UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
 
 
 
A 
 
 MANUAL 
 
 OP 
 
 INFORMATION AND SUGGESTIONS 
 
 FOR 
 
 OBJECT LESSONS, 
 
 IN A COURSE OF 
 
 ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION. 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE USE OF THE 
 
 SCHOOL AND FAMILY CHARTS, 
 
 AND OTHER AIDS IN TEACHING. 
 By MARCIUS WILLSON, 
 
 ADTnOR OF "wILLSOn'S IirSTOEICAI. 6EEIES," "SCHOOL AND FAMILY KEADEES,' 
 
 &C., &C. 
 
 O 
 b 
 
 <J.j 
 
 »i ?w. 
 
 r^y 
 
 NEW YORK: ■ K^?^^, ..^ v^f^ 
 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, P U B L I sl^ERS, — -"■"^' 
 
 FRANKLIN S QUARK. 
 
 186 2. 
 
 <'^ / 
 
 CPc4. ^ f ,/ ^ ^ 
 

 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight 
 hundred and sixty-two, by 
 
 Harper & Brothers, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of 
 
 New York. 
 
 2- 1l "^^ /i J-f 
 
 BS^ See the ArPENHix for an " Approximate Programme" of a course of Elementary 
 Instruction during the first ten years of school life ; a collection of Maxims and Mottoes 
 for School Use ; Table of Contents ; and a complete Index. 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES ON WHICH THE SYSTEM OF 
 OBJECT TEACHING IS BASED. 
 
 1. The System not New in Principle. 
 
 The system of instruction by " object" teaching, as it has 
 been called, but which we should prefer to call the Devel- 
 opment System, is nothing new in principle or purpose; for 
 it is fully carried out in Nature's teachings in the early 
 years of childhood ; and it is the system upon which near- 
 ly all valuable knowledge has been accumulated in the pro- 
 gressive civilization of the race. It is to a degree, however, 
 new in its application to the methods of early school in- 
 struction, in which we think we shall show we have most 
 departed from Nature and from enlightened experience. 
 
 2. Nature's System of Teaching. 
 
 It is known that the child, from one to four years of age, 
 acquires knowledge far more rapidly than at any subse- 
 quent period of life. In these three years it has attained 
 great proficiency in a language of peculiar intricacy, speak- 
 ing it with considerable fluency, and mastering many of its 
 most difficult idioms ; it has learned to recognize, and give 
 the names, and know many of the qualities and uses of a 
 thousand objects; and this it has done by keeping the 
 senses of touch, taste, hearing, sight, and smell — the per- 
 ceptive faculties — in almost constant and pleasurable activ- 
 ity. These active workers have seldom wearied of their 
 self-imposed labors, and never been injured by over-exer- 
 tion ; for the natural exercise to which they have been sub- 
 jected has been to them health and strength, and the in- 
 
4 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 terest the mind has taken m then* acquisitions has made 
 every toil a pleasure. And yet, at this period of life, all 
 the powers and faculties are comparatively feeble, so that 
 we are forced to the conclusion that whatever the mind 
 has accomplished is attributable chiefly to the system of 
 instruction Avhich has been pursued. 
 
 Nor is it the mere acquisition of knowledge that has 
 been thus early accomplished. The perceptive faculties 
 have had that kind of training which has peculiarly con- 
 tributed to give them accuracy and vigor: the attention 
 has been cultivated by presenting to it objects of interest 
 and of suitable variety : memory has been pleasurably, and 
 hence profitably exercised: reason and judgment have had 
 presented to them the materials for their early cultivation; 
 and the germs of the moral nature have been developed in 
 the early emotions of infantile joy and sorrow, followed by 
 feelings of sympathy, and the first notions of right and 
 duty. 
 
 We believe there are some very important principles in 
 this system of Nature's teaching, that should be consider- 
 ed and adopted in arranging a system of school instruction. 
 We purpose to point out a few of these principles, hoping, 
 by showing how far we have departed from them, to indi- 
 cate a system more in accordance with that of Nature. 
 
 3. Early Development of the Perceptive Faculties. 
 
 What are, then, the means by which the child acquires 
 all its materials oi knowledge? It may seem a truism to 
 answer that the means or instruments are the senses, 
 which we may class together as forming the perceptive 
 FACULTIES ; and yet the truth seems overlooked, if we are 
 to judge from the little attention given to the principles 
 upon which they act, and the proper means of their educa- 
 tion. The perceptive faculties are developed in early child- 
 hood by appropriate exercise upon the objects which are 
 presented to them : and we think the great desideratum is 
 to discover the principles upon which they have thus been 
 exercised in the school of Nature. Let us first take the 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. O 
 
 senses of sight and hearing — the most important of om- 
 senses in an educational point of view — and inquire in v:Jiat 
 order knowledge is obtained through them, that avc may 
 learn, if possible, inhere to begin in the presentation of any 
 subject to children. 
 
 4. The "Elementary" Theory— generally adopted. 
 
 "Begin with the elements" of a subject, says one: "Re- 
 duce every thing to its elements," has become a stereotyped 
 phrase with educators. We are asked, "What can you 
 have more simple than the elements of a subject ; and shall 
 we not begin with them ?" This is, indeed, the funda- 
 mental principle on wdiich our systems of primary education 
 have been based ; and the theory looks like a very plausi- 
 ble one. In fully carrying out this system, we are told, 
 when we come to teach the alphabet^ that the letters are 
 formed by combinations of certain elementary lines^ straight 
 and curved, and that the true method is to teach the ele- 
 ments first, by which the compound may be thoroughly un- 
 derstood. The same theory directs that we should begin 
 with similar elements — with the most elementary lines — in 
 writing and in drawing. In reciding^ we are told that the 
 spoken words are formed by combinations of certain ele- 
 mentary sounds^ and therefore the pupil must begin with 
 these. . It is true that all these so-called elements are wholly 
 unmeariing things to the child — that they have no ideas con- 
 nected with them ; but what of that ? In teaching spelling 
 we come as near to the elementary system as possible, by 
 giving long columns of mere loords to be spelled, not one in 
 twenty of which has any meaning to.the child. In arith- 
 Qnetic we begin with certain marks or signs, called digits, 
 because these represent the elements of arbitrary numbers. 
 In grammar we begin by taking a sentence, and teaching 
 a child the subject, predicate, object, attribute, etc., because 
 these are said to be the elements of the language. In geog- 
 raphy we begin by teaching the infantile mind the form of 
 the earth, perhaps its place in the solar system, its zones, 
 latitudes and longitudes, and great divisions of land and 
 
6 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 water, because these things are supposed to be the element- 
 ary parts which make up the science of geography, and as 
 if these were the first things Avhich mankind learned about 
 the earth, instead of being the last. These are sufficient 
 illustrations of the principles on which our systems of edu- 
 cation have been based. Let us now look at Nature's sys- 
 tem, under which the child had progressed so finely during 
 its early years, and see if the two harmonize. 
 
 5. Nature's System— How opposed to it. 
 
 The child early learns to recognize a great variety of sur- 
 rounding objects, and to designate them by their appropri- 
 ate names. Thus, an object is presented to the sense of 
 sight, causing se^isation : if attention be sufficiently direct- 
 ed to the sensation, the latter is followed by perception^ 
 when an ideci^ innage^ or representation of the object is pre- 
 sented to the mind. Language now seeks an expression — 
 a word or name — by which to rejiresent the idea. Here 
 the order of sequence, as in all cases of Nature! s teaching, 
 is, first the idea^ and then the word to express or repre- 
 sent it ; and it will be found that Nature never inverts the 
 order; never takes a step in instruction that requires a 
 sign to be learned before the tiling sigmjied is presented. 
 This is as true as that sensations and perceptions precede 
 ideas, and as certain as the truism that the mind can never 
 give expression or representation to what it does not pos- 
 sess ; and when the attempt is made to present to the mind 
 loords and sig7is before the ideas and things signified^ Na- 
 ture is outraged, and the fundamental principles of educa- 
 tion are violated. It is very probable, therefore, that Na- 
 ture's method is the true one, for it is based upon the only 
 order in which the mind acquires knowledge. Let us use 
 this principle to test some of our methods of instruction. 
 
 I will suppose that a child four years of age is placed in 
 ray charge, and that I am to commence its school instruc- 
 tion. Its perceptive faculties have already received con- 
 siderable culture from the tutelage of its first teacher. Na- 
 ture : it has acquired considerable knowledge of surround- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 7 
 
 ing objects, and all in the order of sensations, perceptions, 
 ideas, ivords. It can use spoken words, but has not learn- 
 ed to recognize the printed representations of them. I wish 
 to teach it to read, and first take up the alphabet for that 
 purpose, because I have been told that I must begin with 
 the elements of the printed w^ords. I commence with A, 
 B, C ; but I can associate, in the mind of the child, no ideas 
 with them; and the rule which Nature has given me is, 
 ideas before signs. The child has no ideas of which these 
 marks are the signs. 
 
 Another theoretical educator comes along, and tells me 
 I have not reduced the subject to its simplest elements; 
 that there is something even more elementary than the let- 
 ters of the alphabet, for these letters are compounded — 
 made up — of elementary straight and curved lines. I then 
 begin with these supposed elements, and attempt to teach 
 the child all the forms of the lines that enter into the struc- 
 ture of the letters. But, alas ! the process seems more and 
 more tedious the nearer I get to the ultimate elements, and 
 when again I revert to the rule of the great teacher, Na- 
 ture, I find I am still violating its principles, even more, if 
 possible, than before. 
 
 At this time another beautiful theory is presented to me : 
 I am told to leave the alphabet for the present, and to be- 
 gin to teach reading with %oords. This surely, I think, 
 must be the natural order, for the child uses loords before 
 it is taught the letters which compose them. But, in order 
 to learn to read and speak the printed words, I am told 
 that the child should first learn the elements of the spoken 
 words, that is, the elementary sou7ids of the letters ; for 
 these, it is very evident, the child uses in speaking a word 
 — and it could not speak a word without using them. It 
 does not occur to me that this beautiful elem^entary theory 
 would require a knowledge of the nerves and muscles of the 
 arm before the arm should be allowed to be used in the 
 practice of muscular motion ! I proceed with the pre- 
 scribed method, and, presenting to the child the separate 
 letters of the word c«^9, 1 teach it their elementary sounds: 
 
8 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 then I tell the child to combine these three elements, and 
 am gratified to find that the compound is the spoken word 
 ca}^ ! I have tanglit the child to j^ronounce the word ele- 
 '}nentarily I But when I look more closely at this process, 
 I find that I presented to the child the word cap before the 
 idea ; and also that these elementary sounds were not pre- 
 ceded by any ideas of which they were tlie representatives ! 
 Even this, therefore, can not be Nature! s method, nor in 
 accordance with the natural development and use of the 
 mental faculties. I am satisfied, therefore, that I have not 
 yet discovered the natural method of teaching reading, and 
 must begin anew. 
 
 I now present to the child a real object — a cap. Sup- 
 pose it had never seen one before. The object 23roduces, 
 through the organ of sight, a sensation : if sufficient atten- 
 tion be given, perception follows, connecting the sensation 
 with the object, and an image or idea of the object is then 
 formed in the mind. Now, for the first time, a word^ a 
 name^ is wanted, to give outward expression in language 
 to the idea. If some particular articulate sound is now 
 given the child to meet this want, it ever after represents 
 the object by that sound or name. The idea, the want, 
 has come before the representative sign. 
 
 But how does Nature teach us to represent the idea or 
 image of the object to the eye? First by 2i p^ictiire of the 
 object, as we see in the picture-writings of all nations 
 emerging from a state of barbarism. After a time the j^ic- 
 ture is dropped, and more arbitrary but more convenient 
 marks or signs are substituted, as we find in the arbitrary 
 letters and words of our printed language. The printed 
 word^ however, like the picture^ represents, by association, 
 the object, or the idea which perception gives of it; and 
 as in nature it never precedes the idea, so it should not in 
 our teachings. 
 
 Suppose, then, that the child has already learned to rec- 
 ognize numerous printed words, as the word-pictures of ob- 
 jects, and to read these words at sight as the signs of pre- 
 viously-acquired ideas. These words now become intelli- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSOKS- 9 
 
 gible objects both of sight and of hearing, and may be treat- 
 ed as any other objects. They are formed of certain char- 
 acters called letters ; and now these letters, for the first 
 time, have a significancy, as parts that make up a well- 
 known object ; and their separate forms now begin to be 
 ■recognized, and may be taught, not as making up an arbi- 
 trary and unmeaning alphabet^ but as making up words 
 that represent ideas. For a like reason, after a knowledge 
 of the words which they form, the elemeyitary sounds of 
 the letters may be learned, for noio^ for the first time, they 
 are seen to form a whole or compound, which rej^resents a 
 previously-acquired idea. 
 
 If, therefore, w^e are correct in following out the princi- 
 ples adopted in Nature's teaching, neither the letters of the 
 alphabet nor their elementary sounds are of any use in the 
 primary work of teaching to recognize or call words — that 
 is, in teaching read'm^ — so far as the use of words is con- 
 cerned for the mere expression of ideas. But after this 
 first and primary object has been attained, and reading be- 
 gins to be made one of the fine arts, and to take on the or- 
 namental, it may receive much additional beauty, and va- 
 riety, and force by elocutionary training of the ear and the 
 voice in recognizing and uttering the elementary sounds. 
 These exercises may, indeed, be introduced immediately 
 after the words are fully learned, but should not precede 
 them. 
 
 From the principles already deduced by observing Na- 
 ture's method of teaching, it is evident that we should be- 
 gin primary instruction in arithmetic, or numbers, with ob- 
 jects^ and not with their arbitrary representations — with 
 peas, beans, or other objects, or with the fingers of the 
 hand, if you choose ; but not with the arbitrary digital signs. 
 Go as far as possible with concrete numbers — invariably as- 
 sociating numbers with the objects, just as Nature teaches. 
 Children, unaided, learn much of geometry, and may be 
 taught much more of it practically ; but not by taking it 
 up in the order of its so-called ele'inents. The elementary 
 principles of geometrv are said to stand in the order of 
 
 A 2 
 
10 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 points, lines, figures, surfaces, and solids ; but who does not 
 know that a child gains ideas of the 5o/^V7 first, and proceeds 
 thence through surfaces, figures, and lines, to points ? The 
 merest child has obtained from Nature a very considerable 
 knowledge of solids long before it has any other idea of a 
 point than of a material one. Here, as in all other cases, 
 it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract, and from the 
 whole to the parts which compose it ; just as it learns words 
 first, and proceeds thence to their letters and elementary 
 sounds. 
 
 6. The great Error in our Systems of Primary 
 Instruction. 
 
 We believe the great error in our systems of primary 
 instruction is the prevalent idea that we should view every 
 subject as a completed science, that we should then reduce 
 the science to its so-called elements, and begin our teach- 
 ino^s with these. But this is a total inversion of the order 
 in which every science has been built up in the growth of 
 the race, and opposed, also, to the order of mental devel- 
 opment, and, consequently, to the principles upon which 
 knowledge is acquired by the individual. What Ave now 
 Q^\ iho, elements of a subject are the expressions of its gen- 
 eral truths — the final results — the few general facts or prin- 
 ciples which science has deduced from a large collection of 
 facts after the structure has been completed ; and as nei- 
 ther nations nor individuals arrive at these elements first, so 
 they should not first be presented to children. What are 
 the elementary sounds of our language but the results of 
 investigation by scholars after the language had attained 
 its present degree of development ? And yet, even schol- 
 ars do not asiree as to the number and character of these 
 sounds, nor are they the same in all languages. Let us 
 bear in mind that the rudime^itary facts of a science are one 
 thing, and its elementary 'princijMs another : iha facts are 
 the first things learned, and by simple perception ; the jw^?^- 
 ciples are the last things learned, and they are acquired by 
 a much more advanced mental process — that of general iza- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 11 
 
 tion. Nature^ dealing only with facts, teaches the particu- 
 lars, and then we make the generalization. Hence we see 
 why our perceptions are right, and why our rules and prin- 
 ciples are often wrong. 
 
 We remarked at the outset that the system of "Object" 
 teaching is not new in principle, and that it is not only car- 
 ried out in Nature's teachings, but that it is the system 
 upon which nearly all valuable knowledge has been accu- 
 mulated in the progressive civilization of the race. 
 
 7. All Science built up on the " Object" System. 
 
 All science has been built up upon this system ; all origin- 
 al investigators and discoverers even now adopt its meth- 
 ods ; it is only when we come to the elementary instruction^ 
 of the school-room that we depart from its principles. Let 
 us bring up a few cases in illustration. 
 
 If we look at the science of botany we shall find that it 
 has grown from small beginnings by a close examination 
 of the objects themselves. Amid the infinite diversity Avhich 
 the vegetable world presents, certain points of resemblance 
 were at a very early period noticed by the most casual ob- 
 servers, sufficient to form the basis of some sort of a classi- 
 fication, even though it may have been as rude as that given 
 by the poet Cowley when he divided the vegetable world 
 into three great classes — herbs, flowers, and trees. But 
 when Linnffius, and after him Jussieu, laid the foundation 
 of the science of botany as it now exists, it was not by 
 speculative theories formed in their closets, but by close 
 observation of Nature herself — such a course as we have 
 attempted to sketch the outlines of in the lessons on sev- 
 eral of the charts in this series. Look at the " Forms of 
 Leaves," as presented on Chart No. XIX. All these were 
 closely examined in the natural objects themselves by the 
 early botanists, and names given to them. Thus, different 
 species of plants were found to vary in the general forms 
 of their leaves, some having linear leaves, some ovate, some 
 cordate, or heart-shaped, etc. ; some species were found to 
 have their marofins entire and unbroken, others had them 
 
12 MANUAL OF INFOKAIATION" 
 
 variously toothed or serrate; in some species the tips of 
 the leaves were sharp-pointecl, or mucronate ; in others, 
 blunt, or truncate ; and in others, notched, or emarginate ; 
 but in all the individuals of each species the family resem- 
 blance was so uniform as not to be mistaken. Yet not a 
 step could be taken in buildmg up the science of botany 
 imtil all such particulars, and others similar to them as to 
 the forms of the stems, flowers, roots, etc., were noticed. 
 And if children would have the most accurate knowledge 
 of the forms and colors, and other characteristics of Indi- 
 vidual plants, they must be led to notice the real plants 
 themselves, or their representations. Mere description is, 
 for the young, a very poor substitute, although it may an- 
 swer, where nothing better can be had, for the mature schol- 
 ar, who, having carefully observed one thing of a kind, is 
 prepared to judge of others of the same kind by it ; just as 
 a child that has closely examined one labiate flower is pre- 
 pared to judge of all other labiate flowers by that one ; and 
 when he sees a certain leaf, and is told that particular form 
 is called elliptical^ he knows the shape of any other leaf 
 that is described as being elliptical, and of any thing else 
 in nature that is so described. It is very apparent, there- 
 fore, that the true method of instruction is to present the 
 ohject first, or the representation, if the object can not be 
 obtained, and not the description. First the idea is to be 
 acquired, and after that the worc?5 "^vhich represent it almost 
 spontaneously follow. 
 
 This is as true, both of the method of discovery, and of 
 all approved subsequent study, in all other sciences as in 
 botany. Not only did the discoverers in anatomy examine 
 every bone, and nerve, and muscle, and vein, and artery, 
 and notice their varied uses, and their conditions of health 
 and disease, but we think it necessary that students in anat- 
 omy at this day should pursue the same course of instruc- 
 tion. Does not the geologist examine the rocks them- 
 selves ; the astronomer turn his telescope to the heavens, 
 that he may see with his own eyes ; the chemist go over in 
 his laboratory the experiments of his predecessors; and the 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 13 
 
 scientific farmer study the conditions of vegetable growth 
 in the analysis of soils and plants, and in experiments based 
 on what he thus learns ? And if " seeing is believing,'' and 
 leads older students in the most direct road to knowledge, 
 does not the same principle hold good with children ; and 
 ought we not, ag far as possible, to pursue the same sys- 
 tem in their education ? Let them learn by the evidence 
 of their own senses as far as they can, for then they will be 
 apt to learn aright. In the Knowledge thus acquired they 
 are always interested. To see is to know, but that which 
 is merely told is often unheeded, misapprehended, or dis- 
 believed. We see, therefore, that Nature teaches, and that 
 science progresses, from the observation of the rudimentary 
 facts, upward to the rules and principles which are the gen- 
 eralization of them. And why should w^e, in our school in- 
 struction, invert the order? 
 
 8. Why Science is adapted to Childhood. 
 
 It is easy to see that, when presented in the true induc- 
 tive order, all the natural sciences, which are built up of 
 facts from the great book of Nature, are peculiarly adapt- 
 ed to the capacities of childhood — giving constant activity, 
 as they do, to the perceptive faculties, and storing the mind 
 with materials for the further exercise of memory, compar- 
 ison, association, imagination, reason, and judgment. Many 
 subjects which are put far advanced, even in the curriculum 
 of college studies, by reason of the inverse order in which 
 they are presented in books, are thus seen to be connected 
 with the common matter of every-day life, and their rudi- 
 mentary facts to be constantly passing under the observa- 
 tion of children. A little pebble is a very common matter, 
 which children often handle w^ith little interest ; but con- 
 nect it with the geological history of our earth — show how, 
 in some deep and quiet sea of a bygone age, it was slowly 
 deposited, particle by particle, and finally became hardened 
 into stone — show the strange animals and plants that were 
 its contemporaries — how it was subsequently broken from 
 its rocky bed ; and after being tossed and buffeted by the 
 
14 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 waves for ages longer, until, worn into its present form, it 
 was left where you chanced to find it — and it at once be- 
 comes an object of curious regard in the eyes of the in- 
 telligent child ; for in its little self it presents the records 
 of a history wonderful and grand in the extreme. Thus 
 every pebble from the brook, every shell fmom the sea-shore, 
 every plant from the fields or wayside, and every star that 
 tv\^inldes in the evening sky, becomes a rudimentary fact 
 of scientific knowledge — a fact w^hich even children can 
 comprehend. What we need is to present such facts (and 
 there is a boundless store of them ready at our hands) 
 in their appropriate order, in a system of primary instruc- 
 tion. Let our reading-books prepare the way for this sys- 
 tem, both for teachers and pupils, by giving to all some lit- 
 tle insight into the mysteries contained in the great volume 
 of Nature, which, unhappily is yet a sealed book to many 
 of our educators themselves ; and then let the system of 
 " Object" teaching, now being inaugurated, work out the 
 details. 
 
 9. Why " Grammar" is not adapted to Childhood.* 
 
 Perhaps in no branch of education do we violate nature 
 more than in the manner in which we presume to teach 
 children " the art of speaking and writing the English lan- 
 guage with propriety ;" or, as it is called, English Gram^ 
 mar. Language grows up with the child as a habit ; he 
 uses the same words and forms of expression that are used 
 by those with whom he is brought most in contact ; he im- 
 itates them, whether they speak correctly or incorrectly, 
 and one form of expression is just as natural to him as an- 
 other, and just as correct, after he has formed the habit of 
 using it. His ear is the medium of all the instruction in 
 language which he receives in a course of natural training; 
 and his language grows up, just as language has grown up 
 in the progress of the race. If the language to which he 
 has been accustomed has been correct, he needs no farther 
 
 * By "Grammar," as will be seen, we do not mean the study and 
 practice of language^ bnt the study of the philosophy of lnnp;ua{:e. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 15 
 
 instruction to teach him to speak correctly ; if it has been 
 wrong, he needs to be told what forms he should use, and, 
 in addition, as all the forms of language are arbitrary, and 
 as he has learned to use them by habit, he needs some kind 
 of training that shall form other habits. But, in the ordi- 
 nary mode of teaching, the child is set to learning those 
 principles which unfold the philosophical construction of 
 the language — -such as what the subject or nominative is, 
 what the predicate or verb, and object — qualities, attri- 
 butes, connectives, disjunctives, etc. ; and then the rules of 
 syntax, in accordance with which the different parts of this 
 arbitrary system are hinged together. But all this is a 
 very roundabout method for leading to the substitution of 
 one arbitrary form for another. Now the expression " I 
 is" is just as good, primarily, as " I am ;" but if we would 
 have the child change the former for the latter form, is it 
 necessary first to construct an elaborate science, then from 
 the science deduce the rule that " a verb must agree with 
 its nominative in number and person," and then have the 
 child learn the rule in accordance with which the expres- 
 sion shall be corrected? But even when the child has 
 learned the rule, can he correct the expression any better 
 by its aid ? Does he see why "I" and " am" agree any bet- 
 ter than " I" and " is ?" why the former expression is cor- 
 rect, and the latter wrong ? Natiire has built up the lan- 
 guage, not in accordance Avith arbitrary rules^ but in ac- 
 cordance with usages which have grown into habits. Lan- 
 guage knows no other law. 
 
 It would seem, therefore, that if a child speaks incorrectly 
 we should better secure the desired change by direct cor- 
 rection than by rules ; for the rules, in addition to the long 
 road it takes to reach them, are just as arbitrary as the 
 simple correction, and much more difficult of comprehen- 
 sion by children. And why should children be expected 
 to learn to speak by rule a language that was never formed 
 by rule ? The rules are the final deductions of the science 
 of language ; and though they are said to embrace its ele- 
 mentary principles^ they are not what either individuals or 
 nations first learn in the acquisition of a language. 
 
16 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 What we have said here on the subject of instruction in 
 language has reference to primary education only — to the 
 simple matter of the art of speaking and writing correctly, 
 which, however, the ordinary study of grammar seldom at- 
 tains to — and not to the course which may be pursued by 
 scholars who wish to make themselves acquainted with the 
 pliilosophy of language. 
 
 As some confirmation of our views on this subject — if 
 they need any other support than is to be found in the facts 
 already presented — we would refer to Herbert Spencer, 
 who gives very satisfactory reasons, upon general princi- 
 l^les, for denouncing what he calls " that intensely stupid 
 custom, the teaching of grammar to cliildrenP M. Marcel 
 says : " It may without hesitation be affirmed that gram- 
 mar is not the stepping-stone, but the finishing instrument." 
 Mr.Wyse argues: "Grammar and syntax are a collection 
 of laws and rules. Kules are gathered from practice ; they 
 are the results of instruction, to which we come by long ob- 
 servation and comparison of facts. It is, in fine, the science, 
 the philosophy of language. In following the process of 
 nature, neither individuals nor nations arrive at the science 
 first. A language is spoken, and poetry written, many years 
 before either a grammar or prosody is even thought of. 
 Men did not wait till Aristotle had constructed his logic, 
 to reason. In short, as grammar was made after language, 
 so ought it to be taught after language." 
 
 10. How Language is to be taught. 
 
 But how, it will be asked, shall we teach language? 
 AVe reply, just as Nature teaches it. Cultivate the per- 
 ceptive faculties (to which "object" teaching is specially 
 adapted) to their greatest extent, so that they may supply 
 the mind with the greatest possible number of vahiable and 
 clearly-conceived ideas — the materials of knowledge, as 
 well as the soul of all language. The faculty or power of 
 speech is then to be exercised in accordance with those 
 forms of language which custom prescribes ; and, like all 
 other faculties, exercise alone can give it proper cultiva- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 17 
 
 tion.* The only difficulty that intervenes is where wrong 
 habits of speech have already been formed by violations 
 of the natural laAV of usage. The wrong habits need to be 
 corrected ; but this is not a legitimate part of education, 
 any more than the giving of medicine for violations of Na- 
 ture's laws is a part of the economy of Nature. We do 
 not think the natural and direct remedy is to be found in 
 studying the philosophy or grammar of the language, but 
 in the supplanting of the bad habits of speech by correct 
 ones, and in the same manner that any other habits are 
 formed. The following is the remedy which has been found 
 most successful in our own experience. 
 
 11. Correction of bad Habits of Speech. 
 
 "We once had charge of a large school of boys, nearly 
 all of whom had formed such habits of sj^eech that, in their 
 ordinary conversation and in recitations, there was an al- 
 most constant violation of grammar and good usage ; and 
 although their faulty expressions were often corrected, and 
 they knew them when pointed out, yet inveterate habit 
 ruled in spite of all our efforts. We then supplied every 
 jHipil with a pocket blank-book and pencil, and required 
 him to write down every wrong (ungrammatical) expres- 
 sion which he detected himself in using, or which he heard 
 from his associates ; and a few minutes daily were devoted 
 to reading and commenting upon these expressions. In a 
 short time the most obvious faults disapjieared from the 
 school-room and play-grounds. We closely watched the 
 operations of the system. We soon observed, when a 
 question was asked or answer given improperly in the 
 school-room, that, although the pupils at their desks seem- 
 ed to be absorbed in their studies, they would detect the 
 faulty expression sooner than any thing else, and pencils 
 would be busy in minuting it down. In fine, we observed 
 that the ears of the pupils were being rapidly trained to 
 detect these faults, just as the ears of the musician become 
 
 * See the exercises in speaking and writing ("Composition") ^hich 
 accompany the nse of the charts. 
 
18 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 trained to detect discords in music; and we found that 
 when this was fully accomplished, the evil was corrected. 
 We were satisfied that one month's time of this kind of 
 training was worth more to our youthful pupils in acquir- 
 ing the art of speaking correctly than two years devoted 
 to studying the rules and principles of grammar. 
 
 We adopted the same general plan with those advanced 
 students who were studying \hQ philosophy of the language 
 from the grammatical text-book, for we observed that the 
 rules of correct speech had very little influence in form- 
 ing in them correct habits of speaking, just as we know 
 some teachers who pride themselves upon teaching English 
 grammar, but who are continually murdering the " King's 
 English" in their ordinary conversation. We required 
 our students — young men — to write down not only the 
 imgrammatical expressions which they detected them- 
 selves, their classmates, and their teachers in using, and 
 which they heard in sermons, lectures, etc., and found in 
 standard books, but also such forms of expression as were 
 rhetorically or philosophically defective — a large and im- 
 portant class, not covered by the ordinary rules of gram- 
 mar. These formed the subjects of our most interesting 
 and most important lessons in language. We found that 
 such exercises, by training the ear and the eye to detect 
 what had before often passed unnoticed, were the only ef- 
 fective means, where wrong habits had been previously 
 formed, of making ^>/'aci5/ca7 grammarians. 
 
 12. The "Natural Order," the first great Law of 
 Development. 
 
 Our observations have thus far had reference chiefly to 
 the principles of mental development, and the consequent 
 natural order in which subjects should be presented to the 
 minds of children ; and we have illustrated our views by a 
 few specifications. We may conclude, therefore, that this 
 Natural Order of the presentation of subjects is the first 
 great law of mental development, and that we may expect 
 to be successful in our systems of education only so far as 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 19 
 
 we adhere to the principles which the Great Teacher has 
 developed in the laws of mind itself. We also infer that, 
 as all the materials of knowledge are derived through the 
 perceptive faculties, primary education should be directed 
 chiefly to their culture, in accordance with the laws of their 
 action : and if the rules, principles, and generalizations of 
 science can not be comprehended by the mind until the 
 perceptive faculties have supplied the rudimentary facts on 
 which they are based, then we should not begin our teach- 
 ing of a science with these generalizations. But all rules 
 are generalizations. We should, then, discard rules until 
 they are developed naturally from the accumulated percep- 
 tions. We also infer that as Nature never gives children 
 words until she has given them ideas which require expres- 
 sion, so we should be careful in our teaching not to invert 
 the order — not to teach the signs or sounds before we im- 
 jDart ideas of the thing signified. And if Nature gives per- 
 ceptions of an object as a ivhole before it notices the parts 
 which compose it, we should adopt the same order of pre- 
 sentation ; and if ideas of things concrete (as " a foolish 
 man," "three apples") precede those of things abstract (as 
 "folly," "three," etc.), we should learn a principle of edu- 
 cation therefrom. It is on such j)rinciples of mental philos- 
 ophy that the " object" system, or true development system 
 of teaching is based. 
 
 13. "Exercise," the second great Law of Development. 
 
 But there is still another fundamental princijDle of educa- 
 tion, to which we have yet scarcely alluded, but which is 
 quite as important as the order of mental development and 
 the order of presentation of subjects. It is this, that Exee- 
 ciSE is the great law of man's threefold nature — mental, 
 moral, and physical — and that without it there can be no 
 development. Plants^ attached to the soil, incapable of 
 voluntary motion, and hence needing none, require for their 
 perfect develojDment only such suitable nourishment as na- 
 ture provides ; but animals require, in addition, the exer- 
 cise of all their powers and faculties ; and without it they 
 
20 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 never come to maturity, and when it is withdrawn even 
 the physical nature Languishes, all the faculties become en- 
 feebled, and the animal soon dies. But while exercise is 
 every where acknowledged to be absolutely essential to 
 man's physical development, its importance in a specific 
 training of the senses, as well as of the higher mental pow- 
 ers, has not been fully appreciated ; and still less has it re- 
 ceived its due consideration in 7noral culture.* And in 
 still another wide field — in the exercise of the constructive 
 energies of children for the purpose of giving regulated 
 culture to the natural craving for invention and design — 
 education has made no advances. A few suggestions on 
 this subject will be found elsewhere in this volume. f 
 
 14. What the true Development System aims at. 
 
 The true development system, of which "object" teach- 
 ing is only a part, is designed, in addition to its proper 
 joresentation of the materials of knowledge, to mark out 
 such a course of training for the young, that all the facul- 
 ties shall receive exercise of such an amount, kind, and 
 quality as shall best conduce to the harmonious and com- 
 plete development of the whole individual. The lessons 
 throughout this volume will best show our views of the 
 manner in which this may be accomplished, so far as they 
 cover the ground of primary education. There are, how- 
 ever, additional subjects happily adapted to this kind of el- 
 ementary training — such as may be found in the boundless 
 variety of the insect world and in the mineral kingdom — 
 which are scarcely alluded to here, but which we hope to 
 present hereafter in additions to the present volume, and 
 in connection with additional charts, and the completed se- 
 ries of the "School and Family Readers." It is not to be 
 supposed that all the objects aimed at in this development 
 or " object" system have yet been fully attained ; for not 
 only is the system yet in its infancy, but no serious attempt 
 
 * See remarks and directions on this subject in Calkins's "Manual 
 of Object Lessons." 
 
 f See remarks under the head of " Geometrical Drawing," page 54. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 21 
 
 has heretofore been made to reduce it to " workino- order," 
 and to adapt it to tlie i^ractical duties of the school-room. 
 Defects in any complete course of primary instruction that 
 can now be jDresented will doubtless be found ; but if the 
 principles of the system are correct, the experience of 
 teachers will soon suggest the proper corrections. 
 
 15. No Danger of carrying the System too far. 
 
 Apprehensions have been expressed in diflerent quarters 
 that this " object" system, or development system, may be 
 carried too far. The fear, we imagine, has been on the 
 part of those who do not understand its true principles. 
 There can be little danger of its being carried too far, if it 
 be what we have described it, and what teachers should 
 make of it — a presentation of facts to the mind, in their 
 natural order, and not of rules and theories. Who will 
 maintain that children are likely to see and hear too much, 
 and that the voluntary exercise of their perceptive faculties 
 is likely to be attended with any injury? When we send 
 children into the fields for recreation, we do not bandage 
 their eyes nor close their ears, lest they may see too much 
 of the myriad forms, shades, and colors of Xature, and their 
 ears be too much ravished with its music ; but we think 
 that all the delights which they can thus enjoy will make 
 them both wiser and better. Seeing and hearing much do, 
 indeed, cause children to ask questions almost innumerable, 
 because it gives them a craving for knowledge ; and we 
 wish we could say that parents and teachers have now 
 more correct views of education than to check this inquis- 
 itiveness. Knowledge acquired under the stimulus of 
 childish curiosity is very different from lessons poured into 
 an unwilling ear. Those who will look through the sam- 
 ple lessons and exercises in this volume will see that they 
 do not consist in telling about " common things," but in so 
 presenting facts as to awaken the percejotive faculties to 
 voluntary and pleasurable activity, for the pur2)ose of de- 
 velophuj tliouglit. In accordance with the true develop- 
 ment system, instruction about common things — that is. 
 
22 MANUAL OF INFORMATION, ETC. 
 
 telling about them. — should come in only incidentally, and 
 after the awakening of a curiosity that thus seeks gratifica- 
 tion. Seek, therefore, by every proper means, to awaken 
 this curiosity in children, by the presentation of the natural 
 objects or by the best pictorial representations of them, by 
 oral descriptions, by anecdote and incident, by poetic allu- 
 sions, and by such every-day reading lessons as shall em- 
 brace a wider range of utility than the merely ornamental 
 part of the art of reading — the mere calling of words in an 
 elocutionary manner. 
 
 We would remark here that the following exercises, ac- 
 companying a description of the charts, are not intended 
 to be followed out, necessarily, in the exact order in Avhich 
 they are here presented, which is in the order in which the 
 charts are numbered ; for several of the charts will often 
 be needed for daily exercises upon different subjects. The 
 teacher must often arrange his own programme oi grades 
 and steins in object teaching, which will be regulated by 
 the amount of time which he can devote to each subject; 
 but we would advise him to take as his guide, for early 
 training, the Programme laid down by Mr. Calkins in his 
 " Manual of Object Lessons ;" and for a more extended 
 course we would refer to the " Approximate Programme" 
 found in the Appendix to this volume. 
 
 We would refer to the article on Dkawing, as illustrated 
 by Chart No. X., for some important principles in that de- 
 partment ; to the remarks on Geogeaphy, in connection 
 with Chart 1:^0. XI., for an exposition of the true develop- 
 ment system ; while the article on Colors, as illustrated by 
 the chromatic scale on Chart No. XIV., we believe to be 
 the loao^Xi practiced exhibition of that subject that has ever 
 been presented. 
 
AN EXPLANATION OF THE 
 
 SCHOOL AND FAMILY CHAETS, 
 
 WITH SUGGESTIONS OF PRINCIPLES AND METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT, 
 
 AND INFORMATION FOR THE TEACHER. 
 
 DESIGNED FOB AN EXTENDED COURSE OF ELEMENTART INSTRUCTION, 
 AND ADAPTED TO THE SYSTEM OF 
 
 OBJECT TEACHING. 
 
 While the charts, in connection with the present man- 
 nal, are designed to carry out in a natural order the true 
 development or " object" system of instruction, beginning 
 with the very earHest scholastic training of children, they 
 also embrace, as a part of that early training, the teaching 
 
 of the ALPHABET, of EEADING, of SPELLING, of FEINTING and 
 DRAWING, of WRITING, and of ORAL COMPOSITION. The first 
 
 principles of numbers and of geography are also illustrated 
 here, in accordance with the object system ; and if we have 
 succeeded in our purposes, we have presented in the earlier 
 numbers of the charts, with the accompanying directions, a 
 complete programme of such a course oi elementary instruc- 
 tion as is required for the younger pupils in our schools. 
 In what manner these subjects, as well as those more ad- 
 vanced, are made parts of the object system, will be fully 
 developed as we proceed with an explanation of the charts 
 and their varied uses. Moreover, the information here 
 embodied, as explanatory of the Natural History Charts — 
 and especially in the departments of zoology and botany — 
 is designed as the carrying out of the plan of the " School 
 and Family Readers," by furnishing such additioncd valua- 
 ble information in the Natural History departments as was 
 much needed, and such as the Readers, from their necessa- 
 rily elocutional character, could not fully embrace. It will 
 now be seen, also, that the series of " School and Family 
 
24: MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 Readers," the "Primary Object Lessons," the "Manual" 
 by Mr. Calkins, with the present work (which harmonizes 
 with it), and the " School and Family Charts," are intimate- 
 ly connected in their design, principles, and plan, as parts 
 of one system ; and we believe that these several parts 
 will now be found combined into one harmonious whole. 
 
 CHART No. I. ELEMENTARY. 
 
 Here are sixty words, each illustrated, and they contain 
 all the letters of the alphabet. We suppose the child, when 
 this chart is first presented to it, not to know its letters nor 
 any thing about reading. The child has, however, from 
 Nature's teachings, already learned to distinguish a great 
 many objects^ and to call them by their approj^riate names. 
 Indeed, most of the objects represented on this Chart it is 
 probably already familiar with, either from actually seeing 
 the objects themselves or their pictures. The child has, 
 therefore, already learned to recognize the objects^ to rec- 
 ognize their ^^/c^^wrec? representations, and to designate them 
 by their apj^ropriate names. It has proceeded in the nat- 
 ural order of, 1st, the idea.^ and 2d, the ifiord to express it. 
 Let the teacher pursue the same order — ideas before words 
 — and the child will soon learn to read as naturally as it 
 talks. 
 
 Words taught as the Representatives of Things. 
 
 As the child talks — that is, calls the names of things, and 
 utters sentences — before it knows its letters or learns how 
 to spell, so it will be found that the most natural order is 
 to read words by sight before it learns how to spell them, 
 or even to name their letters. Thus, the child sees an an- 
 imal, and before it can tell all its parts, or, indeed, name 
 any of them, it learns to distinguish it as a ichole., and to 
 call it '•'■dog.'''' In the same manner it will easily learn a 
 word as a ichole., and name it, before it can readily distin- 
 guish and name its several parts. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 25 
 
 Therefore let the teacher, in commencing his course of 
 instruction at this point, and having, if possible, a class of 
 beginners before him, point to the picture of a cap on the 
 Chart, and ask what it is. Some pupil will probably say, 
 " It is a cap." Teacher holds up a cap, and asks what that 
 is. Pupils now observe the difference between the two, 
 and say that one is a 7'eal cap, and the other the picture of 
 a cap. Tell them that pictures represent things or objects, 
 and that many words also represent objects. Ask them 
 what icoi'd represents a dog. Ask them if they would like 
 to see the word which represents a ca}). Point it out to 
 them ; tell them to see how it looks ; ask them if they 
 would know it if they should see it again. Ask them if they 
 can find it on Chart No. II. The class ^nd four such words 
 on Chart No. II. Let them find the same on Chart No. 
 III., and tell which liiie it is in. Call attention to the num- 
 ber indicating the line. 
 
 In a series of lessons let them go through a similar course 
 with all the other words on Chart No. I., and find the same 
 words either on Chart No. II. or No. III. In Chart No. 
 III. let them tell tchich line each word is found in. In this 
 way they learn, additionally, to count, and to recognize 
 numbers up to lY.* 
 
 * On this Chart seven of the illustrations — those connected with the 
 words cage^ arm^ swan, nest, pig, kite, and ox — represent more objects than 
 the words. This may be thought an objection by some ; and if it shall 
 be found so, we purpose to change them. We suggest, however, the fol- 
 lowing advantages from retaining a sufficient number of such complex il- 
 lustrations to break the uniformity of the others. 
 
 When the child comes to the illustration connected with the word 
 cage, ask it what the picture represents. The child will perhaps say, 
 "A girl, a cage, and a bird." Tell the child that one word can repre- 
 sent only one thing (or one collection of things, as leaf, leaves) ; and that 
 the word here given represents the cage. This explanation arrests the 
 attention, fixes in the mind of the child the particular thing represent- 
 ed, and leads it to examine the pictures more closely ; so that when it 
 comes to the third picture below, it notices there several objects, and 
 wishes to know which of them the word represents. 
 
 As each word on the Chart is learned primarily by associating it with 
 its picture, perhaps the object in view will be as readily attained in the 
 
 B 
 
26 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION , 
 
 Calling Words at Sight. 
 
 Teacher places a strijD of paper over the cuts in one col- 
 umn at a time, and, pointing out the Avords, at first in reg- 
 ular order, and afterward f)romiscuously, requires the pu- 
 pils to name them. This is continued until all the words 
 can be readily called at sight. 
 
 The Alphabet, Counting, and Printing. 
 
 Teacher points to the word cc(p, and asks how many 
 parts there are in that w^ord. If the puf)ils can count a lit- 
 tle, they say three. He tells them those three things are 
 called letters. He points out other words, and requires 
 them to tell him how many letters each contains. While 
 they are thus learning to count, go back to the Avord cap, 
 ask them to notice the shape of each letter in it, and tell 
 them their names. After requiring them to examine at- 
 tentively the first letter, C, and to notice and describe its 
 form, he asks them, one by one, to point out and count the 
 Cs in the first column (6), in the second (none), in the third 
 (none), in the fourth (2). 
 
 After the lesson, let them draw (print) the letter C on 
 their slates, and let some of them draw the same on the 
 blackboard.* It is very important that, in these first at- 
 
 case of the complex as the simple illustrations, while, additionally, closer 
 obserA^ation and discrimination will be called forth in the former in- 
 stance. 
 
 If it should be found that the attention of the children is too much di- 
 verted from the particular object and its name by the surrounding pic- 
 tures, take a large newspaper, cut a hole in it of the size of the objects to 
 which you wish to confine their attention, and cover up the rest of the 
 Chart. 
 
 * It may be objected that drawing should begin with straight lines in 
 various positions, to be followed by curved lines in various positions, 
 and that only after such elementary lessons should the pupil be allowed 
 to combine them into the forms of letters. We think it would be just as 
 reasonable to require the infant to move its hand through a series of ex- 
 ercises in straight lines, and then through another series in ciirved lines, 
 before it should be allowed to combine them in the graceful motions 
 which Nature teaches. If the drawing in straight lines, or motion in 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 27 
 
 tempts at drawing or writing, the pupils should have a long 
 pencil^ and that they should hold it Just as they should hold 
 a pen in meriting. The habit of holding the pencil or pen 
 properly can be easily formed at this period ; whereas the 
 habit of holding it in an improper manner can be corrected 
 only with the greatest difficulty. Let the class go through 
 Avith A and P in a similar manner. 
 
 When they come to the second word, Cat, they find they 
 are already familiar with two of the letters, and they learn T 
 as they learned the others. They thus continue until not 
 only all the words on the Chart, but all the letters of the 
 alphabet are familiar to them. They should count the num- 
 ber of letters of each kind on the Chart.* Also the number 
 of pictures, or words, in each column ; then on the whole 
 chart. 
 
 In making draioings of the letters on their slates, and on 
 the blackboard, they will for a time make very awkward 
 figures ; and not until they have acquired a considerable de- 
 gree of control over the muscles of their fingers will they 
 be able to form much of an imitation of the originals. 
 Their very failures, however, will not be without advant- 
 
 straight lines, could be shown to be any easier or more natural than 
 curvilinear motions, there might be some show of reason for restricting 
 the pupil to the tedium of strictly angular movements ; but we see no 
 reason why both classes of motions may not be carried on simultaneous- 
 ly in drawing, the same as in nature. Why, for example, confine the 
 child for days and weeks to the monotonous exercise of forming the 
 straight perpendicular line of the letter P, before it is allowed to try its 
 skill upon the circular part of the letter? Will it not be likely to suc- 
 ceed quite as soon in forming the entire letter, when it is allowed the 
 pleasure of alternating the exercises ? What is needed is care in form- 
 ing each part ; and this, we think, will soonest be acquired when the pu- 
 pil can see the relation of each part to the whole. Moreover, the child 
 sees no reason in making a long series of straight lines, and wearies of 
 them ; but let him see how straight and curved lines are needed to form 
 letters, and he will be interested in making them as accurate as possible. 
 * The letter a is found on this Chart 20 times ; b, 8 ; c, 8 ; d, 8 ; e, 
 27 ; F, 5 ; G, 10 ; II, 9 ; I, 12 ; J, 1 ; K, 5 ; l, 10 ; M, 6 ; n, 9 ; o, 26 ; p, 
 G ; Q, 1 ; K, 12 ; s, -14 ; T, 8 ; u, 8 ; v, 2 ; w, 7 ; x, 3 ; T, 3 ; z, 1=^229 
 letters. 
 
28 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 age to them. When they have acquired some degree of 
 steadiness, draw parallel horizontal lines on the blackboard, 
 and let them draw the letters between them, as a guide. 
 Then let the pupils draw similar lines. 
 
 While this series of drawing exercises is progressing 
 from day to day, the exercises on Chart No. II. should be 
 taken up ; for the more familiar pupils become with the 
 words, the easier will they learn the letters which compose 
 them. They thus learn the letters after they know their 
 usesy which is much better than the old, arbitrary, and te- 
 dious method formerly practiced. 
 
 The pupils will thus have learned, from this Chart, to 
 CALL WORDS AT SIGHT, as they tell the names of familiar ob- 
 jects ; to NAME THE LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET ; tO COUNT; 
 
 and to make a beginning in Drawing or writing. In the 
 mean time they may have received some exercises on Chart 
 No. II., to which we now proceed. 
 
 CHART No. II. READINa: FIRST LESSONS. 
 
 This Chart embraces the First Series of Lessons in Read- 
 ing, which is here arranged in six progressive Divisions. 
 
 Mrst Division of the Chart. 
 Reading. — l. Teacher points to the word cap., and asks 
 the pupils to name it. They say " CapP He points to the 
 word caty and they name that also. He tells them the word 
 between these two is and^ and then asks them to read the 
 line (or phrase) ^ which they now readily do. They then, 
 by the aid of the pictures, easily read all the lines or phrases 
 in the first division. 
 
 2. Cover the pictures by a strip of paper, and require 
 them to read without their aid. 
 
 3. Also cover the words, and let them form the phrases 
 by the aid of the pictures. 
 
 Oral Composition. — 4. Turn back to Chart No. L, and 
 require the j^upils to form the words there, two by two. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 29 
 
 into similar phrases, connecting them by and^ and repeat- 
 ing them aloud — omitting, of course, the adjectives red, 
 blue, pink, etc. Thus, " face and cage," " quail and snail," 
 " arm and chair," etc. 
 
 Spelling. — 5. They may now name the letters in the 
 words on Chart No. I., and jDronounce the words, still hav- 
 ing the Chart before them. 
 
 6. When they can thus s^^ell out the words with consid- 
 erable facility, cover the vjords, and, letting them see the 
 pictured representations only, require them to name the 
 letters from memory, and tell what words they form. 
 
 7. It would now be well for the pupils to be supplied 
 with Type Letter-cards, each card containing, on each side, 
 the same letter of the alphabet. If they have these, place 
 before them a large number of these cards, and, allowing 
 them to look at the Chart, let them select and arrange 
 these cards on the table, desk, or /rame, prepared for the 
 purpose, so as to form the words on Chart No. I.* 
 
 8. Next, cover the words on the Chart, and let the pupils 
 form them with the cards, by the aid of the pictures only. 
 
 9. Let them spell out the words, and form the phrases, in 
 the fii'st division of Chart No. IL, in a similar manner ; first 
 looking at the pictures and words, and, secondly, having the 
 words covered. 
 
 Printing and Drawing.— lo. Let the pupils print the 
 
 words in this division on their slates, and on the black- 
 board, being careful to use a long pencil, and to hold it as 
 they should hold a pen. This should be done, not as a task, 
 but as a recreation ; and if the pupils should occasionally 
 leave this exercise for rude attempts at picturing animals, 
 
 * A " Composing-frame" has been prepared for the purpose of holding 
 the Type Letter-cards, which latter are to be arranged by the pupil so 
 as to form words and sentences. A box of the accompanying Letter- 
 cards contains not only the capitals and small letters, but also the marks 
 of punctuation, accents, inflections, etc., and all made of their proper 
 relative height and width, to correspond with type of the same size of 
 font. The pupils will find the use of these Letter-cards and Frame an 
 agreeable pastime, and the most practically useful and interesting of all 
 spelling exercises. 
 
80 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 or any other appropriate objects, they should be allowed 
 to do so without censure. Let them draw on their slates 
 as much as they choose. Give them Chart No. X. to copy 
 from, in accordance with the directions, p. 52-3. 
 
 Counting. — ll. Let the pupils, during the preceding ex- 
 ercises, coimt the letters in each word ; then in each line ; 
 and, finally, in the whole division. 
 
 Second Division of the Chart. 
 
 Reading, — l. The pupils will easily read these phrases, 
 as the words and pictures are already familiar to them. 
 
 2. Cover the pictures, and let them read the words. 
 
 t3. Cover the words, and let them form the phrases by 
 the aid of the pictures. 
 
 Oral Composition. — 4. Turn back to Chart No. L, and 
 let the jDupils, in a series of exercises, give to each noun 
 there some descriptive term ; thus forming phrases similar 
 to those in the Second Division of Chart No. IE. Also let 
 them give to each noun as many descriptive terms as they 
 can ; as, a red cap, a hlue cap, a white cap, a hlach cap, an old 
 cap, a nev:) cap, a dirty cap, a soldier'' s cap, a 7iight-c2i^^ etc. 
 
 Spelling. — 5. Let the pupils name the letters, and pro- 
 nounce the words in this division, being careful to avoid a 
 monotonous or drawling tone. 
 
 6. Let them do the same when the words are covered. 
 
 Y. Let them, while looking at the Chart, use the cards in 
 forming the same phrases. 
 
 8. Let them do the same from memory, with the words 
 covered. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — 9. Let the pupils print the 
 
 words, and form the phrases in this division on their slates, 
 and on the blackboard. Let them hold the pencil properly. 
 Use Chart No. X., according to directions, jd. 52-3. 
 
 Counting. — Let the pupils count the letters in each word, 
 each line, and in the whole division, as before. 
 
 Third and Fourth Divisi07is. 
 Divisions Three and Four should be gone through with 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 81 
 
 in a manner similar to the Second Division. The few new 
 words will now be easily learned. 
 
 Fifth Division. 
 
 Here are the first complete sentences that we have pre- 
 sented, and they are given ^without illustrations. 
 
 Reading. — These exercises may be similar to the pre- 
 ceding. Let the pupils also name the words when pointed 
 out to them promiscuously. This will show whether they 
 recollect the word from its/orm, or from its position in the 
 sentence. 
 
 Oral Composition. — Let the pupils form similar declara- 
 tive sentences with the verb to he (is and are), using, as the 
 subjects, the nouns given on Chart No. I. Thus : " The cat 
 is tame." " The bat is quiet ;" or, " is sitting," etc. " Those 
 lambs are tame." " That cat is cunning," etc. This will 
 exercise their ingenuity, and, while it will form a pleasant 
 recreation, it will give them some ideas of writing compo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Spelling. — This should now be done chiefly by the aid of 
 the Type Letter-cards (if the school has them) ; first form- 
 ing the sentences in this Fifth Division, and afterward oth- 
 ers similar to them. Spelling them aloud may also be prac- 
 ticed. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print the sen- 
 tences in this division on their slates, and on the blackboard 
 — using a long pencil, and holding it as a pen. 
 
 Let them print as many of the new sentences, similar to 
 them, as they can. Directions for Draicing, see p. 52-3. 
 
 Counting. — The same as in the former divisions. 
 
 Sixth Division. 
 
 Reading. — As only two new words, " pet" and " new," 
 are found in this division, the pupils will have little difii- 
 culty in reading all the sentences. 
 
 Let them also name the words when pointed out to them 
 promiscuously. 
 
 Oral Composition.— 1. Let the pupils, by referring to 
 
82 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 Chart No. L, form as many sentences as they can similar 
 to those in this Sixth Division, giving to each noun used 
 tioo descriptive terms or adjectives. As, An old blue cap. 
 A new wire cage. A large ripe pear. A pretty pink chair. 
 A large iron box. A poor little fly, etc. 
 
 2. Also let them separate the descriptive terms. Thus : 
 A large and shaggy dog. A large and gentle ox. A fresh 
 and pretty rose. A tall and lean hound. A sly and cun- 
 ning fox. A fierce and roaring lion, etc. 
 
 3. Let them nse the verb to he with these latter exer- 
 cises. Thus : The dog is large and shaggy. The rose is 
 fresh and pretty, etc. These may be found rather diflicult 
 exercises for pupils at this stage of their progress, as it 
 may not be easy for them to find tioo descriptive terms 
 which they can use with each noun ; but if they accompHsh 
 only a little with these exercises, that little will be valuable 
 to them, and probably all that their capacities require. 
 
 When they have carried these exercises from Chart N"©. 
 I. sufficiently far, let them form similar sentences with 
 nouns of their own selection. 
 
 Spelling. — The cards should be nsed to form, first, the 
 sentences in the Sixth Division, and afterward others sim- 
 ilar to them. The words may also be spelled aloud. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — The same as in the Fifth Di- 
 vision. 
 
 Counting. — ^The same as in the former divisions. Also 
 let them now count two divisions consecutively; then 
 three, four, five, and finally all the letters on the Chart. 
 
 CHAETNo.III. EEADING: SECOND LESSONS. 
 
 Reading. — This Chart contains all the words on the first 
 Chart, and is designed to be used chiefly in connection 
 with the first, as before explained, for the purpose of test- 
 ing the knowledge which pupils have of the words when 
 seen apart from the illustrations. 
 
 The pupils should also use this Chart for separate read- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 83 
 
 ing exercises until they become perfectly familiar with all 
 the words. The teacher should be careful that the pupils 
 do not let their voices fall at the commas. The voice re- 
 ceives the rising inflection at the commas, and the falling 
 at the period. Here are presented the first capital letters, 
 which will now be gradually learned from this and the fol- 
 lowing Charts, without calling special attention to them. 
 The exercises here are numbered from 1 to 17 inclusive. 
 Let the pupils learn the meaning of these figures. They 
 have already learned to count, and should now begin to 
 make an application ofihejiffures. 
 
 Oral Composition, — l. Let each pupil take line No. 1, 
 and connect an adjective, or some other descriptive word 
 or words, with each noun, repeating the same aloud. Thus, 
 " A blue cap, an old cat, a iong-eared bat, two tame lambs, 
 and a gray rat." 
 
 Let them go through with the entire Chart in this man- 
 ner. 
 
 2. Let each pupil take the words in the first line, and 
 form them into clauses like the following, repeating them 
 aloud, and connect the whole in one general sentence. 
 Thus : " A cap for the boy, a cat to catch mice, a bat in 
 the air, some lambs in the field, and a rat in his hole." 
 "The arm of a man, a chair for the parlor, a ripe pear on 
 the tree, and the claw of an eagle," etc. 
 
 Let them go through with the entire Chart in this man- 
 ner. This will exercise the ingenuity of the pupils, and 
 call forth a proper spirit of emulation. 
 
 Spelling, — The type-cards should now be used to form, 
 first, the sentences on the chart, and then, as indicated 
 above, others formed by the pupils. This will require 
 them to use some of the capital letters, and also to spell 
 some new words. If they are at first imable to spell these 
 words, they may go for assistance to the teacher, who 
 should print them on the blackboard, or let some older pu- 
 pil do it. The pupils will then be able to form these T^^ords 
 with their cards, while the very difiiculties which they have 
 encountered will lead them to observe words more closely, 
 
 B2 
 
84 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 and to see the importance of being able to spell them. 
 They may also spell the words aloud. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — While some are setting up 
 the sentences with the type-cards, others should print them 
 on their slates or on the blackboard. Do not forget to re- 
 quire them to hold the pencil properly. In these exercises 
 be careful to use the figures where they can be properly 
 used to nu7nher the exercises. 
 
 Counting, Adding, and the Use of Figures.— The pu- 
 pil is now supposed to be able to county perhaps as far as 
 a hundred. He has also learned something of the use of 
 figures to designate numbers. To extend this knowledge 
 farther, let the pupil set up with the Type Letter-cards, or 
 print on the blackboard, the first lesson of Chart No. II., 
 " Cap and Cat." Let him count the letters in the line, and 
 place the number, 9, at the end of it. Let him also put the 
 number of letters in each word under the word, and at the 
 right the whole number, 9. Teach him that three letters 
 and three letters more make six letters, and that six let- 
 ters and three letters make nine letters. 
 
 Let him continue these exercises throughout both Chart 
 No. II. and Chart No. III. He will thus, with the little as- 
 sistance which he will now be likely to obtain at home^ 
 soon learn to count and to add with considerable facility ; 
 for when children are once put in the way of counting 
 things, they are apt to teach themselves fast enough. All 
 these exercises in numbers may be carried on in connection 
 with or supplementary to the counting and adding of beans, 
 pebbles, or other real objects, as indicated in the instruc- 
 tions given in Calkins' Primary Object Lessons, beginning 
 with page 138. 
 
 In such exercises the pupil should not be Jcept hack for 
 the sake of going through any regular system. The teach- 
 er must exercise his own judgment in this matter, and 
 adapt his instructions to the capacities of his pupils. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 85 
 
 CHAET Ko. IV. EEADING-: THIED LESSONS. 
 
 [In connection with the exercises on this Chart, the pupils may take up the early- 
 Reading Lessons in the Primer, or First Header. They may also begin with the ex- 
 ercises on Chart No. VII., Elementary Sounds, see page 43.] 
 
 In the third series of Reading Lessons we enter upon 
 more extended and complete sentences, which present the 
 first exercises in elocution proper. For the principles of 
 the inflections here presented, and the importance of early 
 attention to them, Ave refer to the " Directions to the Teach- 
 er," " Prefaces," etc., together with Reading Lessons, in the 
 Primer and First and Second Readers of the " School and 
 Family Series." 
 
 Reading. — Here are fifteen subjects, presented by fifteen 
 illustrations, with a short reading lesson on each. 
 
 1. Let a pupil try to read the first lesson. If he fails in 
 any of the words, let another try. If none can do it, the 
 teacher should tell them the new words, and then have 
 them read the line, and at the same time point out each 
 word in it. They may also point out and name the words 
 backward. (The teacher may find it desirable to cover up 
 all the lines or lessons below the one which the pupils are 
 reading.) 
 
 2. Let them go through all the fifteen lessons in a sim- 
 ilar manner. 
 
 3. As soon as they know all the words in a line, the teach- 
 er should read the line elocutionally, giving the proper in- 
 flections, emphasis, etc., and should require the pupils to 
 imitate him. Notice that the words printed in italics are 
 to be pronounced with more emphasis than the others. 
 Let the teacher illustrate the rising and falling inflections 
 by a variety of examples, and have the pupils imitate him.* 
 
 * The teacher should make himself perfectly familiar with Kules I. 
 and IL, page 8, and Kules III. and IV., page 22, of the Second Read- 
 er, together with the abundant illustrations that are given. He may 
 gradually explain these rules to the pupils in simple language, so that 
 they may begin to apply the inflections to their own compositions, espe- 
 cially in the iivo kinds of questions. 
 
S6 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 4. Let each pupil read all the lessons consecutively, be- 
 ing careful to give the inflections and emphasis properly, 
 and avoiding the least appearance of monotony or a drawl- 
 ing tone. 
 
 Oral Composition and Writing. — i. Call upon a pupil to 
 
 tell something about the Picture No. 1 (the subject) different 
 from the lesson given. Thus, "Three boys are running after 
 the dog and the pig." Teacher, or some older pupil, may 
 print the same on the blackboard. Another pupil may also 
 tell something about it ; and if his imagination should help 
 him a little, his " composition" will probably be the better for 
 it. He examines the picture closely, and makes up a com- 
 position something like the following : "The pig's mouth is 
 open. The dog holds the pig by the ear, and makes the 
 pig squeal." Teacher, or some older pupil, prints this on 
 the blackboard. Call the attention of the pupils to the 
 pauses used. Tell them Avhen the period is used, when 
 the comma, etc. ; the ajDOStrophe also, if it should be used. 
 
 2. Next take the second picture, and let the pupils form 
 compositions from that as the subject. Encourage them 
 to put some questio7is into their compositions, like those in 
 the reading lesson. Thus: "Ann is feeding the hens. 
 There are two hens and a rooster. Why does not the 
 rooster eat^ ? What is Ann feeding the hens with^ ? Is it 
 corn' ? She carries the corn in her apron," etc. Encour- 
 age the pupils to 7iotice and tell as many things about 
 Ann, the engravings, etc., as they can. As, for example ; 
 "Ann has no bonnet on. She has long curly hair, and a 
 short dress," etc. These may be printed on the board, or 
 set up with the Type Letter-cards, with the proper pauses, 
 inflections, interrogations, etc., which should be explained 
 to the pupils. 
 
 3. In a similar manner, all the illustrations should be 
 taken up as subjects for compositions. 
 
 4. The teacher may also call the attention of j^upils to 
 real objects, in the school-room or elsewhere, and require 
 them to notice them carefully, and make up verbal compo- 
 sitions about them, stating as many things or facts about 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 87 
 
 them as they can. As soon as the pupils have learned to 
 form the script letters, Chart No. IX., they may write out 
 some of these compositions. See directions for script writ- 
 ing, page 50. 
 
 Spelling. — 1. A use of the Type Letter-cards, as before 
 directed, in setting up, not only the lessons given on the 
 Chart, but also such compositions as the pupils may form, 
 will furnish a very valuable course of spelling exercises. If 
 they fail in setting up the new words correctly, aid them. 
 
 2. The teacher may also have them spell aloud both the 
 words on the Chart, and the new words used. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print (or wHte^ 
 
 if they have yet learned the script letters. Chart No. IX.) 
 the lessons of this Chart on their slates, and on the black- 
 board, putting in the numbers (figures) for the lessons, and 
 paying particular attention to the capital letters. They 
 should be told lohen to use the capitals. The pupils may, 
 very likely, undertake to make drawings of some of the il- 
 lustrations given here. They should be allowed to do so, 
 but without much special encouragement yet. It is sup- 
 posed that they are now acquiring some facility in making 
 letters ; and when they can make these pretty well, they 
 will be all the better prepared for picture or object drawing. 
 In all their marking, or picture-making, it is important that 
 they should use a long pencil, and hold it as they should 
 hold a pen. 
 
 Numbers. — In setting up a line with the Type Letter- 
 cards, or in printing it, they may put the figures denoting 
 the number of letters in a line at the end of the line ; also 
 the number in each word under the word. They may next 
 add the figures aloud, and see if they can make their sum 
 equal the number which they obtained in counting the let- 
 ters. The teacher should vary these exercises as the ca- 
 pacities of his pupils require. 
 
88 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 CHAETNo.Y. READING: FOURTH LESSONS. 
 
 [The Reading Lessons in the Primer, or First Reader, should be continued in con- 
 nection with the exercises on this Chart. Also the exercises on Elementary Sounds, 
 Chart No. VII. See page 43.] 
 
 The reading lessons in this Fourth Series are somewhat 
 more full than those of the preceding Chart, but they in- 
 troduce no new principles. 
 
 Reading. — Call the attention of the pupils to the subject 
 of Reading Lesson No. 1 . Let them notice, particularly, the 
 illustrations, and then read the lesson. (While the pupils 
 are engaged with any one lesson, it may be advisable to 
 cover uj) the lessons below it, so that their attention may 
 be given exclusively to the one lesson.) 
 
 Oral Composition and Writing. — Let them now form 
 verbal compositions on the subject of No. 1, in the manner 
 directed for the preceding Chart. If they have learned the 
 script letters. Chart No. IX., let them write out some of 
 these compositions. 
 
 Spelling. — Use the Type Letter-cards to set up this les- 
 son, and also other lessons or compositions on the subject 
 of No. 1. Also spell aloud the words. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print or write 
 Lesson No. 1, and also others which they may form on the 
 same subject. For Drawing, see directions, page 52-3. 
 
 Numbers. — The pupils having set up Lesson No. 1 with 
 the type-cards, or printed it, let them count the letters in 
 each line, placing the number at the end. Then let them 
 place under each word the figure denoting the number of 
 letters in it. Next, let them add aloud the figures in this 
 latter row, and see if they can obtain the same number as in 
 counting the letters. This is addition^ ^xidiproviyig it. The 
 teacher should show them how to write down numbers 
 larger than 9. 
 
 All the foregoing exercises on the subject of Lesson No. 1 
 may be carried on nearly simultaneously with a large class ; 
 or so many of them as may be necessary to keep the class 
 fully occupied. They may occupy several days. After 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 39 
 
 No. 1 has thus been disposed of, carry on, in a similar man- 
 ner, a series of exercises for each of the remaining five sub- 
 jects on this Chart. Pay attention to the inflections, etc., 
 as before directed. 
 
 Punctuation and Capitals. — It is now time to begin to 
 
 pay some attention to these; for as the pupil sees them 
 used, he will naturally wish to know %ohy they are used, 
 and whe7i they should be used. Point out the period., and 
 comma., and interrogation pointy on the Chart ; show how 
 they are usually made in books, and explain their uses. 
 
 Tell them that the comma marks the smallest grammat- 
 ical division in written or printed language, and that where 
 it is found there should usually be a short pause in reading. 
 (We would have omitted the word " grammatical" in the 
 above definition, if we could have made the definition cor- 
 rect without it.) 
 
 The period., which is placed at the close of a sentence, 
 shows that a full 2:)ause, or full stop, should be made there. 
 
 Point out the interrogation point ; tell them that " to in- 
 terrogate," means " to ask a question," etc. ; and that the 
 interrogation point is placed at the end of a sentence which 
 asks a question. 
 
 The pupils began the use of words without any capital 
 letters. Explain now the general rules only for using cap- 
 itals ; such as, the first letter of a word after a period ; 
 names of persons and places ; the pronoun Z, and the in- 
 terjection 0. 
 
 CHAET No.YI. EEADIXG: FIFTH LESSOKS. 
 
 [The Reading Lessons in the Primer, or First Reader, should be continued in con- 
 nection with the exercises on this Chart. The teacher should pay special attention to 
 the dii'ections given in the Readers for avoiding a drawlincj and monotonous manner 
 of reading, especially with beginneis. Continue the exercises on the Elementary 
 Sounds.] 
 
 The Reading Lessons in this Fifth and last Series present 
 a still greater variety than those of the fourth Chart. 
 Reading. — Call the attention of the pupils to the suhject 
 
40 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 of the first Reading Lesson, No. 1. Let them notice, par- 
 ticularly, the illustration, and then read the lesson ; being 
 careful to read in a natural and spirited manner, giving the 
 inflections, etc. All the capital letters are given here ; and 
 those which pupils are not already familiar with, they should 
 now learn. 
 
 Oral Composition and Writing. — Let the pupils now 
 form verbal compositions on the subject of No. 1, in the 
 manner directed for Chart No. IV. If they have learned 
 the script letters. Chart No. IX., let them write out some 
 of these compositions. 
 
 Spelling. — Use the Type Letter-cards to set up this les- 
 son, some of the compositions on the subject, and the cap- 
 ital letters. Also spell aloud the words. 
 
 Printing and Drawing. — Let the pupils print or write 
 the Lesson No. 1, including the capital letters, and other 
 lessons or compositions which they may form on the same 
 subject. Do not let them fall into the habit of holding their 
 pencil improperly. For Drawing, see directions, p. 52-3. 
 
 Numbers. — Let the pupils continue the exercises of 
 counting the letters in each line of the lesson, and adding 
 the numbers denoting the letters in the several words in 
 the lesson, as directed for Charts No. IV. and No. V. 
 
 In a similar manner go through with all the lessons on 
 this Chart; after which, introduce the subject of Numbers 
 again, with the following exercises : 
 
 1. Count the words in each lesson, and set down their 
 numbers. Then add these numbers, and tell the number 
 of loords in all the lessons. 
 
 2. Count the letters in each lesson, and set down their 
 numbers. Then add all these numbers, and tell the num- 
 ber of letters in all the lessons. 
 
 These exercises will require some instruction from the 
 teacher in setting down larger numbers than the pupils 
 have previously been accustomed to, and in carrying one 
 for every ten. The first regular exercises in addition are 
 thus introduced, and without any necessity for a separate 
 Chart of Numbers. Moreover, the exercises in figures are 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 41 
 
 thus made practical^ as the figures are here the representa- 
 tives of the numbers of well-known objects. We would 
 recommend, in the exercises in numbers at this early stage 
 of the pupil's progress, that figures should not be used ab- 
 stractly, but be made to represent, in all cases, certain ob- 
 jects with which the pupil is already familiar. 
 
 The teacher may now introduce other exercises in num- 
 bers, adapted to the capacities of his pupils. He may, for 
 example, select such groups of words as " cat, cage;" " cat, 
 quail ;" " cat, yellow ;" " cat, reading," etc. Let the pupils 
 count the letters of the words in each group, and tell the 
 diJQference in the number between cat and cage^ cat and 
 qiiail^ etc.; then the difibrence between the number of 
 words in one line, and those in another line ; then the dif- 
 ference between the number of letters in one line, and those 
 in another line ; thence proceed to the words and letters in 
 entire lessons ; thence to the words and letters on entire 
 charts, etc. Such exercises will interest pupils much more 
 than such as require them to deal with abstract numbers 
 only. The idea of the difierence between the number of 
 letters in one word, and the number in another word, is 
 first acquired by the pupil ; and then^ when the want is 
 felt, an expression for this idea is sought. This is the true 
 object method. 
 
 Punctuation, Capitals, etc. — A more full account of the pauses, 
 capitals, etc., may now be given, and their uses illustrated, as far as can 
 be done, from the present Chart. Here are pi-esented the comma, semi- 
 colon, colon, period, interrogation and exclamation poiiits, the rising and 
 Jailing viflections, emphatic words, and the hyphen. The following may 
 aid the teacher in explaining to the pupils the uses of these marks. For 
 full information on this subject, however, we would advise him to read 
 "A Treatise on English Punctuation, by John Wilson." 
 
 The comma (,) marks the smallest grammatical division in written or 
 printed language, and usually represents a short pause in reading or 
 speaking. 
 
 The semicolon (;) is used to sepai'ate such parts of a sentence as are 
 somewhat less closely connected than those separated by a comma. It 
 is also frequently placed between two or more distinct parts of a sen- 
 tence, when these parts, or any of them, are divisible by commas into 
 smaller portions. 
 
 The colon (:) is used in a sentence between parts less connected than 
 those which are divided by a semicolon, but not so independent as sep- 
 
42 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 arate, distinct sentences. Thus : *' It is not a cloak, nor a coat : it is a 
 shawl." The following are good illustrations of the use both of the co- 
 lon and of the semicolon. 
 
 Avoid affectation ; for it is a contemptible weakness. 
 
 Avoid affectation : it is a contemptible weakness. 
 
 The omission of the conjunction for requires us to change the pause 
 from a semicolon to a colon. 
 
 The;)enW (.), or full point, indicates the end of a complete and in- 
 dependent sentence. It is also to be used after every abbreviated word, 
 as Wm. for William, Mass. for Massachusetts. 
 
 The interrogation poi7it (?) is placed at the termination of every ques- 
 tion. 
 
 The exclamation point (!), indicating passion or emotion, is placed 
 after expressions denoting any sudden or strong emotion. 
 
 The hyphen (-) is used to join the constituent parts of certain com- 
 pound and derivative words ; and also to divide words into syllables for 
 the purpose of exhibiting their pronunciation. There are many com- 
 pound words which were originally written with a hyphen, but which are 
 now presented to the eye as one word, as bookseller, nobleman, etc. 
 
 CHAET No.YII. ELEMENT AEY SOUNDS. 
 
 [It is of considerable importance that the child should be exercised in the elementary 
 sounds of our language; but these exercises should be introduced after the child has 
 learned to call words with considerable facility; and they should be continued in con- 
 nection with, and as an adjunct of, his reading lessons, until both his ear and his voice 
 have received the proper degree of training. See page 9, and also pages 85,38.] 
 
 Chart No. VII. is designed to represent the principal ele- 
 mentary sounds of our language, and to furnish exercises 
 by which the ear may be trained to distinguish them in 
 spoken language, and the organs of voice to utter them, 
 when combined in words, with the propriety of good usage. 
 Correct enunciation is the basis of all good reading; but 
 this is equally removed from an aftected nicety of articula- 
 tion on the one hand, and a careless and slovenly manner 
 on the other. Both extremes are to be avoided. 
 
 In the following exercises in articulation, care should be 
 taken to give the elementary sounds, when uttered sepa- 
 rately, just that degree of force and prominence which 
 they have when combined with others in the representa- 
 tive words, when these Avords are uttered clearly and dis- 
 tinctly in discourse. Elocutionists, in pronouncing the 
 words separately, frequently j9ro?ow^ the elementary sounds 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 43 
 
 — especially the vowel sounds — far beyond what is appro- 
 priate in good reading ; and this is apt to produce an un- 
 natural and affected articulation in their pupils. Give the 
 elements just that degree of prominence which they have 
 when the words which contain them are uttered in a neatly 
 spoken sentence. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE CHART. 
 
 I. VOWELS OR VOCALS.* 
 
 Long Sounds of the Vowels. 
 
 1. Let the teacher, using a pointer, point separately, and 
 in order, to the first word in the first column, the accom- 
 panying vowel in the second column, and the word in the 
 third column, while, at the same time, the puj^ils in concert 
 pronounce each distinctly, thus, " mind, I, ice," giving to 
 the vowel in the middle column the same sound that it has 
 in each accompanying word. Pass over the three columns 
 in this manner. 
 
 2. Pass over the second and third columns, repeatedly, 
 in the same manner, beginning with the vowel sound. 
 
 3. The teacher points to the words ^C6, eat^ ale^ etc., and 
 the pupils utter the corresponding elementary vowel sounds 
 only, in this manner going through the entire list. The 
 vowel sounds are so arranged as to correspond with the 
 order of the changes in the position of the mouth in their 
 formation, that when one sound is finished the mouth will 
 be in the proper position for commencing the next sound. 
 
 4. Combine each of the elementary long vowels with all 
 the aspirates and sub-vocals, excepting Zh and N^g. Thus, 
 the teacher tells the pupils to take P, and, connecting it 
 with each long vowel, to pronounce the syllables thus 
 formed, and then to utter the vowel sound separately. As 
 the teacher points to the words ^ce, eat^ ale^ air^ arm^ etc., 
 the pupil pronounces pi, T ; pe, e ; pfi, a ; pa, a ; jD'a, ii, etc. 
 
 * "A vowel is a smooth emission of sounding breath, modified, but 
 not obstructed by the organs of speech." — Graham. They produce what 
 are called t\\Q jnire tones. 
 
M MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 5. 'Next, in a similar manner, have the vowel sounds ^^^'e- 
 cede the aspirates and consonants ; but select such aspirates 
 and consonants only as are appropriate for this purpose. 
 Thus, taking P, the pupil pronounces ip (ipe) i ; ep (epe) e, 
 etc. 
 
 Short Sounds of the Vowels. 
 
 Next take up the short sounds of the vowels, and go 
 through with them also, in five series of exercises, similar 
 to those already given for the long sounds. 
 
 Double Sounds. 
 
 These may be treated in a similar manner. 
 
 Additional Exercises. 
 
 Now let the teacher exercise the pupils on the words given on Chart 
 No. I., in a manner similar to the course just marked out. 
 
 I, A. — Next let him require the pupils to write on the blackboard, or 
 set up with the Type Letter-cards — 
 
 1. All the words they can which give the sound of long a, as in ale, 
 ape, bait, date, slate, gate, tame, flame, wave, save, whale, etc.* If they 
 write them, let them make the appropriate mark over the vowel. If they 
 set them up on the composing-frame, let them designate each series by 
 a figure, as they are designated here : 1 for a, 2 for a, 3 for a, 4 or a, etc. 
 
 2. Proceed in the same manner with those which give the sound of 
 the Italian or grave a, as arm, barn, farm, far, father, star, car, jar, 
 harpy, hard, martyr. 
 
 3. Those which give the sound of hroad , , as in all, call, fall, tall, 
 sprawl, squall, haul, walk, talk, warm, swarm. 
 
 4. Those which give the sound of short a, as in at, f2,t, Bid, hat, sS-t, 
 cat, sad, man, pan, tan, can, carry, began, natural. 
 
 5. Those which give the sound of long a before r, as in air, care, fare, 
 fair, bear, bare, pair, stair, stare, dare, compare, forbear, declare. 
 
 6. Those which give the sound of a (intermediate between a and a), 
 as in ask, last, fast, past, pass, grass, branch, chant, advance, lance, slan- 
 der, f 
 
 * The teacher, at least, should be supplied with a dictionary which 
 gives the vowel sounds of all words in the language. It is unfortunate 
 that all the dictionaries do not agree in giving the smne signs to repre- 
 sent the same sounds. We have adopted, here, the signs used in several 
 of Webster's dictionaries, and especially the " Pronouncing and Defining 
 Dictionary," edited by Prof. Goodrich. 
 
 t With respect to this class of words there is much diversity among 
 orthoepists, and also among good speakers, some giving to many of 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 45 
 
 [Give words in which a has the sound of short 6 ; as in what, wash, 
 swan, swamp, swap, swash, swallow, quality, was, wan, quadrangle, seal- 
 lop, chaps. Do not confound them with the sound of a in sward, swarm, 
 fall.]* 
 
 II. E, — 7. Those which give the sound of long e, as in eat, me, beard, 
 key, mete, seal, fear, keep, beet, beat, beef, leaf, proceed, precede, indeed, 
 beneath. 
 
 8. Those which give the sound of short e, as in net, met, men, mCr- 
 ry, friend, sell, tell, bell, step, fret, bread, tread, head, keg, leg, tell, fell, 
 guess, press. 
 
 9. Those which give the sound of short e before r, as in her, earth, 
 term, verge, verdure, prefer, confer, herd, fervid, fern, kersey, mercy, 
 merchant. 
 
 [Give words in which e has the sound of long a, as in there, their, 
 where, heir. This is in accordance with both Webster's Pictorial Edi- 
 tion and Worcester ; but perhaps the most common usage gives the e in 
 these words the sound of a in care. In prey, survey, they, etc., the e 
 has clearly the sound of long a. j 
 
 III. I. — 10. Those which give the sound oblong i, as in ice, nice, pine, 
 fine, nine, time, wine. Isle, pile, tile, night, plight, tight, height, oblige. 
 
 II. Those which give the sound of short i, as in pin, tin, fin, since, 
 wince, pit, sit, hit, fill, pill, mill, until, miss, hiss, mirror, bid, hid. 
 
 [Give words in which i has the sound of long e, as in pique, machine, 
 mien, marine, antique, unique, caprice, bombazine, ravine, routine, po- 
 lice. 
 
 Give words in which i has a short sound verging' toward «, as in bird, 
 firm, sir, fir, dirt, girt, virtue, virgin, bestir.] 
 
 IV. O. — 12. Those which give the sound of long 6, as in old, tdld, 
 mould, sold, note, denote, vote, oh, no, ddme, loam, course, roll, p5rt, 
 ddor, floor, yeoman. 
 
 13. Those which give the sound of short 6, as in not, on, blot, bond, 
 fond, pond, coral, fox, ox, hot, novel, shot, don, odd, borrow, morrow, 
 polish. 
 
 14. Those which give the sound of 6 like long oo, as in move, prove, 
 disprove, do, to, tomb, lose, who. 
 
 [Give "words in which o has a sound like sho7't Q, as in dove, love, son, 
 done, wo"rm, does, none, come, money. 
 
 Give words in which o has the sound of u in bull. Ex. wolf, woman, 
 Wolsey. 
 
 Give words in which o has the sound oi broad a in call. Ex. nor, for, 
 form, sort, ought, fought.] 
 
 V. U. — 15. Those which give the sound of long fi, as in use, miite, 
 ciibe, duty, iinite, tiibe, tune, suit, fume, pure, hue, due, sue, lute, riile, 
 
 them the Italian sound of a as in Jar and father, others giving them the 
 short sound of a as in at, man, and others still, avoiding the two ex- 
 tremes, giving it an intermediate sound, as we have represented it. 
 
 * It may be well for the teacher to omit for the present the examples 
 in brackets, until the pupils have become familiar with the sounds which 
 are more strictly elementary. 
 
46 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 rude, brute, true* The long u has the sound of ?/m, slightly approaching 
 yoo^ when it bcyiyis a syllable ; but in other cases it is difhcult to distin- 
 guish the sound of the y. 
 
 16. Those which give the sound of short ti, as in sun, tip, biit, tub, 
 tun, htit, just, diist, fun, giin, cull, btizz, sting, thumb, vulgar, hurry, 
 murmur, t 
 
 17. Those which give the sound of obtuse u, as in pull, piit, bull, full, 
 bush, push, puss, could, would, should, sugar, butcher. 
 
 VI. — 18. Those which have the sound of ou or oiv, as i;i our, sour, 
 bower, howl, owl, foul, found, hound, pound, sound, mound, noun. 
 
 19. Those which have the sound of oy or oi, as in boy, toy, joy, annoy, 
 destroy, convoy, oil, boil, toil, foil, soil, turmoil. 
 
 [Give words in which eiv has the sound of long ii, as in few, mew, dew, 
 pew, new, hew, ewe, slew, eschew.] 
 
 The foregoing exercises carry the elementary vowel sounds sufficient- 
 ly far for the uses of the school-room ; but it must not be supposed that 
 they represent all the variations of sound given to each vowel. One vow- 
 el sometimes takes the sound of another vowel. From Graham's Phonog- 
 raphy we quote the following : 
 
 "The letter a has eight different sounds, as in the following words — 
 mate, many, pare, at, farm, pass, all, what. 
 
 "The letter e has six different sounds, as in mete, j)retty, they, met, 
 her, there. 
 
 "The letter i has five different sounds, as in machine, if, bird, bind, 
 union. 
 
 "The letter o has nine different sounds, as in woman, form, hop, ope., 
 whole, son, move, ivomen, one. 
 
 "The letter u has seven different sounds, as fn busy, bury, cut^ rule., 
 usage, persuade, pull, unite.'''' 
 
 II. CONSONANTS, t 
 
 The Aspirates, or Whispered Consonants. 
 
 1. Let the teacher exercise the pupils in sounding the 
 Aspirates in the same manner as the first exercise was 
 
 * Worcester says, ' ' "When u is preceded by r in the same syllable, it 
 has the sound of oo in fool.^'' Hence the words ride, rude, bride, true, he 
 pronounces rool, rood, broot, troo. Although this pronunciation prevails 
 in some quarters, we do not think it has yet become established by the 
 usage of the majority of good speakers. It is well enough to recognize it, 
 however, as some speakers are very tenacious of it. 
 
 t Worcester makes a distinction between the ti in hirry and the « in 
 such words as fur, hurt, further, calling the former the short sound, and 
 the latter the short and obtuse sound of u. We think the difference, if 
 there is any, too slight to require the distinction. 
 
 J A consonant is a sound made by an emission of breath, while at the 
 same time there is either a complete or partial contact of the vocal or- 
 gans, which obstruct the breath in some degree. None of the conso- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 47 
 
 given under the head of the " Long Sounds of the Vow- 
 els." Thus, articulate " cap, p, pink," giving to p its co7i- 
 sonant sound only. 
 
 P. To produce the separate sound of p, close the lips, and suddenly 
 force them apart with the breath. Or gradually separate the sound of 
 the syllable ap, and finally di-op the sound denoted by a. Or attempt to 
 pronounce the word /)W/(:, but go no farther than the sound of/>. 
 
 T. To produce the sound denoted by t, separate the sound of t from 
 eat or tea. Or begin to pronounce tin^ and stop with the sound of t. 
 
 K. Separate the sound of k from ken or aak. Thus, ken, k-en, k — en, 
 k— . 
 
 Ch. Separate the cli sound from latch. Or begin the pronunciation 
 of chair ^ and stop with the ch sound. 
 
 In this manner the separate as^jirate sounds may be easily learned and 
 uttered. 
 
 2. Let the teacher now form for his pupils a series of ex- 
 cises on the Aspirates similar to those given for the long 
 sounds of the vowels. 
 
 Sub-vocals. 
 
 Let the teacher proceed with the Sub-vocals in the same 
 manner as with the Aspirates. 
 
 Compositioil. — Require those pupils who are old enough, 
 to write comj^ositions on the subjects in the foregoing ex- 
 ercises on Chart No. YII. — telling what constitute vowels., 
 some of the different sounds given to each, what are co7iso- 
 
 nants can be fully pronounced without the help of a vowel ; but \\'hen 
 we pronounce them as independently of a vowel as it is possible to do, 
 we find that the sound of one portion of them will be that of a whisper, 
 while the sound of the others will be given at the natural pitch of the 
 voice, and will also contain more of a vocal articulation. 
 
 Thus . notice the difference in sounding p and b. Closing the lips, 
 and suddenly forcing them apart with the breath, gives the sound of p, 
 and no sound is heard until the actual opening of the lips. But in sound- 
 ing h an undertone or sort of murmur is made by the vocal ligaments 
 before the opening of the lips. This difference has led to a division of 
 the consonants into "Aspirates," or whispered consonants, and "Con- 
 sonants" proper, or " Sub-vocals." 
 
 Dr. Rush's classification of the elementary sounds is into twelve Tonic 
 (vowel) Sounds, fourteen Sub-tonic (sub-vocal) Sounds, and nine Atonic 
 (aspirate) Sounds. 
 
48 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 nants^ how divided, character and use of the exercises on 
 this Chart, etc. 
 
 CHART No. YIII. PHONIC SPELLING-. 
 
