finger of its fore-leg, long, slender and hairless, is adapted to extract worms from their holes in the ground or in trees. Note.— Of the tailed monkeys of the Eastern Hemisphere, some of the most interesting are the Semnopitheci, or Solemn Apes, of ^sia and the Asiatic Archipelago, one of which, the Kalian, is celebrated for its very long nose; the Guenons, which move in large troops and commit great havoc in fields and gar- dens; the Macacos, which have shorter limbs and longer muzzle than the Guenons; and the Barbary Ape that inhabits the precip- itous sides of the Rock of Gibraltar. The Catarrhines also include all the quadrumana known as Baboons, and are the ugliest and most ferocious of all the monkey tribes. They have the muz- zle much lengthened, and are often called Dog-headed monkeys and Mandrills. They belong mainly to Africa and the Phillipine Islands. 15. Describe the Carnivora. Aks. — They are flesh-eating mammals, with sharp, jag- ged teeth, fitted for cutting food, strong, and have usually sharp claws; are divided into three sub-orders, according to method of locomotion: (1) Digitigrades, (2) Planti- grades, (3) Pinnigrades, or Pinnipedia. The families of (1) are; a, Cats, which catch their prey by springing upon it, generally at night; claws very sharp, retractile, b, Dogs, which chase their prey, catching it with the teeth; claws not sharp, non -retractile, c, Hyenas, with long fore legs, and powerful jaws, d, Minks, generally slender-bodied, emitting a peculiar odor, and living largely upon the blood of their victims: Skunks, Badgers, Otters, etc. (2) includes e, Bears and Raccoons, which live partly upon vegetable food ; and /, Civet Cats. Under (3) are g, Eared Seals, h, Common Seals, and i, Walrus, distinguished by its tusk- like upper canine teeth. 16. Give a descriptive outline of the "King of Beasts." 230 Dime Question Book, AN8.— Sub-Kingdom,— (Vertebrata.) Class, —(Mammal ia. ) Order, — (Carni vora. ) Family,— (Pelidae or Cat Family.) Genus,— (Felis or Cat.) Species,— (Leo or Lion.) Note.— The IAon Is known by this appellation, more from Ms majestic appearance than from any nobleness of disposition. In fact, Livingstone and Gerafd pronounced him cruel and cowardly. He secures his prey by lying in ambush till it comes within reach of his terrible bound, and if the first spring fails, like the tiger, he sneaks back to his covert ashamed and disappointed. His speed is too slow to permit his overtaking his game. 17. What is the Felis Tiger ? Ans. — Another member of the "cat family" which, being destitute of a mane and tail-tuft, lacks the noble bearing of the lion, but is beautifully decorated with black stripes upon a ground of reddish-yellow fur tending to white be- neath. Its ferocity, especially that of the dreaded "man- eater," is fearful, while its strength enables it to carry off a buffalo thrown over its shoulder. Inhabiting Southern Asia, its home is in the long jungle-grass, with the color- ing of which, its stripes so exactly assimilate, that it is im- possible for unpractised eyes to discern it at even a short distance. This adaptation of the color of an animal to that of surrounding objects in its native wilds is termed mimicry, and is one of the most most wonderful provisions of nature. Query.— What is the "dental formula" of man? Define the terms Monodelphia, Didelphia, and Ornithodelphia? What is the facial angle of the dog? of man? the negro? the Caucasian? What Is the meaning of Quadrumana? Give the technical name for " broad-nose." How does the Siamang monkey derive its specific name? Zoology. 281 s 18. What is said of Lynxes? Ans. — These cats have the tail very short, and they have one molar less than the true cats in each side of the upper jaw. As examples of this kind, we may mention the Canada Lynx, which is about forty inches in length,, and of a grayish hoary color waved with black, the ears tipped with a pencil of black hairs; and the American Wild- Cat {Lynx rufus), which is about thirty inches long, of a pale rufous color overlaid with grayish, and whose ear is black on the outside and has a white patch, while the tail has a black patch above at the end. 19. Describe the Hyenas or Hyenidae. Ans. — Of all the Carnivora none are uglier in their general appearance. Their fore-legs are longer than the hind ones, the claws non-retractile, the feet four-toed, and the tongue rough. Their premolars are very large and blunt; these animals are able to crush the bones of very large animals, and swallow the fragments without masti- cating them. So powerful are the muscles of the neck and jaws that it is next to impossible to wrest anything from between their teeth. 20. What animal changes color ? Ans. — The Weasel, which at the north, during summer, is reddish-brown above and white beneath. It changes from brown to white in October and November, and back again in March, except the extremity of the tail, which is always black. At the south, the same species does not vary its fur. These alterations are effected, not by shed- ding the coat, but by changes in the color of the hair. The expression " catch a weasel asleep " is based upon the ease with which the animal may be caught when sleeping^ on account of the soundness of its slumbers. 232 Dime Question Books. 21. What is the " ursus horribilisP* Ans.— The -Grizzly Bear, which inspires such fear that no other animal daues to touch a deer that it has killed and left behind; the simple point of the bear's toot fright- ening away even a hungry wolf. 22. What is the order Herbivora ? Ans — The name of the term including Ungulata, Hy- racoidea and Proboscidea : all herb-eating animals with teeth fitted for grinding food. The Ungulates are even- teed {artiodactyls) and odd-toed (permodactyls) and are divided into the following classes: a. Camels, two toed Ruminants (animals that have four stomachs and r8masti- cate the food after swallowing it) with generally a hump of fat upon the back, the toes united nearly to the tip, and cells which hold water in the lining of the stomach, b. Giraffes, with long necks and two short permanent horns. 6. Oxen, with permanent hollow horns ensheathing bony cores; Antelopes, Goats, Sheep, etc. d. Prong horn Ante- lopes, horns hollow, pronged and deciduous, e. Deer, horns solid, deciduous and branching; Elk, Reindeer, etc. (All the above are ruminants, c, d, and e, have the upper incisors wanting.) /, Hippopotami, g, Hogs and Peccaries, covered with bristles, and nose fitted for rooting, h, Horses, one-toed ungulates, i. Rhinoceros, three-toed, skin in folds, and one or two horns upon the top of the muzzle, k, Tapirs, having short proboscis. 23. What is the difference between a Drom- edary and a Camel ? Ans. — The first has one hump, the Bactrian Camel has two. The former is adapted to hot climates while the latter frequents cold regions of the earth. The Llama, the third Zo6logy. 233 member of the Camelidae family, is of small size, and has no humps. Camels have two toes, united nearly to the point by the callous sole. To adapt the llama to its home in the Andes, its cushioned toes are completely divided, and its nails project, so as to hook downward, and give it a fearless step among the crags. Note.— The camel, poetically called by the Arab the " ship of the desert," constitutes his wealth. Its milk, and often its flesh, furnishes him food; its skin, leather; its hair, clothing; its excre- ment, fuel; and, in an extremity, the water in its stomach will save his life. It will carry 600 and even 1000 lbs. burden. A swift drom- edary will travel 10 miles per hour for 20 hours on a stretch. Its gait has a peculiar swinging, jerking motion that is terribly trying to the novice. Its disposition is said to be naturally gentle, but the brutality of its drivers often renders it ugly. Thus says a traveller: ''Watch it when it is being loaded. See its keeper strug- gling frantically, and making it kneel only by sheer force, and when down, keeping it there by tying neck and fore legs together tightly. Hear it grumbling in deep, bubbling tones, with mouth savagely opened as each new burden is laid on its back. Look how it refuses to rise until apart is removed; then see it get up -a great, brown mountain, still groaning and bubbling-and dash to and fro, shaking off beds, furniture, and trunks in a shower. Mark it, subdued by blows, march through the day, occasionally biting at a passer-by, and at night kneel to have its load removed, grumbling as ever. Certainly not the picture of our ideal patient animal." Query.— What animal is noted for the "golden tint of its skin?" Which one never perspires? Name the members of the Canidae or Dog Family. What animal indulges in the pastime of sliding down snow-banks in winter and clay-banks in summer? What one furnishes the choicest seal fur? What cervical verte- brae has the Giraffe in bis long neck? 24. Describe the Deer. Ans. — Deer is the common name applied to a very ex- tensive group of ruminating animals, varying in size from the small Muntjac of Ea- tern Asia to the gigantic Moose 234 Dime Question Books. of North America which is now becoming extinct. The group is characterized in most genera by solid horns in the males, falling off annually in the large species and, when first developed, covered with a hairy skin. They are found in all parts of the world except Austrailia, and are valuable (besides furnishing food and clothing) as draught animals in many cases. 25. Describe the growth of the horns. Ans.-— In the young animal, a kind of hard, bony lump is at first observable, on each side of the frontal bone; this grows rapidly, pushing the skin with it. When the horns are fully developed, the skin envelope falls, leaving them hard and bare, when they also fall off and are reproduced ; at each successive growth the horn increases in size and complexity, but its duration is the same. When the horns fall, the buck retires into the thick forest, not showing himself among the females until his head is re-furnished. The origin of the horn is called the burr, the main shaft, the beam, and the branches, the antlers; the latter, if near the head, are "brow antlers"; if near the middle of the beam, median, or "bez antlers." 26. Does the whale spout ? Ans.— Close observers maintain that the whale in breathing never spouts water from the nostrils as the ordi- nary pictures represent. When it rises to the surface, a foot or more of water over the head is blown away by the breath escaping from the lungs. This is followed by the vast body of air expelled, surcharged with moisture hot from the lungs, which, cooling, changes to vapor, and in its circling descent resembles a shower of spray, Zoology. $35 Note.— The term Mutilata Is sometimes used, including th$ two orders of Sirenia and Cetacea. 27. How is whalebone derived ? Ans. — From the Greenland or right whale, and is not bone, but slabs of hornlike material sometimes ten feet in length, hanging from the upper jaw, and serves to strain out the minute animals on which it feeds. The sperm whale has an immense cavity in the head, containing an oil which hardens and forms the spermaceti of commerce. Ambergris is a peculiar product used in making perfum- ery, and is sometimes found to the amount of forty pounds in the intestines of the sperm whale. It is thought to \>& a product of disease. 28. What is the Cheiroptera ? Ans. — That order of mammals whose anterior limbs are extended and covered with a membrane, thus being adapted for flight. There are over 30 genera and 200 spe- cies of the "bat," the Flying Fox of Java being the larg- est. Its body, the size of a squirrel, with wings five feet across, is used as an article of food. Note.— Insectivora, or Insect-Eaters, include the kabung, mole, shrew, golden mole, and hedgehog. Their teeth are of three kinds, incisors, canines, and molars, and the latter are studded with acute points. Many of these animals pass into a torpid con- dition during the coldest part of the year. The hedgehog and hat fall into so deep a stupor that no signs of breathing can be detected ; and in a bat's heart the pulsations fall from 200 in a minute to 30 in a minute during torpidity. 29. Describe the Rodentia. Ans.— They have teeth especially fitted for gnawing, two long incisors in each jaw, enameled in front, molars "286 Dime Question Books. with transverse enameled ridges. The principal families are a, Jumping Mice, b, Rats and Mice, c, Pouched Gophers, d, Beavers, e, Squirrels, Gophers, Prairie Dogs, Woodchucks. /, Porcupines, g, Hares— four up- per incisors; cheeks lined "with fur, and under surface of feet covered with hair. 30. What is the meaning of Edentata? Ans. — Toothless; they are related only negatively by being destitute of incisors. The chief representative of this order is the Giant Ant-Eater of South America. Its jaws are a foot long, and it can thrust forth its worm like tongue to a distance of two feet as often as twice a second. With its fore feet, armed with powerful nails, it tears open an ant-hill, when the bewildered inmates rush out, and, stickiug to its tongue, are rapidly swept into its mouth. 31. What is said of the Armadillo? Ans. — Its legs are very strong, and Wood relates that he has seen an Armadillo running around with ease carry- ing three monkeys that had chosen to take a ride. When caught, though so small, it will kick with great effect. Some varieties will burrow so fast that it is said the animal will sink out of sight before a man on horseback seeing one, can dismount and catch it. In Paraguay, the natives detect the presence of an Armadillo in its hole by thrusting down a stick, when, if it is there, a swarm of mosquitoes will fly buzzing out. 32. Describe the Marsupials. Ans. — The young are brought forth in an exceedingly immature state of development; and in most cases are Zoology. 237 received into a pouch or sack which is situated on the abdomen of the mother. In this living cradle they are nourished by milk till they have acquired a degree of development corresponding to that in which other mam* mals are born. Even after they are able to walk, the young resort to the pouch of the mother for" safety in time of danger. With the exception of the Opossums, found in America, this order is confined to Australia and the adjacent islands. 32. What are the Monotremata ? Ans.— The connecting link between mammals and birds. The two well-marked forms are the Porcupine Ant-Eater, and the Duckbill or Water Mole, which caps the climax of the eccentric Australian zoology. This ani- mal is covered with brown fur, and has a long, flat muz- zle very similar in its appearance to that of a duck. The fore feet have a web extending beyond their extremities, which can be folded up when the feet are used for bur- rowing, or expanded when employed in swimming. The hind feet are webbed only to the base of the nails. Query.