Price, 75 Cents '^^^IC^ %|SS-i, Agriculture and Gardening for Schools By LESTER S. IVINS MARCH BROTHERS, Publishers 208, 210, 212 Wright Ave., Lebanon, Ohio Agriculture and Gardening for Schools A Handbook for Teachers and a Manual and Note Book for Students By LESTER S. IVINS, M.S. Head of the Department of Agriculture, Kent State Normal College, and Collaborator in Garden Division, United States Bureau of Education; formerly State Supervisor of Agricultural Education in Ohio; Author of numerous Government leaflets and bulletins on Agriculture and Gardening as well as text books on these subjects. MARCH BROTHERS, :-: :-: Publishers 208, 210, 212 Wright Avenue LEBANON, OHIO Copyright, 1920, by MARCH BROTHERS DEC -^ 1320 ©CLAG04498 7V> TO THE TEACHER IN the preparation of this book it has been the aim of the author to furnish a guide for teachers who are to teach Agriculture and Gardening, and for students who are making a study of these subjects. If used as a manual for students, the work of the pupil on experiments should be recorded in a separate note- book. The many notes and references to other books and bulletins contained in this volume should prove help- ful to students and teachers. These printed notes save the students 'time in recording them in a written note- book. They will aid the teacher in finding supple- mentary material for regular school use. These out- lines are in an abbreviated form and may be expanded to meet the needs of the teacher or the student. Part One of this book emphasizes not only the value of the teaching of Agriculture but also the methods by which the subject may be taught. Part Two has been given to the development of a plan of teaching the growing and preserving of Garden Crops. Lester S. Ivins. INDEX TO TOPICS PART I— AGRICULTURE. PAGE Outline for Teaching Nature Study and Agriculture, in- cluding Suggestive Questions 7 A Course of Study in Agriculture for a Junior High School 51 Experiments in Agriculture 62 Practical Contests for Children .' 87 The Judging of Seed Corn 105 School Exhibits Ill Parents' Meetings 128 Needs of the Rural Schools 129 A Course, of Study for Rural Schools, including Nature Study and Agriculture 134 Courses of Study for High Schools, including Agriculture. .154 PART II— GARDENING. The Production of Garden Crops — Section One Ii59 Selecting the Garden Site, Making Garden Plans, Com- panion Crops 159 Rotation of Garden Crops, Purchasing Garden Seed, Economy in the Use of Seeds 161 Varieties of Crops, Hints on Planting, Draining the Garden 162 Preparing Garden Soil, Commercial Fertilzers for the Garden 164 Testing Garden Seed, The Hotbed, The Cold Frame and Seed Bed 166 Planting Dates East of the Mississippi, Planting Dates West of the Mississippi 168 Thinning and Replanting Plants, Growing and Trans- planting Plants 169 Tillage and the Use of Tools, Waterinsr the Garden. Protecting Garden Products 171 Garden Records, Spraying for Insects and Plant Diseases 172 5 6 INDEX TO TOPICS. PAGE Protecting Garden Crops from Frost, Weeds and Weeding, The Gardener's Friends 174 Lettuce, Radishes, Peas, Onions, Cabbage, Cabbage Enemies and Their Control 1'7'6 Beets, Parsnips, Carrots an*d Chervils, Turnips and Rutabagas, Irish Potatoes '. . . 180 Sweet Potatoes, Peppers and Eggplants, Tomatoes, Beans 1'83 Bean Enemies and Their Control, Sweet Corn and Pop Corn, Cucumbers, Melons 186 Squashes, Pumpkins, Celery and Celeriac, Kale and Cauliflower 189 Collards and Brussels Sprouts, Kohl-Rabi and Okra, Spring Greens, Spring Salads 1^1 Greens that Endure Heat. Salads that Endure Heat, Plants Related to the Onion 194 Root Crops that Withstand Winter Freezing, Perennial Crops 196 Saving Seed for Planting, Harvesting Vegetable Crops, Marketing Vegetable Crops 198 Small Fruits, Strawberries, Blackberries and Rasp- berries 200 Currants and Gooseberries, Grapes, Harvesting and Marketing Small Fruits 203" Useful Plants used for Ornament, Plants to Beautify the Yard or Garden 206 Fall Work for the Spring Garden 207 The Preservation of Garden Crops — Section Two 207 AVhv and How We Preserve Foods, Canning: One- Period Cold-Pack Method 207 Preserving and Jelly Making, Drying. Fermentation and Salting '. 209 Storing Vegetables, Storing Vegetables in Cellars. Storing Vegetables in Pits 212 Storing Vegetables in Cold Frames, Storing Vegetables in Cool and Warm Rooms 212 Saving the By-Products 214 Agriculture and Gardening for Schools PART I— AGRICULTURE NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE (For further discussion see Course of Study, page 134 and following.) Pupils in the first five or six grades of school, as a general thing, are too young to be taught the science of agriculture ; but they are not too young to gain an abundance of knowledge along the line of nature study. FIRST DIVISION. For example, in the first three grades of school, children can be given some very valuable lessons in ob- servation. They can be taught to observe wild and domestic animals on the farm at home, or in the pasture nearby; wild and cultivated plants and trees. They can learn the common names of several insects and birds that are both useful and injurious to the farmer. At the age of eight and nine, or second and third grade, children can become interested in planting small gardens at their homes. They should be encouraged to plant vegetables, such as beets, carrots, radishes, let- tuce, and to keep a record of their work done in the cultivation of same. 7 8 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SECOND DIVISION. The second division might be the fourth and fifth grades, or children from ten to twelve years of age. In addition to what was mentioned for the first three grades, pupils of the fourth and fifth can make a study of the different soils, and learn something of the habits of many plants and animals in order to become more familiar with their modes of living, and their uses to man. In the study of plants, children should observe the different kinds of roots and their uses to man, the kinds and purposes of the leaves, and how they are sometimes used by man, the dissemination of seeds, the life history of the leaf bud and flower bud, the falling and coloring of the leaf, preparation of buds for winter, and make a special study of two or three plants with which they are likely to be most familiar, such as the bean and pea. Poisonous plants should be taught as early as possible in order that the children can recognize them. The pupils of the fourth and fifth grades should also be encouraged to plant gardens as much as possible at their homes, and in addition tO' the work mentioned in the first division, they may also plant and cultivate all kinds of flowers and some grains. The teacher should always insist upon simple records being kept of all work done. THIRD DIVISION. A third division may be made of the sixth, seventh and eight grades, or pupils from the age of twelve to sixteen years. These children can do all the work mentioned in the first two divisions, and in addition to that, can take up the study of a text book on elementary agriculture. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. \) They should go beyond the hmits of personal ob- servation ; should illustrate processes by simple experi- ments; should study the different types of plants and animals, visit stock farms, county and state fairs, parks containing all kinds of -animals, birds, etc. ; should read reference works on elementary agriculture, monthly ex- tension bulletins issued by the State University Agri- cultural Colleges, and farm papers. Special attention should be called to the most useful birds to the farmer. Children should know these so well that they could recognize them at all times. The following birds are common in the Central States and very useful to the farmer: Quail, Purple Martin, Sparrow, Hawk, Screech Owl, Red-headed Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Horned Lark, Rain Crow, Flicker, Yellow Hammer or Golden Woodpecker, Pine Grosbeak, Purple Finch, Pcwce or Phoebe Bird, Song Sparrow, Chipping Spar- row, Robin, Vesper Sparrow, Grasshopper Sparrow, Field Sparrow, Cardinal or Red Bird, Brown Thrasher, Orioles, Wood Thrush, Meadow Lark and House Wren. Many others could be added to this list and information can be had on the subject by addressing your State Agricultural College, or see Farmers' Bulletin No. 54, L^nited States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Pictures of these birds in their natural colors can be secured by addressing reliable picture houses, and in this way children can first learn to recognize the differ- ent birds from their ])icture. Teachers should become as familiar with birds as possible. They should frequently go on excursions with the children to the woods and fields and point out the different kinds to the imi:)ils and explain their habits, the plan of building their nests, and why they are useful 10 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. to the farmer. Injurious birds can be studied at the same time. Children of this division should be taught some plans of building attractive bird houses and other means of inviting useful birds to remain with them. They should also be taught to plant and care for trees, flowers and shrubbery ; to recognize all common weeds in their neighborhood. Attention should be given as to how flowers are fertilized, the function of the root, stem, leaf and flower, some family characteristics, the plants that fertilize the soil, and how this process is accomplished as well as the purposes of crop rotation. Pupils of this division are better able to properly care for a school or home garden than those of the first two divisions, or the first five grades, on account of age and general knowledge of farm affairs. Children of this division can plant and cultivate corn in corn growing contests, flowers in flower contests, both of which will be more fully explained under the head of Corn Growing Contests and Flower Gardens at Home. They can also grow different varieties of wheat, barley, beets, potatoes, can understand and perform ex- ercises in pruning, grafting, and making cuttings. Boys and girls should be encouraged to raise poul- try and farm animals at home, to keep records of the expenses of running the farm, the gross and net returns, and to i)erform some experiments in a small way with the aid of parent and teacher on different methods of planting, cultivating, harvesting and preparing the products of the farm for market. Parents can render very valuable aid to their chil- dren by reserving plots of ground for planting corn, potatoes, vegetables and small fruits. At first they may not desire to give the space for such work but will AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 11 usually do so if the plan of work that is desired to be carried out by the teacher is properly explained. By the use of a text-book on Agriculture, Experi- ment Station Bulletins, Extension Bulletins from Agri- culture Colleges, Agricultural papers, the third division, and especially the seventh and eighth grades, can take up the study of agriculture in a more systematic way. The agricultural text-book can take the place of the reader one or two days of the week, and it will not only furnish a variety of material for the reading period, but at the same time subject-matter that is instructive. This information that can be secured from a good text- book on agriculture will be very valuable to the child. It is intensely interesting material to teach and it may be a means of interesting the children in farm life and in all things that are near to nature. The following outline may offer some suggestion to the teacher of agriculture with or without a text-book: Questions on the following topics can be answered by consulting a text-book on agriculture, bulletins men- tioned, or from your home experience. United States Bulletins referred to in the questions as supplementary reading can be secured by writing the United States Department of Agriculture at Washing- ton, D. C. Ofiio agricultural bulletins can be secured by addressing the Wooster Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. All bulletins are sent to any address free of charge or for a few cents. Extension bulletins can be secured free by address- ing the State Agricultural Colleges. Ohio's college is at Columbus, Ohio. Good text-books on Agriculture foi Elementary Schools can be secured by addressing the following book concerns: Practical Lessons in Agricul- ture, American Book Co., Cincinnati, O. ; Agriculture 12 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. for Beginners, Ginn & Company, Columbus ; Elementary Agriculture, R. K. Rowe, 378 Wabash Ave., Chicago; Elementary Agriculture, Ferguson Publishing Company, Sherman, 'Texas. Text-books for high school purposes are as follows: Agriculture for the High School (in press), American Book Company, Cincinnati; Agricul- ture Through the Laboratory, Orange Judd Company, New York; First Book of Farming (many exj^eri- ments), published by Doubleday, Page Company, New York City. Write the experiment station of your own state and ask to be placed on their mailing list to receive all bulletins. I.— SOIL. (See Extension Bulletin, Vol. 3, No. 4, Ohio Agricul- tural College.) (a) Origm and tillage of. (b) Moisture and drainage of. (c) Fertilizing and improving of. (d) Adaptation to vegetation. (e) Efifect of wind upon. (/) Study of properties of. (g) Renovation of worn out. (U. S. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 245.) QUESTIONS ON SOIL. 1. What is soil? 2. What is sub-soil? 3. What is humus? 4. What implements are used in tillage? 5. Why should soil be in good order before the crop is planted? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 13 6. Explain the value of circulation of the air in the soil. 7. What is a jointer? 8. Where is it attached to the plow? 9. What effect have earth worms upon the soil? ic. What is meant by capillarity of the soil? 11. Will (lew assist a plant to grow in dry weather? 12. Why should crops be well cultivated. 13. Why do some farmers place straw or grass be- tween potato rows during the growing season? 14. Name five advantages of tile drains. (See U. S. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 187.) 15. Name three plants that improve the soil. 16. How do they do this? 17. How should stable fertilizers be cared for? (See U. S. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 192.) 18. Name the three most important elements in commercial fertilizers. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 44, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 19. Where and how^ are these obtained? 20. Why is lime sometimes added to the soil? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. yy . U. S. Department of Agri- culture.) 21. Name six kinds of soil. 22. Write these in the order of their power to re- tain water. 23. Which would dry off the quickest after a rain so that plowing could be carried on ? 24. Which would be the slowest to dry off after a rain ? 25. What farm crops do best en a moderately dry soil? 26. What crops do w^ell on a -wet soil ? 27. What is erosion of the soil? 28. Define detritus. 14 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. .-, 29. What are sand dunes 30. What is takis? 31. Will plants grow well in sub-soil? Why? 32. What is sediment? 33. What effect will the overflow of water have upon the land in the river valley? 34. What is meant by dredging a river bed. Should this be done? Why? 35. What is meant by upland? Bottom land? 36. Define the following terms: highland, lowland, gulf, bay, sea. 37. How are the following produced? Sinking coasts, rising coasts, earthquakes, volcanoes, natural bridges, lakes, cataracts, Oxbow loops, deltas, glaciers, coral reef, coal, gas, oil, deserts, tundras and estuaries. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 257, on Soil Fertility, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) II.— PLANTS. (a) How they feed. From soil — air. (b) Root tubercles. (c) Kinds of roots. (d) Roots' use for food; for medicine. (e) Other uses of roots. (/) Pollination. (g) Crosses, hybrids — pollination. (h) Propagation. (i) Selecting good seed. (/) Crop rotation. (k) Composition of. (/) Geologic effect of. (m) Effect on climate. (n) Rank compared with other countries. (0) Poisonous. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 15 QUESTIONS ON PLANTS. 1. Explain how plcUits get food from the air; from the soil. 2. Why could an alfalfa plant stand more dry weather than clover? (See Earmcrs' Bulletin, No. 339, (j. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 3. Define tap, fibrous and fleshy as applied to roots. 4. Define osmosis and give some of its uses in the plant kingdom. 5. What are tubercles? Legumes? 6. Do all leguminous plants have an equal number of nodules? (See Earmers' Bulletin, No. 278, U. S. Department of Agriculture, W^ashington, D. C.) 7. How do the notlules help the farmer? 8. Take some clover, cowpeas, vetches and alfalfa plants, wash the roots, and com]-)are the size and num- ber of nodules. 9. Which would be likely to enrich the soil most? 10. Name some roots or plants used for medicine. (See Earmers' Bulletin, No. 188, LI. S. Department of Agriculture.) 11. What legumes arc used for food? (See Earm- ers' Bulletin, No. I2t, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 12. What is meant* by inoculation of legumes? (See Earmcrs' Bulletin, No. 240, L^. S. Department of Agriculture.) 13. What is crop rotation? 14. Why are crops rotated? 15. Why will corn usually grow well when planted in a clover sod? « 16. After learning the food element needed by each crop, indicate a good system of crop rotation for your vicinity. 16 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 17. What purpose do the root hairs serve the plant? 18. After studying the sap current in a plant, in- dicate by diagram the movements of the sap. 19. What causes a tree to thicken above a wire that may be tied around it? 20. Name the parts of a flower. 21. Learn the location and purpose of the different parts of several common flowers. 22. What is meant by pollination? 2^. Name some methods by which flowers are pol- linated. 24. What is nectar? 25. Name some highly colored flower. Why so highly colored? 26. What effect will constant rains during the blossoming season often have on the fruit crop? 27. Would it be pi-ofitable for a fruit man to keep bees? Why? 28. Why do plants raised indoors often fail to produce seed? 29. How are tomatoes and other garden fruits that depend upon insects to be pollinated, produced in a greenhouse? 30. What insects usually visit the clover? 31. How are wheat and corn pollinated? 32. What part of the iiower produces the seed? ;^^. What action is necessary that the ovary may be fertilized? 34. What is cross pollination? 35. Give the necessary steps in hand pollination. 36. What is a hybrid? (See Bailey's "Plant Breed- ing.") 7^/. What is plant propagation ? ( Sec Farmers' Bul- letin, No. ,157, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 17 38. Name the methods by which plants may be propagated, and examples of each method. (See Ex- tension Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 5, Ohio Agricultural Col- lege.) 39. How are plants grown from cuttings? 4c. Explain the process of layering. 41. What part of the Irish potato is planted? The sweel potato? 42. Why do gardeners prefer to raise plants from buds rather than seed ? 43. What is meant by plants coming true to seed? 44. Name some plants that always come true to seed. 45. What is the- importance of selecting good seed? 46. What is the best m'ethod of selecting g'ood seed corn? (See Ohio Circular, No. 71, by Wooster Ex- periment Station, Wooster, Ohio; September, 1906, Ex- tension Bulletin, Ohio Agricultural College, and Farmers' Bulletin, Nos. 199 and 229, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 47. Learn to name and recognize about fifty weeds that grow in your neighborhood. (U. S. Bulletin, No. 28, and Ohio Weed Manual, Wooster, O, and Extension Bulletin, Vol. 3, No. 9, OHio .Agricultural College.) 48. Explain the terms annual, biennial and perennial as applied to plants. Give examples of each. 49. What is meant by purity and vitality as applied to seed? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. iii, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.) 50. What are seed germjnators? (See April, 1907, "Extension Bulletin of Ohio Ao-ricultural College.) 51. State some methods of improving the corn crop. (See Extension Bulletin, Ohio Agricultural College, Vol. II, No. 7, March, 1907.) 18 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 52. Learn to make several kinds of seed gerniina- tors or testers, and have the pupils test their own seed before planting. 53. Make collections of grain and field seeds, and learn to recognize them at sight. 54. Did you ever make a collection of weed seed? Do this and learn to label each kind without assistance from any source. 55. Name twenty poisonous plants. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 86, Department of Agriculture, Washing- ton, D. C. III.—FRUIT AND HOW TO RAISE FRUIT TRpES. (a) Kinds. W Best soil for. (c) Planting of. * (d) Care of. (e) Grafting. (/) Budding. (g) Pruning. (h) Layering. (i) Canning of fruit QUESTIONS ON FRUIT AND HOW TO RAISE FRUIT trees: 1. What is the first step in tree planting? 2. Will the tree coming from the seed be like its parent? (See Bulletin No. 154, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 3. What is grafting? Its purpose? 4. If a seed from a crab apple had been planted AGRICULTURE AND GARDEXIXG FOR SCHOOLS. 19 and you wanted to raise a tree that would produce Northern Spy appHes, how would you proceed ? 5. What is the scion? The stock? 6: What is the cambiun? 7. Why should care be taken to make the cam- biun in the scion exactly join the cambiun ii-^ the stock? 8. How should the size of the scion compare with that of the stock? 9. Give a simple method of making grafting wax. 10. When is the best time to make a graft? 11. After completing a graft draw a diagram of what you have done. 12. How does cleft grafting differ from tongue grafting? 13. Make a cleft graft and draw a diagram of what you have done. 14. Who was Luther Burbank? Learn all you can about this man. 15. Name several varieties of pear, peach, plum and apple trees. 16. What kind of each is usually planted in your community? (See Farmers' Bulletin. No. 208, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 17. What other kinds of fruit are grown in your neighborhood besides those just mentioned? 18. What plan did Luther Burbank adopt for find- ing a variety of apple suitable for the California climate? 19. What is budding? 20. What fruits are usually raised by budding? 21. Explain the process of budding. 22. When should this he done? 23. When can trees be budded or grafted upon one another? 24. What is the first step in tree grafting? 20 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 25. Why should care be used in placing the roots? 26. Why should a young tree be well fertilized when planted ? 27. How should it be set in reference to the pre- vailing wind? 28. What are the principal objects of pruning a fruit tree? 29. What etTect would cutting an end bud have upon a side bud? 30. What effect would trimming a side bud have upon an end bud? 31. When is the best time to prune to favor wood production? To induce fruitage? ^2. Should all fruit trees be pruned in the same manner ? Why ? 33. Why does leaving a stump when pruning en- danger the life of a tree? 34. Give a simple method of treating the stump when large limbs have been removed by pruning. 35. What is meant by root pruning? 36. Will a tree bear both wild and budded or grafted fruit at the same time? 37. Name some varieties of grapes and cherries. 38. What kind of soil is best for fruit? 39. How can a fruit tree be kept from making too rank a growth to produce good fruit? 40. Should orchards be pastured? Why? 41. Should fruit trees be cultivated? 42. Will corn or other grain crops grow well in an orchard ? Why ? 43. Why will canned ft-uit sometimes spoil? 44. Why will properly canned fruit not spoil? 45. Did you ever can any fruit? 46. Why do expert canners always boil or pour AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 21 boiling water in the cans and on the can Hds before canning the fruit? 47. What fruit is usually canned in tin? In glass? 48. What is meant by preserves? By jellies? (See Farmers'. Bulletin, No. 203, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 49. Name some kinds and tell how made. 50. Name ten varieties of apples and tell in what month they ripen. 51. Name some good apples for keeping over win- ter. 52. Name five varieties of pears. Name two that will keep over winter. 53. Name some states that now lead in the pro- duction of oranges, apples, pears, grapes, peaches and plums. IV.— PLANT DISEASES. (a) Causes and prevention. (b) Fruit mold. (c) Peach curl. (d) Club root. (e) Potato scab and blight. (/) Pear and apple fire blight. (g) Smut of wheat and oats. (h) Black knot. QUESTIONS ON PLANT DISEASES. 1. What is fruit rot? 2. When a few apples in a barrel start to rot, why is it that the entire barrel is soon destroyed? 3. Which will keep the better, picked or fallen fruit? Why? 22 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 4. Xanic some molds of different color. What causes mold .•' 5. Take some bread or fruit and place it in a damp place for a few da\s and observe the mold. 6. How does mold multiply ? 7. What are spores? 8. Why is fruit heated before it is canned? 9. Can. the mold spores be transferred from one object to another in such a way that they may cause decay to the second object? 10. Will like produce like in molds? 11. What are fungi? Give examples. 12. What is a host plant? 13. What is mildew? 14. How can it be destroyed? 15. What causes the pear scab? , 16. How is Bordeaux mixture made? 17. What causes sweet cider to sour? Milk to sour? . 18. How can we prevent these from souring? J9. Why will fresh meat soon spoil in summer? 20. Why is meat salted to keep it? 21. Why does the salt prevent it from spoiling?- 22. Why do people sometimes smoke their meats? 23. What is bacteria? Name some diseases of man caused by bacteria. 24. Name some methods by which plant diseases may be prevented. 25. How may the rotation of crops assist in destroy- ing plant diseases? 26. How can fire blight on fruit .trees be detected? 27. What is the remedy ? ( See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 153, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 28. What is wheat smut? 29. How can it be prevented? (See Farmers' Bui- l-J o o W o iJ M 3 o H K W M o H « 24 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. letin, No. 250, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 30. What is formahn ? ( Sec Farmers' Bulletin, No. 243, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C) 31. What is the jiotato scab? 32. How is it caused and in what way can it be jM-eventcd ? 7,7,. What is potato blight? 34. How does the potato blight dififer from the potato scab? 35. What is the remedy for blight? 36. What is club root? ;^'/. What plants are usually attacked by this disease? How do they appear? 38. How can the disease be remedied? 39. What is black knot? What trees are usually affected by the disease? 40. What is the remedy? 41. What is the peach curl? 42. How can it be prevented? 43. What is fruit mold? How does such fruit ap- pear ? 44. How can it be prevented? 45. What causes peach mummies? (See Spray Calendar in Bulletin No. 199, Ohio Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Wooster, Ohio.) v.— INSECTS. (a) Ants. (b) Grasshopper. (c) House fly. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 25 ORCHARD INSECTS. (a) Peach borer. (b) Pear tree girdler. (c) Apple tree tent caterpillar. (d) Canker worm. (e) Plum curculio. (/) San Jose scale. (g) Codling moth. FIELD INSECTS. (a) Tobacco worm. (b) Potato beetle. ic) Hessian fly. (d) Weevil. (e) Squash bug. if) Plant louse. (g) Cabbage worm. (h) Chinch Bug. (i) Flea beetle. QUESTIONS ON INSECTS FOUND IN THE ORCHARD AND FIELD. 