 The system of written phonics^ or plionetics^ consists in 
 •giving only one distinct sign or representation to each ele- 
 mentary somid in the language. There are said to be 
 about forty-six elementary sounds in the English language, 
 and these would consequently require an alphabet of forty- 
 six letters. In such an alphabet any one letter would al- 
 ways represent the same sound. 
 
 With our present system of orthography it is impossible 
 to tell, from the written or printed representation of a word, 
 how the word should be pronounced, because frequently 
 the same letter has, in diiferent words, very different 
 sounds, and the same sound is often represented by a great 
 variety of combinations of letters. Thus the sound of long 
 a is represented by no less than sixteen different signs. 
 Thus, by a in mating^ a-e in mate^ ai in pain, aigh in 
 straight, ao in gaol, au in gauging, au-e in gauge, ay in 
 2yray, aye in ^;>r«2/ef7, ea in great, ei in veil, eig in 7'eign, 
 eigh in weigh, eighe in weighed, eg in they, and eye in co7i- 
 veyedf^ 
 
 In a similar manner, long e may be shown to have sev- 
 enteen diiferent signs, long i sixteen, etc. ; so that our lan- 
 guage has not less than three hundred signs to represent 
 about forty-six elementary sounds. On the other hand, to 
 represent sixteen vowel sounds (as some give them), our 
 language furnishes but five letters (a, e, i, o, u). As a far- 
 ther instance of the anomalies in our language, the com- 
 bination ough in the following couplet has seven difierent 
 sounds : 
 
 " Though the tough cough and hiccough plough me through, 
 O'er life's dark lough my course I will pursue. " 
 
 It has still another sound in the word bought. How should 
 * See Graham's Hand-book of Phonography, page 1 ] . 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 49 
 
 we know, therefore, how to pronounce the name of one of 
 England's greatest statesmen, " Brougham ?" Thus it might 
 be Bro-am, Bruf-fam, Brof-fam, Brup-pam, Brow-am, Broo- 
 am, Brock-am, or Braw-am. 
 
 Phonic Spelling, or spelling by sound, as represented on 
 Chart No. VIII., consists in uttering separately the sounds 
 (and not the letters), and then combining them in the pro- 
 nunciation of the word. Its chief utility consists in making 
 the ear thoroughly familiar with the elementary sounds of 
 the language, and in producing a distinct and elegant artic- 
 ulation. Chart No. VIII. is, therefore, merely an extended 
 application of the principles illustrated in Chart No. VII. 
 
 Exercises. — 1. Let the teacher, pointing to the word hat, pronounce 
 it, and then require the pupils to spell it by sound, and also pronounce it. 
 Continue in this manner through all the vowel sounds represented on 
 the Chart. 
 
 2. Under the head of "Combinations of Consonant Sounds," pro- 
 nounce, first, each element separately, and then the whole word. Thus, 
 in the word black, there are four elements represented, ck forming but one. 
 
 3. Next, pronounce the consonants in groups, as indicated by their 
 grouping. The teacher may extend such exercises to any length, by 
 writing additional words on the blackboard, for the use of the pupils. 
 
 Phonetic Analysis. — This is the opposite of phonic 
 spelling, or synthesis, and consists in dividing words into 
 their vocal elements. It directs the attention, especially, 
 to those letters and combinations that have the same sound, 
 and also to slight differences of sound, and is, therefore, a 
 useful exercise in cultivating the ear to nice discrimina- 
 tion. Here the student, in making the analysis, can not 
 be guided at all by the common orthography, but by the 
 sound only. 
 
 The teacher may pronounce such words as aid, ail, air, 
 ought, eyed, owed, food, edge, George, John, right, know, 
 faint, all, claws, meed, caught, sight, condemn, tongue, 
 rowed, etc., and require the pupils to give their spoken 
 elements. Thus, ought has only two sounds ; though only 
 two, etc. The teacher may write such on the board, or 
 give them out by dictation.* 
 
 * An objection to the system of written phonetics seems to be, that it 
 furnishes no means of distinguishing between words of different orthog- 
 
50 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 Where pupils have been taught the phonetic alphabet, 
 they may write the words in the phonetic letters. 
 
 Composition. — Let pupils write compositions on this 
 subject of Phonetics ; telling what it is ; the advantages in 
 favor of having a phonetic alphabet ; the objections that 
 may be urged against it, etc. 
 
 CHAKT No. IX. WEITma 
 
 Only a few specific directions need be given for the use 
 of this Chart. Writing has been referred to in connection 
 with the exercises on Charts Nos. IV., V., and YI. ; and it 
 is supposed that during these exercises the pupils will learn 
 the use of the script letters. They should begin their use 
 in the following manner : 
 
 Having learned to recognize the words on Chart ^NTo. I., 
 and to print their letters, they should next, in the same 
 manner, learn to recognize them in their script forms, and 
 to make their script letters. Thus, let them begin with the 
 word ca]) on the Writing Chart. They need not begin 
 with the elementary straight and curved lines of the let- 
 ters, but may make the entire letters, in which they will 
 necessarily use all these elements. The sixteen words 
 given on the upper part of the Chart contain all the let- 
 ters of the alphabet. The use of the capitals will be grad- 
 ually learned in the same manner as the use of the printed 
 Roman capitals. 
 
 Pupils may practice writing the sixteen script words on 
 their slates, or on the blackboard, having the Chart before 
 them. They may next write them, beginning each with a 
 capital letter. Sentences may also be given them to write, 
 having the Chart before them as a guide. One pupil may 
 also set up sentences on the composing-frame with the Type 
 
 raphy and different meaning, that are- pronounced alike. Thus, Wright, 
 rite, right, write, are written alike in phonetics. However, it may be re- 
 plied, wc must distinguish between them by the context, just as we are 
 compelled to do when they are s^okea. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 51 
 
 Letter-cards, and others may write them on the blackboard, 
 on their slates, or on paper. 
 
 The teacher should be very particular to have the pupils 
 make the letters as neatly and as accurately as possible, 
 from the very beginning^ and not allow them to form care- 
 less habits of writing.* If they write with either a lead 
 pencil or a slate pencil, they should have it long and sharp- 
 pointed, and should be required to hold it as they would 
 hold a pen. At the proper time pupils may be supplied 
 with writing-books. 
 
 Writi7ig-masters usually direct their pupils to sit with the 
 " l6ft side to the desk." This is a constrained and unnat- 
 ural position, and soon becomes wearisome ; the pupil then 
 seeks relief by inclining his body forward, thereby con- 
 tracting the lungs, and producing weakness of the chest, 
 the forerunner of consumption. Several physiologists have 
 very justly taken exceptions to such a position, as in viola- 
 tion of well-known physiological rules. 
 
 The most natural and easy jDosition seems to be at a level 
 and rather high table — the right side to the table, and the 
 paper square with the table. This is the natural position 
 usually taken by lawyers, copyists, etc., who have much 
 writing to do. If an inclined desk be used, we would ad- 
 vise a position with the right side partially to the desk, so 
 that the elbow of the right arm may rest on the desk. In 
 any case, the back should be supported, and the body 
 should be kept erect. 
 
 CHAET No. X. 'DEAWma 
 
 PART I. FIRST LESSONS IN DRAWING. 
 
 Some teachers begin their lessons in drawing with the 
 formation of straight lines, vertical, horizontal, oblique, and 
 
 * We have represented the letter w in two forms: one in the word 
 owl^ and the other as seen in the alphabet. We prefer the latter. We 
 have given on the Chart the " Spencerian" form of the letters. If the 
 teacher should prefer any other forms, there is no objection to his using 
 them, if he can make them very neatly. 
 
52 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 angular, and these they follow with exercises in forming 
 curved lines. Chart No. XI. will furnish an abundant vari- 
 ety of such lessons, if teachers think best to follow this sys- 
 tem. 
 
 Others very justly object to this mode of teaching draw- 
 ing as unnatural and devoid of interest to the pupil, and 
 prefer to begin simultaneously with both kinds of lines, as 
 they are found combined in the outlines of the forms of real 
 objects, as we have represented them in the upper part of 
 Chart 'No. X. It is not often that we are required in draw- 
 in.o- to make a continuous straio:ht or curved line with one 
 stroke of the pencil, and hence there is little reason for 
 practicing upon such lines. 
 
 If the picture of a cap like that on Chart No. I. be given 
 a. child for a drawing lesson, the child, if it has had no pre- 
 vious instruction in drawing, will be very apt to begin with 
 making heavy black marks for the outline, and these marks 
 will be very certain to be wrong. They are then so heavy 
 that they can not be corrected, and the child has to begin a 
 new drawing. This will, perhaps, be equally faulty, and 
 another drawing will be begun ; and so on until half a doz- 
 en or more attempts have been made, and the child be- 
 comes discouraged. 
 
 The child should be taught to begin with making the 
 faintest outli7ie possible of some important part of the pic- 
 ture : it should then examine this outline carefully, and, 
 without rubbing out any thing, correct it by a new light 
 tracing. Let it continue thus until the outlines of the 
 whole picture are satisfactory. The correct tracings may 
 the7i be made a little firmer, like the outlines of the cap as 
 given on this Chart. It will then be easy to fill up Avith 
 lines of shading, as they are seen in the picture of the same 
 cap on Chart No. I. These pencil lines of shading, howev- 
 er, should be made much lighter than they are in the en- 
 graved and printed picture. Children are inclined to go 
 to the extreme of making a picture as black as possible. 
 They should be encouraged to make all their drawings 
 lights even when they are fully shaded ; and they should 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 53 
 
 be shown that the most striking parts of a picture are usu- 
 ally those which are left almost or wholly lohite. 
 
 After the pupil has drawn an outline of the cap, as in 
 Chart No. X., and shaded it, as in Chart No. I., he should 
 be required to make a drawing, in the same order, of a 
 real cap. 
 
 After this introduction of the subject, we would advise 
 that pupils should be required to make drawings from Chart 
 No. XIX. of the forms of leaves, stems, roots, and flowers 
 represented there, being careful to sketch the outlines very 
 lightly at first ; and that after each drawing — if it be of a 
 leaf, for example — a similar real leaf should be placed be- 
 fore them as a copy, that they may thus be continually draw- 
 ing from Nature. 
 
 They may next return to Chart No. X., and copy, in or- 
 der, the outlines of objects there represented. After mak- 
 ing one of these outlines, as directed with reference to that 
 of the cap, and then shading it as shown elsewhere in the 
 completed picture, the object itself, or some other familiar 
 object, and a similar one if possible, should be placed be- 
 fore them to copy. In all cases the picture should be used 
 merely to teach the children hoio to draw similar natural 
 objects.* 
 
 The complete picture of the pear, jug, and face will be 
 found on Chart No. I. ; that of the fsh in the Fifth Read- 
 er, page 22V ; but that on Chart No. I. may be drawn as 
 well. The completed picture of the cat may be found on 
 Chart No. VI. ; that of the bog reading on Chart No. Y. ; 
 domestic folds on Chart No. XVII. ; and the horse, etc., on 
 Chart No. XV. In drawing a picture of the human face, 
 
 * Drawing, as usually taught in our schools, is little more than copy- 
 ing pictures — a very profitless exercise, except as it does cuUivate a taste 
 for pictures or paintings generally ; but it fails in cultivating a taste for 
 Nature ; and its utility is the very doubtful one of copying a copy, instead 
 of copying the originals. Drawing and painting lessons should have di- 
 rect and constant reference to drawing and painting from Nature ; and 
 if the system we have here so briefly sketched be tenaciously adhered to, 
 the desired results will not be difficult of attainment. 
 
54 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 
 
 the eye should be first drawn, as, if that should be wrong, 
 all the rest would be spoiled. 
 
 The teacher will find on the Charts, and throughout the 
 School and Family Readers, a great va.riety of j^ictures, 
 from which he may select copies for his pupils; and he 
 should be careful to select, in the early lessons, such as they 
 are most famihar with, and of which they can find repre- 
 sentatives in real objects in Nature to copy from. Let 
 them copy from the upper part of Chart IsTo. XX. the parts 
 of flowers as there represented, and then find similar parts 
 to copy from in the natural flowers. Let them copy, from 
 Chart No. XXI. the forms of the roots of well-known 
 jDlants, and let them bring in drawings of similar roots 
 from Nature. Be careful to have them begin each picture 
 by sketching the outlines very lightly / and do not let them 
 shade any of them too heavily. Accustom them to co2:)y 
 much from Nature. Let them make drawings of books, 
 tables, chairs, and desks, and of old fences, the stumjDS of 
 trees, rocks, etc. They should not attempt buildings until 
 they have learned something of PersjDective. 
 
 PAKT II. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 
 
 Children delight to exercise their constructive powers in 
 making things : the girls, in cutting out patterns and mak- 
 ing dresses ; the boys, in using the hammer and nails, the 
 gimlet, the hatchet, the saw, the plane, the rule and com- 
 passes, in planning and constructing toys and machines, and 
 in making diagrams of geometrical figures. What their 
 elders and superiors do, children not only desire to know 
 how to do, but they wish to do it also : labor — work — is 
 with them an instinct of their very being, fraught with 
 health and happiness ; and if, throughout childhood and 
 youth, they could have suitable training, by way of recrea- 
 tion and amusement, in the principles and practice of con- 
 STKUCTioN, they would not make the i7i€fficient men and 
 women that we now class among the drones of society. 
 The strong propensity, especially in boys, for using "tools," 
 and " snaking'''' things, should not, therefore, be checked, but 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 55 
 
 judiciously guided and trained as a part of the business of 
 their education. It will thus lead, naturally, and without 
 impediment to any thing else useful, to those attainments 
 in knowledge, and that skill in art, that combine to make 
 the scientific and practical farmer, the master mechanic, or 
 the engineer. Our educators should look more to this 
 hitherto almost wholly neglected part of education.'^' 
 
 Carrying out the above principles in part, under the head 
 of Geometrical Drawing, on the Chart, we have intro- 
 duced some interesting and useful problems in lines and 
 forms, for practice in the school-room. While these exer- 
 cises are calculated to train the eye and the hand to accu- 
 racy and neatness in draioing^ they will also cultivate the 
 inventive faculties, and give children the gratification of 
 knowing how easily some apparently difficult things are 
 done ; such things, also, as will be apt to come up for use 
 in many ways in their future studies, and in practical life. 
 It should not be deemed sufficient for children to tell hoio 
 these figures are drawn. They should drmo them ; and for 
 this purpose they should be provided w^ith a ruler, also 
 with a pair of dividers or brass compasses, to one leg of 
 which a short lead pencil, shaved flat on one side, may be 
 firmly tied, for drawing the circles. 
 
 We would also further remind the teacher that the pu- 
 pil should not be expected, at this early stage, to proceed 
 to the demonstrations of these problems. After the pupil 
 has solved the first problem, he should be left for a while to 
 his own ingenuity in solving each subsequent one. After 
 he has learned to bisect a given straight line, he has the 
 key to the next three problems ; and if, unaided, he can 
 accomplish their solution, the knowledge thus acquired 
 will be wholly his own, and will be prized accordingly, and 
 the great value of systematic contrivances will begin to be 
 
 * Manual Labor Schools have not been eminently successful in an ed- 
 ucational point of view, because the labor required has not been planned 
 with reference to educating the faculties, but only with reference to ma- 
 terial profits in dollars and cents. Hence the labor has often been, in 
 an educational aspect, an injury rather than a benefit. 
 
56 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 appreciated. Let this process of self-instruction be carried 
 out extensively, but not so far as to check the ardor and 
 dampen the curiosity of the pupil. Moreover, as the pupil 
 progresses from one step to another, let the teacher bring 
 in all the illustrations possible, showing the relationship 
 between these problems and constructive art, and especial- 
 ly in the construction of tools and machines with which the 
 pupil is familiar. 
 
 Fig. 1. — To bisect a gwen straiglit Ime ; that is, to cU- 
 vide it hito tiuo equal parts. 
 
 Let AB be the given straight line. From the centre 
 A, with a radius* greater than the half of AB, describe two 
 arcs* of a circle, as at C and D ; and from B, w^th the same 
 radius, describe the two arcs of another similar circle, in- 
 tersecting the first at C and D. The straight lines con- 
 necting the points of intersection will bisect AB in O. 
 (The line COD will also be perpendicular to the line AB.) 
 
 Fig. 2. — From a gwen point in a straight line^ to draw 
 a perpendicidaT\ to this line. 
 
 Let EF be the given line, and O the given point in it. 
 In the straight line EF take any point, E, and make OE 
 equal to OF. From E, with a radius greater than EO, de- 
 scribe an arc above O ; and from F, with the same radius, 
 describe another arc intersecting the first at G. Draw GO, 
 and this line will be perpendicular to EF. 
 
 [Explain what is meant by a perpendicular, and also show that a per- 
 pendicular line may be in a horizontal, or in any other position. What 
 lines in the school-room are perpendicular to certain other lines ? The 
 explanation of a perpendicular will show that each of the angles EOG 
 and GOF, in Fig. 2, is a right angle. Give pupils a straight line, and 
 ask them to form a right angle at a given point in it ; then two right 
 angles on each side of the line. Describe the form of the wooden level 
 and plummet which masons and carpenters often use for determining 
 whether a wall or a beam is level or not. Ask them how they would 
 make this level. Could an iron square, such as carpenters use, be made 
 without knowing how to draw one line perpendicular to another ? How 
 would they make a wooden square, to answer the purposes of the iron 
 square ?] 
 
 * Describe what is meant by a radius, and what by an arc. See page 
 80, and Chart No. XI. 
 
 t Describe what is meant by perpendicular. See page 80, and Chart 
 No. XI. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 57 
 
 After having drawn Fig. 2, see if the pupil, unaided, can 
 draw an equilateral triangle.* It is done by describing the 
 arcs which intersect at C, with a radius equal to EF, or FE, 
 and then connecting the three points E, C, and F. See, 
 also, if the pupil can describe, on a given line, an isosceles 
 triangle, each of whose equal sides shall be double of the 
 base. Next describe a similar triangle on the other side of 
 the line. 
 
 Fig. 3. — From a given point without a straight line^ to 
 draio a perpendicular to this line. 
 
 Let HI be a straight line of unlimited length, and O the 
 given point without it. From O, with a radius greater 
 than the nearest distance to the straight line, describe an 
 arc cutting the line in two points, H and I. Then from the 
 l)oints H and I, as centres, and with radiif greater than the 
 half of IH, describe two arcs cutting each other in the point 
 J. Draw OK in the exact direction of the point J, and OK 
 will be perpendicular to HI. [HK and IK will also, evi- 
 dently, be perpendicular to OK at the point K.] 
 
 Fig. 4. — To draw a square on a given straight line. 
 
 Let BA be the given straight line. First, from the point 
 A, draw AG perpendicular to BA, and take AE equal to 
 AB by measuring. Then, from the point E in the line 
 EA, draw EH perpendicular to AE, and make EH equal 
 to AB. Draw HB in a similar manner, and the square 
 Avill be completed. 
 
 In order to draw AG perpendicular to BA, extend BA 
 in the direction of D ; take any distance, such as AC, and 
 make AC and AD equal. Then from the centres C and 
 D, with equal radii greater than CA, draw the two arcs in- 
 tersecting at G. Draw a line from G to A, and this line 
 will be perpendicular to BA. The point G might have 
 been taken below E. In a similar manner EH is drawn 
 from the point E perpendicular to AE. 
 
 Fig. 5. — To find the centre of a given circle or arc. 
 
 Let JKLM be the given circle, or JKL the given arc. 
 
 * A triangle having three equal sides, 
 t Explain that radii is the plural of radius. 
 C 2 
 
58 ■ MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Ta'ke any three points in the arc, or any three in the circle, 
 as J, K, L ; join JK and KL ; bisect each by the perpendic- 
 ular Hnes UT and RS, and their point of intersection, O, 
 will be the centre of the given circle or the given arc. JK 
 and KL are bisected by perpendiculars, similar to Fig. 1 . 
 
 Now give the pupils this i)roblem : To describe the cir- 
 cumference of a circle through cmy three give?! points. 
 
 Fig. 6. — To divide a given cingle^ or a given circ, hito 
 two equal parts. (That is, to bisect them.) 
 
 Let ACB be the given angle. From the centre C, with 
 any radius, describe an arc AB. Draw the straight Hne 
 (the chord*) AB. Bisect AB by the perpendicular CE, 
 and the angle ACB will be divided into two equal parts. 
 
 If AB be the given arc, draw the straight line (or chord) 
 AB, bisect it by the perpendicular EC, and this will bisect 
 the arc. 
 
 Fig. 7. — To inscribe a circle in a given triangle. 
 Let GHF be the given triangle. Bisect II and F, any 
 two angles of the triangle, by the lines HN and FM. Their 
 point of intersection at O will be the centre of the required 
 circle. Then from the centre O, with a radius equal to the 
 nearest distance of any one of the sides of the triangle, de- 
 scribe a circle, and its circumference will also touch the 
 other sides of the triangle. 
 
 Figi 8. — To describe a circle about a given triangle. 
 Let ABC be the given triangle. Bisect AB and AC, 
 any two of the sides of the triangle, by the perpendiculars 
 GF and HI. Their point of intersection at O w^ill be the 
 centre of the required circle. From this centre, with a ra- 
 dius equal to the distance of any one of the angles of the 
 triangle, describe a circle, and its circumference will also 
 pass through the other angles. 
 Fig. 9. — Five problems. 
 1. To inscribe a square hi a given circle. 
 If you do not know the centre of the circle, find it, as de- 
 scribed under Fig. 5. Through the centre, O, draw the di- 
 ameter KL. Through O draw MN perpendicular to KL. 
 * For the definition of a chords sec page 80, and Chart No. XI. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 59 
 
 Connect the points M, L, N, and K, and the square will be 
 formed. 
 
 2. To describe a square about a given circle. 
 
 Draw, as just described, two diameters of the circle, 
 KL and MN, at right angles to each other. Draw per- 
 pendiculars at the extremities of these diameters, and the 
 square will be formed. 
 
 3. To inscribe a circle in a given square. 
 
 Take the outer square PRTS, connect the opposite an- 
 gles, and from their point of intersection inscribe a circle 
 with a radius equal to the nearest distance to any one side 
 of the square; or bisect any two adjacent sides of the 
 square by perpendiculars, and their intersection will give 
 the centre of the circle, and the length of the radius for in- 
 scribing the circle. 
 
 4. To describe a circle about a given square. 
 
 Let KMLN be the given square. Connect the angles 
 of the square by the two diameters MN and KL, and from 
 their intersection at O describe a circle with a radius equal 
 to either of the semi-diameters, OM or OL, etc. 
 
 5. To inscribe a regular octagon in a circle. 
 
 In the circle inscribe the square KMLIsT ; bisect the arc 
 cut off by each of its sides, which will give the points U, 
 V, etc. Connect KXJ, UN, NV, VL, etc., and a regular 
 octagon will be inscribed in the circle. 
 
 A continued subdivision of the arcs thus obtained would 
 give figures of 16 sides, 32 sides, 64 sides, etc. 
 
 Fig. 10. — To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given 
 circle. 
 
 From the centre of the circle. A, draw the radius AB. 
 Apply the radius AB six times to the circumference, and 
 the hexagon will be formed, as shown in the figure. 
 
 Now ask the pupils how they would form a regular poly- 
 gon of 1 2 sides. 
 
 Ask them how they would draw six equilateral triangles 
 in a circle. If they were required to draw one equilateral 
 triangle, having a side of it equal to a given straight line, 
 how would they do it? (Describe a circle whose radius 
 
60 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 should be the given straight line ; then describe another 
 circle, with the same radius, having its circumference pass 
 through the centre of the first circle, and it will be readily 
 seen how the triangle can be formed.) A knowledge of 
 the construction of the hexagon will enable pupils, after a 
 very little study, to construct the diagram of the Chromatic 
 Scale of Colors, Chart No. XIV. 
 
 Fig. 11. — To inscribe a regular pentagon in a giveyi 
 circle. 
 
 The centre of the circle being found, draw the radius HI, 
 and from the point H draw HL at right angles to it. Bi- 
 sect HL in J ; connect JI ; then make JK equal JI. Now 
 apply HK to the circumference of the circle, beginning at 
 L, and it will be found to exactly measure the circumfer- 
 ence ten times. Connect the alternate points obtained by 
 this measurement, as shown in the figure, and a regular 
 pentagon will be formed. 
 
 How, then, could a regular decagon be formed ? A reg- 
 ular polygon of 20 sides ? 
 
 Now suggest to the pupils the following problem : 
 
 To construct an aHjoining pentagon on each of the 
 five sides of the pentagon., Fig. 11, and each equal to 
 Fig.ll. 
 
 This may be easily done in the following manner : Take 
 a side of the pentagon, say 5 7, and bisect it by a perpen- 
 dicular, such as HK extended outwardly. Then, on this 
 perpendicular as a diameter, describe a circle that shall 
 cut the circle of Fig. 11 in the points 5 and 7. Then 5 1 
 will be one of the sides of the adjoining pentagon, and the 
 other sides may be easily laid oft' around the circle. In a 
 similar manner construct each of the adjoining five penta- 
 
 gons. 
 
 The knowledge of this construction is essential to the 
 forming of the soHd called the dodecahedron. See page 62. 
 
 Let them also exercise their ingenuity upon the follow- 
 ing problem : Describe three equal circles touching one an- 
 other ; and also describe another circle which shall touch 
 them all three. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 61 
 
 Fig. 12. — To descrtbe an ellipse. 
 
 As au ellipse is a figure that in form approaches a circle 
 on the one hand, and is contracted to almost a straight line 
 on the other, we have drawn three of them. 
 
 1. To draw the inner ellipse. 
 
 Suppose it be required to draw this ellipse on a smooth 
 board. 
 
 Take any two points, A and D, and into each point drive 
 a pin ; tie a string, AD, to these pins, one end to each pin, 
 and leave the string sufficiently loose to reach to T ; then 
 putting a pencil-point inside the string, and fully stretching 
 out the string, move the pencil-point around against the 
 string, and it will form on the board the inner ellipse. 
 
 The points A and D are called the/be^* of the elhpse. 
 
 2. If C be taken as one of the foci, while the other re- 
 mains at A, the same length of string will give the form 
 of the second ellipse. 
 
 3. If B be taken as one of the foci, while the other re- 
 mains at A, the same length of string will give the form 
 of the outer ellipse. 
 
 If the two foci should be brought much nearer to each 
 other, with the same length of string, the ellipse would ap- 
 proach closely, in form, to a circle. The farther apart the 
 foci are, the more will the ellipse be contracted in width. 
 
 How would the pupil draw a large circle in the garden 
 — so large that he could not use a pair of compasses, or di- 
 viders ? 
 
 He might use a narrow strip of board, with a peg at 
 each end, driving one of the pegs firmly into the ground, 
 and using the other peg to mark with. Or he might use a 
 rope, with a peg at each end. 
 
 How would he draw a large ellipse in the garden ? 
 
 Additional Exercises. 
 
 To construct the five regular ptolyhedrons. 
 There are five solids, in each of which the faces are all 
 equal polygons, and the solid angles of which are equal. 
 By knowing how to draw an equilateral triangle, the 
 
62 
 
 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 square, and the pentagon, as already described, each of 
 these soUds may easily be made of pasteboard. 
 
 Having drawn the figures as we have given them, on 
 pasteboard, and cut them out accurately through their 
 boundary lines, cut the other lines half through the paste- 
 board, turn up the j^arts and glue them together, and the 
 forms of the solids will be obtained. 
 
 1. The Tetrahedron^ or equilateral pyramid, is a solid 
 bounded by four equal and equilateral triangles. 
 
 2. The Hexahedron^ or cuhe^ is a solid bounded by six 
 equal squares. 
 
 3. An Octahedron is a solid bounded by eight similar 
 triangular faces. The triangles may be either isosceles or 
 equilateral. The latter give what is called a regular octa- 
 hedron. 
 
 4. A regular Dodecahedron is a solid bounded by twelve 
 equal pentagons. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 63 
 
 5. A regular Icosaheclron is a solid bounded by twenty 
 equilateral triangles. 
 
 Let the pupil construct, out of pasteboard, a pentagonal 
 prism / that is, a prism having a pentagon for each end, 
 and equal parallelograms for the five sides. 
 
 PART III. LINEAE, PERSPECTIVE.* 
 
 I. We early learn by observation that if two similar ob- 
 jects of the same size be placed at unequal distances from 
 us, and in similar positions, the more distant object will 
 appear to the eye the smaller of the two. Thus, if one post 
 six feet high be placed fifty feet from the eye, and another 
 post of the same height be placed one hundred feet from 
 the eye, the more distant post will appear to the eye — the 
 eye alone being judge — to be much shorter than the near- 
 er post ; and if we make a drawing of them in a joicture, 
 we must represent them, as nearly as possible, Jwsif as they 
 appear. So of all objects that may be seen at one view: 
 their appearance varies according to form, position, color, 
 and distance ; and perspective drawing, when combined 
 with painting, is the art of so representing objects on a 
 plane surface that the drawing or painting shall present to 
 the eye the same appearance as is presented by the objects 
 themselves.f 
 
 * Perspective is treated of by writers nnder the two heads, Linear 
 Perspective and Aerial Perspective. The former regards only the posi- 
 tions, magnitudes, and forms of the objects delineated ; the latter treats 
 of the variations in the degrees of light, color, and shade of objects, as 
 aifected by their greater or less distance from the spectator. The soft- 
 ening of objects in the distance, and their boldness of outline and color- 
 ing in the foreground, belong, therefore, to aerial perspective. In this 
 article we treat of linear perspective only. 
 
 t To speak with strict accuracy, however, no picture can produce on 
 
64 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 The plane surface, Avhether it be paper or any other sub- 
 stance, on which we make a drawing, is called the Per- 
 spective Plane ; and it is supposed to be generally placed 
 upright, or in a vertical j^osition, between the eye and the 
 objects represented on it.* A plate of glass, through which 
 we should look at the objects, would very appropriately 
 represent the perspective plane. 
 
 Perspective drawing is highly useful to enable us to give 
 faithful representations of objects wherever photography 
 can not be employed ; and it will always be useful to archi- 
 tects and engineers, by enabling them to make correct 
 drawings of intended buildings or machines. 
 
 II. In order to give pupils some clear ideas of linear per- 
 spective, endeavor to impress them with the truth that an 
 object appears smaller the farther it is removed from tlie 
 eye. Therefore, of two upright posts of the same height, 
 the one that is farthest removed from the eye will appear 
 the shortest. Now suppose a pupil stood in a position to 
 see one side and one end of a large building. It could then 
 see the position and length of three of the corner posts of 
 the building, all of which are of the same height. Suppose 
 the nearer corner post to be fifty feet from the eye, the cor- 
 ner on the left to be eighty feet distant, and the corner on 
 the right to be one hundred feet distant. How would they 
 respectively appear to the eye ? Which would appear to 
 be the longest ? Which the next in length ? Which the 
 shortest ? How, then, must they be rej^resented in an ac- 
 curate drawing? 
 
 Now call their attention to two drawings of the same 
 
 the eye exactly the same eiFect which the object itself produces, because 
 the former being near, and the latter distant, the adjustment of the eye 
 to distant vision is not the same in both cases. 
 
 * To speak more accurately, however, it is supposed to be so placed 
 that the line from the eye to the centre of the objects shall be pej-pendic- 
 ular to the perspective plane. If, therefore, the objects of which we 
 make a drawing are directly above us, so that we look upward at them, 
 the perspective plane will be in a horizontal position. But as most ob- 
 jects of which drawings are made are on the level of the eye, the per- 
 spective plane on which they are drawn must be in a vertical position. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 65 
 
 building on the Chart, Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. In Fig. 2 all lines 
 of equal length in Nature are represented of equal length 
 in the drawing, without regard to the effects produced by 
 differences of distance. Thus the three corner posts, which 
 are of equal length in the real building, are made of the same 
 leng^th in the drawinc:. So the more distant rafter on the 
 right is made of the same length as the nearer one, and the 
 ridge of the building is made of the same length as the plate 
 at the eaves. Now call their attention to another drawing 
 of the same building, at Fig. 1, in wdiich lines that are 
 equal in Nature are made unequal in the drawing, being 
 graduated according to the differences of distance. Thus 
 the nearer corner post, 1 2, is made longer than the more 
 distant posts, 3 4 and 5 6. Ask them which building ap- 
 pears the most natural. It will probably be found that Na- 
 ture has already taught them to recognize the forms in 
 which she appears to them,, and that they will give their 
 approval to Fig. 1. 
 
 Let them look at Fig. 1, and observe that all lines that 
 are parallel in the reed building tend toward the samepomt 
 — that is, that they are not made parallel in the drawing, 
 but converge in some one direction. Thus, if the several 
 parallel horizontal lines on the end of the building were ex- 
 tended to the left, they would all meet at the point A ; 
 and if those on the side, and the one on the ridge, and the 
 one at the top of the chimney, etc., were extended to the 
 right, they would meet at the point B. A and B are called 
 Vanishing Points, because certain lines vanish or term- 
 inate at these points. 
 
 Ask the pupils if they were standing on the floor of one 
 end of a long gallery, and looking down the length of it, at 
 which end of the gallery would the floor appear the nar- 
 rowest and the gallery the narrowest. If the horizontal 
 and parallel lines on the sides of the floor were to be rep- 
 resented in a drawing, therefore, they must have a vanish- 
 ing point. 
 
 If the pupils were standing on a rail-road track, how 
 would the parallel rails appear at a distance? The track 
 
6Q MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 would seem to grow narrow in the distance, and should be 
 so represented in a drawing ; and the lines representing 
 the rails should be drawn toward some vanishing point. 
 So in Fig. 8, the numerous parallel lines in the marbled 
 floor are seen to converge in the distance — all of them be- 
 ing directed toward the j^oint C 
 
 A Vanishing Point, therefore, is that point in space to- 
 ward which any two or more parallel lines see77i to con- 
 verge. It is important to remember that aU2)ciraUel lines 
 have the same vanishing 'point. 
 
 III. We see objects by the rays of light ivhich come from 
 them in straight lines to the eye.* If we look through a 
 pane of glass at a building in the distance, and then mark 
 on the glass the points through which the rays of light pass 
 in coming from all the corners and angles of the building 
 to the eye, and then connect these points properly by lines, 
 we shall have an accurate outline drawing of the building, 
 just as it appears to the eye at the particular point from 
 which it is viewed. If Ave change the position of the point 
 of view, or point of sights the object will be changed in 
 appearance ; so that a drawing of an object from any one 
 point of sight must differ from a drawing made from any 
 other point. 
 
 [Place a book, or other object, on the table, and let pupils view it from 
 different positions, and tell the changes of appearance caused thereby. . 
 
 Let them view the school building, or some other building, from dif- 
 ferent localities (points of sight), and tell what parts of the buildmg would 
 be shown in the drawings made from different points. 
 
 Suppose they were making a drawing of a landscape which contained 
 a lake. If the lake were ahove the level of the eye, Avould they represent 
 the water in the drawing? When, only, could they represent a lake, 
 river, etc., in a drawing?] 
 
 The Point of Sight, when used with reference to a 
 drawing, or picture, is the point from which the eye is 
 supposed to view the objects represented. If a line be 
 drawn from the point of sight perpendicular to the per- 
 spective plane, the point at Avhich this line intersects the 
 
 * In straight lines, except as they are deflected by the different media 
 through which they pass. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 67 
 
 perspective plane is called the Centee of the Pictuee. 
 It will also intersect this j^lane, if the latter be in a vertical 
 position, at the exact height of the eye. A line drawn hori- 
 zontally through the centre of the picture is called the 
 HoEizoxTAL Line ; and all lines that are horizontal in na- 
 ture have their vanishing points in this line. 
 
 IV. We are now prepared, with this preliminary knowl- 
 edge of wdiat is meant by the Peespective Plane, a Van- 
 ishing Point, the Point of Sight, the Centee of the 
 Pictuee, and the IIoeizontal Line, to proceed to a prac- 
 tical illustration of all of them in one drawing. Fig. 3. 
 
 Suppose the colored parallelogram abdc to represent the 
 ground plan, or base, of a building 25 feet wide and 50 feet 
 long. Suppose the eye, that is looking at the building, to 
 be placed at E, 50 feet from the nearest corner, and on a 
 level loith the base of the building. E is therefore the 
 Point of Sight. Suppose a transparent plate of glass to 
 be placed upright, in a vertical jDOsition, between the eye 
 and the building, and in the direction of the line AB, and 
 that it is designed to make a drawing of the building on 
 this plate of glass. This plate of glass, then, represents the 
 Peespective Plane. Draw a horizontal line, EB, parallel 
 to the side of the building cd ; and another horizontal line, 
 EA, parallel to the end of the building ca. 
 
 Now it is evident that, in looking from E at acd., the 
 three visible lower corners of the building, these corners 
 will be seen, respectively, on the perspective plane, at the 
 points 5, 4, and 7 ; for these are the points at which the 
 rays of light from the three corners pierce the perspective 
 plane in coming to the eye. If now we draw a line from E 
 perpendicular to the perspective plane, to the point C, this 
 latter point will be the Centee of the Pictuee ; that is, 
 it will be the point of most direct vision, where objects 
 will be the most distinctly seen in a general view that 
 takes in the whole picture. 
 
 If we could look through the vertical plate of glass — the 
 perspective plane — and see the top of the corner post 
 which stands at c, we could mark on the glass the appar- 
 
68 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ent height of this post. We will represent this height by 
 the line 4 2. Now draw a line from 2 to B, and another 
 from 2 to A ; the other two visible posts of tlie building 
 must be found, in the drawing, the one in the line 2B, and 
 the other in the line 2A, as we have represented them at G 
 and 3. The three posts will also be represented of their 
 apparent relative height ; the nearest by 2 4, the next in 
 distance by 3 5, and the most distant by 6 7. 
 
 Now let the pupils tell lohy the corner 2 4 must be made 
 hiofher than either of the other corners 6 7 or 3 5. Remem- 
 ber that E represents the place of the eye ^' and that the 
 nearest corner of the building is supposed to stand at c, 
 and the other two visible corners at d and a. Which of 
 the three is the most distant from the eye ? Why must 
 the line 4 7, which represents one of the sills of the build- 
 ing, and 2 6, which represents one of the plates, and 1 8, 
 which represents the ridge-pole, all tend in the direction 
 of B ? Because they nve parallel in the real building ; and 
 all parallel lines have the same vanishing point. 
 
 But here it may be asked, how do we find the vanishing 
 point of any given line ; that is, how do we know in what 
 direction to draw it ? The unvarying rule is this : Draw 
 a line from the point of sight (the eye) parallel to the 
 given line, and where this drawn line pierces the perspec- 
 tive plane, there will be the vanishing point of the given 
 line. Thus, in Fig. 3, having placed the perspective plane 
 in a vertical position, and in the direction of the line AB, 
 suppose we wish to find the vanishing jDoint of the line ca. 
 From the point of sight E we draw the line EA parallel 
 to ca, and as the line thus drawn pierces the perspective 
 plane at A, therefore A is the vanishing point of the line ca. 
 It must also, necessarily, be the vanishing point of all lines 
 that are parallel to ca. Therefore, not only 4 5 (which rep- 
 resents ca), but also 2 3, must tend toward the point A. 
 Upon the same principles B is the vanishing point of cd, 
 and also of all lines that are parallel to cd. Following out 
 the same rule, N is found to be the vanishing point of the 
 lines represented by 2 1 and 6 8. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 69 
 
 It will also be seen that the nearer the eye is to the 
 building which is to be drawn, the closer together will be 
 the vanishiDg points AB, and, consequently, the more ab- 
 ruptly will such lines as 2 3 and 2 6 incline to their vanish- 
 ing points. On the other hand, the farther the eye is re- 
 moved, the farther apart will the vanishing points be re- 
 moved also, and the less suddenly will the parallel lines 
 converge toward them. 
 
 Is'ow accustom the pupils to look at various lines in real 
 buildings, and, on the supposition that they are to make 
 drawings of these lines on a transparent plane placed up- 
 right between themselves and the objects, let them point 
 out the vanishing 2^oints toward which the several lines 
 would tend. They can do this by placing one end of a 
 ruler or straight stick at the eye, and then holding it so 
 that it shall be parallel to the given line. It will then be 
 directed toward a point on the supposed perspective plane 
 which Avill be the vanishing point of the given line, if said 
 line is to be represented by a drawing on the perspective 
 plane. Let the pupils notice, also, the different effects pro- 
 duced on the apparent direction of these lines both by near 
 vicAvs and also by distant views of the same building. Let 
 them name or point out those lines in buildings which must 
 have the same vanishing point, and tell in which direction 
 they vanish — to the right or to the left. 
 
 Now it will be apparent, in accordance with the rule, 
 that the lines of the rafters 2 1 and 6 8 in Fig. 3 must have 
 the same vanishing point. Why do not 2 1 and 6 8 vanish 
 donmicard m^te2i^ oi upward? Because the ridge-pole, 1 8, 
 being farther from the eye than the j^late 2 6, appears the 
 shorter ; and this causes 1 8 and 8 6 to seem to converge 
 upward. They in reality seem to converge — that is, to 
 come to a point — at N, directly above A. If the roof of 
 the building were steeper than it is, the point N would be 
 higher ; if the roof were flatter — that is, had less pitch — 
 the vanishing point N" would be lower ; but, in any event, 
 it would be directly above A. The line 1 3 must tend in 
 the direction of a point just as far below A as N is above 
 
70 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 it; and this rule gives us the true position of the line 
 3 1. 
 
 [The pupils should now, with the aid of a ruler, make drawings simi- 
 lar to Fig. 3, first on their slates and on the blackboard, and afterward 
 on paper with a sharp-pointed and hard pencil.. In making the draw- 
 ing, first lay down the ground plan ahdc ; next take the point of sight 
 E ; then draw EB parallel to cd, and from E draw EA at right angles to 
 EB and parallel to ca. Draw next the lines representing the outermost 
 rays of light that come from the object viewed to the eye, and on these 
 two lines take E5 and E7, of equal length ; and the points 5 and 7 will 
 give the proper direction of the horizontal line, on which, in Fig. 3, is 
 supposed to be placed the perspective plane. Complete the drawing ac- 
 cording to the principles and rules already given. Make other draw- 
 ings similar to this, but changing the point of sight to the right or to the 
 left, or placing it nearer or farther off", etc. The horizontal line and 
 perspective plane may be supposed to be placed nearer the eye or more 
 distant from it, thereby varying the size of the drawing.] 
 
 IV. We may now return to Fig. 1, for the purpose of il- 
 lustrating some new principles. 
 
 In this case the horizontal line AB (and, consequently, 
 the height of the eye) is above the base of the building. 
 We may obtain the relative proportions of the visible width 
 of the end 9 7 and of the side 9 8 in the same manner that 
 we obtained the points 5, 4, and 7 in Fig. 3, by laying down 
 the ground plan, and taking the .position of the eye, etc. ; 
 or we may draw the horizontal line AB according to our 
 judgment ; and, judging likewise by the eye, we may mark 
 off on it the relative positions of the three visible corners 
 of the building, 9, 7, and 8. 
 
 Suppose the outlines of the building to be completed, as 
 in Fig. 3. We now wish to put in the ioi7idows, and have 
 them of their relative perspective height and width. We 
 will suppose, in this case, that the bottom line of the win- 
 dows is at the exact height of the eye. The horizontal line 
 will therefore be the guide in this direction. For their 
 height, we mark off on the corner line a space above 7, ac- 
 cording to the true proportion which the height of the win- 
 dows bears to the whole line 2 1, and draw a line to B. 
 This gives us the upper line of the windows. 
 
 To obtain their relative ^perspective width and positions^ 
 we draw from the upper corner, 1, a line, IP, parallel to 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 71 
 
 7 8, and in it take any point, P, so that iP shall be greater 
 than 7 8, and so that a line drawn from P through the cor- 
 ner 5 shall strike the horizontal line at O, any where be- 
 tween 7 and 8. The line iPis now supposed to represent 
 the length of the side of the building ; and it is laid off in 
 divisions representing the real width of the windows and 
 of the spaces between them. Thus, suppose the distance 
 from the corner 1 2 to the nearest window is four feet, and 
 that each window is four feet wide, and that each interven- 
 ing space is also four feet wide. Then IP will be laid off 
 in nine equal divisions, four of them representing the win- 
 dows, and five of them the other spaces. From all the 
 points «, Z>, c, etc., draw lines toward O, and from the 
 jDoints where these lines intersect 1 5 draw vertical lines, 
 and these will give the relative widths of the windows, 
 spaces, etc., as shown in the drawing. 
 
 [NoAV accustom pupils to make separate drawings of the side of the 
 building only, and to put in the windows, first according to the plan 
 given in Fig. 1, and afterward with different plans which the teacher 
 may give them. Let some of these plans require two rows of windows 
 instead of one ; let some have the intervening spaces twice the width of 
 the windows, etc.] 
 
 The true j^erspectivc height and width of the large door 
 in the end of the building may be obtained according to 
 the method given for drawing the windows in the side of 
 the building, by drawing a line from the upper corner, 1, 
 to the left, parallel to 7 9, and marking off the proper spaces 
 on this line, in the same that was done on iP. Or another 
 method may be employed : Draw the diagonals 1 4, 3 2. 
 Their intersection at s will give the true perspective centre 
 of the end of the building. If the door be in the centre of 
 the end, and if a point be taken any Avhere on 1 4 for one 
 side of the door, the corresponding point on the other side 
 of the door must be in the other diagonal, 3 2, and also in 
 a line drawn through the first assumed point to the vanish- 
 ing point A. It should be noticed here that the point t — 
 the gable point — must always be in the line which is drawn 
 vertically through the centre s. 
 
72 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 [Pupils may now be accustomed to make drawings of the ends of 
 buildings of different plans ; first with one door, and in the centre ; 
 next with two doors, one on each side of the centre ; next with doors 
 and windows, according to plans which the teacher may give. The 
 teacher should describe these plans, and not make drawings of them for 
 the pupils to imitate. After a sufficient number of these separate draw- 
 ings of the sides and ends, let the pupils combine the whole into draw- 
 ings of complete buildings.] 
 
 V. In Fio-. 4 is shoAvn the ground plan of a square build- 
 ing, with a square projection, or tower, on each corner. 
 The eye of the spectator is supposed to be some distance 
 above the base of the building. The design of the draw- 
 ino- is to show how the perspective widths of the several 
 parts visible from any point, such as E, may be obtained, 
 for the purpose of using them in a drawing of the whole 
 building. The point of the eye at E being assumed, the 
 direction of the horizontal line, and the position of the van- 
 ishing points, one at A, and the other at the right of T> (at 
 some distance out of the picture), are then obtained, in the 
 same manner as in Fig. 3. The relative perspective widths 
 of er, rp, ^J»?^, md, dk, etc., are obtained on the horizontal 
 line, at the points 7 6 5 4 2, etc. It will be observed that 
 only 7w, of the line h — , can be seen from the point of sight 
 E, etc. Some little care will be required in drawing the 
 various lines at the bottom of the building, below the eye ; 
 such as 9 8, 85, st, etc. Here it will be important to keep 
 in mind the rule, that nW 2yc(raUel lines have the same van- 
 ishing point. Thus, re, 7ip, dm, and /A, vanish to the right, 
 in the direction of D ; and rp, dk, ih, and fa, have their 
 vanishing point at A. Therefore, while 8 9, which repre- 
 sents re, must tend to the vanishing point to the right, 8s, 
 which represents op, must tend in the direction of A. Fol- 
 lowing the simple rule, it Avill be easy to make accurate 
 drawings of almost every possible plan of building. 
 
 [The pupils should now make drawings of buildings having plans sim- 
 ilar to Fig. 4. Let them take the ground plan of Fig. 4, and make a 
 complete drawing of a building of that form, 20 feet high, and suppose 
 the horizontal line to be five feet from the ground. To do this they 
 should obtain the perspective widths of the different parts on a line, like 
 AD, and rhon make the drawing on another paper.] 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 73 
 
 VI. Fig. 5 represents a view of three square blocks (not 
 cubes) placed one upon another, and each upper block less 
 in area than the one below it, the whole surmounted by a 
 pyramidal block, the top, or apex, of which rises to the ex- 
 act height of the eye. Here the eye is supposed to have 
 the same extent of view of each of the two visible sides, 
 and therefore DF is made equal to DE. Practice in mak- 
 ing a drawing of Fig. 5 will be worth more to the pupil 
 than directions by us. In placing the second block upon 
 the first, be careful to have the corners placed exactly upon 
 the diagonals of the lower block. In this way each upper 
 block and the j)yramid are placed centrally upon the block 
 below it. 
 
 [Let the pu])ils make drawings similar to Fig. 5, having each succeed- 
 ing block smaller in area than the one on which it rests, and placed cen- 
 trally upon it. 
 
 Draw a gradually diminishing series, like Fig. 5, extending up to the 
 horizontal line ; then place upon this an inverted similar series, so as to 
 show the under side of the projecting parts of the blocks. 
 
 Let the teacher suppose the blocks placed in some dilFerent positions ; 
 for example, the faces on one side all in the same vertical plane ; and 
 then again, some of the blocks projecting over on one side. 
 
 There is no end to the variety of plans which the teacher may design. 
 Let the teacher place square blocks of wood (books may answer) on the 
 table, or on the floor, variously arranged upon each other, and require 
 pupils to make drawings of them from different positions. They will 
 need to pay particular attention to the horizontal line, centre of the pic- 
 ture, and vanishing points. 
 
 Let the pupils point out, with a pointer, and fully explain, not only 
 the diagram. Fig. 5, but also the drawings which they themselves have 
 made.] 
 
 Figures 6 and 7 are here supposed to form parts of one 
 picture or drawing. The eye is supposed to be interme- 
 diate between them, and, as in Fig. 5, at the height of the 
 horizontal line, and in a line that is perpendicular to the 
 perspective plane at C. 
 
 In these two drawings, and also in Fig. 5, the eye is sup- 
 posed to be as far from the centre of the picture, C, as the 
 vanishing points A and B are on each side of it. In Fig. 6 
 and Fig. V, the blocks are oblong and rectangular ; that is, 
 the sides represented by DE in both figures are greater 
 than those represented by DF ; and the line 3 2 of the 
 
 D 
 
74 MANUAL ®F INFORMATION 
 
 pyramid represents a side greater in extent than 3l. The 
 side represented by DE is, indeed, nearly one third longer 
 than that represented by DF, although to an unpracticed 
 eye it may not api^ear any longer. 
 
 If we had wished to represent the blocks as square in 
 Fig, 6, we should have drawn a diagonal line from F to the 
 vanishing point B ; and the point where FB intersected 
 DC would have been the true perspective position for the 
 corner E. To represent the block as square^ therefore, the 
 corner E must be removed about half an inch nearer the 
 corner D. Let it be borne in mind, therefore, that Figures 
 6 and V do 'not represent square blocks, but ohlong rectan- 
 gular blocks. A drawing of a pyramid standing on a 
 square base, and on square blocks, would present hand- 
 somer proportions than the drawings we have given.* 
 
 It will be noticed that the horizontal lines on one side 
 of the blocks, both in Figures 6 and 7, are made horizontal 
 in the drawing. Thus DF, JK, 8 6, etc., in both figures, 
 are drawn horizontally, unlike the corresponding lines in 
 Fig. 5. This is what is called parallel perspective, and is 
 really a slight misrepresentation of the actual appearance 
 of the lines represented; for in reality the lines represented 
 by DF, GR, 8 6, etc., in Fig. 6, have the appearance of con- 
 verging toward a vanishing point on the horizontal line at 
 a considerable distance to the left of A. The correspond- 
 ing lines in Fig. 7 would likewise seem to be directed to- 
 ward a vanishing point to the right of B. But when two 
 structures are situated as those rei3resented by Figures 6 
 and 7 are, with reference to the spectator, those horizontal 
 lines which are parallel to the perspective plane are usually 
 
 * All horizontal lines which make angles of 45 degrees with the per- 
 spective plane are called diagonals ; and the vanishing points of these 
 diagonals are on the principal horizontal line, at the same distance, one 
 to the right and the other to the left, from the centre of the picture that 
 the point of sight is distant from the centre of the picture. Hence it is 
 easy to find where must be the vanishing points of the diagonals of the 
 horizontal base of a square; and the intersections of these diagonals 
 with other lines are aids in finding other important points in the draw- 
 ing. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 75 
 
 made horizontal in the drawing, as they are in this case, 
 because they vary but slightly in appearance from beino- in 
 a horizontal position, because it is easiest to draw them 
 horizontally, and because our impressions of their bein"- 
 actually in a horizontal position are strong enough to coun- 
 terbalance the very slight error of their variance from a 
 truthful representation. If the Chart be placed in a verti- 
 cal position, and the eye be removed ten feet back from it, 
 the difierence between the distance of GD from the eye and 
 HF from the eye will be so small as to be scarcely appre- 
 ciable ; and hence all such lines as GH and DF (Fig. 7) 
 may be drawn horizontally and parallel to each other — in 
 parallel perspective. 
 
 Let it be observed that the lines DE, JL, 8 7, 3 2, etc., 
 in both drawings (Figures 6 and Y), have their vanishing 
 point at C, the centre of the picture. Now these lines arc 
 in Nature perpendicular to the perspective plane ; and they 
 exemplify the important rule that All horizontal lines that 
 are perpendicidar to the perspective plane have their vanish- 
 ing point at the Centre of the Picture. Therefore, if a per- 
 son were standing at one end of a long room or gallery, 
 and looking down the length of it, all the horizontal lines 
 that run from him (perpendicular to the perspective plane 
 on which we may suppose he is to make a drawing of the 
 gallery) would seem to tend to a point on the perspective 
 plane that is just at the height of his eye — that is, the Cen- 
 tre of the Picture. This principle is well illustrated in 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 7 shows by the dotted lines on the upper surface of 
 the upper block, how to obtain the exact position of the 
 apex, Y. The diagonals 7 6 and B 5 must give, at their in- 
 tersection, O, the perspective centre of the upper surface 
 of the upper block. It is evident, therefore, that Y must 
 be directly A'ertical to O. 
 
 [1. Let the pupils now make drawings like Figures 6 and 7. 
 
 2. Let them make similar drawings, but representing the blocks as 
 square on the base, and also as complete cubes. Some little study of 
 the diagonals already referred to in the note on the preceding page may 
 be needed to accomplish this. 
 
76 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 3. Let them make other similar drawings from plans of their own, or 
 from such plans as may be given them by the teacher. 
 
 4. Let them also exjdain all as they would problems in geometry. 
 
 .5. Place the pupil at the centre of and fronting one end of a table, 
 and place blocks of books on the table, and square with it, on his right 
 and on his left, and let him point out the vanishing point of all the lines 
 representing the edges of the books that are parallel with the sides of the 
 table. Let him also make drawings of these blocks of books.] 
 
 VI. Fig. 8 represents a view of two rows of square pil- 
 lars or pilasters, five in a row, and standing in two parallel 
 lines that are perpendicular to the perspective plane. The 
 pillars are supposed to be at equal distances apart in each 
 row ; and the distance between any two pillars is supposed 
 to be double the thickness of a pillar. 
 
 The pillars are supposed to stand on a tesselated marble 
 pavement, formed of rows of alternating square blocks of 
 light and dark marble, and these rows in one direction are 
 parallel with the two rows of pillars. The spectator is 
 supposed to stand centrally in front, so that a line from his 
 eye perpendicular to the perspective plane shall strike the 
 plane at C, the Centre of the Picture. Hence, according 
 to the rule previously given, all lines that are perpendicu- 
 lar to the perspective plane, such as IC, JC, HC, GC, etc., 
 must have their vanishing point at C The beautiful effect 
 produced by such a drawing will be most apparent by 
 looking through a tube that shall just embrace the entire 
 drawing. A roll of paper, or the hand partially closed, will 
 make a very good tube for this purpose. 
 
 The pillars in Fig. 8 are drawn in parallel perspective ; 
 that is, such lines as IK, GL, PJ, RII, are draAvn horizon- 
 tally, and parallel with each other. They have no vanish- 
 ing points. 
 
 The most important thing connected with Fig. 8 is to 
 learn how to draw the pillars at equal j^erspective distances 
 apart, and so that they shall also diminish in thickness in 
 true perspective ; while the marble blocks are also made 
 to conform to the same laws. All this, however, is very 
 easily done, on the principle of putting in the windows in 
 Fig.l. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 77 
 
 Having drawn the corner line of one of the nearest pil- 
 lars, IG, according to your judgment, draw a line DF par- 
 allel with the horizontal line AB. In this line take any 
 point 1, so that a line drawn from 1, through the corner G, 
 shall strike the horizontal line at O, somewhere to the left 
 of IG. Now mark ofi', to the left of 1, spaces that shall 
 represent the true thickness of the pillars, and the spaces 
 between the pillars. Thus, if the j)ihars be one foot in 
 thickness, and the distances between the pillars be tivo feet 
 in thickness, mark off 1 2 for the thickness of the first pil- 
 lar ; make 2 3 double the distance of 1 2, for the space be- 
 tween the first two pillars ; make 3 4 equal to 1 2, for the 
 thickness of the second pillar ; make 4 5 equal to 2 3, for 
 the distance between the second and third pillars ; and so 
 continue for as many pillars as you design to put in. Then 
 draw lines from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., to the point O, and the 
 intersection of these lines with the line GC will give the 
 points or positions of the lower corners of the pillars, and, 
 consequently, the distances between the pillars. The same 
 points give the true perspective positions of the lines which 
 designate the rows of marble blocks that run 'across from 
 one line of pillars to the other, with the exception of those 
 lines that run from points half way between the pillars. 
 These latter points are obtained by drawing lines from 
 points half way between 2 3, 4 5, etc., to O. Their inter- 
 sections with GC will give the true intermediate points. 
 
 The pillars on the left are drawn in the same manner as 
 those on the right, beginning with the corner HJ, which is 
 here supposed to be at the same distance to the left of the 
 spectator as GI is to the right. The pillars on the left, 
 however, are easily placed in position, with their j^roper 
 widths, by drawing horizontal lines from the corners of the 
 pillars on the right. 
 
 [Pupils should now make drawings similar to Fig. 8. They may also 
 represent uniform pieces of timbei- — lintels — thrown across from each 
 pillar on the right to its corresponding pillar on the left. This, if neatly 
 done, will be found to give increased effect to the perspective. They 
 may also take the centre of the picture (C) farther to the right, or farther 
 to the left. They may also draw /owr rows of pillars, making the pillars 
 
78 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 narrower, so that the eye may look between them, and see the outer 
 rows. They may also make the inner rows less in height than the outer 
 rows, so that the outer rows may be seen to rise above the others.] 
 
 YII. Fig. 9 shows the perspective of the casings of a 
 deep window. The eye is supposed to be in a line perpen- 
 dicular to the vertical plane of the window at C. This 
 drawing gives the relative perspective widths of the cas- 
 ings, and the perspective of the lines 1 4, 2 3, 8 5, and 7 6. 
 
 Fig. 10 shows the manner of finding the j^erspective of 
 any vertical divisions on a circular tower. Draw the line 
 1 8 of the length which you intend for the width of the 
 drawing of the tower. On 1 8 describe a semicircle ; then 
 divide this semicircle in strict accordance with the divi- 
 sions on the visible part of the tower, and from the points 
 of division on the semicircle draw lines vertically down- 
 ward to 1 8. The divisions of 1 8 will give the perspec- 
 tive of the divisions required on the tower. 
 
 In the foregoing explanations, aided by the illustrations 
 on the Chart, we have set forth, in as plain and practical a 
 manner as possible, all the important principles of Linear 
 Perspective. It requires no special knowledge of any of 
 the higher branches to understand these principles, and to 
 apply them to almost every imaginable kind of structure ; 
 and we think that any intelligent pupil of 12 or 14 years 
 of age can easily master this whole subject. 
 
 Written Compositions. 
 
 Although we have given but little more than an outline 
 sketch of the three great departments of Deawing, and 
 have not been able to touch upon the principles and efiects 
 of due proportions of light and shade in a picture, yet suf- 
 ficient has been presented to furnish suggestions for a se- 
 ries of compositions upon the general subject. 
 
 Under the head of the first division may be explained 
 the proper mode of making the outline sketches from yic- 
 tures, and from nature, with descriptions of uncolored en- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 79 
 
 gravings, and of views of objects in nature, natural scenery, 
 etc. The object should be to lead pupils to observe en- 
 gravings carefully — to notice what parts are supposed to 
 be near, and what distant, and how they are represented 
 as to boldness or faintness of outline and shading, and the 
 disposition of light and shade, etc. 
 
 Under the second division let pupils refer to objects in 
 nature or in art that correspond, in whole or in part, with 
 any of the geometrical figures on the Chart. For example, 
 let them examine the cell of the common honey-bee, and 
 tell its form (hexagonal), and give reasons for its being of 
 that form. Let them show what the principles of " Con- 
 struction" have to do with the planning and manufacture 
 of all kinds of fabrics, tools, instruments, weapons, etc. ; 
 and, more especially, in the erection of dwellings, and 
 buildings of all kinds. Show their connection with Archi- 
 tecture. The more advanced pupils may carry out some 
 of these geometrical problems in their applications to the 
 measurement of lands, and other surfaces, the calculation 
 of distances, etc. 
 
 Under the third head they may explain the general 
 principles of Perspective, and some of their applications to 
 views of buildings. Let them take large drawings or en- 
 gravings which represent buildings, and show how the 
 principles of perspective apply to them — telling where the 
 point of sight is supposed to be, where the horizontal line 
 is, and where are the vanishing points of the various lines, 
 etc. In most engravings of buildings they will be able to 
 detect some errors of perspective. 
 
 CHART No. XL LINES AND MEASURES. 
 
 The directions given in Calkins' "Primary Object Les- 
 sons" for developing ideas of lines, measures, angles, ra- 
 dius, circle, circumference, etc., render it unnecessary for 
 us to take up the subject in its earlier lessons. A few def- 
 
80 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 initions only will be necessary here, as guides to the teach- 
 er in his explanations. 
 
 Vertical Straight Lines are such as point to the centre of the 
 earth. If a plummet or other weight be suspended by a string, the 
 string will be in a vertical position. Name lines that are vertical. 
 
 Parallel Lines, which may be either straight or curved, are equally 
 distant from each other in all their parts. Are the ojiposite vertical 
 sides of a building parallel ? Not exactly. Why not ? 
 
 A Perpendicular Line is spoken of only with reference to some oth- 
 er line. Thus a straight line is perpendicular to another straight line 
 when it makes the two adjacent angles equal to one another. Each of 
 these angles is called a ri(/kt angle (see Chart). But if two straight lines 
 meet each other so as to make but one right angle, each is said, in this 
 case also, to be perpendicular to the other (see Chart). Perpendicular 
 lines may therefore be vertical, horizontal, or oblique. 
 
 Let pupils, from their own investigation, distinguish be- 
 tween an arc, a chord, a radius, and a diameter/ and be- 
 tween a circle and a circumference. (The latter two terms 
 are sometimes used as synonymous.) 
 
 Concentric Circles are circles that have a common centre. 
 
 An Ellipse (see page 61, and Chart No. X.) is such a curve that 
 the sum of the distances of any point in it from the two/bci is equal to a 
 given line. This is best illustrated by the method of drawing an ellipse 
 as already described. The greater diameter of the ellipse, which passes 
 through the two foci, is called the transverse diameter, or major axis. 
 The lesser diameter, which bisects the former perpendicularly, is called 
 the conjugate diameter, or minor axis. 
 
 Measures. — Children should be accustomed to judge 
 by the eye of the circumference and diameter of circles. 
 For this purpose, let them draw circles on the blackboard. 
 By using a wooden rule containing inches and its divisions, 
 which every school should be provided with, they will be 
 able to verify their judgment. They can easily measure 
 the diameter of a circle ; but it will not be so easy to meas- 
 ure the circumference. They should know, therefore, that 
 the circumference of any circle is a little more than three 
 times its diameter. Having this rule, they can judge very 
 nearly of the circumference after they have measured its 
 diameter.* 
 
 * The circumference of a circle is 3.1416 times its diameter, or a lit- 
 tle more than three and one tenth times the diameter. Having the di- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 81 
 
 Let pupils be accustomed to estimate the number of 
 square inches in the surfaces of strips of boards, tables, 
 benches, etc. ; also the number of square feet in boards, 
 the tops of tables, the floor, the end or side of the room, 
 etc. Do not give them cases of ^:)«r^s of inches or parts of 
 feet to estimate until they have become perfectly familiar 
 with the principle. They should learn, from simple illus- 
 trations, that the number of square inches in a board, etc., 
 is obtained by multiplying the length by the breadth. 
 
 Degrees of Circles. — Teach pupils that learned men 
 have agreed that every circle, whether it be a large or a 
 small circle, shall be considered as divided into 360 equal 
 parts, which are called degrees. Thus, on the Chart are 
 two circles, the circumference of one inclosing the circum- 
 ference of the other ; but both have the same number of 
 divisions or degrees. A quarter of a circle, therefore, con- 
 tains 90 degrees, and half a circle contains 180 degrees. 
 
 What kind of an angle do 90 degrees form ? Less than 
 90 degrees ? More than 90, and less than 180 ? 
 
 Elevation. — Astronomers often speak of angles of elevation. Eleva- 
 tion has reference to the angular height of an object above the horizon ; 
 that is, above a horizontal line. Thus, if a star is said to be at an eleva- 
 tion of 45 degrees, it is one half of the distance from the horizon to 
 the zenith. 
 
 Inclination, in astronomy, has reference to the angle which one line 
 or one plane makes with another, in whatever positions they may be. 
 Thus, in the figure on the Chart ("Inclination"), the first line at the 
 left of the vertical line has an inclination to the vertical line of 15 de- 
 grees ; that is, it is separated from it by an angle of 15 degrees ; the sec- 
 ond line has an inclination to it of 23^ degrees ; the third, of 45 degrees, 
 etc. The fourth line has an inclination of 75 degrees to the vertical line, 
 and of 15 degrees to the horizontal line. 
 
 The inclination of the magnetic needle is measured or denoted by the 
 angle which the needle makes with the horizontal plane. In the north- 
 ern hemisphere generally, the north pole of the needle dips below the 
 horizontal plane, and hence makes an angle with it, which angle denotes 
 the inclination of the needle.* 
 
 ameter of a circle given, multiply 3.1416 by the diameter, and the prod- 
 uct will be the circumference. 
 
 * The plane of the earth's equator makes an angle of 23° 28' with 
 the plane of the earth's orbit, usually called the plane of the ecliptic; 
 hence " the inclination of the plane of the earth's equator to the plane of 
 
 D 2 
 
82 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES IN GEOGRAPHY.* 
 
 First Lesson, Direction of Objects from a given Point. 
 
 Teacher stands at his desk, or some other suitable place, 
 and asks in tohat direction the stove (or such other object 
 as he may select) is from him? (North, or, as the case 
 may be.) In what direction is the door ? In what direc- 
 tion do I point with my right hand ? With my left hand ? 
 In what direction from me is William ? James ? In what 
 direction is Mr. A.'s house ? Mr. B.'s house ? Mr. W.'s 
 house ? etc. In this manner let the points of the compass, 
 from some one stand-point, be thoroughly learned. 
 
 Second Lesson. Distance and Direction from a given 
 
 Point. 
 
 Teacher stands at his desk, or other suitable place, and 
 asks the distances and directions from him of the four cor- 
 ners of the room. The distance and direction of the stove 
 from me ? " It is about eighteen feet southwest from you." 
 Very well : the distance and direction of that window from 
 me ? Of the door ? Of John Brown ? etc., etc. If there 
 is any doubt about the correctness of any of the answers, 
 the pupils should measure the distances. 
 
 Third Lesson. Distance and Absolute Locality. 
 
 I wish you to tell me about hoio far from the teacher's 
 
 the ecliptic is 23° 28'." In Webster's large dictionary it is erroneously 
 stated, under the word "inclination," that "the inclination of the axis 
 of the earth to the plane of the ecliptic is 23° 28'." On the contrary, its 
 axis inclines 23° 28' from a line perpendicular to the plane of the eclip- 
 tic, and 66° 32' from the plane of the ecliptic itself. 
 
 The earth and all the planets move round the earth from west to east, 
 in orbits which are not exactly in the same plane, but inclined to one an- 
 other by small angles. Their inclination is computed by considering the 
 plane of the earth's orbit as a standard, and calculating the angle which 
 the plane of each other planetary orbit makes with the plane of the earth's 
 orbit. 
 
 * For primary exercises in "developing ideas of place," and establish- 
 ing first principles in geography, see Calkins' Object Lessons, pages 242- 
 268 ; Dr. Hooker's Primary Geography ; Colton's Geographical Cards. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 83 
 
 desk John Brown is, and in lohcit part of the room. " He 
 is about forty-five feet from the teacher's desk, and in the 
 southwest corner of the room." The same of other boys. 
 In the same manner you may describe the situation of this 
 chair which I place here. " The chair is about sixteen feet 
 south from the teacher's desk, and a Uttle east of the centre 
 of the room." So of other objects in the room — doors, 
 windows, stove, desks, etc. 
 
 Fourth Lesson. Distance, and Comparative or Relative 
 
 Locality. 
 
 I wish you to tell me hoiofar^ and in lohat directioii^ the 
 stove is from me. "About twelve feet south from you." 
 (Teacher now changes his position to the other side of the 
 stove, and repeats the question.) "The stove is now about 
 twenty feet north from you." How far is John from Wil- 
 liam, and in what direction ? William from John ? James 
 from Rufus ? Rufus from James ? Thomas from Rufus ? 
 Rufus from me? The door from the stove? etc. Con- 
 tinue in this manner until the pupils are familiar with dis- 
 tances and relative localities in the school-room. 
 
 Fifth Lesson. Distances, Directions, and Localities, 
 represented by Map-drawing, 
 
 Teacher says, "John, I wish you to make a drawing on 
 the blackboard, that shall represeyit the floor of this school- 
 room, with its desks, seats, stoves, etc. We will call the 
 upper part of the board norths the lower souths the right 
 hand east^ and the left hand loest. You may make the 
 drawing to the scale of 07ie inch to the foot ; that is, you 
 may let one inch in the drawing represent a foot in the 
 school-room." The teacher may now draw the scale him- 
 self (say thirty or forty inches) on the blackboard, and 
 draw the hue for the north end of the room, and then leave 
 the pupil to complete the drawing, aiding him by sugges- 
 tions in the way of questions^ if it should be necessary. 
 Open spaces should be left in the outer lines for the doors, 
 and dotted spaces for the windows. If the plan of the 
 
84 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 school-room is at all intricate, the seats or desks should 
 not be drawn in separately at first, but merely the spaces 
 marked ofi"for their principal groups. Let the pupil meas- 
 ure all the distances, and then adapt them to the scale, 
 after having first guessed them. When the drawing is 
 completed, the pupils should be told that this is a Map of 
 the school-room. Several days will probably be occupied 
 in making it. 
 
 Subsequent Lessons. 
 
 After one drawing of the school-room has been made in 
 this manner, in view of the class, or all the pupils, on some 
 other day, w^hile one pupil goes to the board and draws a 
 similar map, unassisted, the others should be drawing maps 
 of the same on their slates, with pencils that they should 
 keep neatly pointed for drawing purposes. Although these 
 first efforts may be exceedingly rude, yet their very rude- 
 ness wdll be the exact 'measure of the pupil's capacity, 
 which the teacher needs to understand, as a guide to his 
 instructions. The more rude these first sketches, the more 
 obstacles will the pupils have to overcome ; but it is m 
 overcoming just such natural ohstacles that the pupil re- 
 ceives that NATURAL educationcd discipline which he re- 
 quires. Never place artificial obstacles in his way ; but 
 help him as little as possible (except by such suggestions 
 as will call forth his own powers) in overcoming those 
 which Nature has provided for the purpose of discipline. 
 It may be a week, or month, or longer period, before any 
 of the pupils can make a fair map of the school-room, so 
 many things will be done wrong at first ; but when a pu- 
 pil can draw such a map well, he can draw a map of any 
 thing else with which he is acquainted ; and in the mean 
 time he will have received an amount of self-imposed dis- 
 cipline, whose value can hardly be overestimated. After 
 a time he may be allowed to make his map on paper, with 
 a j)encil. 
 
 After a fair map of the school-room has been provided, 
 on the blackboard, as herein designated, the pupils should 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 85 
 
 from time to time point out and describe the various local- 
 ities, distances, etc., there represented, going over the sub- 
 stance^ generally^ of the }yrecedmg four lessons. 
 
 The pupils having become familiarized with this descri2> 
 tive geography, their attention should next be called to the 
 government and exercises of the school-room — to that 
 which corresponds to the political geography of nations. 
 Thus the school is an assemblage of pupils for the purposes 
 of education ; the teacher is its governor or ruler ; the 
 need of some one to gover^i^ as well as to instruct, should 
 be elicited by questions ; the ^^^'inciples on which he should 
 govern (those of family government) should be called forth 
 in the same manner, together with the rules of right and 
 duty, which pupils are bound to obey. They should also 
 describe the daily routine of exercises in the school-room, 
 the classes, w^hat each class studies, time given to recitation, 
 time of opening and closing school, etc. Thus this micro- 
 cosm, or world in miniature, may be made the type of that 
 national life which constitutes one of the higher depart- 
 ments of learning. 
 
 Tell the pupils how many feet make a rod, how many 
 rods make a quarter of a mile, how many quarters of a 
 mile make a half a mile, and how many half miles make a 
 mile. When they understand this, ask them, " How many 
 feet or how many rods long is this building ? How many 
 rods across the yard in which the building is situated, from 
 east to west ? From north to south ? Across the street ?" 
 etc. Let them measure these distances after having guess- 
 ed them. 
 
 Next name diiferent localities in the neighborhood, such 
 as the store, the hotel, Mr. M.'s house, Mr. B.'s house, a 
 conspicuous tree, rock, or other landmark, etc., and require 
 the pupils to tell their directions from the school-house and 
 supposed distances. The teacher should go out with his 
 pupils and measure some of these distances, which may 
 then serve as a measure for other distances. Thus it may 
 he four rods across the street, ten rods to the corner, and 
 
86 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 eighty rods, or a quarter of a miley to Mr. A.'s house. Hav- 
 ing these distances well fixed in their minds, pupils will 
 soon learn to judge of other distances. Such lessons Avill 
 not only be a pleasant recreation, but a good mental dis- 
 cipline also, requiring constant exercise of the judgment in 
 comparing and measuring. If well arranged and skillfully 
 conducted by the teacher, they may also be made to re- 
 quire the use, unconsciously on the part of the pupils, of 
 the four fundamental rules in arithmetic. Here, for exam- 
 ple, is a distance of 25 rods; another of 15 rods; another 
 equal to both of them : here is a distance of 40 rods, and 
 another is 10 rods less ; here is one of 80 rods, another the 
 half of it, and another still a quarter of it. The extent, in- 
 terest, variety, and intricacy of these exercises must depend 
 wholly upon the teacher's invention and judgment. Will 
 they not furnish him also some useful mental discipline, 
 and call forth additional tact in instruction ? 
 
 Let the teacher lead the pupils on, as in the preceding 
 lessons, to draw on the blackboard and on their slates at 
 first, and afterward, if he think best, on a large sheet of 
 paper, a map of the neighborhood for a mile or two 
 around the school building, laying down the roads, build- 
 ings, streams, woods, fenced fields, etc., and having the up- 
 per part of the map north. Then, with the school building 
 for the point of observation, go through with the principles 
 of all the preceding lessons imder this geographical divi- 
 sion. This should be done thoroughly, and may well oc- 
 cupy the class, or the school, fifteen minutes daily for at 
 least a dozen lessons. They loill he learning^ in this loay^ 
 the rudiments of topographical engineering. 
 
 Next, having completed a map of the neighborhood, with 
 the roads, the buildings, the fields, the groves, the springs, 
 the streams, the hills, the valleys, the woods, etc., place 
 this map before the pupils, and question them, first on the 
 topography, and afterward on the Natural History of the 
 neighborhood — such as what fields are now used for grain, 
 for pasture, for meadow, for summer fallow ; what kinds 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 87 
 
 of grain are growing in certain fields ; what flocks or herds 
 are seen in others ; what kinds of trees are found in the 
 w^oods ; what flowers and grass in the fields ; Avhat nox- 
 ious weeds ; what kinds of soil ; what rocks or stones ; 
 what fishes in the streams ; what birds are known in the 
 country around ; what wild animals ; w^hat the buildings 
 are made of, whether of wood, brick, or stone ; what kinds 
 of wood are used ; and what are the occupations of the in- 
 habitants. Here are very suitable subjects for a series of 
 compositio7is. 
 
 By this time the pupils will have learned the rudiments 
 of Geography — mathematical^ iJoUtical^ and physical. If 
 the exercises have been skillfully conducted, they will not 
 have deemed it a study, but a recreation ; and they will be 
 prepared to understand a map of the town, a map of the 
 county, a map of the state, and a map of the United States 
 — which should be taken up and studied in tJie order here 
 given. 
 
 A toitm tnaio^ containing the roads, streams, etc., should 
 be found in every school-room; and if the town has a just 
 appreciation of the importance of geographical knowledge, 
 and of the true mode of acquiring it, it Avill furnish such a 
 map for every school, and deem it an economical expendi- 
 ture. The teacher w^ould, it is true, be compelled to sup- 
 ply much of the descriptive matter ; but the pupils would 
 now be able to understand and to appreciate it, from its 
 similarity to what they themselves had furnished respect- 
 ing their own neighborhood. Thus, step by step, would 
 they proceed from the known to the unknown, and from 
 particulars to generals, in the true inductive method, until 
 they had embraced the geography of all the countries of 
 the globe — their knowledge of things being less and less 
 minute, as they diverge farther from the central point of 
 Home. But this is the true order of importance, as it is 
 the order which Nature has marked out for us. Things 
 near are those which first and most concern us ; they first 
 arrest our attention ; they most excite our sympathies ; 
 'they are most nearly connected with all our interests ; 
 
88 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 they, indeed, almost fill our entire vision — standing up be- 
 fore us conspicuous in all the details of form and coloring ; 
 while the distant, little discerned, little thought of, having 
 but few and feeble connections with us, either dwindles 
 away in dim and shadowy outline, or entirely vanishes in 
 obscurity. 
 
 How difierently from the old system, then, should we 
 teach geography to our children! We began the study, 
 not at home, and by observing and describing familiar lo- 
 calities around us, but at as distant a point as possible, by 
 being told that there are certain planets that revolve 
 around the sun ; that the ea7'th is one of these planets ; that 
 it is a round globe or ball, and that it may be circumnavi- 
 gated; certain great circles and certain smaller circles 
 were then described to us in language mystical, and paral- 
 lels of latitude and longitude, and zones ; and after a long 
 while we got a footing on terra firona / but, alas ! we 
 never got so near home as our native town, and the scenes 
 of our childhood. In those days we never dreamed that 
 what we knew about the fields, and the woods, and the 
 streams, and the hills, and the valleys around us — all de- 
 lightful knowledge, and to this day teeming with pleasant 
 associations — had any thing to do with that dry and dis- 
 tasteful study which a certain school-book told us is " a 
 description of the earth." 
 
 Composition. — The teacher will find suitable subjects 
 for 2i series of written compositions in the foregoing exer- 
 cises, as already suggested. These compositions should be 
 carried on simultaneously with the pupil's progress ; and 
 what he can describe in words, he should be accustomed 
 to put on paper. This matter of beginning early to write 
 compositions upon the subjects talked about and studied, is 
 highly important, and should on no account be neglected. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 89 
 
 CHAET No. XII. FOEMS AKD SOLIDS. 
 
 The chief object of this Chart is to lead pupils, j^?'5if, to 
 recognize and name the principal mathematical forms and 
 solids, and afterward to describe them. Forms and solids 
 of the same size as those represented here have been pre- 
 pared, cut out of wood, and may be obtained either with 
 or without the Charts. 
 
 It will be found that quite young pupils can learn to 
 recognize these objects as easily as any others, if they can 
 be made to take an interest in them. The lessons on this 
 Chart, generally, should precede the " Geometrical Draw- 
 ings" from Chart No. X. The mathematical descri2Jtio7is 
 should not be required until the pupils are perfectly famil- 
 iar with both the forms shown on the Chart, and the 
 icooden blocks also. For the first lessons for developing 
 ideas of Form, see Calkins' Primary Object Lessons, pages 
 41-93. 
 
 1. 1. In the first exercises from this Chart we suggest 
 that one pupil point out the first form (right-angled tri- 
 angle), another select the same from the blocks, a third 
 name it, and a fourth write its name on the blackboard, or 
 set it up Avith the Letter-cards. 
 
 2. Go through with all the other forms and solids in a 
 similar manner. 
 
 II. 1. Go through with all in the same manner as before, 
 and, in addition, give a brief description or definition of 
 each figure, and also draw on the board, or require the pu- 
 pils to do it, difierent /brms of the same figure, where they 
 can be made to accord with the definition. Thus the right- 
 angled triangle admits of a great variety of forms ; so of 
 all the figures in the second line, except the isosceles tri- 
 angle. Let the pupils be particular to point out the dif- 
 ferences between figures that somewhat resemble each 
 other. 
 
 2. In connection with the foregoing, let the pupils name 
 and describe objects that have forms similar to the blocks. 
 
90 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Definitions of Forms. See Chart. 
 
 A Triangle (see second row of figures on the Chart) is a plane* fig- 
 ure, which is bounded by tln-ee lines. Such figures are said to be tri- 
 angular. If the lines are straight, the triangle is rectilinear ; if they are 
 curved, it is a curved, or curvilinear triangle, as in the fourth row on the 
 Chart. A triangle may also be partly rectilinear, and partly curvilinear. 
 
 A Right-angled triangle is a triangle that has one right angle. f 
 
 A Square is a plane figure that \\Visfour equal sides, and four right 
 angles, t 
 
 A square is a rectan'gular, or right-angled figure. 
 
 A Pentagon is a plane figure that h^sjive equal sides, and five equal 
 angles. § 
 
 A pentag'onal figure. 
 
 A Hexagon has six equal sides, and six equal angles. Hexag'onal. 
 
 A Heptagon has seven equal sides, and seven equal angles. Hep- 
 tag' onal. 
 
 An Octagon has eight equal sides, and eight equal angles. Octag'- 
 onal. 
 
 An Isosceles triangle is a triangle which has only two sides equal. 
 
 An Equilateral triangle is one that has all its sides equal. 
 
 A Parallelogram is a four-sided figure which has its opposite sides 
 parallel, and consequently equal. In common use this word is applied 
 to figures of more length than breadth. 
 
 A Trapezium is a four- sided (quadrilateral) figure, none of whose 
 opposite sides are parallel. 
 
 A Trapezoid is a four-sided figure, having two of the opposite sides 
 parallel. 
 
 A Rhomb is a four-sided figure whose sides are equal, and the oppo- 
 site sides parallel ; but it has two opposite and equal acute angles, and 
 two opposite equal and obtuse angles. 
 
 A Rhomboid is a four-sided figure whose opposite sides and angles 
 are equal ; but neither are all its sides nor all its angles equal. Rhom- 
 hoid'al. 
 
 An Oval figure may either be in the shape of an egg, or of an ellipse ; 
 but the term means, literally, egg-shaped. 
 
 An Ellipse is a figure formed by cutting a cone by a plane that passes 
 obliquely through the opposite sides of the cone. It may also be formed 
 in another mannei', as described on page 61. Ellip'tical. 
 
 * Tell them a plane (not plain^ figure is an even, level, or flat surface, 
 which has no thickness. They must understand, therefore, that it is only 
 the flat surface of the blocks that constitute the "Forms" named and rep- 
 resented OR the upper part of the Chart. The teacher must not allow 
 pupils to make the mistake of supposing that the whole block is what con- 
 stitutes the triangle, square, pentagon, etc. f See page 56. 
 
 X All figures of four sides are called quadrilaterals. 
 
 § All figures that are bounded by three lines, or more, are polijgons ; 
 but in common use the term is applied to figures that are bounded by 
 more than four straight lines. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 91 
 
 A Circle is a plane figure inclosed by a single curved line, called its 
 circumference^ every part of wliich is equally distant from a point within, 
 called the centre. In popular language, however, the circumference itself 
 is often called a circle. Circular. 
 
 Semicircles are half circles. Semicirc7ilar. 
 
 A Segment of a circle is a part of a circle cut off by a straight line. 
 This straight line is called a chord; and that part of the circumference 
 which is cut off by it is called an ai'c. An arc is, also, any part of the 
 circumference. 
 
 A Quadrant is a quarter of a circle. 
 
 A Sector is the figure included between an arc and the two radii 
 drawn to the extremities of the arc. 
 
 A Crescent is a figure in the shape of the new moon. 
 
 A Ring is any thing in the form of the circumference of a circle. 
 
 ^^ For definitions of other "Forms," see Botany, page 178. 
 
 Definitions of Solids. 
 
 A Sphere is a solid body contained under a single surface, which, in 
 every part, is equally distant from a point called its centre. Spher'ical. 
 
 A Hemisphere is a half sphere. Hemispherical. 
 
 A Spheroid is a solid body approaching to a sphere, but not perfectly 
 spherical. It may be either prolate, or oblate. A prolate spheroid is one 
 that is oblong, or prolonged, like the one represented on the Chart ; an 
 oblate spheroid is one that is flattened on two opposite sides. Thus, the 
 earth is an oblate spheroid, because it is flattened at the poles. 
 
 A Tetrahedron is a solid bounded by four equal and equilateral tri- 
 angles. See, also, page 62. For the hexahedron, octahedron, dodecahe- 
 dron, and icosahedron, see page 62-3. 
 
 A Cube is a solid with six equal square sides, and containing equal 
 angles. Cubical. 
 
 A Prism is a solid whose bases, or ends, are any similar, equal, and 
 parallel plane figures, and whose sides are parallelograms. Two forms 
 of prism are represented on the Chart. Prismat' ical. 
 
 A Cone is a solid body having a circle for its base, and its top term- 
 inated in a point. Cones may be of two kinds ; a right cone, which has 
 its axis perpendicular to the plane of its base; and an oblique cone, whose 
 axis is inclined, or leaning. Conical. 
 
 A Cylinder is a long, circular body, of uniform diameter, its extrem- 
 ities forming equal parallel circles. Cylin! drical. 
 
 i^^ The teacher should exercise the older pupils in the mensuration 
 of surfaces and solids like those represented on the Chart, and in practi- 
 cal applications of the rules. They will much better remember the rules 
 by being familiar with the ybn«s of the surfaces and solids. 
 
 Compositions. — " Forms and solids" may be thought a 
 dry subject for compositions. But every object in Nature, 
 as well as in Art, is comprehended under certain forms ; 
 and every solid will be found under some one or more of 
 the forms on this Chart and Chart No. XI., or combina- 
 
92 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 tions of them. Let j^upils, therefore, describe objects as 
 to their sliape ; telling by what lines they are bounded, 
 under what surfaces they are contained, and what solids 
 they form. This will lead them to observe carefully, and 
 to describe accurately. They will also thus learn the ap- 
 propriate use of the descriptive adjective terms — the idea 
 having been first obtained, and then the word. 
 
 CHAET No. XIII. FAMILIAE COLORS. 
 
 This Chart presents a popular view of thirty-five of the 
 principal colors familiar in painting, dress, and flowers, 
 with the common names by which they are best known ; 
 and its object is to train the eye to distinguish between 
 colors, and to recognize them when viewed separately. 
 To aid in this object this Chart is accompanied with a du- 
 plicate set of cards, corresponding in size and color to the 
 representations on the Chart. 
 
 For a somewhat full scientific presentation of the charac- 
 ter, combinations, and eflects of colors, we refer to the ex- 
 planations of the next Chart, No. XIV. It will be suflicient 
 here to explain to pupils, briefly, only a few of the leading- 
 principles of colors. 
 
 1 . Tell them that there are only three Primary colors — 
 red^ yelloio^ and blue — from Avhicli all others may be formed. 
 Point out these three colors at the top of the Chart, and 
 let the pupils point out, from the squares below, those that 
 match them, and also select the corresponding colors from 
 the cards. Let them mention, or bring in, objects whose 
 colors correspond with these. They should be kept upon 
 these exercises until they can distinguish readily between 
 pure yellow, red, and blue, and their various tints and 
 shades. (See, also, "Primary Object Lessons," p. 112, 113.) 
 