— What is the difference between a Bison and a Buffalo? What animal is sometimes called the Unicorn? The Durham, Jersey, and Ayrshire are three noted breeds of what? To what family does the hog belong? What are the forms of deers' horns? Is there an Arabian breed of horses? Can the Zebra be domesti- cated? What is the "herbivorous whale?" What animal is sup- posed to have a sixth sense? 34. What are Aves ? Ans.— Birds, which constitute the second class of verte- brates. They are divided into fifteen orders as follows? Passeres, (Thrush); Picariae, (Woodpecker); Psittaci, (Par- rot); Raptores, (Falcon); Columbae, (Dove); Gallinae, 238 Dime Question J>ooks. (Turkey); Brevlpennes, (Ostrich); Limlcolae, (Plover); Herodiones, (Heron); Alectorldes, (Bail); Lamellirostres, (Duck); Steganopodes, (Pelican); Longipennes, (Gull); PygopodcH, (Loon); Bpheniscl, (Penguin), NOTB.~Some authorities Include the second and third classes under the general term Scansores. The fifth and sixth are also arranged under the head of Rasores, while the last five may be classified as Natatores, i. e., swimming i>inis, with webbed feet and short legs, fitted Cor locomotion in water, it, is well to remark, however, that the classification of birds is unsettled. Ornithologists have not a» yet agreed oven upon the number of orders. 35. What is tbe mandible of birds ? Anb. — The upper jaw, which is so articulated with the cranium that it can move independently of the lower jaw; a peculiarity which Is not found in the mammalia, Notk.— The "bones are light. The hollowness and thecavitios are produced by tlio removal— by absorption Of bony tissues pre- viously formed. Owen Bays: "The thinnest-walled and widest air-bone of the bird of flight was first solid, next a marrow- bone t and finally became tlio case of an air-coll." 30. How do birds breathe? Ans. — Respiration takes place not only in the lungs, but also in the substance of the other organs; the air pene- trating into the interior of the bones and feathers, some- times even to the toes. So complete is this second process, that it is said a bird will breathe through the end of a broken bone when the windpipe is tied. 87. Give a description of tlio Robin. Ans. — "Tuhdub miokatokuih, Robin, American Red- breast. Tail slightly rounded; above olive gray; top and Zoology. 239 sides of the bead black, chin and throat white; eyelids and a Spot above the eye, anteriorly white; under parts and in- side of the wings chestnut-brown; the under tail coverts and tibiae white, showing the plumbeous inner portions of the feal hers; wings dark-brown; the feathers all edged more or less with pale ash; tail still darker, the extreme feathers tipped with white; bill yellow, dusky along the ridge and at the tip. Length 0.75; wing 5.43; tail 4.75; tarsus 1.25 inches, Habitat, whole of N. A." 38. Give an example of the Laniidae. Ans- The Shrike or Butcherbird, which devours the larger Insects and smaller birds after striking them sense- less by one blow upon the head with its powerful toothed beak. 31>. Which is the largest of the OorvidaeJ Ank. — The Raven, which is about two feet long and readily distinguished from the Crow, not only by its larger size, but by the feathers of the throat, which are long, acute and separated. Note.— The Raven Is generally considered to ho of evil omen. It is easily tamed and taught to repeat sentences. Pliny tells of One Which was accustomed to stand in a public place in Koine, and call OUt the name ol every passer-by. Then Is a story re- lated of an awkward horseman who fell from his seat, and at that moment a raven in the tree above cried out, with Its solemn voice, "How silly!" 40. What areTrochilidae? Ans. — Humming birds. They are birds of the smallest size and of the most gorgeous plumage to be found in the feathered race. About 400 species are recognized, yet only one, the Ruby-tliroakd, visits the North Atlantic States, 240 Dime Question Books. and but ten, any part of: the United States. Their food consists of insects and! honey, which are secured by ex- tending the tongue into flowers without opening the bill very wide^ 41. Which bird has a bill almost as long as its body I Ans. — The Toucan (E/iamp7iaslidae), The bill is light, being cellular in its structure, and is serrated on its edges. The Ivory billed Woodpecker is the largest north of Central America. With its wedge shaped bill it can bore a hole three feet deep for its nest in the trunk of a living tree. 42. Name the families of the Raptores. Ans. — The Strigidae (Owl) Falconidae (Hawk) and Cathartidae (Vulture). Among all the rapacious birds, none are more remarkable in their appearance than the Owls. These birds have a comparatively short body, very loose plumage, very large head, very large eyes directed for- ward, a curved bill nearly concealed by bristle-like feathers, and large ear cavities; and the whole expression, of the face is decidedly cat-like. This extensive family is cosmopolitan, several species being circumpolar, and at least two existing all over the world, unless Australia be an exception. The tremulous and doleful notes of the little Mottled or Screech Owl, the prolonged and painful cry of the Long-eared Owl, the grating noise of the little Acadian or Saw-whet Owl, are sounds most unwelcome to him who has not yet learned the harmless nature of the beings from which they come. 43. Which are the scavengers among birds? An s.— The Vultures. To this family belong the Cali Zoology. 241 forma Vulture, the Black Vulture, the Turkey Buzzard,, and the Condor of the Andes. They are the most numer« ous in warm countries, where they serve a most important purpose in removing dead and decaying animals. They are generally inoffensive, seldom capturing their food! unless forced to do so by hunger. 44. What is the meaning of Columbss ? Ans. — The name is derived from the Latin columba, a pigeon. The Wild or Passenger Pigeon, of North Amer- ica, is seventeen inches long, and has the upper parts blue, under parts mainly purplish red, and the sides and back of the neck a glossy golden- violet. This Pigeon is extremely rapid in flight, being able to perform a long journey at an average speed of a mile a minute! The migra- tions are for the purpose of procuring food (?), and hence do not take place at any particular season of the year. Millions of pigeons often associate in a single roost, com- pletely filling a forest for thirty or forty miles in length and several miles in breadth, and literally loading and breaking down large trees. Sometimes in their migra- tions they fill the air like a cloud, and thus continue to pass for a whole day, or even for two or three successive days. 45. "What is the difference between the Quail and the Partridge ? Ans. — In New England the Perdicidae (Partridges) are called Quails. The true quail is found in the Old World, and is migratory in habit, leaving Africa in the spring, and returning from Europe in the autumn. The Ruffled Grouse is called partridge in New England and the West, and pheasant in the Middle and Southern States. 242 Dime QraB8Ti« Books. 46. Name the " short-winged " birds. Ans. — The Ostrich and the Apteryx. The former is the largest living bird. It will run thirty miles an hour, and is captured by the Arabs on their fleet steeds only after a chase of a day or two, by several relays of horses and riders, and by pursuing in a straight line while the bird runs in a curve. Its feet are two-toed, and the outer toe is destitute of a nail. Its eggs weigh about three pounds each. The South American Ostrich or Rhea, is much smaller and has three toes, each provided with a nail. Query.— Have you read about the Ostrich farms of Cape Col- ony? What bird has no tail? How is the plumage of birds ren- dered waterproof? How often do birds moult tkeir feathers? For what is the mocking bird remarkable? At what rate do swallows fly? What is the technical name of the Chickadee? Where is the parrot found in the United States? 47. What are Grallatores (waders) 1 } Ans. — The old name for the three orders of Limicolae, Heriodiones, and Alectorides. The Oyster-catchers have the bill acute in one genera, truncate in another, and in all cases hard, and the legs short and brightly colored. Those with a truncate bill pry open the shells of bivalve mol- lusks to eat the animal; those with an acute bill turn over pebbles in search of food. The most common species is about eight inches long. 48. What is said of the White Stork ? Ans. — It is exceedingly useful, feeding upon garbage and noxious creatures. A tame stork has been known to join children playing hide and seek, run when touched, and to distinguish the child whose turn it was to pursue the rest so well as to be on its guard along with the others. Zoology. MS The Germans and Dutch esteem it a good omen when a stork builds its coarse nest of sticks on their house-top, Innumerable stories are current among different nations ascribing to the stork, gratitude, chastity, parental affec- tion, conjugal fidelity and filial piety. In the Tyrol, for example, a male stork refused to migrate, and passed several winters with his mate, which, being wounded, could not fly. 49. What was the sacred bird of the Egyp- tians ? Ans. — The Ibis, probably because it rid them of ser- pents, the skins and scales of which have been found in the Ibis mummies. Some think, however, that the reason of this worship was merely because the coming of the bird was simultaneous with the annual overflow of the Nile, and hence symbolical of fertility. Whoever killed an Ibis was mobbed, while the dead bird was embalmed. The Ibis multiplied in consequence to such an extent as to im- pede travel in the streets. The affection of the bird for Egypt was so great that, according to Acteon, when taken away it died of home-sickness. But now, being killed and eaten by the modern inhabitants, who have abandoned the faith of their fathers, it has almost deserted the country. —{Figuier.) 50. From what is the name Alectorides de- rived ? Ans. — From the Greek alector, a cock, and eidos, form, alluding to a fancied resemblance. The Rails or Rallidae have a compressed body, rather short bill, very short con- cave wings, a turned up tail, large legs, and exceedingly long toes, which enable them to run over soft ground, and 244 Dime Question Books. even on the surface of broad floating leaves like those of water-lilies and other aquatic plants. Rails are mostly of small size, varying from five or six inches to eight inches in length. The Clapper Rail or Marsh Hen, however, is sixteen inches long. 51. How are Flamingoes distinguished ? Ans. — By their very long neck and long legs, and their large bill which is abruptly bent downward in the middle. Its plumage is a deep scarlet on the back, and roseate on the wings. Its tongue is very fleshy, and, during the days of Rome's extravagance, her gluttons were wont to parade a dish composed of flamingoes' tongues. 52. How are "foot-covered" birds recog- nized ? Ans.~ By the totipalmate foot, that is furnished with three full webs. In all these, the hind toe is low down and more or less turned to one side, and is connected with the inner toe by a complete web. The birds of this order (steganopodes) are hatched in a feeble condition, and require feeding by the parents. Note.— The Brown Pelican flies ten to twenty feet above the surface, watching the shoals of fish beneath, till a chance offers, when it falls flatwise, often with a foi*ce that would be fatal to itself if it were not for a thick layer of air-cells just beneath the skin, which breaks the force of the blow. Scooping up one or more withitspouch.it rises, repeating the operation as often as the capacity of its pocket will permit. 53. Name the " long-winged " birds. Ans.— Gulls, Petrels, Terns, Albatrosses, SkusB, etc The Terns have a long, slender and acute bill, with man Zoology. 245 dibles of nearly equal length, the wings extremely long and pointed, the tail generally forked and the feet very small. They are much more beautiful in their form and more graceful in their movements than the Gulls, and are often called Sea Swallows. In the Scissors -bill the lower mandible, with the shape and sharpness of a knife-blade, shuts into the grooved edge of the short upper one like a razor into its handle. 54. Which is the best " swimmer " anions birds? S Ans.— The Loon. It gleans its scanty pittance from the whirling surges of the sea, and as it makes its appearance in great numbers just before a storm, seeking food and shelter in the wake of the vessel, it has been charged with creating the tempest. Its flesh contains much oil, and the natives of the Faroe islands are said to make a lamp by drawing a wick through the body of a very fat one, and lighting the end which projects from the beak. 55. What animal is half bird and half fish ? Ans.— The Penguin. They cannot fly, as their wings are hardly more than mere flippers or paddles, covered with scale like feathers, and their bones are solid and heavy. They are confined to the cold regions of the South- ern hemisphere— in Patagonia, where they are said to col- lect in such numbers at breeding places as to cover thirty or forty acres -and rarely go on shore except to lay their eggs. Some species, however, carry them about in a sort of pouch on the aid -men. Query.— Where are fossil remains of birds to be found? What forms the " wish-bone " of birds? What was the Dodo? Describe the Goosander. How long do swans live? What bird pursues its 246 Dime Question Books. prey under water? What are Mergansers? What bird fa called by sailors, Mother Carey's Chicken? Which is the largest sea- bird? Which one of the Pygopodes has become extinct? Note.— The Kiwi Kiwi (Apteryx), or the bird without wings, is found only in New Zealand. It is extremely fleet of foot, and hard to capture. As it lives in the swamps, and hides in the day- time, only coming forth at night, the natives have almost given up the effort to obtain it, and it is only for their chiefs that they ever pursue them. The chiefs aione are permitted to wear cloaks made of its skin, and the owner of a Kiwi cloak is a very proud man. 56. Name the orders of Reptilia. Ans. — Testudinata, (Tortoise); Loricata, (Alligator); Lacertilia, (Lizard); Ophidia, (Snake). The blood of Rep- tiles is never completely oxygenated; to a certain extent it is always impure, and hence their temperature is corre- spondingly low, and their habits are generally sluggish. In warm countries, however, some kinds — as Lizards — are very active. They are generally carnivorous, and swallow their prey whole. 