1. What is the true insect? (See Extension Bul- letin, Vol. 2, No. 2, Ohio Agricultural College.) 2. What are spiracles? 3. Distinguish between insects and beetles and give examples of each. 4. What is the difference between a bug and a beetle? 5. Distinguish between the moth and the butterily. 6. Tell something of the habits of each. (See Ex- 26 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. tension Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 3, Ohio Agricultural Col- lege.) 7. Name five kinds of butterflies. 8. Name five kinds of moths. 9. In what different ways do insccls secure food? 10. Can sucking insects be poisoned? 11. How could they be destroyed? 12. Tell about the dift'erent stages through which insects pass? 13. Collect larvae of different kinds and care for them and note the change. 14. Collect cocoons and pupae of different insects and develop them in a small cage which can be made from an old fi^di jar, or by placing a lantern globe over a crock. 15. In what stage of the life of an insect do they do the most harm to the plant? 16. What trees are most frequently attacked by the San Jose scale? 17. How can it be prevented? 18. Learn to make the lime, sulphur, salt mixture. 19. What is the codling moth? 20. Tell how this moth does its work that causes the great loss in the a]:)ple crop each year. 21. How can the codling moth be destroyed? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 247, Department of Agriculture, W^ashington, D. C.) 22. Learn to make and use the Bordeaux-Paris green mixture. 23. ATake a drawing of the effect of the larvae of the codliro- n-clh upon the apple. 24. Wha^ is the plum curculio? 25. What is meant by stinging fruit? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 27 26. Give the method used by the pkim weevil or curcuHo for depositing its tgg. 27. Learn some good methods for destroying this weevil. 28. What is the canker worm? 29. Why is this worm sometimes called the meas7 uring worm ? 30. Distingiii>h between the max arid female moth of the canker worm in their general appearance. 31. How can the female be easily trapped? ^2. What birds feed freely upon the canker worm? (See Farmers' Bulletin, Xo. 54, Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C. See. also, Extension Bul- letin, Vol. 3, No. 10, Ohio Agricultural College.) 33. Why should all orchards be kept clean ani free from trash in fence rows? 34. How can ynu tell the work of the apple tree tent caterpillar? 35. Give a good method of destroying it. 36. How can the work of the pear tree girdler be detected ? T)"/. Why does he girdle the twig? 38. How can tliis girdler be destroyed? 39. How does the borer affect the peach tree? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 80, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 40. What effect does his borings have upon the tree trunk? 41. What color is the cabbage worm? 42. Why should we always encourage birds to nest in and about the garden? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 154, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 43. What method is generally used to destroy the cabbage worm? Work of Township Rural School at Fair. (See page 111.) AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 29 44. -It is advisable for pupils to make drawings of the different stages of all the insects and their effect upon the plants that have been mentioned under the topic (Insect). 45. Did you ever see a chinch bug? 46. What crops does he attack? 47. How does the evil effect of the chinch bug com- pare with that of others mentioned under topic No. 5. 48. Learn all you can about this great enemy to the farmers' crops, and how you can prevent them from destroying the crops. Write to your State Experiment Station for bulletins on the chinch bug and how it can be destroyed. 49. Tell something about the life of the plant louse? 50. As these arc sucking insects, how are they to be destroyed? 51. Tell something about the squash bug. 52. To which class does it belong — the sucking or biting insects ? 53. What is the most eft"ective treatment to destroy these bugs? 54. What is meant by a ''trap plant." 55. Why do some persons leave boards on the groimd near the plants ? 56. What is the flea beetle? 57. Upon what plants does he usually feed ? 58. Name a simple remedy to prevent this beetle from doing great damage. 59. What is the weevil? 60. Did any weevil ever get in your wheat when in the granary? 61. How can the weevil be destroyed? 62. Why should we use great care when applying the remedy generally used to destroy the weevil? 50 AGRICULTURE AND GARDEN! XG FOR SCHOOLS. 63. What is the Hessian fly? Where did it prob- ably come from? 64. How was it supposed to have been introduced into this country? 65. When and where does this fly deposit its eggs? 66. What grain crop does it attack? When and how does it attack the grain? 67. Give the general effect of the larvae of this fly upon the grain. 68. What are the most common methods used to destroy the fly? 69. Is the potato insect a bug or beetle? 70. How can they be destroyed? 71. Describe the appearance of the tobacco worm or larvae. 72. Did you ever see the moth that is the mother of these worms? y;i^. Describe this moth and her habits. 74. How can this moth be poisoned? 75. Did you ever place poison (cobalt) in a real or false Jimson bloom and observe the action on this moth after she had visited the bloom? 76. Tell how tobacco plants may be sprayed and the tobacco worm destroyed. yy. What other plant besides the tobacco is some- times eaten by the tobacco warm? 78. Compare the damage done by these field insects and see which ones are the most injurious to plants. AC.RICULTURK AND CARDENINX. FOR SCHOOLS. VI.— FARM CROPS. (a) Ccrn. ib) Wheat. ic) Oats. (d) Rice. (e) Barley. (f) Potatoes. (g) Tobacco. (h). Peanuts. (0 Rye. (J) Grasses. U') Cotton. (0 Sugar cane. QUESTIONS ON FARAI CROPS. 1. How do the above crops compare in value in the United States? 2. What section of the United States is called the food producing section ? 3. Where is the cotton section? 4. What part of the world's annual cotton crop is produced in the United States? 5. What states of the United States produce the most wheat?' 6. What part of the world's annual wheat crop is produced in the United States? 7. Name the great corn states; tobacco states. What part of the world's annual crop of each is pro- duced in the United States ?■ 8. Name four leading varieties of corn raised in your locality. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 81, Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 9. What kind of soil is best suited for corn? z2 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 10. Why was corn first called maize or Indian corn r 11. Why is corn called the king of cereals? 12. How does this crop compare with that of rice in the amount consumed yearly by man? 13. Tell something about the preparation of the seed bed for a crop of corn? 14. Find out what fertilizers are best to use on the corn field? 15. What amount is generally put on per acre? 16. Give three good reasons why corn should be carefully cultivated. 17. What is meant by the expression ''tillage is manure." 18. What is a corn busker? A shredder? 19. Why do people ^eVlom leave their corn stalks in the field? 20. Compare the value of timothy or clover hay with that of corn stover or fodder. 21. What causes corn to sucker? 22. What is usually considered a good yield of corn per acre? (For problems in agricultural arithmetic see Extension Bulletins published by Ohio State University Agricultural College.) 23. In what months is corn usually planted? (For plantino- and cultivating corn see under Boys' Corn Growing Contests.) 24. Name five varieties of wheat. 25. Is wheat sowed in the fall or spring in your neighborhood ? 26. About what is your average crop per acre ? 27. What soil is best suited for successful wheat 28. How can poor clay soils be made valuable for wheat production? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 33 29. Name some legumes that are good to precede wheat. 30. How should the seed bed be prepared for wheat? 31. What is meant by bearded and bald wheat? Z2. Which is the more agreeable to handle? ^T^. How is wheat sowed in your vicinity? 34. What fertilizers are most suitable for wheat growing ? 35. What elements are usually lacking in wheat soil? 36. If wheat should follow any leguminous crop is it necessary to add a commercial fertilizer containine nitrogen ? Wliy ? Zy. In such cases what should the fertilizer added contain ? 38. What element is lacking in the soil when the wheat straw is inferior and short? 39. If the straw is very large and the heads poorly filled, what element is needed in the soil? 40. What causes cheat to grow in wheat? 41. What causes smut and rust in wheat? 42. Name three varieties of oats. 43. What states produce large oats crops? 44. What foods eaten by man are manufactured from oats ? From corn ? From wheat ? 45. From what country do we purchase rice? 46. Name the three varieties of rice. 47. What state in the United States produces the most rice ? 48. Distinguish between upland and lowland rice. 49. W1iat soils are best suitecf for rice? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. no. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 50. Why is drilling any grain better than broad casting? 34 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 51. What is red rice? 52. Have you ever grown any barley? 53. What states of the United States produce great quantities of barley? 54. What foods are made from barley? What beverage ? 55. Name two kinds of barley. 56. Name five varieties of potatoes. Ky. What soils are best suited for Irish potatoes? (See Farmers' Bulletin, Nos. 35 and 91, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 58. How should scabby seed potatoes be treated? 59. Look up the diseases of the Irish potato and the remedy for each. (For cultivating potatoes see under Boys' Potato Growing Contest.) 60. How many eyes should be planted to the hill? 61. Is it advisable to always plant little potatoes for seed? Why? 62. Why do people plant the buds of the under- grouud stem of the potato rather than the true seed of the potato? 63. What soils are best suited for sweet potatoes? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 129, Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C.) 64. Name three varieties. 65. Name some different forms in which the sweet potato is put upon the market. 66. Name two good methods for keepmg the sweet potato over winter. 67. What fooS elements are contained in the sweet potato ? 68. For what purpose are the sweet potato vines sometimes used? agricvltl'Rf: and gardening for schools. Sd 69. Give a good plan for planting and cultivating the sweet potato? 70. Name five varieties of tobacco. 71. What part of the plant is sold? '/2. What land is best suited to tobacco culture? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 83, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) y^. Why is tobacco such an exhaustive crop on the soil? 74. Wliat crop grows well after tobacco? Why? 75. How are tobacco plants raised? 76. How are the seed beds cared for? yy. Describe the plan of a tobacco planter? How much tobacco can be planted in a day with a planter.^ 78. What was the early method of planting tobacco? 79. What is the average yield per acre of the small varieties? Large varieties? 80. Why is tobacco topped? How is this done? 81. Why must the suckers be kept broken out? 82. .About how^ many days are required for tobacco to grow and mature? 83. What state in the United States ranks first in the pro(hiction of tobacco? 84. What narcotic is found in tobacco? 85. How is tobacco cured? 86. Which is the more harmful to man — Chewing" or smoking? Why? 87. How can we tell when tobacco is ripe? 88. What varieties are used to make cigars? Plug tobacco ? 89. Name all the operations that are included in the cultivation of tobacco from the time the plant seed is sown in the bed. 36 ^ AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 90. Give three different names that are given to the peanut. goG. Is this a legume? How can you tell? 91. What states produce large crops of peanuts? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 25, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 92. What kind of soil is best suited to the success- ful growing of peanuts? 93. What elements should this soil contain? 94. Describe the usual method of cultivating the peanut. 95. What is the average yield per acre in the United States? 96. What states produce the largest annual crops? 97. What soils are best suited for the cultivation of rye? 98. Name three purposes for which rye is used. 99. How is rye cultivated ? 100. About what is the average yield per acre? loi. Does rye make good pasture? 102. For what other purpose is rye sometimes planted ? 103. Name the principal grass crops. 104. Where are the greatest grass sections in the United States? 105. How does the grass crop compare with the other farm crops in total annual valuation in the United States? 106. Why do farmers sometimes mix grass seed when it is sown? 107. Which grasses are best suited for cattle? Horses? Sheep?* 108. Which is the better for the soil, clover or tim- othy? Why? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 37 109. Where do the true grasses secure their nitrogen? The legumes? no. Tell the time and the best method of sowing the different kinds of grass seed in your locality. 111. How should the seed bed be prepared for the planting of grass seed? 112. What grasses are generally used for mowing crops? Pasture crops? 113. Secure samples of all kinds of grass seeds, learn to name them, and the use of each crop. 114. Learn all you can about alfalfa and its uses to (he farmer. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 330, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 115. Should pasture or hay crops be pastured early in the spring? Why? 116. Learn to tell the best time to harvest each variety of grass? 117. Why should we avoid letting hay crops go too much to seed before cutting? 118. Name all the uses of the grass crops to the soil. 119. Wliat plan should be followed when it is diffi- cult to get a good stand of grass? 120. What elements will aid the soil in producing a good stand of grass? How can these be secured? 121. LIow does the barnyard manure rank among other fertilizers in aiding the grass and clover crops? 122. Give two good reasons why farmers should grow alfalfa. 123. Give three ways of inoculating the soil for al- falfa. 124. Why does disking alfalfa sod sometimes aid the growing crop? 125. Name four kinds of clover. 38 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 126. Which kinds are chiefly cultivated in your neighborhood ? 127. With what crops is clover seed usually sown? 128. How many pounds per acre are needed in sow- ing the clovers? 129. When is the best time to cut clover hay? How should it be cured? 130. Why is it dangerous to fill hay mows with green hay? 131. When is the tedder usecP What other imple- ments are used in hay making? 132. Why is hay sometimes made into cocks before it is taken to the barn? 133. How should these hay cocks be treated before the hay is housed? 134. Is clover an annual, biennial or perennial plant? 135- Where is the cotton belt of the United Slates? 136. What soils are best suited to the successful growth of cotton? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 217, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 137. What climate is best suited to the growth of cotton ? 138. What state in our Union produces the most cotton per year at this tifue? 139. For what purpose was the cotton plant original- ly planted? 140. Name the two principal varieties of cotton. Tell where each grows. ( See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 302, U. S. Departm.ent of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 141. Why should great care be used in the selection of seed? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 285, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 142. Tell the complete method of cultivating cotton AGRICULTURE AND GARDf:NING FOR SCHOOLS. 39 from the planting of the seed to the picking time. How should the seed bed be prepared? 143. Why do many prefer the flat culture to the ridge? The ridge to the flat? 144. What implements are used in its cultivation? 145. How does this crop compare with other farm crops in the amount of plant food elements it exhausts from the soil? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 48, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 146. What plant food elements are consumed by Ih : cotton plant? 147. Name a good method for keeping cotton land from becoming exhausted. 148. Who invented the cotton gin? 149. What does the cotton gin do? 150. WHiat is considered an average crop of cotton per acre annually? 151. \M-iat is an average price to receive per pound? How much would that be per acre? 152. What uses are made of the cotton seed? 153. Why does a large cotton grower usually desire to keep stock? 154. Why do these cotton states raise many cattle? 155. What elements are usually contained in cotton commercial fertilizers? Wliy? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 326, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 156. What crops can be raised to return nitrogen to the soil? 157. Name some diseases that seriously affect the cotton plant. ( See Farmers' Bulletin. Nos. t^t,^ and 302, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 158. What fraction of the world's supply of cotton is produced in the United States? 40 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 159. What insect is a serious enemy to the cotton crop? How can it be destroyed? (See Farmers' Bul- letin, Nos. 209 and 211, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C. ) 160. From what country did this insect come? About what time was it first noticed in Texas? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 344, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C.) 161. How can the cotton be cultivated early enough to escape the effects of the boll weevil? (See Farmery' Bulletin, Nos. 217 and 314, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C.) 162. Draw a diagram of the boll w^eevil and explain its habits? 163. Write an essay on the life history of the boll weevil. 164. Wliy should birds be encouraged to frequent the cotton fields? 165. Name other insects that destroy tlie cotton be- sides the boll weevil. 166. Flow can they be destroyed? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 223, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 167. Name several purposes for which cotton is used? 168. How far north can cotton be successfully culti- vated ? 169. About what time was the sugar cane plant in- troduced in the South? 170. What states now produce the largest annual crops of sugar cane? 171. Give a description of the sugar cane plant. 172. Name three varieties of cane. 173. Does this cane fiower and produce seed? Why? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 41 \ 174. What soil is best adapted to the cultivation of sugar cane? What climate? 175. Why does cane require well drained land? 176. Tell the complete process of planting and culti- vating sugar cane. 177. What fertilizers are mostly used on cane fields? 178. What is meant by plant cane? Rattan? 179. About what per cent, of the juice is sugar? 180. What amount in tons is counted an average yield in the United States? 181. Write an essay on making syrup. Sugar. Mo- lasses. 182. If vou ever visited a sugar factory write an essay on the subject, '*My First Visit to a Sugar Fac- tory." For other information on sugar cane write tc the Louisiana Sugar Experiment Station, New Orleans Louisiana. VII.— ANIMALS ON THE FARM— THEIR USES. (a) Horses. (^7) Cattle. (c) Sheep. (d) Swine. (c) Poultry and birds. 1. From what country did the wild horse come? 2. Account for the vast difference between the sizes of the draft horse type and the pony. 3. What are some of the earliest records concern- ing the use of the horse by man? 4. Name all the purposes for which the horse is used in the United States? 5. In what European countries is horse flesh sold in the meat markets ? 42 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 6. For what purpose is horse hide or skin used ? The hoofs and bones? 7. What is usually the difference between the work horse and the driving horse in size and form ? . 8. Name five heavy or draft breeds. 9. Name three carriage or coach breeds. 10. Name two light or roadster breeds? 11. Describe the general appearance of the draft breeds. (See Extension Bulletin, V^ol. 3, No. 5, Ohio State Agricultural College, Columbus, Ohio.) 12. Describe the general appearance of the coach breeds. The light or roadster breed. 13. Why should the horse be w^ell cared for? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 22, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C ) 14. What is the name of the fastest pacing horse in the United States? What is his record? 15. What is now the fastest trotting horse? His record ? 16. Wliy are imported horses usually larger than our native horses? 17. What states take particular pride in raising fine horses? 18. What do you mean by branded horses? West- ern horses? . 19. Name three varieties of ponies. 20. What is the average age of a horse? 21. What city improvements have greatly decreased the number of horses used? 22. How can the age of a horse be judged? Can you do this? If not, have some one explain the method. 22^. At wdiat age are colts usually broken to work or drive? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 43 24. What are the quahties of a good riding horse? Driving horse? Working horse? 25. What is meant by "off horse," "near horse," "single hne horse?" 26. Name some diseases of the horse. 27. Name some bad habits of the horse. 28. How can the horse be broken of these bad habits? 29. What is meant by a sound horse? 30. Name some points that are considered in judg- ing the different classes of horses. 31. What did the term "cattle" formerly signify? 2^2. From what countries did the first cattle come? 33. How have cows been brought to such a great state of usefulness? 34. Name all the uses that cattle are to man. 35. Name the two main classes of cattle. 36. Name three of the beef breed class? Three of the dairy breed class? 37. Describe in full the general appearance and use of the beef breed type. Dairy breed type. 38. Name some plans of keeping records of the milk and butter fat produced by a cow. ( See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 42, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 39. What is meant by balanced ration? Give ex- ample. 40. What foods are rich in protein? Carbohydrates and fats? 41. What is a silo? How is it made? (See Farm- ers' Bulletin, No. 32, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 42. What is ensilage? How is it produced? 44 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 43. What are some rules that should be observed in milking? Why are cattle sometimes dehorned? 44. What is buttermilk? Colostrum? 45. What is taken from milk in skimming? 46. For what purposes is skimmed milk used? 47. What is cream? .V churn? 48. What process changes cream to butter? 49. Name several kinds of churns and tell how they are made. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 349, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 50. What rules should be observed in the care of the milking utensils? 51. What causes milk to sour? 52. How does unclean utensil affect milk? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 63, U. S. Department of Agri- culiure, Washington, D. C.) 53. What crops should a dairyman cultivate upon the farm ? 54. W1iy are cowpeas, alfalfa and clover so import- ant to the dairyman? 55. What is a separator? A tester? Why are these used? (For experiments with milk and butter see Extension Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 4, Ohio Agricultural College, Columbus, Ohio.) 56. What is certified milk ? 57. What states of the United States produce the most cattle? 58. What European countries export butter and cheese ? 59. What countries in South America export cattle and hides? 60. Have we any records concerning the time when the sheep was first domesticated by man? 61. Whv is it useful to man? Independent School Display. (See pages 120, 127.) A Part of Rock School Seed Exhibit. (See page 126.) 46 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 62. Why do so many farmers keep sheep? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 96, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C.) 63. Name the three general classes into which sheep are usually divided. 64. Name two varieties of the fine-woolcd breeds. 65. Name three varieties of the medium-wooled breeds. 66. Name two of the long-wooled breeds. 67. About what is an average amount of wool to secure yearly from a sheep of each class? 68. What is an average price for a farmer to secure for his wool? 69. About what amount of money would be secured for the wool from one hundred sheep of each class in a year, provided the farmer secured thirty cents a pound for his wool taking it as a whole? 70. Which of the three classes of w^ool usually sells the highest? 71. Which class usually produces the largest amount of wool per sheep? y2. Why do farmers sometimes wash their sheep? y}^. Name some diseases of sheep. How can these be ]:)revcnled ? 74. Name some points in judging sheep. (See Ex- tension Bulletin, Vol. 4, No. 4, O. S. U. Agricultural College, Columbus, Ohio.) 75. Write an essay on the "Angora Goat Raising." (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 137, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 76. W1iat climate is best adapted to sheep raising? yy. How does rainy w^eather aiTect sheep? Cold weather? Hot weather? 78. Of what countries is the wild boar a native? AGRICULTURE AND GARDEN I NX, FOR SCHOOLS. 47 79. How do you account for the great change in the appearance of our present stock of hogs and tlie original stock? 80. Wouki the wild stock fed the same feed that our native stock receives present the same appearance after two or three months' feeding? Why? 81. What is it that improved the type of all stock? 82. Is the wild boar still found? Where? 83. What places do they most generally frequent in their native country? Upon what do they feed? 84. Are wild boars dangerous to man? 85. How does pork meat rank among the other meats used for food by man? 86. What is meant by "scrubs" and "razorbacks" and pure breeds? 87. Why should scrubs always be eliminated from the flock? 88. Name five different breeds of hogs. 89. What crop is the most important to hog raisers? 90. What state in the United States produces the most corn? The most hogs? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 100, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 91. What other foods are good for hpgs? 92. Should hogs be confined in small pens? If they are, what caution should be observed? 93. Name some diseases of the hog. 94. Which disease is the most serious? 95. How can this be prevented ? Is there a cure for this disease? (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 24, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 96. What forage crop is best for hogs? 97. Explain the process of curing meat. ( See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 83, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C.) 48 AGRICULTURE A>xD GARDEXIXC. FOR SCHOOLS. 98. Name the two cities of the United States that are our greatest meat markets. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 184, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C) 99. What is the average age of cattle, sheep, horses and swine? 100. For what purposes were fowls formerly used? 101. Name four good reasons why farmers should raise poultry. 102. About what amount of money is received each year in the United States from the sale of eggs? 103. Name five kinds of poultry. 104. Name the breeds into which chickens are some- times divided. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 51, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 105. Name two of the egg breed class. Two of the meat class. Two of the general purpose class. Two of the fancy or ornamental class. 106. Give five good rules to be observed by poultry raisers. 107. 'What is an incubator? How is it made? 108. What is a brooder? How is it made? 109. How long does it take eggs to hatch from the following kinds of poultry : chickens, ducks, geese, tur- keys and guineas. (See Farmers' Bulletin, Nos. 64, 128, 182, 200, 234, 236, 287. These bulletins are all valuable for farmers and students desiring to learn more about poultry raising. Nos. 355 and 357 are now in press. The above can all be secured by writing U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) 110. Name thirty common birds. (See Farmers' Bulletin, No. 54, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) AGRICULTURE AND GARDEXING FOR SCHOOLS. 49 111. Name twenty useful birds. Why are they use- ful? 112. What are insectivorous birds? Name ten of such birds. 113. What are grain eating birds? Name five of th:s class. 114. What are fruit eating birds? Name five of this class. 115. What insectivorous birds tiy by day and secure thein foods ? 116. What day flying insects are eaten by the^e birds in answer No. 117. 117. What insectivorous birds fly by night and secure their food? 118. What night flying insects are eaten by these birds in answer No. 119? 119. Name some orchard insects. What birds de- stroy orchard insects? 120. Name some field insects. What birds destroy field insects? 121. Name some garden insects. What birds destroy garden insects? 122. Name some forest insects. What birds destroy forest insects? 123. Name some water insects. What birds destroy water insects? 124. Look up some good methods to attract the birds. (See the following for other bird studies: Useful Birds and Their Protection, by E. H. Forbush ; Birds in Their Relation to Man, by C. M. Weed and Ned Dearborn; F. S. Mathews' Field Book of Wild Birds and Their Music.) AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 51 A Course of Study in Agriculture for a Junior High School INTRODUCTION The work suggested in the following course of study is suitable for the seventh, eighth and ninth grades. It is planned for what we call a Junior high school. The arrangement of topics has been in so far as possible according to seasonal sequence. The work is also divided into months as an aid to the untrained teacher of vocational agriculture. We shall assume that the school is to continue for a term of nine months, beginning in September and closing in May. Also that agriculture is to be taught in the Senior high school ; that is, in the tenth, eleventh and twelfth years. This course is, in other words, to be merely an intro- duction to the work of the Senior high school in agri- culture. It is to give the student some notion of the content of a course in agriculture. By the time he finishes the ninth year he should have decided whether or not he cares for the agricultural work found in the Senior high school grades. If he desires to leave at the end of his ninth year he does so with the satisfac- tion of having investigated some of the problems con- nected with farm life. We contend that this early introduction of elemen- tary agriculture will do much to hold pupils until the tenth year of school, as well as to give them a greater desire to graduate from the Senior high school. It will afiford an opportunity of giving instruction to a group of boys and girls who are at an age to enjoy the 52 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. outdoor life, the many activities that are called into play, and the great variety of experiments, observa- tions and surveys to be conducted. Pupils taking this course should use a text-book pre- pared for these grades and arranged on the seasonal sequence plan. They should have access to a number of supplementary texts suitable for these grades ; a well catalogued list of agricultural bulletins; illustra- tive material for the classroom ; sufficient time for ex- periments, verifications, demonstrations, surveys, and the facilities for some sort of home project work. The project may extend over one month, one semester, the summer season, the school or calendar year. There must be a definite plan for tying up the book work wath that done in the laboratory and on the home ground or farm, as project or contest work. No pupil should receive monthly, semester or yearly grades until all experiments, verifications, demonstra- tions, surveys and project w^ork have been satisfac- torily completed. All home work should be supervised by a properly qualified person and credit given in September for definite constructive work done at home during sum- mer months. OUTLINE OF COURSE Seventh Year — First Semester SEPTEMBER Study of cabbage worm or a common insect found in the school district. Make a survey to discover eflfects of injurious insects in the district and the methods used for their eradication. Have reports on success of garden and field contest work during the past summer, with exercises in judging vegetables and farm crops. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 53 Preparation for school fair, arrangement of exhibit, rules and regulations for holding a school fair. The Home Project. — Select a home project for the month, semester or school year. See suggested list of home projects on page 60. OCTOBER Corn. — Study types of corn grown in neighborhood. Select seed ears. Methods used in district for select- ing seed corn. Methods of preserving seed corn. Seed drying devices used. Harvesting^ storing and market- ing corn. Corn judging. Use of score card. Storing farm crops for winter. Silage, best varieties of corn for silage. Other crops used for silage. Silage ma- chinery. Methods of building silos. How find capac- ity of different shaped silos. Visit a nearby silo and observe method used in filling same. Storing vege- tables. Methods used in school district. Storing, har- vesting and marketing fruit. NOVEMBER Protection of trees against rodents. Demonstrate on trees in home orchard. AVhat methods are used in neighborhood for Housing and care of cows for winter. Housing and care of hogs for winter. Housing and care of horses for winter. Housing and care of sheep for winter. Housing and care of poultry for winter How could these methods be improved? DECEMBER Selection of meat animals. Demonstrations to show methods. Butcherinsf on the farm. Observe methods. 54 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. How cut Up animals. Curing and caring for meat for home use. Demonstration. Location and study of meat cuts. Relative value of each cut. Census of farm animals. JANUARY Study of farm machinery. Survey of kinds used in district. How are they protected for winter. Prepar- ing machinery for spring and summer use. Relative value of differnt kinds of machines used on home farms. Demonstrations to show working parts of ma- chinery on home farms. Make a study of the evolution of farm machines. Second Semester FEBRUARY Spraying for scale, pruning of fruit and forest trees. Demonstrations in neighborhood. Testing of corn, clover, alfalfa and other farm seeds for purity and vitality. Select a project for the month, semester, or semester and summer months. MARCH Testing of garden and flower seed for home and school gardens. Study of plans for the school and home gardens. Demonstrations in methods of graft- ing and budding. Study of shrubs for school and home use. Culture of same. Prepare for participation in club work carried on in county and state. APRIL Study of birds. Bird migration. Familiar and use- ful birds. Why useful? Birds commonly called harm- ful. Are they considered harmful in neighborhood? Observe birds, note habits and food they eat. Bird AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. DO protection plans. State and national laws for bird pro- tection. Make a survey to find out what birds are most common in your district and what means, if any, are being taken to provide for their protection. MAY Study sanitary conditions of neighborhood. Dis- cover, if possible, whether or not common diseases of live stock exist to any great extent. Find out causes and common remedies. Eighth Year — First Semester SEPTEMBER Dissemination of seed, methods. Seed moisturg. Osmosis. Vitality and preservation of seed. Food substances in seeds. Parts of a seed. Selection of home project for month, semester or year. OCTOBER Study of fall wheat or rye. Preparation of seed bed. Purity of seed. Treatment of seed wdieat for smut. Vitality of seed. Planting methods; fertilizer used; how applied. Insect enemies and plant diseases com- mon to locality that affect wheat or rye. Soil and cli- mactic conditions favoring early planting and growth. Variety producing the best results in your community last year. Steps necessary to improve these crops in the neighborhood. NOVEMBER Beef cattle, method of selection. Demonstrations. Rations necessary for preparing cattle for fall market. Dairy cattle, method of selection. Demonstrations. Fall rations used in district. Milk and its products. Tlie Babcock test (demonstrations). 56 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. DECEMBER Feeding hens for winter laying. Survey for study in district of best winter laying breeds. Grading, can- dling and marketing eggs. Judging poultry. Demon- strations. Winter poultry exhibits. JANUARY Meat breeds of hens. General purpose breeds. Sur- vey for study in district of best meat and general pur- pose breeds. Care of eggs for hatching. Incubators and brooders. Demonstrations, hatches and use of brooder. Care of young chicks. Shipping day-old chicks. Plans for building poultry houses. Plan gen- erally used in community. Visit and study plans used by diilerent farmers. Second Semester FEBRUARY Purity and vitality of oats and corn. Treatment of oats for fungous diseases. Demonstration. The school laboratory should be used for this work upon the re- quest of an}^ school patron. Treated and untreated seed should be sowm side by side on the school or home farm to show advantage of sowing treated seed. Select home project for month, semester, or semester and summer months. MARCH Hotbeds and cold frames, their construction and care. Contest among pupils in raising early plants for market. Spraying demonstrations. Study of garden and field planting plans. Seed testing continued. Study of seed varieties, quantity used per acre and methods of planting. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 57 APRIL Preparing the seed bed for early garden and field crops. Improving school and home grounds. Care of young animals on the farm. Spring exhibits of live stock and stock judging contests between neighboring school districts. MAY Planting and cultivation of garden and field crops. Study of district to find out varieties planted and why. What new crops have recently been introduced? What results were secured? Is there any apparent tendency to standardize crops in the district? What are the results? Ninth Year — First Semester SEPTEMBER W>eds and weed seed. Special study of wild carrot or common weed. Weed census. Methods of eradica- tion in locality. Poisonous weed. What poisonous Vvceds are found in your school district? ^^^ceds used in medicine. Identification of weed seed. Selection of home project for month, semester or year. OCTOBER Origin of soil ; classes of soil ; percolation of water in soils. Gravitational and capillary water. Capillary movement of water in soils. Rate of capillary move- ment of water in soils. Soil mulches. Farm drainage. Loss in crop value by lack of drainage in district. Soil identification. Liming soils. Tests for acid and lime in soils. Demonstrations. Finding soil temperature. Compare soil temperature of different soils. Why this difference? 58 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. NOVEMBER Protection of feed for winter. Food substances in plants. Composition of feeds. Balanced rations for various farm animals under different conditions. Feed- ing farm animals. Judging farm animals. Demon- strations. DECEMBER Animal manures, relative values. Protection needed to prevent waste or loss of plant food values. Crop manures. Kinds in your district. Fertilizers (com- mercial). Value of fertilizers used last year in district. Kinds — nitrogenous, phosphoric acid and potash. Learn how each is prepared. Home mixing of fertil- izers. Demonstrations. SurA^ey of district to find out kinds of fertilizers most commonly used. On what soils and for what crops. Do the farmers generally feel it pays to use commercial fertilizers? JANUARY The use of trees. Farm forestry. Study of forest conditions in neighborhood. Location of farm build- ings. Building plans. Study of lumber; how protected for winter. Construction of farm buildings. Road building plans, materials and machinery. Uses of con- crete on the farm. Demonstrations. Second Semester FEBRUARY Preparation of window boxes. Starting plants in the greenhouse. Study of importance of good seed. Survey to find crop results, where good and poor seed AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 59 were used. How were seeds preserved where good re- sults were obtained. Extent of use of particular va- rieties of farm, garden, orchard and small fruit crops in your district. Compare and note results on differ- ent soils of the district. Selection of home project for month, semester, or semester and summer months. MARCTI Plowing, Preparation of seed bed for spring crops. Crop rotation methods used in district. Leguminous crops. Kinds most commonly grown. Variety of each giving best results. Bacteria — nitrifying and denitri- fying. APRIL The planting and cultivation of corn. Home and its beautification. Landscape gardening. The school grounds and their improvement. Celebration of Arbor Day. Plant trees at home on farm land not used' for other crops. Culture of grapes, peaches, plums, mel- ons, tomatoes, onions and beets. * MAY Attitude of community toward farm, home and school improvemen't. Per cent, of farmers who own and operate their own farm. Average rent secured. Grain or money rent. Average income of tenants. Average per cent, landowner receives upon his invest- ment. Agricultural clubs, agricultural exhibits. Bene- fits resulting from club work. Farmers' attitude to- ward club work. Discussion of best farm literature published. How secured. Agricultural libraries. 60 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. PROJECTS FOR STUDENTS IN AGRICULTURE Projects suitable for school pupils studying agri- culture may 'be divided into three classes, viz. : 1. Improvement. 2. Demonstration. 3. Production. Improvement Projects may Include the Following : Reclaiming worn-out soil or an old apple orchard; rearranging farm building to add to convenience of farmer; better rotation methods; improvement of all sorts of feeding devices ; planting plans ; change of fences i:o make fields better shape; tile drainage im- provement; improvement in lawns by regrading and reseeding; modern water system for bath and sewage in house, and for watering stock in barn and fields. Demonstration Projects Use of incubators and brooders; use of lime for soil improvement; fertilizer tests; treatment of potatoes for scab, or oats for smut; testing of various feeding methods and rations ; use of different materials for sprays; crossing of breeds in animals; varieties of fruits for improvement ; effect of inoculation for leg- umes, and animals for prevention of disease. Production Projects Production of a certain farm crop on a scientific plan; egg contests by keeping records of cost of pro- duction ; school nursery for growing trees ; milk pro- duction; pig growing; spra^dng orchards; raising AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 61 plants in hotbed, and feeding some kind of live stock for market. Monthly Projects When monthly projects are undertaken they should be closely related to the school work taken in any par- ticular month. Only such projects should be assigned as can easily be completed in four weeks. Text Books Suitable for Teaching Course 1. One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture. A. W. Nolan. Rowe, Peterson Ri Co., Chicago. 2. Practical Lessons in Agriculture. Ivins and Mer- rill. American Book Company, New York City. v3. Agriculture for Common Schools. Fisher and Cotton. Chas. Scribner's vSons, New York. 4. Rural School Agriculture. C. AV. Davis. Orange Judd Co., New York. 5. Agriculture for Beginners. Burkett, Stevens and Llill. Ginn & Co., New York. The first tw^o texts are arranged on the seasonal sequence plan. The second is a text-book, also a lab- oratory manual and note-book. Suggested Minimum Equipment Babcock tester with milk and cream outfit, pruning shears, pruning saw-, tree pruner, budding knife, set of dry measures, microscope, chemical thermometer, trip scale, small spraying outfit, soil thermometer, test tubes, materials for testing for acid and lime. A large part of the apparatus should be made by the boys in the school or home shop. 62 .AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. EXERCISES ON SOIL. Topic No. 1. I — Object: To Study Soils. Apparatus: Samples of clay, graz'cl, sand, loam and leaf mold. Compare these carefully and note the different tex- ture of each. II — Object: To Test Retention of Water in Soils. Apparatus: Tiz'c glass bottles or fruit jars. Secure five large size funnels. Fill each funnel with a different kind of soil as secured under No. i (same amount in each by weight). Tie a muslin cloth over the small end of each funnel to prevent the earth from wash- ing through. Then place the five funnels in the five glass fruit jars. Pour an equal amount of water in each fun- nel at the same time and note the soil that permits water to pass through the fastest — the soil that retains water longest. Find how each soil ranks in its power to re- tain water. After two or three pourings weigh eacli funnel (as you did r.f'.er filling) and note the sligiit difference in weight. Which soil retained the most water? Which soil would dry off the soonest after a heavy rain? Which soil would be read\- to plow first in the spring? Which soil would stand a very dry sum- mer best? Which would stand a wet summer best? Ill— Object: To Slwz^' Rise of JJ^ater in Soils (Capil- larity.) Apparatus : Five baking pozcder cans. With a large nail make several holes in the bottom of each can. Through these holes the water will rise. After the five cans have been filled with the different soils, set them in a pan containing water. Do not set cans fiat on AGRICULTUKE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 63 the bottom but on ctlgcs of two small boards previously plaeed in pan. Which soil showed moisture at the top first? Which last? Write in order those that. are the most porous. IV — Okject: To Show Effect of Drainage. Apparatus: A can or a milk crock. Fill it with clay or loam. In this earth plant some seed. Take another can or flower crock, each of which must contain oi)enings in the bottom. Fill them with clay or loam. In this earth plant same kind of seed as in the other. Fvery day or two pour water in both cans or crocks. Keep this up for ten or fifteen days and at the same time sec that both cans or crocks are in a w^arm, light i)lace. Which plants grow the better, those in the crock or pan with holes in the bottom permitting the ad- mission of air and drainage or those in the solid can or crock ? V — Object: To SIiozu Effect of Air in Coils. Apparatus: Two chalk boxes. Fill one with loam, loosely packed. V\\\ the other box with clay or leaf mold, tightly i)acked. Plant the same kind of seed in each one and give both the same attention. In which does the plant seem to grow the better ? VI — Object: To Show Effect of Air on Plant Growth — Xecd of Ventilation. Apparatus: Beans, jar and water. Soak some beans in water for about twenty hours. Fill about two-thirds full of a small glass jar with these soaked beans. Pour in a sufficient amount of water to 64 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. cover them about one-half inch. Cork the bottle tightly. The seed may sprout but will not grow. Why? A Hghted paper will not burn on removing the air- tight cork. Why? When the surplus water is remove:! and fresh air is admitted they start to grow. Why? Does drainage assist in ventilating soils? VII — Object: To Shozv Seed Needs Plant Food. Apparatus: Seed planted in pure saiid. Keep the sand damp. Seed sprout well but will not grow. Why? Add rotten leaves, stable fertilizer, or some good black dirt. Note the change in the plant. VIII — Object: To Shozc Advantage Gained by Iinproz'ing the Soil. Apparatus: Four boxes about three by four feet. Fill each box with the same kind of soil. In No. i place a small quantity of stable fertilizer. In No. 2 a small quantity of high grade commercial fertilizer. I:i No. 3 same quantity of cheap commercial fertilizer. I 1 No. 4 omit fertilizer. Plant same kind of seed in ca.h box ; cultivate all plants in each box by the same method. Notice the difference in the plants that received the fer- tilizers and those not receiving any. IX — Object: To SJwic Xeed of Heat in Soil. Apparatus : Tzco cans or crocks. Plant same kind of seed in each using the same kind of soil. Place one where it will be light and warm, the other where it is cold (not freezing) and light. Not: difference in growth. What can a farmer do to r.dd warmth to his soil. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 65 X — Object: To Shoic Change of Heat in Soil. Apparatus: Tico cans. Fill one with dry sand or loam ; fill the other with wet sand or loam. Place a thermometer about a half inch under the soil in each can. Place the cans in the sunlight. Note the change of temperature from time to time of each can. Which will have the higher tempera- ture? What effect will tile drains have on temperature? XI — Object: To Sliocv Effect of a Mulch on the Moisture Retaining Properties of the Soil. Apparatus: Four small boxes. Procure boxes about six inches deep and fill each one-half full of the same kind of soil. Pour the same amount of water into each box. Cover the soil in box No. I with two inches of dry sand : in box No. 2, cover with two inches of loose, dry soil of the same kind as the bottom contains; in box No. 3 cover with two inches of cut straw ; in box No. 4 with packed soil of the same kind as in the bottom of tlie box. Weigh each box and make a record. In ten days weigh all boxes again. Which box lost the most moisture? Wdiich box lost the least? What reasons has the farmer for frequent stirring of the soil? Should ground be plowed frequently in dry weather? Why? XII — Object: To Sliozv Effect of Fertilizer on Crops. If your father is fertilizing any of his farm crops have him skip a few feet occasionally in different parts of the field with his fertilizer drill and note the differ- ence in the growth, during the season, of plants receiving fertilizer and those not' receiving any (where the drill had ski])])cd). (^6 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. EXERCISES ON PLANTS. Topic No. 2. XIII — Object: To Study Root Conditions. Apparatus : TJic roots of several zveeds and vege- tables. Compare these roots and note the difference. Which have fibrous roots? Which fleshy? Which have long tap roots? To observe root hairs sprout wheat, oat or beans between moist blotting paper.' XI\' — Object: To Show Root Conditions of Legumes. Apparatus: The roots of clover, cozv peas, vetches and alfalfa plants. Gather these in such a careful manner as to preserve all roots. Wash the roots carefully and see which has the greatest number of nodules. Which is best to im- prove the soil? XV — Object: To Shozv Effect of Sap Current. Apparatus: A girdled buckeye limb. Girdle a thorn or buckeye limb or tree down to the wood in a complete circle. Note the 'effect upon the tree. XVI — Object: To' Learn Parts of a Flozver. Apparatus: A blossom. Gather flowers that contain all the parts, and with a sharp knife take each part out of the blossom and name. XVII — Object: To Find Parts Present. Apparatus: Cross section of clicrry blossom. Find a cherry blossom. Cut a cross section of the blossom. Name the parts present. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 67 XVIII — Object : To Find Stamens and Pistils. Apparatus: Straivbcrry blossom. Perfect flowers have both stamens and pistils present. Vm(\ such a flower in the strawberry patch and point out these organs. XIX — Object: To Compare Perfect and Imperfect Flozvcr. Apparatus: Straivhcrry blossoms zvith pistils only. Flowers having pistils only are imperfect flowers (pis- tillate). Find such a strawberry blossom and compare it with the flower. You have under* exercise No. i8 what must happen before an imperfect flower will produce fruit. What kind of flower is found on the Indian corn plant? Where are the stamens on the corn plant? The pistil? XX — Object: To Shozv What is Xecessary to Produce Seed. Apparatus: Perfect and imperfect cucumber blos- soms. Cover up a few flowers that contain only pistils. Did any seed develop? Why? Will flowers that con- tain only stamens (staminate) ever produce seed? Why ?