 2. Next point out the Secondary colors, and proceed 
 with them in the same manner as with the primaries. 
 After pupils have learned to distinguish these colors read- 
 ily, show them by what mixtures of the primaries they are 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 93 
 
 formed. Thus, pointing to the lower right-hand corner of 
 the Chart, show them that orange is formed by mixing red 
 and yellow ; green by mixing yellow and blue ; 2.\\^pur])le 
 by mixing blue and red.* 
 
 3. Next go through with the three Teetiaries in a sim- 
 ilar manner. After the pupils can distinguish these read- 
 ily, show them by what mixtures of the secondaries they 
 are formed. f 
 
 4. Next take the five colors enumerated as belonging to 
 the " Reds ;" let the pupils match them from the cards, se- 
 lecting tioo cards for each color, and naming the colors of 
 the cards as each is produced. Afterward mingle the ten 
 cards indiscriminately, and let the pupils name their colors 
 without looking at the Chart. 
 
 5. Proceed Avith the " Yellows" in the same manner. 
 
 6. Proceed with the " Blues" in the same manner. 
 
 7. Proceed with the " Oranges" in the same manner. 
 
 8. Proceed with the " Greens" in the same manner. 
 
 9. Proceed with the " Purples" in the same manner. 
 
 10. Proceed with the '-^ Browns" in the same manner. 
 For what constitutes leading or standard colors, tints^ 
 
 shades, and /mes, see pages 105 and 107. What are de- 
 nominated the shades of colors, on Chart No. XIIL, are 
 not, strictly, shades, although they are popularly considered 
 such, A shade of a color, as described on page 10 , is 
 
 * Indigo is not, properly, a secondary color, but a sub-secondary^ as it 
 is one of the shades of purple-blue. See Chromatic Scale, Chart No. 
 XIV. It is, however, on this Chart, No. XIII., placed among the sec- 
 ondaries, because it was formerly included among the distinct colors of 
 the solar spectrum, and is still, generally, so enumerated. 
 
 t It would noAV be well if pupils could be supplied with the three pri- 
 mary colors, that they might learn to form the secondaries and tertiaries 
 by actually mixing the primaries. The proportions will be best learned 
 when they come to the next Chart ; but it is best for them now to experi- 
 ment, without 1 ulcs. For some excellent observations on the early use of 
 colors, see Herbert Spencer's work on Education, page 141-143. He rec- 
 ommends the use of cheap wood-cuts to be colored by the pupils. He 
 says, "No matter how daubed and glaring the colors. The question is 
 not whether the child is pi'oducing good drawings ; the question is, 
 whether it is developing its faculties." 
 
94 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 formed by mixing that color with hlack ; l3nt, popularly 
 considered, when a small portion of some dark color is 
 mixed with a lighter color, so as to give to the lighter 
 color a darker shade^ although it may change its hue, the 
 color thus produced is often spoken of as a shade of the 
 given color. Thus, in the column of "Reds" on the Chart, 
 a deep crimson (which is formed by mixing a very little 
 blue with pure deep red) is sometimes called a crimson 
 shade of red. It is, however, a misapplication of terms : the 
 color is, properly, a dark shade of crimson. 
 
 After the pupil has acquired some familiarity wdth the 
 Chromatic Scale, Chart No. XIV., he should return to the 
 " Familiar Colors" of Chart No. XIII., and assign to each 
 its proper place in the more scientific arrangement of the 
 scale. Thus : 
 
 ! Crimson is one of the Purple-Reds. It has many tints, hues, and 
 shades. 
 Carmine: A pure Red. It has many tints and shades.* 
 Scarlet: One of the Orange-Reds ; of many tints, hues, and shades. 
 Vermilion : One of the Orange-Reds — approaching orange. 
 Pink: A tint of pure Red. Many varieties. 
 
 Citrine : A tertiary color, intermediate between orange and green. 
 Yellow: A pure Yellow. Chrome Yellow: of many tints and 
 
 shades. 
 Lemon : One of the Greenish- Yellows. Yellow slightly tinged 
 
 with green. 
 Canary : One of the Greenish-Yellows — so little green as to be 
 
 but just perceptible. 
 Straw : One of the tints of pure Yellow. Many varieties. 
 Indigo : One of the deep shades of Purple-Blue. Mazarine Blue 
 
 is another of these shades, but contains more red. 
 Ultramarine: The purest Blue. A primary color : many tints and 
 
 shades. 
 Prussian Blue : One of the Greenish-Blues. A deep blue, slight- 
 ly tinged with green. 
 Light Blue : A tint of pure Blue. 
 ^Sky-Blue: A still lighter tint of pure Blue. 
 
 Amber : A transparent Dark Orange, or a deep shade of Orange- 
 Yellow. 
 Orange : A secondary color, of many tints, hues, and shades. 
 Salmon : A tint of Orange-Red, 
 
 Bnff: One of the Orange-Yellows. Many varieties. 
 Cream : A light tint of Orange-Yellow. 
 
 * The pure or primary colors have not, of course, any hues. See p. 107. 
 
 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 95 
 
 f Olive : A tertiary color, in which bhie preponderates. What are 
 called Olive-Greens are shades of Greenish-Blue, such as may be 
 produced by mixtures of violet and green. Many tints, hues, and 
 shades. 
 
 I J Green: A secondary color, of many tints, hues, and shades.* 
 ^ "^ Emerald-Green: A greenisli tint of Greenish-Blue ; that is, a light 
 green slightly tinged with blue. 
 Pea- Green : A greenish tint of Greenish- Yellow ; that is, a light 
 
 green tinged with yellow. 
 ^Light Green : One of the tints of pure Green. 
 ''Royal Purple : One of the rich shades of Purple — best represented 
 
 by a very deep purple silk. 
 Purple: A secondary color, of many tints, hues, and shades. 
 Violet: One of the deeper tints of Purple-Blue, often approaching 
 
 pure purple. Many varieties. 
 Lilac: A lighter tint of Purple, often inclining to a Purple-Blue. 
 
 Many varieties. 
 Lavender : A still lighter tint of Purple-Blue — lighter than violet, 
 and often inclining to a pure purple tint. 
 
 The Browns. These are not represented on the Chromat- 
 ic Scale, with the exception of russet. For descriptions of 
 the browns, maroons, and grays, see page 101. 
 
 Having a knowledge of the Chromatic Scale, the pupil 
 should now be able to assign any given color to its proper 
 place among the definite colors of the scale. Sometimes 
 the color may be a shade, or it may be a tint of one of the 
 definite colors. Thus, among the numerous orange-reds in 
 cloths, worsted, etc., may be found light scarlets^ which are 
 tints of orange-red, at one extreme, and shades of auburn^ 
 which are brownish shades of orange-red, at the other ex- 
 treme. A color may also be on the boundary line between 
 two definite colors. Thus some of the orange hues ap- 
 proach the scarlets, and some of the scarlets approach or- 
 ange ; for the varieties of tints, hues, and shades are al- 
 most innumerable, and fanciful names of colors are con- 
 stantly springing up, as new fabrics of new combinations 
 of colors are presented to the public. All popular names 
 
 * The ' '■Dark Green"" of the Chromatic Scale should have been made 
 darker on, some of the Charts by a mixture of red, as its combination is 
 3 parts of yellow, 3 parts of blue, and 2 parts of red. For a similar rea- 
 son, the "Dark Orange" should be darkened by blue; and the "Dark 
 Purple" should be browned by yellov/. 
 
96 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 of colors should be referred to and judged by the stand- 
 ards that are represented by the definite combinations of 
 the Chromatic Scale. From the very nature of things, 
 there can be no other standards. 
 
 Compositions. — Let pupils write compositions upon these 
 " Familiar Colors," describing them ; naming the primaries, 
 secondaries, and tertiaries, and telling how the secondaries 
 and tertiaries are formed ; and, more especially, describing 
 the colors of natural objects which are presented to them, 
 or with which they are familiar. 
 
 CHAET No. Xiy. CHROMATIC SCALE OF 
 
 COLORS. 
 
 The following article, in connection with the Chart, is 
 designed to give as complete a view^ as our limits will al- 
 low of the principles of Colors, their combinations and 
 proportions, tints, shades, and hues, and their varied har- 
 monic or discordant effects upon each other when placed in 
 juxtaposition. If we are not mistaken, it will be found 
 that children can easily learn both the facts and the prin- 
 ciples here presented, and tliat, in addition to the new and 
 Avonderful things in the beauties and in the philosophy of 
 Nature which this subject will unfold to them, it will be 
 found admirably adapted to the cultivation not only of the 
 observing^ but of the reflective faculties also. 
 
 It is designed that the teacher shall exj^lain to the j)upils 
 the principles here presented, after which the pupils should 
 make the applications by constructing the tables^ answer- 
 ing the questions, and going through the exercises, and 
 also in carrying out still farther the principles of colors. 
 A great amount of information is contained in the present 
 synopsis, as illustrated by the Scale, and the subject may 
 well serve for short semi-weekly exercises during a couj^le 
 of years. For written Compositions on colors, see the 
 close of this article. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 97 
 
 I. GENERAL PKINCIPLES OP LIGHT, DAEKNESS, AND COLOR. 
 
 A ray of solar light, in itself white, may be separated, by 
 passing it through a prism, into an indeterminate number 
 of variously-colored rays, which are distributed into seven 
 groups, termed red^ orange^ yellow^ green^ hlue^ indigo, and 
 violet (or purple) rays. These colored rays, thus obtained, 
 constitute what are called the solar spectruyn. Yet all the 
 rays comprised in the same group are not identical in color, 
 but may be considered as differing more or less among 
 themselves.* 
 
 When an object reflects all the solar rays to the eye, the 
 object presents the appearance we call lohite. When it 
 reflects none of them, it appears hlack. When what we 
 call a colored object is seen, it reflects a certain portion of 
 the solar rays to the eye, and absorbs the others. Thus, 
 if the object reflects the red rays, it apj^ears red ; if it re- 
 flects the yelloio rays, it appears yelloio, etc.f 
 
 It is evident that the absorbed colored rays are of a dif- 
 ferent color from the reflected colored rays ; and also that 
 if the two kinds were reunited, they would neutralize each 
 other, and white light would be reproduced. It is this 
 property of two variously-colored lights, taken in certain 
 proportions to reproduce white light, that we express by 
 
 * This is the Newtonian theory of light. A theory has lately been 
 brought forward in England, that light is simple and uncompounded — 
 homogeneous in nature ; and that as it comes to the eye, from different 
 objects, in modified quantities, it impresses the sense of vision with relative 
 forces that convey to the brain the conceptions of color. See London 
 Review, Dec. 28, 1861. This theorj', however, does not affect the prin- 
 ciples illustrated in this article. 
 
 t But notwithstanding the general principle here stated, even the 
 blackest object reflects some white light. Every colored object, red for 
 instance, also reflects a small portion of all other colored rays besides red ; 
 yet, as the red rays are greatly predominant, we call the object red. 
 This principle has been fully established by the experiments of Sir Da- 
 vid Brewster. It will be important to- bear this principle in mind when 
 we come to consider the effect that colors in juxtaposition have upon 
 each other. 
 
 E 
 
98 
 
 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 the words, colored lights complementary to each other^ or 
 complementary colors. 
 
 Exercises. — Why does an object appear red? (Be- 
 cause it reflects the red rays to the eye, and absorbs the 
 others.) Why does an object appear yellow ? Why blue ? 
 Why orange ? Why green ? Why purple ? etc. 
 
 II. THE COMBINATIONS OF COLOES, AS SHOWN BY THE 
 CHKOMATIC SCALE. 
 
 TJNCOLOEED MINIATOKE COPY OF THE CIIEOMATIO BCALE. 
 
 * The large colored Chromatic Scale shown on the Chart is mostly a 
 combination of the scales of the English writer Field and the French 
 writer Chevreul, embracing all the principles of both, together with what 
 we believe to be some important improvements in modes of illustration. 
 As additions to the Chromatic Scale of Field, it represents the normal 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 99 
 
 Although a solar ray — that is, white light — may be di- 
 vided into six or seve7i differently-colored groups, yet only 
 t/ii^ee of these groups, Yellow, Red, and Blue, are what 
 are called Primary Colors. The remaining three or four 
 are really made up of combinations of the three Primaries. 
 It has been found that if we take the three Primaries, of 
 equal degrees of intensity, or, in other words, the deepest 
 and purest red, yellow, and blue, as seen in the solar spec- 
 trum, and combine them in the projDortions of 3 parts of 
 yellow, 5 parts of red, and 8 j^arts of blue, they produce 
 white light. And yet if they are combined in such pro- 
 portions that two of them considerably predominate, a 
 grayish hue, approaching blacJCy will be produced. 
 
 The union of the solar rays in such proportions as to 
 produce white gives us the principles of the Chromatic 
 Scale for all the regular combinations of colors. In the 
 
 or standard tones, fully illustrates the principles of the tints, shades, and 
 hues of colors, and assigns their appropriate positions to the semi-neutral 
 browns, maroons, and grays. 
 
 Some explanation is required as to the colors represented on the 
 Chromatic Scale, and also on all the Charts. Some may be disappoint- 
 ed in not finding them as pure and brilliant as they have before seen 
 them, and especially in silks. In the first place, paper made of cotton 
 does not take color so well as silk. In the second place, as paper is 
 bleached white by the use of lime, it still contains some lime, which, as 
 painters say, "kills" the colors. The lime injures some colors more 
 than others. In the third place, all colors fade more or less by exposure 
 to the light. In the fourth place, where colors are grouped as tliey are 
 on the Chromatic Scale, those that are in juxtaposition diminish the 
 brilliancy of each other, as will be learned from the principles explained 
 in this article. If you wish to see what any one of these colors is by it- 
 self, cover up all the others, and look at that one alone when the eye is 
 in its normal state. All these things are difiiculties which we have to 
 contend with, and for which due allowance should be made. The col- 
 ors on the Chart, however, with which very great pains have been taken, 
 are sufiiciently brilliant for all practical purposes. The Primaries — red, 
 yellow, and blue — are as good as could be obtained ; and so long as the 
 others are made by the proper mixtures, they must present the true com- 
 parative hues and shades of all the other colors. The colors on Chart 
 No. XIII. are brighter than on Chart No. XIV., as in the former tlie 
 paper was colored in sheets, and then cut up and pasted on. 
 
100 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 centre of this scale is a dark circle, which may either de- 
 note an object that absorbs all the solar rays, and hence 
 af»pears black, or it may denote the mixture of the rays in 
 ""certain proportions different from those that constitute 
 white. Grouped around this centre are six large circles, 
 three of which, designated as Yellow, Red, and Blue, 
 represent the three PrimarieSj while their figures, 3, 5, and 
 8, denote the proportions in which they combine to pro- 
 duce white. But yellow and red combine in their respect- 
 ive proportions, 3 and 5, to produce Orange ; yellow and 
 blue in their respective pro23ortions, 3 and 8, to produce 
 Green ; blue and red in their respective proportions, 8 and 
 5, to produce Purple — as shown in the circles lying be- 
 tween the three couplets of the Primaries. This gives us 
 what are called the Secondary Colors, Orange, Green, 
 and Purple, and likewise shows their combining propor- 
 tions : that orange is made of 8 parts of colored light (3 of 
 yellow and 5 of red) ; green of 11 parts (3 of yellow and 8 
 of blue) ; and purjDle of 13 parts (8 of blue and 5 of red).* 
 Indigo^ which was formerly included among the secondary 
 colors, is merely a deep purple-blue. 
 
 If now we take the Secondary colors, and combine them 
 two by two, we shall form the Tertiary ColorS, Russet, 
 Citrine, and Olive, and have their combining proportions, 
 
 * Some writers say that equal proportions of red and yellow produce 
 orange, equal proportions of yellow and blue produce green, etc. This 
 may be true if the colors be of the right tone to produce such effects. 
 Instead of taking 5 parts red and 3 parts yellow to produce orange, it is 
 evident that we may take 5 parts of each, if we diminish the tone of the 
 yellow, or increase that of the red. It all depends upon what tones of 
 the several colors we take for the standard or normal colors ; but as it is 
 impossible to find any pure pigments or paints of these three colors, or 
 even to be certain that we can always have them alike, it is better to 
 take a standard that never varies, and such we have in the colors seen 
 in the solar spectrum. The red, yellow, and blue of the solar spectrum 
 are therefore very properly taken as the normal or standard tones of those 
 three colors. They are thus given in Field's Chromatography. In the 
 very able and more recent work of the French writer, Chevreul, this mat- 
 ter is most strangely overlooked. We find there, indeed, no standai-dfox 
 any color. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 101 
 
 which are found by adding the numbers of the Secondaries 
 which form each respectively. Thus orange 8 and purple 
 13 form russet 21 ; orange 8 and green 11 form citrine 19 ; 
 green 11 and purple 13 form olive 24. 
 
 Moreover, if Ave unite each Secondary with each of its 
 adjoining Primaries, we shall form a fourth class, of six 
 colors — Orange -Red, Orange -Yellow, Greenish -Yellow, 
 Greenish-Blue, Purple-Blue, and Purple-Red — which may 
 be called Sub-SeCOndarieS. Their combining proportions, 
 given on the Chart, follow the same rule as before given. 
 By combining the Tertiaries, two by two, we form a fifth 
 class, of three colors — Dark Orange, Dark Green, and Dark 
 Purple — which may be called Sufi-TertiarieS. 
 
 Thus far all the colors are composed of the three Prima- 
 ries, and their regular combinations in definite proportions. 
 Of these, the lighter or purer colors are, first, the Prima- 
 ries, and next the Secondaries, which are arranged in the 
 larger circles and around the outer portions of the Scale. 
 Next, in point of purity, are the Sub- Secondaries, which 
 are of a darker hue than either of the former classes. Then 
 come the Tertiaries and Suh-Tertiaries, which have their 
 appropriate grouping nearer the black centre of the Scale, 
 and Avhich are of a much darker and less pure hue than the 
 Secondaries and Sub-Secondaries. 
 
 But there is a still darker class of irregular or broken 
 colors, formed by no very definite mixtures of the darker 
 colors among those already mentioned. These latter, usu- 
 ally called Semi-neutral colors, embrace the three groups 
 of the Browns^ the Maroons or Chocolates, and the Grays. 
 
 1. The Browns are those very dark shades, or combina- 
 tions, in which yellow, orange, or citrine predominates. 
 There are yellow, orange, red, and purple browms, but no 
 blue browns. The browns are mostly of warm or tawny 
 hues. 
 
 2. The Maroons or Chocolates are those dark shades, or 
 combinations, in which red, purple, or russet predominates. 
 They are intermediate between the iiKirni browns, and the 
 cold grays. The maroons proper incline to the dark pur- 
 
102 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 pies, and the chocolates to the dark orange, approaching 
 the browns. 
 
 3. The Grays are those dark shades, or combinations, in 
 which blue, green, or olive predominates. 
 
 Hot and Cold Colors. 
 
 As blue possesses, in the greatest degree, the quality 
 technically called coldness in coloring, and as it communi- 
 cates this property variously to all colors with which it is 
 compounded, the Chromatic Scale shows blue as the cold- 
 est color, whence the coldness gradually diminishes until 
 the tnediunn between the cold and the hot colors is at- 
 tained at purple-yellow and yellowish-green. From these 
 two points the warm colors increase gradually until they 
 attain their maximum of heat at orange^ the complement- 
 ary of the cold Hue. 
 
 Let the pupil now tell, from the Chromatic Scale, the 
 relations, as to heat and cold, which the colors sustain to 
 each other. 
 
 Retiring and Advancing Colors. 
 
 Purple is the most retiring color, as shown on the Chro- 
 matic Scale (see Chart) ; that is, it declines in power the 
 most rapidly in proportion to the distance at which it is 
 viewed, and also in a declining light. 
 
 Its complementary yellow^ on the contrary, is the most 
 advancing of all colors, partaking most of the nature of 
 white, and consequently of greatest power in reflecting 
 light. 
 
 As to the beauty of colors individually ; that is, when 
 viewed alone, it may be stated, that those colors which are 
 nearest in nature to light, have their greatest beauty in 
 their lighter tints ; and that those which are nearest in na- 
 ture to shade, are most beautiful in their greatest depth or 
 fullness — a law which of course applies to hlacJc and white 
 particularly. Thus, the most beautiful yellow^ the color 
 most like white, is that which is lightest and most vivid ; 
 blue., the color most like black, is most beautiful when deep 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 103 
 
 and rich ; and red^ when of intermediate depth, or some- 
 what inclined to hght. 
 
 III. TABLE OP COLORS ; THEIR COMBINATIONS, PROPORTIONS, 
 AND COMPLEMENTARIES. 
 
 See, the Chromatic Scale. 
 
 Colors. Their Combinations and Proportions. Their Complementaries. 
 
 -, . (Yellow 3 Purple 13. 
 
 Prima- J Ked 5 Green ll . 
 
 ries. (BlueS Oranges. 
 
 cj , r Orange 8 = (Red 5, Yellow 3) Blue 8. 
 
 second- J Cxveen 11 = (Yellow 3, Blue 8) Red 5. 
 
 aries. ( purple 13 = (Red 5, Blue S) Yellow 3. 
 
 ^^j._ Tcitrine 19 = (Or. and Gr. = Red 5, Yel. 6, Blue 8) . . j ^ pSj.p/e^^g'' ^^''^ 
 
 tiaries. J OUve 24 = (Gr. and Purp. = Yel. 3, Red 5, Blue 16). Or. 8, or Dark Or. 40. 
 (_ Russet 21 =z (Or. and Purp. = Red 10, Yel. 3, Blue 8) Gr.ll, or Dark Gr,43. 
 
 /Orange-Red 13 = (Or. 8, Red 5=: Red 10, Yel. 3) Greenish-Blue 19. 
 
 « , \ Orange-Yel. 11 — (Or. 8, Yel. 3 = Red 5, Yel. 6) Purple-Blue 21. 
 
 « 'a ] Greenish-Yel. 14 =:(Gr. 11, Yel. 3 = Yel. G, Blue S) . . Purple-Red 18. 
 
 decpna- \ Greenish-Bl. 19 = (Gr. 11, Blue 8 = Yel. 3, Blue 10) . Orange-Red 13. 
 aries. l purple-Bl. 21 3r (Pui-p. 13, Blue 8 = Blue 16, Red 5). Orange- Yellow 11. 
 
 (^Purple- Red 18 1= (Purp. 13, Red 5 = Blue 8, Red 10). Greenish- Yellow 14. 
 Sub- (DarkOr.40 = (Rus.21,Cit.l9=:Redl5,Yel.9, B1.16). Olive 24. 
 Tertia- < Dark Gr.43 =z (Git. 19, Ol. 24= Red 10,Yel.9, Bl. 24). Russet 21. 
 aries. (DarkPurp.45=(Rus.21,01.24=Redl5,Yel.6,B1.24) Citrine. 
 
 I. Exercises from the Scale, on the Primaries, Second- 
 aries, and Tertiaries.* 
 
 1. Name the three Primary colors, and their respective combining 
 numbers. 
 
 2. The combinations of the Primaries, two by two, form the three 
 Secondary colors, lying between the three couplets that may be formed 
 of the Primaries. 
 
 How is orange formed? By the combination of yellow and red. In 
 what proportions? Three parts of yellow, and 5 of red. What, then, is 
 the combining number of orange ? Eight. Why ? Because 3 parts of 
 yellow and 5 parts of red make the eight parts which constitute orange. 
 
 * All the exercises under this head, and, indeed, all pertaining to 
 Chart No. XIV., should be gone through with by the pupils, by the aid 
 of the Chromatic Scale alone. What we have written out under the head 
 of "Exercises" on the Chromatic Scale, is designed merely as a guide 
 and aid to the teacher. He should make himself thoroughly master of 
 the principles, and then lead the pupil to master the same from the 
 Scale, as from a map. As soon as the pupil has learned the positions 
 of the colors on the Scale, so that he can recall them without the aid of 
 the Chart to look at, he will be able to name the several colors, and de- 
 scribe their combinations, with the same facility that he is able to bound 
 countries by remembering their relative positions on a map. 
 
104: MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 3. Go through with the composition of green, in a similar manner. 
 
 4. Go through with purple in the same manner. 
 
 5. The combinations of the Secondaries, two by two, form the three 
 Tertiary colors, citrine, russet, and olive, which are found, on the Scale, 
 at the intersections of the three couplets of the Secondaries. 
 
 How is russet formed? By the combination of orange and purple. 
 In what proportions ? Eight parts of orange, and 13 of purple. What, 
 then, is the combining number of russet? Twenty-one. Why? Because 8 
 parts of orange and 13 of purple make the 21 parts which constitute russet. 
 
 How many Primary colors enter into the composition of russet ? The 
 whole three, red, yellow, and blue. In what proportions? Ked 10, yel- 
 low 3, and blue 8. Explain the reason of this, liusset is formed by the 
 combination of the two Secondaries, orange and purple ; but orange is 
 composed of 5 parts of red and 3 of yellow ; and purple of 5 parts of I'ed 
 and 8 of blue ; therefore, red is taken twice, and yellow and blue each 
 once; and thus we have 10 of red, 3 of yellow, and 8 of blue. 
 
 G. Next go through with citrine and olive in the same way. 
 
 7. A class of six colors, called Sub-Secondaries, and lying between the 
 Secondaries and Primaries on the Scale, is formed by combining each 
 Secondary with each of its allied Primaries, in the proportions desig- 
 nated by their respective numbers. Thus, red and yellow are united to 
 produce orange, after which the orange itself may be combined with red 
 to form orange-red.* This latter color thus has 10 parts of red and 3 
 parts of yellow — a proportion of ret/ just twice what is contained in or- 
 ange. In a similar manner orange-yellow is formed, containing just 
 twice the yellow contained in orange. 
 
 II. Exercises from the Scale, on the Sub-Secondaries 
 and Sub-Tertiaries. 
 
 Explain, from the Scale, the formation of orange-red, and show why 
 13 is its combining number. Orange-red is formed by combining 8 parts 
 of orange with 5 parts of red. But orange itself is formed of 3 parts of 
 yellow and 5 parts of red. Therefore, substituting, in the place of the 
 orange, the yellow and red Primaries which compose it, we find that all 
 the colors and proportions which make up the orange-red are 10 parts 
 of red and 3 parts of yellow, making 13 parts in all. 
 
 Explain the formation of orange-yellow, in a similar manner. Of 
 greenish-yellow. Of greenish-blue. Of purple-blue. Of purple-red. 
 
 When we combine the Tertiaries, two by two, we form the class of 
 Sub-Tertiaries, consisting of dark orange, dark green, and dark purple. 
 It will now be easy to tell how each of these is formed, and in what pro- 
 portions each of the Primaries enters into the combination. For ex- 
 ample : dark orange is composed of its two adjoining Tertiaries, russet 
 and citrine — 21 parts of russet, and 19 of citrine. But, as has been be- 
 fore sho^m. 
 
 Russet =red 10, yellow 3, blue 8, and 
 
 Citrine =red 5, yellow 6, blue 8. 
 
 Therefore, adding together the two, 
 
 Dark orange =red 15, yellow 9, blue IG ; the whole making 40. 
 
 * These orange-reds are familiarly termed Scarlets, as the orange- 
 yellows are termed Buffs. 
 
FOli OBJECT LESSONS. 105 
 
 The pupil, being familiar with this step, should next explain, in a sim- 
 ilar manner, the formation of dai-k green and dark purple. 
 
 It will be seen, from the Scale, that each Primary color enters into all 
 the colors embraced within its own circle and the circles on each side 
 of it ; and that, also, crossing the centre of the Scale, it enters into the 
 Tertiary or Sub-Tertiary directly opposite. Thus, yellow enters into all 
 the colors of the Scale except blue, purple-blue, purple, purple-red, and. 
 red, and some of the grays and some of the maroons. Crossing the 
 centre of the Scale, it enters into dark purple. 
 
 Into what colors does red enter? 
 
 Into what colors does blue enter ? 
 
 IV. TOXES: EMBRACING TINTS AND SHADES OP COLOES. 
 
 Whatever we take as the standard of intensity or purity 
 for any color, it is evident that the particular color assumed 
 as the standard may receive numerous modifications by 
 mixing with white (or diluting with water) until the light- 
 er tints thus formed shall fade away and be lost in white- 
 ness itself. Thus, suppose carmine^ of a certain degree of 
 depth or intensity, to be the standard color for pure red, 
 and that 6 grains of this carmine cover a square inch of 
 surface, so as to give to this surface the true standard 
 color. Next take 5 grains of carmine, and mix with 1 
 grain of pure white, to cover the same extent of surface, 
 and this will give a tint of pure red. Next mix 4 grains 
 of carmine and 2 of white, to cover the same extent of sur- 
 face, and we shall have another tint of red. Three grains 
 of carmine and 3 of white w^ill give still another tint ; 2 of 
 carmine and 4 of white a still fainter tint; 1 of carmine and 
 5 of white a tint of red which is barely perceptible. We 
 have supposed the standard of pure red to be placed, on 
 the Chromatic Scale, at the centre of the red circle, and on 
 the radius extending outward have marked oif the grad- 
 ually diminishing tints — the figures 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, denoting 
 the gradually diminishing proportions of pure red. For 
 greater distinctness, however, we have represented only 
 the standard red, and two of its tints, on the Chart. 
 
 In the same manner we may suppose that the yellow, 
 the blue, the orange, the green, etc., have their normal or 
 ruling tones, or standards, at the centres of their respective 
 circles, and that from these points each is gradually tinted 
 
 E 2 
 
106 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 off to the circumference, where its colors fade away in tints 
 scarcely perceptible. 
 
 But, as opposed to this tiiiting^ each of the standard col- 
 ors of red, orange-red, orange, yellow, green, etc., may be, 
 in a similar manner, mixed with black — in gradually dimin- 
 ishing proportions of color, and gradually increasing pro- 
 portions of black — until the color is lost in blackness itself. 
 Thus, at the centre of the red, on the Chromatic Scale, sup- 
 pose, as before, that the normal red is placed. Mark off 
 five divisions on the radius extending toward the centre of 
 the Chromatic Scale. Suppose that the first division is 
 covered by a mixture of 5 parts of red and 1 part of black ; 
 the second by 4 parts of red and 2 parts of black ; the third 
 by 3 parts of red and 3 parts of black ; the fourth by 2 
 parts of red and 4 j)arts of black ; and the fifth by 1 part 
 of red and 5 parts of black. We thus obtain what are 
 called the different shades of pure red ; and, in a similar 
 manner, the shades of all the colors are found. The tints 
 and the shades of a color are called, collectively, its to7ies. 
 The tones of any one color (embracing its tints and shades) 
 may thus be supposed to be found on some one single ra- 
 dius of the Chromatic Scale — the tints of the colors repre- 
 sented around the outer portions of the Scale being found 
 outside of the circle (A) that passes through the centres of 
 the six large circles, and the shades being found inside of 
 that circle. 
 
 But each of the Tertiaries and Sub-Tertiaries — although 
 their standard colors are much darker than the standards 
 of the Primaries and Secondaries — has both its tints and 
 shades also, and the dividing line between them may be 
 supposed to be the centres of the oval figures containing 
 their names. So, likewise, of the still darker colors, the 
 maroons, the browns, and the grays. If, then, each of the 
 twenty-one normal or ruling colors represented on the 
 Chromatic Scale has five tints and five shades that may be 
 easily distinguished by the eye, we shall have not only 
 twenty-one normal colors, but 210 distinguishable tints and 
 shades of these colors, without enumerating their numerous 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 107 
 
 hues. But we have no names for all these tints and shades, 
 nor is it necessary, nor desirable, that we should have. We 
 may call carmine the standard red^ and locate it on the di- 
 viding line between its tints and its shades ; and we may 
 call the tints light reds, and the shades darh reds. Occa- 
 sionally we give a name to some uncertain tint or shade of 
 a color ; as, for example, we speak of rose color^ Avhich is 
 merely one of the uncertain ti7its of pure red or carmine ; 
 of straw color^ which is a light tint of pure yellow ; of 
 mazarine-hlue^ which is a shade of purple-blue ; and of am- 
 ber^ which is so dark a shade of orange-yellow, or dark or- 
 ange, that it is often classed with the browns. 
 
 V. HUES OF COLOES. 
 
 All mixed colors (which include all the colors except 
 the Primaries) may vary greatly in their mixtures, so as to 
 present a great variety of hues of each. Thus, for example, 
 suppose, at the central part of the orange-red, where we 
 have placed the hyphen of the word, is found the standard 
 for this color, or, as it is usually called, scarlet. Now as 
 we pass to the left along the figures to 1, we may suppose 
 that the yellow diminishes and the red increases ; but as 
 we pass to the right, to 9 or 10, the red diminishes and the 
 yellow increases. In other words, the yellow may grad- 
 ually increase in proportion from 1 to 10, at which latter 
 point the yellow is sufficient, mixed with the normal red, 
 to produce the normal or standard orange. Thus we may 
 have many hues of orange-red or scarlet ; and, in like man- 
 ner, many hues of all the mixed colors. 
 
 Yet the scarlets themselves (or orange-reds), as will be 
 seen by looking at the Chromatic Scale, may be considered 
 as merely difierent hues of orange ; that is, those orange 
 colors in which the red preponderates over the yellow; 
 and in a similar manner the buflTs (or orange-yellows) may 
 be considered as those hues of orange in which the yellow 
 preponderates over the red. 
 
108 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION" 
 
 Great Number of Distinguishable Colors. 
 
 Thus we may have tioenty hues of orange, easily distin- 
 guishable, the one from the other, by an ordinary eye — 
 these hues approaching, through the orange-reds, to pure 
 red at one extreme, and, through the orange-yellows, to 
 pure yellow at the other. In the same manner we may as- 
 sign twenty hues to green, and twenty hues to purple. 
 These will give to the three Secondary colors (including 
 the Sub-Secondaries) sixty Jiues in all — all easily distin- 
 guishable. 
 
 But every one of these hues may have both tints and 
 shades, as it approaches the centre, or the circumference, 
 of the Chromatic Scale. If we concede five tints and five 
 shades to each hue, these sixty hues will give us six hund- 
 red easily discernible colors ! The three Tertiaries Avill 
 give us an additional list of six hundred colors, and the 
 Sub-Tertiaries another six hundred. Giving to red, bine, 
 and yellow, five tints and five shades each, w^e shall thus 
 make up a list of 07ie thousand eight hundred and thirty 
 easily distinguishable colors, without including the semi- 
 neutral maroons, browns, and grays, which are, really, by 
 far the most abundant colors in nature. It would not be 
 at all extravagant to assign to the latter three the same 
 number of colors as to the three Secondaries — six hundred 
 in all. Our list w^ould thus foot up the number of tiGO 
 thousand four hundred and thirty colors, all of wdiich, we 
 have no doubt, might be easily distinguished as separate 
 and distinct from each other. 
 
 To show that these estimates are not extravaorant, we 
 will state, that we visited a wholesale worsted store in 
 New York city, and that we there found a list of more 
 than tivo thousand worsted colors alone ; and we were as- 
 sured that they had all the worsteds to match them. We 
 examined great numbers of the very large lists of the hues, 
 tints, and shades of orange worsted, and found no difficulty 
 in distinguishing between them. When the orange hues, 
 tints, and shades are so numerous, it is not surprising that 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 109 
 
 people differ so much in their views of what constitutes a 
 standard orange, a standard scarlet, or a standard buff. 
 
 YI. COMPLEMENTAEY COLOES. 
 
 Under the head of " General Principles of Light, Dark- 
 ness, and Color," we briefly explained that when two col- 
 ors can be taken in such proportions as to produce white, 
 each color is called the Complementary of the other. Now 
 red, yellow, and blue, taken in the proportions of 3 parts 
 of yellow, 5 parts of red, and 8 parts of blue, and of the 
 purity of these colors in the solar spectrum, neutralize each 
 other ; that is, produce white.* Hence, if we first com- 
 bine the yellow and the blue, their product, which is greeii^ 
 must be the complementary of red, and red must also be 
 the complementary of green. 
 
 Exercises on the Chromatic Scale. 
 
 What is the complementary of red ? Of yellow? Of blue? Explain 
 the reason in each case. 
 
 (Note. — The complementary of any color on the Scale is the one 
 directly opposite to it, on the same diameter, and can easily be learned, 
 and recalled at any time by remembering the arrangement of the Scale. 
 Tlie Table before given also names the complementarics. Aided by tlie 
 Chromatic Scale only, each pupil should not only expLain the com])le- 
 mentaries, as in the following exercises, but also write out a Table of the 
 colors, like that given on page 103.) 
 
 AVhat is the complementary of orange-red ? Greenish-blue. 
 
 What is the complementary of greenish-blue? Orange-red. Why? 
 
 Explanation. — Orange-red =red 10+yellow3; and 
 
 Greenish-blue = yellow 3, blue 1 G ; and the two 
 
 =red 10+yellow G +blue IG. But these 
 
 last proportions are equivalent to red 5, yellow 3, anil blue 8, which are 
 
 the proportions in which the three Primaries neutralize each other ; that 
 
 is, combine to produce white. Thus it is shown that if orange-red and 
 
 * It must be borne in mind, however, that, in point of fact, we cannot 
 produce a icMte paint by mixing those pigments or i)aints whose colors 
 are complementary. Thus, although the groups red and green, orange 
 and blue, yellow and purple, should, according to the theory, produce 
 white when respectively mixed in their proper proportions, yet we know 
 that they produce a gray, approaching nearer to white as the colors are 
 purer. The principles of the combinations and effects of colors must, 
 however, be based upon some standard, and none better can be taken 
 than i\\Qpure colors of the solar spectrum. 
 
110 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION" 
 
 greenish-blue be combined they produce white, and therefore the one is 
 the complementary of the other. 
 
 In a similar manner, look at the Chromatic Scale, and name the com- 
 plementary of orange-yellow, and explain the principle. 
 
 Of greenish-yellow. Of greenish-blue. Of purple-blue. Of purple- red. 
 
 In a similar manner, name the complementary of russet, and explain 
 the principle. 
 
 Explanation. — In order to explain that dark green is the complement- 
 ary of russet, we first show that dark green is composed of 
 red 10, yellow 9, blue 24; 
 
 Russet is composed of red 10, yellow 3, blue 8 ; 
 
 The two equaling red 20, yellow 12, blue 32. But these are in 
 the same proportions as red 5, yellow 3, blue 8, which are the neu- 
 tralizing proportions of the three Primaries. 
 
 In a similar manner name the complementary of dark orange and 
 explain the principle. 
 
 Of citrine. Of dark green. Of olive. Of dark purple. Let it be 
 observed that, as the combining figures of the three Primaries make uj) 
 the number IG, so any two complementary colors, which represent the 
 equivalent combinations, must add up the same number IG, or multiples 
 of IG. Thus, each couplet of primary and secondary complementaries 
 forms the number IG ; each couplet of the sub-secondary complement- 
 :u-ies forms the number 32 ; and each couplet of tertiary and sub-ter- 
 liary complementaries forms the number 64. 
 
 VII. THE IIAKMONY OF COLOKS. 
 
 As lights which is the natural stimuhis of the healthy 
 eye, and more agreeable to it than any single color, is com- 
 posed of the three Primary colors in certain proportions — 
 that is, in such proportions as to neutralize each other — 
 light may be considered a perfect harmony^ or union of 
 all colors. 
 
 From the principle herein developed it is apparent (and 
 experience proves it) that if a single color, red, for exam- 
 ple, be alone presented to the eye, an uneasy feeling is soon 
 produced in that organ. What is then needed to soothe 
 the eye is the presentation of such other color or colors as 
 shall neutralize the red — that is, Avhich, if combined with it, 
 would produce white. Yellow and blue, in their respective 
 proportions, will produce this effect, or, what amounts to 
 the same thing, their equivalent green. Hence, if tico 
 colors can be used to harmonize with red, the two must 
 be yellow and blue ; or, if one only can be taken, it must 
 be green. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. Ill 
 
 We thus obtain this first general rule in the harmony of 
 colors. The single color that harmonizes best with any 
 given color^ is the complementary of the given color. It 
 will now be easy to answer the following questions, and 
 assign the reasons. 
 
 "What single color harmonizes best with standard yellow ? (Standard 
 purple.) Why? Because 13 parts of standard purple added to 3 parts 
 of yellow produce white. Show why 13 parts of purple and 3 of yellow 
 produce white. (See Div. VI.) 
 
 What single color harmonizes best with blue? (Orange.) Why? 
 With orange-red ? With orange-yellow ? With greenish-yellow ? With 
 greenish blue ? With purple-blue ? With purple-red. 
 
 What with russet, citrine, and olive ? 
 
 Observe that each of these Tertiary colors has two complementaries, 
 as shown in the Table, page 103. Explain why either green, or dark 
 green, is the complementary of russet. The same of the other two 
 Tertiaries. 
 
 Harmonic Effects of placing Side by Side Colors that 
 are Complementary. 
 
 If two complementary colors, blue and orange, for ex- 
 ample, be placed side by side, it is found that each appears 
 brighter, or more intense, than when viewed separately.* 
 Thus the complementary colors are found not only to har- 
 monize best with each other in their combined pleasurable 
 effects upon the organ of sight, but also to contrast more 
 strongly with each other than with any other colors. The 
 followine: has been adduced as the cause of this effect. 
 
 Every colored object, when vicAved alone, reflects not 
 only the particular rays Avhich, by being the most numer- 
 ous, designate the color of the object, but also a portion of 
 all kinds of colored rays. Thus blue, viewed by itself, re- 
 flects some orange rays, by which its blue may be supposed 
 to be modified or lessened, so far as the orange rays neu- 
 tralize their proper proportion of blue rays. The orange 
 also, when viewed by itself, reflects some blue rays, by 
 
 * The supposition is that the two colors are either of the normal 
 standard, or of the same tone : that is, of corresponding depth of tint 
 or shade. If the colors be not of the same tone, the lighter tone will 
 appear still lighter, and the darker tone will appear still darker — that 
 is, of a deeper shade. 
 
112 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 which the orange is, in a similar manner, modified or di- 
 minished in intensity. 
 
 Now suppose the bUie and the orange placed side by 
 side. What will become of the orange rays which the blue 
 reflects ? They will be overwhelmed — virtually extinguish- 
 ed — by the more intense rays which the orange itself re- 
 flects, just as the light of a candle is overwhelmed by the 
 full glare of the noon-day sun. The blue, thus deprived of 
 the force of its orange rays, will appear of a more intense 
 blue than before. Upon the same principle, the orange, by 
 its juxtaposition with blue, will appear of a more intense 
 orange than before. The same principle will apply to all 
 the colors when arranged as complementaries. They then 
 produce their greatest eflect, and present the most striking 
 contrasts.* The striking effects of these harmonies are 
 best shown by taking circles of the three primary colors, 
 red, blue, and yellow, and surrounding them with broad 
 rings of their complementaries, as is seen under the head 
 of" Harmonic Complementary Colors" on the Chart. Here, 
 on circular, green, orange, and purple grounds, are pasted 
 smaller circles of their respective complementaries, red, blue, 
 and yellow. Each color, according to the principles stated, 
 should be rendered the more brilliant and intense by this 
 juxtaposition ; and this effect we believe will be apparent 
 to the eye of almost any person. But, to render the eflfect 
 more apparent, the same green, orange, and purple grounds 
 are placed to the right of the others, and on them are pasted 
 precisely the same red, blue, and yellow colors as before, 
 for they are cut from the same sheets of colored paper ; but 
 they are here so arranged that the contiguous colors shall 
 not be complementaries. Tlie six complementary colors on 
 
 * It is owing to this same principle that the dapplings of two comple- 
 mentary colors produce effects in painting so much more clear and brill- 
 iant than when uniform tints are produced by mixing the two colors. 
 White and black arc, practically, complementaries. If they be mixed, 
 they produce a gr-ay — of little or no brilliancy, as is seen in an ordinary 
 lithographic print ; but if the black be dappled in, as in the finest steel 
 engravings, the contrasts are the most striking, and the effect the most 
 brilliant. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 113 
 
 the left are now plainly seen to be more brilliant than the 
 same six colors on the right. 
 
 The teacher must constantly bear in mind that it is im- 
 possible, as before stated, to give to ordinary paper the 
 same brilliancy of coloring that may be given to some oth- 
 er materials, and especially to silks. If the complementary 
 colors on the left were richly-colored silks, the brilliancy 
 of eifect Avould be absolutely painful to the eye. 
 
 Another explanation of the effect produced by placing 
 side by side complementary colors, is the well-known fact 
 that the eye, by looking intently at any color for a few mo- 
 ments, acquires a tendency to see its complementary. Thus, 
 place a bright red wafer on white ]3aper, and look at the 
 wafer intently for a few moments, and the space around 
 the wafer will assume a greenish tinge; or cast the eye 
 from the Avafer upon a white surface at some distance from 
 it, and the figure of a light green wafer will be seen there. 
 In the same manner, if the eye look intently for some time 
 ujDon a green wafer on white paper, the surrounding sj^ace 
 will assume a reddish tinge. Hence, when red and green 
 are placed side by side, each must give to the other an ad- 
 ditional depth and brightness of color.* 
 
 Exercises. — If a silk merchant wished to make a red silk appear to the 
 best advantage, what color would he place beside it? (A green silk.) 
 Why ? If an orange silk, what color should he place beside it ? If a 
 bright yellow silk ? A green silk ? A blue silk ? A purple silk ? A 
 jt)wrjt}/e-?-e(i silk ? An orange-red? Aw orange-yellow? A grcenifih-yelloic? 
 
 A russet sWk'i (Either green or dark green.) A citrine? An olive? 
 
 * But iohy does the eye, after looking intently for some time at any 
 one color, acquire a tendency to see its opposite or complementary color? 
 The following physiological explanation may be given of this remarka- 
 ble phenomenon. The eye is supposed to secrete the principles of light, 
 and to retain them in a latent state ; and when any single color is pre- 
 sented to the eye, it is supposed so to act on that organ as to call forth 
 the latent principle Avhich is needed to restore the equilibrium of white 
 light. Thus red light is supposed so to act upon the organ as to call 
 forth the latent principle of green light, the latter being what is needed 
 to harmonize the red. It seems to be one of those wonderful compen- 
 sating provisions of nature which is designed to prevent injury to the or- 
 gan. 
 
114 MANUAL OF INFORMATIOIN- 
 
 But although the complementary colors, when placed 
 side by side in broad stripes, impart additional brilliancy 
 to each other, yet if they are so intimately mingled (and in 
 their due proportions) that the eye can not well distinguish 
 each separately, they will to a considerable extent luutral- 
 ize each other, and, tending to white, give to the mixture a 
 grayish hue. Thus, if threads of red and green be inter- 
 woven in a carpet, in the j^roportions of 5 of red and 11 of 
 green — or, what is nearly the same, 1 of red and 2 of green 
 — a gray will be produced. If the coloring material used 
 were as^j)?«*6 as in the solar spectrum, the color produced 
 would be nearly white. But if the red and the green be in 
 hroacl stripes in the carpet, each will ajDpear more brilliant 
 than when viewed apart. 
 
 We have said that if any one color be given, the single 
 color that best harmonizes with it is its complementary. 
 Yet the complementaries contrast so strongly^ and are so 
 vividly bright, especially those of the Primaries, that the 
 eye soon wearies of them; and if they are to be constantly 
 before the eye, a more agreeable effect is produced by the 
 interposition of a third color which partakes of both ex- 
 tremes of the contrast, or which is placed intermediate be- 
 tween them on the Chromatic Scale. Thus blue and or- 
 ange, when placed so as to contrast with each other, be- 
 come reconciled, softened in effect, and better harmonized 
 to the eye, when a broken color, partaking of both, or one 
 intermediate between the two, is interposed. Thus equal 
 surfaces of blue and orange would be better harmonized to 
 the eye by the interposition of a surface of greenish-yellow 
 or purple-red about equal to both the others. Yellow or 
 pur^^le interposed would produce a similar effect, but not so 
 good as the others. The figures attached to the colors on 
 the Scale give their respective harmo)iizmg as well as com- 
 bining proportions. Thus orange, blue, and purple-red har- 
 monize best in the proportions of 8 of orange, 8 of blue, 
 and 18 of purple-red ;* and if these three colors were to be 
 
 * In all such statements reference is had to the normal ox standard tones 
 of the colors; and if either of the colors nscul be below the standnrd — that 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 115 
 
 combined in a dress, their harmony would best be consult- 
 ed by having some regard to these proportions. 
 
 Exercises. — Take all the colors in their complementary grouping, 
 and, by referring to the scale, tell what third colors best soften and har- 
 monize them to the eye. The third color will be either of the two in- 
 termediate between them on the scale. The following table gives the 
 grouping of the complementaries, and the third colors which best soften 
 and harmonize them, yet this table is not half so good as the scale it- 
 self. When the arrangement of the colors on the Chromatic Scale is 
 once learned, the mind can easily recall all these harmonies. 
 
 {fin ] ^ h--™'-" "y {pur;;ri,'i^^' " 
 
 (Orange-Red 1 u << << (Citrine or Yellow, or 
 
 i Greenish-Blue > (Pui-ple, or Dark Purple. 
 
 (Orange 1 <« «< a (Greenish- Yellow, or 
 
 JBlae > tPurple-Red. 
 
 ^Orange- Yellow ) ^^ jj <( (Red, or Russet, or 
 
 "i^ Purple-Blue > 1 Green, or Dark Green. 
 
 (Yellow 1 " " " (Orange-Red, or 
 
 "^Purple > (Greenish-Blue. 
 
 (Greenish-Yellow) <4 ^^ ^t (Orange or Dark Orange, or 
 
 IPurple-Red > tBlue or Olive. 
 
 (Citrine 1 " " «' i Orange-Red, or 
 
 (Purple ) J Greenish-Blue. 
 
 (Olive \ <■<■ " " (PwJ'ple-Red, or 
 
 (Orange > (Greenish- Yellow. 
 
 (Russet 1- '< " '• (Orange- Yellow, or 
 
 (Green ) (Purple-Blue. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Yet it is evident that any two complementary colors are 
 not perfectly harmonized by any one additional color, but 
 that a complete harmony requires tico additional colors. 
 Thus, if we take red and green, although they are complete 
 harmonies, yet their brilliant and harsh contrast requires 
 modification. Orange-yellow softens their severity, but re- 
 quires its own complementary purple-blue to restore the 
 harmony which has thus been broken ; that is, for all the 
 colors to present the proportions required in the produc- 
 tion of white light. Therefore the complementaries group- 
 is some tint of it — additional extent of surface should be used to com- 
 pensate for the deficiency. Thus, if the third tint of orange should be 
 used (see Chromatic Scale and Div. IV.), containing only lialfiho, or- 
 ange found in the standard, a double surface of orange should be con- 
 tained in the dress. 
 
116 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ed in the left-hand column of the foregoing table require 
 the Udo colors in the right-hand column to soften and fully 
 harmonize them. For the same reason, if the complement- 
 ary groups in the right-hand column were to be softened, 
 and then harmonized, both the colors in the left-hand col- 
 umn would be required for that purpose. 
 
 Taking the principles here developed as a basis, the 
 teacher may now form a great variety of questions as to 
 the proper selection and proportions of colors in dress, in 
 the paintings of the interiors of rooms, in paper-hangings, 
 and in carpets and tapestry. 
 
 VIII. DISCOEDANT EFFECTS OF THE JUXTAPOSITION OF 
 NOX-COMPLEMENTAEY COLOES. 
 
 Two colors of equal or nearly equal intensity (each one 
 being of its normal tone, or both of corresj^onding tones) 
 placed side by side, are said to be discordant when each pro- 
 duces such an eifect upon the otlier as to cause the two to 
 differ more than they would when viewed separately — that 
 is, to separate them farther from each other in composition 
 than in the order in which they are arranged on the Chro- 
 matic Scale. Thus it is found that if orange and green, both 
 of which contain yellow, are placed side by side, the orange 
 will thereby assume more of a reddish tinge, and the green 
 more of a blue tinge — the former appearing to the eye as 
 an orange-rec?, and the latter as a greenish-J/we. By this 
 juxtaposition of orange and green each of the colors will 
 seem to lose a portion of its yellow, and thus to be sepa- 
 rated farther in their composition than they really are, 
 thus mclmmg farther apart on the Chromatic Scale. 
 
 It will now be easy, by keeping in mind the arrange- 
 ment of the colors on the Scale, to tell the effects of the 
 juxtaposition of any two of them, of the standard purity; 
 for each will thereby partially assume the hue of the color 
 next to it on the Scale, on the outside of the two colors — 
 not between them. In the following groupings, the effects 
 denoted in the right-hand column will be produced. The 
 teacher should point out the groupings on the Scale, and 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 117 
 
 let the pupil name the results. Thus, for example, the 
 teacher points out red and orange, and asks what will be 
 the result if these two colors are placed side by side in 
 a dress, or in a carpet, etc., without any other colors to 
 relieve or harmonize them. According to the rule, the pu- 
 pil will see that the red will incline to purple, and the or- 
 ange to yellow — the red becoming a purplish-red, and the 
 orange a yellow-orange. 
 
 (Ked 
 • • 1 Orange 
 
 inclines to Purple. 
 
 <( 
 
 a 
 
 Dark Yellow, or Citrine, 
 
 9 (Red 
 
 ^' lYellow 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 Purj)le. 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 Green. 
 
 o (Red 
 "^^ iBIue 
 
 i. i 
 
 ii 
 
 Orange. 
 
 li. 
 
 a 
 
 Green. 
 
 A (Red 
 *• jPurple 
 
 " 
 
 n 
 
 Orange. 
 
 ( : 
 
 u 
 
 Blue. 
 
 ^ (Orange 
 ^' lYellow 
 
 C( 
 
 ii 
 
 Red. 
 
 It. 
 
 a 
 
 Bright Green. 
 
 ^ (Orange 
 *"• JGreen 
 
 a 
 
 li 
 
 Bright Red. 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 Blue. 
 
 _ (Orange 
 '• (Purple 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 u 
 
 It, 
 
 Blue. 
 
 g (Yellow 
 ^' t Green 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 Bright Orange. 
 
 (( 
 
 (( 
 
 Blue. 
 
 ^ jYellow 
 •^- IBlue 
 
 i( 
 
 (( 
 
 Orange. 
 
 li 
 
 li 
 
 Purple. 
 
 ,^ (Green 
 ^"- tBlue 
 
 I i 
 
 a 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 (I 
 
 li 
 
 Purple. 
 
 , , 1 Green 
 ^'- IPurple 
 
 H ' 
 
 li 
 
 Yellow. 
 
 i i 
 
 11 
 
 Red. 
 
 T9 (Blue 
 ^"- ^Purple 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 Gi'een. 
 
 (.i 
 
 11 
 
 Red. 
 
 The cause of the foregoing effects maybe explained upon 
 the principle before stated, that when any two colors of 
 similar tone are viewed in juxtaposition, each produces the 
 cifect of adding its complementary to the other.* 
 
 * It must continually be borne in mind, that in all these cases the two 
 colors are of the same, or nearly the same, tone ; that is, either of the 
 standard intensity, or equally removed from it in tint or shade. But if 
 one of the colors be of a deep shade, and the other of a light tint, the 
 former will appear still deeper, and the latter still lighter, by the effect 
 of the contrast. Therefore, a very deep blue, when placed beside a very 
 light yellow, may make the latter appear so much lighter as to destroy 
 the complementary effects, and, as it makes the yellow pale, to give it 
 
118 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Suppose that, in a certain painting, it is wished to have 
 orange largely predominate, and yet to represent, in their 
 purity, and of the normal standard, the colors red, J3urple, 
 scarlet, yellow, and green. Now, first, what will be the ef- 
 fects, in the painting, of putting all the colors in of exactly 
 their normal standard ? Ans. The red will apj^ear too pur- 
 ple, the purple too blue, the scarlet too red, the yellow too 
 green, and the green too blue. How, then, must the col- 
 ors be changed in hue, to make the representation accu- 
 rate ? Ans. The reds must be more scarlet, the purple 
 more red, the scarlet more orange, the yellow more or- 
 ange, and the green more yellow. 
 
 Make similar suppositions as to other colors ; and, on 
 the supposition that red, yellow, green, blue, or purj^le is to 
 preponderate in large proportion, require the pupils to tell 
 the eifects. 
 
 It will now be easy to see what third color is needed to 
 harmonize any one of the foregoing groups given in the 
 table ; for it is evident it must be that color which, when 
 combined with the two given colors, will be their comple- 
 mentary; that is, such color as, when allied to the two, 
 will give the requisite proportions for white light. Let us 
 take, for example, the first group, red and orange. ^Yhat 
 third color will best harmonize them ? It must be the one 
 opposite to them on the Chromatic Scale ; that is, greenish- 
 blue. If this be correct, red, orange, and greenish-blue, 
 when combined, must give the proportions of white light. 
 We will try the combination : 
 
 Red. Yellow. Blue. 
 
 Red 1= 5 
 
 Orange =5 3 
 
 Greenish-Blue— 3 16 
 The whole equal lo 6 16, which is equiva- 
 lent to red 5, yellow 3, blue 8 — the proportions in which 
 the three Primaries combine to produce white. Therefore 
 the color which best harmonizes any two discordant colors 
 
 almost a greenish tinge ; for, the paler a yellow is, the greener it ap- 
 pears. See the next division — " Contrast of Tone." 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 119 
 
 is their complementary, which is found on the opposite side 
 of the Chromatic Scale, intermediately between them. 
 
 Let the teacher now take the same groupings as before, 
 and require the pupil to tell, from the Chromatic Scale, 
 what third color is required to harmonize each group. 
 
 Red and Orange harmonized by Greenish-Blue. 
 
 Red and Yellow " " Blue. 
 
 Red and Blue " " Yellow. 
 
 Red and Purple " " Greenish- Yellow. 
 
 Orange and Yellow " " Purple-Blue. 
 
 Orange and Green " " Purple. 
 
 Orange and Purple " " Green. 
 
 Yellow and Green " " Purple-Red. 
 
 Yellow and Blue " " Red. 
 
 Green and Blue *' " Orange-Red. 
 
 Green and Purple '" " Orange. 
 
 Blue and Purple " " Orange-Yellow. 
 
 The Tertiary colors are harmonized on the same princi- 
 ples. Although their harmonies with each other are the 
 least striking of all the harmonies, and require a cultivated 
 taste to be appreciated, yet these are the harmonies which 
 most prevail in nature, as is seen in the boundless variety 
 of subdued colors in the foliage and trunks of trees, in 
 grasses, in mosses and lichens, in rocks, in earths, in the 
 plumage of birds, and the coverings of animals. 
 
 But the Tertiaries not only harmonize with each other 
 on the principles before explained, but also each pair har- 
 monizes, and in a more striking manner, as may be seen by 
 the Chromatic Scale, with its complementary primary. 
 Thus russet and citrine, having orange for a common con- 
 stituent, are harmonized by blue ; russet and olive, having 
 purple for a common constituent, are harmonized by yel- 
 low; and olive and citrine are harmonized by red. The 
 teacher should require his pupils to point out these various 
 harmonies. 
 
 Contrast of Tone. — We have noticed the intensifying 
 effects of placing side by side complementary colors of cor- 
 responding tone, and also the change in hue produced by 
 the juxtaposition of allied or analogous colors that are not 
 complementaryc But a third and still diflerent eftect is 
 
120 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 produced by the juxtaposition of different tones of the same 
 color, and also by the juxtaposition of different tones of 
 different colors. 
 
 Thus, if we look simultaneously upon two stripes of dif- 
 ferent tones of the same color, placed side by side, such as 
 a deep red and a very light or pale red, the pale red will 
 be made to appear still paler by the effect of the contrast, 
 and the deep red will appear of a still deeper or darker 
 hue. The effects will be the most apparent where the two 
 stripes border on each other. 
 
 But even if the two colors are not different tones of the 
 same scale, even if they are different tones of different 
 colors, like a very deep red and a very pale yellow, the 
 same effects will be produced, for that which is deep will 
 appear still deeper, and that Avhich is light will appear still 
 lighter by the effect of the juxtaposition. This is what is 
 called contrast of tone^ and is an important principle affect- 
 ino; the arrano-ement of colors in dress. 
 
 The causes of this contrast of tone are similar to those 
 explained under the head of the "Harmonic effects of 
 Complementary Colors." 
 
 IX. ARRANGEMENT OF COLORS W^TH WHITE. 
 
 All colors that are not too deep gain in brilliancy and 
 effect by their juxtaposition with white ; and, as a general 
 rule, white placed beside a color heightens its tone, or gives 
 it greater intensity — that is, more color. Although the 
 cause of this effect embraces the same principle as before 
 explained when treating of comj^lementary colors, it may 
 be well to present it anew here. 
 
 Suppose red and white placed in juxtaposition. The 
 white rays Avhich the red reflects, and which diminish the 
 brilliancy of the red when the red is viewed alone, are over- 
 whelmed — virtually destroyed in effect — by the more in- 
 tense white rays when the white is placed beside the red. 
 The effect of the juxtaposition must therefore be to render 
 the red more brilliant, by thus destroying the eftect of the 
 white rays which before diminished its brilliancy. More- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 121 
 
 over, as the adjoining white is rendered slightly greenish 
 by the complementary of the red, this gives additional 
 brilliancy to the red. 
 
 As the depth of tone of a color has a great influence 
 upon the effect of its association with white, the following 
 may be considered the best assortments with Avhite, in the 
 order of their greatest beauty : 1st, light blue and white ; 
 2d, rose and white ; 3d, deep yellow and white ; 4th, bright 
 green and white ; 5th, violet and white ; 6th, orange and 
 white. Dark blue, dark red, very dark green, and dark 
 purple, are far less agreeable with white than the lighter 
 tones of these colors ; for the contrast may be so great that 
 they will appear almost black. As yellow, on the contrary, 
 is the color nearest approaching to light, it must be of its 
 normal or deepest tone to produce its best eflect when 
 associated with white. 
 
 Let the pupil now tell the double effect, both on the white and on the 
 color, of the following groupings. 
 
 1. Eed and white. 2. Orange and white. 3. Yellow and white. 4. 
 Green and white. 5. Blue and white. 6. Purple and white. 7. Black 
 and white. 
 
 Explanation, thus : When red and white are associated, a slight green- 
 ish tinge is given to the white by the addition to it of the complementary 
 of the red,* while the red is rendered more brilliant and deeper, both by 
 losing the effects of its own white rays, and by having its complementary 
 added to the white. 
 
 Explain also why black is rendered more intensely black by being 
 associated with white. ° 
 
 X. ARRANGEMENT OP COLORS "WITH BLACK. 
 
 A black surface, by being placed in juxtaposition with 
 a light-colored or luminous surface, is not only rendered 
 blacker than before, by the force of contrast of tone, but 
 it is likewise slightly tinted by the complementary of the 
 contiguous color, although it may be difficult to distinguish 
 this tint when the black is a deep black.f Thus a black 
 
 * It is difficult to observe this effect upon the white unless the con- 
 tiguous color is viewed intently for a few moments ; because the ex- 
 ceeding brilliancy of the white tends to render the sight insensible to the 
 complementary which the colored body throws upon it, 
 
 t From the principle here involved it is evident that when black is 
 
 F 
 
122 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 surface placed beside red must be slightly tinted Avith 
 green. On the other hand, the Avhite rays which the red 
 emits will produce their greatest effects, and thus tend to 
 lower the tone of the red — that is, to cause it to assume a 
 lighter tint — the same as though the red had received an 
 addition of white light. Black, therefore, loioers the tone 
 of any color contiguous to it. Yet w^ien black is placed 
 beside a luminous color, like orange, the effect of contrast 
 oftone^ by causing the orange to appear lighter than be- 
 fore, thereby renders it, by its very Avhiteness, all the more 
 conspicuous. This would be very apt to be mistaken for 
 a heightening of the color of the orange. 
 
 Let the pupil now tell the double effect — both on the black and on 
 the color — of the following groupings : 
 
 1. Red and black. 2. Orange and black.* 3. Yellow and black. 4. 
 Green and black.* 5. Blue and black. G. Purple and black.* 
 
 Black is preferable to white in an arrangement with red and yellow, 
 or orange and yellow ; but it is inferior to white when associated M-ith 
 red and blue, red and violet, orange and blue, orange and violet, yellow 
 and blue, green and blue, green and violet. 
 
 XI. AEEANGEMENT OF COLOKS WITH GRAY. 
 
 A normal or standard gray, being a mixture of white and 
 black, and intermediate between the two, will be more af- 
 fected than either of them by being associated with colors ; 
 for it is not so dark iJUt that it may be tinged by the com- 
 plementaries of the colors ; and this very tinging of the 
 gray will make the associated colors appear the brighter. 
 Gray may be said, therefore, to give additional brilliancy 
 and purity to all the lighter or brighter colors, and, to 
 some extent, even to the darker colors. 
 
 contiguous to a very deep color which has a light or brilliant comple- 
 mentary, the black may be weakened. Thus, take deep blue and black. 
 As the blue has the effect to give an orange, tinge to the black, the black 
 may thereby be lightened iip, or weakened. 
 
 * In the case of orange and black, green and black, and purple and 
 black, it is evident that as the orange, although lowered in tone, is placed 
 in strong contrast with black, it appears more yellow ; that as the green 
 is lowered in tone, it also must slightly incline to yellow ; and that as 
 the purple becomes lighter, it must appear redder. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 123 
 
 Let the pupil now tell the double effect — both on the gray and on the 
 color — of the following groupings : 
 
 L Red and gray. 2. Orange and gray, 3. Yellow and gray. 4. 
 Green and gray. 5. Blue and gray. G. Purple and gray. 7. Crimson 
 and gray. 8. Scarlet and gray. 9. Buff and gray. 
 
 Gray associates better than black with orange and violet, green and 
 blue, green and violet. 
 
 Certain drapers gave to a calico printer some cloths of single colors — 
 red, purple, and blue — upon which they wished gray figures to be print- 
 ed. On the completion of the work, they complained that upon the red 
 cloths he had put green patterns, that upon the purple he had put green- 
 ish-yellow patterns, and that upon the blue they were orange-brown. 
 What was the probable cause of the difficulty ? 
 
 The nearer colors are to being complementaries of each 
 other, the better they associate together. Thus red and 
 yellow, red and blue, orange and green, orange and pur- 
 ple, are passable; but red and orange, red and purple, 
 green and blue, blue and purple, and other colors nearly 
 analogous, do not assort well together. If, therefore, any 
 colors that do not assort well together must be used in a 
 dress, in the decoration of a room, or in a painting, some 
 other color, or white, or black, or gray, may be used, in ac- 
 cordance with the principles already illustrated, to harmo- 
 nize them. Thus red and orange, which injure each other, 
 may be separated to advantage by their intermediate com- 
 plementary, or by white, by gray, or by black. When any 
 two colors assort badly together, it is akvays advantageous 
 to separate them by white; but if the two colors are de- 
 cidedly luminous., as is the case with red and orange, or- 
 ange and yellow, etc., black is preferable to either gray or 
 white, as it presents a better contrast than either of the 
 others. Although gray does not associate as well as black 
 with red and orange, it has the advantage of producing a 
 less crude effect than white. 
 
 XII. MODIFICATIONS IN COLOES PRODUCED BY COLORED 
 LIGHTS FALLING UPON THEM. 
 
 A series of interesting exercises might be written out by 
 the pupil, on the effect produced upon colored fabrics or 
 other colored objects in a room, by having colored light 
 fall upon them : for example, when the colored light is occa- 
 
124 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 sioned by stained or colored windows, or colored curtains, 
 or when it is reflected from the colored wash or paper of 
 the walls. Thus, in some of our city churches whicli have 
 stained Gothic windows, it is curious to observe the effects 
 produced by the light transmitted through the green, red, 
 blue, or yellow glass. It will be found that when the blue 
 light fells upon a delicate pink face, it will give it a very 
 disagreeable purple hue ; if it fall upon a face which is de- 
 cidedly yellow, it will give it a sickly pale green tinge. 
 The laws of the combinations of colors, as learned from the 
 Chromatic Scale, will give the principles of all the effects 
 thus produced. The following table will furnish examples ; 
 but the pupils should tell the results from the Scale alone: 
 
 Red rays falling on Black make it appear Pwjjle-Black. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 White 
 
 li 
 
 Red. 
 
 it 
 
 
 Red 
 
 11 
 
 Redder. 
 
 iC 
 
 
 Orange 
 
 ii 
 
 Scarlet. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Yellow 
 
 (( 
 
 Orange. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Deep Green 
 
 11 
 
 Red-Black. 
 
 a 
 
 
 Light Green 
 
 I i 
 
 Reddish-Gray. 
 
 li 
 
 
 Deep Blue 
 
 (( 
 
 Violet. 
 
 <( 
 
 
 Light Blue 
 
 li 
 
 Purple-Blue. 
 
 u 
 
 
 Violet 
 
 a 
 
 Purple. 
 
 li 
 
 
 Purple 
 
 (( 
 
 Crimson. 
 
 Orange rays falling 
 
 on Black 
 
 (( 
 
 Maroon, or Chocolate. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 White 
 
 ii 
 
 Orange. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Orange 
 
 (C 
 
 More vivid. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Red 
 
 li 
 
 Scarlet. 
 
 (( 
 
 
 Yellow 
 
 (( 
 
 Orange-Yellow. 
 
 11 
 
 
 Light Green 
 
 li 
 
 Yellow-Green. 
 
 11 
 
 
 Deep Green 
 
 ii 
 
 Rusty-Green. 
 
 u 
 
 
 Light Blue 
 
 (( 
 
 Orange-Gray. 
 
 n 
 
 
 Deep Blue 
 
 ;( 
 
 Slightly Orange-Gray. 
 
 ii 
 
 
 Violet 
 
 (( 
 
 Red-Maroon. 
 
 (i 
 
 
 Purple 
 
 11 
 
 Orange-Maroon. 
 
 In a similar manner go through with the eftects produced by yellow 
 rays, green rays, blue rays, and purple rays, etc. 
 
 XIII. OF COLORS IN CLOTHING. 
 
 1. Men's Clothing. 
 
 The first important principle to be noticed here is, that 
 a dress composed of cloths of different colors, especially if 
 the colors are complementary, or nearly so, may be worn 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 125 
 
 much longer, and will appear better, although nearly worn 
 out, than a suit of a single color, even Avhen the latter is 
 of a piece of cloth identical with either of the kinds used 
 in the first-mentioned suit. The cause of this it will not 
 now be difiicult to understand. 
 
 Suppose the eifect of the contrast of the two colors red 
 and green, or red and blue, used in a suit of clothes, be to 
 add one tenth in brilliancy to each color ; and suppose that 
 one year's wear would diminish their brilliancy one tenth, 
 then, in the case of the two colors associated, they would 
 have the same degree of brilliancy at the end of one year 
 of wear, as would be presented by a new suit of either of 
 the colors alone. 
 
 The increased brilliancy gained by the contrast of com- 
 plementary, or nearly complementary colors, is one great 
 advantage of forming the suits of soldiers of cloths of dif- 
 ferent colors. A dress made of cloths of diflerent colors 
 will not so soon ichiten in the seams as a dress of a sinscle 
 color. 
 
 C3' 
 
 2. Female Clothing. Blondes. 
 
 The complexions of females of the Caucasian or white 
 race present two types: \st^ blondes^ ^i\h light hair and 
 blue eyes. 
 
 In this type the color of the hair, which is more or less 
 flaxen^ is essentially a very ^yale orange-hroion y and the 
 color of the skin, although of a lower tone, is analogous to 
 it, except in the red parts. Now Nature has shown an 
 admirable regard to the harmony of colors in contrasting 
 hlue eyes by hues of the complementary orange in the hair 
 and complexion. The purplish-red of the lips and the rosy 
 hue of the cheeks beautifully modify the severity of the 
 contrast, on principles before explained (see page 114). 
 Thus much for Nature's regard for harmony. Nor is it 
 now difficult to see what colors in dress best accord with 
 the blonde type, for it must be, as is well known, sky-blue 
 — that color which approaches nearest to the complement- 
 ary of a pale orange. 
 
126 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 On the same principles delicate green is favorable to all 
 fair complexions that are deficient in rose^ and which may 
 have more imparted to them without disadvantage ; for it 
 not only harmonizes the sky-blue and the pale orange, but 
 gives its complementary red to the complexion. If, how- 
 ever, the complexion be already too red^ or have too much 
 orange in it, even delicate green will be unsuitable, for 
 what it will add will give the complexion too much of a 
 hricJc-vQdi hue. 
 
 We may now see, therefore, why either a light hlice bon- 
 net, ornamented with white flowers, and sometimes with 
 yellow and orange flowers (but not with rose or violet flow- 
 ers), or a green bonnet trimmed with white or rose flow- 
 ers, is advantageous to fair or rose complexions.* ISTeither 
 orange nor yellow bonnets are suited to blondes ; and pur- 
 ple is unsuitable to all complexions, as there are none which 
 are improved by having its complementary, greenish-yel- 
 low, added to them. 
 
 Rose-red, pink, maroon, and light crimson, have the dis- 
 advantage of rendering a fair complexion more or less 
 green, and if used in a bonnet they should be separated 
 from the skin by a border of tidle lace^ or some similar ma- 
 terial. Although lustreless ichite accords well with a fresh 
 complexion, it is unsuitable for complexions that have a 
 disagreeable tint, because white, as we have seen, exalts all 
 colors by raising their tone. Black draperies, by lowering 
 the tone of the colors with which they are in juxtaposi- 
 tion, whiten a fair complexion ; but this very whitening, 
 exerting its influence most on the whiter portions of the 
 face, causes the rosy parts, such as the lips, to appear, rela- 
 tively to the white, redder than before. 
 
 * The reason why deep bhie and deej^ green would not be suitable to 
 blondes is, that colors, to be complementary, must correspond in depth of 
 tone. Therefore it requires a tint of blue or green, as light, comparative- 
 ly, as the pale orange of the complexion, to be the complementary of the 
 latter. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 127 
 
 3. Female Clothing. Brunettes. 
 
 Brunettes, Avith black hair and black eyes, form the sec- 
 oud type of the complexions of females of the white race. 
 
 Yellow, and red more or less orange, are the two colors 
 which contrast most favorably with the black hair and 
 black eyes of brunettes. Hence a yellow or orange bon- 
 net suits a brunette well, and may have, for trimmings, 
 their complementaries blue or violet, if large masses of hair 
 separate the bonnet from the complexion. As the brunette 
 comj)lexion has already too much orange in it, it is evident 
 that so much blue as would be presented by a blue bonnet, 
 and which would impart its complementary orange to the 
 complexion, would be unsuitable for this type. If a ichite 
 bonnet be worn, its accessories may be of red, rose, orange, 
 or yellow, but not blue. 
 
 4. The Copper-colored, Black, or Olive-colored Races. 
 
 As the copper-colored complexion of the women of the 
 North American Indians would be disagreeably dulled or 
 deadened by partially neutralizing it, or lowering its tone, 
 it is better to heighten its tint. For this purpose a drapery 
 of white may be used, on the principle that white height- 
 ens all colors ; or a drapery of greenish-blue may be em- 
 ployed, for then the complexion Avill receive a still redder 
 orange hue. 
 
 The olive or black complexion also appears best when 
 heightened by contrast. To this end, if the skin be in- 
 tensely black, or dark olive, or greenish-black, red is pref- 
 erable to any other color. If the skin be a blue-black, or- 
 ange is particularly suitable. Yellow best accords with a 
 purple-black, as being nearest its complementary. It is not 
 without reason, therefore, that negro women delight in red, 
 orange, and yellow, for these colors best become them by 
 heightening the tone of their complexion. 
 
 From the foregoing principles it will now be easy to see 
 how the prevailing color of the complexion may be either 
 heightened or lowered by the dress worn. 
 
128 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 1. The prevailing tint of the complexion is heightened 
 by a white drapery. 
 
 2. By a drapery the color of which is the complementary 
 of the tint ; such as a green drapery for a rosy complexion, 
 or a light blue drapery for the pale orange complexion of a 
 blonde. 
 
 3. A green drapery also heightens an orange complexion 
 by giving it more red ; and a yellow produces a similar 
 effect. 
 
 The tint may be lowered — 
 
 1. By a black drapery, which lowers it by contrast of 
 tone. 
 
 2. By a drapery of the same color as the tint, but of a 
 much deeper or higher tone ; such as a cleejy red drapery 
 with a rosy complexion, or a deep orange drapery with an 
 orange-tinted complexion ; for in these cases the deej) tones 
 have the effect, by force of contrast, to blanch out the light- 
 er tints of the same colors. 
 
 XIV. HARMONY OF COLORS IN NATURE. 
 
 We have noticed a few of these harmonies — in the light 
 blue eyes and pale orange complexions of blondes — in the 
 black hair and eyes, and darker orange complexions of bru- 
 nettes — in the natural fondness of the black races for those 
 draperies of red, yellow, and orange, which harmonize with 
 their complexions ; and we have alluded to the harmonies 
 which prevail in the boundless variety of the subdued col- 
 ors seen in vegetation, in the plumage of birds, coverings 
 of animals, etc. We give a few more illustrations. 
 
 Green is not only the most abundant color in nature, but 
 also the one most soothing to the eye; and it contrasts 
 more agreeably with all colors than any other one. As 
 green is the most general color of vegetation, so red, its 
 complementary or harmonizing color, and compounds of 
 red, are most general in flowers. Purple flowers have 
 most commonly their centres of variegations o^ydloio^ the 
 complementary of purple ; and hlue flowers are most com- 
 monly relieved with orange^ the complementary of blue. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 129 
 
 Blue and green in juxtaposition are discordant, and need 
 to be harmonized by some warm color ; but as Nature nev- 
 er violates the laws of harmony, she interposes the Avarm 
 orange hues of the horizon to harmonize the blue of the 
 sky and the green of the landscape. We have seen that 
 the harmonizing color of orange is its complementary, blue ; 
 and it is a singular fact, that the more the light of the sun 
 partakes of a golden or orange hue, and the more parched 
 and burned the earth is, the bluer appears the sky, as in It- 
 aly and all hot countries. 
 
 But, although this is a very interesting subject, our lim- 
 ited space compels us to stop at the very threshold. In 
 connection with the subject of Painting, we hope to unfold 
 more of its beauties in the Seventh Reader of the " School 
 and Family Series." 
 
 Compositions. 
 
 As the pupils are taken by their teacher over the diifer- 
 ent portions of the preceding article on colors, they should 
 write compositions on them, upon such plans as the teach- 
 er may suggest. Those who are sufficiently advanced 
 should be accustomed to state not only the facts and prin- 
 ciples presented, but, so far as they can, should give the 
 explanations of them, with such illustrations as they can 
 furnish. Both the harmonic and the discordant effects pro- 
 duced by the juxtaposition of colors in dress, in paintings, 
 in nature, etc., will furnish a wide field for the application 
 and illustration of principles. Let them examine and crit- 
 icise paintings. Those who can obtain a copy of " Field's 
 Chromatography," an English work, will read with inter- 
 est the numerous poetical selections found there, which 
 show that our standard poets seem to have had an almost 
 intuitive perception of the harmony of colors. See also, on 
 this subject oi harmony^ Calkins's "Manual." 
 
 F 2 
 
130 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 CHAET No. XV. ZOOLOGICAL: ECONOMICAL 
 USES OF ANIMALS. 
 
 [As most of the exercises on this Cliart are designed to bo introduced early in the 
 course, and are for the younger pupils, they preserve more of the "object" mode of 
 teaching than those connected with some of the preceding Charts. As was before re- 
 marked (page 22), the Charts are not, necessarily, to be taken up in the order in which 
 they are numbered, nor arc the exercises on any one necessarily to be gone through 
 with uninterruptedly, or in consecutive order. The teacher must regulate the exer- 
 cises according to the time at his command, and adapt his plan to the ages and capaci- 
 ties of his pupils. The following lessons are therefore designed more as suggestions 
 to the teacher than as a programme to be literally followed. See also Programme in 
 the Appendix at the end of the volume.] 
 
 What is this a Chart of? If the pupils do not readily 
 answer "^/zzma/s," lead them to it by suitable questions ; 
 and then lead them, of their own knowledge, to tell what 
 an animal is ; that is, to give a dejimtioji of " an animal." 
 They will perhaps say, "An animal is any thing that lives.'''' 
 But say to them, '-'■ Trees live ; and we talk about live trees 
 and dead trees." This will perhaps lead them to add to 
 their definition that "Animals are things that live and 
 mow6." But say to them, "The trees move when the wind 
 blows ; and they are all the time moving, as the world 
 moves." If now a pupil sees that animals move of their 
 own will or accord, voluntarily, and that trees do not, he 
 will have made out a very good definition ; and besides the 
 mental discipline it will have given him, it will in itself be 
 worth to him vastly more than if he had been told it. 
 Webster says, "An animal is an organized body, endowed 
 with life, sensation, and the power of voluntary motion." 
 Vegetables are organized bodies, and are endowed with 
 life ; but they have neither sensation nor voluntary mo- 
 tion. 
 
 Are birds animals ? Fishes? Frogs and turtles? Flies? 
 Grasshoppers, etc. ? Yes, for they all live and move vol- 
 untarily. 
 
 The pupils should next familiarize themselves with the 
 groups of animals represented in the twenty numbered il- 
 lustrations on this Chart ; and for this purpose they should 
 first merely point them out on the Chart, and name them, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 131 
 
 aided by the teacher if they can not do it without assist- 
 ance. For example, he should tell them, pointing to No. 
 1, "These are domestic cattle — cows and oxen." No. 3. 
 "These are animals of the swine kind." No. 10. "These 
 are some of the fur-bearing animals," etc. 
 
 After this, encourage them to go to the Chart, one by 
 one, to point out the groups, and to tell (aided by your 
 questions in the way oi suggestion) what they know about 
 the animals rei3resented. Most of the pupils will probably 
 have some knowledge of most of the groups; the domestic 
 animals they are familiar with ; and many of the others 
 may have been described to them from pictures, or they 
 may have read about them, or may have seen them in me- 
 nageries. Accustom them to tell freely and without em- 
 barrassment what they know of them. Next proceed w^ith 
 a more systematic course of exercises on the illustrations in 
 order, beginning with No. 1. 
 
 Number 1. Cattle: Chart XV. 
 
 [Suitable " objects" to be used in connection with the lessons on this number would 
 consistrof specimens of sole-leather, cow-hide, hijy-skin, calf -skin, etc.] 
 
 Can you tell what kinds of leather I have here ? Exam- 
 ine them, and tell what they are. 
 
 What animals are represented in the engraving No. 1 on 
 this Chart? Cows and oxen. What do you call them 
 when you see them in the field or pasture ? Cattle. The 
 term cattle is also applied to horses, asses, mules, sheep, 
 goats, and swine ; but in this country its use is mostly re- 
 stricted to the ox kind. We also speak of the ox kind as 
 neat or horned cattle. By a series of questions, lead the 
 pupils to tell what they know about cows and oxen — their 
 size, color, habits, uses, etc. Cattle are from four feet to 
 five and a half or six feet in height at the shoulders, and 
 from six to eight and nine feet in length, from the nose to 
 the insertion of the tail. 
 
 Tell the colors of those represented on the Chart, No. 1. 
 How does the third cow from the front differ from the oth- 
 ers? She has no horns. What are such cows called? 
 
132 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 Lead the pupils to tell you that cattle are of various colors 
 — white, black,* red, dun or dull brown, and brindle, that 
 is, marked with varied spots ; but that white, black, and 
 red are the prevailing colors. What kind of feet have cat- 
 tle ? Are they like those of cats and dogs ? Like those 
 of horses ? How do the feet of cows differ from those of 
 horses? Cows, like horses, have hoofs ; but in cows they 
 are cleft; in horses they are entire or whole. Animals 
 whose hoofs are cleft are called cloven footed. Notice also 
 the little hoofs of the cow on the legs and above the large 
 hoofs. This is a horny excrescence at the posterior part 
 of the fetlock. 
 
 When cattle are standing in the yard, or lying down, 
 after feeding during the day, have you ever noticed any 
 peculiar habit which they have? They chew the cud. 
 Does the horse chew the cud ? Do hogs ? No. What 
 animals, then, do chew the cud ? All animals of the ox 
 kind, such as cows, oxen, the buffalo or bison ; also sheep, 
 goats, deer, etc. All animals that chew the cud are called 
 mminatmg animals, because one meaning of rummate is, 
 " to chew the cud.'* Can you tell what this chewing the 
 cud is, and why cattle do it ?f 
 
 * Although black is, correctly speaking, the absence of all colors, yet 
 in popular language it is called a color. 
 
 t Probably most young pupils will not know what this "chewing the 
 cud" is, nor will they see any necessity for it. Ask them what kind of 
 teeth cattle have ; if they have teeth like those of the squirrel, or of the 
 cat, dog, etc. Show them that their front teeth are made for cropping 
 or plucking off the grass, and their back teeth for grinding it, and not 
 for gnawing nuts, nor for seizing other animals and tearing their flesh. 
 As their food consists of grass, and herbage, and dried hay, etc., it re- 
 quires to be thoroughly chewed (masticated), which would require more 
 time than they can give to it Avhile they are feeding. Now see what a 
 wise provision the Creator has made for the wants of these animals. 
 
 All the ruminating, or cud-chewing animals have a stomach of /our 
 cavities, instead of one as in other animals, as shown in the opposite en- 
 graving. The grass cropped by them is not chewed at once, and the 
 dried hay only partially, but is passed directly into the Ji7-st stomach, or 
 paunch. (See cut. The teacher should make a large drawing of it on 
 the blackboard, and also a drawing of the stomach of man, for which see 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 
 
 133 
 
 Does the cow chew in the same manner as the dog does ? 
 No. When the cow chews, her jaws have a sidewise grind- 
 ing motion. Did you ever see the little balls come np 
 the throat of the ox or cow into the mouth ? Did you 
 ever see them come up the throat of the horse or the 
 hog ? No. Do these animals, then, belong to the class of 
 Ruminants ? 
 
 What are coics useful for ? First, their milJc ; how used ? 
 butter and cheese made of it. How butter is made ; how 
 the process of making butter is said to have been discov- 
 
 (Esophagus. 
 
 3d stomach. 
 
 Intestine.^ 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 upper part of Fig. 10, page 33, Fourth Reader.) Here it is macerated 
 or soaked, after ■which it is passed into the second stomach, where it is 
 made into little balls. AVhen the animal is at leisure, each of these 
 balls is brought up into the mouth, and is chewed, after which it is passed 
 down into the third stomach, and thence into the Jbm^th, where the gas- 
 tric juice is mingled with it, and digestion properly commences. 
 
 After giving the foregoing explanation to the pupils, ask them what 
 use they suppose the young calf, lamb, etc., whose food is nothing but 
 milk, can have for the first three stomachs. They have no grass to be 
 soaked and to be made into balls. Did they ever see the young calf, or 
 young lamb, chewing the cud? No. The truth is, in the suckling 
 Ruminants the milk passes directly into the fourth stomach, the other 
 stomachs remaining unemployed until the animal begins to graze. It 
 is not until the tough grassy food needs the soaking and chewing to pre- 
 pare it for digestion that the first three stomachs are brought into use. 
 This is an adaptation to meet the peculiar wants of these animals. 
 
134 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 ered.* How cheese is made.f Ordinary j^rice of each per 
 pound. 2d. Flesh for food. What is the flesh of cows, 
 oxen, etc., called ? Of calves ? How beef is cooked : boil- 
 ed, roasted, dried, fried, broiled, stewed for soup. Beef j^re- 
 served ; what corned beef is. Prices. 3d. The fat, or tal- 
 loio^ for caudles. Process of making candles. 4th. Hides 
 or skins of oxen, calves, etc. What is made of them? 
 Leather, for a great variety of uses. How is leather made 
 from skins ?| What kinds of leather are obtained from 
 the skins of cattle ? ^ole leather^ from the heaviest ox- 
 hides, used for the soles of heavy boots ; coio-Mdes^ used 
 for heavy boots ; hip-shins^ from the skins of young cattle ; 
 and calf-skins^ from the skins of calves. 5th. Horyis : the 
 lower part used extensively for jnaking combs ; the middle 
 was formerly much used as a substitute for glass in lan- 
 terns ; the tips are used for knife-handles, tops of whips, 
 etc.§ 6th. Hoofs — glue made from, by boiling to a jelly. 
 Vth. Hair — used extensively in mortar, for inside plaster- 
 iug. For what purpose is it thus used ? 8th. Bones — used 
 
 * In early times, when mankind were shepherds and herdsmen, they 
 made vessels out of skins for carrying the milk. As these vessels were 
 borne from place to place on camels, the jolting would soon convert a 
 portion of the milk into butter. 
 
 f Clieese is the curd of milk, separated from the whey, compressed into 
 a solid mass, and dried for food. The prepared inner membrane of a 
 calf's stomach, called rennet, is used for the purpose of coagulating the 
 milk — that is, separating the curd from the whey. 
 