57. Describe the Eiver Tortoise. Ans.— It is a common North American species whose sharp edged jaws are strong enough to bite asunder a stick half an inch in diameter. It is fond of water-fowl, swimming beneath the surface and quietly dragging them under. About June 10th, in the temperate climates, it lays thirty to fifty spherical eggs. For their reception, a hole is scooped in the sand by the hind feet, and then smoothed over and left. This entire work is none within fifteen or twenty minutes. The eggs are hatched by the heat of the sur: in about three mouths, when the young im* mediately take to the water. 2oglogv. 247 58. What is said of Sea Turtles 1 Axs.-In the Antilles and other breed ing-places the turtle is exceedingly valuable. Its eggs are a delicacy; its flesh is used for food: its fat for oil and butter; its cara- pace for drinking troughs, bathing tubs, canoes, roofs to the native huts, and the tortoise shell is an article of com- merce. or uSSZ^&XT*? sea - totles <"»»«< «"» Sphargidid* H,at niffl ,f T ' whose general form ls something like that ; ol a flattened pyramid, and whose body is covered with a thick conaceous skin instead of a hard shell. TheTlZ. Atlantic aud Mediterranean, and are the largest of an telle, attaining a weight of twelve hundred to two thousand pounds ' 59. What do the Saurians include ? ANs.-The huge fossil Dinosaurs, the Crocodiles, the Lizards the fossil Ichthyosauri, etc., the Pterodactyls etc Many o the bird-like tracks of the Connecticut van y are r garded as those of huge dinosaurs. They are also found set* toTn P it ,°? the n ° rthera P ° rtion <**«•<*»• setts to Long Island Sound. The Dinosaurs are an order of repines wh.ch we know only by their fossil remains. 60. Explain the difference between the Croc- odile and the Alligator. .h» A fn~T he Croeofli!e3 be! <™g «o the Nile and Ganges- the ^Alligators o the Mississippi and waters of Florida If en eTor r ^ ^ <* **** ** «* ^ mteen feet or more. By a peculiar arrangement the *Z°t ™nt tT'- n " 7 C ' 0Se the mtranCe to "*• as to prevent the ingress of water, and thus, by brin- \ B g from time to time the eztermity of its snout above h! surface , can with impunity maintain its grip upon be prey and keep it under water. P g48 Dime Question Book. Note.— Crocodiles have the long '-canine" teeth so arranged as to fit into holes in the upper jaw, the hind feet webbed nearly to the toes, and a ridge of projecting scales down the outer border of their hind legs. Alligators have the "canine " teeih arranged to fit into a pit in the upper jaw, and they have no ridge of pro- jecting scales on the outer border of their hind legs, and their hind feet are not so completely webbed as those of the Crocodiles. 61. Can the Chameleon change its color? Ans — Many of the stories current about the chame- leon's change of color are doubtless fabulous; yet it can become at pleasure yellow, green, or black. "In the skin there is a network of minute ducts, connecting with pig- ment-vesicles on the under surface, which contain the coloring liquid. The tint of the animal depends on the amount of this liquid injected into the ducts." — (Bert.) The process seems somewhat analogous to that of blushing in the human species. Note.— Eeptiles continue to live and exhibit movements long after losing the brain, and even after the head is cut off. The muscles preserve their irritability for a considerable time after being severed from the body; and even the heart pulsates for hours after it is removed, nor does its loss prevent the animal from moving about. The eyes of reptiles resemble those of birds. Some have three eyelids ; others, as serpents, have none, and hence their fixed and staring look. 62. What are Glass-snakes ? Ans. — Lacertilians which are snake-like in appearance, having no external locomotive members. When fright- ened, it contracts its muscles so violently that its tail will break off as if it were brittle. 63. Have serpents teeth ? Ans. — Yes, and they are pointed, smooth, and arched towards the throat. Most of the venomous ones have, Zoology. 249 however, in place of teeth in the upper jaw, two fangs, through which the poison is ejected to the bottom of the wound. The bones of the jaws and mouth are connected by extensible ligaments only, an arrangement by which the mouth may be distended so as to receive an object of much greater diameter than the serpent itself. Snakes shed their epidermis once, and, in many cases, three or four times a year. It parts around the mouth, and the reptile slides out of it by crawling through a crevice to hold it, reversing the cuticle. The slough is perfect, even to the epidermis of the eyes. 64, How do snakes bite ! Ans. — Rattlesnakes and their allies, Copperheads, Moc- casins, etc., are armed with sharp-pointed, movable poi- son fangs. These fangs are concealed in a fold of the gum, or raised, at the will of the animal. They connect with a gland situated near the eye, which furnishes the fluid poi- son. "When the snake bites, the fangs are raised, and the pressure of the temporal muscles upon the gland forces the poison along the fang into the wound. 65. What are " rattles " 1 Ans.— Rattlesnakes have on the end of the tail a series of horny enlargements, loosely attached to each other, which, when shaken, make a rattling noise. Each slough leaves a new button, while the end ones are drooping off from wear ; hence the number is no indication of age. Query.— What is the difference between a tortoise and a tur- tle? Where is the Bearded Tortoise found? What are Theco- donts? Have reptiles ears? What are the largest serpents known? What is the only known remedy for a snake bite? Ans. Intoxication superinduced by some form of alcoholic drink. What are Hydrophidos? £50 Dime Question Books. Note.— In India and Africa there are poisonous snakes known as Vipers, which can raise up and draw forward the anterior ribs so as to dilate the forward part of the body into a more or less broad disk. The Spectacled Viper or Cobra of India is one of these vipers which has a black line resembling in outline a pair of spectacles traced on the wid< ned portion of its disk. This is the snake whose fangs the jugglers of India extract, 'and then train it to dance. The Asp of Egypt is a viper not less noted. The ancient Egyptians made it the emblem of the protecting divinity of the world, and sculptured it on the sides of a globe upon the gates ol their temples. By pressing this snake on the nape, the jugglers of Egypt threw it into a stiffened, immovable condition, which they called turning it into a rod. It is probably the Asp of Egypt, and the Asp of Cleopatra. t 66. Name the orders of Batrachians (Am- phibia.) Ans.— First, the Anoura, tailless animals represented by Frogs, which lay their eggs in large masses in ponds; Toads, which lay them in long strings, also in ponds, skin more or less warty; Tree Toads, which have the ends of the toes in disks, which help them in climbing, and often lay their eggs on trees over water. To the second order Urodela, belong the Salamander and Newt. The first-named exudes a milky, glutinous kind of perspira- tion. By its evaporation this will for a time protect the body from heat, and hence the popular superstition that the animal is fire proof. Of the third order Amphipneusta are the Sire us, Proteus, and Axototl. 67. "What rank lowest among vertebrates? Ans. —Fishes (pisces), "They fall far behind the rest in strength, intelligence and sensibility. The eyes, though large, are almost immovable, bathed by no tears, and pro- tected by no lids. Dwelling in the realm of sileoce, ears are little needed, and such as they have are without exter- Zoology. 25i nal parts, the sound being obliged to pass through the cranium. Taste and smell are blunted and touch is nearly confined to the lips. Destitute of the means of social in- tercourse (being almost mute), their chief enjoyment is to eat, and to be eaten is the end of their existence. But the class jields to no other in the number and variety of its forms. It includes nearly one -half of all the vertebrate species." 68. Into how many orders are fishes divided? Ans. — Six. The Dipnoi represented by one single fam- ily, the singular mud-fish of tropical rivers. The Elasmo- branchii containing the Rays, Saw-fish, Sharks. The Ganoidei which includes the Sturgeon and Garpike. The Teleostei bony fishes comprising eighteen divisions. The Marsipobranchii (pouch gilled); and the Pharyngobranchii (gullet-gilled). Note.— Some kinds of spine-finned fishes are beautiful in form; others, as for example, the Toad-fishes and Fishing- frogs, or Lophida3, of the ocean, are exceedingly ugly. The famous Archers (chaetodovis) of the East Indies are spine-finned fishes which have the remarkable habit of spirting drops of waser so as to hit and bring down insects which they see above them. 69. Describe the Articulates. Ans. — These jointed beings constitute more than four- fifths of the Animal Kingdom. They are divided trans versely into rings or joints more or less movable upon one another, and have no internal skeleton. The three classes are the Insecta- air-breathing articulates, with the body generally more or less divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen, legs jointed. Crustacea— gill-breath- ing articulates, with head and thorax united into one part, distinct from abdomen, covered with a hard crust, legs 252 Dime Question Books. jointed. Vermes— gill-breathing articulates, with no dis- tinction of head, thorax or abdomen; legs not jointed. The class Insecta is divided into the sub classes of Insecta proper (flies, etc.,) Myriayoda (centipedes, etc.*) and Arach- nida (spiders, etc.,) each containing several orders. TO. What is Metamorphosis ? Ans. — The young insect passes through a series of changes before reaching the form of the adult. Thus, a moth, on emerging from the egg, appears as a larva; if with legs, a caterpillar; if "without, a grub or maggot. Its whole business now is to eat, and hence in this stage it is most injurious to vegetation. After* repeated molts, to al- low for the enlargement of its body, it usually roils itself into a cocoon and becomes a pupa, during which stage it remains quiet. At length, the time varying with different species, it bursts forth an imago. It is now furnished with wings, and the two sexes pairing, eggs for the next genera- tion are laid, and the parents die. 71. What are the sorts of Apidse (Honey- bees)} Ans.— Females or queens, males or drones, and imper- fectly developed females or workers. In each swarm is one queen, which lays the eggs in three broods: the first producing workers; the second, drones; and the third, queens. The drones are the idlers, and are killed by the workers after the pairing season. 72. What are Ichneumons ? Ans. — Animals whose mission is to prevent the increase of other insects. They deposit their eggs in the eggs, larvse, and pupae of other insects; and upon these the ichneumon larva feeds when hatched. Zoology. 253 Note.— One of the most noted species of the Lepidoptera ig the Death's-head Moth, so called because on the back of its thorax there is a rough figure of a human skull, and it emits a plain- tive squeal when disturbed. T3. "What insect is provided with a piercer ? Ans.— The female Cicadas (Harvest-fly or Locust) with which they perforate the limbs of trees, in which they lay their eggs. This piercer consists of three pieces ; two outer ones, which are grooved on the inside, and toothed on the outside like a saw, and a central piece, which is a sort of spear-pointed borer, which moves freely between the other two. The Greeks, we are told, often kept these insects in cages that they might enjoy their " music 1" And the Greeks also used them as food, eating both the pup® and the perfect cicadas. 74. What are wingless Dipters ? Ans.— Fleas which are noted for their strength and doci- lity. The "learned fleas," exhibited in Paris, a few years ago, went through military evolutions, standing on their hind legs and shouldering tiny spears: and two of them drew a companion in a little wagon, a fourth sitting on the coachman's box and wielding the whip. The spectators viewed this wonderful exhibition through magnifying glasses. NOTE.-The Earwig (Ear- wing) sits upon its eggs till they are hatched, and then broods its young as a hen does its chickens. 75. Describe the Hair-snake. Ans.— It is so called from the erroneous notion that it originates from horse hairs soaked in water. Probably, by the eggs being eaten, the larvse obtain access to the bodies of grasshoppers, etc., and, ceiling up within the cavity, 254 Dime Question Books. reach, a length often ten -fold that of their host. At matur- ity they desert the insects at whose expense they have been nourished, and seek the water to lay their eggs and die. 76. What are Mollusks ? Ans. — Those animals which have a soft body, envel- oped by a muscular skin called a mantle, and in most cases protected by a shell; they are not jointed nor radiated in their internal structure. The shells are the parts of these animals which we oftenest see; for when the animal is dead the soft parts soon disappear, and only the shell remains. Most kinds of mollusks increase by means of eggs: some kinds are viviparous, and some kinds of tuni- cate mollusks increase by budding. Their blood is white or colorless. 77. What are the characteristics of the Ceph- alopoda ? Ans. — They have muscular tentacles or arms around the mouth; beaked, horny jaws; two large eyes; arms covered with sucking disks; and a bag of ink, with which most species blacken the water to hide from pursuit. To this class belong the "sailors"; the cuttle-fish, which has a spongy, calcareous- mass within its body, known as cut- tle-fish bone, and used for canary birds; the beautiful nau- tilus; and the famous devil-fish. 78. What is said of the Muricidss (rock-shells)? Ans. — The Murex has the aperture of its shell pro- longed into a canal. The Shetlanders use this shell for a lamp, inserting the wick in the canal, and filling the body of the shell with oil. From these mollusks the ancients ZoOLOG?-. 255 obtained the costly Syrian dye, the "purple " of Scripture. 79. Why do shells give a murmuring noise when held to the ear ? Ans.— The usual explanation of the " roar of the sea " in shells is that the form of the shell and its polished sur- face collect and reflect sounds in the air, otherwise imper- ceptible. Another theory refers the murmur to the circu- lation of the blood through the capillaries of the fingers holding the shell by which vibrations are magnified. A feeble murmur can be heard, however, when the shell rests on a table, and it is probable that both causes are concerned in the phenomenon. 