* How are new and Improved varieties of plants obtained ? XXI — Object: To Learn Troublesome Weeds. Apparatus : A good specimen of each of the fol- lowing troublesome zt'ceds. Learn to recognize and name them : Burdock, Can- ada thistle, ox-eyed daisy, cocklebur, pig-weed, snap- dragon, sow-thistle, sour-dock, plantain, wild lettuce, wild carrot, quack gra^s, Russian thistle, wild par- snip, mustard, horse-tail, iron-weed, and others that 68 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. may be common in your neighborhood. Can you tell the history of these weeds? Many were brought to this country in an early day and planted for orna- mental purposes. Find out which ones. Make a col- lection of weed seed and learn to name each kind. (See Ohio Weed Manual published at Wooster Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio, or see Farmers* Bulletin No. 28, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.) XXII — Object: To Learn Good Seed Corn. ArPARATr-s: Bulletin, No. 2gg (U. S.). Study of the general rules for selecting good seed corn. Study how to judge good seed corn. Take several ears of each of the principal varieties and select the best. Secure and study Farmers' Bulletin, No. 229, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. XXIII — Object: To Learn to Test Seed for its Jltality (Holden's Plan). (See Illustration page 100.) Apparatus: A seed tester. If corn is to be tested, prepare a germinating box. Take a few boards and make a simple box about ten by twelve inches with either four or six inch boards. Fill this box about half full ■ of .earth or sawdust. Over this place a cloth made the same size as the box. Mark this cloth off in squares of equal size. After making the earth or sawdust moist with water cover it with the ruled cloth. If there were twenty-five or thirty sections on the ruled cloth take as many seed ears as there were sections and number each ear to correspond with a section. Take from different parts of each ear, say eight or ten grains. Place these AGRICULTURi: AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 69 grains m the section that corresponds with the number of the ear. After the grains have been properly placed in each section, put a strip of muslin cloth over the top of the box so as to rest flat on the corn. On the top of this cloth place moist sand in sack. Observe the corn from day to day so as to examine the root hairs, as well as the sprouts that come on the fertile grains. Find the per cent, in each section that were fertile. Any ear making eighty-five or ninety per cent, is good enough for seed. Those falling below^ sixty or seventy per cent, should be discarded. This box should be kept in a place having about the same temperature as would naturally be the case out of doors in corn planting season. XXI\^ — Object: To Compare Jltalify of the Seed in Different Kinds of Corn. Apparatus: A tester. Place grains of dilierent sizes and shapes, or from different varieties of corn, in the tester. Watch the germination of the seed. Which kind seems to test the best? Will end grains show as good a germination as grains from the middle of the ear? XXV — Object: To Test Garden Seed and the Seeds of all Grains. Apparatus : Tester and seed. Take the desired seed and place several in each sec- tion. Keep the earth or sawdust moist below the seed, as well as the sand above. After a few days see how well your seeds have germinated. Is the percentage high enough to prove your seed good in 'vitality ? What was the per cent, of good seed in each case? Always ^est your seed before planting time. 70 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. XX\'I — Object: To Test Seed in Eart/i, Apparatus : Williams^ tester. Make a box the same size as in Exercise No. 23. Fill this box about even with the top with good, rich earth. Make squares on top of the box on the eartth by running wires in opposite directions about two inches apart. Take a piece of paper and make a record of the number of rows and the number of squares. Plant corn or other seed in the earth below each square and number the ear to correspond with the number of the square as you did in No. 23. Any other seed can be planted in these squares and the percentage of vitality secured. (See Illustration page 100.) XXVTI — Object: To Make a Bread Pan Seed Tester. Apparatus: Ordinary bread pan. Fill this abv,at full of good earth. Moisten this earth slightly. Over the earth place a cloth ruled and sections numbered. i'Mace seed in the sections. Over the seed place a sack the same size of the pan and the sack to be filled with moist earth or saw^dust. Openings can be made with nails in the bottom of the pan to carry off the surplus moisture. Keep a record of the different kinds of seed that may be placed in the different squares for germination. Find out the percentage of fertile seed in each case. XXVIII— Object: To SIioiv That Plants Give Oif Moisture. Note — ^loisten the earth in the crock or pot well with water before beginning the experiment. Apparatus: A eroek or pot of eariJi containing a plant, a piece of card board and a glass bottle. Take a piece of card board and slit it so it will slip AGTilCULTXJRE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 71 over the stock of the flower and also cover the flower crock tightly. Seal the slit in the card board with tallow so that no moisture may rise from the crock of earth or get in from the outside. Take a glass can or bottle large enough to cover the entire plant and see that the bottle sets entirely flat on the card board. Set the pot and bottle in the sun. Watch the bottle or can a few days and observe the moisture that collects on the glass. Where did this moisture come from? What ap- pearance have corn blades in a dry summer when there is not sufficient moisture in the soil to properly nourish the corn plant? Does this experiment, No. 2S, prove that water rises in plants? Why? -Cut a stock of green corn. Observe the moisture that collects on the point where the stock was cut. Where did this moisture come from ? EXERCISES ON FRUIT AND HOW TO RAISE FRUIT TREES. Topic No. 3. XXIX — object: To Propagate by Tip Layering. Apparatus: A braneh of black raspberry. The tip of a branch of black raspberry is bent over to the ground and covered with earth.. It will soon take root and form a new plant. Pupils should try this several times and see how many new plants can be started from one old plant. XXX — Object: To Propagate by J^ine Layering. Apparatus : A long branch of a grape vine. Bend it down flat on the ground and place it in a small trench in the ground. Cover it entirely over and roots will put out at intervals and branches will come /2 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Up through the ground. You can afterwards cut the old vine between each new shoot and thus have several new plants. Try this and see how many new plants you can secure by covering some old vines. XXXI — Object: To Propagate by Mound Layering. Apparatus: Goo,seberry or currant plant. Take any plant which stools, as the raspberry or cur- rant, and throw up the earth in a mound around the plants, so as to cover the bases of several of the stems, say four or five inches deep. This will cause each stem to throw out roots and thus make several individual plants. XXXII— Object: To Develop Mold From Spores. Apparatus: A piece of damp bread and a potato. Place the damp bread in a dark place and let it mold. Take a piece of potato or the peeling of a potato anl place some of this mold from the bread on the surface of the fresh cut edge. Lay the potato away in a damp, dark place and observe occasionally the growth of the mold. XXXIII— Object: To Make Grafting Wax. (From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 157.) Apparatus: Resin, beeszvax, tallow and Unseed oil. Resin four to five parts ; beeswax two to two and a half parts ; tallow or linseed oil one part. Parts are ar- ranged by weighing. Make some of this wax for the following experimicnts. XXXIV — Object: To Learn Cleft Grafting. To make a cleft graft, select a branch one or one and a half inches in diameter and sever it with a saw. Care should be taken that the bark be not loosened from any AGRICULTURE Ai\D GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. ^Z portion of the stub. Split the exposed end with a broad, thin chisel or grafting tool. Then with a wedge, or the wedge-shaped prong at the end of the grafting tool, spread the cleft so that the scion may be inserted. The scion should consist of a portion of the previous sea- son's growth of the tree to be propagated and should be long enough to have two or three buds. The lower end of the scion, which is to be inserted into the cleft, should be cut into the shape of a wedge having the outer edge thicker than the other. In general, it is a good thing to cut the scion so that the lowest bud will come just at the top of this wedge in order that it will be near the top of the stock. The advantage of cutting the wedge thicker on one side causes the pressure to come upon the outer growing parts of both scion and stock, whereas were the scion thicker on the inner side the conditions would be reversed and the death of the scion would follow. The importance of having an intimate connec- tion between the growing tissues of both scion and stock cannot be too strongly emphasized for upon this alone the success of grafting depends. To make this contact of the growing portions doubly certain, the scion is often set at a slight angle with the stock into which it is in- serted, in order to cause the growing portions of the two to cross. After the scions have been set, the oper- ation of cleft grafting is completed by covering all cut surfaces with a layer of grafting wax. Cleft grafting is particular!}- adapted to top-working old trees, that is, changing them from undesirable to desirable varieties. Branches too large to be worked by other methods can be cleft grafted. Sometimes several varieties are grafted on a single tree. The best time for cleft grafting is in the spring just after growth has begun. Wood for scions is usually cut in the fall, tied in bundles, ana 74 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENKNG FOR SCHOOLS. buried in sand to protect them from extremes of heat and cold until they are to be used. (From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 157.) XXXV — Object: To Learn Whip Grafting. To make a whip graft cut the stock off diagonally — one long smooth cut with a sharp knife, leaving about three-fourths of an inch of cut surface. Place the knife about one-third of the distance from the end of the cut surface, at right angles to the cut, and split the stock in the direction of its long axis. Cut the lower end of the scion in like manner and when the two parts are forced together the cut surfaces will fit neatly and one will nearly cover the other if the scion and stock are of the same size. A difference in diameter of the two parts to be united may be disregarded unless it be too great. After the scion and stock have been joined they should be wrapped with five or six turns of waxed cotton to hold the parts firmly. This is the process used almost exclusively in the ])roduction of young nursery stock by means of root grafting. The roots are dug and the scions are cut in the autumn and stored. The work of grafting may be done during the winter months. When the operation has been completed the grafts are packed away in moss, sawdust or sand, in a cool cellar, to remain until spring. It is important that the place of storage be cool, else the grafts may start into growth and be ruined, or heating and rotting may occur. If the temperature is kept low — not above 40" F. — there will be no growth except the callousing and knitting together of stock and scion. In spring the grafted plant is so set as to bring the imion of stock and scion below the surface of the frround. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 75 Top-grafting" may also be done in this way but whenever the union is above ground it must be protected, as in cleft grafting, by either a coating of grafting wax or a bandage of waxed muslin. (From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 157.) XXXVI — Object: To Learn Budding. Budding is the most rapidly performed and econom- ical form of artificial propagation. The ^vork of bud- ding is done during the season of active growth, July, August, or early September. The bud should be taken from strong, healthy twigs of the present season's growth. The bud sticks are prepared so that the petiole or stem of each leaf is left attached to serve as a handle to aid in inserting the bud beneath the bark of the stock. The bud should be cut, paring ofif a small portion of the woody tissue with the bud. The stock for budding should be at least as thick as an ordinary lead pencil. With the apple and pear a second season's growth will be necessary to develop this size, wdiile with the peach a single season will suffice. To bud a plant make a T-shaped cut through the bark for the reception of the bud. Loosen the flaps of bark caused by the intersec- tion of the two cuts with the ivory heel of the budding knife, grasp the bud by the lea.f stem as a handle, in- sert it under the flaps and push it firmly in place until its cut surface is entirely in contact with the peeled body of the stock. Tie a ligature tightly about it above and below the bud, to hold it in place until a union shall be formed. Bands of raffia or wrapping cotton about ten to twelve inches long make a most convenient tying material. A-3 soon as the buds have united with the stock the ligature should be cut in order to prevent girdling the stock. (From Farmers' Bulletin, No. 157.) 76 AGRICULTURE AND GARDEXIXG FOR SCHOOLS. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. XXXVII— Object : To Learn Feeding J\ilue of Com. Apparatus: Fanners' Bulletin, No. p/, pages p, lo, II and 12; also Farmers' Bulletin, No. loj, pages 16 and //. These are valuable bulletins and they should become a part of every rural school library. Make a careful study of thes(j bulletins. XXXVIII — Object: To Learn Plan of Gathering Seed Corn. Apparatus: Farmers' Bulletin No. 22^. Let each pupil describe the metiiod of selecting seed corn that is practiced by his father and neighbors. After doing this secure Farmers' Bulletin, Xo. 229. Read and study pages 21, 22 and 23. How do the methods men- tioned in the Bulletin No. 229, compare with those prac- ticed in your community? XXXIX — Object : To Learn Corn Pests. Apparatus : Bulletins mentioned belozv. Find out all you can about insects in your community that affect the corn from planting time until harvest time. If possible, secure sample of these insects and learn to know them. Secure Farmers' Bulletins, X^os. 69, 259. Circulars of the Bureau of Entomology, X^os. 16, 59 and 78. ■ ■ XL — Object : To Shozi' Comparison Between the Plant Food J\iluc of Top and Sub-SoU. Apparatus: Tz^v caiis, some top soil and some sub-soil. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 77 Obtain the sub-soil by digging three or four feet in ordinary soil. Be sure to get below the top soil. Fill a can with this sub-soil. In the other can (the same size as the first) place the good surface soil ob- tained directly over the sub-soil. Plant corn in both cans. Place both cans under the same conditions as to heat, sunlight and moisture. After about ten days to two weeks compare the size of the stalks of corn. Why does corn or other farm crops that are planted in a dead furrow (or the furrow between lands) usually make a small growth? Did you ever plant flowers or vegetables in the earth that was throw^n out of a cellar or deep ditch? Try this some time. Will sub-soil gradually im- prove the longer it is exposed to the elements ? Why ? XLI — Object: To SIiozv Comparison B.cfzcccii the Plant Food lvalue of Old Worn Ont Soils and Nezv Gronnd Soils. Apparatus: Tzvo boxes of the same sice, one filled •ulih nezv soil, the other zvith old soil. Use a box about two feet square filled with new soil obtained in som.e new^ ground or by digging about two or three inches below the surface in an open forest. The other box should contain soil from about the same depth taken from a field where the soil is old and run down. Plant corn or flowers in each box and place them under similar conditions as to sunlight, heat and moisture. Watch them from time to time and after five or six weeks compare size of each. What can be done for worn out soils to partially restore the plant foods? Why is crop rotation a benefit to the soil? Why does drainage make more plant food avail- able? How does good tillage improve a crop? What advantage is gained by plowing a cold, wet clay soil 78 agricultur:: -'.xd gardening for schools. with a bar share plow instead of the ordinary culti- vator, especially in 'a wet season? XLII — Object: To Learn What Seeds are Scattered by the Wind. Apparatus : Sec plants mentioned bcloiv. Have pupils collect and examine such seed as those produced by the maple, box elder, elm, ash, dandelion, milkweed, thistle, parsnip, etc. Learn to recognize these wherever found. XLIII — Object: To Learn What Seeds are Scattered by Animals. Apparatus: See plants mentioned below. Have pupils collect seeds or fruits from the Spanish needle plant, the burdock, sand-burs, beggar lice, etc. What animals of the field scaHer many of these weed seed? How? Learn to recoanize these seeds. In what other way are weed seed scattered over the land? XLIV — Object: To Learn Propagation of the Strazvbcrry Plant. Apparatus: A straijbcrry plant. Strawberries propagate by runners. Have pupils plant some strawberry plants. After they have been well cared for ,and reach a good size notice the number of runners sent out and the new plants that have been formed this season. Set the plants out in April or May and cou.nl the new plants formed by fall. XLY — Object: 'To Shozv Corn Mi.ring or Crossing. Apparatus : Wliite corn and yellozv corn. iMant a small plot of white corn near a small plot of yellow corn. At husking time observe the kernels. How AGRICULTURE AND GARDKXIXG FOR SCHOOLS. 79 does corn mix? Explain in fnll. Plant a plot of sweet corn near some pop corn. Did it mi ? Will it pop good ? Will pop corn and field corn mix? Try it. How are new varieties of corn or other plants started? XLVT — Object: To Show Jl^hy Seed Corn Should be Kept /;/ a Dry Place. Apparati^s: 7\\ growing contest, select a fertile spot for your corn plot. Clover sod that has been covered with a good coat of stable fertilizer makes a good place to plant corn. The sod should be plowed as early as possible and harrowed sufficiently to place in good condition before planting time. Harrowing and dragging kills the weeds, pul- verizes the soil, and makes the seed bed level. Planting. — The best time to plant corn is usually in the month of jMay or early June. We occasionally have an early spring and the soil is warm enough for corn to be planted in April. Corn can be either hilled or drilled. Some farmers prefer to drill their corn, while others always plant their corn in hills. A^ery weedy ground, especially where the field is level, is usually planted in hills in order that the corn can receive better cultiva- tion. Hill sides or rolling ground is more often drilled It would not be wise in this connection to state which is the better method, since hilling is best under some conditions while drilling is better under other circum- stances. If the plot to be selected is a small patch in the garden or field where it would not be convenient to use the planter, then the boy must necessarily use 3 hand planter or dvor> by hand and cover with a hoe. If a hand planter is used c?.re should be observed to see that the corn is well covered with loose soil. Most boys prefer their corn planted with a horse-drawn planter be- (See pages 68 and 69.) Testers Made by Rural School Boys. The upper one is made after the Holden type; the lower one after the Wilhams type. (See page 70.) 'AGRICl'LTURE AND GARPKXIXC', YOK SCITOOLS. 101 cause it saves furrowing out the ground before planting and will leave the rows in better condition for cultivation. Cultivation. — It is usually a good plan to harrow the corn plot, before the corn comes up, to kill the weeds and to more thoroughly pulverize the soil. After the corn is high enough to be plainly seen across the row it is time to begin using the cultivator. The kind of plow to use always depends upon the .weather and the condition of the soil. If the spring is rather wet and your soil is of a clayish nature, many good farmers prefer the old-fashioned bar-share plow because the soil can be thrown away from the corn and the warm air can more conveniently reach the roots of the plants. The furrow made by the plow assists in carrying off the surplus surface water and leaves the stalk of corn on a small ridge. If you have a dry spring and land that is of a sandy or gravelly nature, the ordinary cultivator is sufficient. When the bar-share or disc plow is used the first plowing and the soil is thrown away from the corn. You then have a ridge between the rows. The next time plowed these ridges are thrown down by the ordinary cultivator. If your plot is small and the rows short, the one-horse plow is usually preferred. Great care should b^ given to cultivation, as by this process weeds are killed, soil is aired, and rapid evapora- tion of the moisture from the deeper soils is prevented. Frequent cultivation is necessary, for the better condition tlie surface soil is in the better will it hold the moisture and the fewer weeds you will have to steal the moisture and plant foods from the corn. Learn to plow your own corn. Learn the reasons why you do things so you can tell others that desire to know, and always remember that to get a thing done well you must do it yourself. Plow your corn about four times before laying it by, 102 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. and do not plow when the ground is too wet. When you cannot get all the weeds out with the plow use the hoe. When the corn is about six inches high thin it out if too thick. If your corn was hilled thin to three stalks in a hill; if drilled thin to about twenty inches between stalks. These statements refer to averages. For ex- ample, in hilled corn if one hill has four stalks and the next hill two, you have your average three, etc. The same in the drilled corn ; thin to the proper average, if it be twenty or twenty-four inches. Harvesting. — Usually about September boys should begin to examine the corn and see if it is getting ripe. When the leaves begin to die and the husks turn brown it is time to cut and shock the corn if you wish to save the fodder. Good fodder is very valuable feed for winter. Avoid making the shocks too large and see that they are set up and tied well to prevent them from falling. When shocks of corn get down you can count on some ears spoiling which will lessen your yield. After about six weeks of good fall weather corn is gen- erally ready for husking. If you do not care to save the fodder let the ear remain on the stalk until the stalk is entirely dry and the ear well i;ipened. Corn should be stored in a well ventilated crib and caution taken to pre- vent it from being destroyed by mice and rats. Corn Contest. The following rules and regulations have been used in connection with our township and county corn con- test, and found to be very practical : 1. Any boy under eighteen years of age may enter the contest. 2. Not less than one-tenth of an acre shall be AGRICULTUKK AND GARDEN! NC. TOR SCHOOLS. 103 planted to corn and kept under cultivation by the child entering the contest. 3. The seed must be tested for vitality and the re- sults recorded. 4. A description of the plot must be given as to size and composition of the soil. 5. The following records must be kept on the preparation of the seed bed : Depth it was plowed. Was anything plowed under; if so, what? Tools used? W'as any fertilizer used? If so, what kind? When and how applied? 6. Variety of seed planted. 7. Date of planting. Hilled or drilled? 8. Method of cultivation. 9. Implements used. How often? 10. Number .of stalks in plot counted at close of sea- son of cultivation. 11. Number of barren stalks. 12. Date of harvesting and yield. Some Remarks. The contestant is not required to perform the labor of preparing the seed bed if it conflicts with school work, but can take up the work of cultivation after the corn has come up. If pupil does not prepare the seed bed and plant the corn, he must keep all records required under Rule 5. Seed corn can be secured from any source, but a well tried home variety is recommended. Ten ears must be selected from each plot for exhibition, with all records to be exhibited with the corn at the county or township contest to be held at the county fair. The best two entries can be entered in the State Corn Show to be held in Columbus, providing all regulations are complied with. The committee in charge of the con- 104 AGRICULTURE AND GARDEN! XG EOR SCHOOLS. test will appoint some resident of each township to in- spect the plot during the growing season. Premiums Offered on Corn by County Corn Improvement Association. $3.00 on best ten ears of white corn. $2.00 on second best ten ears of white corn. $1.00 on third best ten ears of white corn. $3.00 on best ten ears of yellow corn. $2.00 on second best ten ears of yellow corn. $1.00 on third best ten ears of yellow corn. $3.00 on best ten ears of any other color than white or yellow. $2.00 on second best. $1.00 on third best. Business concerns very frequently contribute some- thing to increase the prizes. In one case The Western Star Publishing Company, of Lebanon, gave $5.00 in gold as a sweepstake prize. A township, district or county corn contest awakens the interest of the boys in the cultivation of this great food plant. Many states now have their annual corn shows so that the best entries from each county go to the state show. This increased interest that is being taken throughout the country in the scientific study of corn planting cannot help but result in greatly increasing our annual yield. Only a few more bushels raised by each farmer on every acre will make a handsome in- crease in the crop of a state. Our corn crop is one of the most useful and valuable of all farm crops, and we should exert every possible effort to extend the proper instructions in the cultivation of this important food plant. Make arrangements for conducting a township AGRlCULTUi^i:, .\NI) CARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 105 or county corn contest. This will interest the boys and may cause them to become more interested in nature and perhaps they may have a greater desire to remain upon the farm. THE JUDGING OF SEED CORN. Before attempting to score seed corn pupils should make considerable investigation into the subject. Your State Experiment Station will be glad to assist you if they know what you are trying to do. Write them and ask for their rules or their score card on corn judging. Ask the National Department at Washington for Farm- ers' Bulletin, No. 229, and read what you find in this bulletin on corn judging. A LESSON IN CORN JUDGING. Select the best ten ears you can find of a certain variety and have pupils score them. Pupils should first provide themselves with a score card as shown below, providing one column for each ear of corn. The figures in the score card just to the left of the first perpendicu- lar line show the number of points that should be given for a perfect ear; e. g., if the pupil thinks ear No. 4 is nearly perfect in shape he would probably mark "9" in line 2, column 4, as shown in the table. Each pupil should examine carefully his ear of corn and put down on his score card in the column of the same number as the ear of corn, his estimate of the qualities named at the left of each line, except line 4 — vitality — which can not be filled in until after the seed is tested. (The making of seed testers has been previously explained.) 106 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. ='2 1 '- cS: g s- (t r c r cc o > X"^ i(Nico'*Ln;'^i:^ooc:o^c"('. FOR SCHOOL ^. should be marked. Pupils should keep their work neat and should be trained to be rapid and accurate. Grammar and Composition. — Review important parts of the fifth year's work. Study the sentence and its elements, words and their uses in the sentence, narra- tives and letters, punctuation. Teacher should correct mistakes made by pupils in grammar in all other studies, also in ordinary conversation. The use of good gram- mar in common conversation is only acquired by long continued practice. Teach pupils to correct the mistakes made in grammar by other pupils on the playground. Have pupils make outlines of the different parts of speech. Use much supplementary work. Teach them good forms in WTiting recommendations, applications, adverfisements, business letters and letters to friends. Encourage frequent use of the dictionary for the best word and for correct spelling. Memorizing choice poems frequently will train the mind and improve the' child's vocabulary. Text-book: Take first half of ad- vanced text-book in grammar. Physiology. — Review fifth year's work. Give special instruction in Scientific Temperance. Teach best method of procedure in case of bruises, cuts, sprains, dislocation, burns, drowning, poisoning, and other accidents. Im- press effects of alcohol on all parts of the body. Use supplementary work. Refer to charts, drawings, etc. Have pupils make drawings of important organs, etc., of the body. Study rules to observe in protecting the public health. Text-book: Take first half of advanced text-book on the subject. Geography. — Review fifth year's work. Observe directions under fifth year. Use supplementary work. Use topic method when possible. Make questions from the lessons to guide children in difficult lessons. Teach AGRICULTURE AXD GARDEN IXC. FOR SCHOOLS. 147 the reasons for the different industries in the different countries, and the reasons for the growth and develop- ment of large cities in certain locahties. Use an out- hne for review w^ork of the counties in your state or states in the United States. The following is suggested: Size, surface, occupation of people, population, largest cities, rivers, or other bodies of water, capital ; what mountains, if any. State ranks first in the Union in what (if anything)? Location; history connected with. [Note.] It would not be expected that pupils study the history of any county or state except the one in which they live. Products exported ; products imported. Additional topics can be added to the above or certain ones omitted to suit conditions. Text-book : Take half of advanced text-book. If the text-book contains physical geography in the first part this is sometimes omitted until the seventh year and the class begins with North America. If they begin with North America, take about half of the total number of pages in book in the sixth year. History. — Review work of fifth year. See directions under the fifth year. Text-book: Complete elementary text-book. Classes strong in history that completed the work to the Civil War in the fifth grade can usually complete the elementary book by January ist. When this is done the class can take supplementary work in another history the last half of the year, or, if pupils are able they can take up the Advanced School History. If the advanced book is taken up in this grade the pupils should not attempt to go beyond the War of the Revo- lution. Conduct frequent reviews. Have pupils outline the w^ork as much as possible. Teach history in con- 148 AGRICULTURE AND GARDEN I Xc; lO'A fCIlOOL.