 X Describe the tanning process — which consists of cleansing the skins 
 of hair, flesh, etc., and then saturating them with tannin, which is an 
 astringent principle contained in the bark of certain trees and plants. 
 Oak, hemlock, and chestnut bark are much used for tanning. The 
 skins of animals, when prepared by merely drying them, are stiff, in- 
 capable of resisting water, and liable to decay; but tho. tannin combines 
 with the gelatin of the skin, and forms a durable compound, which is 
 no longer soluble in water. When the tannin is too strong the leather 
 is more quickly tanned, but it is more rigid and more liable to crack 
 than when the operation is slower. The best of tanning requires a pe- 
 riod of from ten to eighteen months. Latterly our leather has been 
 much injured by rapid tanning, 
 
 § The handsomest combs are made of tortoise-shell. See Fifth Head- 
 er, page 60. Combs are also made of India-rubber, or gutta-percha. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 135 
 
 extensively in making handles of knives, and for many other 
 purposes. There are large stores near New York City 
 Avhich sell shiii-hooies only, of cattle and other animals, for 
 such uses. These are mostly imported from South Amer- 
 ica. Bones, burned and ground to powder, are extensively 
 used in sugar-refineries for cleansing or purifying sugar. 
 Ground bones are also used as a manure, and especially 
 around the roots of fruit-trees. 
 
 What are oxen mostly used for ? Are they harnessed to- 
 gether ? Describe the ox-yoke. On Avhich side of the oxen 
 does the driver walk ? What is the ox near him called ? 
 The ox on the other side? What does the teamster tell 
 the oxen when he wishes them to go to the right ? When 
 he wishes them to turn to the left ? When he Avishes them 
 to stop ? Price (in the neighborhood) of a yoke of oxen ; 
 of a cow. How long do cows and oxen live? From 12 
 to 25 years. Mention and define as many compound words 
 as you can that have coio for one of the primitives. (Cow- 
 hide, cow-house, cow-keeper, cow-herd, cow-lick, cow-leech, 
 cow-like, cow-pox, etc.) For general description of ani- 
 mals of the ox-kind, see Third Reader, page 217-219.* 
 
 * Additional Notes. — The ox has eight incisors or cutting-teeth in the 
 lower jaw, and none in the upper. It has no canine teeth (or tusks), 
 but has six molars or grinding teeth on each side of both jaws. The 
 teeth are represented by the following formula : Incisors f , canines §, 
 molars |^=32 teeth. The want of incisors in the upper jaw is a char- 
 acteristic of the Ruminants. 
 
 The principal kinds or breeds of cattle known in this country are, 1st, 
 the Long Boms, originally Irish, and embracing the Lancashire, Derby, 
 and Bedford cattle ; 2d, the Short Horns, including the Durhams, of 
 splendid frames and beautifully varied colors, excellent for the dairy ; 
 3d, the Middle Horns, including the Devonshire cattle, or North Devons, 
 and the Ilerefords ; 4th, the Crumpled Horns, or Alderney cattle, origin- 
 ally from France ; and, 5th, the polled, or Hornless cattle. 
 
 The number of domestic cattle in all Europe has been estimated at 
 71,400,000; in the United States at 22,000,000; in the whole world at 
 210,000,000 ; and it is believed that one third of the entire number, or 
 seventy millions, are killed annually. This would give seventy millions 
 of skins, 140 millions of horns, 280 millions of feet, and seventy mil- 
 lions of carcasses, to be converted annually into beef, tallow, leather, 
 
136 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Oral and Written Compositions. 
 
 The teaclier will see from the foregoing lessons, which 
 are here given as suggestions^ and not as full details, that 
 he may make the exercises on No. 1 quite extensive, bring- 
 ing in a large amount of useful every-day information. He 
 may extend them much farther than w^e have. With small 
 pu^^ils, however, he should at first limit himself to the most 
 obvious and best known features, uses, and habits of these 
 domestic animals, and should gradually extend his range 
 of instruction as his pupils are prepared for it. He should 
 be j^articular to lead them to tell as much as possible, as a 
 fact or principle discovered by his pupils may be consid- 
 ered worth, to tham^ten times as much as if told them by 
 their teacher. After the pupils have acquired a little fa- 
 miliarity with No. 1, they should individually go to the 
 Chart, point out the objects, and tell as much about them 
 as possible. They will thus gradually learn to observe care- 
 fully, to think accurately, to arrange or systematize their 
 knowledge, and to express their thoughts in words. In 
 such exercises will be found the proper continuation of 
 composition writing from the lessons given in connection 
 with the first six charts ; and when pupils are able to write 
 with a little facility, they should make daily use of the pen 
 in writing what they have told or spoken. They too often 
 begin with the attempt to write on some abstract subject, 
 such as pride, or anger, or honesty, or education ; and it is 
 no wonder that wiiting compositions, under such circum- 
 stances, is a repulsive task to them. But any pupil who 
 
 combs, manure, etc. These estimates will serve to give some idea of the 
 immense extent to which a single species of animal subserves the interests 
 of man. 
 
 The chest of an ox, or other animal, is the large cavity inclosed by the 
 breast-bone, ribs, etc. ; and what is called the girth, of an ox is the meas- 
 urement around the body, just back of the fore legs. 
 
 The brisket is that fleshy appendage to the chest which hangs down 
 between the fore legs. 
 
 The dewlap is the flesh which hangs down from the throats of cattle, 
 and which laps the deiv when they arc grazing. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 137 
 
 can use the pen, and who has gone over the foregoing ex- 
 ercises on No. 1, will be able to write a very fair composi- 
 tion, or several of them, about cattle. 
 
 Number 2. Horses : Chart XV. 
 
 What is this a picture of? A horse. Which do you 
 think the handsomest, and the most graceful in his move- 
 ments, the ox, or the horse ? Tell as many points of dif- 
 ference as you can between the horse and the ox : — in gen- 
 eral form, size, height, shape of head, ears, nech^body, legs, 
 hoofs, tail, etc., and in strength, speed, docility, intelligence, 
 etc. Mention the various purposes for which you have seen 
 horses used. 
 
 Of what colors have you seen horses? Black, bay, chest- 
 nut, sorrel, roan, gray, and cream color, etc. JBay is a red- 
 dish-brown. Chestnut is a lighter brown than bay. Sorrel 
 is a yellowish-bay, or yellowish-brown. Iloan is black, bay, 
 chestnut, or sorrel, w^ith white or gray hairs thickly inter- 
 spersed. Do you know any horses in the neighborhood 
 that are black ? Any that are bay ? Chestnut ? Sorrel ? 
 Roan? etc. The color of the horse in No. 2 ? When we 
 speak of the height of a horse, do we say the horse is so 
 many feet or so many in-ches high ? We say, so many 
 hands high. What is a "hand," in measure? Four inches. 
 Where is the height of a horse measured ? At the shoul- 
 ders. What is considered a high horse ? One that is six- 
 teen hands high. 
 
 What sounds is the horse said to make, in the language 
 which it uses ? It lohinyiies, and it neighs. What kind 
 of shoes does the horse wear ? Who makes them ? How 
 are they fastened to his feet ? Why do not the nails hurt 
 him ? Name the kinds of food which the horse eats. 
 What quantity of oats would you give a horse at one 
 time ? What danger from his eating too much grain, or 
 drinking too much water when he is warm ? Danger that 
 he may be foundered. What is the disease called the 
 " founders ?" A disease that causes a soreness in a horse's 
 feet. 
 
138 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 What is meant by a pair of horses ? "A pair" of horses 
 signifies two horses harnessed together, or in some way 
 suited or adapted to each other. What other name is 
 given to a pair of horses harnessed together? A span. 
 Mention the different parts of an ordinary harness, and tell 
 their uses. Do we say " a span" of oxen ? What do we 
 call a pair of oxen yoked together ? A yoke of oxen. Do 
 we call " a span" of horses, or " a yoke" of oxen, by any 
 other name ? Yes ; a tea^m. What is a team ? A team is 
 a number pf oxen, horses, or other beasts, harnessed to the 
 same vehicle, or drawing the same load. It is not strictly 
 correct to say " a one-horse team."* 
 
 How many kinds of veliicles drawn by horses can you 
 mention and describe ? Mention as many compound words 
 as you can that have .horse for one of the primitives, and 
 define them. Horse-blanket, horse- whip, horse-block, horse- 
 boat, horse-boy, horse-breaker, horse-car, horse-cart, horse- 
 dealer, horse-doctor, horse-fair, horse-fly, horse-hair, horse- 
 laugh, horse-leech, horse-load, horse-pond, horse-race, etc. 
 Can you tell any facts and anecdotes about the horse? 
 See Third Reader, p. 191-197. Can you repeat or refer to 
 any poetry on this subject? Third Reader, p. 198-204. 
 
 What two animals of the horse kind, besides the horse, 
 are represented in the engraving ISTo. 2 ? Two asses. 
 What things particularly distinguish the ass from the 
 horse ? Its long ears, its tail ending in a tuft, and its pe- 
 culiar bray.f 
 
 * An ingenious teacher would elicit from the pupils the answers to 
 nearly all of these questions without actually telling them any thing ; 
 and he will show his skill and tact, both in his ready perception of their 
 difficulties, and in the means which he takes to overcome them by such 
 questions or suggestions as may be adapted to each particular case. He 
 must not attempt to follow the precise course which we have marked out, 
 as no one form and order of questions can possibly suit all cases. The 
 teacher must make these exercises a free and familiar talk with his pu- 
 pils. 
 
 t We read in the Bible that the patriarchs Abram and Job possessed 
 great herds of asses. These animals are found wild at the present day 
 in large herds in the central deserts of Asia, each band directed by a 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 139 
 
 Compositions. — These will naturally embrace such facts 
 connected with the horse as have been elicited from the 
 pupils, together with incidents and anecdotes with which 
 they are personally acquainted, which have been told them, 
 or which they have read of. 
 
 Number 3. Swine : Chart XV. 
 
 What does No. 3 represent ? Wild swine — animals of 
 the hog kind. The one in front is a Avild hog of the Mo- 
 lucca Islands, with four mimense tusks. What arc the 
 colors of hogs? For what is the hog most useful? Are 
 there any people who do not eat the flesh of the hog? 
 The Jews do not, because Moses interdicted the eating of 
 swine's flesh. What is the flesh of the hog called ? Pork. 
 Any other name ? What is bacon ? The flesh of the hog 
 salted and smoked. What parts of the hog are usually 
 salted and smoked ? The hams, and sometimes the shoul- 
 ders. What part of the hog is the ham ? The thigh. 
 
 How is pork usually preserved ? How cooked ?* What 
 is the fat of the hog, when melted down, or " tried," call- 
 ed? Lard. For what purposes is it used? Who can 
 
 chief. Job describes the wild ass, ch, xxxv., verses 5, G, 7, 8. The wild 
 ass of Persia is a slender and elegant-looking creature, as fleet as the 
 swiftest horse. It is of a cream-color, with a black mane. Its flesh is 
 highly valued by the Persians, who consider it one of their chief deli- 
 cacies. 
 
 The obstinate vnde is a mixed breed between the horse and the ass. 
 Donkey is a common name for the ass and the mule. The zebra, an- 
 other animal of the horse kind, known by its dark stripes, is very wild 
 and fleet, living in troops, and shunning the dwellings of man. 
 
 * Charles Lamb gives a humorous account of the manner in which 
 roast pig was first discovered. He represents a Chinese youth, by the 
 name of Bobo, as perceiving a most delicious odor issuing from the 
 blazing ruins of his father's cottage. This he finds to proceed from one 
 of the pigs, a whole litter of which had been roasted in the conflagra- 
 tion. Strongly tempted, he ventured to taste, and was entranced at the 
 result. He now devoured all the rest of the roasted pigs, and finally set 
 fire to a great number of cottages, so as to enjoy the repast of the young 
 porkers baked in the blaze. At last his father discovered the secret, and 
 ere long it was communicated to the world ; and thus for ages mankind 
 have enjoyed the most delicious of viands — roast pig. 
 
140 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 name the most uses to which it is applied ? Besides being 
 used in cooking, it is largely used in making soap and can- 
 dles, and oil for machinery. Who can tell how soap is 
 made ? How candles are made ? What are the stiff hairs 
 on the back of the hog called ? Did you ever notice these 
 bristles when the hog is excited? How did they appear 
 then? For what purposes are these bristles used? In 
 making brushes, etc. Name as many kinds of brushes as 
 you can. Can you think of any use which the shoemaker 
 makes of these bristles ? Which end of the bristle does 
 he fasten to his " waxed-end," and why ? 
 
 Is there any thing peculiar about the tip of the nose or 
 snout of the hog ? For what does the hog chiefly employ 
 the tip of its nose? IV/iy does the hog root uj^ the 
 ground ? Do you see any design, then, in making the tip 
 of the hog's nose so tough and strong ? Why are wires 
 sometimes jDut into the hog's nose ? What is this putting 
 in twisted wires called ? What is the food of the hog ? 
 What is the best food for fattening hogs ? Indian corn. 
 Can you describe the feet of the hog ? The feet consist of 
 four toes, of which the two middle ones are considerably 
 longer and stouter than the others, forming a cloven hoof, 
 upon which the animal walks. The two lateral toes are 
 also furnished with hoofs, but they are placed at the back 
 of the foot, at some little elevation from the ground. Who 
 can tell Avhat souse is ? 
 
 Are the eyes of the hog large,' or smalP ? What can 
 you say about the habits of the hog ? What noise does 
 the hog make when it is happy or contented ? When it is 
 in pain, or is hungry? Do you know of any use that is 
 made of the skin of the hog? It is largely used in making 
 saddles for horses. What is a young hog called ? A 
 shote; but the very young are called pigs. When a hog 
 is killed, what is the process of preparing it for use called ? 
 Dressing it. Is that the ordinary meaning of" dressing" ? 
 What will a large hog weigh when dressed? From five 
 hundred to eight hundred pounds.* 
 
 * According to the census of 1850, the number of hogs in the United 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 141 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, p. 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 4. Sheep : Chart XV. 
 
 [Suitable '•'• objects" to be used ia connection with the lessons on this number would 
 consist of samples of different gi'ades of wool, of pieces of sheep-skin vai'iously tanned, 
 of the principal kinds of woolen cloths, of felt and shoddy^ and of parchment and vel- 
 lum.] 
 
 What does the lower part of engraving No. 4 represent ? 
 A flock of sheep. How does the covering of the sheep dif- 
 fer from that of the ox, or the horse ? Here is a httle 
 Lunch of wool; how does wool differ from hair? It is 
 softer than hair (except fur in masses), of a finer texture, 
 more matted and curled, or twisted, and of a silky feel. 
 What kind of feet have sheep ? What kind of horns ? Are 
 sheep timid' or fierce^ ? Sagacious' or dulf ? What is the 
 word " sheepish" often used to designate ? What is a lamb 
 the emblem of? Innocence. And why ? 
 
 What is the flesh of sheep called ? What uses are made 
 of the skin ? It is made into leather, and used for a great 
 variety of purposes ; the most extensively, perhaps, for book- 
 binding. Parchment is also made of it.* The cuttings, or 
 
 States was about thirty millions. It is now probably much larger. In 
 Cincinnati alone, the centre of the "Western pork market, the value of 
 the products of the pork trade — in pork, bacon, lard oil for machinery, 
 and in candles, hides, bristles, etc. — is said to exceed ten millions of dol- 
 lars annually. During the year 1856 the number of hogs packed in 
 Cincinnati alone was 405,396, and their average weight was 285 ? 
 pounds. 
 
 * Parchment, used for writing upon, is prepared from the skins of sheep 
 and goats. These, after being steeped in pits impregnated with lime, 
 are stretched upon frames, and reduced by scraping and paring to less 
 than half their original thickness; after which they are rubbed smooth 
 with pulverized chalk and pumice-stone, and dried for use. Vellum, sim- 
 ilar to parchment, is made from the skins of very young calves. Catgut, 
 used for strings of musical instruments, the cords of clock-weights, and 
 those of some other machines and instruments, is made from the intes- 
 tines of different quadrupeds, particularly those of cattle and sheep. 
 What is called gold-heater's skin, between layers of which gold-beaters 
 lay the leaves of their metal while they beat it, is an extremely fine mem- 
 brane, made also from the intestines of animals. 
 
142 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 little strips, are not wasted, but are made into glne. What 
 are the undressed skins, with the wool on, usually called ? 
 Pelts. AVhat are the fat portions of the sheep used for ? 
 For making candles and soap. What are the principal 
 kinds of sheep in this vicinity ? The kinds of sheep most 
 highly prized for their wool are the pure-blooded Merinos, 
 the Saxons, the Cotswolds, the Leicestershires, and the Ox- 
 fordshires. The South Downs are particularly esteemed for 
 the excellence of their flesh ; and their wool is valuable for 
 many purposes, on account of the facility with which it can 
 be wrought. How is wool sold^ — by the pound', or the 
 fleece^ ?^ How much per pound, ordinarily? How much 
 is ordinarily obtained from a sheejD ?* 
 
 What does the upper part of the engraving N^o. 4 repre- 
 sent? A sheep-washing. How often are sheep washed, and 
 at Avhat season of the year ? Why are the sheep washed ? 
 How is their wool taken from them ? Do you know what 
 kind of shears is used ? What use is made of the wool ? 
 Cloth is made of it. What is done with the wool in mak- 
 ing it into cloth ? After shearing, the wool passes through 
 a great many processes, and is carded, sj^un, and then woven 
 into cloth, either with or without being colored. f What is 
 
 * Samples of wool of different degrees of fineness and length of fibre 
 slionld be obtained, and examined by the pupils until they can readily 
 distinguish the principal grades of long wool, short wool, coarse wool, 
 fine wool, etc. Long wool may vary in length from three to eight 
 inches. In sorting avooIs there are frequently eight or ten different 
 grades in a single fleece ; but it is only the experienced wool-sorter who 
 can distinguish all of them. It is not difficult, however, to distinguish 
 five or six different grades from different fleeces. In the year 1850, 
 when there were fifty-two and a half millions of pounds of wool produced 
 in the United States, the average weight of each fleece was a little less 
 than two pounds and a half. 
 
 t "The wool obtained from sheep becomes the means of support to 
 staplers,^ dyers, packers, scourers,- carders, combers, spinners, spoolers, 
 warpers, weavers, fullers, ^burlers,* shearmen, pressers, and clothiers, who, 
 one after another, tumble, and toss, and twist, and bake, and boil, and 
 pound, and press this raw material, till they have each extracted a live- 
 lihood from it ; and tlien comes the merchant, who, in his turn, ships it, 
 in its highest state of improvement, to all quarters of the globe, whence 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 143 
 
 the cloth called, which is made of wool ? Woolen cloth. 
 What are some of the names given to the diflereut kinds 
 of woolen goods ? Broadcloths,* Petershams,^ pilot-cloth,'' 
 cashmeres,*^ cassimeres,® kerseys,^ tweeds,^ tartans,^ linsey- 
 woolseys,' moleskins, doeskins, beaver-cloths, shawls, blank- 
 ets, flannels, hosiery, carpets, etc. The pupils will, doubt- 
 less, be able to give many of these, and also other names. 
 They should not be told any tbing that may be elicited 
 from them by questioning. 
 
 Do you know what the common felt hat is made of? 
 Of wool. Is this wool either spun or woven ? Hats of 
 this kind, found in every school-room, may be examined, 
 
 he brings back every kind of riches to his country, and all in return for 
 this valuable commodity which the sheep affords." As a good object 
 lesson, let a pupil take a piece of woolen cloth, and trace it back through 
 its several stages — or so many of them as he can — to the back of the 
 sheep ; and then let the teacher explain, if he can, the physiology of the 
 growth of the wool itself. 
 
 ' Stapler is a dealer ; as, a \\oo\-staple7\ 
 
 ^ Scourer^ one who cleanses or cleans the wool. 
 
 ^ Fuller^ one whose occupation is to full^ or thicken the cloth in a full- 
 ing-mill. 
 
 * Burler, one who dresses the cloth — raising the nap by combing it 
 with the hur of the teasel, etc. 
 
 ^ Broadcloth is a fine kind of woolen cloth, of broad make, used for 
 fine coats, etc. 
 
 ^ Pe'-ters-ham, a kind of rough woolen cloth, used mostly for overcoats. 
 
 •^ Pilot-cloth is a coarse indigo-blue woolen cloth, used for great-coats, 
 and the clothing of mariners and others. 
 
 '^ The genuine Cashme7-e is a peculiar fabric made from the soft downy 
 wool which forms the inner coat of the Cashmere goat of Thibet. The 
 true Cashmere shawls are manufactured of this wool, but they are now 
 well imitated from sheep's wool. 
 
 ^ Cassimere is a thin twilled woolen cloth, generally woven from the 
 finest wools. It is also written Kersejpnere. 
 
 ^ Kersey is a coarse woolen cloth, usually ribbed, and woven from long 
 wool. 
 
 ^ Tweed is a light woolen cloth. 
 
 ^ Tartan is a fine worsted, silk, cotton, or mixed cloth, checked with 
 threads of various colors. 
 
 ' Linsey-ivoolsey is a kind of coarse cloth made of flax and wool 
 mixed. 
 
144 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 when it will be seen that the wool is neither spun nor 
 woven. In this case the rough wool fibres being thor- 
 oughly intermixed and compressed in hot water, cohere 
 and form a solid tenacious substance. This process is called 
 felting. Fur hats^ also, are made by this same process. 
 All woolen cloths made of short wool are subjected to a 
 similar process. They are put into a fulling mill^ where 
 the strokes of the mill make the fibres cohere ; the cloth, 
 subjected to this operation, contracts in length and breadth, 
 and its texture becomes more compact and uniform. Cotton 
 and flax can not ho, felted^ because the fibres have not that 
 jagged structure which causes the woolen fibres to cohere 
 when firmly pressed together. Before wool can be felted 
 it must be thoroughly freed from all oily matter, otherwise 
 the fibres will easily loosen their hold upon each other. 
 
 Can you see the threads in most new woolen cloths — 
 broadcloths, for example ? Why not ? What is it that 
 covers uj) the threads ? A downy surface, called the nap. 
 Do you know how this nap is j^roduced ? By carding the 
 cloth with a species of burs of the common teasle plant. 
 This operation loosens from the woolen threads a part of 
 the fibres of the wool, and lays them in a parallel direction. 
 The ncqy^ composed of these fibres, is then cut off to an 
 even surface by the process of shearing. But it is evident 
 that, while this j^i'ocess improves the beauty of the cloth, it 
 diminishes its strength. Have you ever heard of or seen 
 shoddy cloth ? Do you know what it is made of? Old 
 Avoolen rags, instead of being thrown away, are collected, 
 and, after being subjected to various processes, are torn in 
 pieces by the aid of powerful machinery, and reduced to 
 their original state of wool ; and this wool, being respun, 
 either with or without an admixture of fresh wool, is made 
 into a cloth called sJioddy. Handsome blankets, druggets, 
 carpets, table-covers, and cloth for pilot and Petersham 
 great-coats, are either wholly or partly made of shoddy. 
 The clothing of the English army and navy consists prin- 
 cipally of this material. It has been said that this shoddy, 
 being manufactured from articles tliat were formerly deem- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. • 145 
 
 ed of no value, "is one of the greatest triumphs of art and 
 civilization." Do you know what loorsted is ? It is wool- 
 en yarn or cloth, made of long wool deprived of its felting 
 properties by passing it through heated iron combs. There- 
 fore genuine loorsted stockings ought not to full tip like or- 
 dinary wool. Of what length have you found fibres of 
 wool ?* 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 5. Goats : Chart XV. 
 
 [Suitable "• objects" to be used in connection with the lessons on this number would 
 consist of specimens of red, black, green, and yellow morocco, and of kid, and fabrics 
 made of goats' wool.] 
 
 Can you tell what kinds of leather I have here ? What 
 animals produce the skins from which this leather is ob- 
 tained ? 
 
 What animals are represented in N'o. 5 ? Goats. How 
 do goats difier from sheep ? Question those pupils who 
 have seen both, about the points of difference, and see if 
 they have observed them. The liorns of the sheep are first 
 directed backward, and then forward in a curve, while the 
 horns of goats are generally directed only upward and 
 backward. The horns of the upper goat in No. 5 are too 
 much curved. The hoofs of the goat are higher, thicker, 
 and more compact than those of the sheep ; the false hoofs 
 are more fully developed; head smaller and finer; ears 
 shorter and rounded ; hair long and unequal ; the goat is 
 unpleasantly odorous, while sheep are not so ; the goat is 
 curious, capricious, and bold, while the sheep has very lit- 
 tle curiosity, is staid and timid ; in fighting, the goat rears 
 
 * The census of 1850 shows that there were then 1559 woolen facto- 
 ries in the United States, with a capital of about twenty-nine millions of 
 dollars, dcA'oted to the manufacture of wool. The woolen manufactures 
 thus produced amounted to forty-three millions of dollars ; in addition 
 to which we imported nearly seventeen millions' worth for our use. Thus 
 we consume annually more than sixty millions of dollars' worth of wool- 
 en manufactures, or an average of $2 60 for each person in the United 
 States. 
 
 G 
 
146 * MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 itself on its hind-legs, and lets the weight of its body fall 
 on the adversary, while the sheep, in lighting, runs a tilt, 
 adding the force of impulse to that of weight ; most goats 
 have a beard, while the sheep have none. 
 
 What is the covering of goats ? Some are covered whol- 
 ly with hair, others with wool mixed Avith hair. The 
 Cashmere goats of Thibet, from which the famous Cash- 
 mere shawls are made, are covered with a hard, stiff, 
 coarse kind of hair, called kemp^ under which, in the win- 
 ter, is a vest of the most delicate grayish wool. Why is 
 this fine avooI found there in winter and not in midsum- 
 mer ? What becomes of it ? What becomes of the wool 
 on the sheep in summer if it is not sheared off? At what 
 season of the year do animals — horses, cows, etc. — " shed 
 their coats" the most freely ? Why in the early part of 
 summer ? How does the hide look when they are .shed- 
 ding their coats ? How after that ? At what season of 
 the year is the hair or fur of animals the longest and the 
 most dense ? Why ? 
 
 How much wool does an ordinary sheep produce annu- 
 ally? From two to five pounds. How much of the inner 
 coating of fine wool do you suppose a goat produces annu- 
 ally ? Only about three ounces — about the fifth part of a 
 pound. Do you think, then, a Cashmere shawl can be fur- 
 nished at as low a price as a shawl made of sheep's wool? 
 The price of the fine Cashmere wool, even in Thibet, is 
 about a dollar and a quarter a pound ; and a genuine Cash- 
 mere shawl is not unfrequently sold for five hundred dol- 
 lars — some even for a thousand. The hemp or hairy cov- 
 ering: of the c;oat is used in the manufacture of coarse cloth. 
 
 In what parts of the world are goats most abundant ? 
 In many parts of Asia and in Southern Euro2)e. What 
 uses are made of the common and wild goats ? Their 
 flesh is wholesome food ; their milk nutritious ; their un- 
 dressed skins are the winter covering of a large part of the 
 mountain shepherds and peasants of Europe and Asia; 
 their tanned skins make the finest morocco, which is used 
 for shoes, for book-binding, and for a thousand ornamental 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 147 
 
 purposes ; and in France kid gloves are manufactured by 
 millions from the dressed skins of the young goats, called 
 kids. In England the lawyers, judges, and bishops wear 
 wigs made of white goats' hair. The horns of goats make 
 excellent knife-handles ; their tallow the best of candles ; 
 and their hams, when salted, are called rocJc-venison^ and 
 are equal to those of the deer. (See also Third Reader, 
 pages 220, 221.) 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, images 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 6. Elephants: Chart XV. 
 
 [Specimens of ivory— such as an ivory paper-folder, ivory toys, etc.] 
 
 .What is this w^hich I hold in my hand ? What material 
 is it made of? Ivory. Where do we obtain this ivory? 
 Is it a vegetable substance, an animal substance, or a min- 
 eral substance ? Lead the pupils, by questioning or by 
 suggestions, until they discover that the tusks of the ele- 
 phant are ivory ; then proceed with the following.* 
 
 What animal is reiDresented in No. 6 ? Probably all of 
 you have seen the animal. Where did you see it ? In a 
 'menagerie. What is a menagerie? A collection of wild 
 animals. What other animals did you see there? How 
 large do you think the elephant is? It is from seven to 
 twelve feet high, but the average height is about eight feet. 
 The length of the body, from the mouth to the insertion of 
 the tail, is from nine to fifteen feet, and it weighs from 
 5000 to 7000 pounds. How does it compare, in size and 
 weight, with horned cattle? See No. 1. 
 
 But the elej^hant seems to have no neck at all, or only a 
 very short one. How, then, can it eat from the ground ?f 
 
 * Most of the ivory of commerce is obtained from the tusks of the el- 
 ephant ; but tlie tusks of the walrus or sea-horse also furnish excellent 
 ivory. (See Third Reader, pages 173 and 183.) The tusks of the hip- 
 popotamus and wild boar are also ivory, though it is inferior to that pro- 
 duced by the elephant and walrus. 
 
 f Children should not be told at once how it obtains its food. If they 
 make the discovery, they will be far more deeply impressed with the ev- 
 idences of design and adaptation than if all had fust been explained to 
 
148 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 It puts its food into its mouth with its flexible trunk or 
 proboscis. How does it drink? By sucking up a quan- 
 tity of water into its trunk, then putting the trunk into its 
 mouth, and j)ouring, or rather hlovnng^ in the water. Can 
 you mention any other uses of the trunk ? The elephant 
 breathes through it and smells through it, as it contains the 
 nostrils of the animal ; and it can sj^out water with it quite 
 a distance. In its native wilds it cools and Avashes itself 
 by standing in the pools or streams, and spouting water all 
 over its body. At the end of the trunk is an appendage 
 like a finger, with which the animal can pick up an object 
 as small as a penny. This trunk is composed of more than 
 forty thousand small muscles, variously interlaced, flexible 
 in all directions, and is endowed with exquisite sensibihty. 
 The trunk is also the organ of the voice, and through it the 
 animal utters strong, trumpet-like tones. 
 
 What is the food of the elephant ? Wholly vegetable : 
 in its Avild state, the leaves and branches of trees, etc. ; 
 when tame, it is fed on grass, hay, oats, bran, etc. Ele- 
 phants are fond of sweetmeats, and also, in India, of «r- 
 rack^ a spirituous liquor made from rice. What are those 
 things Avhich project from the mouth of the elej^hant? 
 Two long, tapering ivoy^y tusks.^' From Avhich jaw do 
 these come? The upper jaw. The elephant has no inci- 
 sors — that is, front or cutting teeth — in either jaw. Of 
 what length have you seen elephants' tusks ? Tliese tusks 
 are often from six to eight or ten feet in length. One 
 lias been known fourteen feet in length. They not un- 
 frequently weigh a hundred and fifty pounds each, but 
 the average weight is sixty pounds. The great value of 
 these tusks may be estimated by the fact that the largest 
 
 them. Teachers should bear in mind that the answers which we have 
 given are designed to aid the teacher in making suggestions to his pupils 
 onfij luheii such suggestions are necessary. 
 
 * The female elephants in Asia have no tusks, while in Africa both 
 the male and the female have tusks, although those of the male are 
 much the largest. Portions of the African elephant are eaten by the na- 
 tives. The trunk is considered, a great delicacy ; and a French writer 
 speaks of the foot as a dish " fit for a king." 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 149 
 
 ivory brings in the market about a dollar and a half a 
 pound. It is supposed that the tusks of more than ten 
 thousand elephants are used annually, a few of which are 
 obtained from elephants that have died in the natural way, 
 but most of them from elephants that have been hunted 
 and killed for their ivory. A large trade in ivory is car- 
 ried on with the African coasts. In Sheffield, England, 
 five hundred persons are occupied as ivory workers, in 
 making knife-handles, chess-men, billiard-balls, combs, pa- 
 per-folders, mathematical and musical instruments, toys, 
 etc. The Chinese are better workers in ivory than any 
 other people.* 
 
 What is that placed on the back of the elephant ? It is 
 a kind of seat or carriage, called a houdah in India. Who 
 is the man sitting in front, on the neck of the elephant ? 
 He is the driver or keeper of the elephant, called the ma- 
 hout. " In India the elephant is a familiar beast. In an- 
 cient times it went to war with tOAvers filled with soldiers 
 on its back: it now carries traveling parties in a similar 
 manner. Kings and princes ride upon it in state, and the 
 animal seems to take a delight in the pomp and pageantry 
 of which it forms a part. A strong elephant can carry a 
 burden of three or four thousand pounds, and it will bear 
 a thousand pounds on its tusks. It loads and unloads boats 
 with its trunk ; it pulls at a tackle ; it rolls and lifts and 
 carries barrels and hogsheads ; in short, it does the work 
 of oxen, horses, and men.f 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 * The celebrated Athenian statue of the Olympian Jiipiter, made of 
 gold and ivory by the sculptor Phidias, was sixty feet high. It was such 
 a prodigy of art that it was. thought by the ancients worthy to be reck- 
 oned among the seven wonders of the world, 
 
 f For farther description of the elephant — his habits, sagacity, uses, 
 anecdotes of, etc. — see Third Keader, page 182-18G. 
 
150 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 i 
 
 Number 7. Camels : Chart XV. 
 
 [Specimens of camel's-hair pencils, camei's-hair cloth, etc.] 
 
 Here is a little brushy which you have perhaps seen used 
 for painting in water-colors. Do you know what it is 
 called, and what it is made of? It is called a camel's-hair 
 pencil, and it is made of the soft hair of the camel. At 
 what season of the year do you suppose this hair is ob- 
 tained from the camel ? Why in the spring, or early sum- 
 mer? Because then the camel, like other animals, sheds 
 its hair. - Do you know of any other use which is made of 
 camel's hair ? Is any mention made of its use in the New 
 Testament ? Yes : the raiment of John the Baptist was 
 made of camel's hair. The Arabs at this day manufacture 
 the hair of the camel into wearing apparel, tents, and car- 
 pets. In Southern and Western Asia, and Northern Africa, 
 it is an imjDortant article of commerce. The French man- 
 ufacture it into hats. 
 
 Where is the camel represented on this Chart ? In 
 No. T. What kind of a camel is the upper one, with the 
 two humps on its back ? The Bactrian camel. How large 
 do you suppose this camel to be — as large as the elephant', 
 or as large as an ox ? It is nearly as high as the elephant, 
 being from 7 to 9 feet in height. Its length is about 10 
 feet. How do its body and limbs compare with those of 
 the elephant ? Is the loaded camel in front like the one 
 above ? Can you see any difference in them ? The ui)per 
 camel is covered with shaggy hair, especially under the 
 throat ; the lower one is not. Moreover, if the load were 
 removed from the one in front, you would see that it has 
 but one hump on its back. This is called the Dromedary^ 
 or Arabian camel. See Third Reader, page 205. It is not 
 quite so large as the Bactrian camel, but is a faster traveler. 
 If the upper camel is the largest, why is it rei^resented, 
 here, smaller than the other ? 
 
 In what countries are camels found? What uses are 
 made of them? In what respects are they peculiarly adapt- 
 ed to these warm countries? See Third Reader, page 205- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 151 
 
 207. Are they ever found in a wild state ? No : the whole 
 race appears to have been, from time immemorial, under 
 the dominion of man. In the Scriptures camels are fre- 
 quently spoken of, not as wild animals, but as already sub- 
 ject to man's use. See Genesis, xxxii., 7, and xxxvii., 25 ; 
 Judges, viii., 21 ; Job, i., 3, and i., 17, and xlii., 12, etc. Do 
 you know what a caravan is ? In what important respect 
 are camels like oxen, sheep, etc. ? Like the ox, the camel 
 chews the cud^ and is therefore called a rwninatmg animal. 
 How does the hoof oi the camel difier from that of the ox? 
 It is soft, tough, and elastic, so as to yield readily to the 
 stones of the desert; but it is not cloven-footed like the ox, 
 the toes only being divided. In Leviticus, xi., 4, the camel 
 is enumerated among the animals which the Israelites are 
 forbidden to eat, " because he cheweth the cud, but divid- 
 eth not the hoof.'''* 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 8. Dogs : Chart X¥. 
 
 What animals are represented in No. 8 ? What three 
 kinds or varieties are there represented ? How many dif- 
 ferent kinds of dogs have you seen ? How many can you 
 mention and describe ?* What is the food of the dog ? 
 
 * The principal kinds or varieties of dogs are : 
 
 1. The mastiiF, a favorite watch-dog, of grave aspect, imposing appear- 
 ance, and a deep, sonorous voice. He is a faithful friend, but a fierce 
 and bitter enemy. 
 
 2. The bull-dog, of moderate size, but of great strength and courage ; 
 has a round, thick head, a turned-up nose, and thick and pendulous 
 lips. 
 
 3. The Newfoundland dog, brought at first from Newfoundland. 
 
 4. Esquimaux dog, smaller than the Newfoundland ; very useful to 
 his master in drawing sledges and carrying heavy loads. Its ears are 
 short and erect, and its bushy tail curves elegantly over its back. 
 
 5. The water-spaniel, which delights in plunging into water, and is of 
 great use to the sportsman while shooting wild ducks or water-hens. 
 
 6. The Dalmatian or coach-dog, with a spotted hide, distinguished by 
 his fondness for horses, and as being the frequent attendant on the car- 
 riages of the wealthy. 
 
152 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Mostly animal food ; wholly so in a wild state. How, then, 
 does the dog differ in this respect from horses, oxen, and 
 sheep ? Do you know what those animals are called which 
 live on the flesh of other animals ? Carnivorous^ which 
 means " flesh-eating." Then there should be some distinct 
 name for those that live on vegetable food. Do you know 
 what it is ? Gram-i-nw^ -o-rous^ or " grass-eating." 
 
 How do the feet of the dog difler from those of the ox ? 
 The ox has a cleft hoof; the dog has toes to his feet and 
 dcacs. Did you ever notice how many toes the dog has 
 on his fore feet ? Five. How many on the hinder feet ? 
 Four.* How many claws on each foot ? The same num- 
 ber as the number of toes. Can the dog use his claws in 
 the same manner as the cat does ? Did you ever see the 
 cat extend its claws, and then draw them back so as al- 
 most entirely to conceal them? Can the dog do this? 
 No. The claws of the cat, and of all animals of the cat 
 kind, including the lion, tiger, etc., are retractile^ while 
 those of the dog are ^zo/i-retractile. Did you ever notice 
 how the dog walks, whether on the sole of its feet or on 
 the toes ? It walks on its toes. So does the cat, the lion, 
 the tiger, etc.f 
 
 7. The blood-hound, a native of Spain, was early sent to the West In- 
 dies, where it was used by the Spanish invaders as an ally in their wars 
 with the revolted Indians. 
 
 8. The English, Scotch, Irish, Russian, Grecian, Turkish, Persian, and 
 Italian greyhounds. 
 
 9. The Mount St. Bernard dog, or Alpine spaniel. 
 
 10. The shepherd's dog. The muzzle is sharp, the ears are short and 
 nearly erect, and the animal is covered, particularly about the neck, 
 with thick and shaggy hair. 
 
 11. The old English hound, of large size, long body, deep chest ; ears 
 long, large, and pendulous ; and a peculiarly deep voice. 
 
 12. The fox-hound, a much esteemed and celebrated hunting-dog in 
 England. The beagle and harrier are also fox-hounds. 
 
 13. The setter, the pointer, the Scotch and English terriers, the King 
 Charles spaniel, the little lion-dog, the Maltese dog, and the poodle. 
 
 * There are some species of dogs (but not among those that are com- 
 mon) that have five toes on their hinder feet. 
 I Those animals which walk on their toes are called digitigrade, from 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 153 
 
 What sounds do dogs make in the kind of language 
 which they use ? They bark, bay, howl, yelp, whine, moan, 
 growl, and snarl. When and why do they bark, howl, 
 whine, etc. ? See Third Reader, page 144. For what are 
 dogs most noted? For their sagacity, and their fidelity 
 to their masters. Do you know of any instances of either 
 from your own observation ? Can you tell of any that you 
 have heard of or read of? Some examples of both are 
 given in the Third Reader, page 144-151. Have dogs the 
 same senses that we have ? Which of their senses is the 
 most acute ? That of scent, or smell. How does the fox- 
 hound follow its prey? By scent. Do all dogs follow 
 their prey by scent ? No : the greyhound follows by sight 
 only. Did you ever have a dog lick your hand ? Was its 
 tongue soft', or harsh^? Soft. Did you ever have a cat 
 lick your hand ? Was the tongue of the cat as soft as that 
 of the dog? No: the tongue of all the animals of the cat 
 kind — such as cats, lions, panthers, tigers, etc. — is covered 
 with small recurved prickles, with which they are enabled 
 to lick the last particles of flesh from the bones of their 
 prey. 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 9. Fur-bearing Animals: Chart XV. 
 
 What are mufis and tippets generally made of? The 
 furs of animals. What furs have you seen used, for these 
 and other purposes? What animals are most noted for 
 their furs.* What fur-bearing animals are represented on 
 
 the Latin digitus, a finger or toe, and gradi, to walk. Those which, like 
 the bear, place the sole of the foot on the ground in walking, are called 
 plantigrade, from the Latin planta, sole of the foot, and gradi, to walk. 
 * The most noted are the stone marten, the bauni, or pine marten, 
 the fitchet, polecat, or foumart ; the ermine, the weasel, the Russian 
 sable, the beaver, the raccoon, the lynx ; the red, cross, silver, white, and 
 gray foxes ; the mink, the muskvat, the otter, the seal, the squirrel, the 
 rabbit, the skunk, and the chinchilla; ajso, for the coarser furs, the 
 wolverine, wolf, and bear. It is stated that^re millions of the skins of 
 animals applicable as furs are annually imported into Great Britain. In 
 
 G2 
 
154 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 the Chart ? 1st. The pine marten, or American sable, found 
 both in Europe and America; 2d, the polecat, litchet, or 
 foumart, of Europe and Asia ; 3d, the stoat or ermine, of 
 Europe and America ; 4th, the common weasel. How large 
 are these animals ? The marten (head and body) about 1 8 
 or 20 inches in length ; the polecat, 17 inches ; the ermine, 
 11 inches; the weasel, 8 or 9 inches. How would you de- 
 scribe the general form or aj)pearance of these animals ? 
 They are long and slim animals, with short legs. Do you 
 know what the common Aveasel, and most animals of its 
 class, feed upon ? Rats, mice, moles, small birds, eggs, 
 and reptiles. At what season of the year should you sup- 
 pose the furs of these animals would be the thickest, the 
 finest, and the softest ? In the winter season, when this 
 covering of fur is most needed to keep the animals warm. 
 Which have the warmest hair or fur, small animals' or 
 large ? Why small animals ? Because they are the most 
 delicate, and need the finest covering to keep them warm. 
 Which are clothed the warmest^ animals that live in cold 
 countries', or in warm^ countries ? Why those which live 
 in cold countries ? 
 
 Compositions, — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 10. Llamas: Chart SV. 
 
 What animals are represented in Number 10. What are 
 they doing there ? Ascending the mountains with burdens 
 on their backs. Where are these animals found ? What 
 is their size ? What are their uses ? etc. 
 
 The llama, sometimes called the American ccmiel, is found 
 in South America, chiefly in Chili and Peru. Its native 
 
 the year 1851 nearly three millions of the skins of squirrels were import- 
 ed into Great Britain from Russia alone; and it is said that Ji/Yeen mil- 
 lions of these little fur-bearing animals are every year captured in Rus- 
 sia. Although the trade in furs is constantly diminishing, as the fur- 
 bearing animals become mora scarce, yet the prices of furs are gradually 
 diminishing also. The use of furs is almost wholly dependent on the 
 caprice of fashion. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 155 
 
 region is upon the sloj^es of the immense chain of the Andes. 
 There are several sj)ecies, both wild and tame. The wild 
 llamas are vigilant and shy, living in flocks at a great alti- 
 tude upon the mountains, and only descending toward the 
 plains occasionally in search of food. The domesticated 
 llamas, which are employed as beasts of burden, carry a 
 weight of about a hundred pounds ; but they travel slowly, 
 going only ten or twelve miles a day. They are remarka- 
 bly sure-footed, descending steep and rugged places where 
 man can pass with difiiculty. During the time of the early 
 SjDanish history of South America, it is said that three 
 hundred thousand llamas were employed in the transport 
 of the produce of the silver mines of Potosi alone. But 
 civilization gradually brought with it the animals of the 
 old continent, and now the horse and the n\ule have almost 
 entirely superseded the llamas as beasts of burden in the 
 open country, and the sheep and the goat have taken their 
 place, in a great measure, as contributors to the food and 
 raiment of man. 
 
 The llamas are of various colors, but black, brown, and 
 gray are the most common. Their flesh furnishes a whole- 
 some food ; and the long woolly hair with which they are 
 covered forms the principal clothing of the Indians. The 
 alpaca^ one of the smaller species of the llama, and which 
 is never employed as a beast of burden, is highly valued 
 for its soft silky hair or wool, sometimes a foot in length, 
 which is woven into fabrics of great beauty. In the year 
 1850 about five thousand bales of alpaca wool were export- 
 ed from South America to England alone. 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 JReprese7itatwes of sotne of the leading Orders and Divi- 
 siojis of Quadrupeds. 
 
 These illustrations are designed to aid the teacher in 
 questioning the younger pupils about some of the leading 
 groups of quadrupeds, before proceeding to their more sys- 
 tematic classification in Chart No. XYI. 
 
156 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Number 11. The Monkey Tribe: Chart XV. 
 
 Point out and name the species here represented. The 
 monkeys are called Four-handed animals. Why? See 
 both the fore feet and the hind feet of the gorilla. See 
 how much they are formed like the thumb and fingers of 
 the human hand. All the monkeys have long and flexible 
 fingers, and opposable thumbs. The oudls on both fingers 
 and thumbs are invariably flat and expanded, like those of 
 man. But though in some respects the monkeys resemble 
 man, they are, nevertheless, all true quadrupeds^ or " four- 
 footed" animals, as, in a state of nature, they walk on " all- 
 fours" — their hind feet and legs not being formed for an 
 upright position. Their feet are all formed for grasping 
 and climbing; and their entire structure shows that they 
 are peculiarly fitted to be inhabitants of the trees, rather 
 than to walk on the earth. (See Third Reader, i^age 89- 
 103.) 
 
 Compositions, — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 12. Lions: Chart XV. 
 
 Point out and name the animals represented here. Lion, 
 lioness, and cubs or whelps. What is the lioness doing? 
 The whelps? The lion? Describe the lion — his head, 
 mane, body, feet, etc. How does the lioness difler from 
 him ? Chiefly in the want of a mane. The toes of these 
 animals are distinctly divided — five on the fore feet, and 
 four on the hind feet — and all are armed with claws like 
 those of the cat. What do lions feed upon ? The flesh 
 of other animals. Hence they are included in the division 
 CarnwoToiis^ or " flesh-eating" animals. A full-grown lion 
 has immense strength : he can crush the skull of a bufialo 
 with a stroke of his paw, and carry off the body of a man, 
 or antelope, as easily as a cat does a rat. (See Third Read- 
 er, page 107-115.) 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 157 
 
 Number 13. Cats: Chart XV. 
 
 Point out and name the animals here represented. Cat 
 and kittens. What are the kittens doing? The cat? 
 What grouj) of animals, shown on the Chart, do the cat 
 and kittens most resemble? The lions. Both belong to 
 the same division of quadrupeds, called " the Cat Family." 
 Cats also, as well as lions, live wholly on flesh, in their wild 
 state, and are therefore called carnivorous. How do the 
 feet of the cat differ from those of the dog ? The claivs 
 of the cat are retractile^ those of the dog ?iow-retractile. 
 See page 152. (See Third Reader, page 122-126.) 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with jDrevious sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Nmnber 14. Rabbits : Chart XV. 
 
 What animals are represented in No. 14? Rabbits — 
 wild and tame. Which are the tame rabbits ? Those in 
 front, that have the long ears. Of the tame rabbits, which 
 are all of European origin, and probably descended from 
 the wild rabbits, there are many varieties, some of which 
 have very long ears, like those represented on the Chart. 
 Did you ever see what is called the wild gray rabbit in 
 this country ? Can you describe it ? The length of its 
 head and body is about fifteen inches ; it weighs from two 
 and a half to three pounds ; its fur is soft, and of a yellow- 
 ish-brown color in summer, but in winter it has a more 
 grayish appearance ; and it lives in woods and forests, and 
 in the thickets bordering on cultivated grounds. Does it 
 ever make burrows in the ground ? No : this animal is 
 not, really, a rabbit, but a hare, although both belong to 
 the same family of animals. The rabbit burrows, but the 
 hare. does not; the rabbit lives in societies, the bare lives 
 mostly alone ; the rabbit is born naked and blind, the hare 
 is born covered with fur, and with its eyes open ; and in 
 Europe the rabbit is smaller than the hare. Both are timid 
 and defenceless ; but these seeming defects are beautifully 
 compensated — in the hare especially — by great watchful- 
 
158 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ness, acuteness of the senses, and swiftness of foot. Both 
 are exclusively vegetable feeders, and, to fit them for gnaw- 
 ing, have two large cutting teeth which project from the 
 front of each jaw. They belong to the order oi liodeyit^ 
 or " gnawing" animals. Both the hare and the rabbit, pic- 
 tured in the Third Reader, page 231, are the European 
 species. 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 15. Giraffes: Chart XV. 
 
 What animals are represented in No. XV. ? Giraffes or 
 Camelopards. Have you ever seen a giraffe? Can you 
 describe the giraffe? Head often twenty feet from the 
 ground ; two short horns on the head, covered with a 
 hairy skin; body short, sloping downward toward the 
 rump, and supported upon very long legs ; fore legs appar- 
 ently^ but not really longer than the others ; neck exceed- 
 ingly long, furnished with a short mane ; head comparative- 
 ly small ; countenance exceedingly gentle and pleasing, the 
 eyes being remarkably full and lustrous ; the ground color 
 of the skin is yellowish, but is covered Avith large spots and 
 patches of lighter and darker brown. 
 
 "What kind of feet has the giraffe ? Cleft hoofs, like 
 those of the ox ; but the feet are destitute of the two little 
 accessory hoofs found in all the other ruminants except the 
 camels. To what class of animals, then, does the giraffe be- 
 long ? The ruminants. What is it that especially distin- 
 guishes the ruminants from all other animals, and why are 
 they called rimimants f Should you suj^pose that the gi- 
 raffe can eat from the ground ? It brings its mouth to the 
 ground with difficulty, and, in order to do so, stretches its 
 fore legs widely ajDart. It seldom lowers its head to the 
 ground except to drink. How, then, do you suppose the 
 giraffe obtains its food ? By browsing upon the foliage of 
 trees ; and, that it may readily grasp the young shoots, it 
 is provided with a long and pliant tongue, which is at once 
 a feeler, a grasper, and an organ of taste. See Chart. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 159 
 
 What is the native country of the giraffe ? Southern and 
 Eastern Africa. (See, also, Third Reader, pages 115 and 
 205.) 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 16. Deer: Chart XV. 
 
 What animals are represented in No. 16 ? Those of the 
 deer kind. Do you know whether all deer have horns or 
 not ? The males only have horns, with the single excep- 
 tion of the reindeer. There are occasional exceptions to 
 this rule, but the cases are very rare. Unlike the ox, goat, 
 sheep, etc., they shed their horns at regular intervals — most 
 of them annually. What are the horns of the deer called? 
 Frequently they are called antlers. Their size and the 
 number of their branches increase with age. What does 
 the upper figure in No. 16 represent? The English red 
 deer or stag. This deer comes to its full growth when 
 five years old, when each of its horns has five prongs or 
 points, as seen in Fig. 1, No. 16. It is then called a ha7% 
 and the female a hind. When this animal is wounded and 
 taken, it sheds tears like a child. What does the second 
 figure represent ? The English roebuck, the smallest of the 
 English deer. Its horns are about eight or nine inches 
 long, and each is divided into three small branches. What 
 does the third or lower figure represent ? The wapiti, 
 American stag, or round-horned elk. It has tall, round, 
 branching horns, sometimes six feet high ; its color is yel- 
 lowish brown ; the tail is short ; the form is stately ; and 
 the height of the animal is from four and a half to five feet 
 at the shoulders. It sheds its horns in February or March. 
 It might be supposed that, when pursued, the branching 
 horns of this animal would be greatly in its way, but they 
 are not so. The animal lays them on its back, and is able 
 thus to force its way through the thickets with ease. (See, 
 also, Third Reader, page 209-21'/.) 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
160 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Number 17. The Rhinoceros: Chart XV. 
 
 What animal is represented in No. 17 ? The rhinoceros. 
 Is more than one kind or species there represented ? Two : 
 the one-horned and the two-horned rhinoceros. Describe 
 the animal as ^vell as you can from the picture of it. It is 
 a large, uncouth-looking animal, covered with a hard, thick, 
 naked, rough skin, disposed in large folds, especially on the 
 neck, shoulders, haunches, and thighs. It has three toes on 
 each foot. Its most distinguishing mark, however, is the 
 solid horn on its nose or snout. One sj)ecies has two 
 horns, the smaller being directly back of and above the 
 larger. For farther description see Third Header, page 
 187. 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 18. The Hippopotamus: Chart XV. 
 
 What animal is represented in No. 18 ? The hip-po-pot^ - 
 a-mus^ a word which means "river-horse." What does 
 this animal most resemble in appearance? A gigantic 
 hog, except in its short, thick, and very blunt muzzle. The 
 feet have four toes, like those of the hog, terminated in as 
 many separate hoofs. The flesh is said to be delicious, re- 
 sembling pork in flavor. The eyes are situated high in 
 the head, so that the animal, while its body is entirely cov- 
 ered by the water, can look around and breathe by rais- 
 ing but a very small portion of the head above the surface. 
 See the lower figure. Its large teeth are very good ivory. 
 For farther description see Third Reader, page 188, 189. 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
 Number 19. Beavers: Chart XV. 
 
 What animals are represented in No. 1 9 ? Beavers. 
 From the appearance of their teeth, to what order of 
 quadrupeds do they seem to belong ? To the Hodents, or 
 "gnawing" quadrupeds. The beaver has two incisor or 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 161 
 
 cutting teeth, and eight molar or grinding teeth, in each 
 jaw. The incisor teeth are so very large, hard, and sharp, 
 that they were employed by the North American Indians 
 as implements to cut bone, and to fashion their horn-tipped 
 spears. What do you notice very peculiar in the form of 
 these animals ? The shape of the tail, which is very broad, 
 scaly above, and horizontally-flattened. There are five toes 
 on each of the feet, and the hinder feet are webbed, some- 
 what like those of a goose. Why are the feet webbed, 
 and what do Avebbed feet always show ? They are web- 
 bed to enable the animal to swim the better ; and webbed 
 feet always show that the animal is designed to pass a part 
 of the time in the w^ater. 
 
 How large is the beaver ? Head and body about three 
 feet in length ; tail about eleven inches. For what is the 
 beaver specially noted ? For building dams across streams, 
 and for constructing its curious houses, or dwelling-places, 
 which are always partly in the water. For what is the 
 beaver most valued? For its fur. In the year 1788 up- 
 w^ard of 170,000 beaver skins w^ere exported to Europe 
 from Canada. About 100,000 beaver skins are now annu- 
 ally obtained for their fur in North America alone, and 
 considerable quantities from Northern Asia, and Northern 
 and Central Europe. Formerly beaver furs were much 
 used in making hats ; but beaver hats have now in great 
 part given place to hats manufactured of silk, and the 
 cheaper fur of a little South American rodent, called the 
 Qiutria^ or coypou. Ofthe nutria, as many as 600,000 skins 
 are annually imported into Great Britain from South Amer- 
 ica. In 1 832 the beaver skin sold for seven dollars a pound ; 
 it now sells for about a dollar and a quarter a pound. The 
 nutria sells for about forty cents. (See, also. Third Reader, 
 page 232.) 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. 
 
162 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Number 20. Armadillos and Pangolins : Chart XV. 
 
 What animals are represented in No. 20 ? Those above 
 are the South American Armadillos^ a Spanish word which 
 means clad iji armor ^ the three lower ones are the Scaly 
 Ant-eaters, or Pangolins. The armadillos are covered, for 
 their defense, with a bony crust, or coat of mail^ as their 
 name implies. This is formed of numerous many-sided 
 plates, attached to the skin. These animals are roasted in 
 their shells, and are considered a great delicacy by the peo- 
 \)\q of South America. The Scaly Ant-eaters, or Pango- 
 lins, found in Southern Asia and Southern Africa, have also 
 a defensive armor, which consists of numerous horny scales, 
 implanted in the skin like nails, and overlapping each other 
 like the tiles or shingles of a roof. For farther account of 
 these animals, which belong to the order of "Toothless 
 Quadrupeds," see Third Reader, pages 229, 230. 
 
 Compositions. — In accordance with previous sugges- 
 tions, pages 102, 104, etc. The teacher may now also give 
 several of the groups as the subject for a composition ; or 
 he may assign the ten upper groups for one composition, 
 and the ten lower for another. 
 
 CHART ISTcXyi. ZOOLOGICAL: CLASSIFICA- 
 TION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 The following exercises on this Chart are designed to 
 give pupils merely an outline view of the various groups 
 of animals included in the first division of zoology — the 
 Mammalia. It is not expected that the teacher will con- 
 fine himself strictly to the outline we have given, as he 
 must be guided in this matter by the ages and attainments 
 of his pupils. With small children, who have not read so 
 far as the Third Reader, he may limit himself to a few oral 
 lessons, taking up, first, an entire order at a lesson, drawing 
 his information from the Third Reader, or from any other 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 163 
 
 source, and thus going over the entire Chart ; next, he may 
 take up, one by one, the several famiHes, groups, or divi- 
 sions, in each order ; but he should rely mainly upon such 
 incidents as he may gather from various sources, to give 
 interest to his oral lessons, or "talks." Pupils who have 
 read the Third Reader, however, may first go over the 
 Chart in the manner we have herein designated ; and in 
 subsequent exercises they may be as minute in their de- 
 scriptions as their attainments will warrant, mastering not 
 only the groupings into orders, families, etc., but describing 
 size, form, color, habits, etc., of each animal represented. 
 The teacher should require them \o point out every thing 
 on the Chart. Although the figures tliere are not sufii- 
 ciently large to enable the class, or school, to see each ani- 
 mal distinctly at a distance, they are large enough to pre- 
 sent their general forms and groupings ; and this is all that 
 is needed here, as pupils can examine the same figures more 
 minutely in their Reading-book. 
 
 "What is Zoology ? (See Chart, and also Third Reader, 
 page 240.) What are the four great divisions of animals ? 
 See Chart, and Third Reader, page 240, 241. The teacher 
 himself may give a brief exj^lanation of these divisions in 
 an oral lesson, or, if the pupils are reading in the Third 
 Reader, they may be directed to read the concluding les- 
 son, page 240, and tell what they can of these divisions, 
 pointing out their representative drawings on the Chart. 
 They should be required, at this stage, to name the classes 
 of the^rs^ division only. Let the teacher describe what a 
 vertebrate animal is, and then proceed with the following. 
 
 What four classes of animals are in the Vertebrate divi- 
 sion ? See Chart. Mammalia, Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes. 
 To which one of these is this Chart devoted ? The Mam- 
 malia. What are Mammalia ? See Chart. Animals which 
 nurse or suckle their young. What is said about includ- 
 ing manhind in this division? See Chart; and Third 
 Reader, page 87, Note. 
 
 What are the five great races into which mankind are 
 divided ? See Chart. Caucasian, Mongolian, Malay, Ne- 
 
164 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 gro, and American. What people are included in each ? 
 In the Caucasian are included all the ancient and modern 
 Europeans except the Fins ; also the Assyrians, Medes, 
 Chaldeans, Sarmatians, Scythians, Parthians, Philistines, 
 PhoBnicians, Jews, Georgians, Circassians, Turks, Persians, 
 Arabians, the Northern Africans, Egyptians, and Abyssin- 
 ians. They have a Avhite skin, either Avith a fair rosy tint, 
 or inclining to brown ; red cheeks ; hair copious and black, 
 or of the various lighter colors ; eyes dark in those with 
 brown skin, light in the fair or rosy complexioned. The 
 Caucasian has ever been the leading and conquering race. 
 
 In the Mongolian race are included the tribes and na- 
 tions of Central and ISTorthern Asia, Chinese, Japanese, 
 Siamese, Laplanders, and Esquimaux. They are character- 
 ized by an olive color ; black eyes ; black, straight, strong, 
 and thin hair, and little or no beard. 
 
 In the Malay race are included the inhabitants of the 
 islands of Southern Asia ; of the Moluccas, Ladrones, Phil- 
 i23pines ; of Australia, and of all the islands of the South 
 Sea. Their color is from a light tawny to a deej) brown ; 
 hair black, more or less curled ; head narrow, nose full and 
 broad ; mouth large. 
 
 In the ISTegko race are included all the natives of Africa 
 not comprised among the Caucasians. Skin and eyes black ; 
 hair black and woolly; skull compressed laterally; fore- 
 head low, narrow, and slanting ; cheek-bones prominent ; 
 nose broad, thick, and flat ; and lijDS, particularly the upper 
 one, very thick. 
 
 In the American race are included all the aboriginal 
 Americans except the Esquimaux. Perhaps, also, the Tol- 
 tec family, wdiich founded Mexico and Peru, must be con- 
 sidered an exception. Skin dark, and more or less of a red 
 tint ; hair black, straight, and strong ; beard small ; fore- 
 head usually low ; eyes deep ; face broad ; mouth large ; 
 and lips rather thick. 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 165 
 
 First Class of the Vertebrates : The Ifammalia, 
 First Order. Quadru'mana, or Four-handed Animals. 
 
 Ill the classification of the Mammalia, what is the First 
 Order, and what kind of animals does it embrace ? Why 
 are they called qiiadru'manous, or four-handed animals? 
 Because both their fore feet and their hind feet have 
 thumbs and fingers which bear considerable resemblance 
 to the human hand, and they use these four hands to taJce 
 hold of things, to climb, etc. Point out on the Chart the 
 two great divisions of the Monkey tribes. Monkeys of the 
 Old World, and Monkeys of the New World. What are 
 the three divisions of the Monkeys of the Old World ? 
 Apes, Monkeys proper, and Baboons. See Third Reader, 
 pages 89, 90. What are the most noted of the Apes ? The 
 Orang-outangs. Interesting facts about the Apes. Tliird 
 Header, page 90-94. About the Monkeys and Baboons. 
 See Third Reader, page 95-101. What can you tell about 
 the Monkeys of South America ? 
 
 Sub-order: Cheir^optera^ or Hand-imiged Aiiimals. — 
 What sub-order of animals is by some included among the 
 Quadru'mana, or four-handed animals ? Bats and Lemurs. 
 Why? Because the Bats, w^iich are sometimes called 
 hand-xoinged animals, hold on to things both by their feet, 
 and by their wings — the wings having little hoohs, w^hich 
 answer the purpose of hands ; and the Lemurs have thumbs 
 and fingers on their hind feet as well as on their fore feet, 
 very much like the monkeys. Mention some facts about 
 the bats and lemurs. Third Reader, page 104-106. 
 
 Second Order. Carniv^ora, or Flesh-eating Quadru- 
 peds. 
 
 What does the Second Order of theMammafia include? 
 See Chart. What is the meaning of Carnivorous ? Flesh- 
 eating. Point out on the Chart and name the five families 
 or divisions of animals included in this Order. See Chart. 
 Animals of the Cat kind, Dog kind. Weasel kind, Bear kind, 
 and Seal kind. Point out on the Chart and name the lead- 
 
166 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ing animals of the Cat kind represented there. Lions, Ti- 
 gers, Leopards, Lynxes, Tiger-cats, and Wild-cats. Let 
 another pupil point out and name the leading animals of 
 the Dog kind. Dogs, Foxes, Wolves, Jackals, and Hyenas. 
 The hyenas are by some made to constitute a separate fam- 
 ily. Another j^upil, the animals of the Weasel kind. Pine 
 Marten, Mink, Sable, Otter, Ermine, Skunk, and Common 
 Weasel. Another, the animals of the Bear kind. Grison, 
 Kaccoon, Badger, Coati, Bear, Wolverine, Panda, and Ratel. 
 Another, the animals of the Seal kind. Common Seal, Sea 
 Bear, Sea Lion, and Walrus ; also, the Elephant Seal, Pied 
 Seal, Mitred Seal, Crested Seal, and Leopard Seal. 
 
 Sub -order: Iiisectivora^ or Insect-eaters. — What sub- 
 order is by some included in this Second Order ? Point 
 out and name the animals of the Siikew kind represented 
 on the Chart. The common Shrew, Oared Shrew, Hedge- 
 hog, and the Moles. 
 
 Li the next j^lace, the teacher, to vary the exercises, 
 should point out with a pointer the carnivorous quadru- 
 peds, in their order, beginning with the Lion, and, as he 
 places his pointer on each, require the class to call its name. 
 Then call on the pupils, individually, to tell what they can 
 about it, such as its native country, its size, its habits, col- 
 or, and any anecdotes about it which they can remember, 
 either from the Third Reader, or from any other book. 
 
 Third Order. Ungulata, or Hoofed Quadrupeds. 
 
 What does the Third Order of the Mammalia include ? 
 See Chart. What are its three great divisions? Let the 
 pupil point out these divisions on the Chart — the Paehy- 
 dermata^ or Thick-skinned ; the Solidmigida^ or Solid-hoof- 
 ed; and the Rwninantia^ or Cud-chewing — carrying the 
 pointer over the animals in each division. It may be re- 
 marked here, that the animals of the first two divisions 
 which we have given on the Chart were embraced by Cu- 
 vier in only 07ie division, the '-'- Pachydermatay or Thick- 
 skinned ;" but later writers have made the two divisions 
 which we have given on the Chart, and others still have 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 167 
 
 made a separate division for the animals of the " Swine 
 kind." Point out and name the principal animals in the 
 first, or " Thick-skinned" division. The different kinds or 
 species of Hog, the American Tapir, the little Syrian Hyrax, 
 and the South American Peccary. 
 
 Point out and name the animals of the Second Division 
 represented on the Chart. Wild Ass, Zebra, and Horse. 
 Point out on the chart and name the seven families of the 
 Ruminant or Cud-chewing animals. Animals of the Cam- 
 el, Giraffe, Deer, Ox, Sheep, Goat, and Antelope kinds. 
 Now point out and name separately the leading animals of 
 the Camel kind represented on the Chart. Llama, Arabian 
 Camel, and Bactrian Camel. Of the Giraffe kind. The 
 Giraffe only. Of the Deer kind. Moose or Elk, Rein- 
 deer, Java Musk Deer, common American Deer, and Amer- 
 ican Stag ; also the Musk Deer of Thibet, English Fallow 
 Deer, Bengal Hog Deer, Roebuck, and Nepaul Stag. An- 
 imals of the Ox kind. African Buffalo, Musk Ox, Zebu, 
 the Gnu, and American Buffalo or Bison. Animals of the 
 Sheep kind. Corsican and African Wild Sheep, Rocky 
 Mountain Wild Sheep, and common Sheep. Of the Goat 
 kind. Common Wild Goat, European Ibex, and Cashmere 
 Goat. Animals of the Antelope kind. The Gazelle, Elk 
 Antelope, Chamois, common Antelope, and Prong-horned 
 Antelope ; also the Neel-Ghau, Chickara, Bearded Ante- 
 lope, Algazel, and Springbok. 
 
 The teacher should next go over this entire Order as 
 directed under the Second Order, I3age 127. 
 
 Sub-order : Edentata^ or Toothless Quadriqyeds. — What 
 sub-order of Animals' is by some included in this Third Or- 
 der ? The Edentata, or Toothless Quadrupeds. Point out 
 and name. the animals in this division. Duck-billed Water 
 Mole, Great Ant-eater, Long-tailed Ant-eater, Cloaked Ar- 
 madillo, Six-banded Armadillo, Porcupine Ant-eater, and 
 Yellow -throated Sloth. Mention some facts concerning 
 these " Toothless Quadrupeds." Third Reader, pages 229, 
 230. 
 
168 
 
 MANUAL OF INFORMATION". 
 
 Fourth Order. Rodentia, or Gnawing Quadrupeds. 
 
 What kind of animals does the Foiutli Order of the 
 Mammaha include ? The Rodentia, or Gnawing Quadru- 
 peds. See Chart. Why is the name Gnaioers given to 
 them? Third Reader, page 231. Point out and name 
 the animals of this Order represented on the Chart. Men- 
 tion some facts and incidents about these animals. Third 
 Reader, pages 232, 235. 
 
 Fifth Order. Marsupialia, or Pouched Quadrupeds. 
 
 What kind of animals does the Fifth Order include ? 
 The Marsupial, or Pouched Quadruj)eds. See Chart. Point 
 out and name the animals of this class represented on the 
 Chart. Mention some facts about them. Third Reader, 
 pages 236, 237. - 
 
 Sixth Order. Cetacea, the Whale Tribe. 
 
 What kind of animals does the Sixth Order include ? 
 The Cetacea, or animals of the Whale kind. Why are 
 these animals classed among quadrupeds ? Third Reader, 
 pages 238, 239."^' Point out and name the animals of this 
 Order represented on the Chart. The Narwhalsf (or Sea 
 
 * The whales, although belonging 
 to the Mammals, are, indeed, desti- 
 tute of both hands and feet ; yet the 
 frame-work oi thoi): flippers (see cut, 
 page 238, Third Reader) is much like 
 that of a hand, as may be seen in the 
 accompanying drawing, representing 
 a flipper, and also its bones uncovered. 
 The flippers are used for balancing 
 rather than for swimming. It is with 
 the tail, mostly, that the whale swims. 
 Its immense power can be judged of by 
 its breadth, which often is twenty feet. 
 t The body of the narwhal is from thirty to forty feet long, and its 
 straight pointed tusk from five to ten feet. The uses of this tusk are 
 not well known. Some suppose it uses its tusk to dig up sea-weed for 
 food ; others, that it kills its prey with it. The Greenlanders use this 
 tusk in the manufacture of spears, arrows, hooks, etc. 
 
 Flipper of the Whale. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 169 
 
 Unicorns), Greenland Whale, Spermaceti Whale,* and the 
 Great Northern Rorqual. What is the length of the lat- 
 ter? More than a hundred feet. For other animals of 
 the whale kind, see Third Reader, page 239. 
 
 Compositions. — Let the teacher assign such portions of 
 this Chart as subjects for compositions as he may deem 
 appropriate. 
 
 CHART No. XYII. ZOOLOGICAL. 
 
 Second Class of the Vertebrates : Birds. 
 
 This Chart is designed to give teachers and pupils a gen- 
 eral outline view of the seven great orders or classes into 
 which Birds are divided, and to present to their notice 
 
 * Spermaceti, obtained from the spermaceti whale, is a fiitty matter, 
 which, when separated from the oil, and purified, becomes a white, semi- 
 transparent mass, much used for making candles. Spermaceti is found, 
 mixed with oil, in a large reservoir in the head of the spermaceti whale. 
 A hole is cut in the head of the whale by its captors, and this mixture 
 is baled out with buckets, as from a well. Ten or twelve barrels of this 
 mixture are obtained from a sperm whale of ordinary size. That waxy 
 substance, of a musky odor, called ambergris, which is highly valued as 
 a material in perfumery, is found in the intestines of the sperm whale. 
 It is also often found floating on the surface of the ocean, in regions fre- 
 quented by whales. 
 
 It is thQfat of whales which produce the "whale-oil." This fat of the 
 whale, called blubber, encases the whole animal, being mingled with the 
 fibres of its enormously thick skin. The blubber and skin are not un- 
 frequently two feet in thickness, and weigh in some cases thirty tons. 
 
 The whale has a curious apparatus for spouting through its nostrils, 
 which are called "blow-holes.'" Under the nostrils are two large pouch- 
 es, like vast bellows, which can be filled with water taken in by the 
 mouth. When the whale wishes to spout it compresses these pouches, 
 and expels the water with great force through the blow-holes, the outer 
 valves of which are pushed open. 
 
 The well-known whale-bone of commerce, used principally for ribs or 
 stretchers of umbrellas, for canes, whips, etc., and as a substitute for 
 bristles in brushes, is taken from the upper jaw of the whale — chiefly 
 from the Greenland whale, or from a similar whale in the Southern seas. 
 
 H 
 
170 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 some leading species in each order. By locating these 
 leading divisions as on a map, and thus presenting them to 
 the eye^ it is believed that pupils will learn them much 
 easier, and Avith more interest, and retain them much lon- 
 ger, than when the same knowledge is acquired through 
 the medium of written description only. For the mode of 
 conducting the exercises on this Chart we refer, in addition 
 to what is here given, to the suggestions made under the 
 head of the preceding Chart, No. XVI. What has been 
 given under the head of " Ornithology, or the Natural His- 
 tory of Birds," in the Fourth Reader of the " School and 
 Family Series," and to wdiich we refer, will render it un- 
 necessary to enter into full descrvptions here. 
 
 What are the seven orders into which Birds are divided? 
 Point them out on the Chart. 1st. Birds of Prey; 2d. 
 Perching or Singing Birds ; 3d. Climbers ; 4th. Scratchers ; 
 5th. Runners ; Gth. Waders ; Tth. Swimmers. 
 
 First Order. Eirds of Prey. 
 
 To the Birds of Prey has been given the Latin name 
 jRaptores^ signifying robbers; and many of these birds are 
 not only robbers, but assassins and butchers. They are 
 distinguished by their powerful bill or beak and their claAVS. 
 The former has the upper mandible longer than the lower 
 one, strongly hooked at the tip, or curved throughout its 
 whole length, very sharp at the point, and sometimes armed 
 with teeth on the margins. The feet also are powerful, 
 composed of four toes, armed with long, curved, and acute 
 claws. See the claws and bills of the Eagles represented 
 on the Chart. The Birds of Prey are divided into three 
 groups or families : Falcons, Vultures, and Owls. See 
 Chart. 
 
 ] St. Falcons. — These include the Eagles and the Hawks. 
 See Fourth Reader, pages 84-96. If pupils have read the 
 Fourth Reader, let them describe the Falcons, pointing to 
 the Chart, telling size, color, habits, etc., and sucli anecdotes 
 or incidents of each as they remember, or such as they have 
 heard, or such as they have read in other books. Or, let 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 171 
 
 the teacher describe these birds, and let the pupils after- 
 ward tell what they can remember of each ; or, let them 
 write down as much as they can of what has thus been told 
 them, and thus form a series of compositions on the sub- 
 ject. Let them refer to, or recite, any poetry descriptive 
 of these birds. 
 
 2d. VuLTUEES. See Chart; and Fourth Reader, page 96. 
 
 3d. Owls. See Chart ; and Fourth Reader, page 97. 
 
 Let pupils tell what they can of each group or family — 
 as to their characteristic features, species named or repre- 
 sented on the Chart; their size, color, habits, incidents, 
 anecdotes, poetry, etc. ; also name any birds in the country 
 around which belong to either division. 
 
 Second Order. Sparrows, Perohers, or Singing Birds. 
 
 This order includes a great variety of birds, whose legs 
 and feet are generally slight, and whose claws, although 
 curved, never constitute powerful hooked talons, as in the 
 birds of prey. The Sparrows or Perchers have four toes — 
 three directed forward, and one backward. They have 
 been divided into the four following groups, distinguished 
 by peculiarities in the form of the bill : 
 
 1st. Toothed-bills. — See Chart, and Fourth Reader, 
 pages 102-108. The peculiarity in the form of the bill is 
 well characterized in the head of the Shrike. See Chart. 
 Let the pupils name any birds in the country around which 
 belong to this division. Also describe those represented 
 on the Chart, Give poetry, etc. 
 
 2d. Cleft-bills. — See Chart, and Fourth Reader, pages 
 108-118. For the characteristic form of the bill, see the 
 Whippoorwill, on the Chart. Name and describe birds of 
 this division as before directed. Poetry, etc. 
 
 3d. CoxE-BiLLs. — See Chart, and Fourth Reader, pages 
 118-129. For the characteristic form of the bill, see head 
 of Grosbeak on the Chart. Name and describe birds of 
 this division, as before directed. The Bobolink is the rice- 
 bird of the Carolinas. See page 232. Not only the com- 
 mon Starling, but also the Hawfinch, Chaffinch, Linnet, 
 
172 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Goldfinch, Siskin, and Greenfinch, are European birds. 
 There is also a beautiful American goldfinch, commonly 
 called Yellow-bird. 
 
 4th. Thin-bills. — See Chart, and Fourth Reader, pages 
 129-133. The Humming-birds have the long and thin bills 
 which well characterize this group. Name and describe as 
 before directed. 
 
 Third Order. Climbers. 
 
 These birds are distinguished from the Sparrows or 
 Perchers chiefly by the peculiar arrangement of the toes, 
 of which two are directed forward and two backward. 
 This enables them to climb trees with great facility. Let 
 pupils name and describe any birds in the country around 
 which belong to this Order. Also describe those repre- 
 sented on the Chart. Give poetry, etc. See Fourth Read- 
 er, page 133-140. 
 
 Fourth Order. Scratchers. 
 
 These birds, which include our common fowls, are so 
 named in allusion to the habit of scratching in the ground 
 in search of food. They have generally small heads and 
 stout legs, and the males are usually adorned with mag- 
 nificent colors. The wings are usually short and weak, 
 and the flight of the birds is neither powerful nor prolong- 
 ed. Let pupils name and describe as many of the birds of 
 this Order as they can, including common fowls of diflfer- 
 ent varieties — turkeys, peacocks, partridges, quails, etc. See 
 Fourth Reader, page 140. 
 
 Sub-order: Doves. — By some the doves are included 
 with the Scratchers. Li internal structure, however, they 
 difter somewhat from them; their wings are also usual- 
 ly longer and wider, and their flight rapid and long-contin- 
 ued. Li their mode of drinking they diflfer from all oth- 
 er birds ; for, instead of taking up a small quantity of wa- 
 ter in the mouth, and then swallowing it by raising the 
 head, they immerse the bill in water, and drink without 
 stopping until they are satisfied. Let pupils name and de- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 173 
 
 scribe birds which belong to this division. Poetry, etc. 
 See Fourth Reader, page 143-146. 
 
 Fifth Order. Runners. ^ 
 
 For description, see Fourth Reader, page 146-149. Let 
 the pupil name and describe birds of this Order, as before 
 directed. 
 
 Sixth Order. Waders. 
 
 For description, see Fourth Reader, page 149-154. Let 
 the 23upils name and describe birds of this Order which he 
 has seen ; also others represented on the Chart. Poetry, etc. 
 
 Seventh Order. Swimmers. 
 
 These birds are characterized by the peculiar structure 
 of their feet, which are furnished with webs between the 
 toes to adapt them to swimming. Let the pupil describe 
 as many species of this Order as he can, and tell wherein 
 they differ from each other — such as ducks, geese, swans, 
 divers or loons, etc. See Fourth Reader, page 154. 
 
 Compositions. — After the pupils have gone over each 
 division or group on the Chart, the same may be assigned 
 to them as subjects for compositions. Thus the first Or- 
 der would furnish three subjects for compositions, the sec- 
 ond Order four, etc. 
 
 CHART Ko. XYIII. ZOOLOGY— continued. 
 
 Third Class of the Vertebrates : Hejytiles. 
 
 The Reptiles, Avith the exception of a few tortoises, are 
 carnivorous animals. They have a slow circulation ; their 
 blood is said to be cold — that is, it is but little above the 
 temperature of the surrounding medium, whether air or 
 water, in which they live ; their movements are generally 
 slow, crawling or swimming ; their habits are sluggish ; 
 their sensations obtuse ; and, in cold or temperate climates, 
 they pass nearly the whole winter in a state of lethargy. 
 
174 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 For a more full, general descrij)tion, see Fifth Reader, 
 page 51-54. 
 
 They have been divided by most naturalists into four 
 orders : Chelonians, or Turtles ; Saurians, or Lizard Rep- 
 tiles ; Ophidians, or Serpents ; and Amphibians, or Batrach- 
 ians. 
 
 First Order. Chelonians, or Turtles. 
 
 First Division. — Land, Maesh, and River Tortoises. 
 — Let pupils name and describe such of these as they have 
 seen, the common mud-turtles, and probably some others. 
 Also those represented on the Chart, telling size, color, 
 habits, etc. See Fifth Reader, pages 57, 58. 
 
 Second Division. — Marine and River Turtles. — Let 
 pupils name and describe these also. Have they seen any 
 of them ? Have they eaten turtle-soup ? etc. See Fifth 
 Reader, pages 59, 60. 
 
 Second Order. Saurians, or Lizard-Reptiles. 
 
 First Divisiooi. — The Lizard Group. — Let pupils name 
 and describe such of these as they have seen, if any. Also 
 those represented on the Chart, telling size, color, habits, 
 etc. See Fifth Reader, page 61-64. 
 
 Second Divisio7i. — The Crocodile Group. — What are 
 the principal families in this group ? Name and describe 
 them : incidents, anecdotes, poetry, etc. See Fifth Read- 
 er, page 64-68. 
 
 Third Order. Ophidians, or Serpents. 
 
 AYhat species are represented on the Chart ? Describe 
 each. How many kinds or species of serpents that you 
 have seen can you name ? How many species are found in 
 New York and the New England states ? In Britain ? In 
 Ireland ? Give what farther account you can of the ser- 
 pents ; anecdotes,* incidents, poetry, etc. See Fifth Read- 
 er, page 68-72. 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 176 
 
 Fourth Order. Amphibians, or Batraohians. 
 
 What are the principal groups of the Amphibians ? 
 Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, and Sirens. What is it that 
 gives these animals their chief interest ? The curious 
 changes which most of them undergo — from the character 
 of fishes in their infancy, when they breathe by means of 
 gilU^ to the nature and habits of true reptiles at a later pe- 
 riod, when they breathe by means of lungs. Did you ever 
 see tadpoles OY 2)ollhvogs ? Describe them. Do you know 
 what they become as they grow older? Did you ever 
 watch these changes? It might be interesting for yoif to 
 take a young polliwog, confine it in an artificial pond, and 
 see what changes it passes through. Describe the Am- 
 phibians represented on the Chart. See Fifth Reader, 
 page '72-74. 
 
 Compositions, — Let pupils write compositions about the 
 Keptiles, one composition for each Order; and after that 
 let them embrace the whole in one composition. Let them 
 write as much as they can of what t/teg themselves have 
 seen. 
 
 Fourth Class of Vertehrates : Fishes. 
 
 How many kinds or species of fish can each one mention 
 that he has seen ? Write dow^n their names. How many 
 of these can each one describe ? Describe the diflerent 
 fins of a fish. See Fifth Reader, page 227. 
 
 What are the three great leading Orders of Fishes ? 
 1st. Spine-rayed bony fishes; 2d. Soft-rayed bony fishes; 
 3d. Cartilaginous fishes. Very difierent systems for the 
 classification of fishes have been adopted by difierent wri- 
 ters. See the classification given by Agassiz, Fifth Read- 
 er, page 227. 
 
 First Order. Spine-rayed Bony Fishes. 
 
 What is the largest and leading family, or group, in this 
 Order ? The Perches. What species of this group have 
 you seen ? Describe as many of them as you can, as to 
 
176 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 size, color, habit, where found, etc. Mention other groups 
 or families of this Order. Gurnards, Breams, Maigres, 
 Scaly-fins, Mackerel, Gobies, and Bleunies. Tell what you 
 can of each group : description, incidents, anecdotes, poet- 
 ry, etc. See Fifth Keader, page 228-242. 
 
 Second Order. Soft-rayed Bony Fishes. , 
 
 First Division. — Fishes with Abdominal Yentral 
 Fins. — The fishes of this division have ventral fins attach- 
 ed to the abdomen, behind the pectoral fins. What are 
 the leading groups or families in this division ? The Carp, 
 Pike, Cat-fish, Salmon and Trout, and Herring and Pilchard 
 families. What can you tell about the carp family? and 
 what kinds of fish do they embrace ? About the pike fam- 
 ily ? The cat-fish ? The salmon and trout ? The herring 
 and pilchard family ? In what family is the common shad 
 found ? See Fifth Reader, page 242-251. 
 
 Second Division. — Fishes with Ventral Fins beneath 
 THE Pectorals. — What are the principal groups or fami- 
 lies in this division ? The Cod, the Flat-fish, and the salt- 
 water Suckers. Name some of the fish included in the cod 
 family. What can you say of the cod-fish? Describe the 
 flat-fish, and name some of the sjoecies. The salt-water 
 suckers. See Fifth Reader, page 251-256. 
 
 Third Division. — The Eel Family. — ^These are some- 
 times called the A2yodal division, or " footless" division, be- 
 cause they are without ventral fins ; and the fins in fish are 
 supposed to take the place of feet in the mammalia and rep- 
 tiles, and of wings in birds. Let pupils tell what species 
 or kinds of eels they have seen. Describe those represent- 
 ed on the Chart. See Fifth Reader, page 256-258. 
 
 Fourth Divisiooi. — Fishes with Tufted Gills. — The 
 fishes of this division are characterized by having the gills 
 in small tufts, instead of being comb-like. Here are found 
 the Pipe-fishes, and that curious fish, the Hippocampus, or 
 Hudson River Sea-horse. Describe them. All the fishes 
 of this division have the body covered with angular, bony 
 plates, so that the body is many-sided. See, also, Fifth 
 Reader, pages 258, 259. 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSOR'S. 177 
 
 Fifth Division. — Fishes with Soldered Jaws.— These 
 fishes are distinguished by a j)eculiarity in having certain 
 bones of the head firmly united, while in other fishes they 
 are separate. They embrace those peculiar fishes, the Bal- 
 loon and Globe fishes. Describe them. See Fifth Reader, 
 page 259. 
 
 Third Order. Cartilaginous Fishes. 
 
 The fishes of this order have their skeletons of cartilage, 
 instead of bone. They embrace the Shark, Sturgeon, Chi- 
 mera, Ray, and Lamprey groups, or families. Describe the 
 sharks. The sturgeons. The chimgeras. , The rays. The 
 lampreys. See Fifth Reader, page 260-267. 
 
 Now let pupils recapitulate what they have been over ; 
 naming the orders, and their divisions, and pointing them 
 out on the Chart. 
 
 Describe the Aquariimi; the principles on which fish and 
 plants live in it, etc. See Fifth Reader, i^age 268-271. 
 
 Compositions. — See the suggestions for compositions 
 about Reptiles. Also, let them write upon the subject of 
 the Aquarium. 
 
 CHART No. XIX. BOTANICAL. 
 Forms of Leaves^ /Stems, Hoots, and Flo^oers, 
 
 Chart No. XIX. exhibits some of the prominent forms 
 which vegetation assumes. Its study will be found well 
 adapted to cultivate in children the powers of observation, 
 as it will present to them numerous but common peculiari- 
 ties in the outward forms of plants which may hitherto 
 have escaped their notice. It will lead them to compare, 
 and contrast, and to notice difi'erences where before they 
 had not observed them ; and it will prepare them to de- 
 scribe plants in intelligible language, and to understand 
 the descriptions of others. Moreover, the forms here il- 
 lustrated are not only common things which Nature has 
 lavishly spread before us to please the eye, and to cultivate 
 
 H2 
 
178 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 a taste for harmonious variety, but tliey are such as must 
 constitute, from the very nature of things, the only true 
 and proper introduction to the study of descriptive Bot- 
 any. If children were taught to notice and carefully ex- 
 amine whatever is presented to the eye, and were supplied 
 with words for the ideas thus obtained, they would be 
 found far advanced in science long before the time when 
 they are usually thought fitted to enter upon its study. 
 But the truth is, a very great part of science is such a 
 knowledge of common things as children are delighted to 
 become famihar with, and which they acquire with the 
 greatest ease in the natural and healthful exercise of their 
 faculties. 
 
 Children of any age may study the forms here present- 
 ed, and understand them ; but while studying them they 
 should be presented, by the teacher, with the real objects 
 from nature, that they may readily associate the represent- 
 ation with the reality; and when the forms have thus be- 
 come familiar to them, they should be accustomed to illus- 
 trate them by similarly-shaped leaves, stems, flowers, etc., 
 gathered by themselves. Children will be found to take a 
 great interest in these forms of the vegetable world, which 
 will supply them Avitli an infinite variety of objects for that 
 cultivation of the perceptive faculties which lies at the basis 
 of all sound and truly practical education. 
 