80. What is the meaning of Echinoderms ? Ans. — Spiny-skinned. They are radiate animals which have a tough skin containing particles of carbonate of lime, or a shell composed of calcareous pieces, which are movable, or fixed together, and covered with tubercles or spines. This sub-kingdoin is divided into the four classes of Holothurioidea {sea-cucumbers) Echinoidea {sea -urchins), Asteroidea {star-flslies) and Crinoidea {feather -stars). 81. What are the Coelenterates ? Ans.— Radiates having a distinct body-cavity, whose walls consist of an outer layer {ectoderm) and an inner layer {endoderm). They are all aquatic, and multiply alike by budding, by eggs and by fission. They are usually armed with peculiar stinging filaments. There are the four classes of Cteuophora {comb bearers); Anthoza {flower- like animals); Hydroza {water-dragon animals)— such as Jelly fishes and the Portuguese Man of -War; and Spongida {sponges). 256 Dim B Question Books* Note.— The Medusae, Nettles, or Jelly-fish, are the terror of bathers, as the pain inflicted by the lash of their envenomed fila- ments is exceedingly deranging to the whole nervous system, though at first seeming to be no more than the tingling sensation ot the common stinging nettle. 82. Describe the Protozoans. Ans, — They are small, living mostly in the water, and many are microscopic. They are composed of a mucous, albuminous substance called 'protoplasm. They have no distinct organs of circulation or digestion, possess neither nerves nor muscles, although they take food, grow and multiply, and many are exceedingly active. Innumerable invertebrates feed upon them. 83. Name the classes. Ans. — The Infusoria, (including the vorticels and nocii- lueae); the Rhizopoda (rootfooted), and the Gregarinida (Jlocks), which are parasitic forms found particularly in Cockroaches and Earthworms. BathyUus, of the Monera, a mass of albuminous jelly, neither distinctively animal or plant, is considered the simplest structure known to maru At Your Leisure, What monkey furnishes us with an example of a syn- thetic or comprehensive type? Give examples of the Pho- cidae and Ursidse. What are Bovidse? What are the differences between Carnivorous and Herbivorous animals? Where is the Yak, or grunting ox, to be found? Upon what do deer live? What comparison can be drawn between the Peccary and Wild Boar? What animal is supposed to be the "cony'* of Scripture? Explain the Zoology. 257 difference between the Asiatic and African elephants. What is the "Puffing Pig"? What is a Vampire? Is there really a flying squirrel ? Does the porcupine throw his quills? In what country are singing mice to he obtained? What is the name of the female Fox? Ans, Vixen. Give comparative description of a cat and a goose, stating likenesses and differences. Why were the Armadillos so called ? Marsupium means what? What are the Didelphididee? What are granulations in birds? scutella? What temperature is needed in hatching eggs? Mention the habits of the Cow-bird, Baltimore Oriole, and Bobolink. What bird has a gape with bristles ? What bird is the chosen symbol of our country? For what is the Man of- War Bird remarkable? What birds are used by the Chinese for fishing? Give examples of digitigrade and plantigrade animals. To what general class does the whale belong? What are the "butchers" of the sea? Which fish gives a violent electric shock? What are the "stone-suckers"? Of what country is the Gold-fish a native? What fish has four beards hanging from the mouth? What is the technical name of the " sleeper- out"? What becomes of a hive without a queen? Give some account of the bee communities. What is Entomol- ogy? How many facets has the common house-fly? Men- tion and describe some insects which are destructive to crops. How are the male Humble-bees distinguished? Ans. By their white faces. What animal lays 80,000 eggs in a day? How do the Seventeen-year locusts derive their name? What insect produces caterpillars? What are Wiggle-tails? How are the notes of the Katydid produced? What is the antidote for a serpent's bite? Name some of the Crustaceans. What are Vermes? What does the Trichina inhabit? In what mollusks are the sexes united? What is a "siphuncle"? Describe the Hammer Oyster. Art there red canary birds? What is your idea of the rel- 2-58 Dime Question Books. ative importance of the subject of zoology, and of the place it should occupy in the school course? Name the elasses of the Hymenoptera order. What is the meaning of Aphidae? (While reptiles can live in air too impure for mammals, birds will die in an atmosphere which to mam- mals is quite harmless.) What animal can leap two hun- dred times its own height? Ans. A flea. CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY. 1. Chemistry is what? Ans. — Chemistry is that branch of science which treats of the composition of bodies, or of the changes which take place in matter whereby it loses its identity. Organic chemistry deals with those substances which have been produced by life; as flesh and wood. Inorganic chemistry is confined to those which have not been formed by life; as glass and metals. Note.— Of the sixty-four elements now known, fifty-one are to be considered as metals and the remaining thirteen non-metals. Vide Philosophy. 2. What causes favor chemical action ? Am — Heat and light; and solution aids in chemical change, as it destroys cohesion and leaves the atoms free to unite. 3. What is Synthesis ? Ans. — The puttiug of substances together to form chem- ical compounds; it may occur with different degrees of energy. It takes place: 1. In constant proportions be- tween the same elements. 2. In multiple proportions be- tween the same elements. 3. In constant or multiple pro- portions for all elements. 264 Dime Question Book. .Note.— The compounds formed are binary, ternary or double. jfliey may be formed : 1. By the simple bringing together of sub- stances under conditions favorable to chemical action. 2. By the substitution of one substance for another in a given compound [substitution). 8. By interchanging of substances in two given compounds (metathesis or double substitution). 4. "What is Analysis ? Ans. — The separation of compounds into their constitu- ent parts; it may be Qualitative, showing only the ele- ments contained, or Quantitative, showing the amounts of each element contained. 5. How is the nomenclature of chemistry de- rived ? • Ans. — Many of the long known substances retain their old names, as kon, gold, silver, lead, sulphur, etc., but in symbolizing, the initials of the Latin names are used, as Fe, ferrum; Au, aurum; Ag, argentum, etc. The more recent- ly discovered metals have generally received names ending In um and so called from some peculiar property, or from '.he name of the compound substance from which they were separated; as sodium, potassium, etc. Names of compound substances are formed by combining according to certain rules the names of the simple elements compos- ing them; as hydrogen sulphide. Certain non-metallic ele- ments having some resemblance have received names with Similar terminations, as bromine (named from its bad odor), shlorine (named from its green color), iodine (named from ts beautiful violet colored vapor), etc. 6. Describe the Symbols. Ans. — For convenience, chemists use symbols to repre- sent the simple elements. This symbolism is very simple, Chemistky. 265 consisting of the initial letter or letters of the name of th^ element. Where more than one element begins with th& same letter or letters, the second or third letter is also used. Compounds are indicated by writing the symbols of their elements in close connection. C is the symbol for carbon, but as chlorine begins with the same letter CI is used for that element. Cu for copper from the Latin name cuprum, and H 2 is the symbol for the element, water. When a symbol stands without any figures attached, as H, it means an atom of that element. When a small figure is written below, it means that a corresponding num- ber of atoms is taken. H 2 means two atoms ©f hydrogen. H 2 means two atoms of hydrogen and one of ©xygen. 7. What is an Oxide ? Ans.— One atom of O in a molecule forms the monoxide or protoxide, two the dioxide or binoxide, three of O and two of the other element the sesquioxide (meaning \\) t and the highest number, the peroxide. 8. Define Acids, Bases, and Salts. Ans.— There are two large classes of oxides chemically opposed to each other, termed acids and bases; their com- pounds are called salts. The acids are generally sour and turn vegetable colors— such as the infusion of blue litmus, or of purple cabbage— to a bright red. They are named from the elements with which O combines. The termina- tion ic is given to the positive element when it has the greater proportion, and ous when it has the lesser propor- tion as sulphuric, the stronger, and sulphurous, the weaker. When the proportion is still less than ous it takes the pre- fix hypo as hypochlorous acid ; when greater than ic it takes the prefix per, as perchloric oxide. The bases are com- 266 Dime Question Books. monly oxides of the metals. Their termination, as in the acids, indicates the amount of oxygen. In naming a salt, the termination of the acid is changed — an ic acid forming an ate compound, and an ous acid an tie compound Thus the salts of nitric acid are called nitrates, and of nitrous acid, nitrites. Note.— The compounds resulting from oxygen uniting with most metals are called oxides. Really they are ashes, but are com- monly known as rust. Gold, silver, platinum, and mercury are called noble metals, because they do not easily rust, but retain their brightness. Hot metals rust more easily than cold. Query.— "What are atoms and molecules? What is meant by atomic weight ? What are proximate and ultimate elements ? Substances may be what ? How may decomposition be produced? What is meant by Electrolysis ? (Vide No. 1 Dime Series). What does the study of chemistry comprise? Express a compound mole- cule. 9. What is a formula ? Ans.— An algebraic statement of the symbols and rela- tions of several compounds. The sign -f- indicates a feeble attraction or a mere mixture. The sign = indicates con- version into. The comma or the period denotes a combi- nation. The brackets and co- efficients are used as in alge- bra. Note.— An analysis of water shows it to be composed of 88.89 parts of oxygen and 11.11 parts of hydrogen by weight, which is as 8 to 1. By volume it is composed of two parts hydrogen to one part oxygen. We then say that two atoms of hydrogen are used and that the atomic weight of oxygen is 16 and the formula, H s O ex- presses the proportions of both weight and measure. The mole- cular weight of water is 2+16=18; hence the proportion of H is 2-18 or 1-9, and of 0, 16-18 or 8-9. Ir 10 lbs. of H 8 0, there are therefore 10X8-9=8 8-9 lbs. of O, and 10x1-9 or 1 1-9 lbs. of H. How else may this be solved ? Ans. By proportion. Chemistry. 26 T 10. What is the meaniDg of Oxygen ? Ans. — Acid-former, and was given because it was sup- posed to be the essential principle of all acids; but hydro- gen has since been found to be the true acid maker. Its symbol is O; atomic weight, 16; specific gravity, 1.1. Note.— To make oxygen gas, take half an ounce of powdered chlorate of potash (KC10 3 ), and mix it with enough black oxide of manganese (MnOg) to make it black. Then place the powder in a flask furnished with a perforated cork and long bent tube^ placing the flask on a ring of the retort stand so that you can gen- tly heat the mixture, and then collect the gas as it comes over in bottles placed in a pneumatic tub. 11. What else is said of oxygen ? Ans.— It is a colorless, invisible, tasteless gas. It exists in the free state in the air, mixed with about four times its- bulk of nitrogen gas. It also comprises by weight f of the water, f of all animal bodies, and more than ^ of the crust of the earth. It combines with all the elements (with one exception) to form oxides. When it combines with other elements heat is evolved, and often light, and the sub- stance is said to bum. It is necessary for the life of ani- mals; they breathe it, and use it to oxidize and purify tha blood and to keep up the animal heat. 12. What is ozone ? Ans.-— An allotropic form of 0, i. e., a form in which the element itself is so changed as to have new properties. It is always perceived during the working of an electric machine, and is then called "the electric smell." It has also been detected near objects just struck by lightning. Electricity is supposed to have something to do with the formation of the ozone in the atmosphere. 268 Dime Question Books. 13. What are its properties? Ans. — It is more corrosive than oxygen, bleaches pow- erfully, and is a rapid disenfectant. A piece of tainted meat plunged into a jar of it is instantly deodorized, and it is probable that, even in minute quantities, this gas exer- cises a powerful influence in purifying the atmosphere. 14:. Define Atomicity. Ans. — It is a term used to denote the combining power, or the proportion in which the atoms of elements unite with atoms of hydrogen. The elements are arranged in seven groups and receive the names of monads, dyads, triads, tetrads, pentads, hexads and heptads, according as they unite with 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6 or 7 atoms of hydrogen. The elements which have an even atomicity are called artiads, those having an odd atomicity are called perissads. 15. Describe Hydrogen. Ans. — Like Oxygen it is a colorless, invisible, tasteless gas. It does not exist in the free state in the air but com- bines with oxygen to form water. Hydrogen also com- bines with many other elements: with carbon it forms marsh gas (or fire-damp), a substance found in coal gas; it is found in all acids, and is the lightest substance of which we know, being 14| times lighter than air, and it has, therefore, been used for filling balloons. Query.— What is the meaning of hydrogen ? Define chemica affinity. When was the termination uret used instead of ide, and what did it mean? Name an acid that is not sour. What are the alkalies ? What is the "water-type"? What is an anhydride ? What is antozone? Define the terms equivalence and quantivalence, 16. How can we get hydrogen from water ? Ans. — In several ways. Throw a small pellet of potas- Chemistry. 