-. nection with geography and geography In connection with history. Nature. — See instructions under fifth year. Read "Plants and Their Children," by Mrs. William Starr Dana. Have children make records of the date of the appearance and the fall of leaves on different varieties of trees. Note the time the tree is bare. Teach chilTlren to be able to name all common varieties of trees from the leaf or the bark. Classify plants as useful and in- jurious, annuals, biennials and perennials ; trees as de- ciduous, evergreens, fruit trees, trees for ornament, fire- wood or commercial purposes. Study roots under useful, injurious, dififerent forms and purposes. Stems — Aerial and underground, useful and injurious. Leaves — Margins, veins. Flowers — Perfect, imperfect. Make a collection of flowers by pressing and mounting speci- mens. Animals — Fur-bearing, food-producing and do- mestic. Minerals — Make a collection of common min- erals. Give a short description of each as to uses to man, where and how mined. Make a collection of com- mon rocks found in the neighborhood. Teach uses of limestone, sandstone shale, coal, slate, marble and gran- ite; how formed; where produced? (See Division No. 3, pages 8 to 11. Outline, questions, experiments, etc., pages 12 to 85.) Seventh Year. Reader. — Complete Fifth Reader. Review previous year's work. See previous suggestions on reading. Use supplementary work suggested in library list. Spelling. — See suggestions under sixth year. Writing. — See suggestions under sixth year. Use Copy Book No. 5. Arithmetic. — Review sixth year's work. Finish ad- AGRICULTUK1-: AND CARDKX 1 X(] ]C)K SCHOOLS. 149 vance book and review. Use much supplementary work. See suggestions under sixth year. Mental Arithmetic. — The importance of this study in a school course is very well known, consequently no space will be taken to discuss it. Text-book : Take first half of book. Stoddard's text, or one of similar char- acter is recommended. Make this work largely oral. Grammar and Composition. — The sentence and its elements, phrases, clauses, complements, punctuation. Review sixth year's work. See suggestions under sixth year. Improvement should be made in the writing of compositions. Use much supplementary work. Have children read books suitable to their age and scholar- ship and reproduce them in the form of a composition. Give supplementary work in the diagramming and an- alyzing of sentences. Devote much time to parsing all parts of speech. Physiology. — Review sixth year's work. Refer to suggestion under sixth year. Give special instruction in hygiene and scientific temperance. Emphasize the im- portance of the study of foods, proper ventilation, and the advantages of exercises in the open air. Pupils should be taught to play out of the school house every day in the school year except in stormy weather. Cold weather is good for children if they are properly clothed. Text-book: Complete and review last half of advanced text-book. Use many supplementary texts for reference. Read books on the care of health. Be sure pupils understand alcoholic and narcotic efifects. Geography. — Review sixth year's work. See sug- gestions under sixth year. In addition to outline sug- gested in that year for county and state geography, use the following outline for the study of the grand divi- sions : Positions and size, surface, drainage, political and 150 agkicultur:-: and gardexixc. lo:^ ^-c•TIOOLs. natural divisions, climate, races of people, products. Encourage the use of different text-books and read reference books touching upon the class work. Text- book: Take last half of advanced book on the subject. If the natural or physical geography was omitted in the sixth year, complete and review that in this year. Revicvv' the entire year's work. Continue map drawing. Histcrw — Flcview work of sixth year. See sugges- tions ur.der sixlh year. Teach children to outline the period of discovery and exploration. They should be taught t-:e value of reading such books as "Cortes," "De So'O," "Pizarro," "From Colony to Commonwealth," "Pilgrims and Puritans." "Ten Boys." Outline period cf colonization and settlement. The Constitution of the United States should be read by the i)upils, and the most important provisions committed to memory. Text-book: .V strong class tliat completed the advanced book to the \\?.r cf the. Revolution in the sixth year can com- plete and review the entire book this year. They should reviev; the administrations by making an cutlhie of all importE-j.it events under each one. Pupils not desiring to take any special examination on the entire advanced book at the close of the seventh year cjn perhaps do the work more thoroughly by taking up the advanced text-book in history at the first of the book, and com- pleting it to Washington's administration. This would be advisable, especially if the class finds history a diffi- cult branch of study to master. In this case the book would be completed in the eighth year with Civil Gov- ernment included. Class should give special attention to the development of the constitution and formation of the Union. Agriculture. — Review work of sixth year. See sug- gestions under sixth year. After teaching children to AGRICULTURE AM) CARDEXINC; IX )R SCHOOLS. 151 recognize all common trees from their bark, have chil- dren make a coHection of bark and sections of wood, cut to show the grain. Children can sometimes inchide with the samples of bark, cross and lengthwise sections of the wood, some pressed leaves and the fruit of each tree. Teach the uses of all trees. .Give special attention to products of dififerent trees and the process of obtaining the product. Read Russell's Native Trees, Apgar's Trees of Northern United States. Birds — Make a list of birds under the following heads : *'perchers," "scratchers," and "swimmers." "Winter birds," see Burroughs' Birds and Bees, Keyser's In Bird Land, Johonnot's Neighbors With Wings and Fins, Flyers, Creepers and Swimmers, Walker's Our Birds and Their Nestlings, and Dawson's Birds of Ohio. Minerals : Continue study of min- erals in connection with the geography. Text-book : Take up study of an elementary text-book on the subject. vSee list of those recommended. Take first half of the book with supplementary reading in agricultural bulletins, farm papers, bulletins from ex- periment stations and agricultural colleges. Alternate the text-book work with that of the reader. Two les- sons a week with the experiments, etc., is sufficient. Combine the nature classes and agricultural classes in performing experiments. The fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth grades can read bulletins, papers, etc., together. The nature classes in the first and second divisions can be combined. Two times a week is sufficient to cover the work suggested. These classes can often be alter- nated with the reading or any other branch most con- venient. (See Division 3, pages 8 to 11. Outline, experiments, etc., pages 12 to 85.) 152 AGRICULTURl-: -'vND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Eighth Year. Reading. — Review Fifth Reader with supplementary work. Give special attention to the lives of the authors. Spell difficult words and give the definitions. Follow suggestions under seventh year. Read classics suitable to the child. An elementary work on American liter- ature can be read with profit. Spelling. — Spell with sixth and seventh year. Fol- low instructions under sixth and seventh grades. Use much drill work. Have pupils keep a record of mis- spelled words in a tablet. Regular spelling tablets can be secured for keeping all written lessons, grade for day, etc. Writing. — Use Copy Book No. 6. Review business forms and letter writing. See instructions previously given. Arithmetic. — Review entire advanced book with work in other texts. Take up examination questions and have pupils work their problems. Make the work very general and as broad as possible. Mental Arithinciic. — Complete last half of text-book and review entire book. See under seventh year. Gram mar and Composition. — The parts of speech, classification, inflection and relatives, narratives and let- ters, punctuation. Review sixth and seventh year's work. See previous directions. Outline all parts of speech in making a review. Take much practice in diagramming and writing essays and compositions and parsing. Conduct exercises in speaking and reading in public at least three times during a s.chool year. Physiology. — Review seventh year's work. Review entire advanced text-book with supplementary work. Observe previous directions. This class, as in most of ACRILTLTURi: AND c:ARDEX!.\g FOR SCHOOLS. 153 the ■ other branches in this year, can recite with the seventh grade. _ Use outhnes, drawings, charts and sup- plementary questions. See other text-books. Gco.graphy. — Review seventh year. Follow previous instructions. Review by outline and use supplementary work. Some topics on elementary physical geography can be mastered in this grade. Study geographical cards. For training in the location of counties, states or countries, make outline maps of same on heavy card- board, cut out ai*d practice putting same together. On each county, state or country, mark the principal cities, rivers, lakes or mountains. Also indicate productions by pasting an object on the piece cut out. A good idea of the rank in area of each grand division can be had by comparing the cardboards when put together. If time permits an elementary text-book on commercial geogra- phy, can be studied after reviewing the school text. By taking excursions much information can be gained in nature, agriculture and physical geography. History and Civics. — Review seventh year's work. Observe previous suggestions. Alternate lessons in his- tory with lessons in civil government. Assign special topics for investigation, such as The Growth of the Thirteen Colonies, The History of the Louisiana Pur- chase, Our Territorial Growth, Effect of Civil War on North, On South, History of Slavery, Origin a^id Growth of Political Parties, Great Inventions, Educa- tional Institutions, x^merican Literature, The Spanish- American War, Territorial Expansion, What Foreigners are Needed, The Panama Canal, The Red Cross Society, Famous Men in History, Famoris Women in History, and The ^rowth of Political Parties. Study historical, cards. Make a chronological table of important events of history. 154 AGRICrLTUKI-: AXD GARDEN IXC. FOR SCHOOLS. , Agriculture. — Review seventh year's work. Observe previous suggestions. Study common weeds in weed manual. Make corn testers for testing corn. Study rules of corn judging. Practice judging purity of all seeds used on the farm. Assign special topics for in- vestigation and study. See outline. Finish text-book on agriculture. Complete experiments; conduct excur- sions. Have pupils read agricultural bulletins and papers. (See Third Division, pages 8 to ii. Outline, experiments, etc., pages 12 to 85.) [Note.] In this course we have called the first thiee grades the Primary Department, the fourth and fifth the Intermediate Department, the sixth, seventh and eighth the Grammar Department. If the teacher prefers he can make these terms correspond to those used to out- line the nature and agricultural course, viz.: First Divi- sion, Second Division and Third Division. COURSES OF STUDY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS. The follovv'ing courses cf study for third grade high schools (two year course), second grade high school (three year course), and first grade high school (four year course), were prepared by the State De]jartment of' Education of Ohio, ai:d they appear to the author to be good enough and broad enough for schools in any state. It is always true that local conditions may make it necessary to add or omit- some particular branch, but we desire to use these courses because they all contain agriculture and have been approved by the State De- partment. Good text-books on agriculture for the high schools have been mentioned before (page 12). A great agriculturp: and gardening for schools. 153 part of the material contained in this book on nature study and agriculture might be used to advantage in conducting reviews in agriculture in the high school. TWO YEAR HIGH SCHOOL COURSE. Third Grade. First Year. First Term — Four Months. Latin-English Course. English Course, Latin. Advanced Physiology or Algebra. Agriculture. T7 r u r- •.• . Algebra. Knglish — Composition or t7 r i ^ v A.h.o,...^ r,.o.,....o. English— Composition or Advanced Grammar and Classics. Advanced Grammar and Classics. Civics. Civics. Second Term — Five Months. Latin. English History. Algebra. Algebra. English — Composition or English — Composition or Advanced Grammar Advanced Grammar and Classics. and Classics. Botany or Physical Geography. Botany or Physical Geography. Second Year. First Term — Four Months. Caesar and Prose. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra. Algebra. English — Rhetoric. English— Rhetoric. General History. General History. Second Term — Five Months. Caesar and Prose. Commercial Arithmetic. Geometry. Geometry. English— Rhetoric. ' English— Rhetoric. General History. General History. 156 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. THREE YEAR HIGH SCHOOL COURSE. Second Grade. First Year. First Term — Four Months. Latin-English Course, Latin. Algebra. English — Composition or Advanced Grammar and Classics. Civics. English Course. Advanced Physiology or Agriculture. Algebra. English — Composition or Advanced Grammar and Classics. Civics. Second Term — Fizr Months. Latin. Algebra. English — Composition or Advanced Grammar and Classics. Botany or Physical Geography. English History. Algebra. English — Composition or Advanced Grammar and Classics. Botany or Physical Geography. Second Year. First Term — Four Months. Caesar and Prose. Algebra. English — Rhetoric. General History. Commercial or Advanced Arithmetic. Algebra. English — Rhetoric. General Histor/. Second Term — Fize Months. Caesar and Prose. Geometry. English — Rhetoric. General History. Commercial or Advanced Arithmetic. Geometry. English— -Rhetoric. General History. AGRICULTUR" AXD C.ARDr.X I XC. nYA fCllOOL9>. 157 Third Year. First Term — Four Months. Cicero and Prose. American History. Geometry. Geometry. Chemistry or Physics. Chemistry or Physics. English — American Literature. English — American Literature. Second Term — Five Months. Cicero and Prose. American History. Geometry. Geometry. Chemistry or Physics. Chemistry or Physics. English — Ame'-ican Literature. English — American Literature. FOUR YEAR HIGH SCHOOL COURSE. First Grade. Freshman. First Term — Four Mouths. Latin — English Course. English Course. Latin. English History or Civics. Algebra. Algebra. English — Composition or English — Composition or Advanced Grammar Advanced Grammar and Classics. and Classics. Civics. Physiology or Agriculture or Physical Geography. Second Term — Fiz'e Mouths. Latin. English History or Agriculture. Algebra. Algebra. English — Composition or English — Composition or Advanced Grammar Advanced Grammar and Classics. and Classics. Botany. Botany. 158 agriculture and gardening for schools. Sophomore. Fij'st Term — Four Months. Caesar and Prose. Commercial Arithmetic. Algebra. Algebra. English— Rhetoric. English— Rhetoric. General History. General History. Second Term — Five Months. Caesar and Prose. Commercial Arithmetic. Geometry. Geometry. English— Rhetoric. English— Rhetoric. General History. General History. Junior. First Term — Four Months. Cicero and Prose. American History. Geometry. Geometry. Chemistry or German. Chemistry. English — English or American English — Erglish or American Literature. Literature. Second Term — Fizc Months. Cicero and Prose. American History. Geometry. Geometry. Chemistry or German. Chemistry. English— English or American English — English or American Literature. Literature. Senior. First Term — Four Months. Virgil, Commercial Geography. Physiology, or German. Physiology. Physics. Physics. English — English or American English — English or American • Literature. Literature. Second Term — Five Months. Virgil. Psychology. Physical Geography or German. Physical Geography. Physics. Civics or Classics. Civics or Classics (College Physics, entranre renuirements V AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR ^CIIOOES. 159 PART II— GARDENING The following outline may be used by the student who is making a study of gardening, or by the teacher who wishes to teach the -production and preservation of garden crops. SECTION ONE Chapter '^^^ Production of Garden Crops I. Selecting the Garden Site. 1. Two important things to consider are: (a) The soil. (b) The location. 2. Alost soils can be used, but sandy scil is better because: (a) It's warmer. (b) Drys out earlier in sprirg. (c) Can be worki d sooixr after rain. (d) Produces earlier crops. (e) Responds quickly to fertilizer. 3. Clayey soils can be improved by : (a) Use of Kme and stable manure. (b) Use of fer lizers, (cj Adding humus, (d) Proper drair^gc. 4. Choose a Iccaticn that is : (a) Free from trees. (b) Close at home. (c) Protected from dogs and chickcrs. (d) Attractive. 5. For earty gardens select a southern slope in order to have : (a) Direct sunlight. (b) Natural drainage. (c) Protect crops from cold north winds. 6. For late gardens select lov/, flat place, for it is likely: (a; To have rich soil. (b) To hold more moisture. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name two vegetable crops that demand special soil con- ditions. 2. Do most vegetables demand particular types of soil? 3. What advantages has a sandy soil for general gardening purposes 4. What are the chief points of weakness in a sandy soil? 5. What precautions must be taken in handling a clay soil? 160 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Chapter II. Making Garden Plans. 1. The plans should be made to meet the conditiors of location and taste of the gardeners. 2. It is better to plant in rows for : (a) It permits better cultivation. (b) Cultivation is more thorough, (c) In l-rge tracts horse-drawn implements can be used. 3. Succession cropping is better than one crop for : (a) There will be a cor inuous supply. (b) An early crop is followed by a later crop. 4. Study the double-crop plan and name the crops that follovy other crops. 5. It is best to keep your plans during entire season for : (a) You may forget the variety planted in certain rows. (b) You may forget what was to follow certain crops. 6. If space permits, small fruits like strawberries, cur- rants, grapes, etc., can be planted. 7. Permanent crops can also be planted in home gardens. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Under what circumstances is it advisable to grow more than one crop on the same land in one season ? 2. What are the two kinds of double cropping? 3. Define "companion cropping." 4. What is meant by succession crops? Chapter in. Companion Crops. 1. Companion cropping is growing two or more crops on the same 'and at the same time. 2. What is the- difference between companion crops and successive crops ? 3. Companion cropping utilizes space for : (a) Quick-growing plants can be planted with slow- growing plants. (b) Some crops can be sown between the rows of the other plants. Ex.: Lettuce between early potatoes or corn. (c) When som. crops show sign: of maturity others can be planted, as early potatoes, followed by late sweet corn. 4. Name ten examples of companion cropping. AGRICULTUR1-: AND CAUDllX I .\(i )()U Sc IlUUl.S. 161 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Give examples of suitable combinations of "companion cropping." 2. W bat factors must be considerccl 'n selecting crops fur a system of companion cropping? 3. Tell some advantages of tbis metbod of gardening. 4. How may companion and succession cropi)ing be com- bined into one system? 5. Define companion cropping. Chapter . IV. Rotation of Garden Crops. 1. Crop rotation is tbe planlirg of different crops on tbe same soil in successive years so tbat tbey follou^ each otber in regular order. 2. Crop rotation is very advantageous for : (a) Potato scab is eliminated. (b) Club-root of cabbage may be prevented. (c) Plant food can be obtained from different soil depths. (d) Results in bct'.cr crops. (e) Greater variety of crops is produced. (f) Growing one crop keeps the ground bare part of the time. (g) Elimination of certain weeds. (h) Selection of a new space will destroy plant ilis- eases. (i) Elimination of insect enemies. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1'. How may rotation of crops be made a means of avoiding loss from the attacks of insects and diseases? 2. Name some advantages of crop rotat'ion. 3. Dellne crop rotation. 4. Name two good types of crop rotations. 5. What crop rotations are found on farms around your home ? Chapter V. Purchasing G.\rden Seed. 1. Home-grown seeds preferable for: (a) You know what kind of seed you have. (b) Buying unknown seed ^ometimes proves a failure. 2. A standard variety of seed shtm'd be purchased because the best results can be obtained. 3. Purchase all seeds from a reliable dealer. 4. It is less expensive to buy seeds in large quantities and divide them. 5. Packet seed is useful \vhere there is only a small garden. 162 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What kind of seed is desired? 2. What care should be taken of seeds? 3. What are standard varieties? 4. How are standard varieties produced? 5. What points should be considered when you wish to use your own seed for planting?* Chapter VI. Economy in the Use of Seeds. • \. All gardeners .should practice economy, 2. Seed can be wasted by : (a) Buying more seed than is necessary. (b) Planting seeds too thick. 3. Purchase only such seeds as your garden plan calls for. 4. Seeds for future planting should be kept in dry, well- ventilated containers. 5. Estimate the amount of seed needed before purchasing. 6. Young gardeners should remember to make successive planting, so that fresh vegetables may be available. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. From what different sources may vegetable seeds be procured? 2. What difficulties is a girdencr likely to encounter when he attempts to grow his cwn seeds? 3. Under what circumstances sl:ould a commercial vege- table grower produce his own seeds? 4 Should we avoid wastirg seed? Why, or why not? 5. Give quantity .of seed required to plant a garden for a family of four for five garden crops. Chapter VII. Varieties of Crops. 1. Learn the names of two varieties of each vegetable crop. 2. Learn the names of two varieties of ten small fruits. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What fruits were grown in your home garden last year? 2. Name five small fruit crops. 3. Name two varieties of each crop. 4. Name varieties you have at home. 5. Of what value are small fruits ? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 163 Chapter VIII. Hints on Planting. 1. A successful gardener seeks all the information he can ' obtain. 2. The subjects that are of special interest to him' are : (a) The kind of vegetables desired. (b) Number seeds required. (c) Planting distances. (d) Depth of planting. (e) Days required for germination. (f) Average time of maturing. (g) Average life of seed. 3. Planting distances are determined by (a) Character of root growth. Ex.: corn, beets. (b) Character of top grovvth. Ex.: lettuce, toma- toes. (c) Fertility of the soil. (d) Character of growth, as plants that have a tendency to vine. (e) Germinating power of seed. 4. Planting depths as determined by : (a) Size of seed. (b) Habit of plant. (c) Quality of soil. (d) Time of year. 5. There are many agencies that combine to influence the germination, maturity and life of seed. Some of the agencies are: (a) Soil. (b) Climatic conditions. (c) Time of maturity. (d) Conditions under, which they Cseeds) are stored. 6. Study the gardeners' tables on pages 45 and 46 of Garden Crops, by Lester S. Ivins. , SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. V>'hat conditions are necessary to the germination of seed? 2. Why will seeds not germinate properly in a poorly drained soil ? 3. At what temperature do seeds germinate? 4. How may the proper temperature for germination be secured? 5. Name factors determining' the depth for planting seeds. Chapter IX. Draining the Garden. 1, Natural drainage can be obtained when : (a) The soil contains gravel or sand. (b) The garden is on a slope. 164 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 2. Artificial drainage is necessary when : (a) The soil is clay. (b) The garden is low and flat. 3. Plants must have a well-drained seed bed if they are to reach their best development. 4. For growth, plants must have air and can not get it when the soil contains too much water. 5. Gravitational water is the surplus soil moisture. 6. Capillary water is the moisture that remains around the particles of soil. 7. Properly placed tile drains are beneficial because : (a) They carry off the gravitational water. (b) Provide more air for the roots. (c) Warm the soil. (d) Makie tillage easy. (e) Reduce injury due to dry weather, (f) Promote germination of seeds. (g) Reduce surface wash. (h) Permit earlier working of the soil, (i) Make possible a deeper root system. 8. Open trenches will do good in small gardens. 9. Open trenches are made with a spade, shovel or plow, and are usually located at the sides or ends of gardens. 10. It is often better to fill small gardens than to drain them. 11. When filling use good loam or sandy soil. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Why should wet soil be drained? 2. What two conditions favor natural drainage? 3. Define film water ; gravitational water. 4. Give five advantages derived from the use of tile drains. 5. How are open trenches prepared? Chapter X. Preparing the Garden Soil. 1. If possible, plow the garden in the fall. 2. Deep plowing and spading, followed by harrowing and raking, put the soil in best condition for the roots. 3. In spadiing the soil should be turned over and broken. 4. A compost heap is made of a mixture of meadow soil, leaves, straw, vegetables, etc., lime, wood ashes, stable manure and earth. 5. A compost heap is made bv : (a) A layer of manure four inches deep. (b) Then a layer of vegetable matter. (c) Then wood ashes or lime. (d) Then a layer of earth an inch or two thick. AGRICULTURE AND GARDEXI XG FOR SCHOOLS. 165 6. Straw and leaves prevent the plant food from leak- ing out. 7. Clay ground is often sour and this can be remedied by use of lime. S. Lime has the power to : (a) Sweeten the soil. (b) Improve the physical conditions of the soil. 9. A successful garden depends upon the proper prepara- tion of the seed bed. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What are the advantages of planninig a garden before starting to plant it? 2. What is a convenient size and shape for a farmer's home garden ? 3. What is an ideal garden soil ? 4 How should sour garden soils be treated? 5. Upon what does a successful garden largely depend? Chapter XI. Commercial Fertilizers for Gardens. 1. Best fertilizers are compost and manures. 2. Commercial fertilizers contain plant food in available form and are ready for use. 3. The three most important elements in commercial fertil- izers are nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus. 4. These elements are obtained from : (a) Nitrogen — ^nitrate of soda, dried blood, tankage, fish scrap, cotton-seed meal. (b) Potassium — wood ashes, tobacco stems, kainite, sulphate of pota h. (c) Phosphorus — phosphate rock, ground bone, bone black. 