 In going over the exercises on this Chart, pupils should 
 describe the forms of the leaves, roots, flowers, etc., and tell 
 wherein those that are somewhat similar really differ from 
 each other, be/ore they are supplied loitli the it'ords loJiich 
 designate these differences. After having experienced the 
 ^leec?. of such words, they will be the more likely to remem- 
 ber them. This is also in the true order of Nature's teach- 
 ings ; first, the ideas^ and then the words to represent them. 
 
 I. General Forms and Arrangement of Leaves. 
 
 [Specimens of net-veined leaves, with and without leaf-stalks, and stip'-i.les.] 
 
 At A, on the Chart, are shown the parts of a complete 
 net-veined leaf. The leaf part proper is called the Lamina^ 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 179 
 
 or Blade ; the end, tip, or point of the leaf is called the 
 a'-pex / the middle vein the midrib / the branches from it 
 are called veins / and the little branches from the latter, 
 vehdets. These veinlets subdivide again and again, until 
 they become so small as to be invisible to the naked eye. 
 Through the fibres of the veins, veinlets, etc., the sap is 
 carried to every part of the leaf. The Pet'-i-ole is the leaf- 
 stalk, connecting the leaf with the branch or stem. Some 
 leaves have long pet'-i-6les, some short, and some have none. 
 Those which have none are said to be ses'-sUe, or " seated." 
 The stip'-Ules are two little leaves sometimes found at the 
 base of the pet^-i-ole. See Weeping Willow. Pupils should 
 make drawings of the leaf, as shown at A, and Avrite or 
 print the names of the several parts. The leaves brought 
 in as specimens should also be examined by the puj^ils, and 
 their several parts and appendages pointed out and named 
 by them. 
 
 No. 1. A Lin'-e-ar leaf is narrow, several times longer 
 than wide, and with the sides nearly parallel. Examples : 
 Saffron, Tuberose, Hemlock, Balsam Fir. Let pupils bring 
 in samples for illustration, in every case, if possible. 
 
 No. 2. Lan' -ce-odate^ or "lance-shaped," is long and ta- 
 pering, as the Weeping Willow. 
 
 No. 3. Eldip' -ti-ccd^ is oval-shaped, twice or thrice as 
 long as broad, and with the two ends alike in width. How 
 does it differ from the lan'-ce-o-late leaf? From the o'-vate 
 leaf? 
 
 No. 4. O'-vdte^ or " egg-shaped," with the broader end 
 downward. China Aster, Flowering Almond, Water Plan- 
 tain. 
 
 No. 5. Ohdan' -ce-odate^ the same as lan'-ce-o-late, except 
 that the tapering end is at the base instead of the apex. 
 
 No. 6. Ob-o'-vate^ the same as ovate, except that the nar- 
 rower end is downward. White Coxcomb, Smooth Alder, 
 Daisy. 
 
 No. 7. Cu'-ne-ate^ or " wedge-shaped," tapering down- 
 ward to a point, by nearly straight lines, like a wedge. 
 
 No. 8. Sag'-it-tate^ or " arrow-shaped," tapering upAvard 
 
180 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 to a point with the base two-pointed downward. See most 
 of the species of Sagittaria, or Arrowhead, also Field Bind- 
 weed. 
 
 No. 9. Au-ric' -u-late, or " eared," having two blunt pro- 
 jections, or ears^ at the base. Ex. Sage ; one species of the 
 Ma«:nolia. 
 
 No. 10. Has'-tate^ or " spear-shaped," with spreading and 
 pointed lobes or projections at the base. Ex. The njDper 
 leaves of Bittersweet ; Sweet Potato. 
 
 No. 11. This is a common form of the o'-vate leaf This 
 is pointed at the apex ; the other (No. 4) is rounded. Pu- 
 pils can easily find leaves of this form. 
 
 No. 12. Cord'-ate^ or "heart-shaped," having the base 
 strongly notched or rounded in to a point, Avhere the pet'- 
 i-ole or leaf-stalk is attached. Ex. Lilac, Sunflower, Morn- 
 ing-glory, Catalpa. Those which are only partially cordate, 
 as the leaves of the black Avalnut, sugar-maple, red maple, 
 and apricot, are called sw5-cordate. Oh-coixV-ate is in- 
 versely heart-shaped, that is, having the strong notch at the 
 apex instead of the base. Ex. Catnip, leaflets of Wood- 
 sorrel. 
 
 No. 13.i?67^'-^-/orm, or *' kidney-shaped," like the cord- 
 ate leaf, but rounder, and broader than long. Ex. White 
 Snake-root, or Wild Ginger (Asarimi Canadense), and 
 Blood-root. 
 
 No. 14. PeW-ate^ or " shield-shaped," generally roundish, 
 or orbicular, and having the leaf-stalk attached near the 
 centre of the lower surface of the leaf, instead of the base. 
 Ex. Nasturtion, Mandrake, Water-shield or Water-target 
 {Brasenia peltatci)^ Sacred-bean {Nelumhium luteuni)^ Cas- 
 tor-oil Plant. 
 
 No. 15. JLohed and sin'-u-ate^ a leaf having rounded in- 
 cisions extending about half way from the margin to the 
 midrib. The parts separated by the incisions are called 
 lohes. Ex. Post-oak. The separated parts in the cleft and 
 p«7'?ec? leaves (Nos. 16 and 17) are also called lobes. 
 
 No. 16 Cleft^ when the incisions extend halfway down 
 or more, and are sharp. Ex. several species of Oak. The 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 181 
 
 radish leaf, which is cleft, is called lyrate^ because the end 
 lobe is largest and rounded. 
 
 No. 17. Parted^ when the incisions nearly reach the mid- 
 rib, or the base of the blade, as in No. 28. 
 
 No. 18. Divided^ when the incisions extend quite to the 
 midrib, or to the leaf-stalk, as in No. 29. 
 
 No. 19. Pin'-7iate^ or "feathered," having little leaves, 
 called leaflets^ arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk, in 
 the form of a feather. These are compound leaves, and 
 some of them have an odd leaflet at the apex, some have 
 a tendril there, and some have neither. Ex. Senna, Locust, 
 Rose, Pea, Parsnip). Sometimes the little leaflets them- 
 selves become pinnate ; and the whole may be twice-pin- 
 nate, thrice-pinnate, etc. In the Honey-locust we some- 
 times see the pinnate, bi-pinnate, and tri-pinnate leaves cu- 
 riously combined. Children may find abundant examples 
 of these pinnate leaves, which they should compare, and 
 tell wherein they difier. Ex. Bladder-senna. 
 
 No. 20. Pal'-7nate^ or dig'-it-ate, are those in which the 
 leaflets, borne on the very tip of the leafstalk, are separa- 
 ted by deep divisions so as to represent the palm of the 
 hand with the fingers. A palmate leaf is, properly, ^five- 
 fingered leaf, as in the Ohio Buck-eye {^sculus glabra) ; 
 but the term is also applied to a leaf with any number of 
 divisions. Some Lupines have nine or eleven leaflets, the 
 Horse-chestnut has seven, the Clover three. Monkshood 
 three to five. Hemp five to seven. 
 
 No. 21. Per-fo' -li-ate leaves are those in which the stem 
 appears to run through the blade of the leaf near one end, 
 as in the Bellwort [Umdaria jjerfoliata) . Generally the 
 upper leaves become less and less perfoliate. In some spe- 
 cies of the Solomon's Seal the leaves are clasping around 
 the stem, having at first sight the appearance of being per- 
 foliate. See, also. Opium Poppy. 
 
 No. 22. Connate-per-fo-li-ate^ or doubly perfoliate leaves, 
 are those in which the broad bases of opposite leaves are 
 grown together, so as to represent one round leaf with the 
 stem running through its centre. Ex. The true Honey- 
 suckles. 
 
182 MANUAL OF INFORMATION" 
 
 No. 23. JEq' -ui-ta7it^ or straddling^ in which each outer 
 leaf covers the next inner one, Uke the leaves of the Iris, or 
 Flower-de-luce. It was from their straddling over each 
 other, like a man on horseback, that the botanist Linna3us 
 gave them this name. 
 
 No. 24. W/wrled, when there are three or more leaves in 
 a circle or loliorl^ on one joint of the stem. Ex. Red Lily. 
 
 No. 25. 6jpJ90s^^e, wl>en there is impair of leaves on each 
 joint of the stem, and one is directly opposite the other. 
 Leaves are alternate when only a single leaf appears at 
 eacli joint; and in this case the leaves are really arranged 
 in a spiral form around the stem. 
 
 Nos. 26, 27, 28, 29. Three-lohed, Three-deft, Three-parted^ 
 and Three-divided. These have also the palmate form, 
 because the incisions all point to the summit of the leaf- 
 stalk, or base of the leaf, like the fingers of the hand. 
 Those directly above them on the Chart liave \\\q pinnate., 
 or feathered form, because the incisions all point toward 
 the midrib, and are therefore similar to a feather in their 
 arrangement. The Red or Soft Maple, and the Sugar-ma- 
 ple have the leaves palmate,^ue-^o^6c?, and cordate, or sub- 
 cordate, at the base. 
 
 Spelling. — 1st. The younger pupils, after examining 
 these forms of leaves on the Chart, and noticing their 
 names, may form these names on the frame, with the Type 
 Letter-cards. 
 
 2d. Others may write or print them on their slates, or on 
 the blackboard. 
 
 3d. These words may also be used for a regular spelling 
 lesson ; the pupils now being required to define them, hav- 
 ing already obtained ideas of their true meaning.* 
 
 Drawing. — 1st. These forms of leaves will furnish good 
 
 * The practice of requiring pupils to spell and define long lists of 
 words, of whose meaning and use they are otherwise ignorant, we regard 
 as an inversion of the order of Nature, by placing xcords before idcas^ 
 and hence opposed to the " development" or "object" method of instruc- 
 tion. AVe doubt if it is ever desirable, even for advanced students, to 
 learn the meaning of words before there is any occasion for their use. 
 
JOll OBJECT LESSONS. 183 
 
 drawing exercises for the younger pupils, Avhile the prac- 
 tice of copying them will do much to fix their outlines in 
 the memory. See page 53. 
 
 2d. After a pupil has made drawings of these from the 
 Chart, he should draw from Nature, selecting similarly 
 formed leaves for his copies. 
 
 Composition. — Let the pupils write compositions under 
 this head, describing the general forms and arrangement 
 of leaves, and, in particular, describing leaves which they 
 themselves have obtained — where they obtained them, the 
 kind of tree, incidents, etc. 
 
 II. Forms of the Margins of Leaves. 
 
 [Leaves to illustrate these forms should be brouglit in by the pupils.] 
 
 Those leaves which have their general outline completely 
 filled out, so that their margin is an even line, as in Nos. 1, 
 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., are said to be entire. Ex. Quince, Lilac, Lily. 
 
 .No. 30. Ser'-rate, or " saw-toothed," is when the margin 
 is cut into sharp teeth, like those of a saw, and pointing 
 forvmrd. Ex. Thorn, Apple, Pear, Peach, Almond, Hemp, 
 Hickory, many of the roses, etc. 
 
 No. 31. Dent' -ate., or "toothed," when the teeth point 
 outward instead of forward : as in the Red Beech, where 
 they are coarsely toothed, and in the White Beech, where 
 they are slightly toothed. See, also. Witch-hazel, Hore- 
 hound. Hydrangea, Primrose, etc. If the teeth are very 
 fine the margin is said to be den-tid -ii-late., as in the Pump- 
 kin, Gourd, Squash, Cardinal-flower. If the teeth are them- 
 selves toothed, it is doubly dentate. 
 
 No. 32. Cre'-nate., or "scalloped," when the teeth are 
 broad and rounded. The margin of No. 14 is slightly cre- 
 nate. Ex. Hollyhock, Daisy, Cowslip, Scarlet Geranium. 
 W^hen the notches are very small, it is called cren' -u-late. 
 
 No. 33. ]^e-pand\ imdidate., or icavy., when the margin 
 forms a wavy line, bending slightly inward and outward. 
 Ex. Deadly Nightshade. 
 
 No. 34. Sm'-u-dte^ or " deep-curved," having deep round- 
 ed openings, as seen in the leaves of the White Oak. 
 
184 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 No. 35. In-cis'ed^ "cut," or "jagged," when the margin 
 is divided, often irregularly, by deep and sharp incisions. 
 [Spelling, drawing, and compositions, as before directed.] 
 
 III. Forms of the Apexes, or Ends of Leaves. 
 
 [The.se should be illustrated by specimens.] 
 
 a. Acu' -min-ate^ when the apex is prolonged into a nar- 
 rowed or tapering point. 
 
 b. A-cute\ when the apex is an acute angle merely — less 
 tapering than the other. 
 
 c. Ob-tuse\ when the apex is blunt or rounded. 
 
 d. Trim'-cdte^ when the apex appears as if cut off square. 
 Ex. Tulip-tree. 
 
 e. E-mar' -gin-ate^ having a small notch at the end. 
 
 f. Ob-cord' -ate^ inversely heart-shape, so as to resemble 
 a cordate leaf (No. 12) inverted. 
 
 g. Cusp' -i-date^ tipped with a sharp and rigid point. 
 
 h. Mu' -cro-ndte^ very abruptly tipped with a short 2:>oint. 
 Ex. Wild Senna, Balsam Fir, Willow Oak. Yarroxo has the 
 marginal dimsiona linear, toothed, and mucronate. 
 
 IV. Curiosities of Leaves. 
 
 For the pitcher-shaped leaves and their uses, and the 
 leaves of the Yenus's Fly-trap, see Fourth Keader, pages 
 194, 195. For the magnified section of a leaf — the breath- 
 ing pores, etc. — see page 193. There are two strata or 
 layers of veins in a leaf, the one belonging to the upj^er, 
 and the other to the under surface. The veins of the uj)- 
 per stratum convey the saj) from the stem (see Fourth 
 Reader, page 181) into the blade of the leaf, for the pur- 
 pose of having it there brought in contact with the air, and 
 formed into the different materials which are required in 
 the growth and nourishment of the tree; and the veins of 
 the lower stratum convey the sap into the harh^ through 
 which it is carried wherever needed. If the leaves of a 
 tree be stripped off, so that this process of suitably ^^/r^x^?-- 
 ing the nourishment can not be carried on, the tree will 
 soon starve to death. On this subject the teacher should 
 read the lesson on " Cell Life," Fourth Reader, page 178. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 185 
 
 V. Frequent Forms of the Stems of Plants. 
 
 [Let pupils bring in as many varieties of these forms as possible.] 
 
 All these forms of the stems of plants exist in nature ; 
 but it will perhaps be sufficient for pupils to learn their 
 names as they find similar stems, and compare them with 
 the figures here given. 
 
 When a stem rises vertically, it is said to be erect. 
 When it grows horizontally upon the surface, it is said to 
 be ])rocumbent^ creeping^ trailing^ etc. A stem is climbing^ 
 or scandent^ when it rises by clinging to other objects for 
 support — whether by tendrils^ as do the pea and grape- 
 vine, by their twining leaf-stalks^ like the morning-glory, 
 or by rootlets^ like the ivy. The stem, like the root, is a7i- 
 7iual^ when it lasts but one season. 
 
 An annual herb flowers in the first year, and dies, root 
 and all, after ripening its seed. Ex. Mustard, Buckwheat, 
 etc., and a great variety of flowering plants.' 
 
 A hiennial herb grows the first season without blossom- 
 ing, survives the winter, flowers and ripens its seed the 
 second season, and then dies, root and all. Ex. Turnip, 
 Carrot, Beet, Cabbage, etc. 
 
 A perennial herb lives and blossoms year after year, but 
 dies down to the ground, or near it, annually. 
 
 A stem is said to be herbaceous when it dies down to the 
 ground every year. 
 
 All trees, herbs, shrubs, etc., are called plants^ in botan- 
 ical language. 
 
 A shruh is a small perennial plant, having a woody stem 
 which divides into branches at or near the ground. 
 
 A tree is a larger perennial plant than a shrub, with a 
 woody stem, or trunk, which does not divide into branches 
 near the ground.* 
 
 * On this subject of the "Stems of Plants," see Fourth Reader, page 
 18G-191 ; Gray's "How Plants Grow," pages 5, 23, 27; Gray's Lessons 
 in Botany, pages 21, 36, 37; Wood's Botany, page 30-41, etc.; and 
 Lindley's Elements, page 20, from which our diagrams are taken. 
 
186 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 VI. Forms of the Roots of Plants. 
 
 Fig. 1. A sprouting seed. See Fourth Reader, page 183. 
 
 Fig. 2. A sprouting seed — the corn — farther advanced, 
 with a single rootlet. 
 
 Fig. 3. The sprouting corn still farther advanced, having 
 a cluster oi fibrous or thread-like roots. 
 
 Fig. 4. A seedling of the maple, natural size. At a is 
 shown the tip or end of the root magnified. 
 
 Fig. 5. A tii'-her-ons root. A tuber is defined to be a 
 " thickened portion of a rootstochP Botanists, therefore, 
 call the tuber of the potato a part of the subterranean or 
 underground stem of the j^lant. Tliis 2:>art of the stem is 
 provided with buds called eyes^ from Avhich new plants 
 arise the succeeding year. 
 
 Fig. 6. A cbn'-ic-cd root is one that thickens most at or 
 near the crown, and tapers regularly downward to a point, 
 as in the common beet, parsnip, and carrot. 
 
 Fig. 7. A turnip-shaped., or nd'pi-form root, is one that 
 is very much thickened above, and abruptly slender below. 
 
 Fig. 8. A spindle-shaped., or fu' -si-form root, is thickest 
 at the middle, and tapering at both ends. Ex. Radish. 
 
 Fig. 9. The clustered tuberous roots of the dahlia. 
 
 Fig. 10. The conn., or solid bulb., though commonly con- 
 sidered a root, is merely a short and thick rootstock. These 
 rootstocks grow more in Avidth than in length, and send out 
 buds or bulblets, which in time grow into new bulbs at the 
 expense of the old one. The real roots of these bulbs, or 
 rootstocks branch out below them. Ex. Crocus, Tulip, Hy- 
 acinth, Leek, Onion, Indian Turnip. 
 
 Fig. 11. A runner is a slender and prostrate branch, 
 rooting at the end, or at the joints. Ex. Strawberry. 
 
 VII. Forms of Flowers. 
 
 [Flowers to illustrate all of these fonns can usually be obtained in the summer season.] 
 
 Fig. 1. 8aV -ver-shaped^ (siiv'-er-shapt), having a slender 
 tube which spreads suddenly into a flat border, as in the 
 phlox and cypress vine, 
 
 ^ The botanical term is hy-po-cra-tpr'-i-form. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 187 
 
 Fig. 2. "Wheel-shaped^ or ro'-tfite, same as sal'-ver-shapecl, 
 except that there is no tube, or only a very short one. Ex. 
 Potato, Bittersweet. 
 
 Fig. 3. Fan' -nel-shdped^ shaped like a funnel, or tunnel; 
 when the tube opens gradually into a swelling border. Ex. 
 Tobacco, Morning-glory. 
 
 Fig. 4. Bell-shaped^ when the tube is wide for its length, 
 and the border a little spreading, like a bell. Ex. Canter- 
 bury Bell, Harebell. 
 
 Fig. 5. Gross-shaped^ consisting of four j^etals* spread-- 
 ing at right angles to each other. This is a large class of 
 flowers. Ex. Mustard, Radish, Sweet Alyssum, Candy-tuft, 
 ^yater-cress, Kockct, Wall-flower, Stock, Cabbage, Turnip. 
 
 Fig. 6. Pbik-shaped^^ a co-rol'-la^ consisting of petals, 
 each having a long claw inserted in a tubular cfdyx.'' 
 
 Fig. 7. Lily-shaped^^ like the lily, consisting of six j)arts, 
 each gradually bending outward, so as to resemble the 
 " bell-shaped." (In the bell-shaped the corolla is entire^ or 
 mon-o-pet-al-ous — of one petal : in the lily-shaped it con- 
 sists of several petals.) Ex. Lily, Tulip, Crown Imperial. 
 
 Fig. 8. JButterfly -shaped ^^ a curiously-shaped co-rol'-la of 
 five dissimilar petals, which has been likened to a butter- 
 fly ; but the resemblance is not very obvious. At h is an- 
 other of the same kind, but a little diflerently shaped. Ex. 
 Pea, Bean, Locust, Yetch, etc. A largo class of plants. 
 
 Fig. 9. Lip-shaped^' having the co-rol'-la deeply cleft into 
 two irregular parts called lips. Ex. Catnip, Sage, Horse- 
 mint, Snapdragon, Toad-flax, Monkey-flower, etc. If the 
 lips are widely separated they are said to be rin'-gent^ or 
 " grinning," as in the monkey-flower ; if they are pressed 
 together they are said to be per'-son-ate, or " masked," as 
 in the snapdragon. 
 
 Fig. 10. ^'i-'-^i^^rtr, or trumpet-shaped, when simply form- 
 
 ^ In-fun-d'ih' -u-U-form. = Cam-pan' -u-late. ^ Cru'-ci-form. 
 
 * Car-y-o-jihyl-la -ceous . ^ Lil-i-a'-ceous. ^ Pa-pil-io-na -ceous. 
 
 ' La -bi-dte. 
 
 =* ^ " The teacher should by this time explain what is meant by pet'- 
 als, co-rol'-la, and ca'-lyx. See Fourth Reader, pages 218, 219. 
 
188 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 ing a tube in the shape of a trumpet, without the swelling 
 border which characterizes the funnel-shaped corolla. Ex. 
 Trumpet-creeper, Trumpet-honeysuckle, the Bignouias. 
 
 VIII. Forms of Flower Stems. 
 
 [Specimens of as many of the following flower-clusters as can be obtained should be 
 provided for the examination of the pupils.] 
 
 Fig. 1 . A ra-ceme' is a flower-cluster with single-flower- 
 ed flower-stalks% arranged along the sides of a general 
 flower-stem^. Ex. Currant, Lily of the Valley, Choke-cher- 
 ry, Barberry, Shepherd's Purse, Hyacinth. A raceme 
 whose flower-stalks branch into additional flower-stems, is 
 called %pan'-i-de. Ex. Oats, Chess, most of the grasses. 
 
 Fig. 2. The cor'-ymh is a flower-cluster in which the 
 flower-stalks originate at diflerent points along the main 
 stem, and elevate all the flowers to about the same height. 
 Ex. Wild Thorn, Hawthorn. 
 
 Fig. 3. A spike is a flower-cluster like a ra-ceme', except 
 that the flowers are ses'-sde — that is, have no stems or p)e(:V- 
 i-cels. They are seated along the main flower-stem. Ex. 
 Mullein, Plantain. 
 
 Fig. 4 is a s2nJ<:e also, in which the ses'-sile flowers are 
 more conspicuous ; but the arrangement is the same in 
 both. 
 
 Fig. 5. A cat'-'kin^ or dm'-eyit^ is a spike, each of whose 
 flowers is covered with a scaly leaf or bract, as in the Wil- 
 low, Poplar, and Birch. 
 
 Fig. 6. An xim'-hel is a flower-cluster whose flower- 
 stalks, or ped'-i-cels, of nearly equal length, spring from 
 the same, or nearly the same, point, so as to resemble, 
 when spreading, the rays of an umbrella, whence the name. 
 When the ped'-i-cels branch out at the top, so that each 
 becomes the support of a smaller um'-bel, these smaller 
 um'-bels are called 'tun' -hel-lets, and the whole a compound 
 um'-bel. Ex. Carrot, Parsnip, Cicuta, Celery, Caraway, 
 Onion, Milkweed, Primrose, Fennel, Sweet Cicely, Corian- 
 
 ^ These single-flowered stalks are called pSd'-i-cels. 
 ^ Tliis general flower-stem is called ape-dun' -de. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 189 
 
 der. (Let the pupil examine these, and tell which are sim- 
 ple and which are compound umbels.) 
 
 Fig. 1. The um'-bel of the Carrot. 
 
 Fig. 8. The um'-bel (slightly irregular) of the English 
 Cowsli]). 
 
 CHAET No. XX. BOTANICAL : THE CLASSI- 
 FICATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 We have already given, in connection with Chart No. 
 XIX., representations and descrii^tions of the forms of 
 leaves, stems, roots, and flowers — of the latter, however, 
 only as respects the general forms oi\X\^\x petals ov floicer- 
 leaves. It is now desirable for pupils to carry the " ob- 
 ject" system of investigation in plants still farther, by a 
 more minute examination of the several parts which com- 
 pose a complete flower, as a knowledge of these parts is 
 required before they can understand either of the leading 
 systems which have been adopted in the classification of 
 l^lants. In no other department of science can the " ob- 
 ject" or Developinent system of instruction be carried out 
 more satisfactorily than in the study of the Vegetable 
 Kingdom ; and this study, as here directed to be jDursued, 
 will be worth all the time devoted to it for the mere culti- 
 vation of the perceptive faculties alone. 
 
 "VVe have selected, on the Chart, for an illustration of 
 the several jjarts of a complete flower, a species of the 
 Evening Primrose {^CEnothera fruticosci)^ as it has a flow- 
 er complete in all its parts, and is found growing wdld, in 
 sterile soils, from New England and the Western states to 
 the Gulf of Mexico. Several sj^ecies of the common Prim- 
 rose {(Enotherci biennis) are cultivated in gardens, as an 
 annual, flowering from June to August ; and these also 
 may be used for illustration, as they do not differ in im- 
 portant particulars from the one we have selected. As 
 many of them, however, blossom in the evening and wither 
 the next day, they should be gathered for examination ear- 
 
190 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ly in the morning. Each pnpil should have, if j^ossible, a 
 flower of the primrose to examine, wliile also referring to 
 the illustration on the Chart. If the primrose can not be 
 obtained, take some other flower, even if the petals, sta- 
 mens, and pistils are not the same iii number as in the 
 primrose. 
 
 Ciilyx. — In the Primrose there is a green ccilyx^ or cup^ 
 which incloses the yellow flower-leaves. This calyx is 
 four-cleft. Where the cfdyx has several separate leaves, 
 each is called a sqKil.^ On the Chart the calyx is repre- 
 sented as divided into four green sej^'-als, Avhich are turn- 
 ed down. In the primrose the calyx early falls ofi", and is 
 therefore said to be deciduous. Let pupils examine flow- 
 ers, and point out the calyx, and tell whether it is entire, 
 or cleft, or composed of several sej^arate sepals. In a few 
 flowers there is no calyx, as in the Tulip, Lily, Adder- 
 tongue, Tuberose, and Hyacinth. 
 
 Petals. — The primrose has four yellow pet'-als or flower 
 leaves. These are seen on the Chart, at the left, most of 
 the green calyx having been taken off to show the petals 
 the better. Let the pupils take ofl"the petals, one by one, 
 from the real flower. Within these petals are seen other 
 organs. Let pupils examine other flowers, and see wheth- 
 er the corolla (flower) is entire, or consists of several pet- 
 als. 
 
 Stamens. — In the stalk represented on the right the ca- 
 lyx is turned down, and the petals are removed, so as to 
 present a better view of the central organs of the flower. 
 Here are eight slender stalks ox filaments., each of which 
 has at its summit a little knob called an anther. The an- 
 ther and filament taken together constitute what is called 
 the stamen. A stamen, enlarged, is shown at the extreme 
 left of the flower. It will hereafter be seen that the num- 
 
 * Webster prefers the pronunciation sep'-al, Worcester se'-pal. In 
 like manner lexicographers differ as to the pronunciation oi petal, some 
 giving pet'-al, and others pe'-tal. We prefer both sCp'-al and pet'-al, 
 because the compounds are invariably pronounced with the short sound 
 of the vowel — mon-o-sgp'-al-ous, ])ol-y-pet'-al-ous, etc. 
 
rOK OBJECT LESSONS. 191 
 
 ber of stamens varies greatly in different plants. Let pu- 
 pils examine flowers of different plants, and count their 
 stamens. 
 
 Pistils. — It will be noticed that within the stamens of the 
 primrose is a central and stouter stalk, having its summit 
 four-cleft. This is called the pistil. The top of it is called 
 the stigma., and the slender stalk which supports it is call- 
 ed the style. In the case of the primrose this style extends 
 down below the calyx, through the stalk of the plant, to the 
 vessel or pod which contains the seeds. The seed-vessel 
 or ovary, the style, and the stigma all make up the pistil, 
 as is shown in the separate figure of the pistil on the Chart. 
 The number of pistils differs in different orders of plants. 
 Under the head of the several Linnsean classes, on the Chart, 
 we have generally presented but one pistil to each class, in 
 order to make the distinction plainer between j)istils and 
 stamens. 
 
 The ovary or seed-vessel is in most plants within the ca- 
 lyx, at the bottom of the floAver. It is sometimes only one- 
 celled, and sometimes many-celled, to correspond with the 
 number of styles. 
 
 The toj) of the stamen, called the anther, is almost always 
 yellow, and contains a fine yellow powder, called pollen. 
 The little grains of the pollen, when magnified, present dif- 
 ferent forms in different plants. A representation of the 
 magnified pollen of the primrose is shown on the Chart. 
 (For a farther account of the several parts of the flower, 
 see Fourth Reader, pages 217-220, 223, 224.) 
 
 I. THE LINN^AN SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 In the system of classification of plants adopted by the cel- 
 ebrated Swedish botanist Linnaeus, the classes are found- 
 ed upon the circumstances of the number, position, relative 
 length, and union of the stamens. These classes are then 
 subdivided into orders. The orders of the first 12 classes 
 are determined by the number of styles (or stigmas when 
 the styles are w^anting) ; of the 13th class, by the covering 
 or nakedness of the seeds; of the 14th, by the shape of the 
 
192 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 pods ; of the 15th, ICth, 18th, 19th, and 20th, by the num- 
 ber or union of the stamens; of the 1 7th, by pecuharities 
 in t\\Q, florets of the compound flowers. The classes only, 
 and not the orders, are represented on the Chart. 
 
 Although the Linnsean system has now, in great part, 
 given place to the natural method /or the classification of 
 plants, yet every botanist must understand all the several 
 parts and all the characteristics of plants, which the Lin- 
 na3an system so beautifully unfolds ; and in no way can 
 they be better learned than by going through the Linneean 
 system in regular order, where the materials are at hand 
 for that purpose. Moreover, for the great ends of "object" 
 teaching — the formation of habits of close observation, nice 
 discrimination, and searching analysis — the Linnaean sys- 
 tem of studying plants is invaluable. It is also the proper 
 introduction to those grander beauties and harmonies of 
 the vegetable world which are unfolded in the natural 
 method of classification. 
 
 Pupils should commence the study of the several parts 
 of flowers with the Chart before them, and with the real 
 flowers also, and both should be made use of by the teach- 
 er for illustration. It is not necessary to take up the Lin- 
 nsean classes ^V^ order ; but the teacher should commence 
 with such classes as he can obtain flowers to illustrate. By 
 proceeding in this manner he may be able to go over most 
 of the classes in one summer. The teacher should not ob- 
 ject to introducing his pupils to this study because he him- 
 self may know nothing of botany ; for the course j^ursued 
 here is one of ohservatio)i merely, and not of dictation : it 
 is to be expected that he can observe, and remembei', and 
 learn as well as his pupils ; and where he thus goes along 
 wdth them in their studies, he may j^erhaps be the better 
 enabled to stimulate their zeal and secure their confidence. 
 He may perhaps be so ignorant of flowers as to know but 
 very few of those whose common names we have given ; 
 but as in every neighborhood, and especially in the coun- 
 try, some flowers are cultivated, and some wild flowers are 
 so common that every body knows them, the pupils will be 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 193 
 
 likely to bring in a considerable number of such as may be 
 easily referred, by their names only, to their respective 
 classes. With such the study can be commenced; and 
 once commenced in childhood, it will be apt to be continued 
 through life. 
 
 Class I.* One Stamen. — To illustrate this class obtain, if possible, 
 specimens of some of the following plants in blossom : arrow-root, gin- 
 ger, water chickweed or starwort, blite, samphire, tick-seed. Some of 
 these have one pistil, and belong to the first order in this class ; others 
 have two pistils, and, consequently, belong to the second order. Plants 
 of this class are not numerous. On the Chart the stamens are colored 
 yellow ; the pistils have a darker, or orange color. Both pistils and 
 stamens of plants in the same class differ much in form, and a variety 
 of these forms is given on the Chart. The anthers of stamens differ 
 much in shape ; and sometimes a pistil has no apparent stigma, and 
 sometimes it has a stigma only, and no style. 
 
 Whatever plants the pu23ils bring in as specimens, let 
 them examine and describe, first, the calyx, and tell whether 
 it is entire or merely cleft, or whether it consists of many 
 sepals ; 2d, let them describe the corolla (or flower), and 
 tell whether it is entire, or consists of several petals. 
 
 Class II. Two Stamens. — It will be easy to obtain specimens of this 
 class : such as lilac, catalpa, sage, jessamine, fringe-tree, rosemary, 
 American olive, speedwell, horse-balm, prim, etc. All those mentioned 
 are of the first order — that is, have only one pistil. The figure on the 
 Chart represents the pistil coming up between the stamens. This is be- 
 cause the stalk of the plant is cut away below the bottom of the flower. 
 The pistils and stamens are not united. 
 
 Call the attention of pupils to the fact that all the flowers 
 which we have mentioned in the second class are one-pet- 
 aled ; and also let them see that the petals are inserted 
 at the very base of the pistil, and heloio the ovary. Petals 
 thus situated are spoken of as being inferior.\ These 
 
 * The first twelve classes are named by prefixing Greek numerals to 
 andi-ia, a Greek derivative used metaphorically for stamens. Although 
 these names are given on the Chart, it is not necessary, nor desirable, 
 that young pupils shoitld learn them at present. It is sufficient for them 
 now merely to name the classes, by numbers, and tell their character- 
 istics, leaving the Greek names of the classes and orders to be learned 
 at a later period in their studies, if they should then find it desirable. 
 
 t By some the Greek word hy-pog'-y-nous (g soft) is used, from hu'jio, 
 "under," and gu'ne, "pistil" — "under the pistil." 
 
 I 
 
194 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 things may appear unimportant in themselves, but they 
 will lead j^upils to examine carefully, and notice small dif- 
 ferences, thus forming the habits of the scientific investi- 
 gator. 
 
 Class III. Th-ee Stamens. — This is a much larger class than the 
 second, and embraces such plants as the gladiolus, crocus, iris, valerian, 
 wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, Timothy grass, red-top, sugar-cane, broom- 
 corn, etc. Here is a great variety for examination and comparison. 
 Some, like the wheat, have their flowers in sjnkes, and have no proper 
 corolla.* In many of them, also, as in the illustration on the Chart, the 
 pistil is short and knob-like, and has no style. In the wheat the pistil 
 becomes the berry. 
 
 Class IV. Four Stamens. — Obtain, for illustration, some of the fol- 
 lowing plants : teasel, Venus's pride, partridge-berry, scabious, madder, 
 dog-wood, which have their flowers superioi- — apparently inserted iipon 
 the ovary, and are of the first order ; witch-hazel, of the second order ; 
 holly, and pond-weed, of the fourth order. 
 
 Class V. Five Stamens. — This is a very large class of plants. Among 
 those of the first order (that is, those that have but one pistil), having 
 one-petaled flowers, are lungwort, stone-seed, hound-tongue, borage, bu- 
 gloss, comfrey, primrose cowslip, mullein, morning-glory, tobacco, ]ihlox, 
 Greek valerian, azalea, potato, red pepper, lob'elia, trumpet honeysuckle, 
 and four o'clock. Among the Jive-petakd flowers of the first order are 
 jewel-weed, violet, spring beauty, bachelor's buttons, grape, currant, and 
 gooseberry. In the second order (two pistils) Avill be foiind gentian, 
 ginseng, carrot, sweet cicely, dill, fennel, caraway, celery, parsley, cori- 
 ander, and the elm-tree. In the third order (three pistils) are snow- 
 ball, elder, and sumach ; and in the fifth order are spikenard and flax. 
 Some of these plants have their corollas inferior, some superior { and 
 some have their flowers in umbels. This class will therefore open to pu- 
 pils an extensive field for investigation. Some of the flowers are small, 
 and will require very close attention. 
 
 Class VI. Six Stamens. — In the first order of this class are s])ider- 
 wort, pappoose root, barberry, amaryllis, leek, garlic, onion, cives, pick- 
 erel-weed, snowdrop, jonquil, daftbdil, lily, adder-tongue, bellwort, Sol- 
 omoir's seal, asparagus, hyacinth, tulip, yucca, crown imperial, and sweet- 
 flag ; in the second order is rice ; in the third order are false wake-robin, 
 dock, and field-sorrel. 
 
 Class VII. Seven Stamens. — This is a very small class, and we can 
 mention only a few common ])lants that belong to it, such as chick win- 
 ter-green, a little plant three or four inches high, and little buck-eye and 
 horse-chestnut, trees thirty or forty feet high. All of these belong to the 
 first oixler. 
 
 Class VIII. Eight Stamens. — Among those that belong to the first 
 
 * A corolla is not an essential part of a flower, as a flower, botanically 
 speaking, can consist of stamens and pistils alone, and as these are all 
 that are necessary for the production of the seed. See Fourth Reader, 
 page 218. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 195 
 
 order in this class are scabish or tree primrose, willow-lierb, cranberry, 
 fuchsia or ear-drop, clarkia, majile-tree, heath, mezercon, and nasturtion. 
 lu tlic third order are water pepper, buckwheat, heart's-ease. 
 
 Class IX. Nine Siamevs. — A small class. In the first order arc sas- 
 safras, spice-bush, and camphor-tree. In the second, several species of 
 criogonum. In the third, rhubarb. The rhubarb has no calyx. 
 
 Class X. lai Stamens. — In the first order are cassia, wild indigo, 
 Judas-tree, and rhodora, which \\h.\q papilionaceous flowers (sec page 187, 
 Fig. 8) ; prince's pine, Labrador tea, rue, pride of Chinaf mahogany-tree, 
 and A'^enus's fiy-trap, which have viany-petaled flowers ; and bearberry, 
 whortleberry, trailing arbutus, laurel, and rhododendron, which have one- 
 petaled flowers. In the second order are hydrangea, saxifrage, ^oap- 
 wort, pink, and sweet William ; in the third order are bladder cam^uon, 
 catch-fly, and starwort ; in the fifth order are mouse-ear chickweed, 
 cockle, wood-sorrel, and live forever ; and in the tenth order is the ph}^- 
 tolacca, or poke-weed. This latter plant, therefore, has ten stamens and 
 ten pistils. 
 
 Class XI. Over Ten Stamens inserted on the Calyx. — Here will be 
 found a new character for classification — iho. position of the stamens. By 
 pulling off tlie calyx the stamens will be found adhering to it. Among 
 the plants of tliis class, and in the first order, will be found the numerous 
 cactus plants, the cherry, ])lum, peach, apricot, pomegranate, and myrtle. 
 In the fifth order — that is, having,/?i'e pistils — will be found the common 
 thorn-bush, mountain ash, the pear, apple, and quince, and those beauti- 
 ful flowering shrubs the spiraeas. In this class are also found the rose, 
 in its numerous varieties, the strawberry, blackberry, ras])berry, and the 
 ])Otentillas or five-fingers. Some botanists include these in the t/nrteenth 
 order of this class, as all of them have a great many pistils. Where these 
 pistils arc, are afterward found the little seed berries that make np the 
 large berry or fruit. The rose, in its natural or wild state, has only five 
 jjctals, but these are greatly multiplied by cultivation, the numerous 
 stamens of the wild flower being changed by culture into petals. See 
 Fourth Reader, page 223. 
 
 Class XII. Many Stamens, inserted on the Keceptacle ; that is, on the 
 stammit of the flower-stalk which supports the pistil or pistils. See Chart. 
 — In the first order of this class are found the bass-wood, portulacca or 
 jjurslane, celandine, blood-root, water lily, pond lily, cohosh, pop])y, tea, 
 orange, lemon, the common mandrake, and the curious side-saddle flow- 
 er. In the second order is the larkspin-; in the third are the mignon- 
 ette and peony ; in the fifth are monk's-hood, wild columbine, and St. 
 John's wort ; and in the thirteenth order — having a great many pistils — 
 are the clematis or virgin's bower, American cowslip, hellebore, mag- 
 nolia-tree, tulip-tree or white-wood, ranunculus or crowfoot, etc. 
 
 Class XIII. Four Stamens ; Ttco long, and Tico short. — In some 
 plants of this class two of the stamens arc abortive — mostly or wholly 
 wanting. The plants of this class are also peculiar in having labiate or 
 lijKshaped flowers. See page 187, Fig. 9. In this class are two orders : 
 qymnos})erms, or naked-seeded plants ; and angiosj)erms, or those which 
 liave covered seeds. In the first order will be found spearmint, pepper- 
 mint, pennyroyal, blue gentian, hyssop, catmint, liorchound, ground ivy, 
 motherwort, lavender, savory, marjoram, skullca]>, thyme, balm, and ver- 
 vain. In the second order ate yellow coxcomb, eye-bright, beech-drops, 
 
196 MANUAL OF INFORM ATION 
 
 figwort, bif]cnonia or trumpet-flower, blue-licarts, snapdragon, monkey- 
 flower, toad-flax, gerardia or false foxglove, and digitalis or garden fox- 
 glove. 
 
 Class XIV. Six Stamens ; Four lowj^ and Two short. — All the plants 
 in this class are pod-bearing, and have cruciform or "cross-shaped" flow- 
 ers. The class has two orders : 1st Order, slliculosa, length and breadth 
 of pod nearly equal; 2d Order, siliqiiosa, pod much longer than broad. 
 In the lirst order are sea-rocket, sliepherd's purse, pej^ijer-grass, horse- 
 radish, water raflish, honesty or satin-flower, woad, and candy-tuft. In 
 the second order are tooth-root, wall-ci-ess, tower mustard, water rad- 
 ish, wall-flower, stock-judy-flower, rocket, radish, mustard, cabbage, and 
 turnip. 
 
 CJJ.ass XV. Filaments of the Stamens united in one Set, surroimding 
 the Pistil, and often appearing attached to it. — The orders in this class 
 depend upon the number of stamens. In the third order are blue-eyed 
 grass, tamarind, and tiger-flower ; in the fifth ai'e passion-flower and 
 stork's-bill ; in the seventh, pelargonium or stork geranium ; in the 
 tenth, crowfoot geranium or crane's-bill ; in the tliirteenth (liaving mawj 
 stamens united), common mallows, marsh-mallows or hibiscus, holly- 
 hock, and common cotton. 
 
 Class XVI. Filaments of the Stamens tinited in tico Sets. — The or- 
 ders depend upon the number of stamens. In the fifth order is corydalis 
 or colic-weed; in the. sixth are dielytra, fumitory, snake-root, and flow- 
 ering winter-green ; in the tenth are the common pea, sweet pea, vetch, 
 wistaria, locust-tree, bladder senna, indigo, liquorice, clover, and bush 
 clover. The lupine, dyer's broom, furze, and peanut are usually placed 
 in the sixteenth class, but their numerous stamens are united in one 
 set. 
 
 Class XVII. Anthers united; Flowers compound. — ^\\e filaments of 
 the stamens are usually five, and separate. As these are usually small 
 flowers clustered together in heads, it requires close examination to ob- 
 serve the several parts of any one little flower. There are two kinds of 
 flowers ov florets in a single head of these compound flowers — the outer 
 being called ray florets, and the inner disk florets. Of these compound 
 flowers there are the five following orders : 
 
 1st Order. Fqiialis (or "equal"), having perfect florets; that is, each 
 floret, whether in the ray or the disk, having both pistils and stamens. 
 In this order arc succory or endive, dandelion, lettuce, vegetable oyster, 
 burdock, thistle, artichoke, and boneset. 
 
 2d Order. Sti}>erflaa ("superfluous"), having the disk florets perfect 
 (both stamens and pistils), while the ray florets contain only pistils. In 
 this order are tansy, artemisia, wormwood, life everlasting, elecampane, 
 aster, golden-rod, ox-eyed daisy or chrysanthemum, garden daisy, mari- 
 gold, May-weed, chamomile, and yarrow. 
 
 3d Order. Frustranea (" frustrated" or useless), having the disk florets 
 perfect, while the ray florets have neither stamens nor ])istils. In this 
 order are sunflower, bur marigold, coreopsis, bluebottle, rudbeckia, and 
 the numerous centaury ])lants. 
 
 4th Order. Necessaria, the disk florets having stamens only, and the 
 ray florets having pistils only. In this order are ragged-cuj), leaf-cup, 
 pot marigold, and ragwort. 
 
 5th Order. Segreyata ("separated"), each floret, whether in disk or 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 197 
 
 ray, having its separate calyx. In this order arc elephant-foot and globe- 
 thistle. 
 
 Class XVIII. Stamens on the Style of the Pistil. — The orders de- 
 pend on the number of stamens. In the first order are the orchis, scrof- 
 ula-weed or rattlesnake-leaf, snake-mouth, tway-blade, coral-root, and 
 the arethusa — the latter a low beautiful plant of a purple color, found in 
 wet meadows and swamps. In the second order is the cypripedium or 
 lady's slipper. In the fifth order are the common milkweed, dwarf 
 milkweed, butterfly weed, dogbane, and milkvine. In the sixth order 
 is birthwort ; in the tenth is wild ginger or w' hite snake-root. 
 
 Class XIX. Stamens and Pistils in sejxwate Floivers on the same 
 Plant. — The orders depend on the number of stamens. Some of these 
 plants have no calyx, some have no corolla, and some have neither ca- 
 lyx nor corolla. In the first order are found wild caper and spurge, sea 
 eel-grass, and river nymph ; in the third order are the common cat-tail 
 or reed-mace, bur reed, sedge, sweet- fern, and Job's tear ; in the fourth 
 are pipewort, alder, nettle, mulberry, and box ; in the fifth, false spurge, 
 the amaranths and coxcombs, and the common hogweed or pigweed. 
 The latter has no corolla. In the thirteenth order (many stamens) are 
 arrow-head, Indian turnip, water arum, burnet, and the following trees : 
 oak, hazel, beech, birch, chestnut, hornbeam, button-wood, hickory, but- 
 ternut, and black walnut. Belonging to this same class, and having 
 their stamens united in one, two, or three sets, are the cucumber, musk- 
 melon, water-melon, gourd, squasli, pumpkin, the castor-oil plant, and 
 the pine, cedar, and arbor-vitce trees. 
 
 Class XX. Stamens and Pistils in separate Floivers and on different 
 Plants. — The orders depend on the number of stamens. In the second 
 order are the numerous sj)ecies of willow^, ash, and horn-bush ; in the 
 third is the fig-tree ; in the fourth, the bay-berry and mistletoe ; in the 
 fifth, the prickly ash, common hop, hemp, and spinach ; in the sixth, 
 sarsaparilla, common green-brier, yam-root, and honey locust ; in the 
 eighth, poplar, balm of Gilead, and date plum ; in theji/teenth, in which 
 the stamens are united in one set, red cedar and yew. 
 
 Class XXI. The plants of this class, ivhich have no visible flowers, 
 are divided into six natural families or orders, as given under the Nat- 
 ural Method of Classification. They are, Ist, Ferns ; 2d, Liverworts ; 
 3d, Mosses; 4th, Lichens; 5th, Fungi; Gth, Alga), or Sea-weeds. 
 
 Compositions, — Let pupils write descriptions, from time 
 to time, of the plants which they have obtained and exam- 
 ined : let them describe their floral organs ; color of the 
 flower; time of blossoming; whether fragrant or not; 
 height of plant; where found — whether in the open fields 
 or woods, on dry and high lands or in wet places ; whether 
 cultivated or wild ; if any use is made of it ; whether climb- 
 ing or trailing, or a shrub, or a tree, etc. ; and let them con- 
 nect with their notices of the places Avhere they found them 
 descriptions of scenery, incidents, etc. 
 
198 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 Pupils sliould very early begin the collection of herbari- 
 ums — dried specimens of plants. For directions, see page 
 201. 
 
 IT. THE NATURAL METHOD OF CLASSIFICATIOX. 
 
 These Lessons are designed more particularly for those 
 pupils who have read, or are reading, the Botanical Part 
 of the Fifth Reader. They will also be found useful to the 
 teacher, as guides and suggestions, with the aid of the 
 Chart, in giving a series of Oral Lesso7is on Plants, even 
 to the younger pupils who have not read so far, or to the 
 whole school. 
 
 [Chart No. XX. before the pupils : on the teacher's desk pieces of oak, walnut, or 
 some other coarse-grained wood, sawed across, to show the circles of yearly growth, to 
 illustrate the Exogenous plants ; pieces of corn-stalk, ratan, i stems of lily, and grass- 
 es, for the Endogenous ; and, for the Cryptogamous, ferns, pieces of toad-stool, and 
 puff-balls, moss from the woods, and lichens from old wooden rails and rocks, all of 
 which may be obtained at any season of the year. The pupils also should obtain and 
 bring in specimens.] 
 
 1. Let some pupil go to the Chart and show how plants 
 are arranged in three great divisions, in the ISTatural Meth- 
 od of Classification. Let another similarly arrange the 
 specimens on the table. Describe Ex-og'-en-ous^ plants, 
 En-dog'-en-ous^ (see Fourth Reader, pages 176 and 187, 
 and Fifth Reader, pages 144 and 186), Cryp-tog'-a-mous 
 (Fifth Reader, pages 144 and 196). 
 
 FIRST DIVISION. EX-OG'-EN-OUS PLANTS. 
 
 [Have specimens on the table.] 
 
 2. The general character of Exogenous j)lants being now 
 well understood, let some one point out on the Chart the 
 two classes of these. Let another divide the specimens on 
 the table into these two classes, another name them, an- 
 other describe the An'-gi-o-sperms,* and another the Gym'- 
 no-sperms.^ (See Fifth Reader, page 144, verse 2.) 
 
 ^ The ratan. from which walking-sticks are made, and other species 
 of reeds, growing in great variety in India, belong to the Palm family. 
 2 From the Greek exo, on the outside, and genao, to produce. 
 ^ From the Greek endon, within, and genao, to produce. 
 * From the Greek aggeion, a vessel, and sperma, a seed. 
 ^ From the Greek gurnnos, naked, and sperma, a seed. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 199 
 
 CLASS I. ANGIOSPEEMS (COVEEED SEEDS). 
 
 [Specimens of Polypetalous, Monopetalous, and Apetalous plants on the table.] 
 
 [For specimens of the An'-gi-o-sperms take the various pods, and any other cover- 
 ed seeds, and for the Gym'-no-sperms take cones of the pine, hemlock, larch, etc. In 
 the larch and pine, each of the scales of the cone, when ripe, may be seen to have, on 
 its inner face, next the base, two or more ovules^ or seeds. The scales of the cone are 
 the real pistils of the plant.] 
 
 3. Let one pupil go to the Chart and point out and ex- 
 plain the first division of Exogenous plants (the Polypeta- 
 lous^ Fourth Reader, page 219, and Fifth Reader, page 
 150, Def). Let another point out and explain the sec- 
 ond division (the Monopetalous^ Fourth Reader, page 219, 
 and Fifth Reader, page 167, Def.). Let another point out 
 and explain the third division (the Apetalous^ Fifth Read- 
 er, page 178, Def.). Let another arrange, and similarly 
 explain, the specimens on the table. Let the teacher con- 
 tinue the exercise by handing various specimens to the 
 pupils, and requiring them to describe them. "Thus, one 
 says, " This is 2^ polypetalous plant, because each flower has 
 'niany petals." " This is inonopetalous^ be6ause each flow- 
 er has but one petal." " This is opetaloiis^ because its flow- 
 er has stamens and pistils only, and no petals." Then give 
 them a sunflower, thistle, aster, or marigold, etc. (of the 
 composite family), and see if they can tell whether the 
 flowers are polypetalous or monopetalous. They will be 
 apt to call them polypetalous. Show them (or, better still, 
 let them find out) that each flower-head is composed of a 
 great many flowers, qy florets^ and that each one of these is 
 monopjetalous (Fifth Reader, page 164). Having thus ex- 
 amined some one plant in this family, let them select oth- 
 ers, and see if they can find the separate florets. While 
 doing this they will probably observe that most of the 
 flower-heads contain tii:)0 hinds of florets, or they may have 
 learned the same in connection with the Linnnean classes : 
 tell them the central are called dish florets, and the outer 
 
 * Polypetalous, from the Greek, polus, many, and petaion, a petal. 
 ^ Monopetalous, from the Greek, monos, one, and petaion, a petal. 
 " Apetalous, from the Greek, o, which gives a negative meaning, and 
 petaion, a petal. 
 
200 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ones ray florets. Let them tell to which order each plant 
 belongs, in accordance Avith the Linna3an system. (See 
 page 154.) This is a good exercise to cultivate close ob- 
 servation. Let a pupil point out on the Chart, and name 
 the seven families of Polypetalous plants there represented. 
 The six families of Monopetalous plants there represented. 
 The four of the Apetalous.* 
 
 4. As it would be attended with too great expense to 
 color, in the Fifth Reader, the numerous species of plants 
 rej^resented there, and as the coloi's add much to a correct 
 understanding of them, the same species are represented 
 colored on the Chart, to which the jDupil can refer, so that 
 he may thereby have all the advantages of the coloring. 
 And although the figures may be thought to be too small 
 to be seen hy the class at a distance, yet if they have j^re- 
 viously read over the descriptions in the Fifth Reader, or 
 studied the names, color, and height from the Chart, the 
 colored figures, though small, will answer very well, espe- 
 cially when spechnens also are used. 
 
 5. For example : suppose the lesson of the day is about 
 the Composite family. Have some specimens of that fam- 
 ily on hand, if possible ; but whether you have or not, send 
 a pupil to the Chart, and let him point out and name No. 
 1, the Tall Thistle. The next pupil in the class tells its 
 height ; the next, the color of the flower ; the next, why it 
 is monopetalous ; another, why it is exogenous ; another, 
 why it belongs to the class angiosperms ; another, to what 
 LinnoBan class it belongs, and why. Let another j^upil then 
 go and point out some other species (taking up the real 
 flower also, if you have it), and go through in this, or a 
 similar manner, with as many plants as you have time for. 
 Then call upon the class for ViWj facts which they can re- 
 member about the plants of this family ; poetry, etc. 
 
 The following abbreviated lessons are given as merely a 
 general guide to the teacher after these suggestions. They 
 will answer, also, as a synopsis for 07xd lesso7is to the 
 
 * These are by no means all tlie families that belong to these divi- 
 sions, but the most prominent ones. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 201 
 
 younger pupils who have not yet advanced to the Fifth 
 Reader. 
 
 6. We would here suggest the importance of teaching 
 pupils to preserve plants, and collect Herbariums of their 
 own. i\> quantity of old newspapers, two boards, each 
 about one foot wide and 18 inches in length, and a heavy 
 stone for a weight, are all the apparatus needed. Upon 
 several thicknesses of paper lay dow^n several plants, with 
 the leaves and flowers neatly spread out ; then additional 
 paper and plants, in successive layers, upon these ; place 
 the whole between the boards, with the stone upon the up- 
 per board to press them. They will require fresh paper 
 daily for a week ; after that, as they become drier, they 
 will not require changing so often. The plants should be 
 labeled, with their names (if they can be obtained), and the 
 time when they were gathered ; and after they are thor- 
 oughly dried they should be attached to sheets of white 
 paper. These preserved specimens will be found useful in 
 conducting the following exercises when fresh specimens 
 can not be obtained. 
 
 It would be an easy matter for every teacher to collect, 
 during a single season, an Herbarium of several hundred 
 species. For the method of ascertaining their names, 
 where they are not already known, we must refer to such 
 w^orks as Wood's, Lincoln's, Eaton's, or Gray's Botany, etc. 
 Each person should collect several specimens of each plant, 
 that he may enlarge" his collection by exchanging with 
 others. 
 
 7. PolypetaloUS Plants. — Point out and name the spe- 
 cies of the Rose family represented on the Chart, tell their 
 ordinary height, and color of their flowers.* Do you know 
 any other species in this family ?f To what class in the 
 
 * The Fifth Reader gives, additionally, the scientific name of each 
 plant, the time of flowerinp;, and native coimtry. These facts should be 
 required, except in a few instances, from advanced pupils only, who have 
 paid special attention to the study of Botany. 
 
 t Such as Michigan or prairie rose, eglantine or sweet-brier, yellow 
 rose, dog rose, white rose, tea rose, etc. ; also strawberry, blackberry, 
 raspberry, potentilla or cinquefoil, etc. 
 
 12 
 
202 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 Linnsean system do all of these plants belong ? Eleventh 
 class. Let the pupils examine and tell if they can, and 
 why. Over ten stamens o?i the calyx. Mention some facts 
 about the Rose family. (Fifth Keader, pages 147-150.) 
 Some poetry. (See Fifth Reader; or the selections may 
 be made from any other book.) Who wrote that poetry ? 
 
 8. Point out and name the species of Common Fruits 
 of the Rose family represented on the Chart — tell their 
 height, color of flowers, etc. To Avhat class in the Lin- 
 na3an system do they belong ? Eleventh. Why ? What 
 other species of fruits of this Rose family can you men- 
 tion ?* Facts about the " Common Fruits." (Fifth Reader, 
 page 151-153.) Poetry. Who wrote it, etc. 
 
 9. What very important plant in the Camellia family ? 
 Tea-plant. Facts about it. Important plant in the Mal- 
 low family? Cotton-plant. Facts about it. Point out 
 and name the fruits of the Citkon family represented on 
 the Chart — their height, color of flowers, etc. To what 
 Linna^an class do the Camellias belong ? Fifteenth. Why? 
 The Mallow plants ? Fifteenth class. The Citron j)lants ? 
 Twelfth. Why ? Because the flowers have over ten sta- 
 mens on the receptacle ^' that is, they come out directly from 
 the top of the flower-stem. See Chart. Poetry about either 
 of these families. 
 
 10. Point out the Cactus family on the Chart. To what 
 division does it belong? Exogenous. Why? To what 
 class in the Exogenous division ? Class of Angiosperms. 
 Why? To what division of the Angiosperms ? The Poly- 
 petalous division. Why?f 
 
 Point out and name the species of Cactus plants rej^re- 
 
 * Wild black cherry, choke cherry, and numerous varieties of the En- 
 glish cherry ; many kinds of plums, peaches, apples, pears, etc. Let pu- 
 pils name as many kinds of apples as they can — which are winter apples, 
 etc. — which they like best — describing their qualities. Eor the manner 
 • in which new kinds are produced, and favorite kinds preserved by bud- 
 ding and grafting, see Eourth Reader, page 213. Give statistics of the 
 apple crop in the county, state, etc. See Census Reports. 
 
 t Similar questions should occasionally be asked about the several 
 families, until the divisions and classes are well understood. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 203 
 
 sented on the Chart — tell their height or length, and color 
 of flowers. To what class, in the Linnaean system, do they 
 belong ? Eleventh. Why ? (See Chart.) Same class as 
 the Rose family. Mention some facts about the Cactus 
 family. (Fifth Reader, page 158-160.) Poetry, names of 
 authors, etc. 
 
 11. What are Leguminous plants? (Fifth Reader, page 
 163, Def ) Point out and name the plants of this family 
 represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height, and 
 color of their flowers. What other plants of the Legumin- 
 ous family can you mention ? (See Fifth Reader, page 161. 
 Specimens should be exhibited.) To what Linnasan class 
 do the Lupine, Corol-tree, and Locust-tree belong? Six- 
 teenth class. Why? Because the stamens are united in 
 two sets. See Chart. To what Linnaian class does the 
 Sensitive-plant belong? Fifteenth. Why? What facts 
 can you mention about any of these Leguminous plants ? 
 (Fifth Reader, pages 162,163.) Poetry. Who wrote it ? etc. 
 
 12. What are Umbelliferous plants? (Fifth Reader, 
 page 163, Def.) Point out and name the plants of this 
 family represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary 
 height, and color of their flowers. To what Linnasan class 
 do they belong ? Fifth. What other plants of this fam- 
 ily can you mention?* To what family does the Ivy be- 
 long? Facts about the Umbelliferous plants. Poetry. 
 Who Avrote it. 
 
 13. MonopetalOUS Plants. — ^What are the Monopetalous 
 plants? (Fifth Reader, page 167, Def.) Name the fami- 
 lies of this division rej^resented on the Chart. 
 
 Point out and name the species of the Composite fam- 
 ily represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height, 
 and color of their flowers. To what Linn^ean class do they 
 belong? Seventeenth. Why? What other species of 
 this family can you mention ?f Facts about these plants. 
 (Fifth Reader, page 164-167.) Poetry. 
 
 * Parsley, caraway, fennel, sweet cicely, coriander, cicuta, anise, gold- 
 en Alexanders, etc. 
 
 f A large number : golden-rod, vegetable oyster, burdock, eupatorium, 
 
204 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 14. Point out and name the species of the Jessamine 
 family represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary 
 height, and color of their flowers. Linnaean class ? Sec- 
 ond. Facts about this family. (Fifth lieader, page 168.) 
 Poetry. 
 
 15. Point out and name the species of the Honeysuckle 
 plants, height or length, color of their flowers. Linnsean 
 class? Fifth. Facts. Poetry. (Fifth Reader, pages 168, 
 169.) Describe the upper leaves of the Trumpet Honey- 
 suckle. ( Cooinate-perfoliate.) 
 
 16. Point out and name the species of the Heath plants, 
 height, color of flowers. To w^hat Linnsean class do the 
 Heaths proper belong ? Eighth. Facts. Poetry. (Fifth 
 Reader, page 169-171.) 
 
 17. Point out and name the species of the Labiate plants 
 represented on the Chart, their height, color of floAvers. 
 To what two Liuncean classes do these plants belong? 
 Second and thirteenth. Why are these called Labiate 
 plants? (Fifth Reader, page 172.) Other species of La- 
 biate plants.* Some facts about the Labiate plants. (Fifth 
 Reader, page 172.) Poetry. 
 
 18. Point out and name the sj)ecies of the Teumpet- 
 elowee iDlants represented on the Chart, length or height, 
 color of flowers. Linnsean class. Thirteenth. Facts about 
 this family. As the most conspicuous of the Trmnpet- 
 flower plants are the Bignonias, all the plants of this fami- 
 ly are sometimes called Bignoniads. 
 
 Apetalous Plants, — AYhat are Apetalous plants ? (Fifth 
 Reader, page 178, Def,, and verse 1, Les. XVL, same page.) 
 Name the families of this division re^^resented on the 
 Chart. 
 
 19. Point out and name the species of the Oak family 
 
 boneset, asters, daisies, zinnias, elecampane, ox-eye, chamomile, jNIay- 
 weed, yarrow, feverfew, coriopsis, bnr marigolds, groundsel, wormwood, 
 tansy, life everlasting, fireweed, pigweed, bachelor's button, satfron, gar- 
 den artichoke, succory, endive, hawkweed, dandelion, etc. 
 
 * Spearmint, peppermint, blue gentian, common sage, rosemary, 
 sweet marjoram, summer savory, hyssop, pennyroyal, skullcap, catnip, 
 ground ivy (Gill-over-the-ground), motherwort, etc.- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 205 
 
 represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height.* 
 Linnaean class. Nineteenth. Facts about the trees of this 
 family. (Fifth Reader, page 175-178.) Poetry. 
 
 20. What tree of the Elm family is represented on the 
 Chart, and to what height does it grow? To Avhat Lin- 
 ntean class does it belong? Fifth. What other trees of 
 the Elm family can you mention?! Facts about the Elms. 
 (Fifth Reader, pages 179, 180.) Poetry. 
 
 21. Point out the trees of the Willow family represent- 
 ed on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height. To what 
 Linnsean class do the Willows and Poplars belong ? Twen- 
 tieth. What other trees and shrubs of the Willow family 
 can you mention ?| Facts about the Willow family. 
 (Fifth Reader, pages 180, 181.) Poetry. 
 
 22. Point out the two species of the Biecii family rep- 
 resented on tlie Chart, and tell their ordinary height. To 
 what Linntean class do they belong ? Nineteenth. What 
 other species of the Birch family can you mention ?§ Facts 
 about the Birch family. (Fifth Reader, pages 181, 182.) 
 Poetry. What is the shape of the leaf of the Canadian 
 Poplar ? Cordate or sub-cordate. Of the Weeping Wil- 
 low ? Lanceolate ; also acuminate or pointed, and serrate^ 
 or notched like the teeth of a saw. Shape of the leaves 
 of the English Elm? Ovate, with serrated edges. Draw 
 specimens on the blackboard.! 
 
 * The name mast is given to the fruit of the forest trees generally — 
 such as nuts, acorns, etc. 
 
 t AVhite elm or American elm, slippery or red elm, river elm, and 
 the Southern or Wahoo elm. For a full account of the elms, see Brown's 
 Trees of America, page 479-513. 
 
 X They are numerous — such as basket willow, white willow, shrub 
 willow, creeping willow, rose willow, bog willow, black willow, gray wil- 
 low, shining willow, .yellow willow, heart-leaf willow, etc. ; and of the 
 poplars, the common Lombardy poplar, white poplar or American aspen, 
 birch-leaf poplar, cotton-wood, etc. 
 
 § Yellow birch, 60 to 80 feet high ; red birch, 30 to 50 feet ; canoe 
 birch or paper birch, 60 to 70 feet high — referred to in Longfellow's Hia- 
 watha ; and several species of dwarf birch — mere shrubs. See Wood's 
 Botany, page 648. 
 
 li Be careful, in a serrated leaf to make the notches point forward to- 
 ward the apex of the leaf, as the teeth of a saw point forward. 
 
206 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 CLASS II. GYMNOSPERMS (nAKED SEEDS). 
 
 "What name is given to the second class of the Exogenous 
 plants? Why? (Fifth Reader, page 185, Def.) What 
 large family composes this class ? The Cone-bearing family. 
 
 Point out and name the species of the Cone-bearixg 
 family represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary 
 height. To what Linnffian class do most of them belong ? 
 Nineteenth. Why ? To what Linnasan class do the Red 
 Cedar and common Yew belong? Twentieth. Why? 
 Some facts about the trees of this family.* (Fifth Reader, 
 page 182-184.) Poetry. 
 
 SECOND DIVISION. ENDOGENOUS PLANTS. 
 
 [Specimens of numerous varieties should be exhibited.] 
 
 What are Endogenous plants? How do they grow? 
 etc. (Fourth Reader, pages 176, 187, and Fifth Reader, 
 144, 186.) Describe the two classes into which they are 
 divided. (See Chart, and Fifth Reader, pages 190, 195, 
 Def) What families are included among the aglumaceous 
 plants? (Chart.) A\\\o\^g IhQ glumaceoiis? (Chart. Spec- 
 imens should be placed on the table, and the pupils should 
 classify them.) 
 
 CLASS I. AGLUMACEOUS. 
 
 Point out and name the species of the Ieis family repre- 
 sented on the Chart. Tell their height, and color of their 
 flowers. To what Linnsean class do most of them belong ? 
 Third. To Avhat class does the Tiger-flower belong ? Fif- 
 teenth. Why ? Facts about the plants of the Iris family. 
 (Fifth Reader, pages 186, 187.) Poetry. Repeat it or de- 
 scribe it, and tell who wrote it. 
 
 Species of Lily family represented on the Chart ; height ; 
 color; Linniean class (Sixth). Other plants that belong to 
 the Lily family.f Facts (Fifth Reader, p. 187-8). Poetry. 
 
 * The cone or fruit of the pines is called a stroh'-ile. 
 t Besides numerous species of the lily and tulip, the tuberose, garlic, 
 onion, hyacinths, asphodel, Solomon's seal, asparagus, etc. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 207 
 
 Species of the Pal]\i family represented on the Chart ; 
 ordinary height. To what several Linnsean classes do they 
 belong? Sixth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth. Facts con- 
 cerning the Palms. (Fifth Reader, page 188-190.) 
 
 CLASS II. GLUMACEOUS. 
 
 [Specimens may be obtained at any season.] 
 
 What arc included in the Glumaceous class ? Sedges, 
 Grasses, and Cereals. What are cereals? The cereals 
 are the edible grains — such as Wheat, Rye, Barley, Oats, 
 Maize, Rice, and Millet. 
 
 Point out and name the four species of Sedge plants 
 represented on the Chart, and tell their ordinary height.* 
 What species of sedge are common in this country ?f 
 Facts about these plants. (Fifth Reader, pages 190, 191.) 
 
 Gkasses represented on the Chart ; their height. Facts 
 about the Sedges and Grasses. (Fifth Reader, p. 190, 191.) 
 Poetry. To what Linnajan class do they belong ? Third. J; 
 
 Point out and name the Cereals represented on the 
 Chart, and tell to what height they grow, etc. (Specimens 
 should be exhibited, and the pupils should name them.) 
 To what Linna\an class do the Cereals belong ? Third. 
 Facts about the Cereals. (Fifth Reader, page 192-194.) 
 Poetry.§ 
 
 * Specimens may be obtained at almost any season of the year. They 
 may be readily distinguished from grasses by having the sheath at the 
 base of the leaves closed vp — not slit. See Fifth Reader, page 90. 
 
 t Yellow sedge, slender sedge, showy sedge, red-root sedge, horsetail 
 rush, robin's clubrush (in water some of the stems arc as fine as hairs), 
 mountain rush, lake bulrush, sea bulrush, cotton grass, bogrush, white 
 bog rush, whip grass, etc. More than two hundred species are common 
 in this country. 
 
 X The teacher should inquire of pupils what grasses they are familiar 
 with, etc. ; and he should obtain statistics about the hay crop in the sev- 
 eral states, and in his own county and town. 
 
 § The teacher should be able to add numerous facts of his own gath- 
 eiing, such as the kinds of wheat, and of other grains cultivated in the 
 country around — which are liked the best, and why ; what summer fal- 
 lowing is ; times and modes of sowing and harvesting ; implements 
 used ; quantity of grain per acre ; prices per bushel ; standard weight 
 
208 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 THIRD DIVISION. CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS. 
 
 [Specimens of Ferns, JIosscs, Lichen.?, and Fungi should be exhibited.] 
 
 What is the third great division of plants ? Cryp-tog'- 
 a-mons. See Chart, and Fifth Reader, page 19G. What 
 is meant by cryptogamous ? Concealed fructification ; hav- 
 ing those parts, such as the pistils, stamens, etc., which 
 produce the fruit, either concealed^ or diff'erent from other 
 plants. Into what two classes are the Cryptogamous 
 l^lants divided? (Chart.) What are the leading j^eculi- 
 arities of each? (Fifth Header, page 196.) 
 
 CLASS I. ACEOGENS (ac'-IIO-GENs).^ 
 
 (Specimens of Ferns and Mosses on the table. It may 
 be difficult for pupils to distinguish liverworts from mosses, 
 but see Fifth Reader, page 19S.) Point out and mention 
 some of the Ferns, and tell their height; their general col- 
 or. Some of the Liverworts. Some of the Mosses. Some 
 facts concerning ferns. (Fifth Reader, page 1 96-198.) Con- 
 cerning mosses. (Fifth Reader, page 199-201.) Poetry 
 concerning ferns. Concerning mosses. 
 
 CLASS IT. TIIALLOGEXS (tIIAl'-LO-GENS).^ 
 
 What are Thallogens ? (Fifth Reader, page 196.) The 
 three leading divisions of Thallogens ? (Chart.) 
 
 Lichens. — (Specimens of Lichens and fungous plants can 
 be obtamed at any time, and in all parts of the country. 
 Beautiful collections of lichens in great variety may be ob- 
 tained from old wooden rails, rocks, etc., and by the aid 
 of a little glue may be neatly arranged on thin pieces of 
 
 of a bushel; amount of flour per bushel; miller's toll; weight of barrel 
 of flour ; the process of bread-making ; flour of different grains — what 
 used for ; statistics of amount of wheat and other grains produced m the 
 county, state, and United States ; amount and value of exports of each, 
 etc., etc. See Census Reports, Agricultural Reports, and other means 
 of information. • 
 
 ■ From the Greek — ahros, at the end, or top, and gennao, to produce, 
 to grow. Hence, plants which grow from the end; summit growers. 
 
 ' From the Greek — thalios, a young branch, and gennao, to produce. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 209 
 
 board. We have seen them used for covermg picture 
 frames. Algse, or Sea-weeds, may be obtained auy where 
 on the sea-coast.) Point out and name some of the Li- 
 chens represented on the Chart, and tell their height, etc. 
 Facts concerning them. (Fifth Reader, page 202-205.) 
 Poetry. If the teacher knows the names of any of the 
 plants brought in, he should tell their names, and let the 
 pupils label and preserve specimens. So of all other speci- 
 mens of plants. 
 
 Fungous Plants. — What are Fungi., or fungous plants ? 
 (Fifth Reader, page 206.) Point out and name some of 
 the species represented on the Chart, and tell their height, 
 etc. Some facts concerning the Fungi. (Fifth Reader, 
 pages 206-208.) Poetry. 
 
 Algce^ or Sea-weeds. — What are Algge, or Sea-weeds? 
 (Fifth Reader, page 209.) Point out, name, and tell the 
 length of some of those represented on the Chart. Facts 
 concerning the Algae. Poetry, etc. 
 
 Compositions. — Xot only each class in the three great 
 divisions of plants, but each, fcnnilg also, will furnish abund- 
 ant materials for a separate composition, even though the 
 pupils may have taken only a general view of plants repre- 
 sented in each. After what has already been said as to the 
 many particulars which may be mentioned in connection 
 with plants, it would seem that no farther directions need 
 be given. 
 
 CHART No. XXI. ECOXOMICAL USES OF 
 PLANTS. 
 
 The descriptions which are here given, of certain import- 
 ant portions of the Vegetable Kingdom, under the head of 
 " Economical Uses of Plants," are designed to carry for- 
 ward still farther the " object" system of instruction, in a 
 practical continuation of the subject of Botany. It is de- 
 signed that these descriptions shall aid the teacher in his 
 familiar and instructive " object lesson" talks Avith the pu- 
 
210 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 pils, upon the subjects of the several fruits mentioned. 
 With this view, in connection with the questions, explana- 
 tions, suggestions, and direct information imparted, the 
 Linngean class and order, and the leading divisions of tlie 
 Natural Method also, are given, that the teacher may, if he 
 think it desirable, have his pupils constantly reviewing the 
 ground which they have already gone over, and repeating 
 and verifying their observations upon the characteristic 
 features of plants. Thus, in the case of the apple^ which is 
 put down as being in the eleventh class and fifth order of 
 the Linniiean system, the teacher should require the pupil 
 not only to tell the class and order, and v^hy it is so, but 
 also, if the flower be at hand, to shoio why it is so. So, 
 likewise, as to its place in the natural system, the pupil 
 should show why it is an exogen; why it is an angio- 
 sperm ; and why it belongs to the natural order of Rose- 
 worts. These suggestions may answer for all the plants 
 described. Other important plants or fruits not described 
 here, the teacher may take up, and treat in a similar manner. 
 
 I. Our Common Fruits. 
 
 "What fruits are represented in the First Division of this 
 Chart ? Name them. 
 
 1. The Common Apple {Py'rus ma'lus^ Lin. S., xi., 5 ; 
 Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Jioseivorts^) is the most popular 
 of all the fruits of the temperate zones. No other fruits 
 can be brought to so high a degree of perfection Avith so 
 little trouble ; and of no other are there so many excellent 
 
 * The parenthetical description reads that the scientific name of the 
 common ai)])le is Fij'rus mains ; that in the Linncmn System it is of tlie 
 eleventh class and Ji/th order; and that in the Natural Method of classifi- 
 cation it is an Angiospermous exogens, of the order of Roseworts. This 
 parenthetical description is for the teacher's special benefit. The bota- 
 nist Lindley has separated the apple, pear, quince, medlar, etc., from the 
 Roseworts proper, and called them Ap])leioorts ; and he has also taken 
 the almond, peach, nectarine, plum, cherry, etc., and classed them as an 
 order o^ Almondivorts. The term wort^ which originally meant a j)la7it 
 or hei'h, is now used only in compounds. Roseworts are, therefore, merely 
 jjlants of the Rose order. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 211 
 
 varieties in general cultivation, adapted to almost every 
 soil, situation, and climate. 
 
 Describe the Apples represented on the Chart. Name 
 as many parts of the apple as you can. The skin, the stem, 
 the eye, the flesh, the core, the seeds. What do we mean 
 by t\iQ flavor of an apple? Name and describe as many 
 kinds of apples as you can.* Mention the various pur- 
 poses for which apples are used. Ordinary prices per bush- 
 el, and barrel. Times of ripening and gathering. How 
 winter apples should be gathered. Natural and grafted 
 fruit, and how to obtain new kinds. (See Fourth Reader, 
 page 213, and Fifth Reader, page 151.) 
 
 To which kind of flower clusters does the flower of the ap- 
 ple belong ? The cor'-ymb — sometimes almost a complete 
 
 * In doing this, give size, form, and color ; then describe the flesh and 
 the flavor. The following descriptive terras, which we find in a work 
 describing numerous A-arieties of the Apple, may be of some aid to the 
 teacher. Many of them will also apply to other fruits. 
 
 Form. — Round, roundish, conical, obtuse-conical, flattened, oblong, 
 oblong-ovate, unequal-sided, angular. Skin warty, scabbed, tender, 
 tough, thin, thick, wax-like, etc. 
 
 Color. — Red, dull red, lively red stripes, blotched with red, striped 
 with red on the sunny side, crimson, blush cheek, blush, pink, russet, 
 russet inclining to brown, golden russet, "yellow, deep yellow, pale yellow, 
 straw color, greenish-yellow, orange, green, yellowish-white, yellowish- 
 green, greenish-white, etc. 
 
 Flesh. — White, yellowish, veined with red, pinkish near the surface, 
 tender, crisp, firm, tough, juicy, dry, mellow, mealy, fine-grained, coarse- 
 grained, melting, etc. 
 
 Flavor. — Acid, mild, mild acid, sprightly, sub-acid, sharp acid, tart, 
 sour, rich, sweet, sugary, aromatic, spicy, rose flavor, ri.ch vinous, etc. 
 
 Among the varieties in cultivation may be mentioned : 
 
 1. Summer Apples. — Early harvest, sweet bough, red Astrachan, sum- 
 mer rose, early strawberry, summer pippin, William's favorite. 
 
 2. Fall Apples. — Pearmain, Porter, Gravenstein, fomeuse, mother, 
 Jersey sweetiri|p, maiden's blush, Hawley, fall pippin. Dyer, Vander\'ere, 
 pound sweet. 
 
 3. Wintej- Apples. — Nonsuch, minister, Rhode Island greening, Bald- 
 win, red Canada, Swaar, Northern spy, ladies' sweeting, Boston russet, 
 Newtown pippin, Jonathan, rambo, seek-no-farther, Panvers sweet, Ort- 
 ley, Hurlbut, Chandler, golden russet. Carle, wine apple, lady apple, Pry- 
 or's red. Wood's greening, Janet, winter blush, winter queen, nickejack. 
 
212 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 iim^-bel. Can you describe the form of the leaf of the ap- 
 ple ? It is o'-vate, a-cutc', or short a-cu'-min'-fite, ser'-rate, 
 and pet'-i-o-h"ite. Give the reasons for each. Are botli 
 sides of the leaf alike ? Examine. What is the color of 
 the flowers? Usually a delicate pink. Of the fruit? Ked, 
 yellow, green, and russet, with all imaginable shades and 
 interminglings of these colors. 
 
 2. The Common Peak [Py'rus conimu'nis^ Lin. S., xi., 5 ; 
 IS^at. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Jioseivorts) is a fruit next in pop- 
 ularity and value to the apple. Among the numerous cul- 
 tivated varieties may be mentioned the Bartlett, duchess, 
 Madeline, Bloodgood, Dearborn, vergaloo, seckel. Julienne, 
 Tyson, vanilla, Canandaigua, Stevens's Genesee, Dunmore, 
 Flemish beauty, Maria Louisa, Dix, Onondaga, Beurre, win- 
 ter bell and many others. Let pupils name and describe as 
 many as they can. 
 
 How does the pear generally differ in shape from the 
 apple ? Name as many parts of the pear as you can. For 
 what are pears used ? Ordinary prices per bushel, or bar- 
 rel. Describe the form of the /ec// of the pear. It is o'-vate- 
 lan'-ce-o-late, partially ser'-rate, and a-cute'. Are both sides 
 of the leaf alike ? It is smooth above, and downy beneath. 
 Color of the flower? White. Of the fruit? Similar to the 
 apple. 
 
 3. The Common Quince [Py'rus cydo'nia^ or Cydo'nia 
 mdga'ris^ Lin. S., xi., 5 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Mose- 
 ^(jorts) is a rough-flavored astringent fruit, unfit for eating 
 in the raw state, but admirable for stewing and making 
 preserves. The two principal varieties are the apjole-quince, 
 and the pear-quince. 
 
 On what does the Quince gro^v ? How does the quince 
 generally difier in shape from the pear ? Wider at the base 
 than the pear ; but, like the pear, its form is oiovate. Can 
 you describe the skin of the quince ? It is yellow when 
 ripe; and is clothed with a coat of short, entangled, and 
 matted hairs, very different from the smooth skin of the 
 apple. This kind of covering is called to-men-tose' . For 
 what are quinces most used? For jellies and preserves. 
 
FOE OBJECT LESSONS. 213 
 
 What is the color of the flower of the quince ? White, 
 with a tinge of purple. What is the shape of the leaves? 
 Ovate, acute, and entire. Observe that the margin is not 
 toothed or serrate as iu the apple and pear. Are both 
 sides of the leaf alike ? The leaf is smooth above, and 
 downy beneath. 
 
 4. The Peach {Amy g' dolus per' sica or Per'sica vulga'- 
 ris, Lin. S., xi., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. JRoseworts) is 
 the most exquisitely delicious of our common fruits — more 
 gratifying to the palate by its mass of juicy pulj) than the 
 grape, and more delicate than the melon. 
 
 On what does the Peach grow? On a tree, or shrub, 
 from eight to fifteen feet high. How does the peach differ 
 in shajDC from the fruits before described ? It is more 
 nearly round or orbicular. What is its size? From one 
 to two inches in diameter. The two classes into which 
 this fruit is divided ? Freestones and Clingstones. Color 
 and flavor of the fruit ? The wdiite joeaches, the yellow, 
 and the red-fleshed. The finer white-fleshed varieties are 
 of a sugary flavor, the choice yellows-fleshed are of a vinous 
 or wine flavor, and the red-fleshed are generally quite tart 
 or acid. Describe the construction of the fruit, and tell 
 wherein it difiers from the apple. Like the apple, it is cov- 
 ered by a skin ; but the skin itself, unlike that of the apple, 
 has a downy covering ; the flesh is more pulpy than that 
 of the apple ; instead of a core., the peach has a stone-like 
 chamber, wdiich contains the seed. The stone containing 
 the seed is often called the ^^z^. Purposes for which the 
 peach is used. Describe the leaf. It is lan'-ce-o-late and 
 serrate, from three to five inches long, one third as wide, 
 smooth on both sides, and has short pet'-i-oles. Color and 
 odor of the flowers. Rose-color, with the odor of Prussia 
 acid. Which appear first,^ the flowers' or the leaves^ ? 
 (For account of the nectcirine^ see Fifth Reader, page 152.) 
 Let pupils tell the kinds of peach with which they are ac- 
 quainted, time of ripening, etc. 
 
 5. The Common Plum {Pru'mis clomes'tica^ Lin. S., xii., 
 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Moseworts) is a pleasant and 
 
214 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 useful fruit, growing on a cultivated tree or shrub about 
 fifteen feet in height. Among the numerous cultivated va- 
 rieties may be mentioned the damson, Ottoman, peach- 
 plum, Duane's purple, green gage, Bleecker's gage, Colum- 
 bian gage, Orleans, scarlet, imperial gage, purple gage, long 
 blue, golden-drop, late red, Ickworth, Jefferson, etc. About 
 150 varieties are published in the catalogues of American 
 gardeners. 
 
 Describe the Plum. It is ovate in form ; fleshy, like the 
 fruits before described ; smooth ; varying in size and color ; 
 the pit is smooth, while that of the peach is deeply chan- 
 neled. What uses are made of the plum? What are 
 prunes ? A si^ecies of dried plums, imported chiefly from 
 Southern France, where this fruit is very abundant. Name 
 and describe as many kinds of plums as you are acquainted 
 Avith. Are their flowers all of the same color ? Yes : 
 white. 
 
 6. The Apeicot {Armenia' ca vidga'ris or Pru'niis Ar- 
 menia'ca^ Lin. S., xi., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Mose- 
 loorts) is an early and pleasant fruit, blossoming immediate- 
 ly upon the opening of spring, but liable to be injured by 
 early frosts. 
 
 What can you tell about the Apricot ? The apricot is 
 intermediate in size and character between the peach and 
 the plum, having a skin, flesh, and pit, combining the char- 
 acters of both. The tree is tender in this climate. It is 
 usually budded on plum stocks^ and trained against a wall 
 with a southern exposure. It grows wild in Central and 
 Southern Asia, and the mountains of the Caucasus are said 
 to be covered with it. There are fifteen or twenty varie- 
 ties cultivated. The fruit of the common apricot is a pur- 
 plish yellow ; the black apricot is of a dark purple color 
 wdien ripe. Flow^ers white ; leaves ovate, acuminate, some 
 of them sub-cordate, smooth, and on long pet'-i-6les. 
 
 1. The Grape ( Yi'tis.JJm. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., 
 ord. yine2V07'ts) is said to be among fruits what wheat is 
 among the cereal grasses, or the potato among farinaceous 
 roots ; and, like them, in every country where it wifl grow, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 215 
 
 it is cultivated with pre-eminent care. Grapes are berries^ 
 which grow on woody vines in chisters, and on that kind 
 of a ra-ceme' called 2^pan'-i-cle (see page 188). The flow- 
 ers are green ; berry globular in form, purple, green, or red, 
 and usually five-seeded ; seed sub-cordate. Let the pupil 
 name as many kinds af grapes as he can. Isabella, Cataw- 
 ba, red and white Muscat, black Hamburg, fox or frost 
 grape, etc. What are plantations of vines called ? (See, 
 also, a lesson on grapes, Second Reader, page 29.) 
 
 For what are grapes used? Used chiefly as a dessert- 
 fruit ; also for drying, when they form the raisins and cur- 
 rants of commerce ; and for making wine. The raisins are 
 produced from various species of vines, and derive their 
 name partly from the place where they grow, as Smyrnas, 
 Yalencias, etc., and partly from the species of grape of 
 which they are made, as muscatels, blooms, sultanas, etc. 
 The muscatels, from Malaga, are in the highest estimation. 
 A small species of grape, largely cultivated in Greece and 
 the Grecian islands, produces the dried currants of com- 
 merce, which are largely used in cakes and puddings. 
 
 AVhat is icmef Wine proper is the fermented juice of 
 the^r^^^e only, althougli we speak of currant-wine and oth- 
 er kinds of wine. Thte varieties of grape produced by cul- 
 tivation are very numerous ; and thQ kmds of wine depend 
 not only on the kind of grape, but also upon the soil and 
 climate. The well-known Isabella and Catawba grapes 
 are natives of America. They have a purple color, and 
 have as luscious a taste as the best grapes of Europe. 
 
 The principal kinds of wine are Port (from Oporto, Por- 
 tugal, whence its name), which is of a dark ^nirple or inky 
 color ; Sherry^ from the vicinity of Cadiz, Spain — of a deep 
 amber color; Claret^ the red wines of the Gironde, in 
 France ; Cliwnpagiie^ so called from the province of Cham- 
 pagne, in France ; Burgundy^ mostly red wines, from the 
 old province of Burgundy ; Madeira^ so called from the 
 island of that name ; Mcdmsey^ a Madeira wine, made from 
 grapes grown on rocky grounds exposed to the full influ- 
 ence of the sun's rays ; ■^Teneriffe^ so called from the island 
 
216 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 of that name ; and Tohay^ so called from a town of that 
 name in Hungary — said to be the finest of all the wines. 
 There are also German wines, the Sicilian white wines, 
 American wines, etc. Most of the American wine is of the 
 kind called white wine. 
 