26& sium, as large as half a pea, upon the surface of water con- tained in a basin. The metal, being lighter than wateiy swims on the surface, but the moment it touches the water a flame arises around the metal. This flame is caused by the hydrogen of the water, which is set free and takes fire and burns. The oxygen unites chemically with the metal potassium to form the alkali potash. ExpeHment— Mix hydrogen and chlorine gases in the dark and as soon as the bottle containing them is taken into the sunlight, an explosion follows, from the combination of the two gases; anew substance, hydrochloric acid gas is formed. IT. Why is Nitrogen so called ? Am— Because it exists in nitre. Like and H it is transparent, colorless, and odorless. It exists in the free state in the air. We can separate the oxygen in the air from the nitrogen by burning a piece of phosphorus. N is found in many compounds, in nitric acid and nitre or saltpetre, and in ammonia or spirits of hartshorn. It is also found combined in the flesh of animals. N does not unite readily with bodies, and is a very inert substance; it does not burn itself, nor support combustion nor animal life. It is, how- ever, not poisonous, and animals die when placed in it simply from want of oxygen, that is, they are suffocated. 18. What is meant by the Nascent State ? '" Ans,— At the time when heat, electricity or any other force has just separated the atoms of which a body is com- posed, those atoms are said to be in the "nascent state and possess unusual attractive power. Many gases, which do not ordinarily show any affinity for each other, will unite if they are brought near together at the moment they are produced. Thus N and H at the very instant of their separation will combine and form H„K 270 Dime Question Books. Experiment.— Put half an ounce of powdered nitre into a retort and pour upon it half an ounce of sulphuric acid. Then put a lamp under the retort, and a flask, kept cool in a hasin of water, to catch the acid which comes over. Soon a liquid will collect in the flask. This is nitric acid. 19. What is Carbon ? Ans. — A solid element and one of the most abundant substances in nature, forming nearly one-half of the entire vegetable kingdom. It exists in three distinct forms as dia- mond, graphite, and amorphous carbon. This last term in- cludes charcoal, coke, soot, bone black, etc. Proof is given that these three forms contain carbon and nothing else, by taking the same weight of each and by burning them sepa- rately, when we obtain exactly the same weight of carbonic acid. Note.— The diamond is pure carbon crystallized, but it has never been made by any chemical process. Minute diamonds, it is said, have been separated from carbon compounds by long-contin- ued voltaic action, but they were invisible except with a micro- scope. The value of the diamond varies with the market; the gen- eral rule is as follows : a gem ready for setting, of one carat weight, is worth $150 to $180; beyond this size, the estimated value increases according to the square of the weight, but in case of large stones is generally much less than that amount, although rare beauty or size may greatly enhance the price. The Kohinoor ("mountain of light", now among the crown jewels of England) , weighs 103 carats, yet is valued at 110,000,000. Owing to the discovery of many large diamonds hi South Africa, the value of such stones has much de- creased of late. The smaller ones, however, are becoming more expensive on account of the greater demand for them. The South African diamonds are seldom colorless, having generally a yellow- ish tint. Paste diamonds are now made in Paris, which are so perfect an imitation that only experts can distinguish them from the real gems. 20. How is charcoal made % Ans. — By burning piles of wood, so covered over with Chemistry. 271 turf as to prevent free acess of air. The volatile gases, water, etc., are driven off, and the C left behind. This forms about £ of the bulk of the wood and £ its weight. 21. Why does wetting half-burned coal in- crease its combustion ? Ans.— Coal, as well as wood, consists of C, H, and 0; but while in wood the proportion of H and to C is about fifty per cent., in the different kinds of coal the proportion of the gases to the carbon varies from only five per cent, in anthracite to eighteen per cent, in bituminous coal. When coal is burnt, not only does the oxygen of the air unite with its carbon to form carbonic acid gas (C0 8 ), but the heat of the kindling develops into gas the oxygen in Che coal itself, which, being in the nascent state, lias special activity in uniting with the carbon and greatly assists the combustion. Half-burned coal does not take fire readily, because the gases within it have been expelled by the previous burning. Now water ordinarily puts out fire by cooling it below the point of ignition, but when coal is merely dampened with it, the heat of the burning kindling is sufficient to convert the film of water not merely into cooling vapor but into its constituent gases H and O. The O thus developed, being m the nascent state unites actively with the C, thus taking the place of the oxygen in the coal which was expelled by the previous burning. Quer^When are the molecules of a body said to be amor- phous? What is the meaning of dimorphous and isomorphous ? How much S is there in 4 lbs. of H 2 S0 4 (sulphuric acid) ? Describe the Philosopher's Lamp. Has water an atmosphere ? What are the uses of water ? From what is the term carat derived ? De- scribe the process of making a lead pencil. What is graphite ? 22. What is Peat? 272 Dime Question Books. Am — An accumulation of lialf decomposed vegetable matter in swampy places. One tenth of Ireland is covered with peat-beds. Produced mainly by a kind of moss it undergoes gradual changes, and becomes a brownish black substance, loose and friable in its texture, resembling coal, but, unlike it, containing 20 to 30 per cent, of O. After being cut out in square blocks and dried in the sun, it is used as fuel. Muck jte an impure kind of peat, not so thoroughly carbonized. 23. What is Fire ? Ans. — It is the heat given off when bodies burn or com- bine chemically. Combustion, in general, is the rapid union of a substance with O, and is accompanied by heat and light. Our fuel and lights, such as wood, coal, oil, tallow, etc., consist mainly of C and H, and are, therefore, called hydrocarbons. In burning they unite with the of the air, forming H 2 and C0 2 . These both pass off, the one as a vapor, the other as a gas. So from a burnt candle we have remaining carbonic acid gas and water. 24. How are explosions in coal pits prevented? Ans. —By using Davy's Saf ety Lamp. By holding a fine wire gauze over the flame of a candle or lamp the flame is prevented from passing through because the metallic gauze conducts away the heat and thus reduces the temperature below the igniting point. Some miners use an ordinary oil-lamp, surrounded by a cylinder of fine wire-gauze. 25. What is spontaneous combustion ? Ans. — The result of chemical changes taking place in combustible substances, whereby heat enough is generated to cause ignition. CaO occasionally absorbs H 8 0, so as to Chemistey. 27s *et fire to wood in contact with it. The waste cotton used n mills for wiping oil from the machinery, when thrown into large, heaps, often absorbs O from the air to rapidly that it bursts into a blaze. 26. Describe the atmosphere. ANS.-The -air we breathe" consists of N, 0, C0 3 , and watery vapor. The first composes f , the second *. thj about ^ and the last a variable amount, though ff -and form so large a part, that they are considered in ordinary calculation to form the whole atmosphere. A very clear idea of the proportion of these several constituents may be formed by conceiving the air, not as now dense near the surface of the earth, and gradually becoming rarefied s we ascend to its extreme limit of perhaps 500 miles, but of a density throughout equal to that which it now possesses S T\ The atm0 * phere Would then be aLut five miles high The vapor would form a sheet of H 2 over the ground five inches deep, next to this the C0 3 a layer of he NoVr f f en ^ ° a ^ ° f ° ne mile > ^ *«« all tne jn one of four miles. water, first floating on the water'a httle Sn! , m .?„ basil1 of Piece of phosphorus (P) S^T* a J£ n^t and filtt^ T* phorus with a match. The bright flame o* P goes SS^ElSt an burnt. Let the bottle stand until it is cool %£»l ?? , or fumes made by the burning P ^Z? e » r 1p? • Sm ° ke of air; but while the bottle wL ^f aL afth, h^ * qUaDtity contains considerable water. A^V^w^Z*"^^ n ° W taper or match plunged into thelas! £%XZ»£J^ there is something different from ^Z!ZtZ\ZZ^^ OhasunitedwithPformmgthewWte^ i^place. The gas remaining is N, which extmguishes tie bur^ 27. What are the uses of carbonic acid? 274 Dime Question Books. Ans.— -The leaves of flowers drink in C0 8 and retaining the C return the O to the air for our use. They exhale O as we breathe out C0 2 . We pollute the air while they puri- fy it. This interchange of office is so exactly balanced, that the proportion of CO s , and of 0, in the open air, never varies. Query.— Are house -pi ants injurious to health ? What Is hay fever? What is meant by solar force? What makes hard water ? Showthe truth of the paradox— ''We live only as we die." Howls hard ehalk water softened? What is asphyxia ? What is Soot ? When was mineral coal formed ? 28. Describe the watery vapor. Ans. — H s is present everywhere ready to supply the wants of animals and plants. "Were the air perfectly dry, our flesh would become shrivelled like a mummy's, and leaves would wither as in an African simoon. All the streams that flow to the ocean are fed by the currents that move in the air above us. 29. What is the "Chlorine group"? Ans. — Chlorine (CI), Iodine (I), Bromine (Br), and Fluo- rine (F). They are called haloids or halogens, because they are found in the sea. They are very active, their affinity for O being proportioned to their atomic weights, and for other elements, inversely so. CI is found in common salt (NaCl) and KC1. It is used for bleaching and as a disin- fectant, both alone and in compounds. It has a greenish- yellow color and a peculiarly disagreeable odor. It pro- duces a suffocating cough, which can be relieved by breath- ing ammonia or ether. HC1 is a colorless acid, sp. gr. 1.27, liquefies at)40 atmospheres. One vol. H s absorbs 400 vols. OC1. Used in manufacture of soda, "chloride of lime," and in the laboratory. Chemistry. 275 Note.— Br, prepared from "bittern " of salt water and salt springs, is a dark red liquid of disagreeable odor. Used in photog- rapby, medicine, and the arts. F is found most abundantly in fluor spar. It is the only element that will not unite with O. Its acid, HF, is a colorless, volatile and corrosive liquid used for etch- ing glass. I is made from kelp (the ashes of sea-weed) , and is de- posited in crystals on the sides of the bottle In which it is kept. Its compounds with the metals, called the iodides, are remarkable for their variety and brilliancy of color. 30. How can we get CI from common salt % Ans.— By mixing a little salt with a little powdered black manganese oxide, putting the mixture into a flask, and pouring upon the mixture some sulphuric acid diluted with the same quantity of H 3 0. By adapting a bent tube and by slightly heating the flask, a heavy, yellow, very strongly smelling gas is given off, and may be collected in a dry bottle. 31. ■ What is Boron ? Ans. — An element found in nature in combination with O, as boracic acid. Along the sides of the mountains in the volcanic districts of Tuscany, series of basins are exca- vated and filled with cold water from the neighboring springs. The jets of steam charged with boracic acid are conducted into these basins. The H 2 -absorbs the acid, and becomes itself heated to the boiling-point. It is then drawn off into the next lower basin and this process is con- tinued until the bottom one is reached, when the solution runs into leaden pans heated by the steam from the earth! here the H a O is evaporated, and the acid collected. Borax (Na 8 0, 2B,0 8 , 10H 2 O) is a salt of this acid. 32. Of what is Si the symbol ? Ans.-— Silicon ; which is an element that does not exls 2?6 Dime Question Books. in the free state in nature, although it is contained in enor- mous quantities in combination with O. Silicon oxide (Si0 2 ) Silica or Silex is known as quartz or rock crystal, and it is found in almost all rocks; as sand, sandstone, and flint are more or less pure silica. It forms with metals com- pounds called silicates. It is tasteless, odorless, and color- less. Glass and clay are silicates, so therefore are bricks, pottery and china, which are made from clay. The four varieties of glass are (1), Window or plate; (2), FJint or crys- tal; (3), Bohemian; and (4), Green bottle-glass. Note.— Glass was known to the ancients. Hieroglyphics, that are older than the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, represent glass-hlowers at work, much after the fashion of the present. In the ruins of Nineveh, articles of glass, such as vases, howls, etc., have heen discovered. Mummies 3,000 years old are adorned with glass heads. The inventor is not known. Pliny tells us that some merchants, once encamping on the sea-shore, found in the remains of their fire hits of glass, formed from the sand and ashes of the sea- weed hy the heat; but this is impossible, as an open fire is not sufficient to melt these materials. In the fourth century B. C, the glass-works at Alexandria produced exquisite ornaments, with raised figures beautifully cut and gilded. But in the twelvth cen- tury, A. D., glass was still so costly in England that glass windows were thought to be very magnificent; and, as late even as about 1500, when the great Earl of Northumberland left one of his houses for a time, he was careful to have the glass of the windows taken down and packed for safe keeping. Query.— How is glass made ? In coloring glass what does Co give? As? Cu? What is Prince Rupert's Drop? Why is Borax employed in welding ? What place was regarded as the entrance of hell ? Why do not stones burn as well as wood ? What is an- nealing ? 33. Describe Sulphur. Ans. — S, or brimstone, is a yellow solid element found native in volcanic regions and is mined at Mount ^Etna in great quantities. It is in the form of fine yellow powder, Chemistry. 277 flour of sulphur, and in sticks or rolls. If we heat a small portion of sulphur in a spoon over a flame, it first melts, then boils, and then takes fire and burns away entirely,, giving off a pale blue flame. It is used for putting on the ends of matches and in the manufacture of gunpowder, which is a mixture of sulphur, charcoal, and nitre. 34. What is the "king of the acids"? Ans.— Sulphuric Acid (H 2 SOJ, Oil of Vitriol. It is of the utmost importance to the manufacturer and chemist, as it is used in the preparation of nearly all other acids, and forms many valuable compounds. 