5. Dried fertibze^s should be applied on a garden of 1,000 to 1,250 square feet as follows: (a) Ten pounds of nitrat of soda or sulphate of ammonia, puttin_ half of the quantity in the rows at planting time and scattering the other half broadcast and raking it in. (b) Use two tablespoonfuls for twenty feet of row space, directly in the row before the plants come up. (c) After the plants come up use the same amount as in (b) along the side of the rows, but do not let the fertilizer strike the plants. (d) Thirty pounds of acid phosphate scattered broad- cast and raked in. 166 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 6. Nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia fertilizers in solution are applied as follows : (a) Use one tablespoonful to a gallon of cold water. (b) Sprinkle the gallon along the side of the row, enough for twenty feet of row space. (c) Make three applications during the growing season. Make the first at or before planting time ; the second two weeks later, and the third about the middle of the growing season. (d) When the seeds are planted, use two heaping tablespoonfuls to a gallon of cold water for every twenty feet of row space. 7. Prepared fertilizer can be purchased. 8. A good prepared fertilizer contains : (a) Three to five per cent, of nitrogen. (b) Two per cent, of potash. (c) Eight to ten per cent, of phosphoric acid. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name three chemical elem.ents most necessarv to plant life. 2. From what two chief sources are fertilizers obtained? 3. How should dry fertilizers be applied? 4. Give proportions of fertilizers to be used in solution. 5. Tell how dry fertilizers should be applied. Chapter XII. Testing Garden Seeds. 1. It is very important that garden seed should be tested. 2. Some things which tend to undermine the vitality of the seed are : (a) Cold, wet seasons. (b) Seasons too short for seed to mature. (c) Improper storage of seeds. (d) Exposure to rodents or insects. ( e) Keeping them too long. 3. Seeds are tested as follows : (,a) Plant 100 seeds in a box of sand," cover with glass and keep in a temperature of 70 degrees ' I'^ahrenheit. (b) Place 100 seeds between two sheets of moist blotting paper and keep warm. (c) Fill two bags with sawdust and moisten them. Place 100 seeds between each bag. Place in box and keep warm. (d) The "rag doll" tester. Take a strip of cloth twelve inches long, mark off three-inch squares, leaving eight inches blank. Place a certain number of seeds in each square and roll up, placing the blank end over the seeds so they are not disturbed. Set in luke-warm water for twelve hours, then keep in a warm place for a week. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 167 4. By testing seeds we determine : (a) Percentage of seed that will germinate. (b) Strength of seed germ. 5. Most gardeners consider 75 per cent, germination as the minimum for seeds fit to plant. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What factors may affect the vitality of seeds? 2. Describe the process of making a germination test. 3. What percentage of germination can reasonably be ex- pected in most vegetable seeds? 4. How long may vegetables of different kinds he expected to retain their vitality? 5. Is it safe to plant seeds without first making a germi- nation test? Chapter XIII. The Hotbed. 1. The use of the hotbed is: ■ (a) To produce early plants for transplanting. (b) To grow plants out of season. 2. In constructing a hotbed : (a) Select a well-drained convenient site. (b) Dig a pit from two to three feet deep and six feet wide and as long as the sash that are used to cover it. (c) Place a two-inch plank fifteen inches wide on the south side. (d) Place board at the ends and pile dn't around • the bed. 3. The hotbed sashes are made in sections three feet wide and six feet long. They are arranged so that they can be raised and lowered. 4. In preparing a hotbed for plants: (a) Fill pit with moist manure and cover with rich soil. (b) Place a thermometer in the soil so that you can keen the temperature of the soil 85 degrees Fahrenheit which is right for plants. (c) Cool the bed by lifting up the sashes. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What are the purposes ■« f a hotbed? 2. What location should be selected? 3 Tell how a hotbed should be constructed. 4. Name three kinds of glass structures used in vegetable growing. . r u r o 5. What are the uses and limitations of cold frames.'' 6 What is the most common source of heat for hotbeds?. 7. What other means of heating hotbeds are sometimes employed ? 168 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Chapter XIV. Cold Frame and Seed Bed. 1. There is no manure used in cold frames. The sun furnishes the heat. 2. The principal use of the cold frame is to harden plants before transplanting them. 3. Cold frames are also used for : (a) Growing winter lettuce and spinach. (b) Storing certain tender plants over winter. 4. In severe cold weather, frame and bed are protected with straw, hay or fodder. 5. To make a seed bed : (a) Use one part well-rotted manure, two parts rich garden loam, and one part tine sand. (b) Compost from a compost heap is good soil. (c) Mix all ingredients thoroughly. 6. In the North, seed bed is protected by : (a) A wooden frame covered with canvas cloth, with earth banked up around the frame. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Tell the difference between a cold frame and a hotbed. 2. Give two uses of cold frames. 3. What is the value of a seed bed? 4. How is a seed bed made? 5. How is the temperature in cold frames controlled? Chapter XV. Planting Dates East of Mississtppl 1. The Indians planted their corn when: • (a) The oak leaves were as large as a squirrel's ears. (b) When the moon changed. 2. As weather conditions vary, it is wise to consult an experienced gardener in regard to planting time. 3. Itudy the chart on page 67 in regard to planting zones (text, -Ivins' Garden Crops). 4. For study, vegetables are placed in the following groups : (a) Group 1 : vegetables that may be planted two weeks before the last killing frost. Ex. : onion sets, radishes, early potatoes. (b) Group 2: vegetables that may be planted about the time of the last killing frost. Ex. : beets, cabbage, lettuce. (c) Group 3: vegetables that should be planted two weeks after the last killing frost. Ex. : beans, tomatoes. (d) Group 4: vegetables that can not be planted until the soil is warm, about one month after the last killing frost. Ex. : cucumbers, Hma beans. \GRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 169 5. Study the chart on page 67 for the earliest planting dates of the vegetables in the foregoing groups. 6. Use map on pages 68 and 69 for the latest planting dates. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. In what zone do you live? 2. What is a zone? 3. Upon what is the zone map based? 4. Why can we not have a zone map west of the Mississippi? 5. Of what use is a zone map? Chapter XVI, Planting Dates West of the Mississippi. 1. Study map on page 71 for the earliest planting dates. 2. Vegetables are grouped here the same as in the former chapter. 3. Study map on page IZ for the latest planting dates of vegetables. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS r. Is the western United States divided into zones? Why, or why not ? 2. By whom are the planting dates furnished? 3. Of what advantage are these maps? 4. Upon what are the dates based? 5. What should a stranger in any locality do before planting? Chapter XVII. Thinning and Replanting Plants. 1. Plants grow too thick because: (a) Too many seeds are planted. (b) Weather conditions cause the germination and growth of inferior seeds. 2. Where plants are too thick the gardener has the ad- vantage of eradicating the weak plants. 3. Thinning allows more growing space. The following plants can not pr ice well if too thick: radishes, carrots, beets, turnips and onions. 4. Replanting is done: (a) When we discover that the seed sown has failed to grow. (b) When plants set out die or are destroyed by- insects. (c) When we have poor seed. (d) When weather conditions are unfavorable. (e) When improper planting has occurred. 170 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 5. In replanting, the new plants should be placed as nearly as possible in the place where the other plants failed to grow. (a) Thinning the rows and replanting these plants is an economical and easy way. 6. Seed used for replanting should be soaked in warm water a few hours, to germinate more quickly. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name some plants that are injured by crowding. 2. What conditions make it necessary to replant ? 3. When should we replant? 4. Give two causes contributing to make plants grow too thick. 5. Why should seeds be soaked in warm water before being planted? Chapter XVIII. Growing and Transplanting Plants. 1. Plants can be grown in boxes at home, and replanted in separate containers when they have two or three leaves. 2. Plants grown in separate containers can be trans- planted yvithout any harm. 3. Tender plants should be covered at night until the danger of frost is past. 4. How to transplant : (a) Water plants before taking them out of the boxes. (b) Set the plants out at once. (c) If impossible to set out at once, cover with wet cloth and they will not wilt for a few hours. 5. Plants are watered out when transplanted as follows: (a) Make holes in the ground and fill them with water. Then fill hole about one-fourth with dirt and set plants. ' Then cover over with dry soil to hold in the moisture. 6. Water should never be poured over the surface of the soil about" newly transplanted plants. 7. All transplanting should be done late in the afternoon. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS ' 1. How should seed grown in small seed boxes in the house be transplanted to other containers? 2. 'Define watering out. 3. Why is watering out necessary? _ ■ 4. How may plants for transplanting be kept "from wilting before they are set out? 5. What tinie'of day is best' to transplant? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 171 Chapter XIX. Tillage and Use of Tools. 1. Tillage is the cultivation of the ground for the use of plants. 2. The soil should be cultivated after each rain to break crust and prevent the escape of moisture. 3. A dust mulch is a loose, fine covering of soil. 4. A mulch is used to prevent the escape of moisture. 6. The advantages of tillage are : (a) Improve physical condition of the soil. (b) To increase the quantity and availability of plant food. (c) To warm soil. (d) For better ventilation. (e) For better blending of the fertilizers with the soil. (f) To destroy insects and weeds. 6. The name and use of the garden tools are : (a) Weeder — to stir the soil between the rows. (b) Hoe — to cultivate "better between rows. (c) Rake — for leveling. (d) Wheel hoe — used same as hoe. (e) Spade — for digging up the ground. (f) Trowel — to transplant. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Define tillage. 2. Define dust mulch. 3. Give six advantages of cultivation. 4. Name five garden tools. 5. Give the use of each. Chapter XX. Watering the Garden. 1. The growth of plants depends upon the plant food in solution, which can only be obtained by watering. Rains fur..ish this water naturally. 2. Watering is giving additional water to the soil. 3. The five methods of watering are : (a) Garden hose. By sprinkling the ground at night. (b) Tin cans. Dig a hole the size of a can, per- forate the sides and bottom, put the can in the hole and fill it with water when the soil becomes dry. (c) Sub-irrigation. Trenches eighteen to twenty- four inches deep and three feet apart are dug. A tile or lath tubes are placed in the trench and filled with water. This water seeps through the ends of the tile or lath and is taken up by soil. 172 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. (d) Trench system. Dig trenches near the rows and fill with water. (e) Overhead sprinkling. Install pipes over the area to be watered. The pipes have a series of small holes, which sprays the garden when water is turned in. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Upon what does the proper growth of plants largely depend, and why ? 2. Define watering. 3. Name five metliods of watering. 4. Why should ground be cultivated after a rain? 5. In what form can plants make use of plant foods? Chapter XXI. Protecting the Garden Products. 1, The garden plants can be protected from the rabbits, sparrows, dogs, cats, moles and chickens by : (a) Cheese-cloth frames. Make a frame two to three feet square, out of pine boards about six inches wide, and cover the frame with cheese- cloth. Place the frames over the hills. (b) Light brush. Place small brush wood over the plants and that will afford some protection. (c) Bright objects. Bright tin or tin cans will frighten birds away. (d) Mole traps. Set mole traps in mole runs and destroy the moles, (e) Wire fencing, A fence of fine mesh wire will prevent cats, dogs and chickens from entering, SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Tell how cheese-cloth frames are made. 2. What is their value? 3. What value has brush as protection? 4. Should gardens be surrounded by a fence? Why, or why not? 5. How may moles be caught. Chapteu XXII. Garden Records. 1. A gardener should keep a record of all garden opera- tions. 2. The profits obtained from the garden can only be estimated by a carefully kept record. 3. For expense and receipt items, see page 92 "Garden Crops." AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 173 4. This record should contain : (a) Copy of the garden plan. (b) Amount of fruit and vegetables picked. (c) Record of the best varieties. (d) Record of the best companion and succession cropping system. . (e) Results obtained by use of various fertilizers, (f) Results of spraying. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What records should be kept in connection v^^ith sale and use of garden products? 2. Name expense items to be accounted for. 3. Why should we keep a garden plan r* 4. Should a record of the different varieties be kept? Why? 5. Name some good spraying materials. Chapter XXIII. Spraying for Insects and Plant Diseases. 1. The life history of the insect is: (a) Egg. (b) Larva — worm stage. (c) Pupa — resting stage. (d) Adult — matured insect. 2. A true insect has : (a) A hard body, divided into three parts: head, thorax and abdomen. (b) Three pairs of legs. (c) One or two pairs of wings. (d) A pair of antannae. 3. Some of the injurious insects are: (a) Beetles. (b) Butterflies. (c) Grasshoppers. ^ (,d) Moths. (e) Plant bugs. (f) Spiders. (g) Mites. 4. Insects are classified as : (a) Chewing insects — those that eat the leaves and stems. Ex. : cabbage, potato beetle. (b) Sucking insects — those that suck the juices. Ex. : squash bug. 5. The method of destroying, (a) Chewing insects, is spraying. The insects get the poison into their stomachs. (b) Sucking insects, is spraying them with a strong poison that will kill them, when it comes into contact with their bodies. 174 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 6. Time for spraying plants begins when the insects appear and continues until they disappear. 7. Liquid sprays may be applied by using: (a) Sprinkling can. (b) Force pump. (c) Hand atomizer. 8. Dry sprays are applied by means of: (a) A dust bag or perforated can filled with paris green and shaken over the plants when they are wet with the dew. 9. Plant diseases are due to the growth of fungi and bacteria. 10. Diseases may be prevented by : (a) Rotation of crops. (b) Keeping weeds away. (c) Destroying decayed fruits and vegetables. 11. The chief remedy for controlling plant diseases is spraying with Bordeaux mixture. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Define a true insect. 2. Describe four stages through which an insect passes in completing a life history. 3. Into what two forms are insects classified? 4. Name three examples of biting insects. 5. Name two examples of sucking insects. Chapter XXIV. Protecting Garden Crops from Frost. 1. The devices used are: (a) Frames covered with cheese-cloth. (b) Muslin. (c) Newspapers. (d) Tin cans. (e) Boxes. (f) Barrels. (g) Patented devices. 2. Plants slightly frosted can be revived by sprinkling with cold vater before the sun is up. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1 Name six devices for protecting plants against frosts. 2 How do frost-protecting devices lengthen the growing season? 3. Name some frost-protecting devices used in your com- munity 4. How should plants that have been frosted be treated? 5. Why do hay and straw protect plants from frost? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 175 Chapter XXV. Weeds and Weeding. . 1. A weed is a plant out of place. 2. Weeds should be destroyed for : (a) They take up plant food. (b) They take up plant moisture. (c) Afford an abiding place for injurious insects. 3. Weeds are classified as : (a) Annuals — come from seed every year. (b) Biennial — live tv^o years. (c) Perennials — live on, year after year. 4. Weeds can be destroyed by : (a) Annuals — not permitting them to seed. (b) Biennials — pull them up the first year. (c) Perennials — cut off tops and pour salt water on roots. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Define weeds. 2. Why do we destroy them ? 3. Into what classes are they divided?. 4. Name two plants of each class. 5. Give some methods used to destroy weeds. Chapter XXVI. The Gardener's Friends. 1-. The insect friends are : (a) Ladybug. which destroys plant lice and Colorado potato beetle. (b) Wasps, which destroy insects by stinging them. . (c) Ichneumon and chalcid flies, which lay their eggs on larva of the injurious insects and when hatched the young feed upon these injurious insects. (d) Syrphus fly — destroys plant lice. (e) Ground beetle feed upon injurious insects. 2. Other friends are : (a) Toad, which feeds upon insects and destroys cutworms, crickets, grasshoppers, etc. (b) Birds, which feed upon insects. (c) Lizards, snakes and skunks. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS ; 1. Name five insects that destroy injurious insects. 2. How do wasps, kill insects? . ^ . . 3. Upon what insects do toads feed? 4. Should we encourage birds to visit our gardens ? ; Why ? 5. How may this be,, done? . 176 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING J'OK SCHOOLS. Chapter XXVII. Lettuce. 1. Culture of lettuce: (a) Thrives best in cool weather. (b) Grows best in rich sandy soil containing humus. (c) Seed should be sown broadcast. (d) Rake in seed and cover about one-half inch with soil. (e) Transplant or thin when plants are small. (f) Give frequent cultivation. (g) For early crop start lettuce in hotbed. 2. Varieties of lettuce are : (a) Leaf — Grand Rapids. (b) Head — Big Boston and May King. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What soil and climatic conditions are best for growing lettuce? 2. How should it be planted and cultivated? 3. How do we produce crisp leaves ? 4. How do we obtain an early crop? 5. Name two varieties of leaf lettuce. Chapter XXVIII. Radishes. 1. Culture of radishes: (a) Soil should be rich. (b) Thrive best in cool weather. (c) Plant seeds one inch apart in rows. (d) Cover seed with one-half inch of soil. (e) For constant use plant every two weeks. 2. Radishes are best when young, as they lose their flavor and crispness if in the ground too long. 3. Radishes can be grown as a companion crop by sowing between rows of long-season crops. 4. The varieties of radishes are: (a) Early — Scarlet Globe, Short Top. (b) Summer — White Icicle. (c) Winter — Japanese. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS L What soil and climatic conditions are best for radishes? 2. Why should they be used while young? 3 What are the advantages of thinning? 4. Give a plan for companion cropping, including radishes. 5. Name two varieties of early radishes. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 177 Chapter XXIX. Peas. 1. Culture of peas : (a) Require rich, mellow soil, thoroughly worked. (b) Can stand light frosts. (c) Should be covered two inches deep with fine soil. (d) Plant about fifteen seed to a foot. (e) Cultivate frequently. 2. In planting varieties that need support: (a) PI in double rows six to eight inches apart and three to four feet between the double rows. (b) Place supports between the double rows. 3. The supports for peas are made by : (a) Placing stakes between the double rows, eight feet apart and tacking wire netting to it. (b) By placing stakes four inches apart and tying strings to the stakes. 4. Enemies of peas are : (a) Pea aphis — destroyed by using kerosene emulsion. (b) Pea weevil — tiny beetle, destroyed by using bisulphide of carbon. 5. Kerosene emulsion is made by: (a) Shaving one-fourth pound of hard soap into one-half gallon of boiling water. (b) Remove from fire and add one gallon of kerosene. (c) For use in summer time take one part of this emulsion to nine parts of soft water. 6. Varieties of peas : (a) Early dwarf — Alaska, Gradus. (b) Wrinkled — Telephone, Champion of England. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What soil is most suitable for peas? 2. Name common methods for supporting p^a vines. 3. Name two insect enemies. 4. Tell how we prepare kerosene emulsion. 5. How do we destroy the pea weevil? Chapter XXX. Onions. 1. Culture of onions: (a) Well-drained loams, rich in humus. (b) Plant seed one and one-half inches apart in rows, (cj Cover with one inch fine soil. (d) For early bulbs plant seed in hotbed. (e) Plants four or five inches high, are best for transplanting. (f) Onion sets are planted two inches apart and one to two inches deep. 178 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. (g) Onions require shallow cultivation and hand weeding, (h) Used as green onions and ripe onions. 2. Onion diseases are : (a) Onion smut — which prevents the growth. (b) Downy mildew — which causes rot. 3. These diseases are prevented by : (a) Treating with formalin solution. (b) Spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 4. The insect enemy of onions is the maggot which infests the soil. 5. The maggot can be controlled by : (a) Crop rotation. (b) Planting other vegetables. 6. Varieties of onions : (a) Sets — White Silverskin. (b) Dry — Yellow Globe and Silver King. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What is the best soil or onions? 2. How should they be planted? 2. How are early spring onions produced? 4. What conditions indicate that onions are ripe? 5. Name two onion diseases. Tell how they are controlled. Chapter XXXI. Cabbage. 1. Culture of cabbage t (a) Rich, w^arm, mellow soil. (b) Plant seed in hotbed for early cabbage. (c) Cabbage plants should be placed from twelve to eighteen inches apart in rows and one-half to one inch deep in row. (d) Rows should be from thirty to thirty-six inches apart. (e) Plant fall crop in June. 2. Cabbage can be companion crop to early potatoes. 3. Diseases of cabbage are : (a) Clubroot. (b) Yellows (c) Black and soft rot. 4. Prevent these diseases by : (a) Rotation of crops. (b) Liming the soil. (c) Sowing clean seed. ^ 5. Varieties of cabbage are : (a) Early— Jersey Wadefield and Copenhagen. (b) Late— Flat Dutch and Danish Ball Head. ,!v..: 6. Chinese. cabb^Lge is often called "Celery Cabbage." (a) Cultivation same as cabbage. : (b) Matures in less time than cabbage. AGRICULTUr.E .VXD GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 1/9 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What soil is most favorable for the growth of cabbage? 2. Name the plant diseases common to cabbage. 3. How are these diseases prevented? 4. Name one early and one late variety of cabbage. 5. What is Chinese cabbage? Chapter XXXII. C.xBBAGE Enemies and Their Control. 1. The five insects that infest the cabbage are: (a) Cutworm. (b) Cabbage worm. (c) Flea-beetle. (d) Cabbage looper. (e) Pla.-t-louse. 2. How to prevent or destroy the (a) Cutworm. By placing a poison bait near the plants ; by wrapping the plant in paper extending an inch or two above the soil and one inch below the surface of the soil. (b) Cabbage worm. Destroy the eggs by spraying the plants with air-slaked lime, road dust, wood ashes, powdered tobacco stems or tobacco leaves. (c) Cabbage looper, flea-beetle and cabbage worms. Use paris green with lime or arsenate of lead. (d) Plant-louse. Spray with dissolved cresol or resin fish-oil soap. 3. How to use (a) Paris green and lime: Mix one tablespoonful paris green to a pint of lime and dust leaves early in the morning. (b) Arsenate o^ lead: Use two-thirds ounce to one gallon of- water and apply every two or three weeks. 4. A sticker to aid the arsenate of lead in sticking to the ' leaves -is made by dissolving soap and adding this to the poison solution. See textbook. • SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name five insect enemies of cabbage. 2. How is poison bait for cutworms prepared? 3. How are cabbage protected from cutworms? 4. How do we destroy the cabbage aphis? 5. What insect enemies of cabbage are most common near your home? 180 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS, Chapter XXXIII. Beets. 1. Culture of beets : (a) Can be grown in almost any climate. (b) Grow best in a moist, well-drained soil. (c) Grow well in cool climates. (d) Should be planted about one inch deep in rows twelve to eighteen inches apart. (e) Plants to be thinned to stand six inches apart, (f) Transplant beets for greens. (g) Make about four plantings to insure a continu- ous supply. 2. Insect enemies of beets are : (a) Beet army worms. Destroyed by arsenate of lead. (b) Flea-beetle. Destroyed by spraying with paris green or arsenate of lead. 3. Varieties of beets are : (a) Crosby Egyptian, Detroit Red, Eclipse. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. In what climate do beets grow well? 2. How should we use extra beet plants? 3. Name some insect enemies of beets. 4. How do we control these enemies? 5. Name two reliable varieties of beets. Chapter XXXIV. Parsnips. 1. Culture of parsnips: (a) Easily grown in rich, mellow soil. (b) Plant in early spring when ground is fit. (c) Plan; seed one-half to one inch deep and two and one-half inches apart. (d) Plant seed in rows twelve to eighteen inches apart. 2. Parsnips can remain in the ground all winter, ^ but should be dug in the spring before they begin to grow. 3. Parsnips can be used as a companion crop with lettuce, radishes and onions. 4. Webworms are the worst enemies and can be controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. 5. Varieties of parsnips are: (a) Hallow Crown, Sugar. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How do we plant and cultivate the parsnip? 2. Why do we leave parsnips in the ground over winter? 3. Name three companion crops. 4. Name the most common insect enemies. 5. Name two leading varieties. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 181 Chapter XXXV. Carrots and Chervils. 1. Culture of carrots : (a) Rich, mellow soil. (b) Plant in rows two inches apart. (c) Begin to cultivate when about one inch high. (d) Hasten growth by use of small amount of fer- tilizer. 2. Insect enemy is the cutworm. 3. Varieties of the carrot are: (a) Early — Golden Ball, Scarlet Horn. (b) Late — French Forcing, Long Orange. 4. Culture of chervils : (a) Seed can be sown in spring or early fall. (b) Cultivation like carrot. (c) Two types are grown — Salad type and Vegetable type. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name a companion crop used for marking carrot rows, 2. How do we plant and cultivate carrots?" 3. Name some insect enemies. 4. Name two varieties of carrots. 5. Name two types of chervil. How is it used? Chapter XXXVI. Turnips and Rutabagas. 1. Culture of turnips : (a) Grow best in cool, moist climate. (b) Grow best in rich, mellow soil. (c) Two crops can be grown in same year. (d). Plant early crop as soon as ground can be worked. (e) Plants should be two inches apart and planted in rows. (f) Plant late crops during July and first of August. (g) Cover seed with soil from one-fourth to one-half inch. (h) Cultivate frequently and keep free from weeds. 