 Brandy is mixed with nearly all foreign imported wines, 
 and especially with the Port wine shipped from Oporto ; 
 and, indeed, so extensive and so varied are the adultera- 
 tions that pure unmixed wine of any sort is exceedingly 
 rare. The best wines are also extensively imitated, and 
 sometimes without containing any of the juice of the grape. 
 It is said that more of the so-called " Tokay'''' wine is sold 
 annually in ISTew York city alone than is produced from all 
 the vines of Tokay. The acid of grapes is chiefly the tar- 
 taric. The sugar contained in grapes difiers slightly from 
 common sugar in composition, containing a smaller quan- 
 tity of carbon. 
 
 8. Currant. — The common Red Currant [Ri'hes ru'- 
 hrum^ Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Currant- 
 loorts)^ is a one-celled berry, filled with pulp, in which are 
 contained numerous seeds. The cuYv^i^t-stem is a good 
 example of the ra-ceme'. The leaves are from three to five- 
 lobed," smooth above, slightly downy beneath, mucronately 
 serrate,* and sub-cordate at the base. 
 
 9. The Filbert [Cor'ylus avella'na^ Lin. S., xix., 12 ; Nat. 
 M., Ang. Exog., ord. 3IasUvo7'ts) is the well-known fruit of 
 the cultivated European hazel-nut. It belongs to that or- 
 der of plants called mastworts^ which includes the oak, the 
 beech, and the Spanish chestnut. It grows on a shrub 
 
 * Leaves of the red currant should be laid before the pupil, who should 
 be led to notice all these little particulars in their forms, and then, if 
 possible, find terms descriptive of them — either terms of his own, or such 
 as we have above given. He has already learned what a serrate leaf is, 
 and that when the leaf is tipped with a little point it is said to be viu- 
 cro-ndte. But here the serratures themselves are slightly mucronate. It 
 may be thought that this is a small particular ; but the child who can 
 be led to notice it of his own accord, and to find a term descriptive of 
 this peculiarity, will have already entered upon that course of close ob- 
 servation which characterizes the scientific discoverer. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 217 
 
 from two to ten feet in height. Observe the resemblance 
 between this nut and the acorns and beech-nuts. The 
 three well-known varieties of the filbert are the red, the 
 frizzled, and the white. The latter is the kind most com- 
 monly cultivated. The husk which incloses the nut of the 
 filbert is the ca'-lyx of the flower. It will be seen, from 
 the engraving, that it is ca'tn-pan' -u-late^ or bell-form, 
 spreading at the apex, and torn-toothed. 
 
 The American hazel-nuts, like the wild hazel-nuts of Brit- 
 ain, grow on small shrubs from two to five feet high, found 
 in thickets and borders of fields. They are excellent, but 
 are inferior to the cultivated European nut. They might, 
 perhaps, become equal to it by long-continued cultivation. 
 
 (Let children bring in specimens of acorns, beech-nuts, 
 and common hazel-nuts, to describe, and compare with the 
 filbert. The latter, also, which may be had at almost any 
 country store, should be obtained.) 
 
 10. The English or Garden Goosebeeky {Mi'-bes gros- 
 sula'ria^ Lin. S., v., 1 ; N^at. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Currant- 
 loorts) is a well-known, cultivated, globe-like (globose) fruit, 
 of a lively but pleasant acid taste, and belonging to the same 
 family as the currant. The branches are prickly; some 
 kinds have smooth berries, others hairy; leaves roundish, 
 from three to five-lobed, hairy beneath, and on hairy pet'- 
 i-oles. Observe that the little green ca'-lyx which incloses 
 the flower of the currant and gooseberry is bell-form and 
 five-cleft, and that the cor'-ol and sta'-mens are inserted on 
 the ca'-lyx. These are not too small particulars for cliil- 
 dren to notice. There are now several hundred varieties 
 of the gooseberry produced by cultivation, with red, white, 
 green, and amber fruit. Gooseberries are sometimes raised 
 of monstrous size for exhibition, by leaving on the bush 
 only a few berries, and supj^orting them so that they do not 
 hang by their stems, but rest and fatten. In our climate 
 the gooseberry is very subject to mould or mildew. Ask 
 the children if they know what inould is. Describe it. 
 (See Fourth Reader, page 172, verse 3 ; and Fifth Reader, 
 page 206, Fig. 11, and verses 1 and 2.) 
 
 K 
 
218 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 11. The Garden RAsrBERRY [Ru'hiis idm'iis^ Lin. S., xi., 
 13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. liosevjorts) is a Avell-known 
 native berry, growing wild in all j^arts of the country, but 
 greatly improved by cultivation. It is of a somewhat acid 
 taste, but, like the strawberry, it is one of the few fruits 
 that does not undergo the acetous fermentation in the 
 stomach. There are numerous varieties. (Pupils should 
 name and describe as many as they can.) Besides the 
 common black and red varieties that are found growing 
 wild, there are the red and yellow Antwerj^s, Francouia, 
 Fastolff, etc. 
 
 The berry is composed of numerous pulpy one-seeded 
 grains (called ac'-i-nes or ac'-i-ni by botanists), situated on 
 a dry receptacle. Pupils should be led to examine these 
 pulpy grains, and to take them oflT carefully to see how^ 
 they are arranged on the receptacle. Let them notice, 
 also, that the little green cup (cfi'-lyx) inclosing the flower 
 is five-cleft, and. that the flower is flve-pet'-aled. 
 
 12. The High Blackberry [JRu'hus villo'sus^JAn. S., xi., 
 13 ; N"at. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Iioseworts),^Yhicb. is a thorny 
 shrub, growing wild, from 4 to 6 feet high, in all parts of 
 the country, is beginning to be cultivated as a garden fruit. 
 Of the cultivated varieties, the "New Rochelle" and " Law- 
 ton" have thus far been the most popular. Let pupils bring 
 in portions of stem, leaves, and fruit, and describe them. 
 It will be found that the blackberry has an angular stem ; 
 leaflets from 3 to 5, ovate, acuminate, serrate, hairy on both 
 sides. The pet'-i-oles are prickly; petals white. Calyx 
 and flower similar to those of the raspberry. The fruit, 
 which ripens in August and September, is collected into 
 an ovate or oblong head. Let pupils examine and tell 
 wherein it diflers from the raspberry. 
 
 13. The English Strawberry {Fraga'ria ves'ca^ Lin. S., 
 xi., 13 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ov^. Roseworts) excels all other 
 fruit-bearing herbaceous plants in the excellence of its fruit. 
 It grows w^ild in great abundance in many parts of the coun- 
 try ; but the cultivated varieties are much the largest and 
 best flavored. The fruit is sometimes an ounce or more 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 219 
 
 in weight. The strawberry has five petals, but the stamens 
 and pistils are very irregular. It frequently happens that 
 the strawberry is deficient either in stamens or pistils ; and 
 when this is the case, if those of one kind only are planted 
 together, they will not bear fruit. The runners which take 
 root, and send up independent plants, are called stolons by 
 botanists. The leaves are in threes, downy ; flowers white ; 
 berry similar to the blackberry in shape. 
 
 Let the pupils name the varieties with which they are 
 acquainted, and describe them as to color, size, shape, 
 weight, etc., as well as they can. Among the prominent 
 varieties the large early scarlet, Longworth's prolific, Wil- 
 son's Albany, Genesee, Walker's seedling, Jenny Lind, and 
 some others, have perfect flowers, and bear fruit Avhen 
 planted alone. Hovey's seedling, crimson cone. Burr's 
 new pine, M'Avoy's superior, Monroe scarlet, Moyamen- 
 sing pine, Jenny's seedling, and some others have imper- 
 fect flowers, and are comparatively unfruitful unless plant- 
 ed with A^arieties that have either perfect or stammate 
 flowers. 
 
 Other common fruits and vegetables, not represented on 
 the Chart, but which may be mentioned in this connection, 
 and described by the pupils, are cherries, cranberries, pump- 
 kins, squashes, cucumbers, water-melons, muskmelons, egg- 
 plants, tomatoes, peas, beans, salsify or vegetable oyster, 
 mushrooms, etc. Some of the pupils will doubtless be able 
 to describe several kinds of many of these. 
 
 Among nuts, the hickory-nut or walnut, black walnut, 
 butternut, chestnut, etc. Among garden edibles not men- 
 tioned are artichoke, asjDaragus, kale, cabbage, cauliflower, 
 leek, celery, cives or chives, garlic, pepper-grass, lettuce, 
 cress, spinach, parsley, mustard, horse-radish, mint, thyme, 
 sage, marjoram, balm, nasturtion, etc. 
 
 The pupils may easily make collections of the seeds of 
 these, of those represented on the Chart as " Our Common 
 Fruits," and already described, and also of many other 
 plants of value, including the " Common Root Plants ;" 
 and in this manner, and by a system of exchanges Avith 
 
220 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 each other, they may form private cabinets of seeds, and 
 also a handsome and valuable cabinet for the school-room. 
 
 Pupils should learn to distinguish these seeds, and to 
 name them at sight; and they should know the proper 
 times and modes of sowing them, their j^roper cultivation, 
 the dangers to Avhicli they are liable from insects, worms, 
 blight, drouth, etc. ; and they should describe the various 
 uses of the plants themselves. What a field for investiga- 
 tion, and for early education upon the Development or " Ob- 
 ject" system, is here opened! Early cultivation of the 
 perceptive faculties, which gives the best of mental disci- 
 pline, and the acquisition of useful knowledge, may here 
 be harmoniously combined. 
 
 Cabixets of Seeds for the school-room, which are de- 
 signed to aid in carrying out the principles of instruction 
 herein develo2:)ed, are now in course of preparation.* They 
 are designed to embrace not only the seeds of most of the 
 plants represented on Charts XXI. and XXII., but also a 
 considerable variety of others that are of value in cultiva- 
 tion — such as different kinds of corn and grain plants, 
 grasses, and fruits from temperate and tropical climates. 
 It is sup230sed tliat one such collection in one school of a 
 town or neighborhood, will not only greatly aid in carry- 
 ing out the admirable system of instruction by lessons on 
 objects^ but that it will be the means of awakening a great 
 degree of interest in the subjects of agriculture, horticul- 
 ture, gardening, etc. Pupils will be able to greatly enlarge 
 such a collection from their OAvn resources, and neighboring 
 schools will be incited to get up collections of their own. 
 
 II. Common Root Plants. 
 
 The Radish {Ba'2:)hamis saU'viis, Lhi., xiv., 2 ; N'at. M., 
 Ang. Exog., ord. Crucifers)^ which belongs to the large or- 
 der of plants having cruciform or cross-shaped flowers, is a 
 well known salad root, originally from China. There are 
 two principal varieties of this root — the one spindle-shaped, 
 
 * J-jly, 18G2. At the office of the " American Educational Bureau," 
 New York City. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 221 
 
 and the other turnij^-shaped or globular, as represented on 
 tfie Chart. There are also sub-varieties arranged as spring, 
 summer, autumn, and winter radishes. All are of easy 
 culture and rapid growth. The most common radishes 
 have roots of a purple color ; there are also white, scarlet, 
 rose-colored, and black radishes. (Let pupils tell the kinds 
 with which they are acquainted ; color and size of seed ; 
 time of sowing ; soil best adapted to them ; how long after 
 sowing before the roots are fit for eating; how they are 
 eaten, etc.) The stem of the radish grows from two to 
 four feet high ; is very branching, bearing white flowers, 
 or tinged with purple, succeeded by long, thick, fleshy, 
 two to three-sided, acuminate pods, which contain the seed. 
 (Pupils should examine the construction of these pods 
 when ripe, and notice how they open, etc., and how they 
 differ, in this respect, from many other pods. Let them 
 notice the shape of the lower leaves, which are pinnately 
 deft. See Chart No. XIX. They are also called lyrate 
 leaves, or lyre-shaped, because they have the end lobe 
 largest and rounded.) 
 
 The Sweet Potato {ConvoV villus hata'ta^ or JBata'ta 
 ed'iiUs^ Lin. S., v., 1 ; Xat. M., Ang. Exog., or i\. Bindweeds)^ 
 which is extensively cultivated for its root in tropical cli- 
 mates, and in the United States as far north as New Jer- 
 sey, is an herbaceous, perennial plant, which sends out 
 round, pale-green, trailing stalks, extending six or eight 
 feet every way. Li a genial climate these put forth at 
 their joints roots which grow to be very large tubers, so 
 that from a single plant forty or fifty large potatoes may 
 be produced. The leaves are angular, cordate at the base, 
 and on long pet'-i-oles. Flowers showy, rose-purple, and 
 campanulate or bell-shaped, similar to those of the morn- 
 ing-glory ; potato brownish yellow. 
 
 The Common Potato {Sola'mim tiihero'sum, Lin. S., v., 
 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Night shades'^') is a biennial 
 
 * This order of Nightshades includes not only the wholesome potato 
 and tomato, but also some virulent poisons used in medicine, such as the 
 deadly nightshade or belladonna, henbane, stramonium or thorn-apple, 
 
222 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 herbaceous plant, a native of South America, where it still 
 grows Avild in the elevated regions of the tropics. It is 
 believed to have been first introduced into England in the 
 year 1586. The sweet potato was known in England be- 
 ifore that period. What is eaten as the " potato" is not 
 the root of the plant, but the tubers of its subterranean 
 stem. The flowers are white, or of a purple tinge ; corolla 
 five-cleft, and somewhat bell-shaped ; the stem or stalk is 
 what is called wing-angled. The fruity containing the 
 seeds^ is the well-known '•^potato baW that grows on the 
 stalks. ISTew varieties are often obtained by planting the 
 seeds. When the potato itself is planted, it sprouts from 
 what are called the eyes^ each of Avhich contains the germ 
 of a future plant. 
 
 The potato is a very economical article of food ; and it 
 has been estimated that an acre planted with potatoes will 
 produce more than double the quantity of nutriment than 
 when sown to Avheat. Two hundred bushels of potatoes 
 to the acre, at sixty pounds weight to the bushel, is only a 
 moderate average. Some of the varieties cultivated are 
 the Mercers, Mashanocks, pink-eyes. Carters, kidneys, blue- 
 noses. Western reds, early Junes, etc. (Let pupils tell the 
 kinds they are acquainted with, time of planting, of gath- 
 ering, prices per bushel, etc.) 
 
 The Common Oniok {AVlkim ce'^ja^ Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. 
 M., Agl. Endog.,* ord. Lilyworts) is strongly-scented, bulb- 
 ous, biennial plant, universally cultivated in gardens. It is 
 usually raised from the seed, which, sown early in the sea- 
 
 and tobacco. An extract from the leaves of the common potato is a pow- 
 erful narcotic. It is only the tubers of the potato that are wholesome when 
 cooked. The genus capsicum, whose ground seeds are known as Cay- 
 enne pepper, also belongs to this order. Quantities of the common po- 
 tato, in a state of putrefaction in a dark place, have been known to give 
 out a most vivid light, sufficient to read by. 
 
 * The plants previously described on this Chart belonged to the great 
 division Exogens ; but this is an Endogens, or an Endogenous plant. 
 See Fourth Reader, page 17G, and Fifth Reader, pages 144 and 186. It 
 also belongs to the Aglumaceous class of the Endogens — for which see 
 Def. page 190, Fifth Reader. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 223 
 
 son, i^roduces the bulb fit for eating in the summer and 
 foil. If the bulb be planted in the succeeding spring, it 
 sends up a straight, smooth, stout, hollow stalk, from three 
 to four feet high, bearing at top a large round umbel of 
 greenish-white flowers. The large, old, and refuse onions 
 are called scallions. The leaves, which are radical — that 
 is, growing from the root — iive Jistular^ like the stem : that 
 is, holloio^ or tubulous. Of the common Black-seed Onions, 
 the red, white, and yellow are the principal varieties. 
 
 There are, also, the red, white, and yellow Top Onions, 
 which i^roduce small onions, as the common kinds yield 
 their seed, in a ball at the top of the stalk. Still another 
 kind, the Potato or Hill Onion, produces a number of 
 bulbs in a hill just below the surface of the ground. There 
 is also the Welsh Onion, which resembles a large scall- 
 ion, and is used only while green. 
 
 It is said that those onions which have a tinge of red or 
 purple are more pungent than those which are white ; and 
 that those which have the rind, or outer membranous cov- 
 ering of the bulb, thin and transparent, are always of mild- 
 er flavor than those which have it thick. 
 
 The Com:sion Turnip {Bras' sica ra'pa^ Lin. S., xiv., 2 ; 
 Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Crucifers)^ which has long been 
 cultivated in gardens and in fields, both for the table and 
 for cattle, is a biennial j^lant, most of the kinds having a 
 depressed (somewhat flattened) globose root, contracted 
 below into a slender radicle. In the second season after 
 sowing a flowering stem shoots up, from two to four feet 
 high, bearing yellow flowers, and having the four petals ar- 
 ranged in the form of a cross, and therefore called cruci- 
 form. The radical or root leaves are rough, deep green, 
 and lyrate in form, like those of the radish ; the cauline or 
 stem leaves are cut or jagged, and the upper leaves are 
 entire. 
 
 There are numerous varieties of the common turnip, va- 
 rying in color and shape, among which are the early red- 
 top or jiurple-top, early Dutch, early stone, long or tankard, 
 yellow Aberdeen, yellow globe, etc. (Let pupils name and 
 
224 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 describe the kinds with which they are acquainted.) The 
 hardy Swedish turnip, or ruta baga, which sometimes grows 
 to an enormous size, and is cultivated chiefly as food for 
 cattle, has a yellowish root. 
 
 The turnip furnishes a surprising example of rapid 
 growth. A seed of the common turnip has been estimated 
 to weigh the fourteen thousandth part of an ounce ; and, 
 assuming its growth to be always uniform, it has been cal- 
 culated that a turnip-seed may increase fifteen times its 
 own weight in a minute. By actual experiment made on 
 very rich soil, turnips have been found to increase by 
 growth 16,000 times the weight of their seeds each day 
 they stand upon it. The average of a turnip croj), whether 
 ruta baga or the common turnij), is estimated at ten tons 
 to the acre. 
 
 The Common Parsnip {Pastma'ca sati'va., Lin. S., v., 2 ; 
 Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. JJiiibeUiferoiis Plants) is a bien- 
 nial, with a sweet-flavored, fusiform or spindle-shaped root, 
 usually larger than the carrot. In the second season it 
 sends up a smooth, erect, furrowed, and branching stem, 
 about three feet high, j^roducing small yellow flowers on a 
 large umbel. The leaves are pinnate, downy beneath, and 
 smooth above. There are several varieties, such as the 
 Guernsey, round, yellow Siam, and long white — the latter 
 sometimes running three or four feet into the ground in a 
 sandy soil. 
 
 The parsnip grows wild abundantly in fields, by fences, 
 etc., where its root is small, hard, bitter, and poisonous. 
 When the parsnip grows upon well-tilled ijoor land it is 
 more sweet and agreeable than when raised in richer soils. 
 As it is but little injured by being frozen, it may remain in 
 the ground through the winter. The average yield is ten 
 tons per acre. (Let the pupil describe the kind of parsnip 
 with which he is acquainted — its color, size of root, shape, 
 manner in which it is cooked, etc.) 
 
 The Careot (JDau'cus caro'ta^ Lin. S., v., 2 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
 Exog., ord. UmhelUferous Plants) is also a biennial, having 
 a fusiform or spindle-shaped root. In the second season it 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 225 
 
 sends ii]) a branching stem from two to three feet high, 
 bearing small white flowers, nearly all summer, in a termi- 
 nal umbel. The leaves are pale green, very numerous, pin- 
 nate, having the divisions or leaflets narrow, linear, and 
 acute. The seeds are oblong, hispid or bristly, and con- 
 tained m a roundish pod having bristly ribs. It is said 
 that the seeds do not retain their vegetative powers more 
 than a year. Of the cultivated carrot there are many va- 
 rieties — such as the early horn, long orange, Altringham, 
 long purple or blood, long white, etc. The early horn and 
 long orange are the only kinds desirable for garden cul- 
 ture. Average produce per acre, ten tons. Let the pupil 
 tell for what purposes the carrot is used — boiled, fried, in 
 soups, etc., and as food for cattle. Eight hundred bush- 
 els of carrots per acre have been obtained. For sowing 
 the seed, which is very light, it is best to mix them thor- 
 oughly w^ith fine sand, in the proportion of four or five 
 pounds to the bushel of sand ; let the whole lie in heaj^s, 
 and occasionally water for tw^o weeks before sowing. A 
 light, but rich, and deep, and mellow soil, mixed with sand, 
 is the best for all long-root plants; for if the ground is 
 hard, the roots will grow forked, and shoot out lateral 
 branches. 
 
 The Common Beet [Be'ta vulga'ris^ Lin. S., v., 2 ; ISTat, 
 M., Ang. Exog., ord. Chenopods^ or Goosefoots) is a bien. 
 nial cultivated root, having the form of the carrot, but 
 thicker in proportion to its length. The root is most com- 
 monly of a red color, very juicy, and w^hen wounded bleeds 
 freely. The leaves are large, long, acute, and smooth, green 
 or purplish, and having a long pet'-i-ole ; flowers greenish- 
 white, sessile or seated, heaped together, and arranged on 
 slender sj^ikes. The beet root is much used as a pickle, 
 and the tender leaves are boiled and eaten as greens. The 
 root is sometimes preserved as a confiture or sweetmeat ; 
 and some dry and grind the root, and make it a substitute 
 for coflfee. The juice also makes a good varnish. 
 
 * From the Greek chen, a goose, and pous^ a foot, from the similarity 
 of the leaves to the webbed feet of a water-fowl. 
 
 K 2 
 
226 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 By long culture this valuable root has run into many va- 
 rieties, among which are the early blood turnip-heet^ with 
 a short and thick root like that of the turnip ; the long 
 Uood-heet^ the best for winter use ; the white sugar-beet^ or 
 early lohite scarcity; the nicmgel-ioiirtzel or red scarcity^ 
 which is a red-skinned beet, but white inside, growing 
 much out of the ground ; and the yellow sugar-beet. " If 
 the long beets are raised for a series of years in ground 
 not deeply plowed and well pulverized, and the seed sown 
 from them is annually resown, they will become shortened 
 in growth, or form a habit of growing much above ground, 
 and thereby deteriorate in quality for the table." 
 
 The white sugar-beet is largely cultivated in France, 
 Belgium, Germany, and Russia for the sugar obtained from 
 it. The best beets yield from six to eight per cent, of pure 
 sugar. France annually produces about 60,000 tons of 
 beet sugar, about half the quantity that is used in the king- 
 dom. The average yield of beets is estimated at from ten 
 to fifteen tons per acre. In Germany, 100 tons of the 
 mansiel-wurtzei have been raised on an acre. 
 
 III. The Cereals, or Corn Plants. 
 
 The grain-bearing or corn plants are called cereals., from 
 Ceres, whom the ancients regarded as the goddess of corn 
 and harvests. (See Fifth Reader, j^age 194.) That one 
 among the cereals upon which any people depends chiefly 
 for its food is called by that people corn — as toheat in En- 
 gland, oats in the northern Lowlands of Scotland, rye in 
 the sandy districts on the southern shores of tlie Baltic Sea, 
 and maize or Indian corn in some parts of the United 
 States. 
 
 Common Wheat (Trit'icimi vidga're^ Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. 
 M., Glu. Endog., ord. Grasses) is both an annual and a bi- 
 ennial, having the culm (the name given to the straw of 
 grasses) terete or round, and smooth, from three to five feet 
 high, bearing at the top the head of wheat, which belongs 
 to the kind of flower-stem called a spike. (See Chart Xo. 
 XIX.) The spike is somewhat four-sided, and is crowded 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 227 
 
 with spikelets (little spikes), which are nsually about four 
 or five flowered, aud which contain the grains or kernels 
 of wheat, although not often more than two perfect ker- 
 nels are contained in a spikelet. Notice the glumes^ husks, 
 or c7ia^] which inclose the grains. The pupil will see, by 
 examining a head of wheat, that at the base of each spike- 
 let are two of these husks or chaff-leaves. These are call- 
 ed, in botany, glumes. The inclosing husks or chaff* of each 
 separate kernel are called pal' em (singular, pal'ea). Let 
 the pupils examine heads of wheat until they can readily 
 distinguish the glumes from the pal'eoe. This can be done 
 at any season of the year. It will be a good object lesson. 
 Pupils may then extend their observation to any of the 
 grasses which they can obtain. They will find that all of 
 them have glumes. Hence all the grasses, among which 
 the cereals are included, are said to be glumaceous. The 
 cereals and grasses have stamens and pistils, but no corolla. 
 The straw or culm of the wheat bears leaves, Avhich are 
 long and lance-linear, veined, and roughish above. There 
 are several varieties of wheat. 
 
 1. Summer wheat (Trit'icmn ces^^'^)^fw^), which is sown 
 early in spriAg, and harvested the same season, is less hardy 
 than winter wheat ; the Avhole plant has a weaker appear- 
 ance ; the ear is more slender ; and its glumes or husks are 
 usually provided with much longer beards or awns. 
 
 2. Winter wheat {Trit'icum hyher'nuni), the kind repre- 
 sented on the Chart, is sown in autumn ; it lives through 
 the winter, and ripens its seed in the following summer. 
 There are several varieties of this — such as the red chaff", 
 the white chaff, awned, beardless, etc. Probably more than 
 fifty kinds, many of them, however, differing but little from 
 each other, are known in the United States.* 
 
 * The chief varieties of wheat cultivated in the Northern and East- 
 ern states are the white flint-wheat, tea-wheat, Siberian, bald, Black Sea, 
 and the Italian spring wheat ; in the Middle and Western states, the 
 Mediterranean wheat, Vii'ginia white May, the blue stem, the Indiana, 
 the Kentucky white-bearded, the old red chaff, and the Talavera. The 
 yield is from ten to forty bushels and upward per acre. In the year 
 
228 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 (Let the pui^ils name and describe as many kinds as they 
 are acquainted with — telling the time of sowing; how 
 much wheat is sown to the acre ; mode of prej^aring the 
 ground ; what summer fallowing is ; time and modes of har- 
 vesting ; ordinary quantity per acre ; modes of threshing ; 
 standard weight of wheat per bushel (60 lbs.) ; the grinding 
 of wheat ; how millers are usually paid for grinding ; what 
 is meant by miller's toll, and how much it is per bushel ; 
 how much flour is usually obtained per bushel, and what 
 the other parts obtained from grinding are called, and what 
 they are used for ; how many bushels of wheat are estima- 
 ted to make a barrel of flour ; legal weight of the flour in a 
 barrel ; present prices of wheat per bushel, and of flour per 
 barrel ; describe the process of bread-making, etc.) 
 
 3. The Egyptian or many-spiked wheat {Trit'icimi com- 
 IDOs'itian)^ also called the " Corn of Abundance," is princi- 
 pally cultivated in Egypt and Italy. It resembles spring 
 wheat in its habits ; its grains are thinner than those of 
 winter wheat, and it will bear great degrees of drouth 
 without injury. Its spike is compound at the base, and 
 the spikelets are three-flowered. 
 
 There is also a kind of wheat called s2yeJt wheat, grown 
 in elevated situations in Switzerland and Germany, where 
 common wheat will not ripen ; but the grain is light, yields 
 but little flour, and makes but indifferent bread. 
 
 Wheat starch is made from wheat. In some countries 
 the wheat straw is manufactured largely into hats — the 
 best straw being obtained from chalky lands. Leghorn 
 hats are made from the straw of a bearded variety of 
 wheat, which grows only about eighteen inches high, on 
 poor sandy soils on the banks of the Arno, near Leghorn, 
 in Italy. It is pulled green, and bleached like flax. 
 
 Common Rye {Seca'le cere'ale, Lm. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. M., 
 
 1840 the wheat crop of the United States amounted to 84,823,272 bush- 
 els ,• in 1849 it amounted to 100,503,899 bushels; in 1857 it was esti- 
 mated at 200,000,000 of bushels. During the year 1840 the average 
 price of flour in New York city was $5 17 per barrel ; in 1849 it was 
 $4 96 ; in 1855 it was $9 06. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 229 
 
 Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is both an annual and biennial, 
 from four to six feet high, bearing its grains in a S2nke at 
 the top of the culm or stem. The spikelets (Httle spikes) are 
 from two to three-flowered, and each usually produces two 
 seeds, or grains. (In wheat they are usually four-flower- 
 ed.) The lower paVece have long awns, or beards. Let 
 the pupil distinguish the pal' em from the glumes^ as de- 
 scribed under the head of wheat. The culm or stem is 
 hairy beneath the S23ike; leaves lance-linear, having a rough 
 edge, and rough above. (It will be a good exercise for 
 the pupil to compare the rye and the wheat, and see if one 
 is, in any respect, different from the other.) 
 
 Although rye will ripen if sown in spring, it does better 
 when treated like winter wheat. Rye flour was formerly 
 much used for making bread, but has now mostly given 
 place, in this country and Western Europe, to wheat. In 
 Central and Northern Europe it is still much used, and 
 especially in the sandy districts south of the Baltic Sea 
 and the Gulf of Finland. 
 
 Rye is liable to a disease, which produces in the head 
 the growth of a brownish, smutty, and poisonous substance 
 called ergot. Terrible epidemic diseases have been occa- 
 sioned in Europe by the use of such diseased rye. 
 
 (Let the pupils give an account of rye — the sowing, 
 grinding, the flour, etc., similar to the directions given 
 about wheat.) 
 
 Baeley is a species of bread corn, of which there are 
 several varieties. Common Spring Barley {Hor'deum vid- 
 ga're^ Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is a 
 four-rowed barley, and the kind most commonly cultivated. 
 It grows from two to three feet high. The leaves are lance- 
 linear, nearly smooth. Observe that where they join the 
 stem they are furnished with a sharp ridge or projection 
 on the under side. This is called car'mate or boat-shaped, 
 or keeled. The S2n7ie is about three inches long, and is 
 heavily awned or bearded, both in the glumes and the j9a^- 
 em. Let the pupils compare barley, in this particular, with 
 wheat and rye. 
 
230 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 Winter Barley, a six-rowed barley, a more hardy species 
 than spring barley, has also a shorter and thicker spike, 
 and a larger grain. 
 
 There is also a long-eared or two-rowed barley, which is 
 beardless. Other species are described by botanists. 
 
 Barley flour was once thought to make excellent bread. 
 The Komans cultivated it for their horses, and also for the 
 army. The Roman gladiators were called Hordiarii^ from 
 their feeding on this grain. A large proportion of the pop- 
 ulation of Wales, and of some counties of western England, 
 still subsists chiefly on barley bread. 
 
 Barley is now, however, chiefly cultivated to be made 
 into malt^ which is used in brewing ale, porter, and beer. 
 For this purpose the grain is steeped in water, and fer- 
 mented in heaps until it begins to germinate, when the 
 germination is arrested by sudden drying, called kiln-dry- 
 ing. In this 23rocess of malting a part of the mucilage or 
 starch of the grain is converted into sugar, so that the to- 
 tal quantity of sugar, the source of sj^irit, is increased. 
 The produce of barley varies, according to the soil, prepa- 
 ration, season, etc., from twenty to sixty or seventy bushels 
 to the acre. It is a tender plant, and easily hurt in any 
 stage of its growth. A little more than seven millions of 
 bushels were raised in the United States in the year 1850. 
 
 Buckwheat (Poly g' onum fag opyr'uin^ or Fagopyr'xim 
 esculen' tura^ Lin. S., viii., 3 ; Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. 
 JBuckwheaf^')^ though not belonging, botanically, to the 
 Cereals, is used as a bread fruit, and may therefore be de- 
 scribed here. The Germans call it Peech-ivheat^ from the 
 resemblance which the grains bear in shape to the nuts of 
 the beech-tree. Specimens of this plant should be obtained 
 and examined by the pupils. Let them describe it. It is 
 an annual herb. Calyx five-parted, and withering, of a pink 
 color. This plant has, properly, no petals or flower leaves ; 
 but what appears to be the corolla is a colored calyx. Sta- 
 mens, 8 ; styles, 3. Leaves cordate or heart-shaped, some 
 
 * In this same order are found the sorrels, rhubarb, docks, persicarias, 
 etc., and the sea-side grapes of the West Indies. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 281 
 
 of them tending to hastate or spear-shape. Stem from two 
 to four feet high, branching, green, with a reddish tinge. 
 Fruit or seed triangular, brownish-bhck on the outside, 
 and white within. This plant is not only cultivated, but it 
 grows wild also in old fields. The flowers are much sought 
 after by bees ; but buckwheat-honey is of a dark color, and 
 has a rank taste. 
 
 Buckwheat is usually sown in June; and it grows so 
 rapidly that it generally ripens its seeds within about one 
 hundred days from the time of sowing. It will grow in 
 any soil, even where there is little else than sand ; but it 
 thrives best in dry ground which has been thoroughly 
 plowed and pulverized. From thirty to forty bushels per 
 acre may be considered a good yield; but sixty or more 
 bushels to the acre have been obtained, and from only one 
 bushel of seed. About nine millions of bushels were raised 
 in the United States in the year 1850. The grain is excel- 
 lent for feeding pigeons and poultry, and in the form of 
 " buckwheat cakes" it is a delicious article of food for the 
 human race. 
 
 Rice ( Ory'za sati'va^ Lin. S., vi., 2 ; IsTat. M., Glu. End., 
 ord. Grasses), one of the most important of the Cereals, is 
 su2:>posed to have been originally brought from Southern 
 Asia, where it is still almost the universal food of the inhab- 
 itants. It is more extensively consumed than any other 
 grain. Rice is mostly an annual j^lant ; culm or stalk from 
 two to five feet high, erect, simple, round, and jointed; 
 leaves long, rough, and lance-linear; fruit in a terminating 
 IKinide. Each grain is terminated with an awn or beard, 
 as shown in the cut, and inclosed in a rough yellow husk. 
 The stalk is quite similar to that of wheat, but the joints are 
 more numerous. The whole plant, before ripening, bears a 
 near resemblance to barley. Before the rice is cleared of 
 the husk it is called paddy. The rice of commerce has 
 been parboiled in caldrons, partly to destroy the vegetative 
 principle, so that it may keep better, and j^artly to facili- 
 tate the process of removing the husks. 
 
 There are several varieties of this grain. Common rice 
 
232 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 is a marsh plant. If the ground on which it is sown should 
 become dry before the plants arrive at maturity they with- 
 er. The best rice produced in the world is believed to be 
 that grown on the salt-marsh lands of South Carolina and 
 Georgia. It rij^ens in about six months from the time of 
 sowing. The yield per acre varies from 20 to 60 bushels, 
 each bushel weighing from 45 to 48 pounds when cleaned. 
 Hence it is lighter than wheat. 
 
 There is a variety called early rice^ which ripens in about 
 four months. Mountain rice^ sown on mountain lands and 
 other dry soils, may be treated as a biennial, and sown in 
 autumn. The grain is longer than in other varieties, and 
 has longer awns ; but the produce is only about 20 bushels 
 to the acre. What is called clammy rice grows both on 
 wet and on dry lands. 
 
 In Carolina rice-seed is sown early in March, in rows, in 
 the bottom of trenches which are about 18 inches apart, 
 and carefully covered by hand. After this the water, 
 which has been kept back by the floodgates, is let in, and 
 for about a week is allowed to cover the ground several 
 inches. It is then drawn off; but when the plants, which 
 shoot up rapidly, are about four inches high, the fields are 
 ao'ain overflowed, and remain in this condition some two 
 months. After this they are hoed repeatedly, and are 
 overflowed for the third time about the middle of July, 
 the water now remaining until the grain is actually ripen- 
 ed. This alternate flooding and drying of the land in so 
 hot a climate, renders the cultivation of rice exceedingly 
 unhealthy to the negroes who perform, the labor. The rice 
 harvest usually commences at the end of August, and ex- 
 tends through the month of September. The male negroes 
 cut the rice with a sickle ; the females follow and collect 
 it into bundles. When ripe the rice stalks turn yellow, the 
 same as those of wheat. The threshing is usually perform- 
 ed with flails. The cultivators of rice in the United States 
 sometimes sufler severely from the depredations of im- 
 mense flocks of the rice-hirds^ commonly called bobolink in 
 the Northern States, and the reed-bird in Delaware. This 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 283 
 
 bird is about six or seven inches long ; the head and under 
 parts of its body are black ; the upper parts are a mixture 
 of black, white, and yellow ; and the legs are red. Irving 
 has written a beautiful sketch of its habits, which we had 
 not room for in the Fourth Reader. 
 
 It is said that the average yield of rice in the rich mead- 
 ow lands of Lombardy, Italy, is one hundred bushels to the 
 acre, from three bushels of seed. In the year 1850, two 
 hundred and fifteen millions of j^ounds of rice were pro- 
 duced in the United States. 
 
 Millet. — Of the grains cultivated under this name there 
 are several distinct kinds, belonging to different families of 
 plants, but all are annuals. The first that is represented 
 on the Chart is commonly known as pcmicled millet {Pcm'- 
 icum milia'ceiim^ Lin. S., iii., 2 ; Nat. M., Glu. End., ord. 
 Grasses). Of this kind there are two varieties, the brown 
 and the yellow. This kind of millet grows from two to 
 three feet high, producing its seeds on a large, open, and 
 nodding panicle^ as represented on the Chart. It is now 
 raised chiefly for feeding poultry, but was formerly much 
 used in the plaoe of rice. The seeds or grains are the 
 smallest of the cereals, but an immense number is borne on 
 each stalk. 
 
 Indian 3Iillet {Sor'ghum vulga'^re^ Lin. S., iii., 2, etc.), 
 also sometimes called Grand Millet, and Sorghum, and in 
 the West Indies Negro Guinea Corn, groAvs from five to 
 eight feet high, with an erect culm or stalk, round, solid 
 with pith, leaves curmate or keel-shaped, like those of bar- 
 ley, and lanceolate. The panicle is erect until the seeds 
 are ripe. Its long awns, or bristles, effectually defend it 
 from the birds. In India the sorghum is still largely cul- 
 tivated, and in Arabia and Syria it forms a large part of the 
 food of the inhabitants. The flour of this cereal is white, 
 and good bread and cakes are made of it. Brooms are 
 made of the spikes. JBroom-corn is a sj^ecies of sorghum. 
 Its uses are well known. The Chinese sugar-catie is also 
 supposed to be a variety of the sorghum or Indian millet. 
 
 Italian or German Millet {Seta'ria ItaVica^ or German'- 
 
234 MANUAL OF INFOKMATIOX 
 
 ^ca), also represented on the Chart, is cultivated in some 
 parts of Europe. The Italians make from the flour a kind 
 of bread which is dark-colored and coarse. 
 
 The Common Oat {Ave'na sati'va, Lin. S., iii., 2 ; ISTat. 
 M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is an annual, growing from 
 two to four feet high, Avith leaves linear-lanceolate, veined, 
 rough ; the culm or stalk having an open panicle, with 
 pendulous spikelets. The grain of the oat, although used 
 chiefly as food for horses, is also used as a bread corn in 
 some countries, and especially in Scotland and the north- 
 ern parts of England. Twenty-eight pounds of grain yield 
 about sixteen pounds of meal. Oat-meal gruel is an excel- 
 lent article of diet for the sick. 
 
 There are many varieties of the oat in cultivation, such 
 as the common beardless oats ; white, black, gray, and 
 brown or red oats ; the Egyptian, Polish, imj^erial, and po- 
 tato oats, etc. What is called the animal oat [Ave'7ia ster'- 
 ilis) is sometimes cultivated as an object of curiosity. Aft- 
 er the seeds have fallen ofi" the strong beard is so sensitive 
 to changes in the atmosphere as to be kept in apparently 
 spontaneous motion, when they resemble some grotesque 
 insect crawling on the ground. 
 
 The oat is the hardiest of the cereals, and is suited to 
 climates too hot or too cold for either wheat or rye, al- 
 though it thrives best in northern latitudes. In this coun- 
 try its growth is confined principally to the Middle, West- 
 ern, and Northern States. The yield of the common va- 
 rieties varies from 40 to 90 bushels and upward to the 
 acre ; and the difterent varieties vary in weight from 25 to 
 50 pounds to the bushel. The total produce of oats in the 
 United States in the year 1850 was but little less than one 
 hundred and fifty millions of bushels. Prices vary from 
 25 to 60 cents per bushel. 
 
 Let the pupils bring in samples of stalks and grain — tell 
 the kinds with which they are acquainted ; times and modes 
 of sowing, and harvesting ; prices, uses, etc. 
 
 Maize, or Indian Corn {Ze'a mays^JAn. S., xix., 3 ; Nat. 
 M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses) is an annual, having a strong, 
 
FOli OBJECT LESSONS. 235 
 
 erect, reedy, smooth, jointed stalk, grooved on one side, 
 growing from five to fifteen feet high, and provided with 
 alternate leaves which are linear-lanceolate, channeled, from 
 tw^o to three feet long, and two or three inches broad at 
 the base. Let the j^upils examine sj)ecimenSj and describe 
 them in all these particulars. 
 
 This is one of those plants which has its stamens and its 
 instils on dififerent parts of the same plant, instead of 
 growing together in one flower. (See Chart No. XX., 
 Class xix. in Linnsean system ; and Fifth Reader, pages 
 143, 193.) Thus, at the toj) of the stalk is produced a 
 bunch of stconinate flowers, of various colors, in a panicle 
 of racemes, the whole being known as the tassel. Each 
 little spikelet will be found to be two-flowered, having 
 glumes and paVem^, and each flower having three anthers. 
 The pistillate flowers of this plant are a spike called the 
 ear ; and the pistils themselves are what is called the silk; 
 and the glumes are the husks. The kernels are in eight, 
 ten, twelve rows, etc. — always some even number, and yel- 
 low, white, red, or purple. 
 
 (The pupils should be led to notice and describe all 
 these particulars about iliQjloioers of the corn. The teach- 
 er will find here much matter for cultivating their powders 
 of observation. They will probably suppose that v^ flower 
 consists of a colored corol'la only. Tell them that the es- 
 sential parts of a flower consist of stamens and pistils only. 
 (See Fourth Reader, page 218.) Explain to them the use 
 of the p>ollen of the stamens. If this pollen can not reach 
 the pistil, the latter will produce no seed ; and if the pollen 
 of one kind of corn be scattered upon the pistils of another 
 kind, the ear will shoAV a mixture of different kinds of ker- 
 nels. This effect is often seen when two kinds of corn are 
 planted near each other, as the wind often carries the pol- 
 len a great distance. Pupils may themselves try the ex- 
 periment. When an ear of common corn is just silking 
 out, let them sprinkle the silk, for a few days in succession, 
 with pollen from sweet corn, and when the ear is ripe there 
 wdll be found kernels like those of sweet corn mino-led with 
 
236 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 the others. Observation and experiments hke the forego- 
 ing will be worth, to pupils, more than volmnes of unaided 
 reading about the same subjects, and will render their read- 
 ing much more interesting and valuable to them.) 
 
 Indian corn is a native of America, and was unknown in 
 Europe imtil after the discovery of this country. It is still 
 found growing wild in some of the West India Islands, in 
 Central America, and in the humid forests of Paraguay. 
 (See Fourth Reader, page 193.) Its produce on a given 
 extent of land is greater than that of any other grain. It 
 has the widest geographical range of all the cereals, grow- 
 ing luxuriantly at the equator, and forty or fifty degrees 
 on each side of it. The stalks, like those of the sugar-cane, 
 contain considerable succar. 
 
 Let pupils tell the time and mode of planting corn, hoe- 
 ing, harvesting, threshing or shelling, quantity raised per 
 acre, legal w^eight per bushel, uses made of the unground 
 corn, of the meal, etc. 
 
 The SuGAE-cANE {Scic' chanini officina' rum^ Lin. S., iii., 
 2 ; ISTat. M., Glu. End., ord. Grasses), although not proper- 
 ly one of the cereals, because it does not produce edible 
 [/rains, may, nevertheless, properly be described here, as it 
 belongs to the order of Grasses, the same as maize and the 
 other cereals. 
 
 The sugar-cane is a perennial plant, very sensitive to 
 cold, and is, therefore, restricted to the regions bordering 
 on the tropics, where there is little or no frost. It has a 
 solid culm, or stalk, with pith, closely jointed, growing 
 from eight to twenty feet high, erect, with broad, flat, 
 linear-lanceolate leaves like those of maize. It bears its 
 flowers at the top of the stalk, in a panicle from one to 
 two feet in length, composed of numerous, long, thread-like, 
 moderately spreading racemes, which are richly clothed 
 with the long, white, silky hairs that envelope the flowers. 
 (For the appearance of this panicle see page 193, Fifth 
 Keader.) The flowers are in jDairs, one sessile or seated on 
 the spikelct, and the other having a flower stem ov 2^G(Vi- 
 cel. These flowers have glumes and jt^a^'eo?, and hence the 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 237 
 
 sugar-cane is classed among the grasses. Where the plant 
 itself can be obtained, pupils should describe the flowers, 
 etc., from actual observation. Numerous varieties of the 
 cane are cultivated. 
 
 The sugar-cane is propagated by cuttings from the root- 
 end, planted in hills or trenches, in spring or autumn. 
 These cuttings send up shoots which in eight, ten, or 
 twelve months, are from six to ten feet high, and fit to be 
 cut down for the mill. They are usually cut before the 
 plant is in flower. A plantation lasts from six to ten years, 
 w^hen the roots, having become old, and having lost their 
 vigor, require to be renewed. The saccharine substance in 
 the cane varies from ten to thirty per cent. ; in the beet 
 root, from five to thirteen per cent. 
 
 Sugar-mills are merely iron rollers, which are placed in 
 pairs, and between which the canes are passed. The juice 
 thus pressed out is strained, clarified, and boiled into sirup, 
 after which it is crystallized, and is then put into hogsheads 
 having apertures through which the molasses drains into a 
 cistern below. This hogshead sugar is the common Mus- 
 covado or browm sugar. Sugar is refined in various w^ays 
 — by heating the sirup with blood, eggs, milk, etc., and 
 skimming ofl" the impurities which rise, thus producing 
 what is called clayed or loaf sugar, refined sugar, double 
 refined, etc. 
 
 The sugar-cane is cultivated extensively in Louisiana, 
 Mississippi, etc., where it formerly produced as many as 
 three or four thousand pounds of sugar to the acre, but, 
 owing to injudicious rotation of croi^s, and exhaustion of 
 the soil, the product is now seldom more than one thou- 
 sand pounds to the acre — about one hogshead. By the 
 free use of guano, eight thousand pounds to the acre have 
 been produced in the island of Mauritius. 
 
 According to the census of 1850, the cane sugar made in 
 this country amounts to about 248,000,000 pounds annu- 
 ally (248,000 hogsheads, at 1000 lbs. to the hogshead), be- 
 sides more than nine millions of gallons of molasses. The 
 amount varies greatly in different years. The average an- 
 
238 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 nual consumption of sugar in Great Britain is estimated at 
 twenty-four pounds per individual, and in the United States 
 at forty pounds. This latter fact is conclusive that the 
 people of the United States live more comfortably, and 
 even luxuriously, than any other peoj^le in the world, be- 
 cause they have more real income to expend in subsistence 
 and its comforts. 
 
 The annual production of sugar of all kinds in the world 
 is estimated at about 1,600,000 tons; but in this are in- 
 cluded 200,000 tons of beet sugar, and an equal quantity of 
 sorghum and maple sugar — the latter the produce of the 
 United States chiefly. 
 
 Let pupils tell and describe the kinds of sugar and mo- 
 lasses with which they are acquainted, prices per pound, 
 gallon, etc., and what purposes both are used for. Also 
 mode of making maple sugar. The average wholesale 
 prices of New Orleans sugar in the city of New York, 
 from 1854 to 1859 inclusive, ranged from 4-| cents to 9 
 cents per pound. In 1857 the supply was small, and 
 prices high. 
 
 IV. Fruits of Warm Countries. 
 
 As vegetation is far more profuse and luxuriant within 
 the trojDics than in the temperate and cold regions, so 
 FRUITS are remarkably abundant in the torrid zone, and 
 form there the principal food of the inhabitants. Some of 
 the more important of these tropical fruits, which are often 
 found in our markets, either fresh or preserved in various 
 forms, are here enumerated, with a brief description. 
 
 The CocoANUT-TEEE ( Co'cos nucif'era^ Lin. S., xix., 6 ; 
 Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Palms) ^ of which we have given a 
 representation, together with clusters of fruit, both ripe and 
 just forming, is a native of most places Avithin the tropics, 
 and is extensively cultivated for its fruit, juices, oil, etc. 
 It grows from fifty to ninety feet in height, with a straight 
 trunk, and Avithout branches. The leaves are from twelve 
 to fifteen feet long; the flowers, of a pale green color, 
 come out around the top of the trunk in large clusters, in- 
 
FOE OBJECT LESSONS. 239 
 
 closed in a sheath ; the nuts succeed them, about 100 to a 
 tree, in ckisters of ten or twelve. 
 
 The cocoanut, in the husk, is as large as a man's head. 
 If gathered fresh, it is green on the outside ; but, as it 
 hardens, it becomes of a reddish brown. It contains about 
 a pint and a half of a liquor-like water, milky, and sweet, 
 and agreeable to the taste. As the shell hardens, the liq- 
 uor diminishes, till at last it is entirely absorbed by the 
 surrounding white pulpy substance. This latter once con- 
 stituted the principal food of the natives of many of the 
 islands of the East and West Indies. The cocoanut yields, 
 by pressure, a considerable quantity of oil, which is now 
 much used in manufacturing candles and soaj). The palm 
 oil from the coast of Guinea is from another sj^ecies of palm. 
 
 For the various uses of the cocoanut-tree, see Fifth Read- 
 er, page 189. 
 
 The Mango or Mango Apple (JSlangif'era In'dica^ Lin. 
 S., v., 1 ; jSTat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Anacards*) is a fruit as 
 highly valued in tropical, as the peach in temperate cli- 
 mates. It grows on a tree about twenty feet high, which 
 is as extensively cultivated in tropical Asia as apple and 
 pear-trees in this country. It is also found in the West In- 
 dies. The fruit is something like a nectarine, but more 
 compressed, longer, and more curved ; it is yellow and red- 
 dish; its flesh is soft and pulpy; and it contains a large 
 stone covered with coarse fibres. The fruit cuts like an 
 apple, but is more juicy, and is often as large as a big man's 
 fist. 
 
 There are many varieties of the mango, differing, like 
 apples, in figure, size, color, and taste. In this country we 
 have only the unripe fruit, which is found in our markets 
 in a pickled state. 
 
 The common Fig-teee {Fi'cus car'ica, Lin. S., xx., 3 ; 
 Kat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. 3Iorads\) is a native of the tem- 
 
 * From the Greek ana, like (in composition), and Ira-dia, the heart, 
 in allusion to the form of the fruit of the leading plants of this order, 
 such as the cashew-nut. 
 
 t From the Greek morea^ which was the name of the mulberry. The 
 
240 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 perate regions of Asia, where it grows from fifteen to thir- 
 ty feet in height, producing two or three crops in the same 
 year. It is also extensively cultivated in Southern Europe 
 — in Italy, Southern France, and Spain — for the sake of its 
 delicious fruit, which is about the size of a peach, fleshy, 
 soft, hollow within, and shaped like a top. The cultivated 
 varieties are numerous, with variously colored fruit — bluish- 
 black, red, purple, green, yellow, and white. Figs, when 
 ripe, are for the most part dried in ovens to preserve them, 
 and then packed very closely in the small boxes and baskets 
 in which they are imported. The best figs come from 
 Southern Turkey. Dried figs are also a very considerable 
 article of commerce in France, Spain, and Italy, besides af- 
 fording, as in the East, a princij^al article of sustenance for 
 the population. Fig-trees are frequently cultivated in green- 
 houses in our I^orthern States. 
 
 Unlike other fruits, the fig is not produced from any ap- 
 parent blossom, but is borne, generally singly, upon the 
 young branches, the flower being included in and forming 
 part of the fruit. The floral organs are readily seen in the 
 fresh-gathered fruit, and sometimes also in the thick-skin- 
 ned, imperfectly ripened dried figs of commerce. The fig 
 is often mentioned in the Old and in the New Testament. 
 The Romans held the fruit in great estimation. Pliny, the 
 naturalist, enumerates twenty-nine varieties that were cul- 
 tivated in his time. He says of figs, " They increase the 
 strength of young people, preserve the elderly in better 
 health, and make them look younger, and with fewer 
 wrinkles." 
 
 The common Date-palm {Phce'oiix dactylif'era^ Lin. S., 
 XX., 3 ; Nat. M., Agl. End., ord. Palms) is a tall, majestic 
 
 order is, therefore, that of the Mulberries^ and includes the mulberries 
 and the figs, and many plants allied to them. The famous banyan-tree 
 is a species of fig. Caoutchouc, or India-rubber, is produced by many 
 plants of this order; and indeed all the India-rubber of Continental In- 
 dia is obtained from the milky juice of a fig-tree — the Ji'ais elos'tica. 
 Vulcanized India-rubber, a compound of caoutchouc and sulphur, is 
 manufactured into a great variety of useful articles. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 241 
 
 tree, with a rugged trunk, having leaves six or eight feet 
 long, with theiv 2M7ince, or feather-like side leaves, three feet 
 long, and each little side leaf little more than an inch broad. 
 This tree, like all others of the twentieth class in the Lin- 
 nrean System, belongs to that class whose staminate and 
 pistillate* flowers grow on separate trees. A drawing of 
 the date-palm is given on the Chart, together with a clus- 
 ter of dates. 
 
 Tlie berry of this tree is the fruit known as the date of 
 commerce, upon which a considerable portion of the people 
 of Egypt, Arabia, and Persia almost entirely subsist. A 
 single tree will produce from 100 to 300 pounds of this 
 fruit in one season. It begins to bear at from six to ten 
 years of age, and is fruitful for more than 200 years. In 
 Scripture this palm-tree is very appropriately made the 
 emblem, not only of patience in well-doing, but of the re- 
 wards of the righteous — a flourishing old age, a peaceful 
 end, a glorious immortality.f 
 
 Of dates there is an endless variety. Generally, howev- 
 er, they may be described as being somewhat in the shape 
 of an acorn, but usually larger, consisting of a thick, fleshy 
 substance, within which is an oblong stone or kernel, hav- 
 ing a furrow on one side. The best dates are of a reddish- 
 yellow or orange color on the outside ; but when they are 
 allowed to remain on the tree till they are quite ripe, and 
 have become soft, they are often of a bright red color. The 
 Arabs press the ripe fruit into large baskets, and form of 
 it a solid paste or cake ; and in the market this cake is cut 
 out and sold by the pound. In Arabia this date-cake forms 
 part of the daily food of all classes of people ; and in trav- 
 eling it is dissolved in water, and thus aflbrds a sweet and 
 refreshing drink. All the refinements of Arabian cookery 
 are exhausted in the preparation of dates ; and the Arabs 
 
 * In botany, the staminate flowers are called the male flowers, and the 
 pistillate the feiyiale, as it is only the latter which produce the seed, fruit, 
 etc. It is therefore only iho, female date-tree that produces dates. 
 
 t See the Song of Solomon, vii., G, 7 ; Psalms, xcii., 12, li ; 1 Kings, 
 vi., 29 ; Lev., xxiii., 40, etc. 
 
 L 
 
242 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 say that a good lionsewife Avill daily supply her lord, for a 
 month, with a dish of dates diiferently dressed. 
 
 The Stone Pine {Pi'nus pi'nea^ Lin. S., xix., 15 ; Nat. 
 M., Gym. Exog., ord. Conifers)^ represented on the Chart, 
 is the cone of a species of j^ine found not only in the for- 
 ests of Syria, but also in Southern Italy. It was called by 
 the Latins JSfux pinea^ or pine-nut. The trees of the stone 
 pine, which grow to the height of forty feet, are much 
 planted in the gardens and villas of Rome and Florence, 
 and there is an immense forest of them in Ravenna, in Italy. 
 The cone, when ripe, and when thoroughly dried, or thrown 
 for a few minutes into the fire, separates intd many com- 
 partments, from each of which drops a smooth white nut, 
 in shape like the seed of the date. The shell of the nut is 
 very hard, and within it is the fruit, which is much used in 
 Syria in various preparations of rice and in sweetmeats ; 
 and throughout Italy the fruit is an article of commerce, 
 and is eaten both by the poor and the rich. The fruit is 
 sweet, somewhat like almonds, but with a slight flavor of 
 turpentine. 
 
 The Olive-teee ( O'lea Europm'a^ Lin. S., ii., 1 ; ISTat. 
 M., Ang. Exog., ord. OUveioorts) is a pale evergreen, from 
 fifteen to thirty feet in height, a native of Syria, Greece, 
 and Northern Africa. It is also found in diflferent parts 
 of France, Spain, and Italy, where numerous varieties have 
 been produced by cultivation. It produces an immense 
 number of white flowers. 
 
 The wood of the olive-tree is heavy, compact, fine-grain- 
 ed, and brilliant, of a reddish or yellowish tint, and is em- 
 ployed by cabinet-makers to inlay the finer species of wood, 
 which are contrasted with it in color, and to form light ar- 
 ticles of ornament, such as dressing-cases, snufi'-boxes, etc. 
 The wood of the roots is beautifully marbled. 
 
 But the chief value of this tree is the oil obtained from 
 its fruit, which is used as a substitute for butter in all the 
 countries where the olive grows, and is largely exported 
 as an article of commerce for use at table in preparing 
 salads. The fruit of the olive is a kind of plum, egg-shaped, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 243 
 
 from three fourths of an inch to an inch and a half in length, 
 Avith a smooth skin, which is generally of a violet color 
 when ripe ; but in certain varieties it is of various shades 
 of red, yellow, and purple-black. The pulp is greenish, and 
 within it is an oblong pointed stone, having two cells. The 
 oil of the olive is furnished by the 7>?/^:>, which is a charac- 
 teristic almost j^eculiar to this fruit ; whereas the oil from 
 most other vegetables is produced from the seeds^ nut, or 
 kernel. What is called siceet oil is olive-oil. 
 
 The oil is obtained by pressing the pulj), but without 
 breaking the stone. It is received into vessels half filled 
 with water, from which it is skimmed, and put into tubs, 
 barrels, and bottles for use. The best olive-oil is of a 
 bright pale amber color, Avithout smell, and bland or mild 
 to the taste. If kept too long, and especially in a warm 
 place, it becomes rancid. The very best of the olive-oil is 
 that called Florence oil, produced in the vicinity of Flor- 
 ence, and generally imported in flasks surrounded by a kind 
 of network formed of leaves. JJiicca oil is usually import- 
 ed in jars holding about nineteen gallons each. Geneva 
 oil is a fine kind. Gallvpol'i oil, from Gallipoli, in Southern 
 Italy, is the kind chiefly imported into England. Sicily oil 
 is of an inferior quality, and Sjoanish oil is the poorest. 
 Olive-oil is the chief article of export from the kingdom of 
 Naples. 
 
 In Syria almost every dish is cooked in olive-oil, and the 
 poorer kinds are used for lamps and the manufacture of 
 soap. The green berry is also pickled, after being steeped 
 in water some days to remove its bitter taste; and as a 
 pickle it forms an important article of commerce, generally 
 under the name of PicJiolines^ after one Picholini, an Ital- 
 ian, who first discovered the art of pickling olives. The 
 olive is also eaten in its ripe state, without any prej^ara- 
 tion, except, perhaps, with the addition of a little j^ei^per 
 and salt. 
 
 The olive is a tree of slow growth, seldom producing 
 berries before the seventh year; but it lives several hund- 
 red years — sometimes a thousand or more — and it bears 
 
244 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 abundantly to the very last, so long as there is a fragment 
 of green wood remaining. 
 
 In the Bible are numerous beautiful allusions to this tree, 
 many of which can not be understood without a knowl- 
 edo-e of its character and habits. The olive has been the 
 emblem of peace among all nations, and the symbol of wis- 
 dom, abundance, and prosperity of every kind. Among 
 the ancients the oil was the emblem of joy and gladness; 
 it was employed by the Greeks in pouring out libations to 
 their gods, while the branches formed the wreaths of the 
 victors of the Olympian Games. " The trees went forth 
 on a time to anoint a king over them ; and they said to 
 the olive-tree. Reign thou over us." — Judges^ ix., 8. 
 
 The PoMEGEAN^ATE (Pit' niccb grana'tum^ Lin. S., xi., 1 ; 
 Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Myrtleblooms) bears consider- 
 able resemblance, in its wild state, to the common haw- 
 thorn ; but when cultivated in gardens and plantations, it 
 changes from a thorny bush to a handsome tree, fifteen or 
 twenty feet in height. Its leaves are of a beautiful green, 
 opposite, about three inches long, half an inch to an inch 
 broad in the middle, and the flowers, which are bell-shaped, 
 are very fragrant, and of a bright scarlet color. The fruit, 
 which is very beautiful to the eye and pleasant to the taste, 
 is a pulpy, many-seeded berry, nearly round, encircled at 
 the end opposite the stem wdth something resembling a 
 crown, and covered with a thick, brittle rind. It is about 
 the size of a large orange, and, when perfectly ripe, varies 
 in color from bright yellow or green to a dark red. The 
 pulp has a reddish color, and a pleasant sub-acid taste. 
 Several varieties are cultivated, not only for ttieir fruit, but 
 also as ornamental trees, and in some places as a hedge 
 plant. It is found native in Northern Africa, Persia, Japan, 
 and various parts of Asia, and has long been naturalized in 
 the south of Euroj^e, the West Indies, Mexico, and in South 
 America. 
 
 The value of the fruit of the pomegranate depends on 
 the smallncss of the seed and the largeness of the pulp. 
 The Persians cultivate a variety which is nearly seedless, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 245 
 
 and which is imported from Cabul and Candahar, where 
 the pomegranate grows in perfection. In hot countries 
 the juice of the pomegranate assuages thirst in a degree 
 most j^ecuhar to it, from its pleasant acid, which is de- 
 scribed by Moore as " full of melting sweetness." 
 
 The pomegranate-tree partakes of the antiquity of tlie 
 vine, the fig, and the olive, and in point of utility is num- 
 bered with the grain-bearing plants and with honey, all 
 constituting the principal food of Eastern nations in the 
 early stages of civilization. The Romans called it the Car- 
 thagmimi apple, because first brought to them from Car- 
 thage. It IS frequently mentioned in the Old Testament. 
 While the Israelites sojourned in the wilderness it was se- 
 lected as one of the ornaments of the robe of the ephod. 
 The two pillars of brass made by Hiram for the porch of 
 Solomon's Temple were ornamented with carvings of the 
 pomegranate. Solomon speaks of " an orchard of pome- 
 granates, with pleasant fruits ;" and it is mentioned as one 
 of the fruits discovered in the "^Promised Land :" " A land 
 of wheat, and barley, and vines, and pomegranates, a land 
 of olives, and honey."" — Deuteronomy, viii., 8. 
 
 The Banana {]\Iu'sa sapien'tivm, Lin. S., v., 1 ; jfSTat. M., 
 Agl. End., order JSIusads), a species of the plantain-tree, 
 a native, chiefly, of the plains of the tropics, and found 
 abundantly in the East and West Indies, Syria, etc., grows 
 from fifteen to twenty feet in height, having leaves from 
 three to ten feet in length, and nearly two feet in width. 
 A variety of the banana — the j^lantain-tree j^roper — is ex- 
 tensively cultivated in Mexico. The fruit of both, from 
 five to nine inches in length, and about an inch in diameter, 
 is at first green, but when ripe is of a pale yellow color, 
 and in some kinds dark purple. The fruit of the true ba- 
 nana is shorter and rounder than that of the plantain, and 
 has a softer pulp. The skin is peeled oflT, and the inside 
 eaten, which is of a sickish sweet taste, and a doughy feel 
 in the mouth. People are not apt to like these fruits at 
 first, but soon become extravagantly fond of them. It is 
 the fruit of the plantain-tree proper (llu'sa paradisi' aca) 
 
246 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 which, under the name of banana, is so abundant in the 
 markets of New York and other cities in early summer. 
 
 When the plantain or banana plant is full grown, the 
 spike of flowers, of a pink color, appears from the centre 
 of the leaves, nearly four feet in length, and nodding on 
 one side. When these spikes are filled with fruit they are 
 often so large as to weigh more than forty pounds. For- 
 merly this fruit w^as called Adam's apple, from a notion 
 that it w^as the forbidden fruit of Eden ; while others sup- 
 posed it to be the grapes brought out of the j)romised land 
 by the spies of Moses. 
 
 This fruit in Mexico is used, not merely as an occasional 
 luxury, but rather as an established article of subsistence, 
 as it forms a principal part of the principal food of the peo- 
 ple. It is not only eaten fresh, but it is roasted or boiled ; 
 it is also made into tarts, sliced and fried with butter ; it 
 is also dried and preserved as a sweetmeat. A fermented 
 liquor is made from the fruit, and, in some countries, a 
 cloth from the fibres of the trunk. The leaves make ex- 
 cellent mats, and are also used for making baskets and for 
 thatching cottages. 
 
 A plantation of bananas requires little care, and the 
 product to the acre is said to be, to that of wheat, as 130 
 to 1 of nutritive substance, and to that of potato as 40 
 to 1. The apathy and indolence of the natives in the hot 
 regions of Mexico has been ascribed, and probably Avith 
 good reason, to the facility with which this fruit supplies 
 them with subsistence. 
 
 The Pine-apple [JBrome'Ua ana'nas^ Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. 
 M., Agl. End., order Bromehco7'ts)^ a native of South Amer- 
 ica, and now extensively cultivated in all Avarm climates, is 
 a short-stemmed or stemless plant, growing about four feet 
 high, with rigid leaves fringed with spines, producing in 
 their centre a large conical spike of purple flowers ; and 
 this spike, with its bracts, stem, etc., becomes blended into 
 one fleshy mass, forming the conical fruit. The cultivated 
 fruit is well known for its sweetness and fine aromatic 
 flavor ; but in its wild state the fruit is excessively acid, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 2-17 
 
 burning the gums. It is noAV considered one of the most 
 important fruits in the world. Many varieties have been 
 produced by cultivation. It is found abundantly in our 
 sea-port towns in the summer season, being brought by 
 ship-loads. In the West Indies and South America, one 
 species, in its wild state, is used for fencing pasture-lands, 
 for which purpose it answers well on account of its strong 
 prickly leaves. 
 
 The Bread-feuit-tree {Artocar'piis inci' sa^lAw. S., xix., 
 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Artocarps^' ) grows in the 
 South Sea Islands, 30 or 40 feet higli. It has alternate, 
 deeply-gashed, bright-green leaves, about two feet long ; 
 and the whole tree, and the fruit before it is ripe, abound 
 in a very tenacious milky juice. Like all plants of the 
 nineteenth Linnsean class, it has the pistillate and staminate 
 flowers separate on the same plant. The staminate flower 
 is a club-shaped catkin, as seen on the right of the lower 
 part of the cut on the Chart ; and the pistillate or female 
 flower consists of numerous pistils, with their ovaries or 
 seed-vessels arranged over a fleshy receptacle, which be- 
 comes a globe-like berry or fruit. This fruit is of a pale 
 green color, about the size of a child's head, marked on the 
 surface with irregular six-sided depressions, and containing 
 a white and somewhat fibrous pulp. The eatable part, ly- 
 ing between the skin and the core, is as white as snow, 
 and somewhat of the consistence of new bread. It is roast- 
 ed before being eaten, or boiled or fried in palm-oiL The 
 natives of Otaheite cultivate eight or nine varieties. This 
 fruit has been introduced into the West Indies, but it is 
 there considered inferior to the banana, which produces 
 even more bountifully than the bread-fruit. 
 
 The Orange-tree ( CWrus auran' timn^ Lin. S., xii., 1 ; 
 
 * From the Greek artos, bread, and Icarpos^ fruit — the Bread-fruits. 
 In this order are found not only the eatable bread-fruits, and the cow- 
 tree of South America, which yields a copious supply of rich and whole- 
 some milk, but also the poisonous upas-tree of Java, The order of 
 Artocarps is nearly allied to the Morads already described ; and some 
 of the artocarps also produce caoutchouc or India-rubber. 
 
248 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 * 
 
 Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Citronworts) is an evergreen, at- 
 taining a height of from fifteen to twenty-five feet, having 
 beautiful green, ovate, oblong, and acute leaves, and a 
 trunk of a delicate ash-gray. Its native country is un- 
 doubtedly China ; but it is now extensively cultivated in 
 all warm countries, and is also a favorite in Northern 
 green-houses. The flowers of the sweet orange are of a 
 delicate white, but in the acid varieties they are slightly 
 tinged with pink. They are delightfully fragrant ; and as 
 the tree is at one and the same time in all stages of its 
 bearing — in flower, in green and in ripe fruit, inviting the 
 " hand to pull and the j^alate to taste" — it is hardly possi- 
 ble to conceive or imagine any object more delightful. 
 
 The fruit of the orange is spherical, with a reddish or 
 orange-colored rind. This external covering is of a spongy 
 texture, with but little juice or sap, but containing numer- 
 ous little glands which secrete an acrid, volatile oil, very 
 inflammable, and of a strong pungent taste. The interior 
 of the fruit is usually divided into from nine to twelve car- 
 pels or cells, which contain the pulp, seeds, and juice ; and 
 these cells are divided by a whitish leathery skin, radia- 
 ting from the centre to the rind. The cells may thus be 
 easily separated w^ithout wasting the juice. In some va- 
 rieties the seeds are entirely wanting, a result supj^osed 
 to have been attained by repeated removes from the orig- 
 inal stock by grafting. 
 
 There are almost as many varieties of the orange as of 
 the apple. From the flowers, fruit, and leaves of the Jjer- 
 gamot variety is obtained the essence known by that name. 
 The 2)ulp of the bitter or Seville orange, boiled with sugar, 
 makes an excellent »iar;?z«/«//e. The productiveness of the 
 common orange is enormous, as, according to Lindley, a 
 single tree has been known to produce 20,000 oranges fit 
 for packing, exclusive of the damaged fruit and waste, 
 whicli may be calculated at one third more. The fruit of 
 the orange may be obtained fresh in any region of the 
 globe, and at almost every season of the year. The princi- 
 pal imported varieties are the Maltese^ of a reddish, deli- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 249 
 
 cious pulp ; the large Havana^ sweet, with a rough rind ; 
 the &t, Augustine^ still larger than the Havana, and contain- 
 ing about 240 oranges to the bushel; the Valencia; the 
 Sicilian — rather acid, and the Provence^ and the Genoese. 
 There are also Seville, Oporto, Malaga., etc., and the bitter 
 oranges of Cuba and Florida, of a beautiful color, but unfit 
 to be eaten, on account of their bitter flavor. 
 
 In this same order of Citroniioorts are the lemon, lime, 
 citron, and shaddock, nearly allied to the oranges. 
 
 The Lemoyi., the well-known fine acid fruit of commerce, 
 is oblong, and of a greenish-yellowish color. The juice of 
 lemon, or citric acid, as it is often called, may be preserved 
 in bottles for a considerable time by covering it with a thin 
 stratum of oil, to keep it from the air. It is used to make 
 lemonade, and to flavor sirups, etc. The Lime is a spher- 
 ical fruit, smaller than the lemon, and somewhat inferior to 
 it, but is much esteemed in the green state for preserves. 
 The Citron is a rough fruit, oblong, with a very thick rind, 
 larger than the largest lemon, but inferior in the quality of 
 its acid. The candied citron of the confectioners is made 
 from its skin. The fruit of the Shaddock^ which is spher- 
 ical, and has a thick, white, and bitter rind, grows in Japan 
 to the size of a child's head. It is a worthless fruit ; but 
 it furnishes the best stocks for grafting the orange and 
 lemon. 
 
 CHART No. XXII. ECONOMICAL USES 
 OF VIjA'^'J^^— continued. 
 
 V. Medicinal Plants. 
 
 The RnuBAEB {JRhe'mn 'pcdnia'tum^ Lin. S., ix., 3 ; Xat. 
 M., Ang. Exog., ord. J3uckioheats) is an important medicinal 
 plant, a native of China and Tartary, whence large quanti- 
 ties of the dried root are exported. The best is that Avhich 
 reaches us by the Avay of Russia, and which is im23roperly 
 called "Turkey" rhubarb. The color of the root is a lively 
 yellow, streaked with red and gray. Its texture is dense, 
 
 L2 
 
250 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 and, when reduced to powder, it is entirely yellow. The 
 odor of the root is peculiar, and its taste is nauseous, bit- 
 ter, and astringent. The leaves are palmate and acumin- 
 ate, as shown on the Chart. 
 
 The rhubarb known in this country as the garden rhu- 
 barb, or pie-plant, and the leaf-stems or petioles of which 
 are so extensively used for making pies, is the Mhe'um rha- 
 2)on'ticum^ the root of which is quite similar, in its medic- 
 inal properties, to the imported rhubarb, but less powerful. 
 Its leaves are very large, generally obtuse, and heart-ovate ; 
 stem stout and fleshy, hollow, growing from three to four 
 feet high, and producing dense clusters of greenish- white 
 flowers. Its form is in every respect like that of the Turkey 
 rhubarb represented on the Chart, with the exception of 
 the leaves. 
 
 The Saesapaeilla [Smi'lax saTsaparil'la., Liu. S., xx,, 6 ; 
 -tSTat. M., Agl. End., ord. ^arsaparillas) is a half shrubby 
 plant, well known as a drug, growing about four feet high, 
 with a prickly quadrangular stem^ but having the 'branches 
 unarmed ; leaves oblong-ovate, acuminate, three to six inch- 
 es long and half as wide, with tendrils starting from the 
 base of the petioles ; flowers white and green, or yellow- 
 ish ; berries large and globular, and of a bright pink-red 
 when fully ripe ; root long, slender, and creeping, covered 
 with a wrinkled bark, which in some varieties is brown, 
 but that from Jamaica is deep red. 
 
 The bark of the root, which is the only useful part of the 
 plant, is inodorous, and has a mucilaginous, slightly bitter 
 taste. The roots are imported in bales from Brazil, the 
 West Indies, Honduras, and Vera Cruz. Many species of 
 the smilax — some found in Asia, and some in oSTorth Amer- 
 ica — have the same medicinal properties as are found in 
 the genuine drug. Preparations of sarsaparilla have been 
 a very popular medicine in the United States as a restora- 
 tive to debilitated constitutions. In India the juice of the 
 fresh tuber of one species is taken inwardly, and ai:)plied 
 externally, for the cure of rheumatic aflections. 
 
 Jalap (IiDo'^inea pur'ga^ or Exogonimn pur'ga^ Lin. S., 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 251 
 
 v., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Bindiceeds)^ so named from 
 Jalapa, in Mexico, whence it is chiefly imported, is a pow- 
 erful cathartic medicine, the root of a climbing or creeping 
 plant, which grows about ten feet in length. It belongs to 
 the same order of plants as our Morning-glory, Cypress- 
 vine, Bindweeds, etc. 
 
 The Jalap plant has a tuberous perennial root (as repre- 
 sented at h on the Chart), the taste of which is exceeding- 
 ly nauseons, accompanied by a sweetish bitterness ; it has 
 a smooth, twining, annual stem ; a salver-shaped, red corol- 
 la, with a long cylindrical tube. The leaves, which are 
 cordate-ovate, resemble those of the ivy. The flowers open 
 only at night. 
 
 The root, when brought to this country, is in thin slices. 
 The dark, heavy, and resinous roots are»the best ; but in- 
 ferior "kinds arc often ground up with the genuine drug. 
 The powder is of a yellowish-gray color. It is estimated 
 that 200,000 pounds of the pure Jalap, from Jalapa, are an- 
 nually ex^Dorted from Vera Cruz. The root of a single 
 plant rarely exceeds a pound in weight. 
 
 The Poppy {Paj^a'ver somniferum^ Lin. S., xii., 1 ; I^Tat. 
 M., Ang. Exog., ord. Poppyicorts) , from which the drug 
 called opium is obtained, supposed to be a native of Asia, 
 but now found growing wild throughout Southern Europe, 
 is an annual herb, w^ith a stem growing from two to four 
 feet high ; leaves large, gashed, clasping the stem, and re- 
 sembling those of the lettuce ; flowers white, with four 
 petals in the wild state, but increasing in numbers by cul- 
 tivation, and resembling the flowers of the tulip ; flower- 
 buds nodding, but erect in flower and in fruit. The seeds, 
 which are small, but very numerous, are produced in a 
 large roundish capsule, which has openings at the to]3 when 
 ripe. 
 
 All 2:)arts of the poppy contain a white, opaque, narcotic 
 juice ; but as this juice abounds most in the capsules, these 
 are the parts of the plant from which the drug is obtained, 
 by the following process. When the capsules are half 
 grown, longitudinal incisions are made, through their outer 
 
252 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 coating only, at sunset, and in the morning the juice which 
 has flown from them is scraped from the capsules by wom- 
 en and children. This juice is afterward worked in the 
 sunshine until it has attained a considerable deoTee of 
 thickness, when it is formed by hand into cakes, and far- 
 ther dried, in which form it is sold as opium. The best 
 opium is of a reddish-brown or fawn color ; it has- a strong, 
 heavy, narcotic odor, and a bitter taste, accompanied by a 
 sensation of acrid heat, or biting on the tongue and lips, if 
 it be well chewed. 
 
 The opium-poppy is very extensively cultivated in Brit- 
 ish India, Persia, and Turkey. It grows readily in the 
 middle and southern United States also, but, on account of 
 the high wages of labor here, its cultivation for the sake of 
 the drug would not seem to be profitable. From the seeds 
 is obtained a wholesome oil, which possesses none of the 
 narcotic properties of the drug. Olive-oil is often adulter- 
 ated with it. 
 
 As a medicine, opium acts at first as a powerful stimu- 
 lus, soon followed by narcotic and sedative efl^ects, destroy- 
 ing the irritability of the stomach, and allaying pain in the 
 most distant parts of the body. In moderate doses it in- 
 creases the fullness, force, and frequency of the pulse, aug- 
 ments the heat of the body, quickens respiration, and in- 
 vigorates both the corporeal and mental functions, exhila- 
 rating even to intoxication ; but by degrees these efiects 
 are succeeded by languor, lassitude, and sleep, and, in many 
 instances, by headache, sickness, thirst, tremors, and other 
 symptoms of debility, such as follow the excessive use of 
 ardent spirits. In very large doses the pulse is at once 
 diminished ; drowsiness and stupor immediately come on, 
 and are followed by delirium, heavy breathing, cold sweats, 
 convulsions, apoplexy, and death. 
 
 But, notwithstanding these effects, opium is extensively 
 used in Turkey, India, and China, both in chewing and in 
 smoking, for the purpose of exhilarating the spirits ; but it 
 is found necessary, in order to produce the same agreeable 
 effects, gradually to increase the quantity taken. Hence 
 the great danger arising from its habitual use. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 253 
 
 The i^eculiar sedative principle of the opium is found in 
 a crystaUized salt called morphine^ which is extracted from 
 the drug. Tlie total amount of opium imported annually 
 into the United States is about 150,000 pounds, valued at 
 about 480,000 dollars. 
 
 Senna ( Cas'sia Orien'talis^ Lin. S., x., 1 ; N'at. M., Ang. 
 Exog., ord. Leguminous Plants), well known as a mild ca- 
 thartic, is an annual plant, growing from three to five feet 
 high, with pinnate leaves in five pairs, as shown on the 
 Chart, and bright yellow flowers, succeeded by legumes or 
 pods similar to those of the "bean. This is the true senna, 
 imported chiefly from Western Asia and Eastern Africa; 
 but the senna of the shops consists of several species, all 
 possessing similar qualities. 
 
 The Cas'sia marilan' dica, a species found growing wild 
 in this country, in dense masses in alluvial soils, and often 
 cultivated in gardens, is also used as a cathartic. The up- 
 per leaves and flowers are gathered for this purpose. This 
 species is 2^ perennial, and has the pinnate leaves generally 
 in eight pairs ; flowers of five bright yellow petals ; legumes 
 or pods curved ; and from twelve to twenty-seeded. 
 
 Ipecac, as it is generally called, but, more properly, Ipe- 
 cacuanha {^Cephae'lis ipecaciian' Jia, Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., 
 Ang. Exog., ord. Cinchonads), is a little, half-herbaceous, 
 perennial plant, found in damp shady forests in Brazil. 
 The root of this plant holds the first rank among emetics. 
 It is also sudorific (producing pers25iration) and expecto- 
 rant. 
 
 This plant has a weak creeping stem two or three feet 
 long, from which it sends out roots, as seen on the Chart. 
 The roots ai^ contorted, from four to six inches long, and 
 about as thick as a goose-quill. There are several varieties 
 of this root, denominated, from their color, the white, gray, 
 and brown, which are imported in bales from Kio Janeiro. 
 The entire root is inodorous ; but the powder, in which 
 form it is used, has a faint disagreeable odor. Tlie taste is 
 bitter, and exceedingly nauseous. Helvetius, who first 
 gave this root celebrity in France, in the time of Louis 
 
254: MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 XIV., received, as a reward from that monarch, a gift of 
 five thousand dollars. 
 
 Gentian ( Gen'tiana lu'tea^ Lin. S., v., 2 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
 Exog., ord. Gentianioorts) is a 23lant which grows about 
 four feet high, having broad ovate leaves, opposite and ses- 
 sile, and a yellow axillary corolla, usually five-cleft, whorled, 
 and rotate or wheel form. The thick root, which is of a 
 yellowish-brown color, and very bitter taste, is a powerful 
 tonic, and the principal European bitter used in medicine. 
 In Switzerland and Germany this plant occupies extensive 
 tracts of ground untouched by any cattle. The gentian 
 brought to this country comes chiefly from Germany. A 
 species of gentian having blue flowers is often used as a 
 substitute for the yellow species. 
 
 The gentians are a large order of beautiful j^lants, found 
 in nearly all parts of the world, and many of them culti- 
 vated in our gardens for ornament. Th6y present a great 
 variety of colors — red, blue, yellow, and white, with many 
 of the intermediate compound tints. 
 
 Peruvian Baek ( Cin'chona condamin' ea^ Lin. S., vi., 1 ; 
 Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Oinchonads)^ much used in med- 
 icine as a powerful febrifuge, is obtained from several spe- 
 cies of plants, of the genus Cinchona, found in Peru. This 
 genus derived its name from the Countess of Cinchon, who 
 was cured of a fever by the use of this j)lant. The flowers 
 of the kind most used in medicine are 2:)ink, and the seeds 
 are contained in a long yellow capsule. Three kinds of the 
 Peruvian bark, obtained from different S]3ecies of Cinchona, 
 are found in our drug-stores — the pale bark, the red, and 
 the yellow. All are exceedingly bitter to the taste, and 
 used for the same purposes. 
 
 The medicinal j^roperties of the Peruvian bark, and of 
 most of the plants of the genus Cinchona, depend ujDon the 
 2')resence of two alkalies, cinchonia and quinia. The latter, 
 extracted from the bark, and popularly known as quinme^ 
 is much used in the treatment of agues. 
 
 The Castor-oil Plant {Ri'dnus commwVzzs, Lin. S., xix., 
 15 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Sjourgeworts)^ though an an- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 255 
 
 nual and herbaceous plant in our gardens, becomes in warm- 
 er climates a tree of several years' standing. In our gar- 
 dens, when started early in a hotbed, it makes a magnifi- 
 cent border annual, often attaining a height of ten or 
 twelve feet. 
 
 The leaves of this plant, Avhich are from four inches to a 
 foot in diameter, and on long petioles, are peltate, palmate, 
 and serrate, with lanceolate lobes ; flowers greenish-yellow ; 
 lower stem has a frosty or mealy appearance, with branches 
 of alight bluish-green color. The capsules (as represented 
 at d on the Chart) containing the seeds or beans are prickly. 
 
 The castor-oil of commerce, noted as a mild and safe ca- 
 thartic, is obtained from the seeds or beans, either by boil- 
 ing them in water or by pressure ; but the latter method 
 is the best. The oil is thick and heavy, nearly inodorous, 
 insipid, and of a very pale straw-color. 
 
 The castor-oil plant has been raised extensively in South- 
 ern Illinois. It is planted in the spring, when there is no 
 longer danger of frosts, much in the manner of Indian corn, 
 with the exception that but one seed is put into each hill, 
 and that at every fourth row a s^^ace is left sufficiently wide 
 to admit of the passage of a team for the purpose of gath- 
 ering the crop. The plant bears at the same time flowers 
 and fruit, continuing to blossom, in our climate, as long as 
 warm weather continues. The ripening commences in Au- 
 gust, and the crop is gathered at intervals from this time 
 until the plants are destroyed by frost. From sixteen to 
 twenty-five bushels of the beans are obtained to the acre. 
 The oil is manufactured extensively in St. Louis. During 
 the fall of 1854 one establishment in St. Louis manufac- 
 tured 32,000 gallons of castor-oil. The wholesale price of 
 the oil has varied from sixty cents to |1 25 per gallon, 
 sold in quantities by the barrel. Castor-oil would be very 
 valuable for lubricating machinery if it could be produced 
 at a sufficiently low j^rice. 
 
256 MANUAL OF INFOKMATION 
 
 VI. Plants used for Beverages. 
 
 " Various artificial drinks," says Professor Johnston, in 
 liis Chemistry of Common Life, " are prepared, both in civ- 
 ihzed and semi-barbarous countries, and are in daily use 
 among vast multitudes of men, such as tea, coffee, and co- 
 coa, beer, wine, and ardent spirits, the preparation and ef- 
 fects of each of which are connected with interesting chem- 
 ical considerations. 
 
 " These drinks agree in being all prepared from, or by 
 means of, substances of vegetable origin, and in being gen- 
 erally classed among the luxuries rather than the necessa- 
 ries of life. The mode in which they are prepared, how- 
 ever, naturally divides these drinks into two classes. Tea, 
 coffee, and cocoa are roasted and prepared before they are 
 infused in water, and the infusion is then drunk without 
 farther chemical treatment. These are simply infused 
 beverages. Beer, wine, and ardent spirits are prepared 
 from infusions which, after being made, are subjected to 
 important chemical operations. Among these operations 
 is the process of fermentation, and hence they are properly 
 distinguished VuS fermented liquors. The infused beverages 
 are drunk hot ; fermented liquors are usually taken cold." 
 
 Among the infused beverages, the teas^ coffees^ and cocoas 
 are the most important. Teas are infusions of leaves ; cof- 
 fees are infusions of seeds ; while cocoas are, pro]oerly, 
 soups or gruels, made by diffusing, through boiling water, 
 the entire seeds of certain plants previously ground into a 
 paste. 
 
 The Tea Plant of China {The' a mr'idis, Lin. S., xii., 1 ; 
 N'at. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Theads) is a hardy, evergreen, 
 bushy shrub, from tliree to six feet high ; leaves numerous, 
 lanceolate, serrate, flat, three times as long as broad, and 
 on short and thick channeled footstalks ; blossom white, 
 Avith yellow style and anthers. At c, on the Chart, is 
 shown the pistil of the plant and one of the stamens; at b 
 is the pistil farther advanced, with the seed-vessel at the 
 bottom ; at d the seed-vessel or boll ; and at ci the same 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 257 
 
 fully ripe and opening. The leaves^ which are the valuable 
 j^art of the plant, have been used as a beverage in China 
 from, very remote periods, and their consumption is now 
 enormous. The total annual produce of the dried leaves 
 in China alone is now estimated at more than a million of 
 tons! Large quantities are also produced in Japan Corea, 
 Assam, and Java. 
 
 Although we have various kinds of black and green teas 
 in the market, yet, botanically considered, the tea-plant is a 
 single species ; the green and black, with all the diversities 
 of each, being mere varieties, like the varieties of the grape, 
 produced by difference of climate, soil, locality, age of the 
 crojD when gathered, and modes of preparation for the 
 market. The tea-plants are raised from seeds, which are 
 planted three or four in a hill, the hills being about four 
 feet apart, and the same distance between the rows. A 
 tea-plantation in China is said to look, at a little distance, 
 like a shrubbery of gooseberry bushes. The leaves are not 
 collected until the plants are three years old ; and after the 
 plants have grown nine or ten years they are cut down, in 
 order that a new plantation may then be made, or that 
 young shoots from the old roots may spring up. The first 
 gathering, in China, commences about the first of March, 
 when the leaves just begin to unfold from the bud. These 
 furnish the most costly of the " green" teas, and are said 
 never to be exported, and to be used only by persons of 
 the highest rank in China. A second gathering of the 
 "green" teas, about a month later, furnishes those known 
 as imperial and young hyson skin ; at later gatherings are 
 obtained the hyson, hyson skin, and gunpowder teas ; and 
 lastly, in June, the "black" teas, such as souchong and 
 Congo, until they reach the latest crop and lowest in qual- 
 ity, called by us "bohea," and by the Chinese large tea, on 
 account of the maturity and size of the leaves. 
 