35. What name signifies "light-bearer?" Ans. — Phosphorus. It was called by the old alche- mists " the son of Satan." In nature it is similar to Si but is contained in the bones of animals in combination with oxygen and the metal calcium, forming calcium phosphate. When a bone is burnt, a white porous mass is left called bone ash, and from this, phosphorus can be prepared. P, like C, exists in two different forms: one is known as yei- .ow or common phosphorus; the other as red phosphorus. These two kinds differ very much in their properties. Note.— Prof. Remsen, of Johns Hopkins University, has Just discovered a white phosphorus. (Jan. 17th, '83. j 36. What is Hydrogen Phosphide? Ans. — A poisonous gas, remarkable for its disgusting odor, for igniting spontaneously on coming to the air, and for the singular beauty of the rings formed by its smoke. It has been thought by some that the Will-o'-the-wisp, Jack-o'-the-lantern, etc., as seen near graveyards and in 278 Dime Question Books. swampy places, are produced by this gas coining off from decaying substances, and igniting as it reaches the air. Experiment— Put a piece of P about the size of a grain of wheat on a porous paper and sprinkle over it a little lamp black or dried pulverized charcoal. In a few minutes P will ignite. The C ab- sorbs O from the air. Heat is produced by the condensation and at the same time is brought in contact with P, resulting in the combination P s Os. 37. Describe Arsenic. Ans. — As is found native, and is chiefly obtained from Fe As 8 and Fe S 2 , Fe As 3 , arsenical pyrites, by roasting: is a brittle steel gray solid of metallic lustre commonly sold when impure, as cobalt, though the latter is a 'reddish- white metal, found in combination with As. It volatilizes at 180° with an odor of garlic; burns with a bluish-white flame and is very poisonous in all its compounds. Note.— H3 As, arseniuretedhydrogen,or arsine, is important a3 affording a means of detecting the presence of As in compounds. AS2O3, arsenious anhydride, is a white powder (the arsenic of commerce)— the well-known "ratsttane"— used in the manufacture of glass, and many pigments, and for preserving the skins of ani- mals. As is soluble in hot H2O, and has a slightly sweetish taste. It is a powerful poison, doses of two or three grains being fatal, although an overdose sometimes acts as an emetic. It is an anti- septic, and so in cases of poisoning frequently attracts attention by the preservation of parts of the body, even 20 or 30 years after the murder has been committed. The usual antidote for corrosive sublimate, is milk or white of eggs or any ordinary emetic. The exact chemical remedy for arsenic is hydrated ferric oxide. 38. Name some of the discoverers of the ele- ments. Ans.— K, Pt, and Na were discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy in 1807. The next year, he discovered Ba, Ca, Mg, and Sr. Berzelius, in 1817, discovered Se; in 132b Si; in Chemistby. 279 1823 Th. Other well-known discoverers are Tennant Woehler, Woilaston, Klaproth, etc., etc. iecna ^> 39. What are the metals of the alkalies ? Am-Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Caesium, Rubi- dium, and Ammonium, which is a compound radical Caesium (Cs) and Rubidium (Rb) are only found Tn small quantities. These metals possess strongly alkaline properties-the power of turning red litmus papt blue and of neutralizing acids-have a whitish to grayish color malleable, ductile, and are so soft as to be worked with the fingers. „• 40. What is Kalium ? ANs.-Potassium (K) the metal contained in the alkali potash, and in the potash salts. The latter are ton" din many places in the earth, and also in the ashes of plants An acre of wheat producing 25 bnshels of grain and 3,000 bs.of straw, removes about 40 Ibs.of potash in the crop. An staTk^fiT' Pr f ° dUCiDS 10 ° bUShe!s ' remOTes ia k *ruel and stalk loO lbs. of potash and 80 lbs. of phosphoric acid. An acre of potatoes, yielding 300 bushels, will remove in tubers and tops 400 lbs. of potash and 150 lbs. of phosphoric acd A pound of wheat holds a quarter of an ounce of mint£ stances, and a pound of potatoes one-eigluh of an" dye ST waa^H "sf £* ? - S ^ PhateS ? 0t * at ls **- dnced? Wh«V u .. > How is Carbon Disulphide (CS.) pro- gtowt; sss t nse ™ ? ™»*«.«si fire"? TTnw u , n r> ety Matcn es made? What is "fox- 180 Dime Question Book. 41. WhatisKNCM Ans. — Nitrate of Potash, Saltpetre, or Nitre; a salt found is an efflorescence on the soil in tropical regions, especially in Iadia. It is obtained thence by leacldng. It is formed artificially by piling up great heaps of mortar, refuse of Sinks, stables, etc. In about three j^ears, these are washed, and each cubic foot of the mixture will furnish four or five ounces of saltpetre. 42. Describe Sodium. Ans. — Na is the metal found principally in "common fait. It can not be kept in the air, because it at once oxy- dizes and forms a white powder; neither can it be allowed to join H 2 0, as it will at once combine with O and set free H. Of the soda salts, rock-salt is found in largest quantity : it is obtained from mines in Cheshire, Cracow, Spain and Idaho, and from sea-water by evaporation. Experiment— To obtain sodium sulphate or Glauber's salts, pour sulphuric acid upou common salt ; a dense fume o hydrochlo- 3ic acid gas comes.off, and sodium sulphate is left. 43. What is common soda ? Ans.— Bicarbonate of Soda (HNa C0 3 , or Na 2 0. H 3 0, IC0 2 ) which is prepared by the action of C0 3 on sodium carbonate. The CO a may be easily liberated by the action of an acid. 44. What compound has never been separa- ted? Ans. — Ammonium (H 4 N), which acts like a metal, form- ing salts and amalgams; H 4 NHO is common ammonia wa- ter; H 4 N salts are obtained by distilling nitrogenous bodies. Its chief compounds are H 4 NC1, sal ammoniac; 2H 4 NO, Chemistry. 281 3C0 2 + 3H 8 0, sal-volatile; (H 4 N) 2S0 4 ; H 4 N, N0 8 ; Na H 4 N HP0 4 -j- 4H 2 G, microcosmic salt; (H 4 N) 2 S, H 4 N Brand 4H 4 I, used in photography. 45. What are the metals of the alkaline earths ? Ans.— Calcium (Ca), Barium (Ba) and Strontium (Sr) Ca is a metal which is very difficult to obtain in the pure state, although its compounds are very common. Quick- lime is calcium oxide; chalk, marble, limestone, and coral are all calcium carbonate; gypsum is calcium sulphate; and bone earth is calcium phosphate. Whitewash is a "milk of lime ", or lime diffused through water. Concrete is a cement of coarse gravel and water-lime. It is of great durability. Calcimine is a variety of whitewash made of whiting or of plaster of Paris. JSTote.— H 3 charged with C0 2 dissolves CaC0 3 (calcium car- bonate) freely, which, when the gas escapes on exposure to the air, is deposited. In limestone regions, the water trickling down into cavejns has formed "stalactites," which depend from the ceiling, and " stalagmites", that rise from the floor. These fre- quently assume curious and grotesque forms, as in the Mammoth Cave. Sr and Ba are very much like Ca. The first is used mJmakiDg crimson flames. The principal compounds are Ba (N0 4 ) 3 , used for making green flames in fireworks, and Ba Cl 3 used for detec- tion of sulphuric acid and its salts. 46. Of what is Mg the symbol ? Ans.— Of Maguesium, a soft, silver -white metal found in hornblende, meerschaum, soap stone, talc, and other rocks. Its salts give the bitter taste to sea-water. Mg- Co 3 is the "magnesia alba" or common magnesia of the drug store. Experiment-Taking some of this white powder, warm it in a test tube with a few drops of sulphuric acid, when the powder will 282 Dime Question Books. dissolve. Then pour tlie clear solution into a porcelain basin, and boil off the greater part of the water. On cooling, some long needle-shaped crystals will be found in the basin. These crystals are magnesium sulphate, or Epsom Salts ; a compound of magnesia and sulphuric acid. 47. From what is Aluminum named ? Ans. — Al is named from alum,in which it occurs. It i? also called the "clay metal", and is the metallic base of clay, slate, mica, and feldspar rocks. It is a bright, silver- white metal and next to O and Si is probably th£ most abundant element of the earth's crust. The manufacture of the metal is expensive, owing to the difficulty of separat- ing O from the clay. The most important salt is ammonium alum, a double sulphate of Al and K or H 4 N. The hydrate Al 8 (HO) 6 is used for "fixing" dyes. 48. What is glazing ? Ans. — Spreading a mixture of the coarse materials from which glass is made over the article, and then heating till it melts and forms a glazing over the clay. Ordinary stone- ware is glazed by simply throwing damp Nad into the furnace. This volatilizes, and being decomposed by the hot clay makes a sodium silicate over the surface, while fumes of HC1 escape. The color of pottery- ware and brick is due to the oxide of iron present in the clay.- 49. How have many of the metals been dis- covered? Ans. — By Spectrum Analysis. Various metals impart a peculiar color to flame. Na gives a yellow tinge, copper a green, Sr a crimson, etc. If we look at these colored flames through a prism, we see, instead of the ordinary "spectrum," a dark space strangely ornamented with Chemistry. 28S bright-tinted lines. Each metal makes a distinctive spec- trum, even when the flame is colored by several substances at once, By this delicate method of analysis y-giroooooo °f a grain of Na can be detected in the flame of an alcohol lamp. Query— What two metals can be obtained from sodium? How much salt is there in the Ocean? A gallon of sea-water contains how much salt? Where is Lithium found? For what is lime valu- able ? How i3 "hard finish" made ? What is mortar? What per cent of CO2 is fatal ? What is mordant ? Where must sodium be kept ? What is the most abundant of all the elements ? How many alums are there ? 50. What is the sj 7 mbol of civilization ? Ans. — Iron. Fe is rarely found native, but is dug from "mother-earth" as an ore from which the metal is ob- tained with difficulty. Meteors, however, containing as high as 93 per cent, of Fe associated with Ni and other metals, have fallen to the earth from space. One most useful ore of iron is red iron oxide, called haematite iron ore. By heating this with charcoal the oxygen is eliminated, and the metal Fe remains. After puddling this is called wrought or malleable Fe, because it can be hammered and made (when red hot) into anything which is wanted. This form is very useful because when hot two pieces of Fe can be welded together so firmly that they can not be separated. Note.— Cast-iron is made from iron ore and coal, and lime- stone, by placing these minerals in blast furnaces. Cast-iron is brittle and breaks into pieces under the hammer. By a process called puddling, the carbon, which the cast-iron has obtained from the coal is burnt away. It is an exception to the law that " cold contracts," since at the very instant of solidification it ex- pands, so as to copy exactly every line of the mould into which it is poured. 284 Dime Question Books. 51. How is steel made ? Ans. — It contains less C than cast, and more than wrought iron, and is made from the former by burning out a part of the C, and from the latter by heating in boxes of charcoal, and so adding C. The value of steel depends largely upon its temper. Note— In 1760, there lived, at Attercliffe, near Sheffield, a watchmaker named Huntsman. He became dissatisfied with the watch-springs in use, and set himself to the task of making them homogeneous. "If," thought he, "I can melt a piece of steel and ■cast it into an ingot, its composition should be the same through- out." He succeeded. His steel became famous, and Huntsman's ingots were in universal demand. He did not call them cast-steel. That was his secret. The process was wrapped in mystery by every means. The most faitbful men were hired. The work was divided, large wages paid, and stringent oaths taken. One mid- winter night, as the tall chimneys of the Attercliffe steel-works belched forth their smoke, a belated traveler knocked at the gate. It was bitter cold ; the snow fell fast ; and the wind howled across the moor. The stranger, apparently a common farm laborer seek- ing shelter from the storm , awakened no suspicion. The foreman, scanning him closely, at last granted his request and let him in. Feigning to be worn-out with cold and fatigue, the poor fellow sank upon the floor and was soon seemingly fast asleep. That, however, was far from his intention. Through cautiously opened eyes he caught glimpses of the mysterious process. He saw workmen cut bars of steel into bits, place them in crucibles, which were then thrust into furnaces. The fires were then urged to their utmost intensity until the steel melted. The workmen, clothed in rags, wet to protect them from the tremendous heat, drew forth the glowing crucibles and poured their contents into moulds. Hunts- man's factory had nothing more to disclose, The secret of cast- steel was stolen. Experiment — Place about a table spoonful of FeS in a bottle. Pour in two or three teaspoon- fuls of HC1. Pass the end of the delivery bottle into a bottle of cold H s O. H S S gas is generated and will be partly dissolved in H 8 0. It is readily recognized from its offensive odor, which is similar to that of decayed eggs. FeS -{- 2HC1 = FeCl 8 -j- Chemistey. 285 H 8 8. Remark. H 2 S is a test for silver, lead, etc. This- explains why silver spoons are blackened when used with eggs. Experiment 2. — Into a clean wine glass, pour a few drops of Tincture of Galls; to this add a solution of FeS0 4 — a purple color, changing to black, is the result. Rationale. This black fluid is Ink, formed by the combination of the Gallic acid of the Tincture, with the iron, forming Gallate of iron, which is black. 52. Describe Manganese. Ans. — Mn is related to Fe and Or, is obtained from Mn 8 , Mn 2 3 , and is seldom used except in compounds. By fusing Mn0 3 , KC10 3 , and KHO, a dark, green mass is ob- tained called "cliameUon mineral." K 2 0, Mn 2 7 or KMn 4 is used as an oxidizing agent and disinfectant. Mn compounds are also used for coloring glass, and in the preparation of CI. ~53. What is Zinc? Aks. — Zn or "spelter" is found as ZnO (redocride) and aa ZnS {blende) or zinc sulphide. It is used in galvanic bat- teries, and in sheet form for roofing. ZnO is a light white powder when cold, yellow when hot, and used in paint as "zinc white." Zinc sulphate (ZnSOJ, white vitriol, is used in medicine. 