2. Varieties of turnips are : (a) Purple Top Globe. White Globe. 3. Culture of rutabagas is the same as turnips except: (a) Need a longer time to mature. (b) Require more room for growing. 4. Enemies of turnips and rutabagas are : (a) Clubroot. (b) Destroying insects — cutworms and cabbage worm. 5. Leading varieties of rutabagas are: (a) Large White, Purple Top. 182 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Where' is the turnip most successfully grown? 2. When and how is seed sown for the early crop? 3. Name two varieties of the turnip. 4. Name two varieties of the rutabaga. 5. Name the plant diseases that injure turnips and ruta- bagas. Chapter XXXVII. Irish Potatoes. i. History of potato is: (a) Native of America. (b) Taken to Ireland in time of famine. 2. Culiure of potatc : (a) Plant in rows two to two and one-half feet apart. (b) Grows best m well-drained sandy loam, rich in hr.r.uis. (c.) For 100 feet of row space use four to ^ix pounds of seed. id) Potato tubers are planted three to four inches deep and about lifteen inches apart. (e) Cut seed potatoes so that three eyes appear m each p:c;:c. (f) Each cut of seed should weigh about two ounces. (g) Plant early potatoes as soon as ground can be worked. (h) Plant late potatoes during June and first of July, (i) Potatoes require a large amount of water, (j) During the last of the growing season pull the dirt up around the vines to protect the tubers from the sun, when vines die. 3. Di'^ease of potato is the potato scab: * (a) Potato scab is a parasite in the soil, (•b) Treat with formalin solution. (c) If potato has scab next year, secure a new loca- tion. 4. Enemies of potato are: (a) Colorado potato beetle. (b) Blister. (c) Flea-beetle. 5. Control the enemies by : (a) Spraying with paris green or arsenate of lead. (b) For small garden spray with Bordeaux mixture for plant diseases on the vines. (c) Spray until enemy disappears. 6. Varieties of potatoes are: (a) Early — Early Ohio, Early Rose. Irish Cobbler. Medium and late — Green JMountain, Rural New York, Sir Walter Raleigh. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING EOR SCHOOLS. 183 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIOxNS 1. \\'hat is the chief source of seed potatoes in your neigh- borhood? 2. Name some enemies of the potato. 3. What methods are used to prevent disease of the potato? 4. What methods are used to destroy the insect enemies? 5. Name two varieties of both early and late potatoes. Chapter XXXVIII. Sweet Potatoes. 1. A sweet potato belongs to the morning-glory family. 2. Culture of sweet potato : (a) Grows best in South. (b) Adapted to a warmer, well-drained sandy loam soil. (c) Grown in ridges three to five feet feet apart to insure good drainage. (d) Fertilize the ridges well. (e) Start plants in hotbeds. (f) Cultivate freely and keep soil free from weeds. 3. Insect enemy is the cutworm. 4. Varieties are : (a) Improved Jersey. Triumph. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Why does the sweet potato grow well in the South? 2. How is it planted and cultivated? 3. Name some insect enemies. 4., How may we destroy these enemies? 5. Name some leading varieties of the sweet potato. Chapter XXXIX. Peppers and Eggplants. 1. Culture of peppers: (a) Grow in almost all climates. (b) Tender — therefore do not plant until after last kilhng frost. (c) Plants can be raised in hotbeds. (d) Plant about eight weeks before time of trans- planting in the garden. (e) Set plants twelve to eighteen inches apart. (f) Plant in rows which should be two and on^-half to three feet apart. (g) Plant seed outside one-half inch deep. 2. Varieties of peppers, are: ' (a) Sweet — Bull No^p, Sweet Spanish. (b) Hot — Red Cluster, Long Red Cayenne. 184 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 3. Culture of eggplants : • (a) Sow indoors two months before transplanting time. (b) Tender — all danger of frost should be past. (c) Plant eighteen to twenty-four inches apart in rows three feet apart. (d) Cultivate thoroughly. (e) In rich soil, thirteen to fifteen plants are enough for a family of four. 4. Has same enemies as white potato. 5. Varieties are : (a) Florida High Bush. Black Beauty. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1'. Give culture requirements for peppers and eggplants. 2. Name two varieties of peppers. 3. Name two varieties of eggplants. 4. Name enemies of eggplants. 6. How may these enemies be controlled? Chapter XL. Tomatoes. 1. Culture of tomatoes: (a) Fertile sandy loam with well-drained clay as sub- soil. (b) Plant indoors about eight weeks before setting out in the garden. (c) When two inches high transplant in other soil in indoor boxes. (d) Place plants eighteen inches apart in rows three feet apart for pruning. (e) Place plants three feet apart if not pruned. 2. The advantages of staking and pruning are : (a) Fruit ripens earlier. (b) Fungous diseases are diminished. (c) Spraying, cultivation and harvesting are easier. (d) Space is economized. 3. Insect enemies are: (a) Flea-beetle. (b) Cutworm. (c) Tomato worm. 4. Insects can be controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. 5. Diseases of tomato are similar to other plants and are controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 6. Varieties are: fa) Early — Acme, John Beer. (b) Medium— Globe, Red Rock. (c) Late — Ponderosa, Matchless. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 185 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Describe some method of planting and cultivating toma- toes. 2. How should tomato vines be staked and pruned? 3. What insect and plant diseases injure tomatoes? 4. What may we use to prevent these enemies ? 5. Name three varieties of early tomatoes and one late variety. Chapter XLI. Beans. 1. Beans are classified as: (a) Field beans. (b) Garden beans. 2. The kinds of garden beans are: (a) Bush beans. Ex.: kidney and lima. (b) Pole beans. Ex.: kidney and lima. 3. The kidnev pole and kidney bush are subdivided as : (a) Wax. (b) Greenpod. 4. Gardeners class beans as : (a) Snap — eaten green. (b) String — eaten green. (c) Green shell — ^eaten green. ( d ) Dry shell — fully ripened. 5. Culture of beans : (a) Grown in all kinds of soil. (b) Should not be planted in rich muck, as the vines will bear few beans. (c) W'ill not stand frosts. (d) Plant when all danger of frost is past. (e) Bush beans are more hardy than pole. (f) Limas require a longer growing season. (g) Plant bush beans in rows eighteen inches apart and one-half to one inch deep. (h) Plant pole beans in hills four feet apart each way and four beans to a hill, (i) Do not cultivate when plants are wet. 6. Pole beans should be cultivated as follows : (a) Place a pole in each hill and have the poles slant toward each other. (b) Plant beans with corn and let vines cli:T;b around stalk. (c) Place a wire net and let vines climb around wire. 7. Varieties are : (a) Bush green — Green Pod. Red Valentine. (b) Pole green — Kentucky Wonder. (c) Bush lima — Landreth. Burpee's Bush. (d) Pole lima — Seibert, Ideal. 186 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name the general groups into which beans are divided. 2. Name two divisions of the garden bean. 3. Why do we avoi4 planting beans in rich soil? 4. How and when should beans be cultivated? 5. Name some leading varieties of beans. Chapter XLII, Bean Enemies and Their Control. 1. Bean diseases : (a) Bean anthracnose — detected by spots with pink centers and a reddish border. Prevented by seed selection and rotation. (b) Bean blight — detected by a water-soaked area, which drys out and becomes brown and brittle. Use same prevention as in (a). (c) Downy mildew — prevented by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 2. Harmful insects : (a) Bean weevil — controlled only by fumigating the seed at harvest time with carbon bisulphide. (b) Bean ladybug, leaf beetle, blister beetle — pre- vented by spraying with arsenate of lead. Plants tender, use it only half strength. (See text.) (c) Bean aphis — controlled by using nicotine sul- phate. 3. To make nicotine sulphate : (a) For small garden, one teaspoonful to one gallon of water, to which add one-inch cube of hard soap after it is dissolved. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Define bean anthracnose. How do we detect it? How may we prevent it ? 2. How do we detect bean blight ? How may we prevent it ? 3. How is downy mildew prevented? 4. How is Bordeaux mixture prepared? 5; Name some insects that are harmful to beans. Chapter XLIII. Sweet Corn and Popcorn. 1. Culture of sweet corn : (a) Grown under many conditions. (b) Plant as soon as soil becomes warm. (c) Plant in hills three feet apart, four grains hill. (d) If planted in rows, set fifteen inches apart. (e) Plant every three weeks. (f) Use as soon as ears are ripe. 4 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 187 (g) Keep soil loose and free from weeds. (h) Pull the soil up around the stalks for support. 2. The enemies of sweet corn are : (a) Root aphis — controlled by crop rotation. (b) Corn ear-worm — apply arsenate of lead to silks. (c) Cutworms and flea-beetles. 3. The diseases of corn are blights, which are controlled by destroying infected seed and crop rotation * 4. Varieties of sweet corn are : (a) Early — ^Golden Bantum, Black Mexican. (b) Medium and late — Country Gentle'a:an, Ever-' green. 5. The culture of popcorn : (a) Similar to sweet corn. (b) Do not plant too thick. (c) Plant three seeds to a hill, thirty to thirty-six inches apart. (d) Plant in rows, twenty-four_ to twenty-eight inches apart, for hand cultivation. (e) Care must be taken in storing, as corn will not pop unless it is dry. 6. The varieties of popcorn are : (a) Rice — used for popping. (b) Pearl — used for popping. (c) Yankee — suited for stringing. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What culture does sweet corn require? 2. Name important enemies of sweet corn. 3. How can we prevent these from injuring corn? 4. Name one early, cue medium and one late variety of sweet corn. 5. Name three varieties of popcorn. Chapter XLIV. Cucumbers. 1. Culture of cucumbers : (a) Require rich, mellow soil. (b) A warm cHmate. (c) Fertilize soil. (d) Easily injured by frost. (e) For early crop, plant seed indoors. (f) Plant seeds one inch deep and eighteen inches apart in rows that are five to six feet apart. (g) Plant ten to fifteen seeds in a hill and thin to three plants. ■ (h) Cultivate frequently when plants are small, (i) Early ^ruit should be picked, as this stimulates vines to greater productiveness. 188 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 2. Companion crops with cucumbers are: (a) Early bush beans. (b) Lettuce or radishes. 3. The enemies of cucumbers are : (a) Cucumber beetle — controlled by spraying with a solution of arsenate of lead and a little Bor- deaux mixture. (b) Melon aphis. (c) Other diseases as wilt, mildew and anthracnose — spray with Bordeaux mixture. 4. Varieties are : (a) Emerald. (b) White Spine. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How should we plant cucumbers to secure an early yield? 2. Name some companion crops. 3. Name the most harmful enemies of the cucumber. 4. How do we prevent them from injuring the vines? 5. Name some plant diseases that attack the cucumber. Chapter XLV. Melons. 1. Culture of melons : (a) Similar to cucumbers. (b) Insects and diseases the same. 2. Culture of watermelons: (a) Plant seeds in hills eight to ten feet apart, (b) Thin plants to three stocks to a hill. (c) In rows plants should be twenty inches apart, 3. Culture of muskmelons : (a) Plant in hills six feet apart. (b) Leave four plants in each hill. (c) In rows plants should be twenty inches apart. 4. Culture of citron melons : (a) Similar to watermelons. 5. Enemies of melons: (a) Same as cucumbers. 6. Varieties of melons : (a) Watermelon — Tom Watson, Florida Favorite. (b) Muskmelon — Rocky F^ord, Ohio Sugar. (c) Citron melon — Colorado Preserving. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What conditions of soil and climate do melons require? 2. What are the cultural requirements of mus'kmelons? 3. Name two varieties of muskmelons. 4. What are the cultural requirements of watermelons? 5. Name some enemies of melons. How are these enemies controlled ? AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 189 Chapter XLVI. Squashes, Vegetable Marrows, Pumpkins. 1. The kinds of squashes are: (a) Slimmer. (b) Winter. "2, Culture of squashes : (a) Grow in places where other plants do not. (b) Used to cover unsightly places. (c) Requires a rich, mellow soil, but easy to grow. (d) Plant summer squash in hills four feet apart, and winter six to eight feet apart. (e) Plant seed when the danger of frost is over. (f) For early crops seed may be planted in seed boxes. (g) Cultivation and care same as cucuilibers. 3. Enemies of squashes are : (a) Squash bug — controlled by use of nicotine sul- phate; also killed by hand. (b) For other enemies, see Chapter XLIV. 4. Varieties of squashes are : » (a) Summer — Summer Crookneck, Early Jersey, White Bush. (b) Winter — Hubbard, Delicious. 5. Vegetable marrows : (a) Resemble pumpkins. (b) Picked when the outer skin can be broken by the finger. (c) Served like sweet potatoes and eggplarft. 6. Culture of pumpkins : (a) Soil and climate similar to squashes. (b) Planted in hills eight to ten feet apart. (c) Often planted in with corn. (d) Pumpkin seed should not be placed in corn drill and planted at same time, fis it destroys the uni- formity of the corn. 7. Enemies of pumpkin are same as squashes. 8. Varieties of pumpkin are : (a) Burpees Golden Oblong. (b) Small Sugar. (c) W^hite Cushaw. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What types of squashes are adapted to garden culture? 2. What are the cultural requirements for squashes and pumpkins? 3. What insect enemies injure these crops? 4. Where are pumpkins usually grown? 5. What are vegetable marrows? 190 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Chapter XLVII. Celery and Celeriac. 1. Culture of celery : (a) Requires deep, rich, loose, moist soil. (b) Usually planted after early crops, (c) Plant one-eighth of inch deep and six inches apart in rows that are three to five feet apart. (d) Keep plants free from weeds. (e) Seed may be sown in hotbed or cold frame and then transplanted. 2. Celery may be blanched by means of: (a) Earth banked around it. (b) Boards or paper placed around the stock. (c) Covering stalk with drain tile. 3. Celery»may be stored by: (a) Leaving it in the ground and covering it with leaves and straw. (b) Storing it in a cellar or pit where the stalks are reset in loose soil. 4. The enemies of celery are : (a) I?arly and late leaf blight — controlled by apply- ing Bordeaux mixture. (b) Tarnish plant bug — destroyed by nicotine sul- phate. 5. The varieties of celery are : (a) Easy Blanching. (b) Columbia. 6. Celeriac differs from celery in that : (a) Only the roots are used. (b) Does not reouire blanching. (c) By applying a light covering the roots may re- main out all winter, or may be stored like carrots. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What are the cultural requirements for celery and celeriac ? 2. Describe methods used to blanch celery. 3. How is celery preserved for winter use? 4 What enemies injure celery? 5. How are these enemies destroyed? Chaptkr XLVIII. K.ALE AND Cauliflower. . 1. Kale, cauliflower, collards and Brussels sprouts are re- lated to cabbage and are often- substituted for it. 2. Culture of kale : (a) Hardy plant and can be left in ground if freez- ing is not too severe. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 191 (b) Needs rich, mellow soil. (c) Cultivation and planting same as cabbage. (d) Produces no heads. (e) Light frost imoroves the flavor of the plant. 3. Varieties of kale are: (a) Dwarf. (b) Siberian. 4. Culture of cauliflower: (a) Requires rich, moist soil. (b) Can not endure much frost. (c) Planting and cultivation same as cabbage. (d) Must be sown early or late; will not form heads in summer. (e) To blanch heads, try tying the leaves over it. 5. Enemies of kale and cauliflower are same as cabbage. 6. Best variety of cauliflower is Early Snowball. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What is the chief reason for producing kale and cauli- flower ? 2. What are the soil and climatic conditions required for successful growth ? 3. What methods are used in producing kale? 4. Name two varieties of kale. 5. How do we keep heads of cauliflower white until ready for use? Chapter XLIX. COLLARDS AND BrUSSFXS SpROUTS. 1. Culture of collards: (a) Rich, moist soil. (b) Can endure heat. (c) Forms a loose rosette of leaves on top of stalk, vd) Often served as greens. (e) Planting and cultivation same as cabbage. 2. Culture of Brussels sprouts: (a) Same as cabbage. (b) Forms small heads in the axils of leaves. (c) Remove the leaves when heads are small. 3. Store Brussels sprouts by: (a) Leaving them in the ground. (b) Putting them in the cellar, storage pit or cold frame. 4. Enemies similar to cabbage. 5. Varieties of Brussels sprouts: (a) Paris Market. (b) Dwarf. (c) Perfection. 192 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Where are collards usually grown? 2. What part of the plant is used for food? 3. What is the best known variety of collards? 4. How are Brussels sprouts produced? 5. What are the enemies of collards and Brussels sprouts? Chapter L. KOHL-RABI AND OkRA. 1. Culture of kohl-rabi same as cabbage. 2. Description of kohl-rabi : (a) Belongs to cabbage family. (b) Enlarged portion of the stem just ground is used. (c) Use fleshy stems when tender. The varieties of kohl-rabi are : (a) Early White Vienna. (b) Early Purple Vienna. Culture of okra : (a) Rich soil. (b) Warm climate. (c) Sow in rows four to five feet apart. (d) Plants should be two feet apart. The edible parts of okra are the seed pods. Varieties of okra are : (a) Lady Finger. (b) Long Green. (c) Perkms Mammoth. above the 3. 4. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What culture does kohl-rabi require? 2. What parts of these plants are used for food? 3. Are they grown in your community? Name two varieties of kohl-rabi. Name two varieties of okra. Chapter LI, Spring Greens. 1. The two leading crops are spinach and mustard. 2. Spinach is the most important crop used for greens. 3. Culture of spinach : (a) Plant in early spring or late fall. (b) Plant one-half to one inch deep. (c) Seven or eight plants to a foot. (d) Use rich soil. (e) L^se whole plant for greens. (f) Keep free from weeds. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 193 4. Varieties of spinach: (a) Dutch. (b) Savory. 5. Cuhiire of mustard : (a) Grows in most any garden soil. (b) Thrives best in cool climates. (c) Plant one-half inch deep and about four inches apart. (d) Plant in early spring or late fall. (e) Use either entire plant or leaves. 6. Varieties of mustard are: (a) Giant Ostrich. (b) Large-leaved Curled. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name two leading crops used as greens. 2. How are they produced? 3. What methods are used in producing mustard ? 4. For what purpose other than greens is mustard used? 5. How many have grown spring greens? Cttaptfr , LI I. Spring Salads. 1. The crops grown for spring salads are: (a) Leaf lettuce. (For lettuce, see Chapter XXVII.) (b) Garden cress. ( c) Corn salad. 2. Culture of garden cress : (a) Plant one-half inch deep, using three to six to an inch. fb) Plant in rows one foot apart. (c) Crop will be ready for use in six weeks. (d) Keep free from weeds. (e) Sow every ten days for continuous supply. 3.. Corn salad is also known as lamb's lettuce and fetticus. 4. Culture of corn salad : Ca) Sow seed in early spring. (b) Plants should be about six inches apart. (c) Plant in rows twelve to fifteen inches apart. 5. Corn salad is used like lettuce. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name some crops grown for spring salads. 2. Give special uses of garden cress. 3. What cultural methods does garden cress require? 4. What cultural methods are required for corn salad? 5. How do we prepare corn salad for the table? VM AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Chapter LIII. Greens that Endure Heat. 1. These greens are : (a) Swiss chard. (b) Kale or borecole. (c) Collards. (d) New Zealand spinach. 2. Culture of Swiss chard : (a) Belongs to beet family. (b) Prepared like spinach. (c) Cut leaves from plant. (d) For cultivation, see Chapter XXXIII. 3. Best variety is Giant Lucullus. 4. Advantages of growing New Zealand spinach: (a) Withstands heat and dry weather. (b) Produces good greens during the summer. (c) Makes a larger growth than the true spinach. 5. Culture of New Zealand spinach : (a) Plant in rows three feet apart. (b) Plants should stand fifteen to eighteen inches apart. (c) Soak seed before planting. (d) Plant one-half to one inch deep. 6. Prepare like ordinary spinach. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What cultural methods are required for kale? 2. What cultural methods are required for collards? 3. How do we grow Swiss chard? 4. Name one variety of Swiss chard. 5. Name one advantage of growing New Zealand spinach in the garden. Chapter LIV. Salads that Endure Heat. 1. Chief plants used are: (a) Parsley. (b) Upland cress. (c) Endive. 2. Parsley is used for: (a) Garnishing. (b) Flavoring. (c) Salads. 3. Culture of parsley : (a) Sow in rows twelve inches apart. (b) Set the plants four inches apart. (c) Prepare the garden soil well, for the seeds are small and germinate slowly. (d) Soak seeds in warm watier before planting. (e) For early crops sow seeds in hotbeds. (f) Ready for' ti$^; in three moriths. (g) Plants will stand dry weather. AGRTCl'LTURE AND C.ARDEXINX. FOR SCHOOLS. lO" 4. Varieties of parsley are : (a) Dwarf. (b) Moss Curled. 5. Culture of Upland cress: (a) Plants will endure heat and furnish leaves dur- ing summer. (b) Does not produce seed the first year. (c) Will freeze if left unprotected. (d) Sow seed one-half inch deep in rows twelve inches apart. (e) Plants should stand eighteen to twenty inches apart. (f) Crop ready for use in ten weeks. 6. Endive is one of the finest salad plants. 7. Endive is a native of China. 8. Culture of endive : (a) Plants should stand twelve inches apart. (b) Plant in rows eighteen inches apart. (c) In dry weather the plants need watering out. (d) Cultivate the soil frequently.' 9. To blanch endive : (a) When the outer leaves are eight inches long, tie the ends together. (b) See that no moisture is on the leaves. (c) This process will take three weeks. (d) Tie only a few plants at a time, for the stocks should be used as soon as they are blanched. (e) Plants placed in cellar can be used during the winter. 10. Varieties of endive are : (a) White Curled. (b) Green Curled. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name three garden salad plants that withstand summer heat. 2. Give methods of culture required for parsley. 3. Name two ^'arieties of parsley. 4. W^hat cultural method is required for Upland cress? 5. How is endive produced? Chapter LV. Pl.ants Related to the Onion. 1. Related plants are: (a) Chives. (b) Garlic. (c) Le.ks. 2. Chives is a small onion-like plant used for flavoring soup. 196 AGRICULTURE AND GARDRNIXG FOR SCHOOLS. 3. Culture of chives : (a) Propagated by bulbs. (b) Set twelve inches apart in rows eighteen inches apart. (c) For winter use, transplant in cold frame. 4. Garlic is used like chives. 5. Culture of garlic : (a) Propagated by bulbs. (b) Bulb is made of small divisions called "cloves." (c) Cultivation like chives. (d) Cured for winter by braiding the tops together and hanging up the bulbs. 6. Leeks are used like onions. 7. Leeks form no bulbs, but have a thick uniform stem. 8. Culture of leeks same as onions. 9. Leek stems must be blanched. 10. A variety of leek is the American Flag. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name three garden crops related to the onion. 2. What cultural method is required for chives? 3. What cultural method is required for leeks? 4. W^hat cultural method is required for garlic? 5. What is the most important use of each of the above crops? > Chapter LVI. Root Crops that Withstand Winter Freezing. 1. The root crops that withstand winter freezing are : (a) Parsnips. (b) Salsify. (c) Horse-radish. 2. Freezing often improves these root crops. 3. Culture of parsnips is the same as carrc ts. 4. The culture of salsify or vegetable oyster is: (a) Plant seed one-half to one inch deep in rows one to one and one-half feet apart. (b) Plants should stand three to four inches apart. 5. Description of salsify : (a) Biennial. (b) Dig roots before second season to prevent plants going to seed. (c) Served the same as parsnips. (d) Called "vegetable oyster" because it has an oyster flavor. 6. Varieties of salsify : (a) Sandwich Island. (b) Long White. (c) Mammoth. AGRirULTURK AND GARDEXIXG FOR SCHOOLS. 197 7. Culture of horse-radish : (a) Requires deep, rich, well-drained soil. (b) Plant roots one to one and one-half feet apart in rows three feet apart. (c) Root cuttings are used for planting. (d) Obtain the root-cutting by taking the small side roots. (e) Select roots six inches long and one-fourth to one-half inches in diameter. (f) Keep free from weeds. (g) Plant at one end of the garden with other per- ennials. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What root crops withstand winter freezing as well as summer heat ? 2. How are parsnips grown? 3. How is salsify produced? 4. What are the cultural requirements for horse-radish? 5. For what purpose is horse-radish used? Chapter LVII. Perennial Crops. 1. Most important perennial crops are: (a) Asparagus. (b) Rhubarb. (c) Horse-radish. 2. Culture of asparagus : (a) Requires well-drained soil, fertilized with stable manure. (b) Best results by planting roots instead of seeds. (c) First remove tive inches of top soil. (d) Then dig up the subsoil to a depth of fourteen to eighteen inches. (e) Put in some stable manure. (f) Replace the top soil and add fertilizer. (g) Set plants fifteen inches apart in rows three feet apart; in small garden space, close together. 3. Cutting asparagus : (a) Cut no shoots the first year. (b) Cut very few the second year. (c) Third year plants ready for use; cut all tops dur- ing late fall of each year. 4. Culture of rhubarb: (a) Same soil cordition as asparagus. (b) Save time by using roots instead of seed. (c) Plant in hills four feet apart. (d) Thick green leaves can be used after the second year. (e) For winter supply transplant roots to a cold frame or cellar. 198 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name three perennial crops. 2. Define perennial. 3. Describe the cultural requirements for asparagus. 4. Describe the cultural requirements for rhubarb. 5. Kow is rhubarb forced? Chapter LVIII. Saving Seed for Planting. 1. Garden crops are divided into three groups: (a) Annuals — ripen seed lirst year and die. (b) Biennials — ripen seed second year and die. (c) Perennials — tops freeze in winter, but roots live in ground year after year. 2. Preparations for gathering and cleaning seed are: (a) Gather ripe seeds before frosts. (b) Gather seeds from healthy, true to type plants. (c) Spread seeds out to dry in a well-ventilated place. (d) Free the seeds from the pulp matter. 3 Protecting the seeds : (a) Remove all inferior specimens. (b) Store the seeds properly to save vi'.ality. (c) Label all saved seed. (d) Keep in receptacles that will protect seeds from mice and insects. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Into what three groups are garden crops divided? 2. Define annuals. Name five. 3. Define biennials. Name five. 4. Define perennials. Name five. 5. How should gardeners harvest seed? Chapter LIX. Harvesting Vegetable Crops. 1. There is a loss each year in the United States be- cause of : (a) Neglect in harvesting crops. (b) Using wrong methods. 2. The five general classes of crops are : (a) Stem crops. (b) Leaf crops. (c) Root crops. (d) Vine crops. (e) Corn, pepper and onion crops. AGRICULTURE AND GARDEN IxXG FOR SCHOOLS. 