 The process of gathering the tea is one of great nicety 
 and importance. Each leaf is plucked separately from the 
 twig, mostly by women and children, and great care is 
 taken to have the hands of the gatherer kept clean. In 
 
258 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 collecting some of the finer sorts that are used by the Chi- 
 nese nobility only, it is stated, upon reliable authority, that 
 the gatherer is obliged, for some weeks previous, to abstain 
 from all gross food, lest his breath or perspiration might 
 injure the flavor, to wear fine gloves while at work, and to 
 bathe two or three times a day during this period. 
 
 After the gathering of the tea, the operation of drying 
 and rolling is performed, the object being to exj)el the 
 moisture from the leaves, and, at the same time, to retain 
 as much as possible of their aromatic flavor. For this pur- 
 pose the leaves are thrown into shallow, heated roasting- 
 pans, kept constantly in motion, and, when sufiiciently 
 moist and wilted, are placed upon a table, and rapidly roll- 
 ed with the hands. After properly drying, the tea is win- 
 nowed, and passed through sieves of difierent sizes, in or- 
 der to get rid of the dust and other impurities, and to di- 
 vide it into the difierent grades, which have their respect- 
 ive names. By various processes of heating, rolling, etc., 
 difierences of flavor and color are produced. And yet it 
 has been ascertained that the beautiful blue tinge which 
 our finest teas possess is given by dyeing them with Prus- 
 sian blue — a well-known poison ! The Chinese do not use 
 such teas, but say that they color them in this manner be- 
 cause they thus better suit the taste of the " foreign bar- 
 barians !" 
 
 (For a further account of tea, tea-drinking, etc., see Fifth 
 Keader, page 155. It would be well for pupils to describe 
 the process of making tea, the kinds with which they are 
 acquainted, or which are kept in the stores, prices per 
 pound, etc.) 
 
 Effects. — ^Tea exhilarates, by acting on the nervous sys- 
 tem, without sensibly intoxicating. Hence it excites the 
 brain to increased activity, and produces wakefulness, and 
 is therefore a popular beverage with those who are obliged 
 to keep awake nights, and to persons who perform much 
 mental labor. It also soothes and stills the vascular sys- 
 tem (the system of the blood-vessels), and hence its uses 
 in infiammatory diseases, and as a cure for the headache. 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 259 
 
 Green tea, when taken strong, acts very powerfully upon 
 some constitutions, producing nervous tremblings and other 
 distressing symptoms, acting as a narcotic, and in inferior 
 animals even producing paralysis. JBlack tea, made from 
 more mature leaves than green tea, is the least injurious, 
 because it does not contain so much of the volatile oil as 
 the green varieties. 
 
 The quantity of tea consumed in Great Britain annually 
 is about seventy millions of pounds, or two and a half 
 pounds to each individual; Avhile the United States now 
 consume about thirty-two millions of pounds annually, or 
 but little more than a pound to each individual. The quan- 
 tity consumed annually in the Avhole world is estimated at 
 2240 millions of pounds, and it is said to be used by 500 
 millions of mankind. 
 
 The Coffee-tree ( Coffe'a Ara'hica, Lin. S., v., 1 ; I^at. 
 M., Ang. Exog., ord. CincliGnads)^ a native of Ethiopia 
 and Abyssinia, but first brought to notice from Arabia, is 
 an evergreen from fifteen to twenty feet high; stem four 
 or five inches in diameter, with a light-brown bark ; op- 
 posite, oblong, wavy, shining, light-green leaves ; flowers 
 white, in clusters at the base of the leaves, deeply five-cleft, 
 with spreading divisions, and of a grateful odor, but of 
 short duration. When the tree is full grown it much re- 
 sembles one of our apple-trees, with the lower branches 
 bent nearly to the ground. In almost all seasons of the 
 year blossoms and green and rijDe fruit may be seen on the 
 tree at the same time. 
 
 When the blossom falls off there remains in its room, or 
 rather springs from each blossom, a small fruit, green at 
 first, but which becomes red, or of a reddish-orange color, 
 as it ripens, and is not unlike a large cherry, and is very 
 good to eat. Under the flesh of this cherry, instead of the 
 stone is found the bean or berry we call coffee, wrapped 
 round in a fine thin skin. The berry is then very soft and 
 of a disagreeable taste, but as the cherry ripens, the berry 
 in the inside grows harder, and the dried up fruit, being 
 the flesh or pulp of it, w^hich was before eatable, becomes 
 
260 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 a shell or pod of a deep brown color. The berry is now 
 solid, and of a clear transparent green in some varieties, 
 and a brownish or pale yellow in others. Each shell con- 
 tains one berry, which splits into two equal parts. When 
 the fruit is sufficiently ripe to be shaken from the tree, the 
 husks are separated from the berries, and are used in Arabia 
 by the natives instead of the berries, while the berries are 
 exported for the European markets. The leaves, when 
 cured in the manner of tea, are said to possess all the vir- 
 tues of the berry itself. The full-grown fruit, and one with 
 the berry exposed, are represented on the Chart. 
 
 In extensive coffee plantations the plants are put out 
 about eight feet apart ; they are then top^^ed and stunted 
 to about five feet in height, for the convenience of having 
 the fruit within reach of the gatherer. Thus dwarfed, they 
 extend their branches until they cover the whole ground. 
 They begin to yield fruit the third year ; by the fifth, sixth, 
 or seventh, they are at full bearing, and continue to bear 
 for upward of twenty years. The different kinds of coffee 
 found in our markets — such as Java, Mocha or Arabian, 
 La Guayra, Ceylon, etc. — are all of the same original kind, 
 but changed somewhat in appearance and quality by differ- 
 ences of soil, climate, and cultivation. 
 
 Before the berry is available for use it undergoes a 
 l^rocess called roasting ; and the valuable properties of the 
 coffee depend very much on the manner in Avhich this 
 process is performed. It is said that, " If coffee be under- 
 done in roasting, its virtues will not be imparted, and it 
 will load and oppress the stomach ; if it be overdone, it 
 will yield a flat, burnt, and bitter taste, its virtues w^ill be 
 destroyed, and in use it will heat the body and act as an 
 astringent." 
 
 The effects of coffee are thus described by Professor 
 Johnston. " It exhilarates, arouses, and keeps awake ; it 
 allays hunger to a certain extent, gives to the weary in- 
 creased strength and vigor, and imparts a feeling of com- 
 fort and repose. Its physiological eflects upon the system, 
 so far as they have been investigated, appear to be that, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 261 
 
 while it makes the brain more active, it soothes the body 
 generally, makes the change and waste of matter slower, 
 and the demand for food in consequence less." It must be 
 admitted, however, that a less favorable opinion of the ef- 
 fects of coffee npon the system is given by many other 
 writers. 
 
 Coffee is cultivated to a considerable extent in the West 
 Indies, but very largely in Brazil. The entire annual pro- 
 duction of coffee in the world is now estimated at six or 
 seven hundred millions of pounds, and j^robably more than 
 half of this quantity is raised in Brazil. One hundred mil- 
 lions of mankind arc believed to use it. It is estimated 
 that more than two hundred and twenty millions of pounds 
 are annually consumed in the United States alone, while 
 only forty millions of pounds are consumed in Great Brit- 
 ain. We are, therefore, as a people, the greatest coffee- 
 drinkers in the world. 
 
 (If we now number thirty millions of people, how much 
 coffee, on an average, is annually consumed by each indi- 
 vidual? Callmg the price paid 14 cents i:ier pound, what 
 would the sum thus paid for coffee amount to ? What 
 kinds of coffee are the pupils acquainted with? What 
 kinds are found in the stores, and what are the prices per 
 pound ?) 
 
 The Paraguay Tea-plant, or Mate {Tlex Paraguay- 
 en' sis ^ Lin. S., iv., 3 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Holly ic oris), 
 is a shrub or small tree, from ten to fifteen feet high, grow- 
 ing spontaneously in the forests of Paraguay. Flowers 
 white, berries reddish-orange. The leaves, four or five 
 inches long, when dried, and rubbed to powder, are exten- 
 sively used throughout nearly all South America, for mak- 
 ing a tea called 'mate. These leaves contain the same ac- 
 tive ingredients as Chinese tea, and the beverage made 
 from them produces similar effects ; but excessive use of it 
 is attended with more dangerous consequences, as it is apt 
 to induce diseases similar to those which follow the exces- 
 sive use of ardent spirits — producing intoxication, and lead- 
 ing even to delirium tremens. The quantity of the dried 
 
262 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 leaves used in South America is very large, as live or six 
 millioDS of pounds are annually exported from Paraguay. 
 The entire consumption of this plant, annually, is believed 
 to be about twenty millions of pounds. Ten millions of 
 people in South America make it their common beverage. 
 
 Mankind seem to have almost a natural taste for stimu- 
 lating, intoxicating, and narcotic drinks ; as in all coun- 
 tries, civilized and savage, drinks of some of these kinds 
 are common. 
 
 The CocoA-TEEE {Theohro' ma caca'o^ Lin. S., xii., 1 
 Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. JByttner'iads)^ or Chocolate-tree 
 is the tree that produces the seeds from Avhich the well 
 known beverage called coco'a^ or chocolate^ is produced 
 This tree, wdiich is from twelve to sixteen feet high, grows 
 spontaneously in Mexico and Central America, and forms 
 whole forests in Demarara. In general appearance it re- 
 sembles, both in size and shape, a blacJc-heart cherry. The 
 leaves are lanceolate-oblong, bright green, entire ; flower 
 small, reddish, inodorous ; and the fruit, which, like the fig, 
 grows directly from the stem and principal branches, is of 
 the form and size of a small oblong melon or thick cucum- 
 ber, and about three inches in diameter at the thickest 
 part. Tliis fruit is smooth, yellow, red, or of both colors 
 externally, having a yellowish fleshy rind, near half an inch 
 in thickness ; within this rind is a whitish or cream-colored 
 spongy pulp, and imbedded in this latter are from six to 
 thirty beans or seeds, of the size of large almonds. At d 
 on the Chart is represented one of the fruits, with a part 
 of the rind removed, and showing the beans or seeds in 
 rows. These seeds are of a flesh-color when fresh, but 
 they become of a dark brown, both externally and inter- 
 nally, when fully ripe and dry. They taste like a rich nut, 
 but are slightly astringent, and decidedly bitter before be- 
 ing roasted. The cocoa-tree begins to bear in its third 
 year, producing, after this period, leaves, flowers, and fruit, 
 all the year through. A tree yields from two to three 
 pounds of seeds annually. 
 
 The seeds or beans are usually roasted like cofiee, then 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 263 
 
 ground or pounded, and mixed with water, so as to form a 
 thick paste; sugar, vanilla, and sometimes cinnamon and 
 cloves, and some other ingredients, are then added, with, 
 usually, the reddish-yellow vegetable dye anotta to color 
 it ; and when the paste thus formed has become hardened 
 into cakes, it forms the chocolate of the shops. What is 
 properly cocoa is the pure cocoa mixed wdth w^ater, and 
 hardened in cakes, but without the additional ingredients 
 generally used in chocolate. The purest cocoa is obtained 
 by removing the shell of the bean, and using the interior 
 portions only. 
 
 Cocoa or chocolate is used in difierent ways. Some- 
 times the cake is eaten in a solid state, as a nutritious arti- 
 cle of diet; sometimes it is scraped into powder, and mixed 
 with "boiling water or boiling milk, when it makes a bev- 
 erage somewhat thick, but agreeable to the palate ; and 
 sometimes the unmixed and pure cocoa is boiled in water, 
 with which it forms a dark brown decoction. With sugar 
 and milk this makes an agreeable drink, better than the 
 ordinary chocolate for persons of w^eak constitutions. 
 
 Cocoa is said to produce exhilarating and soothing ef- 
 fects, like tea and coflee, and, like them, to diminish the or- 
 dinary waste of the system. But it is remarkably distin- 
 guished from tea and coffee by containing a large pro^^or- 
 tion of oily matter, known as cocoa-butter, which amounts 
 to more than half the weight of the shelled or husked 
 bean. Hence it is a very rich article of food ; and for 
 this reason it not unfrequently disagrees with delicate 
 stomachs. It also contains a considerable proportion of 
 starch and gluten — substances which form the leading con- 
 stituents of all the more valuable varieties of vegetable 
 food. The botanist Linnaeus w^as so fond of cocoa that he 
 gave to the tree the generic name of Theohroma, a com- 
 pound Greek word which means " foqd of the gods." 
 
 The total annual consumption of cocoa is estimated at 
 one hundred millions of pounds ; and it is believed to be 
 in general use as a beverage among fifty millions of man- 
 kind. 
 
264 MANUAL OF INFORM ATIOIST 
 
 Chiccory ( Cicho^rmin inty^hus^ Lin. S., xvii., 1 ; Nat. M., 
 Ang.Exog., ord. Composite j^lants), also called Succory and 
 Endive^ is a wild weed found growing abundantly in most 
 countries of EurojDe, where it is also ofte^ cultivated. It 
 has been introduced into this country, and is cultivated in 
 Westchester County, near IsTew York, and in some other 
 places. In a wild state the stem, which is round and 
 rough, grows from one to three feet high ; but when culti- 
 vated, it shoots up five or six feet: flowers sessile, bright 
 blue, large and showy, with the corollas flat and five-tooth- 
 ed ; the upper leaves cordate and acuminate ; but the lower 
 ones have t^hat peculiar form called runcinate^ as shown on 
 the Chart. A runcinate leaf is one that is pinnatifid (see 
 page 181), and that has the segments pointed and curved 
 backward. The root of this plant, Avhich is large, white, 
 or brownish, j^arsnip-shaped, and Avhich increases in size 
 when the plant is subjected to cultivation, abounds in a 
 bitter juice, which has led to its use as a substitute for 
 cofiee ; and for this purpose the plant is extensively culti- 
 vated in Prussia, Belgium, and France. The root is taken 
 up before the plant shoots into flower, is washed, sliced, and 
 dried ; a little lard is then i^ut in, and the root is roasted 
 until it is of a chocolate color, after which it is ground, and 
 packed in papers for use. When steeped in hot water it 
 imparts to the water a dark color, and a sweetish-bitter 
 taste; but it has not the pleasant odor and flavor of genu- 
 ine coflee. To many it is not only disagreeable to the 
 taste, but nauseous in a high degree ; yet others become 
 very fond of it, and it is probable that its bitter principle 
 possesses a tonic or strengthening property. It is said, 
 however, that " ^^rolonged and frequent use of it produces 
 heartburn, cramp, and acidity in the stomach, loss of appe- 
 tite, weakness of the limbs, tremblings, sleeplessness, a 
 drunken cloudiness of the senses, etc., etc." 
 
 Chiccory is used very largely to adulterate ground coffee, 
 as it is found that a little of the roasted chiccory gives as 
 dark a color to water, and as bitter a taste, as a great deal 
 of coffee. As evidence of the extent to which it is used, 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 265 
 
 English statistics show that, in the year 1845, 2000 to?is of 
 chiccory were imported into Great Britain alone from the 
 Continent, and it is known that since that period its use 
 has greatly increased. The presence of chiccory in ground 
 coffee may be detected by putting the coffee into cold wa- 
 ter, as chiccory will impart a brownish-yellow color to the 
 water, which pure coffee docs not. Those who would guard 
 against such imposition should buy the coffee in the kernel, 
 and grind it themselves. 
 
 The Hop {Ilic'midus lu'pidus^ Lin. S., xx., 5 ; !Nat. M., 
 Ang. Exog., ord. Hempinjorts) is a perennial plant, with an 
 annual stem, rough, and twining with the sun, found wild 
 in hedges, and extensively cultivated both in Europe and 
 in this country for its flowers or scaly aments, which are 
 used in the manufacture of beer. This plant, like all oth- 
 ers of the twentieth Linnoean class, bears its j^istillate and 
 staminate flowers on different individuals ; and it is the fe- 
 male or pistillate plant, therefore, containing the seeds or 
 fruit, that is chiefly cultivated. The leaves are very rough, 
 generally three-lobed, deeply cordate at the base, and on 
 long petioles. For the shajDe of the flowers of both kinds, 
 see the Chart. The scales of the fertile flower, when ar- 
 rived at maturity, are covered with yellowish resinous at- 
 oms, forming a fine powder, which is distinguished by the 
 name of lupulin. It is this powder chiefly which contains 
 the bitter, tonic, narcotic, and aromatic properties which 
 render the plant valuable. A tea made of hop flowers is 
 not only tonic, but it soothes also and tranquillizes, allays 
 pain, reduces the pulse, and in a slight degree induces sleep. 
 The chief use of the hop in brewing is to prevent the beer 
 from becoming sour, and this it does by checking the fer- 
 mentation before all the sugar becomes converted into al- 
 cohol. It also imparts to the beer its own peculiar narcotic 
 and tonic properties. 
 
 Between fifty and sixty thousand acres are devoted to 
 the raising of hops in England alone ; and the people of 
 Great Britain consume about forty millions of pounds of 
 hops annually. England consumes more hops than all the 
 
 M 
 
266 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 world besides ; and it is therefore very evident that the En- 
 glish people are the greatest beer-drinkers in the world. 
 
 From two to three millions of pounds of hops are now 
 raised annually in this country — two thirds of this quantity 
 being produced in the State of New York. In the year 1 850 
 the breweries of this state produced 645,000 barrels of ale. 
 
 Numerous bitter plants have been recommended and oc- 
 casionally used in beer, to replace or sup23lant the hop — 
 such as horehound, wormwood, gentian, quassia, chamo- 
 mile, fern leaves, broom tops, ground-ivy, dandelion, chic- 
 cory, and even that most deadly of poisons, strychnine. 
 Strychnine is an intensely bitter substance contained in the 
 seeds of the nux vomica^ a tree growing in various places 
 in the East Indies, and producing a fruit similar to the ap- 
 ple. Loudon, speaking of the seeds of the nux vomica, 
 says, "They are employed in the distillation of country 
 spirits, to render them more intoxicating." The introduc- 
 tion of these seeds in English breweries is prohibited un- 
 der heavy penalties ; but it is believed that they are used, 
 nevertheless. Strychnine is so intensely bitter that its taste 
 can be detected when dissolved in 600,000 times its weight 
 of water. Beer, wine, and brandy drinkers little know the 
 many poisons which are smuggled into their systems under 
 the guise of " beverages." 
 
 VII. Plants used for Manufactures, 
 
 Herbaceous Cotton {Gossyp'ium herba'cewn, Jjin. S., 
 XV., 13 ; Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. 3Ialloioicorts)^ the kind 
 mostly cultivated in the United States, is an annual, which 
 grows from two to five feet high, with dark green, blue- 
 veined leaves on long petioles, the lower leaves being five- 
 lobed, and the upper often but three. The flower is hand- 
 some, about three inches broad, of a pale yellow color, 
 with one pistil, and five petals, which are purplish at the 
 base. On the falling of the flower, a pod of triangular 
 shape, about the size of a small walnut, is developed. This 
 pod or capsule enlarges, and in course of ripening bursts, 
 disclosing a snow-Avhite or yellowish ball of down in three 
 
FOK OBJECT LESSONS. 267 
 
 locks, inclosing and tightly adhering to the seeds, which 
 resemble those of the grape, though of several times the 
 size. The cotton is, therefore, this vegetable down, which 
 consists ofbeautifully line fibres, of exquisite softness. The 
 cotton fibre, however, when examined by the microscope, 
 is found to have two sharp sides, to which are ascribed the 
 irritation and inflammation of wounds and ulcers when 
 dressed with cotton instead of lint. 
 
 Some ten sjoecies of cotton are enumerated by botanists ; 
 but of these there are only three really diflerent kinds — 
 the herbaceous, shrub-cotton, and tree-cotton. Varieties 
 of these three are numerous. Thus an important variety 
 of the herbaceous is the exquisitely fine, long, and strong- 
 stapled sea-idand cotton, which is produced only on the 
 low sandy islands along the coast of South Carolina and 
 Georgia. 
 
 The cotton-seed is planted in the spring — in the Caro- 
 linas and Georgia about the beginning of April — in rows 
 five or six feet apart, the distance between the holes iA 
 which the seeds are deposited being about eighteen inches. 
 Much care in weeding, thinning, and pruning is required 
 during the process of culture. A field of cotton at the 
 gathering, when the globes of snowy wool are seen among 
 the glossy dark leaves, is singularly beautiful. The cotton- 
 bolls begin to oj^en about the middle of July, and continue 
 opening until the appearance of frost, from the middle to 
 the end of October. The picldng is done by hand ; after 
 which the cotton is passed through a cotton-gin machine to 
 free it from the seeds. It is then packed in large bales or 
 bags for the market, by the aid, generally, of cotton press- 
 es. The weight of the bale, however, is by no means uni- 
 form, varying in diflerent countries, and in diflerent sec- 
 tions of the same country, at diflerent j^eriods, and accord- 
 ing to the diflerent kinds or qualities of the article. In the 
 year 1855 a reliable publication gave the average of the 
 Virginia, Carolina, Georgia, and West India bale at from 
 300 to 310 pounds ; that of New Orleans and Alabama at 
 from 400 to 500 pounds ; Brazilian at from 160 to 200 
 pounds; and Egyptian at from 180 to 280 pounds. 
 
268 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 The value of the annual cotton crop in the United States 
 is about 150 millions of dollars; and, indeed, the main de- 
 pendence of the world has hitherto been on this country, 
 which, in the year 1857, furnished 3,500,000 bales out of 
 a total product of 4,200,000. The price of American cot- 
 ton -pev pound during the ten years ending with 1855, av- 
 eraged a fraction over nine cents, the highest average for 
 any one entire year being 12.11, and the lowest 6.4. 
 
 The manufacture of cloth from cotton had its origin, at 
 a very early period, in Southern and Western Asia, Avhere 
 the cotton-plant is indigenous, and where the climate ren- 
 ders a light and absorbent fabric a suitable clothing for the 
 people. Throughout the southern half of Asia and por- 
 tions of Africa the clothing of the people is almost exclu- 
 sively of cotton. The cotton manufacture of China is of 
 immense amount, but it is carried on almost entirely for 
 home consumption. It is only about three hundred years 
 since the manufacture of cotton was first attempted in Eu- 
 rope, and then it was chiefly by tedious hand-labor ; but 
 in place of the one-thread wheel then used for spinning, 
 and each requiring the labor of one person, we now some- 
 times see seventy or a hundred thousand spindles whirling 
 away in one building, the whole driven by machinery, and 
 requiring the attention of perhaps not a dozen ^^ersons. 
 
 The names given to the various kinds of cotton-goods 
 are almost innumerable. The following may be given as 
 some of the principal groupings. 1st. Ginffhams, which 
 consist of stout cotton, in which threads of two or more 
 colors are woven together into stripes ; 2d. Fustians^ hea- 
 verteens, velvetee7is, moles7cms, etc., which are woven on the 
 same principle as velvet, with a nap or pile, which is either 
 cut or left uncut ; 3d. Damasks^ huchahacks^ diapers^ ticks, 
 and cambrics, which are cotton imitations of the similarly- 
 named flaxen goods ; 4th. Quilts and counterpanes, which 
 have downy tufts to increase the thickness and softness ; 
 5th. Shirting, sheeting, and printing 'calicoes, etc., which 
 are varieties of plain, serviceable cotton goods, varying in 
 stoutness ; 6th. Chintz, which is a stout calico, afterward 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 269 
 
 printed in several colors ; '7th. Corduroys^ jecms^ quiUings, 
 etc., which are very strong cotton goods, mostly twilled ; 
 8th. 3Iuslins^ of Avhich there are almost innumerable varie- 
 ties, such as book-muslins, jaconet, bishop lawn, tarlatan, 
 Scotch lawn, Victoria, India and Swiss, leuo, striped, lap- 
 pet, sprig-muslins, etc., etc., etc. 
 
 The foregoing will, we trust, give some little idea, at 
 least, of the vast imjDortance to mankind of the famous Cot- 
 ton Plants which w^e have represented on the Chart. 
 
 The Hemp ( Can'^iabis satl'va, Lin. S., xx., 5 ; Nat. M., 
 Ang. Exog., order Jlempworts) is an annual plant, growing 
 ordinarily from six to eight feet high, springing up spon- 
 taneously in hedges and w^aste grounds ; stem pilose (with 
 erect thin hairs) ; leaves palmate, lower ones from five to 
 seven-leafed, with the leaflets lanceolate, serrate, from three 
 to five inches long, and one fifth as wdde, the middle one 
 the largest ; flowers small, green, solitary, and axillary in 
 the staminate plants, but in spikes in the pistillate plants. 
 (The male and female flowers in the 20th class are always 
 on different plants.) 
 
 The hemp plant is extensively cultivated in Central Asia, 
 in many countries of Europe, particularly Russia and Po- 
 land, and in different parts of North America, for its fib- 
 rous covering or bark, which is used in the manufacture 
 of coarse and stout cloths, canvas, cordage, etc. It is said 
 that more than 180,000 pounds of rough hemp are used 
 in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging 
 and sails. In the year 1850 35,000 tons of hemp were 
 raised in the United States — the larger portion in Ken- 
 tucky and Missouri.* 
 
 But tlie common hemp has also been used among East- 
 
 * What is called Manilla, or Manilla hemp, from which the stoutest 
 of cordage is made, consists of the fibre of a species of wild banana, 
 which grows in vast abundance in the Philippines and Spice Islands. 
 
 "What is known as gunny cloth, or gunny bags — the bags or sacks in 
 which nearly all the rice, paddy, wheat, sugar, pepper, coffee, etc., are 
 exported from the East Indies — is made of the fibre of two plants which 
 are extensively cultivated in Bengal. It is often called Indian hemp, 
 but is a plant totally different from the common hemp. 
 
270 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ern nations, almost from time immemorial, as a beverage^ 
 for its narcotic virtues. Its narcotic properties reside in 
 a resinous substance which is contained in the sap. In cold 
 countries very little of this resinous substance is found in 
 the plant ; but in warm countries it is so abundant as to 
 exude naturally from the flowers, twigs, and young leaves. 
 What is also singular, the fibre of the plant is worthless in 
 warm climates. Among the Turks and Arabs, and gen- 
 erally throughout Syria and Egypt, the preparations of 
 hemp in common use are known by the name of hashish, 
 and it is prepared in various forms for smoking, chewing, 
 and drinking. When taken in moderation this narcotic 
 produces increase of appetite and great mental cheerful- 
 ness ; but in excess it causes a peculiar kind of deliriurq 
 and catalepsy — the latter being a kind of spasmodic dis? 
 ease, in which there is a sudden suspension of the action 
 of the senses and of volition, while the heart continues to 
 pulsate. A physician in India has given the following ac- 
 count of one of his experiments with an Indian patient : 
 
 " At two P.M. a grain of the resin of hemp was given 
 to a rheumatic patient ; at four P.M. he was very talkative, 
 sang, called loudly for an extra supply of food, and declared 
 himself in perfect health. At six P.M. he w^as asleep. At 
 eight P.M. he was found insensible, but breathing w^ith 
 perfect regularity. His pulse and skin were natural, and 
 the pupils freely contracted on the approach of light. Hap- 
 pening by chance to lift up the patient's arm, the profes- 
 sional reader will judge of my astonishment when I found 
 it remained in the posture in which I placed it. It required 
 but a very brief examination of the limbs to find that, by 
 the influence of this narcotic, the patient had been thrown 
 into the strangest and most extraordinary of all nervous 
 conditions, which so few have seen, and the existence of 
 which so many still discredit — the genuine catalepsy of the 
 nosologist. We raised him to a sitting posture, and j^laced 
 his arms and limbs in every imaginable attitude. A waxen 
 figure could not be more pliant or more stationary in each 
 position, no matter how contrary to the natural influence 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 271 
 
 of gravity ! To all impressions he was, meanwhile, almost 
 insensible." After a time, as it appears, the effects of the 
 narcotic passed off entirely, leaving the patient apparently 
 miinjiired. 
 
 CoMMOX Flax {Li'niim usitatis' simum, Lin. S., v., 5 ; 
 Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Flaxworts) is an important plant, 
 that has been cultivated from the earliest ages in some 
 European countries ; its bark of strong fibres being manu- 
 factured, and its seed crushed for oil. Flax is an annual, 
 and was introduced into this country from England. It 
 has a stem from one to two feet high, branching above ; 
 leaves alternate, three-veined, linear-lanceolate, and acute ; 
 flowers blue, having the sepals of the calyx, the petals, the 
 stamens, and generally the styles, five in number. 
 
 The flax is gathered by pulling it up by the roots when 
 the seeds (contained in round bolls about the size of a pea) 
 are ripe ; the seeds are next thrashed out, after which the 
 fibrous is separated from the woody portion, sometimes by 
 spreading the plants npon the grass and leaving them there 
 until the woody portions become rotten, when they are 
 broken up and removed by an instrument called a brake, 
 and sometimes by steeping the stems in hot water, and 
 then applying the brake. The long mibroken fibres are 
 next thoroughly liatclieled^ to remove the coarse portions 
 of the fibre called the toio^ after which the flax is ready for 
 spinning, preparatory to its being woven into cloth. The 
 cloth is called Unen^ from the Celtic word llin^ a thread, 
 the Greek word linon^ and the Latin I'mmn. Hence the 
 oil from the seed is called Unseed oil — an oil used extens- 
 ively in mixing paints, printer's ink, etc. 
 
 Flax is largely manufactured into cloth in England, more 
 than a million hundred weight of it being imported into 
 England annually to be made into cloth in English facto- 
 ries. In the year 1850, 562,000 bushels of flax-seed were 
 raised in the United States, and nearly 8,000,000 pounds 
 of flax. Yet this only partially supplies the demand, for 
 we annually import hnen thread and linen cloth to the 
 amount of six or eight milHons of dollars. 
 
272 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 The White Mulberry (Ifo'rus al'ha^ Lin. S., xix., 4 ; 
 ISTat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. 3Iorads)^ noted as being the tree 
 on whose leaves the silk-icorm best likes to feed, is usually 
 cultivated wherever the silk-worm is reared. It is a tree, 
 sometimes growing to a height of thirty or forty feet, with 
 a trunk from ten to twenty inches in diameter, although 
 when cultivated it is usually kept down as a shrub, for the 
 greater convenience of gathering the leaves. It is readily 
 distinguished from the black mulberry, even in winter, by 
 its more numerous, slender, u^^right-growing, and white- 
 barked shoots. The leaves are from two to four inches 
 long, acute, generally cordate and entire, but sometimes 
 lobed, and always deeply serrated. The flowers, which put 
 forth in May, are green, in small roundish sj^ikes or heads, 
 and are succeeded by an abundance oi white fruit when the 
 tree is in its native state ; but cultivation has produced nu- 
 merous varieties in the color of the fruit, such as ash-col- 
 ored, purple, and even blacJc. The variety called inulticau- 
 lls is black-fruited ; so that we have, literally, a " white 
 mulberry" that is black. 
 
 The leaves of the mulberry abound in a milky juice, 
 which is found to possess more or less of the proj)erties of 
 caoutchouc or India-rubber, according to the climate in 
 which the tree is grown. It is doubtless owing to this 
 property in the leaves of the mulberry that the threads of 
 the silk-worm have more tenacity of fibre than those of any 
 other insect that feeds on the leaves of trees. The leaves 
 gathered from trees growing on a poor and dry soil, and 
 in warm clim-ates, are better for the silk-worms, and pro- 
 duce better silk, than those from a rich soil and cold cli- 
 mate. 
 
 The eggs from which the silk-worm is hatched are of a 
 yellowish color (see Chart), about the size of a small pin- 
 head. They are laid by a kind of grayish-colored moth 
 (see Chart), which most persons would doubtless call a but- 
 terfly. These eggs, are hatched at the season of the year 
 when the mulberry begins to put forth its leaves ; and the 
 young are at first small black worms, about the size of a 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 273 
 
 small ant. Feeding on the tender mulberry leaves, the 
 silk-worm grows rapidly, and comes to maturity in about 
 four weeks. When from two to three inches long it is of 
 a milky or pearl color, or blackish ; these latter are esteem- 
 ed the best. Its body is divided into seven rings, to each 
 of wiiich are joined two very short feet. One of these silk- 
 worms, of the natural size, is represented on the Chart as 
 feeding on a mulberry leaf. When arrived at maturity, 
 the silk- worm stops eating ; it begins to diminish in length, 
 and to increase in thickness, and soon proceeds to inclose 
 itself in an oval-shaped yellowish ball or cocoon^ which is 
 formed of an exceedingly slender and long thread of fine 
 yellow silk. This silky cocoon is the silk-worm's shroud, 
 which it proceeds to put on j^reparatory to its burial. The 
 silk is formed in the stomach in two httle masses, and is 
 spun from a small point, like a little thorn, near the extrem- 
 ity of its body. 
 
 By the time the cocoon is finished, the silk-worm has be- 
 come transformed into an oblong roundish ball, and it then 
 appears to be perfectly dead. This is called its chrysalis 
 ox pupa state. Three of these chrysali are represented on 
 the Chart, of the natural size. Many animals may often 
 be seen in this state, and somewhat resembling a bean, ad- 
 hering to old boards, the outsides of houses, etc. The 
 worm remains in its chrysalis state, shut up in the cocoon, 
 several days, perfectly motionless, and seemingly dead ; 
 after which the cocoon bursts, like an Qg^ hatching, and 
 w^hat was the silk-worm comes forth a dull-looking moth, 
 Avith wings, such as we first described ; but these wings it 
 never uses f(3r flying, and it only crawls slowly about in the 
 place where it was hatched. In this, the last stage of its 
 existence, the insect tastes no food, but in a few days the 
 female lays from 300 to 500 eggs, and then dies. And this 
 completes its " strange eventful history." 
 
 In order to preserve the silk, the moth is killed in the 
 cocoon, and not allowed to come forth, otherwise the 
 threads of silk would be broken. What is called raw silk 
 is produced by winding off, at the same time, on a com- 
 
 M2 
 
274: MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 mon reel, the threads of several of the balls or cocoons. 
 Without the tnulherry for the silk-worm to feed upon, no 
 silk of any value would be produced. 
 
 The silk-worm is reared very extensively in China, from 
 which country there are annually exported to England 
 alone from two to four millions of pounds of silk. The 
 worms are also reared throughout the British East Indies, 
 Turkey, Greece, Sardinia, Italy, France, etc. ; and some at- 
 tention has been jDaid to the silk culture in the United 
 States. The total value of the annual production of silk in 
 the world is estimated at tioo hundred tnillions of dollars! 
 Surely the little worm that creates all this value is not to 
 be despised ; and it is very plain that the tree on which it 
 feeds is, next to the worm itself, an article of vast im2:)ort- 
 ance to mankind. How many of the " gay belles of fash- 
 ion" ever reflect, as they exult in their silken finery, that 
 they are decked in the shroud which a loorni wove for its 
 own burial ! 
 
 VIII. Miscellaneous. 
 
 Tobacco {N'icotia^na taha^cum^ Lin. S., v., 1 ; Nat. M., 
 Ang. Exog., ord. Nightshades) is a plant found growing 
 wild in North America, but which succeeds well, and is 
 extensively cultivated in most parts of the Old World. It 
 belongs to the order of Nightshades^ in which are found 
 those virulent medicinal j^oisons, nightshade or belladonna, 
 henbane, and stramonium. 
 
 Tobacco is an annual plant, growing from four to six 
 feet high, with stem and branches viscid or glutinous, and 
 downy ; leaves from one to two feet long, lanceolate, ses- 
 sile, and decurrent or partially clasping ; corolla pink, fun- 
 nel-shaped, having the mouth inflated, and five-Lobed ; and 
 it has five stamens and one pistil. 
 
 The fresh leaves of tobacco possess very little odor or 
 taste ; but when dried their odor is strong, narcotic, and 
 somewhat. fetid; their taste bitter, and extremely acrid. 
 When well cured, they are of a yellowish-green color. 
 When distilled, they yield an oil, on which their virtue de- 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 275 
 
 pends, and wliicli is a virulent poison. The leaves are nsed 
 in various ways, being chewed, smoked, and ground and 
 manufactured into snuft".* 
 
 According to the census returns for the year 1850, the 
 whole number of acres devoted to the cultivation of to- 
 bacco in the United States was four hundred thousand ; 
 product, at six hundred pounds to the acre, 240 million 
 pounds; estimated value, fourteen millions of dollars; num- 
 ber of tobacconists and cigar-makers in the United States, 
 10,823. Virginia is the greatest tobacco-growing state, 
 next to which is Missouri. 
 
 British writers state that about twenty-six thousand tons 
 of tobacco are annually consumed in Great Britain and Ire- 
 land, and that more than half of this quantity is smuggled 
 into the country, on account of the excessive duties (up- 
 ward of 1000 per cent.) levied on the article. These du- 
 ties amounted, during the year ending January 5th, 1853, 
 to nearly twenty-three millions of dollars. The revenue 
 which the French government derived from the tobacco 
 imported into France during the first nine months of the 
 year 1857 amounted to more tha'n twenty-five millions of 
 dollars ! The United States supplies about two fifths of all 
 the tobacco consumed in Europe. 
 
 It is said that tobacco is, next to salt, probably the arti- 
 cle most universally consumed by man. In one form or 
 other, but most generally in the form of fume or smoke, 
 there is no climate in which it is not consumed, and no na- 
 tionality that has not adopted it. To j^ut down its use 
 has equally bafiled legislators and moralists; and, in the 
 words of Pope on a higher subject, it may be said to be 
 partaken of " by saint, by savage, and by sage." A Ger- 
 man writer has preserved the titles' of a hundred volumes 
 
 * The late Col. Stone, editor of the Commercial Advertiser of New 
 York city, in one of his lectures against the use of tobacco, describes a 
 sign which was placed upon a store occupied by three brothers, dealers 
 in tobacco. It read as follows : 
 
 *' We throe, brothers be, in the same cause; 
 Jim snuffs, Jo puffs, and I chaws." 
 
276 \ MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 ■which have been written against the use of tobacco. 
 Among these books is that of James Stuart, King of En- 
 gland, who describes the smoking of tobacco as " a cus- 
 tom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to 
 the brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black stink- 
 ing fume thereof nearest resembling the horrible Stygian 
 smoke of the pit that is bottomless." 
 
 Medical writers have generally condemned the use of 
 tobacco in the strongest language ; and, as Professor John- 
 ston says, "It is remarkable how very few persons can 
 state distinctly why they began, and for what reason they 
 continue the indulgence." The botanist Lindley thus de- 
 scribes the properties and eifects of tobacco : " It is a pow- 
 erful stimulant narcotic, employed medicinally as a seda- 
 tive, and in vapor to bring on nausea and fainting. When 
 chewed, it appears to impair the appetite, and induce tor- 
 por of the gastric nerves. Although, if smoked in mod- 
 erate quantities, it acts as a harmless excitant and sedative, 
 yet it is a frequent cause of paralysis when the practice is 
 indulged in to excess. Oil of tobacco, which is inhaled and 
 swallowed in the process of smoking, is one of the most 
 violent of known poisons. The Hottentots are said to kill 
 snakes by putting a drop of it on their tongues ; and the 
 death of these reptiles is said to take i^lace as instantane- 
 ously as if by an electric shock." 
 
 There is very little doubt, when we consider the enor- 
 mous extent to which tobacco is used throughout the 
 world, that it actually produces more disease, suffering, 
 and death than ardent spirits themselves. Such is the. tes- 
 timony of eminent medical men and physiologists. 
 
 Coc'cuLUS In'dicus {Anmni7''ta cer'rulus, or 3fe7iisper'- 
 QTium cer'rulus^ Lin. S., xx., 10 ; Ang. Exog., ordi. Ileniajyer- 
 mads) is a twining East Indian plant, a narcotic poison, 
 with large, orbicular, and sub-cordate leaves ; flowers green 
 and yellow, producing clusters of berries like grapes, but 
 smaller, first white, then red, and finally blackish-purple. 
 In the East Indies these berries are made up into a paste, 
 and used to intoxicate fish, birds, and different sorts of 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 277 
 
 vermin y but in civilized countries they are largely used to 
 adulterate ale and beer, and to poison and intoxicate men 
 and icomen. Professor Johnston says : " The bruised seeds 
 of this plant impart to beer an intensely bitter taste, and 
 can thus be substituted cheaply for about one third of the 
 usual quantity of hops, without materially affecting the 
 flavor of the beer. They give a fullness and richness in 
 the mouth, and a darkness to weak and inferior liquors. 
 In these respects a pound of Cocculus indicus is said to be 
 equivalent to four bushels of malt ; hence disreputable 
 brewers are tempted to use it largely." The English gov- 
 ernment has imposed a heavy penalty upon brewers who 
 use it, and upon druggists who sell it to them ; but yet an 
 extract from this poison, called Pereira^ is extensively em- 
 ployed in the breweries of England, and probably in those 
 of this country ; and writers on brewing give plain direc- 
 tions for using the drug. Such facts should be a caution 
 to ale and beer drinkers. 
 
 Yaxilla {Yanilla aromat'ica^ and also Vanilla plani- 
 folia, Lin. S., xviii., 1 ; Xat. M., Agl. End., ord. Orchids)^ 
 which furnishes one of the most delightful of aromatics 
 known, is a species of vine, extensively cultivated in Mex- 
 ico, and in some countries of South America. It rises to 
 the height of eighteen or twenty feet, shoots out roots at 
 every joint, like the ivy, by which it clings to the bark of 
 trees ; its leaves are ovate-oblong ; flowers of a greenish- 
 yellow color, surrounded by the long and wavy sepals of 
 the calyx ; fruit a pulpy pod, eight or ten inches long and 
 scarce an inch broad, of a yellow color when gathered, but 
 changing to a dark brown or black. This fruit is wrinkled 
 on the outside, and full of a vast number of seeds, like 
 grains of sand, having a peculiar and delicious fragrance. 
 Not only these seeds, but the pods also, when properly 
 prepared, are used in the manufacture of chocolate, and in 
 various drinks, ice-creams, candies, etc., etc., to give them 
 an agreeable flavor. The pod, when ripe, is said to yield 
 from two to six drops of a liquid, which has an exquisite 
 odor, apd which is known as balsam of vanilla. This bal- 
 
278 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION" 
 
 sam, however, is seldom seen. The dried pods constitute 
 most of the vanilla of commerce. The amount of vanilla 
 imported into and consumed in this country is believed to 
 exceed 5000 pounds per annum, valued at from |20 to $30 
 a pound. 
 
 The Yaenish-teee {3Iela7iorrhoe' a iisita'ta^ Lin. S., xx., 
 1 ; Nat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Anacards or Terebinths) is 
 introduced on the Chart as the representative of a class of 
 trees and shrubs having a resinous, gummy, caustic, or 
 milky juice, often poisonous, and from some of which an 
 e»xcellent varnish is obtained, much used by Eastern na- 
 tions. Among these varnish-trees are the Cashew-nut, the 
 Marking Nut-tree, the Semecar23us, the tree from which the 
 Japan lacquer is obtained, several trees which produce the 
 copal varnish, and the one we have represented on the 
 Chart, called, by way of distinction, the Varnish-tree. This 
 is a large tree, a native of Hindostan, China, etc., having 
 blunt, obovate leaves, in whorls of six, and deep red flow- 
 ers. The varnish-drug is the scq:} of the tree, and it is used 
 extensively for painting river craft, and for varnishing ves- 
 sels destined to contain liquids. Among some of the East- 
 ern nations, every article of household fwrniture destined to 
 contain solid or liquid food is lacquered over with it. The 
 drug is also used as a glue-sizing in the process of gilding ; 
 the Burmans use great quantities of it in gilding their 
 idols, and also for their religious writing upon ivory, palm- 
 leaves, and metals. 
 
 FiSH-POisoN {Tephro'sia toxica' ria^ Lin. S., xvi., 4 ; Nat. 
 M., Ang. Exod., ord. Leguminous plants) is introduced on 
 the Chart as the representative of quite a number of plants 
 which are used, in different countries, for stupefying fish. 
 The plant here represented is nearly allied to the Lidigo 
 plant, and is cultivated in some of the West India islands. 
 It is also found growing wild in South America. It is 
 about three feet high, with oblong-lanceolate, blunt, and 
 ash-colored leaves ; purple flowers, in a long terminal ra- 
 ceme; pods long, round, and spreading from the stalk. 
 The leaves, branches, and pods, well pounded, and thrown 
 
FOll OBJECT LESSONS. 279 
 
 into a river or pond, very soon aifect the water and intox- 
 icate the fish, so as to cause them to float on the water as 
 if dead. Most of the large fish recover after a short time, 
 but nearly all the small ones perish. 
 
 The Cocculus indicus is used for the same purpose, also 
 the Brazilian Phyllanthus, Angostura and Cinchona bark, 
 the Chaubnoogra of the Hindoos, the evergreen Took or 
 Hydrocarpus, and many other plants. 
 
 IX. Plants used for Coloring. 
 
 The Indigo Plant {Indigo' f era tincto'ria^ Lin. S., xvi., 
 4 ; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Leguminous plants) is exten- 
 sively cultivated in the East Indies for the drug which 
 yields the beautiful blue dye known by the name of indi- 
 go. It has a woody stem, from three to six feet high ; 
 leaves pinnate and oblong ; flowers purple, and papilio- 
 naceous or butterfly-shaped ; the fruit a long, round, curv- 
 ing pod, containing the seeds or beans. 
 
 The indigo is obtained by cutting the plant before it 
 comes into flower, and thoroughly steeping it in water un- 
 til it has parted with its coloring matter, which, when 
 drained off, is found to be a thick substance; and this 
 dries, and becomes hard on exposure to the air. It is an 
 article in very general use, and is found in most country 
 stores. 
 
 A species of the indigo plant is also cultivated in Cen- 
 tral America and Venezuela ; and it may be raised without 
 difiiculty in the southern United States. The consumption 
 of indigo in England amounts to about two million pounds 
 per year, most of it obtained from the East Indies. The 
 United States use about three quarters of that amount. 
 The ordinary kinds may be bought for about 75 cents per 
 pound, but the best indigo is usually worth two dollars per 
 pound. 
 
 Before indigo came into use in Europe, the blue coloring 
 matter used was obtained from a plant called icoad^ which 
 was extensively cultivated. The ancient Britons and Picts 
 colored themselves with the juice of the woad. Indigo is 
 
280 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 almost the only dye-stuff now used for giving a blue color 
 to cloth ; yet several plants yield it in small quantities be- 
 sides the one we have described. A blue is sometimes 
 given to silk by means of verdigris and logwood, but it 
 possesses little durability. 
 
 Saffron. — The substance called saffron consists of the 
 dried stigmas of the Fall Crocus ( Cro'eus sati'vus, Lin. S., 
 iii., 2 ; ^NTat. M., Agl. End., ord. Irids), which is a well- 
 known perennial, bulbous plant, of the Iris order. The 
 Fall Crocus grows about six inches high ; leaves radical 
 (starting from the root) and linear ; flower Avith a long, 
 white, slender tube, extending down nearly to the bulb, 
 and having the segments above purple ; stigma long, three- 
 cleft, projectiug beyond the flower, and of a rich, deep or- 
 ange-red color, or what is called saffron. Safl*i'on, which is 
 one of the richest yellows, is much employed by painters 
 and dyers ; it was formerly much used in medicine, and it 
 is now often used to color butter and cheese, sauces, creams, 
 biscuits, conserves, etc. It is a harmless substance, which 
 is more than can be said of most of tlie coloring matter 
 used in confectionery and in the kitchen.* 
 
 Logwood {Hmmatox' ylon Catiipecliia' num., Lin. S., x., 1 ; 
 Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ord. Leguminous Plants), which is 
 very extensively used as a dye-wood, is a crooked-stemmed 
 low tree, which grows in great abundance, and attains its 
 highest perfection, in the forests of Campeachy, in the West 
 
 * Among other plants used for coloring yellow, we may mention, 1st. 
 Dyer's \Veed {Rese'da luteo'la), which affords a most beautiful dye for 
 cotton, woolen, mohair, silk, and linen. The yellow color of the paint 
 called Dutch Pink is obtained from this plant. 2d. Fustic-wood (Mo'- 
 rus tincto'ria), a species of the mulberry-tree. 3d. Catechu, a name 
 given to several plants. 4th. Anotta, obtained from the berries of 
 Bix'a orella'na. 5th. Quercitron Bark {Quer'cus tincto'ria), the bark 
 of the North American black oak. 6th. Dyer's Broom {Genista tinc- 
 to'ria). 7th. Turmeric {Curcuma Ion' go); and, 8th. Chamomile (^1?2- 
 the'mis tincto'ria^, which yields a faint yellow ; also a species of Cartha- 
 mus, often called saffron. The flowers of Car'thamus tincto'rius are ex- 
 tensively used by the Chinese, in connection with different acids, to pive 
 some of the fine rose, scarlet, purple, and violet colors to their silks. The 
 Carthamus is cultivated in many parts of Europe. 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 281 
 
 Indies. This tree resembles the white thorn, but is much 
 larger. It has abruptly pinnated leaves, Avith obcordate 
 leaflets, and yellow flowers on a terminal spike. The inner 
 bark and Avood are red; the latter dark, and very red. 
 This Avood is imported in logs, Avhich are afterward cut 
 into fine chips ; and these chips, Avhich impart their color 
 to Avater and alcohol, are used for coloring. A section of 
 the stem is represented on the Chart. 
 
 Among other plants used for coloring red are the Bra- 
 zil Avood, or Pernambuco Avood of commerce (used in mak- 
 ing red ink), madder, and camwood, the latter yielding a 
 brilliant red color, but one that is not permanent. Cam- 
 Avood is A^ery much used for staining pine and Avhite Avood 
 coffins ; and the dark red seen -in the English bandana 
 handkerchiefs is produced by it, rendered deeper by sul- 
 phate of iron. 
 
 (The cochineal used for dyeing crimson, and also some 
 of the scarlet hues of red, consists of small msects^ of AA^hich 
 there are about 70,000 in a pound. This cochineal is a 
 poAvdery-looking substance, scraped from the leaves of a 
 cactus plant, and so small are some of the insects that it 
 requires the microscope to detect them.) 
 
 Madder {JRii'bia tincto'rum^ Lin. S.,iv., 1 ; ISTat. M., Ang. 
 Exog., ord. Stellates^ or Star FloAvers), a native of the south 
 of Europe, Asia Minor, and India, is a trailing or climbing 
 plant, the root of Avhich is extensively used by clothiers 
 and calico-printers for dyeing the scarlet reds. What is 
 called Turkey red is produced by the madder from Turkey. 
 The roots are nearly half an inch in diameter; they strike 
 deep into the ground, and groAV to the length of three or 
 four feet. They are' dried, and then pounded or ground. 
 "What is sold under the names of iimll^ gameen^ crops^ and 
 garance^ is pounded madder. 
 
 The madder has an annual, herbaceous, quadrangular 
 stalk, covered Avith prickles, Avhich give it support in climb- 
 ing ; leaves mostly in Avhorls of six ; flowers yelloAV ; and 
 fruit a double-celled drupe or berry, as represented on the 
 Chart, Avitha part of the flower at J, and the double ker- 
 nel at c. 
 
282 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 In the process of dyeing cloths, some substance must gen- 
 erally be used to fix or set the color — that is, to make it 
 durable, and prevent it from washing out. Thus, when 
 cotton cloths are to be colored Avith madder, they are gen- 
 erally steeped or boiled previously in alum water. The 
 substance or preparation which is used to fix the color is 
 called a mordant. The princij)al mordants are alum, tin, 
 tartar, some of the oxides of lead and copj)er, and nut-galls. 
 
 We have thus described, briefly, the plants used in dyeing 
 the three primary colors, red, yellow, and blue. The tints, 
 hues, and shades of these are produced by various mix- 
 tures, on the principles explained in the article on colors, 
 page 107, and also by the use of various mordants. What 
 is called hroicn proper, however, which has in it a shade 
 of yellow, and is called by the French /a^/J^^ color {faiine)., 
 is obtained without mixtures from several vegetable sub- 
 stances, the principal of which are sumach^ the peels which 
 constitute the green covering of the nut of the common 
 walnut^ or shell-bark hickory, the bark of the common lohite 
 hirch^ and sandal loood. 
 
 X. Spices. 
 
 Allspice, Pimento, or Jamaica Peppee, is the fruit of 
 a beautiful tree {Myr'tus pimen'ta.^ Lin. S., x., 1 ; ■ Nat. M., 
 Ang. Exog., order Mijrtleblooms)^ which grows in great 
 abundance on hilly lands on the north side of the island of 
 Jamaica. The tree grows about twenty feet high, with a 
 smooth brown trunk ; leaves of a shining green, oblong- 
 lanceolate, and acuminate; flowers fragrant, white, very 
 abundant, and in panicles ; berries round, pulpy, purple, 
 becoming reddish-brown or nearly black when ripe. The 
 berries are gathered before they are ripe, when they soon 
 become wrinkled, as they are seen in the shops. They 
 have an agreeable, aromatic, and somewhat astringent 
 taste, resembling that of a mixture of cinnamon, cloves, 
 and nutmegs: hence they have been called "Allspice," 
 from their taste being thought to resemble a composition 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSOXS. 283 
 
 of all other spices. The yield of the pimento is abundant, 
 a single tree having been known to produce, in one season, 
 150 pounds of the raw, or 100 pounds of dried fruit. 
 
 During the year 185G the imports of the pimento into 
 tlie United States were nearly five millions of pounds, val- 
 ued at 352,000 dollars. The average price in the market 
 may be set down at fourteen cents per pound. 
 
 The buds and berries of the common myrtle {JSIyr'tiis 
 commit' nis) w^ere eaten as spices by the ancients, and are 
 still used, instead of pepper, in Tuscany. Among the Myr- 
 tleblooms are the pomegranate, cloves, the guava fruits 
 (from which guava jelly is made), the rose-apples of the 
 East, and some very hard-wooded trees, the most famous 
 of which is the lignum vitce of New Zealand. 
 
 Ginger is the dried root of a plant {Zin'ziher officina'le^ 
 Lin. S., i., 1 ; ISTat. M., Agl. End., ord. Gmgerioorts) which 
 is a native of the East Indies and China, but wdiich is now 
 cultivated in great quantities in the "West Indies. 
 
 The ginger plant has perennial, creeping, tuberous roots, 
 from which arise green, reed-like, annual stalks, about two 
 feet and a half in height, having narrow and lanceolate 
 leaves. The flowering stalk ends in an oblong scaly sj^ike, 
 as represented on the Chart, and from each of these scales 
 a single red or purplish flower is produced. 
 
 The roots of ginger are taken up when the stalks fide. 
 The best are then washed w^ith care, scraped, and dried in 
 the sun, and these produce the tchite ginger of commerce ; 
 the poorer roots are scalded before being dried, and these 
 produce Avhat is called hIacJc ginger. What is known as 
 preserved ginger consists of the root taken up before it is 
 full grown, scalded, and preserved in sirup. The amount 
 of ginger annually imported into the United States is val- 
 ued at about 65,000 dollars. 
 
 Ginger is used not only as a spice in cooking, but also as 
 a medicine. Dried ginger has a pungent, aromatic odor, 
 and a hot, biting taste. It makes a stimulating drink, use- 
 ful in colic, debility, and laxity of the system. 
 
 (Among the Giugerworts, which are mostly aromatic, 
 
284 MANUAL OF INFOEMATION 
 
 tropical, herbaceous plants, and generally of great beauty, 
 are numerous species used as spices ; the warming carda- 
 mom seeds of the druggist ; grains of Paradise, used to 
 give a pungent flavor to spirituous liquors ; several which 
 yield a starch-like arrow-root, and the turmeric used in 
 dyeiug yellow.) 
 
 The Cinnamon of commerce is the bark of the cinnamon- 
 tree {Lau'rus cinncmio'mum.^ Lin. S., ix., 1 ; Nat. M., Ang. 
 Exog., oi'd. Laurels), a native of Ceylon, where it grows in 
 abundance, and also of Cochin-China, and perhaj^s of some 
 other countries. The cinnamon-tree grows to the height 
 of about twenty feet, has a smooth ash-colored bark, a 
 short, erect trunk, and wide-spreading branches ; leaves of 
 a bright green above, pale beneath, white-veined, ovate-ob- 
 long, and taperiug at the apex ; flowers green and yellow, 
 in panicles, and inodorous ; fruit the size of an olive, soft, 
 insipid, and of a deep blue, inclosing a nut. The imier 
 bark, which is taken from branches of two or three years' 
 growth, is considered the best. There are several species 
 of cinnamon from which the bark is obtained. Good cin- 
 namon has an agreeable, warm, aromatic flavor, and a mild, 
 sweetish taste, not so pungent but that it may be borne on 
 the tongue without pain. Oil of cimiamon is obtained 
 from the leaves, and oil of camphor from the roots. What 
 are called cassia-buds are mostly the fleshy receptacles of 
 the seed of the true cinnamon-tree. 
 
 (Most of the numerous species of the Ztaurel order are 
 more or less aromatic and fragrant. Our sassafras belongs 
 to the same order. The true cassia bark and buds {Lau'- 
 o^is cas'sia) are used for the same purposes as cinnamon ; 
 and most of the camphor of commerce is obtained, by disr 
 tillation, from the roots and smaller branches of one of the 
 Laurels {Lau'rus catn'phora), usually called camphor-tree, 
 although the cinnamon-trees also produce camphor.) 
 
 The Nutmeg-tree {JSIyris' tica moscha'ta, Lin. S., xx., 
 13; Nat. M., Ang. Exog., ovdi. Nutmegs) is a native of the 
 East Indies, where it is extensively cultivated, especially in 
 the Molucca Islands and Sumatra. It grows to the height 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 285 
 
 of thirty feet ; leaves oblong, acuminate, of a fine green on 
 the upper surface, and gray beneath ; flowers small, white, 
 bell-shaped, and without any calyx f^ the fruit a smooth, 
 fleshy, reddish berry, about the size of a small jDeach, but 
 more pointed at both ends. 
 
 The outer pulpy part of the fruit is nearly half an inch 
 thick ; but this dries up when ripe, and forms a coriaceous 
 (leather-like) crust, which opens and discovers a second 
 covering, of a fine reddish-yellow, somewdiat like the thin 
 skin of an orange. This second covering or skin, which is 
 taken ofl" by itself, and used as a spice, is what is common- 
 ly called Mace. It has a pleasant aromatic smell, and a 
 warm, bitterish, pungent taste. Within this covering of 
 mace is a nut, having a hard black shell, and containing a 
 round, heavy, brightish-gray kernel, w^hich is the nutmeg 
 of commerce. 
 
 There are several varieties of the nutmeg-tree, but that 
 denominated the green nutmeg, which bears a small round 
 nut, is the best. During the year ending June 30th, 1856, 
 there were imported into the United States about 600,000 
 pounds of nutmegs, valued at 326,000 dollars. During the 
 same year there Were imported about 45,000 pounds of 
 mace, valued at 24,000 dollars. 
 
 The nutmeg can be used safely in small quantities only. 
 In excess it produces oppression of the chest, intense thirst, 
 headache, and even delirium and fatal apoplexy. 
 
 The Clove-teee {CaryopliyVlus aro?7iat'icus,'Lm.S.,x\., 
 1 ; Xat. M., Aug. Exog., ord. Jlyrtleblooms) is a native of 
 the Molucca Islands, where it has been produced in great 
 abundance from the earliest known records. It is now 
 qjLiltivated to some extent in the "West Indies. 
 
 The clove is a handsome tree, about tw^enty feet in 
 height, with leaves nearly resembling those of the laurel. 
 First the elongated greenish-yellow^ flower-buds, which are 
 the calyx of the flow^er, appear ; then from their extremity 
 the corolla shoots forth, of a delicate peach-blossom color. 
 
 * Some botanists consider that the nutmeg has a white calyx, and no 
 corolla. 
 
286 MANUAL OF INFORMATION 
 
 When the corolla begins to fade, the calyx turns first yel- 
 low and then red. At this latter stage the calyx buds are 
 beaten from the tree, and, after being dried in the sun, are 
 what are known as the cloves of commerce. If allowed to 
 remain on the tree too long, the pungent properties of the 
 clove are in great part dissiimted. The average produce 
 of a clove-tree is about two pounds of dried cloves per an- 
 num. 
 
 Good cloves, which should be large-sized, perfect in all 
 parts, and of a dark brown color, approaching to black, 
 have__a strong, fragrant, aromatic odor, and a hot, acrid, 
 aromatic taste, which is very j^ermanent. For culinary 
 purposes, the uses of cloves are almost innumerable. Oil 
 of cloves^ which is obtained from cloves by distillation, is 
 extremely hot and fiery, and of a pale reddish-brown color. 
 
 As cloves readily absorb moisture, and are sold by the 
 ounce or pound, it is said that some merchants keep a 
 quantity beside a vessel of water, by which means a con- 
 siderable addition is made to their weight. 
 
 Other Spices. 
 
 Black Pepper, a very common spice, is the fruit of a 
 clnnbing plant {Fl'iyer ni'grum) which is extensively cul- 
 tivated in the East India islands. It considerably resem- 
 bles the grape-vine, with leaves somewhat like those of the 
 ivy. It bears spikes of green flowers, which are followed 
 by red berries. These, when gathered and dried, become 
 deep brown or black, and are the black pepper of com- 
 merce. There are about eighty species of the pepper 
 genus. About seven millions of pounds of black pepper 
 are imported into the United States annually. 
 
 White Peppek is made by blanching the finer grains of 
 the common black pepper, and gently rubbing them, so as 
 to remove the dark outer coat. It is much prized by the 
 Chinese, but is seldom seen here. 
 
 Cayenne Pepper is the produce of several varieties of 
 Ccqysicum^ an annual plant, a native of both the Indies, 
 producing either a pendulous oblong or globose fruit, one 
 
FOR OBJECT LESSONS. 287 
 
 species of which is common in our gardens, and is usually 
 known as Red Peppee {Ccqy' siciini an'numii). The best 
 of Cayenne pepper is the Cap'sicmn hacca'tum^ or liird 
 pepper. The Cayenne seen on our tables is the pod, dried, 
 and reduced to powder. Cayenne pepper has an aromatic, 
 extremely pungent, acrimonious taste, setting the mouth, 
 as it were, on fire, and leaving the impression long on the 
 palate. 
 
 Ked pepper is much used in a green state for pickhng, 
 and, when ripe, for mixing with other ingredients, as to- 
 matoes, etc., to form sauces. It is also dried and ground, 
 and used like Cayenne pepj^er. The annual production of 
 black, white, and Cayenne pepper, in the East Indies, is 
 about fifty millions of pounds. 
 
 Among garden herbs often used as spices for cakes, and 
 in various other kinds of cookery, are the seeds of anise, 
 caraway, coriander, dill, fennel, lavender, and the leaves and 
 seeds of sage, summer savory, sweet marjorum, thyme, etc. 
 The pupils shxDuld tell what they know of these, and bring 
 in specimens, that all may learn to recognize them. 
 
 We have thus glanced at afeio of the Economical Uses 
 of plants ; and yet, in our brief survey, we have found that 
 plants furnish us, directly, with most of our food — with our 
 cereal grains, bread-fruits, and other fruits, innumerable in 
 kind and quality ; with our tea, and coffee, and cocoa, and 
 chocolate ; with numerous otlier drinks to soothe, to stim- 
 ulate, to intoxicate ; with sugar, and spices, and colors, and 
 medicines, and poisons ; with gums, and varnishes, and bal- 
 sams ; with oils, and butter, and milk ; with wood for build- 
 ings, and furniture, and tools, and fuel ; and woody fibres 
 for ropes and for clothing. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. AN APPROXIMATE PROGRAMME 
 
 FOR A COURSE OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION DURING THE FIRST 
 TEN YEARS OF SCHOOL LIFE. 
 
 As the various subjects of instruction introduced in the foregoing 
 pages are treated there in consecutive order, while many of them are 
 necessarily brought forward in the school exercises of any 07ie day, week, 
 or term, an explanatory 7>?-o(/?-a?H??«e is needed to set forth clearly, and 
 make available, the plan of instruction contemplated. 
 
 Thus, although the six Reading Charts are taken up, in the preceding 
 Manual, in the order of their numbering, and their uses explained, yet, 
 while the pupil has three or four daily exercises in reading, he has, also, 
 exercises in several other studies or departments, such as Counting, 
 Adding, Printing and Drawing, Size and Form, Color, Animals, Plants, 
 etc. ; and these require the use of several additional Charts. Hence 
 the daily routine of the schoolroom requires its programme, with suit- 
 able directions to the teacher for conducting the exercises, with refer- 
 ences not only to the various Charts, but also to the various other aids — 
 natural objects, etc. — needed ; and also with references to the sources of 
 the information which the teacher may desire to make available. The 
 following programme is designed to meet, in part, these wants, and to 
 lay down a plan of scholastic training, not only from the Charts, and 
 in "Object" teaching proper, but in all the subjects that enter into a 
 course of elementary instruction during the first eight or ten years of 
 school life. 
 
 And yet this programme professes to be only an approximation toward 
 what is needed by the teacher. Every thorough teacher must, indeed, 
 make his own programme ; and the following sketch is given to aid him 
 in doing it. We can present the number and names of studies which 
 we think it expedient to be introduced for any particular grade of pu- 
 pils, together with the general modes of instruction which we think most 
 appropriate ; and we can give some of the information which the teach- 
 er needs, and make suggestions which we think valuable ; but, after all, 
 the teacher must, of himself, carry out the details. 
 
 N 
 
290 APPENDIX. 
 
 In our ^^approximate''' programme we have commenced with the first 
 year of school life, and carried the plan through ten years, dividing each 
 year into two terms. The studies of each term are designed for a par- 
 ticular grade of pupils. We have presented twelve subjects for the 
 first term, but have neither designated the daily order in which they 
 should be taken up, nor the iiine to be devoted to each. Each teacher 
 must, necessarily, regulate these things according to the wants of the 
 class (or grade), and according to the time which he can devote to it. 
 For convenience of reference, we have attached the same number (in 
 heavy type) to the same study throughout the several terms or grades, 
 so that the teacher can easily follow out the entire course of instruction 
 in any one study. To save space, when the course of instruction in any 
 study is similar to the course in any preceding term, the preceding term 
 and study are referred to by the marginal number opposite the name of 
 the study. 
 
 Although this programme is necessarily arranged on the supposition 
 that pupils are to go through with the whole, consecutively, from the 
 beginning, yet there is no difficulty in adapting the course of instruction 
 in any school to it, or in allowing a class to take it up at any stage, or 
 in any year of advancement. Suppose there are one hundred pupils in 
 a school, and that they are in five different grades of advancement, from 
 mere beginners, to those in the fifth year of school life. If the teacher 
 wishes to put those pupils, who are in the fifth year, into this course, let 
 him require the class to go back, and go over the programme in the 
 manner of a review, and thus bring up those subjects only in which the 
 class is deficient, until the class is prepared to advance systematically. 
 The same may be done with each grade of pupils in the school, so that 
 all may soon be pursuing the regular course of the programme. Even 
 here, however, it will probably happen that teachers in difibrent schools 
 will find it expedient to vary the programme in different ways. All 
 should exercise their ingenuity in bringing in suitable exercises addi- 
 tional to those we have marked out ; but it may also happen that it may 
 be desirable for a class to lag behind the programme in some one sub- 
 ject, and to go in advance of it in another. The teacher must exercise 
 his best discretion in all such particulars, iising the programme as' a 
 guide by which to form a better if he can, or one better adapted to the 
 circumstances of his school. 
 
 It may not, perhaps, be improper to express our views of the results 
 of such a course of elementary training as we have here marked out. 
 It has been our leading object to make it disciplinary ; siich as would 
 best conduce to the highest degree of mental, moral, and physical cul- 
 
APPENDIX. 291 
 
 hire ; and we honestly believe that, in this important particular, the sys- 
 tem here sketched in outline is immeasurably in advance of the common 
 course of instruction in our primary schools. It aims to train all the 
 faculties in their proper order, and to provide them, as far as possible, 
 Avith the natural means, methods, and materials for development. If avc 
 succeed in successfully cultivating the perceptive faculties in early life, 
 as is the aim of a true "object" system of instruction, avc know that, 
 through them, the rudiments of all knowledge will be most successfully 
 acquired also ; for the very exercise of these faculties necessarily stores 
 the mind with ideas of objects and events, and of the qualities and rela- 
 tions of things, thus conti'ibuting to both mental growth and strength. 
 Discijjline and acquisition should, indeed, go hand in hand in any sys- 
 tem of instruction ; but where discipline is sought by a forced and arbi- 
 trary exercise of any faculty— as by memorizing words without mean- 
 ing, learning si_f/7is before we have any ideas of the things signified — we 
 do violence to nature, and the mental powers are weakened. It is hrj 
 harmonizing viental discipline icith i7ie7ita I acquisition, tipon the basis oj" the 
 natural order of develojwient, that we hope for the hapipiest residts to the 
 cause of Education. 
 
 FIRST SCHOOL YEAR. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 1. 1. Reading and the Alphabet. — Calling words at sight, from 
 Chart Ko. I. See Manual,* p. 20. Also begin Chart No. II,, 
 Manual, p. 28. Three or four short lessons daily. Cultivate a 
 natural manner of speaking the words. See, also, for suggestions, 
 Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 278-288. Also Calkins's 
 Manual. 
 
 Tlie Alphabet is to be taken up when the pupils can readily call 
 the words at sight on Chart No. I. See Manual, p. 2G. Two or 
 more lessons daily. Spelling. See next term. 
 
 2. 2. Counting. — Begin with counting pebbles, beans, etc., from 
 one to thirty. See Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 138-9. 
 Also, make use of the letters in the words on Chart No. I. See pre- 
 ceding Manual, p. 26. 
 
 3. 3. Printing Letters, and Drawing. — See Manual, p. 2G-7-8. 
 Also Primary Object Lessons, p. 91-5-6. Use slate-pencils or lead- 
 pencils. Chart No. XL may also be used to copy from. 
 
 4. 4. Oral Compositions : Language. — See Manual, p. 28 and 
 29. Be careful to correct all faulty language in the pupils. See, 
 also, suggestions in Manual, p. l-t to 18. 
 
 * Where " Manual" is, referred to, it is the present work. " Calkins's Manual" is 
 referred to by name. 
 
292 APPENDIX. 
 
 5. 5. Size and Form. — See Primary Object Lessons, p. 49, 50, 
 160-162. Use the blocks illustrating the figures on Chart No. 
 XII. Give the names, with but little explanation. 
 
 6. 6. Color. — See Primary Object Lessons, p. 112-114; Chart 
 No. XIII., and through verse 1 of Manual, p. 92. Make use of 
 the Hand Color-cards. 
 
 7. 7. Animals. — Let pupils name all the difierent kinds (species) 
 of animals which they have seen, describing them, and naming 
 their parts and uses ; also let them point out and name all the 
 animals represented on Chart No. I. See, also, Calkins's Manual. 
 Let the teacher tell what he has seen animals do, etc., and thus in- 
 terest the children in the subject. 
 
 8. 8. Plants. — Let pupils name (and describe as well as they can) 
 all the kinds of trees they know^ ; also kinds of grain, garden veg- 
 etables, shrubs, herbs, weeds, etc., bringing in and examining spec- 
 imens of as many different kinds of leaves and flowers as they can, 
 describing the forms of their roots, etc. Also point out the simi- 
 lar forms of leaves, flowers, roots, etc., on Chart No. XIX. See, 
 also, Calkins's Manual. 
 
 9. 9, Physical Exercises every half hour. Human Body, etc. 
 See Primary Object Lessons, p. 186-188, 190-192, and 229. AVe 
 would enjoin upon trustees, directors, etc., the importance of hav- 
 ing pleasant and inclosed play-grounds.* 
 
 10. 10. Manners and Morals. — Pupils, at this stage, should be 
 told simple stories, incidents, etc., illustrating principles in Man- 
 ners and Morals. Some excellent ones, with suggestions, etc., 
 may be found in "Cowdery's Moral Lessons." Do not read the 
 stories to them. 
 
 11. 11, Miscellaneous Objects — designed to carry out a sys- 
 tem of familiar " Object" teaching. See Calkins's Primary Object 
 Lessons, p. 26 to 35. 
 
 12. 12. Construction. — See suggestions on this subject, p. 54 of 
 Manual. Give children several pairs of straight sticks, and let 
 them lay them on the tables, two by two, in as many different po- 
 sitions as possible. Then let them draw the same positions on the 
 blackboard. Arrange three sticks and three straight lines in a sim- 
 ilar manner. Also provide them -with a large number of small 
 wooden blocks, like bricks, of uniform size, and let them build 
 walls, pillars, buildings, etc., with them. 
 
 Music should be introduced two or three times each day, if the 
 teacher can sing, or if several of the older pupils can lead the oth- 
 ers in singing. 
 
 * Great attention should be given, from ffte beginning^ to the cultivation of a hahit 
 of erectness of fonn and position. While sitting at the deslc, using the pencil or pen, 
 etc., keep the body erect. 
 
APPENDIX. 293 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 13. 1. Reading, the Alphabet, and Spelling. — Same as first 
 term, and continued through Chart No, II. iSee, also, Manual, 
 p. 28, 30, 31, and 32. When pupils can call the words readily at 
 sight, they may go over what they can thus read in concert exer- 
 cises once a day. Be very careful, however, to have them repeat the 
 words in a free and natural manner. Spelling. First introduced. 
 Spell orally, and also with Type Letter-cards. See Manual, p, 29. 
 
 li. 2. Counting. — Continue as before directed. See, also. Pri- 
 
 mary Object Lessons, p. 139-1-iG. Preceding Manual, p. 30, 31, 32. 
 
 15. 3. Printing Letters, and Drawing. — Same as before. See, 
 also, Manual, p. 29, 30, 31. Charts X. and XI. Primary Object 
 Lessons, p. 9G, 97. 
 
 16. 4. Oral Compositions, Language. — Same as before. See, 
 also, Manual, p. 28, 30, 31, and 32. Be careful to correct all un- 
 grammatical expressions of the pupils. 
 
 17. 5. Size and Form. — Same as in preceding term. Also Pri- 
 maay Object Lessons, p, 50-5-1. 
 
 18. 6. Color. — Same as preceding term. 
 
 19. 7, Animals. — Same as in the preceding term ; and, in addi- 
 tion, let pupils point out and name all the animals represented on 
 the upper part of Chart XV, Anecdotes of the kinds of animals 
 mentioned. See Calkins's Manual : Programme, etc, 
 
 20. 8. Plants. — Continue the course of the exercises marked out 
 for the preceding term, 
 
 21. 9. Physical Exercises, — See preceding term. Also Calkins's 
 Primary Object Lessons, p, 230-241. Let them be introduced as 
 often as pupils weary of any employment. 
 
 22. 10. jManners and Morals. — Same as first term. See, also, 
 Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 349-358, Also, a little vol- 
 ume by Jacob Abbott, "Learning about Right and Wrong." Also, 
 Sedgwick's "Morals of Manners." 
 
 23. 11. Miscellaneous Objects, — Same as first term; also, see 
 Primary Object Lessons, from p, 26-35. 
 
 24. 12. Construction. — Extend the exercises of the preceding 
 term to four and five straight sticks and straight lines. In addi- 
 tion to the uniform wooden bricks, supply pupils with wooden 
 blocks, pillars, columns, etc., of various shapes and sizes, for build- 
 ing houses, arches, bridges, etc. 
 
 Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
 teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
 in singing. 
 
294 APPENDIX. 
 
 SECOND SCHOOL YEAR. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 25. 1. READiNa AND SPELLING. — Review Charts I. and II,, and 
 
 continue the exercises as directed on p. 28, 30, and 31 of Manual. 
 Go through Chart No. III. See Manual, p. 32-3, and begin 
 Chart No. IV. ; Manual, p. 35. Begin reading in Primer also. 
 Occasional concert exercises as before. See, also, in this connec- 
 tion, the 10th division of exercises for this term — "Maxims and 
 Mottoes. " Spelling. See Manual, p. 30, 31, and 32. Accustom the 
 pupils to tell what the words mean. Thus, when they spell "cat," 
 let them tell what the word cat represents — that is, tell what a cat is. 
 
 26. 2. Counting. — Continue as before (2 and 14). Primary Ob- 
 ject Lessons, p. 146-8. See, especially. Manual, p. 32. Let pu- 
 pils use the Type Letter-cards, if they have them, to set up the 
 figures representing the numbers, or let them print the figures on 
 the blackboard or on their slates. 
 
 27. 3. Printing, Drawing, and "Writing. — Same as before (3 and 
 15), and j). 31, 32, 34, and 52 of Manual. Also, if pupils are now 
 familiar with the Roman letters, let them copy the words in script 
 on Chart No. IX., thus beginning Avith writing. Use slate-pencils 
 or lead-pencils for this purpose. It is to be expected that these 
 sketches will be exceedingly rude at first, but they will amuse the 
 pupils, and give freedom to the movements of the hand. 
 
 28. 4. Oral Compositions : Language. — Review former exercises. 
 Also see Manual, p. 31, 32. Continued correction of ungrammat- 
 ical expressions. 
 
 20. 5. Size, Form, Lines, Measures, and Solids. — Same as be- 
 fore. See, also. Primary Object Lessons, p. 160-165. 
 
 30. 6. Color. — Same as before. Continue selecting and matching 
 colors. Through verses 1 and 2, Manual, p. 92-3. Chart No. 
 XIII. 
 
 31. 7. Animals.— Same as in preceding term. See, also, Calkins's 
 Manual. Descriptions and anecdotes of the kinds of animals de- 
 scribed. Lessons on Birds, 
 
 32. 8, Plants. — Continue the course marked out for the first term 
 of the first year. Teach children to compare plants, and note 
 their differences. Let them try to find two leaves of clover, or of 
 any other plant, just alike, and tell loherein they differ. This will 
 lead them to observe, carefully, a thousand particulars which would 
 otherwise pass unnoticed, and also to put their ideas thus acquired 
 into language, 
 
 33. 9, Physical Exercises, — Continued as before directed (9 and 
 21), but less frequent as pupils become older, and as their interest 
 increases in other school exercises. 
 
APPENDIX. 295 
 
 34. 10. IManners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (10, 22). Also, as pupils are now supposed 
 to be able to read from Charts I,, II., and III., and from the Type 
 Letter-cards, take up the " Maxims and Mottoes" (see Manual, p. 
 295), one. each day, and go through from No. 1 to 20. In the 
 morning the teacher announces the maxim or motto for the day, 
 and allows some pupil to set it up with the Letter-cards on the 
 Composing-frame, or to write or print it on the blackboard, where 
 it remains in view of the whole school. Before dismissing for the 
 day the teacher calls on one or more pupils to rise and repeat the 
 maxim, and tell its meaning if they can. Probably the younger 
 pupils will not be able to accomplish much at present in this exer- 
 cise; but after the teacher has drawn from them what ideas he 
 can, he himself should illustrate and enforce the meaning.* 
 
 35. 11. IMiscELLAXEors Objects. — Review and enlarge upon the 
 ground previously gone over. Name objects to children, and let 
 them tell their pa7-ts. Thus, name the different parts of a house ; 
 of the human frame ; .of a table, window, watch, hat, sled, apple, 
 peach, book, stove, chair, herb, tree, carriage, knife, etc. ; names 
 of the days of the week, months of the year ; number of days in 
 the week, weeks in the year, days in the year ; meaning of couple, 
 pai;, brace, dozen, score, right, left, quire of paper, ream of paper, 
 etc. 
 
 36. 12. Construction. — Continue the exercises of the two pre- 
 ceding terms. The tangram may also be used. See Primaiy 
 Object Lessons, p. 47. Marbles and balls should be provided for 
 out-door exercises, and the pupils should be taught how to use 
 them, with various exercises in tossing, bounding, and catching 
 balls. Explain to them ichr/ the ball bounds. Show them how to 
 make a goose-quill air-gun, and, in connection with its nse, ex- 
 plain the elasticity of the air. Illustrate by compressing a piece 
 of India-rubber and letting it spring back suddenly to its shape. 
 Teachers need not be ashamed to exhibit an interest in such phil- 
 osophical experiments. 
 
 Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
 teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
 in singing. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 37. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Review 
 and continue Charts III. and IV., as before directed, j). 32 and 35-G 
 of jManual; also Chart No. V., Manual, p. 38. Also read in the 
 
 * The teacher will find it convenient, and interesting to the pupils, to use the Com- 
 posing-frame (with the Card?) for his bulletin-board. He writes, or tells an order to 
 a pupil, and the latter places it on the bulletin. 
 
296 APPENDIX. 
 
 Primer. Teach the elementary sounds of the vowels from Chart 
 I. Thus, pointing to "cap," pronounce the word, and then give 
 the sound of its vowel a. Go over Chart I. in this manner. Oc- 
 casional concert exercises as before. Give some attention to punc- 
 tuation and capitals. See Manual, p. 39. 
 
 Spelling. — Continue spelling as before (25). Also see Manual, 
 p. 33-4. Also spell orally the words on Charts I., II., and III., 
 the teacher naming the word, and requiring the pupils to first pro- 
 nounce it, and then spell it. Let pupils tell what each word 
 means, as before. Spell orally, or with cards, the leading words 
 used in the various lessons of the day. 
 
 38. 2. Counting, Adding, etc. — Continue as before (2, 14, and 2G), 
 and see, also. Primary Object Lessons, p. 148-153. Also p. 34 of 
 preceding Manual. 
 
 39. 3. Drawing and Writing. — See Manual, p. 37, under head of 
 "Printing and Drawing." On writing, see Manual, p. 51. Use 
 pencils. Form the words on Chart No. IX., and also write in 
 script the words on Chart No. I. For drawing, see Manual, 
 p. 52. 
 
 40. 4. Oral Compositions: Language. — See exercises under this 
 head, p. 33 of Manual, in connection with Chart No. III. Cor- 
 rect all faulty language. 
 
 41. 5. Lines, Measures, Forms, and Solids. — Continue as before 
 (17, 29), and see, also, Primary Object Lessons, p. 105-173. 
 
 42. 6, Colors, — Same as preceding term ; also through verses 3 
 and 4, p. 93 of Manual. 
 
 43. 7. Animals. — Same as in preceding terms (19, 31). Let pu- 
 pils tell the names of as many kinds of birds as they can, describ- 
 ing them, telling where they have seen them, etc. Let them point 
 out and name as many as they can on Chart No. XVII. Also 
 continue the use of Chart No. XV. See Manual, p. 130-1. Anec- 
 dotes of the animals mentioned. See Calkins's Manual, lessons 
 on Birds. 
 
 44. 8. Plants. — Continue the exercises as directed (8 and 32). Also 
 take up the subject of the "Forms of Leaves," Chart No. XIX., 
 more particularly, and let pupils find and bring in leaves of sim- 
 ilar forms. They may now be told the terms descriptive of these 
 forms. See Manual, p. 177 to 182. Chart No. XIX. 
 
 45. 9. Physical Exercises.— Continued as before (9, 21, 33). 
 Battledoor and shuttlecock, and the excercise of throwing hoops, 
 called "The Graces," may now be introduced where they can be 
 carried on in the open air. They will give ease and grace of 
 movement, and impart skill in execution. Connect philosophical 
 explanations with battledoor and shuttlecock, as suggested under 
 head of " Construction," in preceding term. The teacher should 
 
APPENDIX. 297 
 
 now consult the system of Dr. Lewis, of Boston, and henceforth 
 adapt it to the wants of his school. 
 
 46. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (10, 22, 31). See how many of the twenty, pupils 
 can repeat and illustrate. Continue their daily use. 
 
 47. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Eeview the ground previously 
 gone over (23, 35), and take up the exercises in Calkins's Primary 
 Object Lessons, p. 36-40. 
 
 48. 12. Construction. — Continue the exercises before given under 
 this head (12, 24, and 36). In addition, children may be interest- 
 ed in folding and cutting paper (newspaper will answer) in various 
 patterns, and forming boxes, envelopes, etc. They may cut the 
 paper with small paper-folders, after doubling it down, which will 
 avoid the necessity of using any sharp instruments. 
 
 49. 13. Geographical. — Introduce the exercises suggested on p. 
 82-3 of Manual, First, Second, and Third Lessons. See, also, 
 Calkins's Primary Object Lessons, p. 162 to 166 and 242 to 248. 
 
 Music should be introduced t\vo or three times each day if the 
 teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
 in singing. 
 
 THIRD SCHOOL YEAR. 
 first term. 
 
 50. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Reading 
 from Charts IV., V., and VI. See ^lanual, p. 35-6, 38, and 39- 
 40. Also read in Primer or First Reader. See Manual, p. 39. In 
 elementary sounds, take up Chart No. VII., as directed in Manu- 
 al, p. 43, and go as far as " Additional Exercises," p. 44. Attend 
 to punctuation and capitals. Manual, p. 39, and occasional concert 
 exercises. 
 
 Spelling. — Continue as before (25 and 37). See, also, ]\Ianual, 
 p. 37-8. Also spell each day, orally or with the Letter-cards, the 
 names of all leading words introduced in the reading lessons, and 
 also those used in the various lessons of the day under the head 
 of colors, animals, plants, etc. Let pupils tell their meaning. 
 
 51. 2. Numbers.— Continue as before (2, 14, 26, and 38). See Man- 
 ual, p. 34, 37, and 38. Let the teacher give additional exercises 
 in counting, adding, and subtracting other objects^ but \\sm2, Jigures 
 to represent them. See, also. Primary Object Lessons, p. 154, and 
 preceding Manual, p. 40. 
 
 52. 3. Drawing and "Writing on slates and blackboard. See 
 Manual, p. 38, 40, 50, 51. Let pupils continue writing the lessons 
 on the early Charts in script, with Chart No. IX. before them. 
 Writing in -WTiting-books, from copies, may now be commenced, 
 but a sharp and long pencil would be preferable to a pen. It 
 
 N2 
 
298 APPENDIX. 
 
 should be held as a pen. For drawing, see Manual, p. 52, and 
 Chart No. X. 
 
 53. 4. Oral and Written Compositions: Language. — Same 
 as before (28, 40), and see, also, Manual, p. 3G. Continue the 
 correction of ungrammatical expressions, etc. 
 
 54. 5. Lines, Measures, Forms, Solids, "Weights. — Same as be- 
 fore (17, 29, 41), and also Primary Object Lessons, p. 174-180, 
 and the preceding Manual, p. 80, 81, and 89. 
 
 55. 6. Colors. — Same as before (30, 42). — Let pupils bring in col- 
 ored objects, cloths, worsted, etc., and tell what colors they most 
 resemble — matching them first with the hand Color-cards, and 
 then with the colors on Chart No. XIII. 
 
 5G. 7. Animals. — Continue as before (31, 43). Manual, p. 130- 
 133, and Chart No. XV. Also use Chart No. XVIL, and let pu- 
 pils name and describe what reptiles and what fishes they have 
 seen. Introduce the subject of Insects. See Calkins's Manual 
 for lessons on insects. Interesting accounts of any of the animals 
 mentioned should be given. 
 
 57. 8. Plants. — Continue in the course of the previous exercises 
 (32, 44), and go through with the first six divisions of "Forms" 
 on Chart No. XIX., learning their names as far as it can easily be 
 done. See Manual, p. 178 to 186. 
 
 58. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 59. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before ('10, 22, 34, 46). The teacher should be constantly accu- 
 mulating new stories, incidents, etc., for illustration. Eeview max- 
 ims and mottoes, and continue their use. Manual, p. 
 
 GO. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Eeview the ground previously 
 
 gone over. Teacher may exercise the pupils in naming the qual- 
 ities of objects, and writing them on the blackboard, or setting them 
 up with the Letter-cards. Thus an object may be (comparatively) 
 long or short, broad, narrow, light, heavy, etc., and thus through 
 all the varieties of form and size : similarly as to its color. Other 
 qualities, as hard, soft, elastic, opaque, solid, hollow, etc. Name 
 the objects, and let pupils tell and write down as many qualities as 
 they can. The pupils may then form these qualities into oral 
 compositions descriptive of the objects. Teacher may also name 
 qualities, and pupils name their opposites. Thus the teacher 
 names good, wet, hot, left, deep, loud, true, sIoav, up, hard, kind, 
 broad, open, tame, light, poor, just, old, bitter, weak, round, nar- 
 row, healthy, polite, white, crooked, grateful, transparent, etc., etc. 
 Pupils should tell the ^lses of things mentioned ; for example, of 
 leather, cloth, bucket, air, water, fire, sun, wood, paint, iron, stone, 
 brick, pen, book, ink, clock, slate, ear, eye, mouth, tongue, nose, 
 hands, feet, wings, knife, axe, hammer, nails, saw, chalk, sponge, 
 
APPENDIX. 299 
 
 broom, pail, mirror, chimney, lead-pencil, newspaper, spade, hoe, 
 plow, harrow, etc., etc. See, also, Calkins's Manual. 
 