54. How is tin reduced ? Ans. — From its binoxide by the action of C. Sn is a bright white metal, much used for "plating" iron. Com- mon tin-plate is really iron-plate, which is covered with Sn, by dipping Fe into melted Sn. This coating preserves Fe from rttst. Sn is used in making such alloys as pewter, 286 Dime Question Books. Britannia metal, etc. Its most important ore is an oxide of tin, known as "tin stone" found in Cornwall, England. Query— How do brass pins get their white surface ? What is the "tin-cry"? How is the temperature of steel determined? What is the meaning of Ferrum ? What is spath ? Gray cast- iron contains what per cent, of C ? What is spiegel-eisen? Define "Fool's Gold." Describe Bessemer's Process. What is Fe So4, 7H 3 ? How is galvanized iron prepared? What is Philosopher's Wool ? What is the fusing point of Tin ? 55. "What metal is found near Lake Superior ? Ans. — Copper. Cu is a reddish colored metal found native in Minnesota and is also obtained from copper ores, of which, there are several kinds. Cu is much used in mix- ing with other metals yielding an alloy, such as brass and bronze. When copper is heated in the air, it tarnishes, and then becomes covered with a black coating of oxide (CuO), which is very poisonous. Experiment. — Place some copper filings in a dish and pour on them a few drops of nitric acid. Dense brownish red fumes will be given off from the nitric acid, and a blue solution of copper nitrate will be formed. Note.— There is no real distinction between organic and inorganic chemistry, many compounds found first in living bodies, and supposed to be formed in them, having been artificially pro- duced, While inorgonic bodies deal with sixty-four elements, organic are composed principally of only four, C, H, "N, and O. As is their characteristic element, they are frequently styled the '•carbon compounds." Bodies which contain the same elements In the same proportions by weight, and yet exhibit different physi- cal and chemical properties, are called Isomeric, and may be so from two causes. 56. What is the most common ore of Lead Ans.— Galena (PbS), from which it is obtained by oxi - Next to the universal power of Gravitation, are Life, the Atmosphere, Water, Heat, and Cohesive and Chemical attraction. Note.— Aqueous agencies operate In the form of Rains, Frost, Springs, Rivers, Waves, Currents, Glaciers, and Icebergs. 38. Give some illustrations of the work of life. Aks, — Peat formations, Beds of Microscopic organisms, and Coral-reefs. Peat is an accumulation or half decom- posed vegetable matter formed in wet or sw r ampy places. In temperate climates it is due mainly to the growth of mosses of the genus Sphagnum, These mosses form a loose turf; and, as they have the property of dying at the extremities of the roots while increasing above, they may gradually form a bed of great thickness. Note.— The roots and leaves of other plants, or their branches and stumps, and any other vegetation present, may contribute to the accumulating bed. The carcasses and excrements of dead an- imals at times become included. Dust may also be blown over the marsh by the winds, 39. What is said of microscopic life ? Ans. — It abounds in almost all waters. Part of the species make no stony secretions, but much the larger part Mi Dime Question Books. rWm calcareous or siliceous shells. The former (rhieopods), abound in the shallower waters along the borders of the bcean, and also over its bottom where it is thousands of feet deep. There are also among plants, the microscopic coccoliths covering the ocean's bed. 40. What are the siliceous species ? Ans.— Either Diatoms or Poly cystines which occur both in shallow and deep waters, like the Rhizopods. The rock made of rhizopod shells is exemplified in chalk,— a soft, white or whitish limestone. That consisting of diatoms often looks like a very fine whitish earth; but it is some- times compacted into a nearly solid mass, and sometimes into an imperfect slate. Flint is made mainly of diatoms and of the spicules of sponges. 4:1. Describe a coral-reef. Ans. — The fragments and sand made by the waves, and by the same means strewed over the bottom, along with the shells also of Mollusks, commence the formation of a bed of coral-rock, literally a bed of limestone, for the coral and shells have the composition of limestone, and consoli- dation goes on simultaneously. As the corals continue growing over the bed, fragments and sand are constantly forming, and the bed of limestone thus increases in thick- ness. In this manner it goes on increasing until it reaches the level of low tide; beyond this it rises but little, because corals cannot grow where they are liable to be left for a day wholly out of water; and the waves have too great force at this level to allow of their holding their places, if they were able to stand the hot and drying sun. The bed of calcareous rock thus produced is a caral-reef. Note.— Dunes are regions of loose drift-sand near the sea, In Geology and Mineralogy. 313 Norfolk, England, between Hunstanton and Weybourne, the drift- sands have traveled inland with great destructive effects, burying farms and houses. Quet^y.— What are sand-scratches ? Define erosion. What is meant by an "abrading action ?" What occasions a cation ? How are deltas formed ? What is the meaning of Lithology ? 42. Name the divisions of structural geology. Ans. — Lithology and petrology; corresponding to histol- ogy and anatomy. The former is an in-door employment; the latter an out door science. 43. What is the difference between flint and chert ? Ans.— During the course of geological time, beds of tripolits are gradually consolidated, chiefly by percolating waters, which are constantly dissolving and re-depositing the silica; and, finally, in the place of a soft, earthy rock, we get a hard, flinty one, which we call flint if it occurs in the newer, or chert if it occurs in the older, geological for- mations. Note.— As illustrative of the force of running water it is stated that tbe Niagara River has cut a channel through the solid rocks, 200 feet deep, 1,200 to 2,000 feet wide, and 7 miles long, The evi- dence is conclusive that the Falls were formerly at Queenstown, seven miles below their present situation. Still the Falls have not receded more than one foot a year for the last half century. H this has been the rate of retrocession for the whole distance,— and on account of the nature of the rocks there is no reason for suppos- ing it greater,— it has required 36,000 years for that great excava- tion. 44. What are "Pot-holes?" Ans. — Deep wells which are everywhere common along rapid brooks and rivers. The celebrated "Basin" at Fran- 814 Dime Question Books. conla Notch is one of these wells, 40 feet in diameter, and 28 feet deep. It is filled to the depth of 8 or 10 feet with pure water, which revolves with such force that it is con- sidered a dangerous place for even an expert swimmer. No one can doubt for a moment that the entire basin has been made by the same process which is now going on there. How long the waters of the Pemigewasset have been revolving in this basin we may never know, but un- doubtedly for ages. 45. What is said about the sediment of the Amazon ? Ans. — It is so charged with sediment that its waters can be detected, by their discoloration, 300 miles from its mouth. A part of the sediment brought down by this river is carried by the current of that region, and deposited on the coast of Guiana, which is thereby advancing upon the sea. Query.— Why is Egypt called the Gift of the M!e ? Where 19 museovite to be obtained ? What is petrosilex ? Define ferrugi- nous sandstone. "What is prase ? What is the meaning of Crystal- lography ? What is the sp. gr. of graphite ? 46. What are the three forms of frozen water? Ans.™ The ice of lakes and rivers; Glaciers; Icebergs. Glaciers are vast masses of ice, of a peculiar structure, en- cased in high mountain valleys. They are, in fact, the transformed snow which falls upon the mountains above the snow line. This snow is gradually transformed intc the glacier just as the snow upon the roof is transformed into icicles, 41. What are lateral moraines f Geology and Mineralogy. 315 Ans. — An accumulation of loose material all along the glacier on both sides. By this we understand the geolog- ical changes which glaciers produce, for encased as they are in the mountain valleys, they receive the rocks and earth that are detached by the frosts from the steep flanks and peaks of the adjacent mountains. Note.— Besides the blocks thus carried down on the top of the glacier, many fall through fissures in the ice to the bottom, where some of them become firmly frozen into the mass, and are pushed along the base of the glacier, abrading, polishing and grooving the rocky floor below, as a diamond cuts glass, or as emery-pow- der polishes steel. 48. Define " roche moutonnee." Ans.-— Projecting eminences of rock so called have been smoothed and worn into the shape of flattened domes by the glacier as it passed over them. They have been traced in the Alps to great heights above the present glaciers, and to great horizontal distances beyond them. 49. What are " erratics " ? Ans. — Angular blocks of granite, gneiss, and other crystalline formations found on the Jura and in the great valley of' Switzerland. They must have been brought over a distance of fifty miles, and their great size and an- guiarity, after a distance of so many leagues, has justly excited wonder; for hundreds of them are as large as cot- tages, One in particular, composed of gneiss, celebrated under the name of Pierre a" Bot, rests on the side of a hill about 900 feet above the lake of Neufchatel, and is no less than 40 feet in diameter. Note.— In the vicinity of Upsu'a., in Sweden, Is a ridge .ol stratified sand and gravel, in the midst cf which occurs a layer o\ marl, evidently formed originally at the bottom of the Baltic, by 316 Dime Question Books. the slow growth of the mussel, cockle, and other marine shells Of living species, intermixed with some proper to fresh water. 50. What is the weight of an iceberg ? Ans.— As ice floats with eight-ninths of its bulk below the surface, the true thickness of the berg is nine times its height above the surface of the water. 51. Name the igneous agencies. A NS- — Volcanoes, Earthquakes, and Thermal Springs. There are 672 volcanoes, of which 270 are active. Note.— At the birth of Christ, Vesuvius was described by the Roman geographer, Strabo, as a burnt mountain, but it had never been known to show any activity. Its crater, nearly f ull, was covered with a dense forest, and its slopes adorned with cul- tivated fields, villages and cities. In the year 63, several shocks of earthquake startled the inhabitants of its delightful slopes, and sixteen years later, in 79 A. D., the first eruption oecured, after which the northern half of the mountain alone remained. The southern half was ground to powder, and the rain of hot, wet ashes was so abundant as to lay waste the fair fields upon its flanks, and to overwhelm and bury from human view, Herculane- um, Pompeii, and Stabiae. 52. What are intimately connected with vol- canic phenomena ? Ans. — Thermal springs which occur in almost every country, and remote from volcanoes as well as near them. They are to be found in Virginia, West Virginia, Arkan- sas, the Utah Basin, Montana, and in others parts of North America. 53. How are earthquakes produced ? Ans,— -They are undoubtedly caused by the action of the Geology and Mineralogy. 31 T heated interior of the globe upon its crust or outside part; but precisely how tbis molten matter operates to produce the earthquake is not fully understood. Tidal waves are also regarded as a cause. 54. What is meant by vertical movements ? Ans.— Illustrated in the case of Sweden; for, while the northern portion is gradually rising, the southern section is slowly siaking below the water level. The western shores of the Chesapeake are gradually rising. The west coast of Greenland is gradually sinking. Note.— Since the Christian era, parts of the coast of Italy, in the region of Naples, have undergone vertical movements, amount- ing to 20 or 30 feet in each direction. The record of these changes is left not only on the coast itself, hut also on the columns of the temple of Jupitor Serapis, at Pozzuoli. Query.— Of what noted earl h quakes have you read ? What are Geysers ? Where are the volcanoes of Jorullo, Skapter Jokul, Etna, and MaunaLoa ? What is "Pele's hair?" Define volcano. What are organic agencies ? What is an Atoll ? At what height above the level of the sea does a glacier melt ? Ans. 3,500 feet. How is man producing geological changes ? Of what are reef corals composed ? 55. What are Fossils? Ans. — The remains of plants and animals found im- bedded in many of the stratified rocks of every country. They are among the most important aids in making out a history of our earth. The department of Geology which treats specially of fossils, is called Paleontology. Note.— These remains were known to the ancients, and con- sidered "freaks of Nature." Tradition, which attributed to Achil- les and other heroes of the Trojan war a height of twenty feet, is traceable, no doubt, to the discovery of elephants' bones near their tombs. Thus, for example, we are assured that, in the time of • 318 Dime Question Books, Pericles, in the tomb of Ajax was found a knee-bone of tbat hero which was as large as a dinner plate. It was, probably, the fossil knee-bone of an elephant. The Spartans prostrated themselves before the remains of one of these animals, in which they thought they recognized the skeleton of Orestes. Some bones of a mam- moth found in Sicily were considered as having belonged to Poly- phemus. Even the learned of a later day were not exempt from these blunders. Felix Plater, Professor of Anatomy at Basle, in 1517, referred the bones of an elephant discovered at the roots of a tree torn up by the wind near Lucerne, to a giant at least nineteen feet high. He even restored it in a sketch which was long pre- served in the college at Lucerne. 56. What fossils have been found in coal ? Ans. — Articulate animals of the genus Scorpion were found by Count Sternberg in 1835 in the coal-measures of Bohemia. From the coal of Wetting, in Westphalia, several specimens of the cockroach or Blatta family, and the wing of a cricket (Acridites), have been, described by Uermar. Prof. Goldenberg published, in 1854, descrip- tions of no less than twelve species of insects from the nodular clay-ironstone of Saarbriick, near Treves. Among them are several Blattincs, three species of Neuroptera, one beetle of the Scardbaeus family, a grasshopper or locust, Gryllacris, and several white ants or Termites. 