199 3. Harvesting stem crops : (a) Asparagus— cut close to ground when shoots are four to six inches tall. (b) Rhubarb — cut stems close to ground, but do not injure crowns. Keep back seed stock and more stems will grow. (c) Celery— cut just beneath the crown when ready for use. (d) Potatoes— dig early ones as soon as large enough ; dig late ones when vines die. (e) Sweet potatoes— dig early for use; leave late ones in ground as long as possible. 4. Harvesting leaf crops: (a) Cut when young, as these crops become tough with age. 5. Harvesting root crops : , (a) Use when these crops have reached half their full development. (b) These crops mature irregularly; use largest first. 6. Harvesting vine crops : (a) String beans should be picked when pods are good size and snap readily; do not let pod get tough. (b) Peas— pick when three-fourths their full size, or else they get tough. (c) Cucumbers — pick before seeds begin to develop. Production decreases after seeds begin to form. (d) Squashes— summer, pick as soon as large enough; winter, leave until last frost will not harm. (e) Melons — ready to pick when they crack around the stem ; also a dead sound when thumped, indi- cates ripeness. (f) Tomatoes— gather as soon as ripe. When frost threatens, pick and wrap in paper. Ripen a few at a time. 7. Harvesting corn, peppers and onions : (a) Corn— when corn is in the "milk" it is ready for use. Sweet corn is ready when silks begin to turn brown. Use corn as soon as pulled. (b) Peppers — pick sweet peppers while green and hot peppers when skins are red. (c) Onions—ready when tops have fallen and outer skins are dry. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name five general classes of crops. 2. When is the best time to harvest stem crops? 3. When is the best time to harvest leaf crops? 4. When is the best time to harvest root crops? 5. When is the best time to harvest vine crops? 200 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. Chapter LX. Marketing Vegetable Crops. 1. In preparing, vegetables for market observe the following : (a) Do not market directly from the garden. (b) Vegetables should be washed, trimmed, graded and sorted. (c) Vegetables should be attractive. (d) Give attention to the size and quality of the vegetables. (e) Sell vegetables according to grades. 2. There are three types of marketing: (a) Community type — located at school or some central location. (b) Individual type — selling from wagons or ship- ping by parcels post. (c) Co-operative type — co-operating. with others who sell at markets. 3. How vegetables should be displayed : (a) Arrange display to give a neat appearance. (b) Group like vegetables together. (c) Stem crops should be sold in bunches or by weight. (d) Leaf crops should be kept fresh by keeping in a cool place until ready to sell. (e) Root crops should be clean and in bunches. (f) Vine crops should be picked carefully, arranged in market according to size and color. (g) Sweet corn is sold with husks on and by the dozen. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How is the best way to prepare vegetable crops for market? 2. How should we arrange a vegetable display? 3. Give three ways of marketing crops. 4. Describe each. 5. How are the different classes marketed? Chapter LXL. Small FRurrs. 1. Fruits to be considered are (a) Strawberries. (b) Blackberries. (c) Raspberries. (d) Currants. (e) Gooseberries. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 201 2. In preparing the soil consider : (a) Small fruits do better in gardens where other plants have been planted rather than in new ground. (b) Soil should be covered with manure. (c) Free from weeds, grass and insects. (d) Soil should be well fertilized. 3. Sm.all fruits should be mulched during winter to keep from freezing. 4. In planting and cultivation observe that : (a) Small fruits should be planted in rows. (b) Avoid overcrowding, as plants can not be pro- ductive if they lack food, air and sunshine. (c) Remove all plants or branches or leaves. (d) Destroy diseased plants. (e) Cultivate small fruits frequently. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What crops are good to precede small fruits? 2. How should soil be prepared for small fruits? 3. What materials are used for mulching small fruit crops during cold season? 4. Why should overcrowding be avoided ? 5. Name common small fruit crops grown in your neighbor- hood. LXII. Strawberries. 1. Planting and cultivation: (a) Do best in moist, sandy loam. (b) To be planted in late fall or early spring. (c) Set plants fifteen to 24 inches apart in rows four to five feet apart. (d) Pack soil around roots, but do not get any on the crown. (e) Permit runners to root early in the season. (f) Cut ofif late runners. (g) Do not permit plants to fruit the first year. (h) Should have a sunny place and should be culti- vated frequently until blossom time, (i) Cover plants with manure in fall, (j) Use Bordeaux mixture to prevent diseases. 2. Perfect and imperfect flowers : (a) Flowers are called perfect when they bear both stamens and pistils. (b) Flowers are called imperfect when they have pistils, but no stamens. (c) Perfect flowers are self-fertilized and imperfect flowers are not. (d) Imperfect flowers are unproductive unless fertil- ized by perfect flowers. 202 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 3. The varieties of strawberries are: (a) Standard perfect flowers — Dr. Burrill, Lady Thompson, Senator Dunlap. (b) Standard imperfect flowers — Crescent, Warfield. (c) Ever-bearing perfect flowers — Progressive, Superb. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What is the best kind of soil for growing strawberries? 2. How should we plant and care for this crop? 3. What is a perfect flower? 4. What is an imperfect flower? 5. Name five varieties of strawberries. Chapter LXIII. Blackberries and Raspberries. 1. Culture of blackberries : (a) Plant in lighter and drier soil than the straw- berries. (b) Plant in early spring or late fall. (c) New plants are procured from root cuttings or suckers. (d) Plant two to five inches. (e) Cut out all old wood late in fall or early in spring. (f) Do not permit canes to grow more than four to five feet high. (g) Rerrfove all diseased canes. 2. Varieties of blackberries are : (a) Early — Early King, Eldorado. (b) Late — Success, Taylor. 3. The three types of raspberries are : (a) Red — grow best in rich clay loam. Prune by cutting back canes to one-third of their growth. (b) Black — planted like red. They are trimmed back early in spring. Remove all old canes. (c) Purple — not so well known. Care same as others. (d) Yellow — a new variety. Care much the same as others. 4. Varieties of raspberries are : (a) Red— Cuthbert, King, Miller. (b) Black — Ohio, Gregg, Cumberland. (c) Purple — Shafi^er, Columbian. (d) Yellow — Golden Queen. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 203 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS. 1. When is the best time to" plant blackberries? 2. What cultivation is required? 3. Name two early varieties. 4. Name two late varieties, 5. Name two varieties of each raspberry type. Chapter LXIV. Currants and Gooseberries. 1. Culture same for both: (a) Both do well in moist clay or sandy loam. (b) Are cool climate plants. (c) Plants are set three feet apart in rows five or six feet apart. (d) Careful cultivation will increase the yield. (e) Plants two years old having good roots should be used. (f) Prune in fall or early spring. (g) Remove weak branches over three years old. (h) Best fruit produced on one-year-old stems. (i) In dry seasons a straw or manure mulch is advisable. 2. Currant worm is destroyed by spraying with paris green or arsenate of lead. 3. The varieties are : (a) Red currants — Cherry, Prince Albert, Red Dutch. (b) White currants— White Grape, White Dutdl, (c) Black currants — Black, Naples. (d) American gooseberries — Houghton, Downing. (e) English gooseberries— Industry, Triumph. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name the most common methods of planting and culti- vating the currant. 2. Name the most common methods of planting and culti- vating gooseberries. 3. How can the currant worm be destroyed? 4. Name two varieties of each red, white "and black kind of currants. 5. Name two varieties of American and English type of gooseberries. Chapter , LXV. Grapes. 1. Grapes are propagated from : (a) Seed — when new varieties are grown. (b) Cuttings — prepared at any time after vines be- come dormant. 204 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. (c) Layering — by selecting canes of last season's growth near the base. (d) Grafting— done to change poor varieties and to protect from diseases, 2. Grapes are pruned by : (a) The first year cut all stems away except one, and cut that back to one or two buds. (b) The second year cut all stems away except two, and if these are long, cut them back. (c) Third spring cut all stems away except four of the stems nearest the main stem. 3. Grapevines should be kept ofif the ground. 4. To prevent disease: (a) Cut all dead limbs away and burn them. •(b) Spray with Bordeaux mixture every ten days until fruit is set. 5. Varieties of grapes are : (a) Black — Champion, Concord, Moore's Early. (b) Red or amber — Catawba, Delaware. (c) White — Diamond, Niagara, Winchell. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How are grapes propagated? 2. Give two advantages of grafting. 3. How do we prune the grapevines from the first to the third year? 4. How may diseases of the grape be prevented? 5. Name four varieties of grapes Chapter LXVI. Harvesting and Marketing Small Fruits. 1. In selecting small fruits a gardener should consider: (a) }klarket demands. (b) Character of fruit as to firmness. 2. In choosing varieties for planting select: (a) Standard varieties. (b) Two varieties of each kind except strawberries. (c) Three or four varieties of strawberries with different maturing times. (d) Fruits that are in demand at your markets. 3. In packing small fruits, consider : (a) Size of fruit, container as determined by law. (b) Construction of the container. (c) Neatness and cleanliness of the containers. 4. Small fruits are usually marketed in. pint and quart boxes. 5. See that no decayed or imperfect fruit is put in the boxes, as it will decay and lower the price of o'.her fruit. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 205 In gathering the crops : (a) Leave a small stem on the berry, or else the quality is injured. (b) Hand picking is best and the fruit should be placed, not dropped, in the baskets. (c) Fruits for home market should remain on stock until ripe. (d) Shipped fruit should be packed when not too ripe. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What are important points to consider in selecting varieties of small fruit? 2. Name three points to consider when marketing small fruit. 3. Why is care required in packing small fruit? 4. Name the small fruits produced in your community. 5. Name the varieties most popular in your local market. Chapter LXVII. Useful Plants Used for Ornament. 1. Useful plants as ornaments and how each is used: (a) Scarlet bean runner — planted to climb fences and porches. Cultivated extensively in Europe. (b) Sugar pea — used as food, served as string beans. Has flower like sweet pea. (c) Variegated kale. (d) Carrots — because of foliage frequently grown along walks. (e) Parsley — planted as a border for beds or walks. (f) Okra — has a beautiful flower (g) Martynia — excellent substitute for cucumbers, (h) Pumpkins — used to cover unsightly places. Squashes used also for same purpose, (i) Grapes — vines cover fences and unsightly places, (j) Quince bushes can be planted instead of lilacs. Blossom is ornamental, fruit is valuable. (k) Sunflowers — serve as screen, seed good for poultry. (1) Witloof chicory leaves — used for salads, root for an adulterant of coffee, (m) Jerusalem artichoke — attractive flower; used frequently for salads and pickles, (n) Castor bean — valuable for medicinal purposes; used for screening unsightly places, (o) Pole lima bean vines — serve as screens, (p) Tomatoes — serve as a screen. 206 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name ten useful plants grown for ornamental purposes. 2. How is each used for a food? 3. Are any so grown in your community? 4. Name and describe them? 5. How is each used for food? Chapter LXVIII. Plants to Beautify the Yard or Garden. 1. Appearance of yard or garden is improved by flowers. 2. The popular hardy bulbs are : (a) Fall planting — Hyacinths, tulips, narcissi, liHes. (b) Spring planting — Cannas, dahlias, gladioli. 3. Vines that are suitable for shade and coverings are : (a) Moonflower — growth in one season fifty feet. Has large funnel-shaped flowers and abundant foliage. (b) Matrimony vine — used for fence covering. (c) Boston ivy — used to cover brick or stone walls. (d) Virginia creeper. (e) Honeysuckle. 4. Plants used for ground covering are : (a) Myrtle. (b) Snow-in-summer. (c) Moss pink. 5. Perennials that are best suited for : (a) Cut flowers are — Columbine, phlox, peonies, chrysanthemums. (b) Sunny places are — Sweet William, phlox, sun- flower. (c) Shady places — Forget-me-not, hardy pansies, lily- of-the-valley. 6. Perennials used for color are : (a) White — Funkia, Shasta daisy, yucca. (b) Yellow — Golden glow, gold flower, chrysanthe- mums. (c) Pink — Garden pinks, hollyhocks, peonies. (d) Blue — Phlox, larkspur, Japan iris. 7. Shrubs that are used for : (a) Cut flowers — Lilac, spirea, hydrangea, snowball. (b) Fruit — Barberry, snowberry, cranberry. (c) Cold climates — Lilac, snowball, Juneberry. (d) Sunny places — Blue spirea, oleaster. (e) Shady places — Snowball, Judas tree. (f) White flowering — Silverball, pepperbush. (g) Yellov/ flowering — Golden bell, golden currant, (h) Red flowering — Red bud, currant red flower, (i) Pink flbwering--Weigelia, flowering almond. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 207 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name two bulbs suitable for fall planting. 2. Name two bulbs suitable for spring planting. 3. Name three vines used for ornaments. 4. Name two perennials with white flowers. 5. Name two shrubs used for cut flowers. Chapter LXIX. Fall Work for Spring Gardens. 1. All garden trash should be destroyed to : (a) Prevent insects from sheltering during the winter. (b) Save time in the spring. 2. Fall plowing and spading will help to : (a) Destroy insects. (b) Make soil rough, thus air and water can enter. (c) The moisture will freeze and thaw, and thus make the soil mellow. 3'. The cover crops sown in the fall and plowed under as green manure are the legumes. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Why should the garden trash be destroyed in the fall? 2. Name three cover crops. 3. Define green manrre. 4. Name some crops to be used as green manure. 5. What are the advantages of these manures ? SECTION TWO The Preservation of Garden Crops Chapter LXX. Why and How We Preserve Foods. 1. History of preserving foods : (a) Happened by chance. (b) Fruits dried on vines. (c) Pickling and salting discovered by chance. (d) Canning discovered and done without under- standing "why." 2. Foods spoil because : (a) -Presence of ferments. (b) Presence of molds and bacteria. 3. Foods are preserved and stored by : (a) Drying. (b) Pickling. (c) Salting. (d) In refrigerators. (e) By canning. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 4. Canning food accomplishes two things : (a) Heating destroys molds, yeasts and bacteria. (b) Placing food in air-tight food containers prevents germs from entering. 5. The reasons that surplus food should be preserved are : (a) Certain foods are cheap in season and expensive out of season. (b) Constant use of good food is necessary for good health. (c) Every family should preserve enough food to last through the following winter and spring. (d) Food production does not increase with popula- tion. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What first suggested drying foods? 2. What methods of preserving were discovered by accident? 3. Why docs drying prevent decay of foods? 4. When foods are pickled, salted or preserved, what pre- vents decay? 5. What two things are accomplished when foods are canned? Chapter LXXI. Canning: One Period Cold Pack Method. 1. The one period cold pack method is best for canning vegetables and fruits in the North. 2. Equipment for this method : (a) Deep pans for blanching. (b) A wire basket or steamer. (c) Several yards of cheese-cloth. (d) A knife for removing air bubbles in containers. (e) A knife for paring. (f) A pan for cold dipping. (g) Salt. (h) Glass cans. (i) New rubbers. U) Sterilizing apparatus. 3. Steps in the canning process: (a) Blanching — to insure cleansing. (b) Cold dipping — to harden the pulp and set the coloring matter. (c) Packing — in jars as closely as possible. (d) Sterilizing — final process of heating. (e) Sealing — keeping the can air-tight. 4. The time for sterilizing is based on size of jars. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 209 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What equipment is needed in canning? 2. How many steps are necessary in cannmg by this method ? 3. Describe each step. 4. Give worl: required in canning one soft fruit. 5. What work is required in canning one legume? Chapter LXXII. Preserving and Jelly Making. 1. Preserves are made by: (a) Taking small fruits and cooking with sugar until quite thick. (b) Put in jars and seal. . (c) Fruits must not be over-ripe. 2. Jellies are made by : i • u (a) Fruit juices that contain pectin; are cooked with sugar until the proper consistency of jelly. (b) The amount of sugar depends upon the quantity of pectin in the fruit juice. (c) Over-ripe juices contain too little pectin. 3. Some of the most important points to be considered in making jelly are : (a) Select firm, but not too ripe, fruit. (b) Wash and remove stems. (c) Put in pan and cover with water. (d) Cook slowly until soft. (e) Pour into muslin bag to drain. (f) Measure juice drained out. (g) Add sugar to juice, three-fourths to one cup of sugar to one cup of juice. (h) Boil juice and sugar together rapidly, (i) Jelly point is reached when two drops of juice run together and fall as one from the side of a spoon, (j) Pour jelly into sterilized glasses and cool. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How are preserves made? 2. How is jelly made? , • i 3. Name some important points to be observed in the mak- ing of jelly. . t,, r 4. Name some fruits suitable for preserves. 5. Name some fruits suitable for jelly. Chapter LXXIII. Drying. 1. The five reasons for drvmg foods are: (a) Bulk is decreased— 100 pounds is reduced to ten pounds. 210 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. (b) Less space Is required for storage. (c) No sugar is required. (d) Fewer and less expensive containers are nejded. (e) Products can be kept for an indefinite period. 2. The three methods of drying are: (a) Exposure to the sun. (b) Artificial heat over a stove. (c) Air currents, as with the electric fan. 3. In selecting the preparing food for drying: (a) Select young vegetables. (b) Do not select over-ripe or under-ripe food. (c) Dry soon after gathering. (d) Cut vegetables and fruits into slices or shreds. (e) All foods should be cleaned before drying. (f) Vegetables should be blanched. (g) Vegetables should be dipped in cold water, (h) Spread out on thin boards or tables. 4. Drying food in the sun : (a) Select a bright, sunshiny day. (b) Fruits dry best on a hot, windy day, (c) Spread food out on trays. (d) Bring food indoors at sunset and on damp days. 5. Drying food by artificial heat: (a) Use a drying apparatus. (b) Apply a gentle heat at first. (c) When drying in the oven be sure to keep the door open to prevent overheating. 6. Tests for dried food are: (a) Should have a leathery and pliable feeling. (b) Should not rattle or crack when poured. 7. To prepare dried food for use : (a) Soak food in cold water overnight. (b) Cook slowly. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Give five reasons for drying foods. 2. Give three methods of drymg foods. 3. Why do we blanch before drying foods? 4. Give eight steps in drying foods. 5. How do we dry food in the sun? Chapter LXXIV. Fermentation and Salting. 1. The three methods used in preserving food by salting are : (a) Fermentation with dry salting. (b) Fermentation in brine. (c) Salting without fermentation. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 211 2. The equipment should consist of: (a) Sealer and a measure. (b) Stone or glass jars. (c) Salt. (d) White cheese-cloth for covering. (e) A board to fit in the containers. (f) One or two clean stones. 3. To make sauerkraut: (a) Take cabbage heads and remove the outside leaves. (b) Cut the cabbage. (c) Put in a layer of cabbage and then a layer of salt (d) Then three or four inches of cabbage and then salt again. . (e) Pack the cabbage firmly by poundmg it lightly (f) When crock is full, sprinkle salt over top and put on the cheese-cloth. (g) Place on the board and then the stones. (h) When fermentation starts a film appears and this should be skimmed off. (i) When the container is tapped gently and no bubbles arise, the sauerkraut is ready for use. 4. Other vegetables, as string beans and turnips, may be pickled like sauerkraut. 5 Vegetables may be preserved by the use of brine: (a) Place cucumbers, corn, beets, etc., mto a weak brine, made of one gallon of water, one-half pint of vinegar and three-fourths of a cup of salt. (b) Place in a warm place until fermentation is com- plete, then take to cellar. 6. Vegetables may be preserved by salting without a brine : , r .. (a) Enough salt must be used to prevent fermenta- tion or mold. . (b) Use enough salt to equal one-fourth the weight of the material used. . (c) If within twenty-four hours not enough liquid has been extracted to cover the vegetables, a brine must be added. 7 Vegetables may be preserved by pickling: (a) The vinegar used in pickling contains acetic acid and prevents growth of bacteria. (b) Vegetables soaked overnight in a bnne of one cup of salt and one quart of water, wdl remove the juice in the vegetables, and thus the vinegar is not weakened. 212 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How is sauerkraut made ? 2. What vegetables may be preserved by fermentation with saking? 3. What vegetables are preserved by use of brine? 4. Describe this process. 5. Describe the process of salting without fermentation. Chapter LXXV. Storing Vegetables. » 1. The four plans for storing vegetables are : (a) Vegetables that require cool, moist condition with little circulation of air — as potatoes, cab- bages, beets, carrots, etc. (b) Vegetables that require cool, moist condition with free air circulation — as celery, parsley, etc. (c) Vegetables that require cool, dry conditions — as onions. (d) Vegetables that require warm, dry conditions with free circulation of air — as sweet potatoes, squash, pumpkins. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Give four plans for storing vegetables. 2. Name crops stored by each plan. 3. What storage methods are used in your community? 4. Which ones are most satisfactory? 5. Mention other methods of storing garden crops. Chapter LXXVI. Storing Vegetables in Cellars. 1. Store vegetables when free from surface moisture. 2. All stored fruit or vegetables should be sound. 3. Cellar storage is very important, as : (a) Most vegetables in the homes are stored in the cellar. (b) Keep soil on the floor in the cellar storage room. 4. To store potatoes in indoor cellar : (a) Dig them in dry weather. (b) Leave them along the rows a few hours to dry out. (c) EHminate the bruised ones, (d)- Grade them according to size. (e) See that there is proper ventilation. (f) Avoid strong light. (g) Containers should be crates or ventilated bar- rels and boxes. (h) If cellar air is too dry, line the containers with paper, as too much dry air causes potatoes to wither. (i) Do not store in furnace room. (j) Remove all sprouts when they appear. AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 213 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name vegetables stored in indoor cellars. 2. How are they stored for winter? 3. How do we harvest potatoes that are to be stored? 4. Name two plans of storing used by most families. 5. How do we store potatoes in indoor cellars? Chapter LXXVII. Storing Vegetables in Pits. 1. Points to be observed in selecting a site for a storage pit are : (a) Well-drained location or hillside. (b) Trenches fifteen to twenty-four inches wide and eight to twelve inches deep should be made on both sides'of the pit. (c) The trenches should be six inches lower than the bottom of the pit, to carry the surplus water away. 2. In preparing and filling a pit : (a) Pit should be in shape of a mound. (b) Line the bottom with leaves or straw. (c) Place the vegetables, except cabbage, in a pile in the form of a mound. (d) Cover pile with two or three inches of straw or leaves and over this three or four inches of earth. (e) In cold weather add more covering. 3. How to keep vegetables from heating: (a) Nail four six-inch boards together to form a rectangular flue. (b) Place the flue in the center of the pile. (c) Bore holes in the flue, and this will aid in ven- tilation. (d) If pile is long, place flues every six feet. (e) These flues can be drawn when cold weather arrives. (f) Pack soil on top firmly to help carry off water. 4. To remove vegetables from pits : (a) Open pit at end. (b) Remove top layer. (c) Dig down to the pile. (d) Remove enough for a week or ten da}s' supply. (e) Refill the opening and replace the top covering. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. What points should be observed in selecting a site fcr a storage pit ? 2. Describe preparing and filling of pit. 214 AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING FOR SCHOOLS. 3. How do we avoid heating in pits? 4. How are vegetables removed from pits? 5. Give two methods of storing cabbages in pits. Chapter LXXVni. Storing Vegetables in Cold Frames, 1. How to store in cold frames : (a) Set the plants with soil attached in a cold frame. (b) Moisten the soil on the roots occasionally. (c) Keep covered with glass. (d) Bank earth around the sides. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Xame vegetables that may be stored in cold frames. 2. How are they stored? 3. Do your neighbors use cold frames ? 4. How are the cold frames arranged? 5. How do we. store vegetables in an indoor cellar? CuAPTr.R LXXIX. Vegetables Requiring Cool Conditions and Vege- tables Requiring Warm Conditions. 1. Vegetables requiring cool conditions: (a) Vegetables in Group 2. (b) Use either a dry cellar or some unheated room for vegetables in Group 3. 2. Vegetables requiring warm conditions : (a) Vegetables in Group 4. (b) Select furnace room or beside a warm chimney or room over kitchen. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. Name the vegetables of the four groups suggested. 2. How is each group stored? 3. What methods of storing are used in your community? Chapter - LXXX. Saving the By-products. 1. The by-products of food may be used as : (a) Food for animals. (b) To improve the soil. (c) Help build compost heap. (d) Preserve left-overs in refrigerators. (e) Keep vegetable left-overs crisp by wrapping in moistened paper. acIvH;l"ltl-re and gardening for schools. 215 2. Left-overs can be used : (a) By preparing them in various ways, (b) When by-products are used, we are conservi'ng food. SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS 1. How mav vegetable waste be utilized for improving the soil ? 2. What use is made of the refrigerator in the home? 3. How is moist paper used to save vegetables that are left over? 4. Give two reasons for trying to save food. 5. How is food economized in your community? Note — This outline is based upon "Garden Crops," by Lester S. Ivins, published by Rand, McNally & Co.. of Chi- cago. The student or teacher who does not have this or any other text on gardening, can find valuable aid in government bulletins on the subject. ( LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 002 782 265 4