57. Dendrite is what ? Ans. — Delicate expansions of mineral matter, closely resembling plants, which are often found on breaking open all kinds of rocks, stratified as well as unstratified. These imitations of vegetable forms result from the infiltration ef mineral matter into minute fissures, and must not be con- founded with organic remains. 68. "What do the fossils teach us ? Am —That all rock3 in which they occur were once in GtEOLOGY AND MlNERALOGY. 319 a soft state, like the sand and mud at the bottom of our present waters, and, occuring in successive layers, they show that each layer once constituted the upper surface, no matter to what depth it may now be below it. They show that the highest mountains have once been the ocean's bottom, and that, too, for a long time, since their sides are filled with corals, crinoids, shells, and other or- ganisms, that could have grown only in the sea, 59. In respect to fossils how are the rocks divided ? Ans.— Into Possiliferous, and Non-Possiliferous, The first comprises all the rocks that contain fossils; that is, all the stratified rocks, except gneiss, mica slate, hornblende, etc. The second, all the unstratified rocks, and such of the stratified as were formed before life was introduced upon our planet 60. Define Petrifaction. Ans.— It consists in the infiltration of stony matter into the pores of vegetable or animal substances. 61. Name the four great eras. Ans.— The Eozoic (dawn of life), the Paleozoic (ancient life), the Mesozoic (middle life), and the Cenozoic (recent life). These names indicate the successive stages in the development of life on the globe. NoTE.-The Eozoic era was, until lately, universally known as the Azmc (without life). There was doubtless such a period when the heated earth, swept by a blowing ocean, was destitute of in- habitants. Kecent discoveries, however, seem to indicate that the lowest of the so-called Azoic rocks which have actually been observed exhibit proof of the existence of life, and the name Eozoic has therefore been substituted. Dana does not accept this 320 Dime Question Books. conclusion, and in his manual of Geology (pp. 149-157) uses the term Archaean (from the Greek for beginning.) There is no doubt that the Eozoic was preceded by an Azoic era, but it yet remains for the rocks of either period to be fully identified. 62. What are some of the periods ? Ans. — Steele's classification is Laurenthian, Huronian, etc. ; Dana's, Primordial, Canadian, and Trenton, (Lower Silurian)-, Niagara and Salina, (Upper Silurian)-, Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Chemung, and Catskill (Devonian). 63. What kinds of rocks belong to the Eozoic ? Ans. — The crystalline or metamorphic, as granite, gneiss, marble, quartzite, limestone, etc. Beds of graphite, porphyry, soapstone and slates, also occur. All were doubtless deposited as sedimentary strata, and afterward crystallized. The Eozoic was emphatically the era of iron. The iron ore beds of the Adirondack^ in northern New York, the Iron mountains of Missouri, the Marquette mines of Lake Superior, and many others, date from this time. Query—What are incrustrations ? How is the gradual eleva- tion of Norway and Sweden proved ? What are the teachings of the igneous rocks ? Define a Synclinorium. Ans: A finished mountain range. What are Plutonic rocks ? 64. What are the oldest mountains upon the Western Continent ? Ans. — A range of hills called the Laurentian located between New York and Canada. 65. Name the divisions of Paleozoic TJme. Ans. 1. The Silurian Age, or Age of Invertebrates. Geology and Mineralogy. 321 The Devonian Age, or Age of Fishes. 3. The Carbonif- erous Age, or Age of Coal Plants. Note.— Sir Eoderick Murchison first proposed the name of Silurian when he had studied and classified them in that part of Wales and some of the contiguous counties of Engiand which once constituted the kingdom of the Silures, a tribe of ancient Britons. 66. What is Lingula sandstone f Ans. — The older sandstone abounds ia many places in a shell smaller, in general, than a finger-nail, related to the modern Lingula. It is the shell of a mollusk of the tribe of Brachiopods. When alive, it stood on a stem. These shells are so characteristic of the beds in many regions as to have suggested the name Lingula flags, or Lingula sand- stone. 67. From what is the Potsdam period named? Ans. — From Potsdam, a town in northern New York, where the rock is exposed in the quarries to a thickness of 70 feet. The formation is well developed in Pennsylvania and can be traced westward to the Black Hills of Dakota, and southward along the Appalachian range from Vermont to Alabama and is known in Texas. 68. What is the kind of rock ? Ans, — It varies much throughout this wide extent, At Potsdam it is a coarse, hard sandstone; at Malone. a fria- ble one; as Keeseville, a quartzite; and at other localities, a fine white sand, fit for glass -making. 69. What is an example of an "Inverted Vol- cano ?" Am —The Sculptured Rocks of Lake Superior, The 822 Dime Questioh Books. strata of the Pillared Rocks form a wall 50 to 100 feet high, and line the shore for a distance of five miles. Their marked hues and fantastic shapes excite the imagination of every beholder. Here is "Miner's Castle," with its turrets and bastions; there "Sail Rock," a ship with sails full spread; and yonder "The Amphitheatre, "with itssymmet* rical curves. A closer inspection only reveals more curi- ous details and resemblances. 70. What are the fossils of the Hudson Period ? Ans.— In the limestone regions, corals, shells, trilobites, etc., are abundant. In the shales, however, they are sparingly distributed, being mostly those which flourish in mudcly waters. The graptolites (rock writing) of the king- dom of Radiates are striking fossils. They are merely a delicate, plume-like tracery upon the rock. They have therefore been poetically styled sea/pens. They delighted in foul , as the corals in clear water, and must have thickly covered the muddy bottom of the shallow sea with their fragile, mossy branches. They are ^commonly found in scattered fragments. Query.— What is the Oneida Conglomerate f the Shawangunk grit f When was the Cincinnati period ? What is a trilobite ? Describe the fucoids. What is the "dye-stone ?" 71. What is the spirifer arenosus f Ans.— A brachiopod which is the most common fossil of the Oriskany Period. The rock, a light, rough sand- stone, is often almost entirely made of these characteristic shells or of their casts. Note.— The fossils, constituting a kind of life-thermometer indicate that the climate of the Silurian was uniform. GrEOLOOY AND MlNERALOGY. 323 72. How did the Devonian Age derive its name ? Ans.— It was so named by Sedgwick and Murchison, from Devonshire, England, where it occurs. It is often styled the Old Red Sandstone, from the prevalent color of the rock, and has been immortalized by Hugh Miller under that name. On this continent its color and character are very different, although it is similar in its dominant fossils. Note.— By far the greater number of the Old Red Sandstone fishes belong to a sub-order of Ganoids instituted by Huxley in 1881, and for which he has proposed the name of CrossopUrygidae, abridged from Kpo66oDToS (fringe), and 7trapvc "(a fin) : i. e. f crossotos and pteryx, or the fringe-finned, in consideration of the peculiar manner in which the fin-rays of the paired fins are ar- ranged so as to form a fringe around a central lobe, as in the Poty- pterus, a genus of which there are several species now inhabiting the Nile and other African rivers. 73. What was the origin of Old Red Sand- stone \ Ans. — Many circumstances that favor the theory of its fresh-water origin are confirmed by finding it in Lake Superior and the inland Canadian seas of fresh water, and in the Mississippi and African rivers are those fish which have the nearest affinity to the fossil forms of this ancient formation. 74. What did the early fishes prophesy % Ans. — Not only the reptiles which were to come, but also the birds and even mammals. Though the ancient types have become obsolete, and have been replaced by modern ones, as Agassiz happily remarks, a few old-fash- ioned individuals have been left behind to give the key to the history of the race. 324 Dime Question Books. Query.— What does the gar-pike explain ? the nautilus ? Lo- cate Oriskany Falls. What is meant by the Corniferous Period ? 76. What are the Cyprinodons ? Ans. — The sightless fish who grope in the absolute darkness of the waters of the Mammoth Cave ; they are of a milk-white color. 76. How was the Carboniferous Period inau- gurated ? Ans. — By the formation of a conglomerate sandstone the Millstone Grit whose ledges often separate into huge blocks. Where a portion has been swept away during subsequent geologic changes, the remains present a strik- ing resemblance to the streets and blocks of a ruined city. Several of these so-called "Rock cities" are situated in southwestern New York. Note.— In the district called the Joggins, in Nova Scotia, the coal formation is 14,000 feet thick, and contains seventy-six beds or seams of coal; only part of these, however, are of workable thickness. The "mammoth vein" exposed to view at Wilkes- harre, and worked at Carbondale, Manch Chunk, Shamokin, etc., is 29 J4 feet thick. The Pittsburg seam is 8 feet thick, and may be traced for a long distance as a conspicuous black band along the high banks of the Monongahela. 77. Describe the two kinds of mineral coal. Ans.— Anthracite is mostly without bitumen, very hard, with a high lustre, often iridescent, and burns with a pale blue flame. Bituminous coal abounds with bitumen, is softer than anthracite, with little lustre, and burns with a bright flame. It appears in many varieties, one ol which is the well-known cannel coal. 78. What is said of ferns ? Geology and Mineralogy. 325 Ans.— Ferns which to-day creep at our feet, then towered into stately trees, with trunks a foot and a half in diameter. They are abundant fossils, and doubtless con- tributed most to the formation of coal, 79. Of what origin are coal-beds ? Ans.— Vegetable origin. This might be inferred from the fact that coal is mainly Carbon, which substance forms one-fourth to one half of all the vegetation on the globe. But, prepared in very thin slices, coal shows its vegetable structure under the microscope, and often even to the naked eye. 80. How did this vegetation accumulate? Ans.— By the slow growth of plants, just as peat is now forming in peat-bogs. Our peat-bogs are only incipient coal-beds, and need only to be submerged, and covered with great depths of strata, in order to become genuine coal. Note.— In a coal mine near the Bay of Fundy, in the stumps of two sigillarice, there have been found the remains of several small reptiles bearing frog-like and lizard-like forms, a centipede, and the shells of a land snail. These little creatures had probably crept into the hollow trees for shelter, and were overtaken by the convulsions which overwhelmed them. Several true reptiles have since been identified. Query.— What is a " petrified butterfly " ? What are the char- acteristic fossils of the carboniferous era? Where are the Hel- derberg Mts.? Give a scenic description of the Silurian Age. 81. What are the divisions of Mesozoic Time? Ans.— The Reptilian Age includes three periods: 1. Triassic: named from the Latin tiia, three, in allusion to the fact that the rocks of the period in Germany consist of 826 Dims Question Books. three separate groups of strata. This is a local sub-di- vision, however. This period is sometimes termed the New Red Sandstone, to distinguish it from the Old Red Sandstone of the Devonian. 2. Jurassic: named from the Jura Mountains, situated on the eastern border of France, between France and Switzerland, where rocks of the period occur. 3. Cretaceous : named from the Latin creta, chalk, the chalk-beds of Britain and Europe being included in the Cretaceous formation. Note.— The American rocks of the Triassic period have not yet been separated from those of the Jurassic, except in the region west of the Mississippi. The popular "free-stone" of Portland, Conn., and Newark, N. J., is a Triassic rock. Near Eichmontl, Va., and Deep River, N. 0., are valuable coal beds in the rocks of this era. At the west this formation consists of beds of brick-red marl and sandstone. The celebrated Solenhofen imestone, so much used in lithography, is out of the Jurassic Period. 82. What animal had the general contour of a dolphin, the snout of a porpoise, the head of a lizard, the jaws and teeth of a crocodile, the vertebrae of a fish, the sternal arch of the water- mole, the paddles of a whale, and the trunk and tail of a quadruped ? Am—The lehthyosaur (fish-lizard). 83. What are the gold-bearing rocks of Cali- fornia ? Ans.— Mainly Jurassic or Triassic metamorphic sand- stones with interstratified quartz containing gold. Where the quartz veins have come to the surface and weathered, the particles of gold have been washed out, and thus form- ed auriferous sands. Geology and Mineralogy. 327 84. Cenozoic Time covers what two ages ? Ans.— -The Tertiary Age, or Age of Mammals; The Quaternary, or Age of Man. Steele makes but one divis- ion, including the two periods Tertiary and Post Tertiary. Note.— Lyell makes the divisions of the Tertiary Period to be Eocene (from the Greek $06$, dami, and KaivoS, recent) : species nearly all extinct. Miocene (from Melaov, less, &n&Kaivo'S): less than half the species living. Pliocene (from nXei gov more, and KalvoS) : more than half the species living. On this continent, however, these terms do not apply, and an American classification has been adopted, known as the LiguHic, Alabama, Yorktown (Va.) and Sumter (S. C.) Epochs. 85. What is said of the rocks of this era ? AN8,— The Tertiary rocks are generally but little consoli- dated; they consist mostly of compacted sand, pebbles, clay, earth that was once the mud of the sea-bottom or of estuaries, mixed often with shells, or are such kinds of de- posits as now form along sea-shores and in shallow bays and estuaries, or in shallow waters off a coast. There are also limestones made of shells and others of corals, resem- bling the reef- rock of coral seas, 86. What is said of the plants ? Ans.— The abundance of vegetable remains proves the land to have been covered with an exuberant flora. Leaves of oak, maple, poplar, hickory, cinnamon, fig, palm and pine are abundant. Query.— When did the seasons commence? What animal Is a Curious intermediate link between birds and reptiles? When did the region of gigantic reptiles terminate? What were Dinosaurs? Describe the Piesiosaur. What frog-like quadruped often at- tained the size of au ex? 828 Dime Question Books. 87. What are the three epochs of the Post- Tertiary ? Ans. — Glacial (Drift or Boulder P