 61. 12. Construction.— Continue, occasionally, all the exercises 
 previously suggested under this head (24, 36, and 48), and, addi- 
 tionally, show the pupils how to form water-wheels, wind-mills, 
 etc. The younger pupils may get their parents or older pn])ils to 
 construct these for them. Explain what makes the water-wheel 
 turn— the force of the water ; the wind-mill— the force of the air, 
 etc. Explain why their wooden blocks, walls, etc., sometimes 
 tumble down ; wliy their marbles roll down hill ; why water runs 
 — rolls — down hill, etc. 
 
 62. 13, Geographical. — Continue the exercises of the preceding 
 term (49), and take up Fourth and Fifth Lessons of Manual, p. 
 83. See, also. Primary Object Lessons, p. 160 to 173 and 248 to 
 263. 
 
 Music should be introduced two or three times each day if the 
 teacher can sing, or if some of the older pupils can lead the others 
 in singing. 
 
 second term. 
 
 63. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Charts V. 
 and VI. reviewed, and Manual, p. 38, 39, 40. Also Primer or 
 First Reader. Occasional concert exercises as before. Attention 
 to inflections, punctuation, capitals, etc. See Manual, p. 39 and 
 41. Elementary sounds through A and E, p. 44-5 of Manual, 
 Chart VII. First Reader, and begin the Second. Continue spell- 
 ing exercises as before directed (25, 37, and 50). The si)elling- 
 book may also now be introduced. 
 
 64. 2. Numbers.— Continue as before (2, 14, 26, 38, and 51). See, 
 also, ]\Ianual, p. 40, 41. Counting from 1 to 100, forward and 
 backward. Use of numeral frame. Learn the Roman numerals 
 from I. to L., and form them on the blackboard or on slates, or 
 set them up with the cards to designate any given number. For 
 exercises, let one pupil place any given number, say twenty-nine 
 objects, of any kind, on the table ; let another set up the words 
 " twenty-nine" on the frame with the Letter-cards ; let another set 
 lip the same in figures, "29 ;" and another set up the same with 
 the Roman numerals, "XXIX." 
 
 65. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as in the preceding term. 
 
 66. 4. Oral and Written Compositions : Language. — Same as 
 before (28, 40, 53). See, also. Manual, p. 33, 36, and 40. Attcn- 
 tion to punctuation, capitals, inflections, etc., and constant correc- 
 tion of ungrammatical expressions. 
 
 67. 5. Lines, Measures, Forms, Solids, Weights, Sounds.— 
 Same as before (17, 29, 41, 54). Also, Primary Object Lessons, 
 
300 APPENDIX. 
 
 p. 182-185. Charts Nos. XL and XII., and Manual, p. 80, 81, 
 and 89, with simple definitions of terms, p. 90, 91. 
 
 68. 6. Colors. — Same as before (30, 42, 55), and also explain the 
 Primaries, Secondaries, Tertiaries, Sub-Secondaries, and Sub-Ter- 
 tiaries, from Chart No. XIV., Manual, p. 100, 101. Two or three 
 lessons each week. 
 
 69. 7. Animals. — Eeview the ground gone over, taking a general 
 view of the mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects, and fin- 
 ish the subject of No. 1, Chart XV. Go over, briefly, the lower 
 half of Chart No. XV. Anecdotes, incidents, etc. 
 
 70. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (32, 44, 57), and go 
 through with the last two divisions of Chart No. XIX., Manual, 
 p. 186 to 189. 
 
 71. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (0, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 72. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59). Continue maxims and mottoes 
 as far as practicable. 
 
 73. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continue as before (23, 35, 47, 
 and 60), the teacher preparing a variety of object-lesson exercises — 
 taking up common objects — and being careful not to go beyond the 
 capacity of his pupils. See Calkins's Manual of Object Lessons. 
 If the teacher has a small collection of minerals, that subject 
 may now be taken up. Pupils should first learn to distinguish 
 and name the common metals — gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead, 
 zinc, and brass, a compound of copper and zinc, and bronze, a com- 
 pound of copper and tin. Let pupils tell their qualities and uses 
 as far as they can. Specimens should be examined. See Calkins's 
 Manual. 
 
 74. 12. Construction. — Continue all the previous exercises (24, 
 36, 48, and 61). Add new games and amusements, chiefly for 
 out-door recreation ; and, especially, introduce those which may 
 be used to illustrate philosophical principles. Show them the con- 
 struction of whistles, fifes, etc., telling them what kinds of wood 
 they may get, what bark peels easily, at what season of the year, 
 and why then. Show them how to make and raise a kite, and 
 explain, in familiar language, how it is carried up in the air. See 
 Pifth Keader, p. 350. Encourage pupils to make (out of school), 
 or to get others to make for them, kites, water-wheels, Avind-mills, 
 fifes, whistles, ships, wagons, machines, etc. The teacher should 
 spend as much time as possible, out of school, with his pupils, par- 
 ticipating in their games and amusements, and giving them a 
 proper direction. 
 
 75. 13. Geographical. — Review the ground previously gone over 
 (49 and 62), and continue in the order marked out on p. 86, 87, 
 and 88 of Manual. See, also. Primary Object Lessons, p. 263 to 268. 
 
 Music as before directed. 
 
APPENDIX. 801 
 
 FOURTH SCHOOL YEAR. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 76. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Continue 
 the use of the blackboard, the Charts V. and VI., if necessary, and 
 the Letter-cards, and proceed witli the Readers. No word should 
 be passed by until the pupil has a correct idea of its meaning as 
 used in the lesson. Yet the pupil may understand the meaning of 
 the sentence without being able to define each word separately. 
 The latter is not so important as the former. Question pupils 
 'thoroughly on the meaning of each sentence rather than upon the 
 mere abstract meaning of separate ivords. Pay particular atten- 
 tion to correct ])ronunciation, distinct articulation, inflections, em- 
 phasis, etc. Make a spelling lesson out of every reading lesson. 
 See, also, Calkins's Programme in his Manual, 2d and 3d steps 
 of 2d grade, etc. Elementary sounds reviewed, and continued 
 through the vowel sounds. Manual, p. 45-6, Chart VII. Concert 
 exercises, both in reading and in the elementary sounds. Spe/l 
 all important words in the reading and other lessons. Regular 
 lessons from the spelling-book. Also, continue as suggested (25, 
 37, 50, and 63). 
 
 77. 2. Numbers. — See previous suggestions (26, 38, 51, and 64). 
 Mental arithmetic may now be taken up, INIake all examples as 
 practical as possible. Continue Roman numerals from L. to C, 
 as directed for preceding term. 
 
 78. 3. Drawing and Writing. — For drawing, see Manual, p. 52-3, 
 and Chart No. X. Let the pupil also draw the "forms of leaves," 
 and forms of their margins, both from Chart No. XIX., and from 
 Nature. It is supposed that they have already learned the appro- 
 priate terms descriptive of these forms. Continue writing from 
 Chart No. IX., etc., and from writing-books. 
 
 79. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — Let pupils write com- 
 positions on the subjects of Natural History especiall}-, which they 
 have already gone over from the Charts, under the heading of 
 "Animals," "Plants," etc. ; also, in connection with such other 
 subjects of study for the term as the teacher may select. This 
 may include "Manners and Morals," "Maxims," "oMiscellaneous 
 Objects," "Construction and Collections," etc. Sec, also, the sub- 
 ject of " Compositions" throughout the Manual. Continue correc- 
 tions of language, etc. 
 
 80. 6. Colors. — Continue the exercises as before (55, 68), and go 
 through the semi-neutral colors, Manual, p. 101-2, Chart XIV. 
 Also return to Chart No. XIII., and go through the exercises, 
 Manual, p. 94-5. 
 
 8L 7. Animals. — Go over the subjects of Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Chart 
 
302 APPENDIX. 
 
 XV., and Manual, from p. 130 to 141. Continue the subjects of 
 Birds, Eeptiles, Fishes, and Insects, as before. Also, describe brief- 
 ly, and point out on the Chart, No. XVII., the first order of Birds, 
 Manual, p. 170-1 ; the four orders of Reptiles, Chart No. XVIII., 
 and Manual, p. 174-5. 
 
 82. 8. Plants. — Review, and continue the course of the previous 
 exercises (32, 44, 57, and 70) ; also, if it is the right season of the 
 year, commence a critical examination of the different parts of a 
 flower, and the classification of plants on the Linnsean System. 
 See Manual, p. 189 to 193, and Chart No. XX. 
 
 83. 9. Physical Exercises. — As before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 84. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72). Continue maxims and mot- 
 toes, and review, daily, tliose gone over. 
 
 85. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continue as before suggested 
 (23, 35, 47, GO, and 73). Explain to pupils the three great divi- 
 sions of Nature : the Animal Kingdom, the Vegetable Kingdom, 
 and the INIineral Kingdom. Tell them all material objects that are 
 not either animal or vegetable are called 7ninerals. Let them tell 
 what things, therefore, belong to the mineral kingdom — all which 
 have not organized forms. All rocks are minerals ; all soils also, 
 unless they are formed by the partial decay of vegetable or animal 
 substances. Teacher should have a cabinet of the principal rocks, 
 and pupils should learn to recognize and name them.* See, also, 
 Calkins's Manual — Minerals. 
 
 86. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. Continue 
 such of the previous exercises as are of fiirther interest and utility 
 (48, 61, and 74). Pupils may now begin to make collections of 
 plants for hei-bariums. See Manual, p. 201. Separate collections 
 of preserved specimens of leaves of as many kinds of trees as pos- 
 sible, with names of the trees ; also, of different kinds of wood, in 
 small blocks. Once each week, a half hour or more may be de- 
 voted to an examination of the museum thus collected, machines, 
 instruments, etc. Questions and explanp,tions. 
 
 87. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the geograph- 
 ical exercises as before suggested (49, 62, and 75). Also, begin 
 now to draw from the pupils the history of the immediate neigh- 
 borhood, or School District, in the following manner: 1. Let them 
 tell the names of the residents, where they reside, on what streets, 
 in what direction from the school-house, and how far from it. 2. 
 The occupations of the inhabitants — as farmers, mechanics, mer- 
 
 * The writer hopes to make arrangements for providing cheap geological cabinets 
 for school use. Very little can be done in giving pupils a knowledge of geology with- 
 out the aid of a well-arranged cabinet ; and with such aid pupils will almost teach 
 themselves. 
 
APPENDIX. 803 
 
 chants, manufacturers, etc. 3. Names and residences of the trust- 
 ees, directors, or other school officers of the district, and their gen- 
 eral duties. 4. Any historical incidents of the district or neigh- 
 borhood that may be proper to be narrated. 
 Music as before directed. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 88. 1. Eeading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Same di- 
 . rections as before given, llcvicw elementary sounds, and con- 
 tinue through p. 4G-7 of Manual, Chart VII. Spelling as before 
 directed (25, 37, 50, and G3). 
 
 89. 2. Numbers. — See previous suggestions (26, 38, 51, G4, and 77). 
 Mental Arithmetic, Multiplication Table, etc. Exercises in rapid 
 combinations of numbers should be introduced, and should be fre- 
 quent ; easy at first, and gradually increasing in difficulty. Thus : 
 teacher repeats aloud and slowly, "2, add 3, add 10, subtract 5, 
 multiply by 2," and pupils tell the result. Let the teacher devise 
 a series of such combinations. 
 
 90. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (52 and 78). 
 See, also, p. 52-3-4 of Manual, and Chart No. X. Make draw- 
 ings of every thing on Chart No. XIX., and also copy the same 
 forms from the natural objects, if possible. Writing continued. 
 
 91. 4. Written Compositions: Language. — See directions (6G, 
 79). Require pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as suggested 
 in the Manual, p. 17-18. Let them write sketches of most of their 
 lessons. 
 
 92. 6, Colors. — Review. Also the same as preceding term. 
 
 93. 7. Animals. — Same as the preceding term. Also describe 
 briefly and point out the birds in the second and third orders, 
 Chart No. XVII., Manual, p. 171-2 ; also the first order of Fish- 
 es, Chart No. XVIII., and Manual, p. 175-6; also go over the 
 subjects of Nos. 4 and 5, Chart XV., and Manual, p. 141-7. 
 
 94. 8. Pl.vnts. — Continue the course of the previous exercises (44, 
 57, 70, and 82). A critical examination of the parts of the flow- 
 ers of various plants, etc. Also, take np, in familiar talks, the sub- 
 ject of the "Economical Uses of Plants," " Our Common Fruits," 
 Manual, p. 209, through Apple, Pear, Peach, Quince, Plum, and 
 Apricot, to p. 214, using the •illustrations. Chart No. XXI. Also 
 drawings, specimens, etc. 
 
 95. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 96. 10. Manners and Morals, ]\Iaxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84). Continue maxims and 
 mottoes as far as practicable. 
 
 97. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continue as before suggested 
 (60, 73, and 85). Teachers should exercise their ingenuity in ar- 
 
804 APPENDIX. 
 
 ranging suitable exercises under this head. Continue the subject 
 of Minerals, if the teacher has a suitable cabinet. See, also, Cal- 
 kins's Manual of Object Lessons. Call the attention of pupils to 
 the subject of trades, professions, etc., and prepare for them Object 
 Lessons relating to their different employments, such as the farm- 
 er, the blacksmith, the carpenter, the mason, the shoemaker, the 
 merchant, the lawyer, the teacher, the printer, various manufac- 
 turers, etc. ; the tools used by each, the products of each, etc., etc. 
 
 98. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue in 
 accordance with directions for preceding term (61, 74, and 86). 
 Collections of Mosses from the woods, and of Lichens from old 
 fences and rocks, are very interesting. Many of these plants are 
 exceedingly beautiful. By the aid of paste or glue they may be 
 used to cover a cheap pine frame of a picture. They make a hand- 
 some border. 
 
 99. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the course 
 of the previous exercises under this head (62,.^75, and 87), making 
 the historical henceforth keep pace with the geographical. The 
 physical geography of the neighborhood — its natural history, pro- 
 ductions, Avith its political geography, etc. — should be introduced 
 as suggested, p. 85, 86, 87, and 88 of Manual. Call up the his- 
 tory of the early settlements made in the neighborhood, as far as 
 possible, and bring down the general history of the neighborhood 
 to the present time, ascertaining ivhen the present families moved 
 into the neighborhood, and whence they came. Historical inci- 
 dents, etc. 
 
 Music as before directed. 
 
 FIFTH SCHOOL YEAR. 
 first term. 
 
 100. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Same di- 
 rections as for the fourth year. Pupils may also now be required 
 to define separate words in the reading lesson. For this purpose 
 each should be provided with a dictionary. Continue practicing 
 upon the elementary sounds, as directed in the Manual, p. 43 to 48, 
 Chart VIL Take up Phonic Spelling and Phonetic Anal- 
 ysis, Manual, p. 49, and Chart VIII. Continue the spelling ex- 
 ercises as before directed (25, 37, 50, and 63). 
 
 101. 2. Numbers. — Continue throughout the remainder of the 
 course in accordance with such plans as the teacher may adopt. 
 See, also, previous suggestions (26, 38, 51, 64, 77, and 89). Rap- 
 id combination exercises, gradually more and more difficult. 
 Thus : "2, add 3, add 10, subtract 5, multiply by 2, divide by 4." 
 " 10, add 8, subtract 5, add 7, multiply by 4, divide by 10." Let 
 the teacher form numerous sets of such exercises adapted to the 
 
APPENDIX. 805 
 
 capacities of his pupils. Slate arithmetic whenever the pupils are 
 prepared for it. Frequent exercises. 
 
 102. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (52, 78, and 
 90). For drawing, see, also, Manual, p. 5-t. Charts Nos. XXI. 
 and XXII. furnish good copies. Copy from Nature as much as 
 possible. Geometrical drawing may be commenced. See Man- 
 ual, p. 54-5-G-7, and Chart No. X.* Writing continued. 
 
 103. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
 79, 91). Require pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as sug- 
 gested in the Manual, p. 17-18. Written sketches, etc. 
 
 104:. 6. Colors. — Review preceding exercises. Take up the Chro- 
 
 matic Scale, Chart XIV., and go through the "Exercises on the 
 Primaries, Secondaries and Tertiaries," as directed, Manual, p. 
 103-4. 
 
 105. 7. Animals. — Review the ground previously gone over. Birds 
 in the fourth and fifth orders, Chart No. XVII., and Manual, p. 
 172-3 ; second order of Fishes, Chart No. XVIII, Manual, p. 
 176-7 ; Insects, see Calkins's Manual. Also the subjects of Nos. 
 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, Chart No. XV., Manual, p. 147 to 156. 
 
 106. 8. Plants. — Continue the course of the previous exercises (44, 
 57, 70, 82, 94). Examination and classification of plants on the 
 Linna^an System, Manual, p. 193 to 198, Chart No. XX. ; " Eco- 
 nomical Uses of Plants," in familiar talks; the '■'■ Common Fruits," 
 INIanual, p. 214, through Grape, Currant, Filbert, Gooseberry, 
 Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawberry, Nuts, etc., to p. 220, using the 
 illustrations. Chart No. XXL, together with drawings by the pu- 
 pils, specimens, etc. Pupils make written sketches. 
 
 107. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 108. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84). Continue maxims and 
 mottoes as far as practicable. 
 
 109. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. —Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 110. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue 
 in accordance with previous suggestions (61, 74, 86, and 98). 
 Collections of minerals — different kinds of rocks, etc. — for geo- 
 logical cabinets, may be commenced. Even if the navies of the 
 different rocks are not yet known by either teacher or pupil, an 
 examination of specimens will still be valuable. Collections of 
 shells may also be made. Fresh-water shells are abundant. In 
 time, such collections will make not only a handsome, but a valu- 
 able school museum. 
 
 * For making these geometrical drawings on the hlackboard, a pair of blackboard 
 co77ipa.s.ses, adapted to hold a chalk or talc pencil, is much needed. We hope some one 
 will construct such an instrument. 
 
806 APPENDIX. 
 
 111. 13. Geographical AND Historical. — Extend geography and 
 history to the whole town on the principles suggested (87 and 99), 
 and pages 86, 87, and 88 of Manual. 
 
 Music as before directed. Declamations. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 112. 1. Eeading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Same 
 directions as for preceding term. If the reading-books used be 
 the School and Family Readers, and the subject should be the 
 Mammalia (p. 87-242) in the Third Reader, let the pupils read 
 with Chart No. XVI. before them. At the beginning of each 
 lesson let some pupil point out on the Chart, and give an abstract 
 of, the orders and families of the Mammalia as far as they have 
 gone in their reading, and tell to which order, family, etc., the 
 reading lesson of the day is to be assigned. Suggest to them the 
 reading out of school of such books as Children's Picture-book 
 of Quadrupeds, Hooker's Natural History to p. 1 15, and any other 
 similar works. Whatever be the reading lesson of the day, as 
 soon as it is finished let pupils close their books. Teacher should 
 then call upon pupils to tell what they have been reading about, 
 and to give in their own language an analysis of the lesson. 
 Continue the spelling exercises as before suggested (25, 37, 50, 
 and G3). 
 
 113. 2, Numbers. — Frequent combination exercises, reviews, etc. 
 Also, continue as before suggested (64, 77, 89, and 101). 
 
 114. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Draw outlines from engravings, 
 and also copy from natural objects. Manual, p. 52-3-4. Con- 
 tinue geometrical drawings, Manual, p. 58-9, and Chart No. X. 
 Writing continued. 
 
 115. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions {QQ, 
 79, 91). Recpiire pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as sug- 
 gested in the Manual, p. 17-18. Written sketches, etc. 
 
 lie. 6. Colors. — Reviewing, together with the directions (104) for 
 
 the preceding term, will be sufficient for the present term. 
 
 117. 7. Animals. — Birds in the sixth and seventh orders. Chart No. 
 
 XVII., and Manual, p. 173. Third order of Fishes, Chart No. 
 XVIII., Manual, p. 177. Insects. Also the subjects of the re- 
 maining ten numbers of Chart No. XV., Manual, p. 156 to 162. 
 As introductory to the reading lessons on the Mammalia, Third 
 Reader, which are sujiposed to be taken up this term, point out, 
 on Chart No. XVI., the four great divisions of the Animal King- 
 dom — Vertebrates, Articulates, Mollusks, and Radiates. Also 
 point ou^t and describe the diii"erent races of mankind. 
 
 The separate consideration of the subject of "Animals" may 
 now be dropped, as it is continued from time to time, from this 
 point forward, under the head of "Reading." 
 
APPENDIX. 807 
 
 118. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (82, di, lOG). Exam- 
 ination and classification on the Linnajan System, Manual, p. 193 
 to 198. *' Economical Uses of Plants," in familiar talks through 
 the subject of ''Common Root Plants,'' Manual, p. 220 to 226, 
 and Chart No. XXI. Drawings by the pupils for illustrations. 
 
 119. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 120. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84). Leading principles 
 in morals and religious duty may now begin to be more formally 
 presented. They should always be illustrated by anecdotes, in- 
 cidents, historical truths, etc., as far as possible. Remember the 
 parables by which the Savior taught. The teacher should be con- 
 stantly accumulating additional and appropriate maxims, mot- 
 toes, proverbs, wise sayings, etc., to add to the list. 
 
 121. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 122. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue as 
 before suggested (61, 74, 86, 98, and 110). Drawings by the pu- 
 pils may now begin to be added to the school museum : among 
 them neat drawings of the geometrical figures. Chart X. See 
 Manual, p. 57-61. Also some of the five regular solid polyhe- 
 drons, cut out of pasteboard. See Manual, p. G2-3. 
 
 123. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue the course 
 of exercises previously suggested (87, 99, and 111). Extend 
 them to the county and state, or section of the state, in which you 
 reside. This will call up both the early history and the early 
 geography of that part of the country, and hence will lead to our 
 early Indian wars and the War of the Kevolution. 
 
 Music as before directed. Declamations. 
 
 SIXTPI SCHOOL YEAR. 
 first term. 
 
 124. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Read, 
 spell, define, and analyze, as directed (76, 100, and 112). If the 
 Fourth Book of the School and Family Readers be used, the di- 
 vision of " Physiology and Health" should be carefully read, and 
 each lesson analyzed, with remarks from the teacher, enforcing 
 principles. Continue the spelling exercises as before directed (25, 
 37, 50, and 63). 
 
 125. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises daily. Reviews, etc. 
 
 126. 3. Drawing and Writing.— Continue outline drawings from 
 engravings, and draw from Nature. Geometrical drawings 
 through p. 59, 60, and 61 of Manual, and Chart No. X. Writ- 
 ing continued. 
 
808 APPENDIX. 
 
 127. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (6Q, 
 79, 91). See, also, the suggestions under the head of " Geograph- 
 ical and Historical," for the present term. Require pupils to use 
 the pocket blank-books, as suggested in the Manual, p. 17-18. 
 
 128. 6. Colors. — RevioAv, and take up the " Exercises from the 
 Scale on the Sub-Secondaries and Sub-Tertiaries," Manual, p. 
 101. 
 
 129. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (82, 94, lOG, 118). 
 Examination and classification on the Linncean System, Manual, 
 p. 193 to 198. "Economical Uses of Plants," in familiar talks, 
 through the "Cereals or Corn-plants," Manual, p. 226 to 238. 
 Use Chart No. XXL Also drawings by the pupils and speci- 
 mens for illustrations. Written sketches of lessons. 
 
 130. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 131. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 132. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 133. 12. Construction; Cabinet CoLLECTiONS,etc. — Continue as 
 before suggested (74, 86, 98, 110, and 122), making collections 
 of different kinds of wood, leaves, mosses, lichens, herbariums, 
 geological cabinets ; and constructing machines ; the geometrical 
 solids, making drawings, etc. 
 
 134. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue as before 
 (111, 123). The more formal study of the geography of our 
 whole country may now be taken up, with the aid of the geogra- 
 phy and atlas. Its leading historical events may also be told the 
 pupils in familiar talks, beginning with the stoiy of Columbus ; 
 and pupils should be required to write composhlonH embracing the 
 events thus narrated to them. This will effectnally secure their 
 attention to what is told them. 
 
 Music as before directed. Declamations. 
 
 second term. 
 
 135. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Contin- 
 ued as directed (25, 37, 50, 63, 76, 100, and 112). 
 
 136. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. Reviews, etc. 
 
 137. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Outline drawings, etc. Review 
 geometrical drawings. Manual, p. 54 to 61. Make drawings for 
 constructing the five regular polyhedrons, Manual, p. 61, 62. 
 Writing continued. 
 
 138. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions {QQ, 
 79, 91, 127). Require pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as 
 suggested in the Manual, p. 17-18. 
 
APPENDIX. 809 
 
 139. 6. Colors, — Beview the exercises, Manual, p. 103, 104, 105, 
 and explain and illustrate the subject of "Tones," Manual, p. 
 105, 106, 107. 
 
 140. 8. Plants.— Continue as before directed (106, 118, 129). Ex- 
 amination and classification on the Linnaean System, Manual, p. 
 193 to 198. "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, 
 through the "Fruits of Warm Countries," Manual, p. 238 to 219 ; 
 using Chart No. XXI., and drawings by the pupils, for illustra- 
 tions, together with such specimens as can be obtained. 
 
 141. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 142. 10. INIaxkers and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 143. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (GO, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily, 
 
 144. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — Continue in 
 the same course as before (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, and 133). The 
 teacher should now fill out the pi'ogramme under this head ac- 
 cording to the attainments and capacities of his pupils, A Sat- 
 urday's ramble with his pupils — making collections, preserving 
 specimens, etc. — might be made profitable, and should be made 
 interesting. 
 
 145. 13. Geographical and Historical, — Continue the geograph- 
 ical and historical studies as before suggested (111, 123, and 134). 
 Historical talks, narrating important events in our own history, 
 with compositions describing the same. 
 
 Music as before directed. Declamations. 
 
 SEVENTH SCHOOL YEAR. 
 first term, 
 
 146. 1. Reading, Spelling, and Elementary Sounds. — Contin- 
 ued as directed (25, 37, 50, 63, 76, 100, and 112), If the pupils 
 be reading the division of "Ornithology, or Birds," in the Fourth 
 Reader, place before them Chart No, XVII., and follow the di- 
 rections given for the Mammalia (112), In this manner pupils 
 will soon acquire, and with but little effort, a familiarity with 
 the scientific outlines of the subject. Suggest to them to read 
 the "Children's Picture-book of Birds," and Hooker's "Natural 
 History" from p. 115 to 187, 
 
 147. 2. Numbt:rs continued (64, 77, 89, and 101), Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. 
 
 148. 3, Drawing and Writing, — Continue drawings from en- 
 gravings and from natural objects, and form the geometrical 
 figures. Take up Linear Perspective, Manual, p. 63 to 70, first 
 principles, and Chart No. X. Writing continued, 
 
 149. 4. Written Compositions : Language. — See directions (66, 
 
SIO APPENDIX. 
 
 79, 91, 127). Eequire pupils to use the pocket blank-books, as 
 suggested in the Manual, p. 17-18. Sketches of lessons. 
 
 150. 6. Colors. — Review, and go through " Hues of Colors," Man- 
 ual, p. 107-8. Also exercises on "Complementary Colors," 
 Manual, p. 109-110. 
 
 151. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (118, 129, 140). 
 Examination and classification on the Linnaean System, Manual, 
 p. 193 to 198. "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, 
 through ^'- Medicinal Plants,'' Manual, p. 249 to 256, using Chart 
 No. XXL, and drawings by the pupils, for illustrations, together 
 ^Yitll such specimens as can be obtained. Sketches of lessons. 
 
 152. 9, Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 153. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 4G, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 154. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance 
 with previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 155. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. Sec suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, 
 133, and 144). 
 
 156. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue as before 
 (111, 123, 134, and 145). History may now be taken up from 
 the historical text-book. In connection with this study, we make 
 the following suggestions on the subject of Written Recitations. 
 Suppose the lesson, four pages in history, to have been given out 
 yesterday, to be recited this morning. Suppose there are twelve 
 pu])ils in the class, in four divisions. When the class is called, 
 pupils bring their books and slates. Teacher assigns a page to 
 each division ; each i)upil glances over his page hastily, and at 
 a given signal all lay aside their books, take their slates, and 
 each writes as full a sketch of the page assigned to him as he 
 can. The teacher examines the slates, and merely marks errors 
 (to be corrected), and graduates the pupils according to merit. 
 The advantages which this exercise will often have over the com- 
 mon mode of recitation will be readily apparent to all. 
 
 Music as before directed. Declamations. 
 
 second term. 
 
 157. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See previous directions (25, 37, 
 50, 63, 76, 100, and 112). If the botanical division of the Fourth 
 Reader be read, use in connection Charts XIX. and XX. Sug- 
 gest to pupils to read Hooker's "Child's Book of Nature," Part 
 I., Plants. 
 
 158. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. P'requent reviews. 
 
 159. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (137, 148, 
 
APPENDIX. 311 
 
 etc.), frequently reviewing. Linear Perspective through p. 70, 
 71, and 72. 
 
 IGO. 4. Written Compositions: Language: English Grammar. 
 — See directions (G6, 79, 91, 127). The separate study of En- 
 glish Grammar may now be introduced, but still in coimection 
 with the pocket blank-book exercises, as suggested in the Man- 
 ual, p. 18. 
 
 IGl. 6: Colors. — Eeview; also "Harmony of Colors, " from p. 110 
 through p. 117, Manual. 
 
 162. 8. Plants.— Continue as before directed (129, 140, 151). 
 "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, through '■^Plants 
 used for Beverages,'' Manual, p. 250 to 2GG, using Chart No. XXII., 
 and drawings by the pupils for illustration, with such specimens 
 as can be obtained. In connection with the reading lessons in 
 Botany, from the Fourth Reader, take up, in familiar talks, the 
 "Natural Method of Classification," and go through "Polypet- 
 alous" and "Apetalous" plants, JNIanual, p. 198 to 201, Chart No. 
 XX. Let pupils write sketches of all, 
 
 103. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 104. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 165. U. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 106. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. See suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, 
 133, and 144). 
 
 167. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue both, as far 
 in unison as possible. See suggestions (123, 134, 145, and 156). 
 Frequent reviews. 
 
 168. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Read to the pupils brief inter- 
 esting sketches, mostly narrative ; and when you have concluded, 
 let them write out the same, in the language of the book as near- 
 ly as possible. What is read should be suited to the ages and ca- 
 pacities of the pupils. The exercises will be found admirably 
 adapted to cultivate close attention, to strengthen the memory, to 
 give facility of expression, and to test the proficiency of pupils in 
 spelling, punctuation, inflections, use of capitals, penmanship, 
 etc. They may perhaps be commenced earlier than this period 
 with some classes, and may be written by the younger pupils on 
 slates, but the more advanced pupils should use pen and paper. 
 The teacher corrects the exercises by marking all errors, and re- 
 quires pupils to rewrite where necessary. 
 
 Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. 
 
312 APPENDIX. 
 
 EIGHTH SCHOOL YEAR. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 169. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
 100, and 112). When the Natural Philosophy division of the 
 Fourth Reader is read, suggest to pupils to read Mayhew's "Won- 
 ders of Science" and Mayhew's "Peasant-Boy Philosopher." 
 
 170. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. 
 
 171. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (137, 148, 
 etc.), frequently reviewing. Linear Perspective through p. 73, 
 74, 75. 
 
 172. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grajmmar. 
 —See directions (66, 79, 91, 127, 160). In studying English 
 Grammar, reference should be had more to the acquisition of cor- 
 rect habits of speaking and writing than to the technicalities of 
 jmrsing. It is better to show a mode of expression — such as "I 
 intended to have gpne yesterday" — to be philosophically wrong, 
 than to show it to be merely a violation of an arbitrary 7'ule of 
 grammar. 
 
 173. 6. Colors. — Review the whole subject of colors, and go as far 
 as Division XII., p. 123 of Manual. 
 
 174. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (140, 151, 162). 
 "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, through ^^Plants 
 used for Manvfactures,''^ ^IsarasX, p. 266 to 274, using Chart No. 
 XXII., drawings, specimens, etc., for ilhistration. Also "Nat- 
 ural Method of Classification," in familiar talks, Manual, p. 204, 
 through ''Endogenous Plants,'' p. 207, Chart No. XX. 
 
 175. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 176. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same as 
 before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 177. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 178. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. See suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 122, 
 133, and 144). 
 
 179. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
 marked out in the previous suggestions (123, 134, 145, and 156). 
 Frequent reviews. Begin the use of the globes. 
 
 180. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Same as in preceding term. 
 Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. 
 
 SECOND term. 
 
 181. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
 100, and 112). When the division on "Physiology and Health," 
 
APPENDIX. 313 
 
 in the Fifth Reader, is read, suggest to pupils to read Combe's 
 *' Principles of Physiology applied to the Preservation of Health." 
 
 182. 2. NmiBERS continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 
 
 183. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before (137, 148, 
 etc.). Linear Perspective through p. 76, 77, 78. 
 
 184. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
 — See directions (160, 172). ^ 
 
 185. 6. Colors. — Review as before, and finish the subject of col- 
 ors. Manual, p. 123 to 129. 
 
 186. 8. Plants. — Continue as before directed (151, 162, 174). 
 "Economical Uses" continued, in familiar talks, through ^^Mis- 
 cellaneous'' plants, and plants used for ^'Coloring,'' p. 274 to 282, 
 using Chart No. XXII., drawings, etc., for illustrations. Review 
 " Natural Method of Classification," Manual, p. 198 to 209, Chart 
 No. XX. After this period, the subject of "Plants" may be con- 
 tinued in connection with the reading lessons (see next term) ; or 
 it may be continued by taking up the study of Botany from the 
 regular botanical text-book. 
 
 187. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 188. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes.— Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 189. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 190. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, SQ, 98, 
 110, 122, 133, and 144). 
 
 191. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
 already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent reviews. 
 
 192. 14. Dictation Exercises.— Continue as directed (168). 
 Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. 
 
 NINTH SCHOOL YEAR. 
 
 first term. 
 
 193. 1. Reading and Spelling.— See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
 100, and 112). In connection with the botanical division of the 
 Fifth Reader, place Chart No. XX. before the pupils. Before 
 proceeding with the lesson, let some pupil point out on the Chart, 
 and give an abstract of, the classes and families, as far as the 
 class has gone. Suggest to pupils to read Gray's "How Plants 
 Grow." They may also examine the introductory portions of 
 Wood's or Lincoln's Botany. 
 
 194. 2. NmiBERS continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 
 
 195. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue in the course of pre- 
 
 O 
 
314 APPENDIX. 
 
 vious exercises. Encourage pupils to form new plans in perspect- 
 ive, and also to make drawings of buildings from Nature, and to 
 draw the same building fi'om different positions. 
 
 196. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Graivimak. 
 —See directions (160, 172). 
 
 Extend the subject into rhetoric proper, and begin a survey of 
 English literature from some such work as Cleveland's "Com- 
 pend." 0»e hour, or more, each week may be devoted to these 
 allied subjects, in lectures by the teacher, and written sketches by 
 the pupils, where they can not be made subjects of regular study 
 and recitation. 
 
 197. 6. Colors. — Review the entire subject of colors. 
 
 198. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 199. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 200. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 201. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 
 122, 133, and 144). 
 
 202. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
 already marked oiit (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent reviews. 
 
 203. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Continue as before directed (168). 
 Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. Element- 
 ary hook-keeping. 
 
 second term. 
 
 204. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
 100, and 112). In connection with the division of Reptiles and 
 Fishes in the Fifth Reader, use Chart No. XVIII., pointing out 
 the divisions as directed for the Mammalia, Birds, etc. (112, 146). 
 
 205. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithrnetic. 
 
 206. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before directed (137, 
 148, 195, etc.). Review Perspective. 
 
 207. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
 — See directions (160, 172). 
 
 Rhetoric and English literature. — See suggestions of preceding 
 term (196). 
 
 208. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 209. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 210. 11, Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 211. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 
APPENDIX. 315 
 
 to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 8G, 98, 110, 
 122, 133, and 144). 
 
 212. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
 already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent re- 
 views. 
 
 213. 14, Dictation Exercises. — Continue as before directed (168). 
 These may, with propriety, be extended to many important sub- 
 jects that can not be taken up as regular studies, such as popu- 
 lar astronomy, mental philosophy (such as Abercrombie's work), a 
 description of the arts, or technology (Bigelow's work), the science 
 oi government, and especially our town, county, state, and national 
 governments. 
 
 Music as before directed. Frequent declamations. Element- 
 ary hook-keeping. 
 
 TENTH SCHOOL YEAE. 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 214. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
 100, and 112). In connection with the division of Natural Phi- 
 losophy in the Fifth Reader, pupils may read out of school Far- 
 aday's "Physical Forces" — a course of six lectures; also, exam • 
 ine Wells's "Science of Common Things," Porter's "Familiar 
 Science," etc. In connection with tlie division of Physical Ge- 
 ography, suggest to them to read Summerville's "Phj'sical Sci- 
 ences," or Guyot's "Earth and Man." On this and kindred 
 subjects, Humboldt's " Cosmos," 5 vols. 12mo, is a suitable work 
 for advanced students. 
 
 In connection with spelling, take up the analysis of derivative 
 and compound words. See M'Elligott's "Young Analyzer," and 
 "Analytical Manual." 
 
 Natural Philosophy may now be carried beyond the Fifth Read- 
 er, and taken up as a study from the regular text-book in schools 
 where it can be introduced in this manner. 
 
 215. 2. Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 110). Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 
 
 Algebra may now be introduced, where the school is sufficient- 
 ly well graded to render it feasible. 
 
 216. 3. Draaving and Writing. — Continue as before directed (137, 
 148, 195, 206). 
 
 217. 4. Written Compositions : Language: English Grammar. 
 — See directions (160, 172). 
 
 Rhetoric and English literatui'e as before suggested (196). 
 
 218. 9. Physical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 219. 10. Manners and Morals, INIaxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
316 APPENDIX. 
 
 220. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 221. 12. Construction: Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 110, 
 122, 133, and 144). 
 
 222. 13. Geographical and Historical. — Continue in the course 
 already marked out (123, 134, 145, 156, 179). Frequent reviews. 
 
 223. 14. Dictation Exercises. — Continue as before directed (168). 
 See, also, suggestions (213). 
 
 Mvsic as before directed. Frequent declamations. Element- 
 ary hook-keeping. 
 
 second term. 
 
 224. 1. Reading and Spelling. — See directions (37, 50, 63, 76, 
 100, and 112). In connection with the division of Chemistry in 
 the Fifth Reader, suggest to pupils to read Hooker's "First Book 
 in Chemistry," and Faraday's "Chemistry of a Candle." In con- 
 nection with the division of Geology, Hugh Miller's "Old Red 
 Sandstone," and Hitchcock's "Scripture and Geology." 
 
 The analysis of derivative and compound words as before (214). 
 Natural Philosophy, as a regidar study, as before suggested (214). 
 
 225. 2, Numbers continued (64, 77, 89, and 101). Combination 
 exercises. Frequent reviews. Slate arithmetic. 
 
 Algebra may be continued, and geometry taken up. 
 
 226. 3. Drawing and Writing. — Continue as before directed (137, 
 148, 195, 206). 
 
 227. 4. Written Compositions : Language : English Grammar. 
 —See directions (160, 172). 
 
 Wietoric and English literature as before suggested (196). 
 
 228. 9. Pii-ksical Exercises as before directed (9, 21, 33, 45). 
 
 229. 10. Manners and Morals, Maxims and Mottoes. — Same 
 as before suggested (22, 34, 46, 59, 72, 84, and 120). 
 
 230. 11. Miscellaneous Objects. — Continued in accordance with 
 previous suggestions (60, 73, 85, and 97), five minutes daily. 
 
 231. 12. Construction : Cabinet Collections, etc. — According 
 to the plan of the teacher. See, also, suggestions (74, 86, 98, 
 110, 122, 133, and 144). 
 
 232. 13. Geographical and Historical.— Continue in the course 
 already marked out (123, 134, 145, and 156). Frequent reviews. 
 
 233. 14. Dictation Exercises as before directed (168 and 213). 
 Music as before directed. Declamations. Book-keeinng . 
 
 Remarks.— The teacher who has gone through the present Manual, 
 and examined the course of instruction presented in the foregoing " Pi'o- 
 gramme," will get our views of what a system of "object" teaching 
 
APPENDIX. 317 
 
 should be, and of the extent to which it should be introduced into our 
 schools. We have seen some objections to the system by those who evi- 
 dently do not understand its principles, and who erroneously suppose it 
 to consist of oral instructions by the teacher about "common things;" 
 and many teachers, indeed, who profess to be practicing it, and who take 
 this superficial view of it, are bringing the system itself into disrepute. 
 Hence some are beginning to regard the system as one of mere amuse- 
 vient for the child, or a system of learning made easy, that requires no 
 close mental application, and gives no mental discipline. 
 
 But we believe any sensible person who will look over the amount 
 and character of the work marked out for the pupil, from the tender age 
 of four years, in the foregoing programme, will admit that great mental 
 activity and industry will be required to go through such a course. He 
 will see that this "object" system, which is here introduced so early, and 
 is peculiarly adapted to childhood, is, indeed, the very opposite of incul- 
 cating lazy habits of thought in children by doing the thinking for them, 
 for it is made pre-eminently the office of the teacher in this system to 
 lead the pvpil to think instead of telling him every thing. If by this sys- 
 tem study is made attractive, it does not necessarily follow that idle 
 amusements are made to take the place of study. If amusements are 
 made to minister to mental activity in the acquisition of knowledge, it is 
 so much additional gain. By the untiring, persevering mental effort 
 which the system strives to call forth, beginning with the early and con- 
 stant exercise of the perceptive faculties, the mind is sought to be 
 strengthened, on the principle of the great law of labor. If it is not, 
 therefore, when carried out in accordance with our views, an admirable 
 system of mental gymnastics for the young, we wholly misconceive its 
 tendencies. 
 
 Nor is science made everything in this system, as some suppose. It is 
 only a part of its course ; and even then it is made an instrument only, 
 while the ultimate aim is mental culture, which, however, brings with 
 it, more peculiarly in this system than in any other, a knowledge of sensi- 
 ble objects — of their character and qualities, and of the beauty, wisdom, 
 goodness, and truth which God exhibits in his works. Assuredly that 
 science which leads "from Nature Tip to Nature's God" is not useless 
 knowledge, nor does it undermine faith, as those ignorant of science im- 
 agine, but, on the contrary, strengthens and supports it. 
 
 It will, however, doubtless strike some who haxQ practiced "object" 
 teaching, but who understand little of its true principles, that in the 
 foregoing Programme and Manual we have not confined ourselves strict- 
 ly to a system of mere " Object Lessons." We have designed the work 
 as a "Manual of Instruction" for the whole field of primary education, 
 and have introduced "object" teaching only where we thought it adapt- 
 ed to the subject, and the subject suited to the. ages of the pupils. And 
 while we do not believe that true object teaching can be carried too far, 
 
318 APPENDIX. 
 
 and while we do believe that it is the only system adapted to the unfold- 
 ing faculties of childhood, we as firmly believe that there are some of the 
 more advanced subjects of study to which it is not applicable ; for there 
 are some subjects which, although they may often be illustrated by ma- 
 terial things, do not, like the natural sciences, deal directly with mate- 
 rial objects. But we believe such a course of elementary training in 
 "object'' teaching as we have attemj^ted to sketch in the present vol- 
 ume, in connection with the model lessons given in Mr. Calkins's " Man- 
 ual,"' will, if carried out in the right manner by the teacher, lay the very 
 best and only true foundation for a mental superstructure in Avhich all 
 science, all art, and all literature shall be found combined in harmonious 
 proportions. We would begin with science — a knowledge of the world 
 around us— just as Nature begins her teachings, instead of putting off 
 science to the last thing in education, where it is generally neglected en- 
 tirely ; and the fine arts should crown the edifice. We would also have 
 pupils, from the very beginning, employ their faculties, and make use of 
 their knowledge, by descriptions of things, in a series of " Oral Composi- 
 tions," which should give place to the frequent use of the pen, and 
 searching analysis, as the course advances. Gradually the exercises in 
 any department or study should lead onward, by easy gradations, to the 
 hardest set tasks, requiring the severest mental labor, but never in ad- 
 vance of the progressive attainments of the pupil. Let teachers be im- 
 pressed with the idea that the true "object" or development system should 
 be regarded, primarily, as a vieayis of?nentnl culture, and not merely as a 
 medium of acquisition ; and in all their school exercises let them study 
 how best to awaken observation, secure attention, improve the memory, 
 develop tliought, and cultivate the reason ; for thus only will the great 
 ends of education be attained. 
 
APPENDIX, 319 
 
 II. MAXIMS AND MOTTOES, APHORISMS AND 
 PROVERBS, FOR THE SCHOOLROOM. 
 
 The genius, wit, and spirit of a nation are discovered in its raaxims and prouer&s.— 
 Bacon. 
 
 Proverbs arc, for tlie most part, rules of moral, or, still more properly, of prudential 
 conduct. — Branch'. 
 
 Proverbs embody the current and practical philosophy of an age or nation. Fleming. 
 
 A proverb is the wit of one, and the wisdom of many Lord John Russell. 
 
 These things have I spoken unto you in jjroverbs. — John, xvi., 24. 
 
 And lie .spake many things unto them in jMrahles.— Matt. , xiii., 3. 
 
 The first and most ancient inquirers into truth were wont to throw their knowledge 
 into aphorismsi or short, scattered, unmethodical sentences. — Bacon. 
 
 Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the largest and worthiest portion of our knowl- 
 edge consists of a2Jho7'isms. — Coleridge. 
 
 Proverbs are the gatherings of ages. Like pebbles smoothed by the flood, they have 
 flowed down the stream of time, divested of extraneous matter, rounded into harmo- 
 nious couplets, or clenched into useful maxims. Less ornate and redundant than the 
 productions of modern literature, they are far more instructive; they are the manual 
 of practical wisdom compiled from the school of experience, and are thus the very salt 
 of all knowledge; and their precepts, as the actual results of life, circumstance, and 
 occasion, are far preferable to the erring deductions of the speculative inquirer, — Thos. 
 Fielding. 
 
 Proverbs embrace the wide sphere of human existence ; they take all the colors of 
 life ; they are often exquisite strokes of genius* they delight by their airy sarcasm or 
 their caustic satire, the luxuriance of their humor, the playfulness of their turn, and 
 even by the elegance of their imagery, and the tenderness of their sentiment. They 
 give a deep insight into domestic life, and open for us the heart of man in all the va- 
 rious states he may occupy. A frequent review of proverbs should enter into our read- 
 ings Curiosities of Literature. 
 
 With the above commendations o^ proverbs — a general term imder 
 which may be included maxims, mottoes, aphorisms, apophthegms, ad- 
 ages, wise sayings, saws, etc. — we would suggest a caution against their 
 too frequent use, except as media of instruction, and also against the use 
 of such as are not elegant and refined. Although once considered the 
 ornaments of conversation, they are no longer so regarded by the polite, 
 probably because they at one time became so common ; but, in the lan- 
 guage of D'Israeli, "they have not ceased to be the treasures of thought.'^ 
 They may be made to subserve a most excellent purpose in school in- 
 struction. See the foregoing Programme : 
 
 1. To be happy you must be good. 
 
 2. A kindness is never lost. 
 
 3. A wise son maketh a glad father. 
 
 4. Scorn to do a mean action. 
 
 5. Honesty is the best policy. 
 
 6. Never give a hasty reply. 
 
320 APPENDIX. 
 
 7. In most quarrels there is a fault on both sides. 
 
 8. A little neglect may cause great mischief. 
 
 9. A small spark may kindle a great fire. 
 
 10. A confessed fault is half mended. 
 
 11. Do unto others as you Avould have them do to you. 
 
 12. Do what you ought, come what may. 
 
 13. Time will bring to light whatever is hidden. 
 
 14. Trifles often lead to serious matters. 
 
 15. Truth is the highest ornament of youth. 
 
 16. Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord, 
 
 17. Merit will surely meet with a reward. 
 
 18. A boy is known by the company he keeps. 
 
 19. He who fears God does not fear man. 
 
 20. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 
 
 21. The angry man is a madman. 
 
 22. It is sport to a fool to do mischief, 
 
 23. A fool always finds a greater fool to admire him. 
 
 24. Learning is better than houses, lands, or money. 
 
 25. A place for every thing, and every thing in its place. 
 
 26. One ill word asketh another. 
 
 27. Show me a liar, and I'll show you a thief. 
 
 28. One lie begets another. 
 
 29. Oil and truth will get uppermost at last. 
 80. A good name will shine forever. 
 
 31. A liar is not to be believed though he speak the truth. 
 
 32. Kind speeches comfort the heavy hearted. 
 
 33. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 
 
 34. Where there is a will there is a way. 
 
 35. None so deaf as those that will not hear. 
 
 36. When one will not, two can not quarrel. 
 
 37. It is the second blow that makes the fray. 
 
 38. The way to be truly honored is to be truly good. 
 
 39. The more we serve God, the better we serve ourselves. 
 
 40. The credit that is got by a lie only lasts till the truth is out. 
 
 41. So long as you are ignorant, be not ashamed to learn. 
 
 42. Small faults indulged are little thieves that let in greater. 
 
 43. Manners and learning make a gentleman. 
 
 44. Goodness always enriches the possessor. 
 
 45. Kind words cost nothing, but are worth much. 
 
 46. He is idle who might be better employed. 
 
 47. He who resolves to do right has God on his side. 
 
 48. Lazy folks take the most pains. 
 
 49. Idleness is the parent of vice and misery. 
 
 50. A good word for a bad one is worth much and costs little. 
 
 51. Anger begins with folly and ends in sorrow. 
 
APPENDIX. 321 
 
 52. Be always more ready to forgive than to return an injur}'. 
 
 53. Experience is a dear school, but fools will learn in no other. 
 
 54. Application in youth makes old age comfortable. 
 
 55. A fault is made worse by endeavoring to conceal it. 
 
 56. An angry man opens his mouth and shuts his eyes. 
 
 57. A wager is a fool's argument. 
 
 58. An oak is not felled with one blow. 
 
 59. Better to be alone than in bad company, 
 
 60. Doing nothing is doing ill. 
 
 61. A jest is no argument. 
 
 62. A drowning man will catch at a straw. 
 
 63. A good name is better than riches. 
 
 64. All is not gold that glitters. 
 
 65. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 
 
 66. Every man is the architect of his own fortune. 
 
 67. He that will not be counseled can not be helped. 
 
 68. He that does you an ill turn Avill never forgive you. 
 
 69. Learning makes a man fit company for himself. 
 
 70. Little and often fills the purse. 
 
 71. Little strokes fell great oaks. 
 
 72. Make the best of a bad bargain. 
 
 73. One eyewitness is better than ten hearsays. 
 
 74. One is not so soon healed as hurt. 
 
 75. An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 
 
 76. Say well is good, but do well is better. 
 
 77. The worth of a thing is best known by the want of it. 
 
 78. What can not be cured must be endured. 
 
 79. Yielding is .sometimes the best way for succeeding. 
 
 80. A promise against law or duty is void in its own nature. 
 
 81. A liar is a bravo toward God, and a coward toward men. 
 
 82. A man that breaks his word bids others be false to him. 
 
 83. A good life keeps oft wrinkles. 
 
 84. Amendment is the best sign of repentance. 
 
 85. After praying to God not to lead you into temptation, do not 
 throw yourself into it. 
 
 86. Constant occupation prevents temptation. 
 
 87. Envy shoots at others and wounds herself 
 
 88. Example teaches more than precept. 
 
 89. He that swells in prosperity will shrink in adversity. 
 
 90. If every one would mend one, all would be mended. 
 
 91. Ignorance is a voluntary misfortune. 
 
 92. Contempt will sooner kill an injury than revenge. 
 
 93. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 
 
 94. A bad wound heals ; a bad name kills. 
 
 95. A bad workman quarrels with his tools. 
 
 O 2 
 
822 APPENDIX. 
 
 96. A blithe heart makes a blooming visage. 
 
 97. A burden which one chooses is not felt. 
 
 98. A faithful friend is a strong defense. 
 
 99. A flatterer is a most dangerous enemy. 
 
 100. A fop is the tailor's friend and his own foe. 
 
 101. A friend is never known till needed. 
 
 102. A friend in need is a friend in deed. 
 
 103. A great fortune is a great slavery. 
 
 104. An evil conscience is the most unquiet companion. 
 
 105. A man forewarned is forearmed. 
 
 106. Advise not what is most pleasant, but what is most useful. 
 
 107. A penny saved is a penny earned. 
 
 108. A small leak will sink a great shij). 
 
 109. A stitch in time saves nine. 
 
 110. A young man idle, an old man needy. 
 
 111. Aftectation is at best a deformity. 
 
 112. Affectation is part of the trappings of folly. 
 
 113. Better face a danger than be always in fear. 
 
 114. Before you promise, consider Avhat you can perform. 
 
 115. Avoid that Avhich you blame in others. 
 
 116. Beggars have no right to be choosers. 
 
 117. Be slow to pi'omise, and quick to i^erforra. 
 
 118. Birds of a feather flock together. 
 
 119. Civility is a charm that attracts all men. 
 
 120. By doing nothing we learn to do ill. 
 
 121. Command your temper, lest it command you. 
 
 122. Drive thy business, or thy business will drive thee. 
 
 123. Every day of your life is a leaf in your history. 
 
 124. Do nothing to-day that you are likely to repent of to-morrow. 
 
 125. Deeds are fruits ; words are but leaves. 
 
 126. Deep rivers flow in silence; shallow brooks are noisy. 
 
 127. Do nothing you would wish to conceal. 
 
 128. Empty vessels make the greatest sound. 
 
 129. Among the base, merit begets envy ; among the noble, emulation. 
 
 130. A few books well chosen arc of more use than a great library. 
 
 131. Acquire honesty; seek humility ; practice economy ; love fidelity. 
 
 132. Against fortune oppose courage ; against passion, veason. 
 
 133. A clear conscience fears no accuser. 
 
 134. A good cause makes a stout heart and a strong arm. 
 
 135. Affectation in dress implies a flaw in the understanding. 
 
 136. A passionate man rides a horse that runs away with him. 
 
 137. A gentle disposition is like an unruffled stream. 
 
 138. A great man will neither trample on a worm nor sneak to a king. 
 
 139. Apprehension of evil is often worse than the evil itself. 
 
 140. By reading we enrich the mind, by conversation we polish it. 
 
APPENDIX. 323 
 
 141. A wounded reputation is seldom cured. 
 
 142. Better to suftcr Avithout cause than to have cause for suffering. 
 
 143. Begin nothing until you have considered how it is to be finished. 
 
 144. Be cautious of believing ill, but more cautious of repoi-ting it. 
 
 145. By entertaining good thoughts you will keep out evil ones. 
 
 146. Courage without conduct is like a ship without ballast. 
 
 147. Cherish thy friend, and temperately admonish thy enemy. 
 
 148. Leave not for another what you can better do yourself. 
 
 149. Close not your eyes at night till you have opened your lips in 
 prayer. 
 
 150. Two things a man should never be angry at : what he can help, 
 and what he can not help. 
 
 151. Envy can not see; ignorance can not judge. 
 
 152. Every body's business is nobody's business. 
 
 153. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 
 
 154. Every man who does a secret injury is a coward. 
 
 155. False friends are worse than open enemies. 
 
 156. Follow the wise few rather than the vulgar many. 
 
 157. Fortune can take nothing from us but what she gave. 
 
 158. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 
 
 159. God helps those who helps themselves. 
 
 160. Good counsel is above all price. 
 
 161. Grtidge not another that Avhich you can not attain yourself. 
 
 162. He that is over-hasty fishes in an empty pond. 
 
 163. He who avoids the temptation avoids the sin. 
 
 164. He who masters his passions conquers his greatest enemy. 
 
 165. Hope long defeiTcd maketh the heart sick. 
 
 166. He who says what he likes, must hear what he does not like. 
 
 167. He who spends all he gets is on the high road to beggary. 
 
 168. If the counsel be good, no matter who gave it. 
 
 169. It is less painful to learn in youth than to be ignorant in age. 
 170^. If you wish a thing done, go ; if not, send. 
 
 171. Ill will never spoke well. 
 
 172. It is never too late to learn. 
 
 - _o J Little boats must keep near shore ; 
 ^Large ships may venture more. 
 
 174. Lose no opportunity of doing a good action. 
 
 175. Let not the sun set upon your anger. 
 
 176. Mildness governs better than anger. 
 
 177. Necessity is the mother of invention. 
 
 178. Never sport Avith pain or poverty. 
 
 179. Nothing is so secret but time and truth will reveal it. 
 
 180. Pardon others often, thyself seldom. 
 
 181. Prudence guides the wise, but passion governs the foolish. 
 
 182. Punishment and reward are like the bridle and spur. 
 
824 APPENDIX. 
 
 183. Quarrels are easily begun, but with difficulty ended. 
 
 184. Resist a temptation till you conquer it. 
 
 185. Rich men depend on the poor, as well as the poor on them. 
 
 186. Reform those things in yourself that you blame in others. 
 
 187. Sneer not at that you can not rival. 
 
 188. So live with men as if God saw you. 
 
 189. Sands form the mountain ; moments make the year. 
 
 190. Study mankind as well as books. 
 
 191. Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and perform what you 
 promise. 
 
 192. Temperance is the best medicine. 
 
 193. Some act first, think afterward, and repent forever. 
 19-i. The hand of tlie diligent maketh rich. 
 
 195. Time, patience, and industry are the three great masters of the 
 world. 
 
 196. The greater tlie difficulty, the more glory in surmounting it. 
 
 197. Those who plot mischief live in fear and die miserable. 
 
 198. Unmerited honors never wear well. 
 
 199. Unprincipled men live knaves and die beggars. 
 
 200. We are bound to be honest, but not to be rich. 
 
 201. Virtue is a garment of honor, but wickedness a robe of shame. 
 
 202. Vanity makes men ridiculous ; pride, odious. 
 
 203. When men speak ill of you, live so that nobody will believe them. 
 
 204. What sculpture is to a block of marble, education is to the mind. 
 
 205. The Avise man knows he knows but little ; the fool thinks he 
 knows all. 
 
 206. He injures the good who spares the bad. 
 
 207. Every fool can find faults that a great many wise men can't mend. 
 
 208. A fool can ask questions that a wise man can not answer. 
 
 209. Buy what you do not want, and you will sell what you can not 
 spare. 
 
 210. The wise man knows the fool, but the fool knows not the wise man. 
 
 211. The worth of a thing is best known by the want of it. 
 
 212. The devil goes away when he finds the door shut against him. 
 
 213. Helji yourself, and heaven Avill help you. 
 
 214. Those who live in glass houses should not throw stones. 
 
 215. He who would catch fish must not mind getting wet. 
 
 216. A thousand probabilities will not make one truth. 
 
 217. By others' faults wise men correct their own. 
 
 218. Strike the iron while it is hot. 
 
 219. Make hay while the sun shines. 
 
 220. He who rises late never does a good day's work. 
 
 221. He that shows his passion tells his enemy where to hit him. 
 ooo (He that would thrive must rise at five. 
 
 (He that has thriven mav lie till seven. 
 
APPENDIX. 825 
 
 223. He that peeps through a hole may see what will vex him. 
 
 224. Forbid a fool a thing, and that he'll do. 
 
 225. To believe a business imposible is the way to make it so. 
 
 226. Never make a mountain of a molehill. 
 
 227. Patience is bitter, but the fruit is sweet. 
 
 228. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 
 
 229. Better go around than fall into the ditch. 
 
 230. He who thinks to deceive God has already deceived himself. 
 
 231. Time is a file that wears and makes no noise. 
 
 232. Between virtue and vice there is no middle path. 
 
 233. He that would eat the kernel must not complain of cracking 
 the nut. 
 
 231. There is nothing so bad as not to be good for something. 
 
 235. One to-day is worth two to-morrows. 
 
 23G. Error is worse than ignorance : for while the latter is a blank 
 sheet on which we may write, the former is a scribbled one on which 
 we must first erase. 
 
 237. Those who value themselves merely' on their ancestry have been 
 compared to potatoes, as all that is good of them is tinder ground. 
 
 238. An upright minister asks, What recommends a man ; a corrupt 
 minister, Who, 
 
 239. Virtue without talent is a coat of mail without a sicord ; it 
 may, indeed, defend the wearer, but will not enable him to protect his 
 friend. 
 
 240. There are none so weak that we may venture to injure them 
 with impunity ; and there are none so low that they may not at some 
 time be able to return a kindness and repay an obligation. 
 
 241. The excesses of our youth are drafts upon our old age, payable 
 with interest about thirty years after date. 
 
 242. There are three modes of bearing the ills of life : by indifference, 
 which is the most common ; by philosophy, which is the most ostenta- 
 tious ; and by religion, which is the most effectual. 
 
 243. Variety is the relaxation of a great mind, and amusement its 
 repose. 
 
 244. If you wish to recommend yourself to a great and good man, 
 take care that he quils your society with a good opinion oi you; if your 
 object is to please a vain man, take care that he leaves you with a good 
 opinion of himself. 
 
 245. Murmiu' not at misfortunes : if our ills can be cured, it is un- 
 grateful ; if they can not be, it is vain. 
 
 246. In any art trifles make perfection, but perfection is no trifle. 
 
 247. The only thing which we are sure to want happens to be the 
 only thing which we never purchase — our coffin ! 
 
 248. Wealth is a relative thing ; since he that has little, and wants 
 less, is richer than he that has much, and wants more. 
 
826 APPENDIX. 
 
 249. While pride makes some men ridiculous, it prevents others from 
 becoming so. 
 
 250. He that can please nobody is not so much to be pitied as he 
 whom nobody can please, 
 
 251. Deliberate with caution, but act with decision; and yield with 
 graciousness, or oppose with firmness. 
 
 252. Whoever dreads punishment, suffers it ; and whoever deserves 
 it, dreads it. 
 
 253. If you will not hear Reason, she will surely rap your knuckles. 
 
 254. Some are very busy and yet do nothing. 
 
 255. Physicians rarely take medicine, and lawyers seldom go to law. 
 
 256. He that wants health wants every thing. 
 
 257. The poor man walks to get meat for his appetite, the rich man 
 to get appetite for his meat. 
 
 258. Sickness is felt, but health not at all. 
 
 259. Good-natiire is natural politeness. 
 
 260. Nothing but religion is capable of changing pains into pleasures. 
 
 261. It is more honorable to acknowledge our faults than to boast of 
 our merits. 
 
 262. Is it not astonishing that the love of repose keeps us in continual 
 agitation? 
 
 263. How benevolent are misers ! They amass wealth for those who 
 wish their death ! 
 
 264. When we can not find contentment in ourselves. It is useless to 
 seek it elsewhere. 
 
 265. Have the courage to obey your Maker at the risk of being rid- 
 iculed' by man. 
 
 266. Have the courage to show your preference for honesty in what- 
 ever guise it appears, and your contempt for vice surrounded by attrac- 
 tions, 
 
 267. Have the courage to admit that you have been in the wrong, 
 and you will remove the fact from the mind of others. 
 
 268. Have the courage to wear your old garments till you can pay for 
 new ones. 
 
 269. Have the courage to own that you are poor, and you disarm pov- 
 erty of its sharpest sting, 
 
 270. Have the courage to do without that which you do not need, 
 however much you may admire it. 
 
 271. Have the courage to speak your mind when it is necessary that 
 you should do so, and the self-control to hold your tongue when it is 
 better that you should be silent. 
 
 272. Have the courage to shut your eyes at the doubtful prospect of 
 large profits, and to be content with the certainty of small ones. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 The Principles on which the System of Object Teaching is based. 
 
 1. The System not new in Principle Page 3 
 
 2. Nature's System of Teaching 3 
 
 3. Early Development of the Perceptive Faculties 4 
 
 4. The '' Elementary" Theoiy generally adopted 5 
 
 5. Nature's System— how opposed to it C 
 
 6. The great Error in our Systems of Primary Instruction 10 
 
 7. All Science built upon the '■'■ Object" System 11 
 
 8. "Why Science is adapted to Childhood , 13 
 
 9. "Why '•'• Grammar" is not adapted to Childhood 14 
 
 10. How Language is to be taught 16 
 
 11. Correction of bad Habits of Speech 17 
 
 12. The " Natural Order" the first great LaAv of Development IS 
 
 13. " Exercise" the second great Law of Development 19 
 
 14. What the true Development System aims at 20 
 
 15. No danger of carrying the System too far 21 
 
 An Explanation of the School and Family Charts, "nvith Sugges- 
 tions OF Principles and Methods or Development, and Inform- 
 ation FOR the Teacher : designed for a Course of Elementary 
 Instruction, and adapted to the System of Object Teaching. 
 CuAKT No. I. • Elementary. 
 
 "Words taught as the Representatives of Things Page 24 
 
 Calling Words at Sight 26 
 
 The Alphabet, Counting, and Printing 26 
 
 Chart No. IL Eeading: First Lessons. 
 Six Divisions: Eeading, Oral Composition, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Count- 
 ing 28-32 
 
 Chart No. III. Reading : Second Lessons. 
 Eeading, Oral Composition, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Counting, Adding, and 
 
 the Use of Figures 34-35 
 
 Chart No. I"V. Beading : Third Lessons. 
 Eeading, Oral Composition and Writing, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Num- 
 bers 35-38 
 
 Chart No. V. Reading: Fourth Lessons. 
 Eeading, Oral Composition and Writing, Spelling, Printing and Drawing, Numbers, 
 
 Punctuation, and Capitals 3S-39 
 
 Chart No. YI. Eeading : Fifth Lessons. 
 Eeading, Oral Composition and Writing, SpeUmg, Printirfg and Drawing, Numbers, 
 
 Punctuation, Capitals, etc 39-42 
 
 Chart No. "VII. Elementary Sounds. 
 Long Sounds of the Vowels, Short Sounds, Double Sounds, Aspiratea or Whispered 
 Consonants, Sub-vocals, Exercises, Compositions 42-48 
 
828 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chabt No. VIII. Phonio Spelling. 
 Phonic Spelling, Phonetic Analysis, Compositions Page 48-50 
 
 Chaet No. IX. "VVeiting 50 
 
 CnAET No. X. Drawing. 
 
 Part I. First Lessons in Drawing 51 
 
 Part II. Geometrical Drawing 54 
 
 Part III. Linear Perspective 63 
 
 CuAKT No. XI. Lines and Measures 79 
 
 Fii'st Principles in Geography 82 
 
 Chart No. XII. Forms and Solids 89 
 
 CuAET No. XIII. Familiar Colors 92 
 
 Chart No. XIV. Chromatic Scale op Colors. 
 
 L General Principles of Light, Darkness, and Color 97 
 
 IT. Combinations of Colors, as shown by the Chromatic Scale 98 
 
 III. Table of Colors ; their Combinations, Proportions, and Complementaries . . 103 
 
 IV. Tones ; embracing Tints and Shades of Colors 105 
 
 V. Hues of Colors 107 
 
 VI. Complementary Colors 109 
 
 VII. The Harmony of Colors 110 
 
 VIII. Discordant Effects of the Juxtaposition of non-complementary Colors 116 
 
 IX. Arrangement of Colors with White 120 
 
 X. Arrangement of Colors with Black 121 
 
 XI. Arrangement of Colors with Gray 122 
 
 XII. Modifications in Colors produced by colored Lights falling upon them 123 
 
 Xm. Of Colors in Clothing : 1. Men's Clothing ; 2. Female Clothing — Blondes; 3. Fe- 
 male Clothing — Brunettes ; 4. The copper-colored, black, or olive-colored 
 
 Races 124-12S 
 
 XIV. Harmony of Colors in Nature 128 
 
 Chart No. XV. Zoological : Economical Uses of Animals. 
 No. 1. Cattle; 2. Horses; 3. Swine; 4. Slieep ; 5. Goats; G, Elephants; 7. Camels; 
 8. Dogs ; 9. Fur-bearing Animals ; 10. Llamas 131-155 
 
 Representatives of some of the leading Orders and Divisions of Quadrupeds. 
 11. The Monkey Tribe; 12. Lions; 13. Cats; 14. Rabbits; 15. Giraffes; 16. Deer; 
 17. The Rhinoceros ; IS. The Hippopotamus ; 19. Beavers; 20. Annadillos and Pan- 
 golins 155-162 
 
 Chart No. XVI. Zoological : Classification of Animals. 
 First Class of the Vertebrates : the 3Iammalia. 
 Races of Mankind ; First Order of the Mammalia, Quadru'mana ; Second Order, Car- 
 nivora; Tlurd Order, Ungulata; Fourth Order, Rodentia ; Fifth Order, Marsupialia ; 
 Sixth Order, Cetacea .^ 162-169 
 
 Chart No. XVII. Zoological — Continued. 
 Second Class of the Vertebrates : Birds. 
 First Order, Birds of Prey ; Second Oi'der, Sparrows, Perchers, or Singing-birds ; Third 
 Order, Climbers ; Fourth Order, Scratchers ; Fifth Order, Runners ; Sixth Order, 
 Waders; Seventh Order, Swimmers 169-173 
 
 Chart No. XVIH. Zoo-logioai.— Continued. 
 Third Class of the Vertebrates: Reptiles. 
 First Order, Chelonians or Turtles ; Second Order, Saurians or Lizard Reptiles ; Third 
 Order, Ophidians or Serpents ; Fourth Order, Amphibians or Batrachians. .173-175 
 
CONTENTS. 829 
 
 Fourth Class of Vertebrates : FisTies. 
 First Order, Spine-rayed bony Fishes ; Second Order, Soft-rayed bony Fishes ; Third 
 Order, Cartilaginous Fishes Page 175-177 
 
 CuART No. XIX. Botanical. 
 Fo7'ms of Leaves., Stems, Roots, and Flowers. 
 
 I. General Forms and Arrangement of Leaves; 2. Forms of the jMurgins of Leaves; 
 3. Forms of the Apexes or Knds of Leaves ; 4. Curiosities of Leaves; 5. Frequent 
 Forms of the Stems of Plants ; 6. Forms of the Roots of Plants ; 7, Forms of Flow- 
 ers ; 8. Fonns of Flower-stems 177-139 
 
 Chart No. XX. Botanical : the Classification of Plants. 
 L Tlic Linnaean System of Classification 101-19S 
 
 II. The Natural Method of Classification 198-209 
 
 CuAKT No. XXI. Botanical : Economical Uses of Plants. 
 I. Our Comvion Fruits: Apple, Pear, Quince, Peach, Plum, Apricot, Grape, Cur- 
 rant, Filbert, Gooseberry, Raspberry, Blackberry, Strawbeny 210-220 
 
 II. Covimon Hoot Plants: Radish, Sweet Potato, Common Potato, Onion, Turnip, 
 
 Parsnip, Carrot, Beet 220-22G 
 
 ni. Cereals or Corn Plants; Wheat, Rye, Barley, Buckwheat, Rice, Millet, Oat, In- 
 dian Corn, Sugar-cane 22G-23S 
 
 rV. Fi-uits of Warm Countries : Cocoanut, Mango, Fig, Date, Olive, Pomegranate, 
 Pine-apple, Bread-fruit, Orange, Lemon 238-249 
 
 Chart No. XXII. Botanical : Economical Uses of Plants — Continued. 
 V. Medicinal Plants: Rhubarb, Sarsaparilla, Jalap, Poppy, Senna, Ipecac, Gen- 
 tian, Peruvian Bark, Castor-oil Plant 249-250 
 
 VI. Plants used for Beverages : Tea-plant, Coflfee, Paraguay Tea, Cocoa or Choco- 
 
 ' late, Chiccory, Hop 256-266 
 
 Vn. Plants used for Manufactures : Cotton, Hemp, Flax, Mulberry 266-274 
 
 VIII. Miscellaneous: Tobacco, Cocculus Indicus, Vanilla, Varnish -tree, Fish Poi- 
 son 274-278 
 
 IX. Plants used for Colorinrj : Indigo-plant, Saffron, Logwood, Madder 278-282 
 
 X, Spices : Allspice, Ginger, Cinnamon, Nutmeg, Clove 282-286 
 
 Other Spices: Black, White, Cayenne, and Red Pepper, etc., etc 286-287 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. An approximate Programme for a Course of elementary Instruction during the 
 
 first ten Years of School Life 289-SlS 
 
 n. Maxims and ^lottoes, Aphorisms and Proverbs, for the Schoolroom 319-326 
 
INDEX OF SUBJECTS, 
 
 WITH REFERENCES TO THE SAME SUBJECTS IN THE SCHOOL AND 
 FAmLY READERS. 
 
 AcHOGENs, a class of plants, 208. (Fifth R.,i 
 144, 196.) 
 
 Acuminate leaves, 183. 
 
 Acute leave?, 1^3. 
 
 Aglumaceous, 200. (Fifth R., ISG.) 
 
 Algebra. See Prograiniue of Studies, 315, 
 iilG. 
 
 Allspice, pimento, or Jamaica pepper, 282. 
 
 Alphabet, elementary theory of teaching 
 the, 5, 7; beginning of instruction in, 
 26. See Programme of Studies, 201. 
 
 Ament, or catkin, 188. 
 
 Amphibians, 1T5. (Fifth R., 72.) 
 
 Anatomy, true course of instruction in, by 
 objects, 12. 
 
 Angiosperms, 195, 198, 199. (Fifth R., 144, 
 147.) 
 
 Animals, economical uses of, 130 to 161 ; 
 Ruminating, 132, 151, 166 ; Carnivorous, 
 152, 105 ; Graminivorous, 152 ; Digiti- 
 grade, 152 ; Plantigrade, 153, note ; Fur- 
 bearing, 153; Rodents, 158, 100, 108; 
 Classification of, 102 ; Vertebrate, 163 ; 
 Insect-eating, 166; Iloofed quadrupeds, 
 166 ; Toothless quadrupeds, 107 ; Pouch- 
 ed quadrupeds, 108 ; Whale tribe of, 108. 
 See, also. Programme of Studies, 291-306. 
 (Third R., 87-242; Fourth R., 77-168; 
 Fifth R., 51-72, 223-268.) 
 
 Annual plants, 185. (Fourth R., 187.) 
 
 Antelope family, 107. (Third R., 225.) 
 
 Apetalous plants, 199, 204. (Fifth li, 174.) 
 
 Apple, description of, and kinds of, 210; 
 Mango apple, 239 ; Carthaginian apple, 
 245 ; Pine-apple, 246. (Fourth R., 213 ; 
 Fifth R., 151.) 
 
 Apricot, description of, 214. (Fifth R,, 
 151.) 
 
 Aquarium, the, 177. (Fourth R, 211 ; Fifth 
 R., 208.) 
 
 Arithmetic, elenientary theory of teaching, 
 5 ; liow it should be taught, 9. See Pro- 
 gramme of Studies, 291-310. 
 
 Armadillos, 102, 167. (Third R., 2.30.) 
 
 Astronomy, true course of instruction in, 12. 
 
 Auriculate leaf, ISO. 
 
 Banana, fruit, 245. 
 Barley, 207, 229. 
 
 Batrachians, 175. (Fifth R., 72.) 
 Bats, 165. (Third R., 104.) 
 Beavers, 160. (Third R., 232.) 
 Beet, description of, 225. 
 
 Belladonna, 274. 
 
 Bell-shaped, 187. 
 
 Bergamot, 248. 
 
 Beverages, plants used for, 256. 
 
 Biennials, 185. 
 
 Birch family of plants, 205. (Fifth R., 181.) 
 
 Birds, 169 ; Birds of prey, 170 ; Perchera 
 
 or Singers, 171; Climbers, Scratchers, 
 
 172 ; Runners, Waders, Swimmers, 173. 
 
 (Fourth R., 77-170.) 
 Blackberry, description of, 218. 
 Bobolink, the, 171, 232. 
 Bones of cattle, uses of, 134. 
 Book-keeping, elementary, 314-316. 
 Botany, how the science has grown up, 11 ; 
 
 Descriptive, 177 to 287. (Fourth R., 
 
 171-229 ; Fifth R., 140-212.) 
 Bread-fruit, 247. 
 Brisket of an ox, 136, note. 
 Broadcloth, 143. 
 Broom-corn, 233. 
 Buckwheat, 230, 249. 
 Burler, a, 143. 
 Butterfly-shaped, 187. 
 
 Cabinets of seeds, 220 ; geological, 302. 
 Cactus family of plants, 202. (Fifth R., 
 
 158.) 
 Calicoes, cloth, 268. 
 
 Calyx described, 190. (Fourth R., 219.) 
 Cambrics, cloth, 268. 
 Camel, 150; American, 154, 167. (Third 
 
 R., 205.) 
 Camellia family of plants, 202. (Fifth R., 
 
 154.) 
 Campanulate or bell-shaped, 187. 
 ('amphor, oil of, 284. 
 Camwood, 281. 
 Capital letters, 39, 41. 
 Cards, Type letter, 29. 
 Carinate, 229. 
 Carnivorous quadrupeds, 152, 165. (Third 
 
 R., 88.) 
 CaiTot, description of, 224. 
 Caryophyllaceous, 187. 
 Cashew-nut, 378. 
 Cashmere cloth, 143 ; Cashmere goats and 
 
 shawls, 146. (Third R., 219.) 
 Cassimere cloth, 143. 
 Castor-oil plant, 254. 
 Catgut, 141, note. 
 Catkin, or ament, 188. 
 Cats, 157. (Third R., 122.) 
 
832 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cattle, description of, 131 to 136 ; kinds of, 
 
 135, 167. (Third R., 217.) 
 Cayenne pepper, 2S6. 
 
 Cereals the, 207, 226. (Fifth R., 192-194.) 
 
 Chamomile, 2S0. 
 
 Cheese, what it is, 134, note. 
 
 Cheniiytry, course of instruction in, 12. 
 
 Chest of an ox, 136, note. 
 
 Chiccory, 2G4. 
 
 Chintz, cloth, 268. 
 
 Chocolate, 203. 
 
 Cinnamon, tree, 2S4 ; oil of, 284. 
 
 Circle, to find the centre of, 57 ; to inscribe 
 in a triangle, 58 ; to describe about a tri- 
 angle, 58 ; in a square, 58 ; to describe a 
 square about, 59 ; to inscribe in a square, 
 59 ; to describe about a square, 59 ; to in- 
 scribe an octagon in, 59 ; to inscribe a 
 hexagon in, 59; to inscribe a pentagon 
 in, OU; concentric circle, SO; degrees of 
 a circle, 81 ; definition of a circle, 91. 
 
 Citron family of plants, 202 ; fruits, 249. 
 (Fiftli R., 15(5.) 
 
 Classification, principles of, 11. 
 
 Cloths, woolen, 143 ; cotton, 208, 269 ; 
 hempen, 269 ; linen, 271 ; silken, 274. 
 
 Cloves, tree, 285 ; oil of, 286. 
 
 Cocculus indicus, 276, 277. 
 
 Cochineal, 281. 
 
 Cocoanut, 238. (Fifth R., 189.) 
 
 Cocoa, or chocolate, 262. 
 
 Cocoons, silk, 273. 
 
 Coffee, tree and bean, 259 ; effects of drink- 
 ing, 260. 
 
 Coloring, plants used for, 279. 
 
 Colors, familiar, 92; description of, 92 to 
 96; chromatic scale of, 96, 98; general 
 principles of, 97 ; names and groupings 
 of, 99, 102; hot and cold, 102; retiring 
 and advancing, 102; combinations, pro- 
 portions, and complementaries of, 103; 
 exercises in, 103, 1()4, 109, 111, 113, 115, 
 117, 119, 121, 123, 124; tones, tints, and 
 shades of, 105 ; hues of, 107 ; great num- 
 ber of, 108; complementary, 109; har- 
 mony of, 110; in Nature, 128; discordant 
 effects of, 116 ; arrangement of, with 
 ■white, 120; with black, 121; with gray, 
 122; modifications of, by colored lights, 
 123 ; effects of, in clothing and upon the 
 complexion, 124 to 128. See Programme 
 of Studies, 291. 
 
 Common fruits, 202, 210. (Fifth R., 151.) 
 
 Common things, instruction in, 21, 22. 
 
 Composing-frame, Note, 29. 
 
 Composite family of plants, 203. 
 
 Compositions, oral, 28, 30, 31, 33, 36, S8, 40, 
 136 ; written, 37, 38, 40, 47, 78, 88, 91, 129, 
 
 136, 1.39, 162, 173, 175, 177, 183, 197, 209. 
 See Programme of Studies, 291. 
 
 Compound flowers, 196. (Fifth R., 145, 164.) 
 Cone-bearing plants, 206, 242. (Fifth R., 
 
 182.) 
 Cone, definition of, 91. 
 Conical root, 186. 
 Construction, principles and practice of, 54. 
 
 See Programme of Studies, 292-316. 
 Cordate leaf, 180. 
 
 Corduroys, cloth, 2C9. 
 
 Corm, or bulb, 186. (Fourth R., 184.) 
 
 Corolla, 190, 194, 235. (Fourth R., 218, 219.) 
 
 Corymb, 188. 
 
 Cotton-plant, 266; cotton gin, 267 ; cotton 
 
 cloths, 268. • (Kifth R., 156.) 
 Counterpanes, cloth, 268. 
 Counting, first exercises in, 9, 26. See 
 
 Programme of Studies, 291. 
 Crenate and crenulate leaves, 183. 
 Crocodiles, 174. (Fifth R., 65.) 
 Cross-shaped, 187. 
 
 Cruciform, 187, 196. (Fifth R., 145.) 
 Cryptogamous plants, 198, 208. (Fifth R., 
 
 144,196.) 
 Cuneate leaf, 179. 
 Currant, description of, 216. 
 Cuspidate leaf, 184. 
 
 Damask, cloth, 268. 
 
 Date, fruit of date palm, 240. (Fifth R., 
 
 189.) 
 Deciduous leaves, calyx, etc., 190. (Fourth 
 
 R., 193,196.) 
 Declamations. See Programme of Studies, 
 
 308-316. 
 Deer, 159, 167. (Third R., 209.) 
 Delirium tremens produced by tea, 261. 
 Dentate and denticulate leaves, 183. 
 Development system, 3 ; natural order of, 
 
 18, 19 ; what it aims at. 20 ; no danger 
 
 of carrying it too far, 21. 
 Dewlap, of an ox, 36, note. 
 Dictation exercises. See Programme of 
 
 Studies, 308-316. 
 Dodecahedron, 60, 62. 
 Dogs, description of, and kinds of, 151-2. 
 
 (Third R., 130, 144.) 
 Donkey, the, 139, note. 
 Doves, 172. (Fourth R., 143, 164.) 
 Drawing, first exercises in, 20, note, 27-8; 
 
 fiirther directions for, 51 to 54; geomet- 
 rical, 54 to 63 ; perspective, 63 to 78 ; 
 
 from Nature, 182. See I'rogramme of 
 
 Studies, 291. 
 Dromedary, 150. (Third R., 205.) 
 Dyer's broom, 196, 280; dyer's weed, 280. 
 
 Elementary sounds, when they should be 
 learned, 9, 42 ; what they are, 10; exer- 
 cises in, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47. 
 
 Elementary theory of instruction, 5, 7, 10. 
 
 Elements of a subject, what they are, 10. 
 
 Elephants, description of, and uses, 147-9. 
 (Third R., 182.) 
 
 Elevation in astronomy, 81.- 
 
 Ellipse, how to describe, 61 ; definitions of, 
 SI I, 90. 
 
 Elliptical leaf, 179. 
 
 Elm, family of plants, 205, (Fifth R. , 178.) 
 
 Emarginate leaves, 184. 
 
 Endogenous plants, 198, 206. (Fourth R., 
 174, 176, 182, 186-7; Fifth R., 144, 156.) 
 
 Equilateral triangle, 90. 
 
 Equitant leaf, 182. 
 
 Ergot, of rye, 229. 
 
 Exercise, in language, 16, 17 ; the gi'eat law 
 of man's nature, 19-20. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 333 
 
 Exogenous plants, lOS, 199, (Fourth R., 
 174, 17G, 1S2, 1S7 ; Fifth R., 144, 147.) 
 
 Falcons, 170. (Fourth R., 84.) 
 
 Farming, true courr=e of instruction in, 13. 
 
 Felting, felt, cloth, 144. 
 
 Fig, plant and fruit, 2o9. 
 
 Filbert, plant and fruit, 216. 
 
 Fi.-'hes, their several classes or divisions, 
 
 175-177. (Fiftli R., 223 to 268.) 
 Fish-poison, plant, 278. 
 Flax plant, 271. 
 Florets of compound flowers, 196, 199. 
 
 (Fifth R., 164.) 
 Flowers, forms of, 186; flower-stems, 188. 
 
 (Fourth R., 218-220.) 
 Forms and solids, 89; definitions of, 90, 
 
 91 ; forms of leaves, stems, roots, and 
 
 flowers, 178 to 189. 
 Fuller, a, 143. 
 Fungi, or fungous plants, 209, (Fifth R., 
 
 206-7.) 
 Funnel-shaped, 187. 
 Furs, animals which produce them, 153. 
 
 (lliirdR., 152-161,231.) 
 Fusiform root, 186. 
 Fufctians, clotli, 26S, 
 Fustic wood, 280. 
 
 Gentian, plant, 254. 
 
 Geography, elementary theory of teaching, 
 5 ; first priuciplcs in, 82 to 88, See Pro- 
 gramme of Studies, 297-316. (Physical 
 Geography, Fifth R., 305-407.) 
 
 Geology, true course of insti-uction in, 12, 
 13, 14. (Fifth 1!., 457-4SS.) 
 
 Geometrical drawing, 54 to 63. 
 
 Geometry, primary instruction in, 9, 10. 
 
 Ginger, 268. 
 
 Ginghams, 268. 
 
 Giraff-es, 158, 167. (Tliird R., 115, 205.) 
 
 Glumaceous plants, 207, 227. (Filth R., 
 144, 193.) 
 
 Goats, 14.5, 167. (Third R., 219.) 
 
 Gooseberry plant, 217. 
 
 Grammar, elementary theory of teaching, 
 5; why not adapted to childhood, 14, 15; 
 views of, by Herbert Spencer and others, 
 16. See Programme of Studies, 311-316. 
 
 Grape, kinds of, etc., 214; wine from, 215. 
 
 Guava fruits, 283. 
 
 Gunny-bags, 269. 
 
 Gymnosperms, 195, 198, 206. (Fifth E., 
 144, 183.) 
 
 Hashi.sh, 270, 
 
 Hastate leaf, 180, 
 
 Hazel-nuts, see Filbert, 216. 
 
 Heatli plant, 204. (Fifth R., 169.) 
 
 Hemisphere, definition of, 91, 
 
 Hemp, plant, 269, 
 
 Henbane, 274. 
 
 Herbaceous plants, 285, (Herbs, Fourth 
 
 R.. 187.) 
 Herbariums, 198, 201, 
 Heptagon, 90. 
 
 Hexagon, to inscribe in a circle, 59, 90. 
 Hexahedron, 62. 
 
 Hippopotamus, 160. (Third R,, 188.) 
 History and geography, see Programme of 
 
 Studies, 30-'-316. 
 Honeysuckle plants, 204. (Fifth R,, 168.) 
 Hoofs of cattle, uses of, 134. 
 Hop plant, 265. 
 Horns of cattle, uses of, 134. 
 Horses, colors of, sounds which they make, 
 
 137 ; uses of, 138, 167. (Third R,, 191- 
 
 204.) 
 Hypocrateriform, 186. 
 
 Icosahedron, the, 63. 
 
 Incised leaves, 184. 
 
 Inclination, in astronomy, 81, 
 
 Indian corn, 226, 234. (Fifth R., 193.) 
 
 Indigo plant, 277. (Fifth R., 161.) 
 
 Infundibuliform, 187. 
 
 Instruction, true method of, 12-13, 
 
 Ipecacuanha, 253. 
 
 Iris family of plants, 206. (Fifth R., 186.) 
 
 Isosoceles triangles, 90. 
 
 Ivory, 147-8-9. (Third R., 172, 183.) 
 
 Jalap plant, 250. 
 Jeans, clotli, 269. 
 
 Jessamine family of plant.?, 204. (Fifth E., 
 168.) ' 
 
 Kemp, wool or hair of goat, 146. 
 
 Kersey, cloth, 143. 
 
 Kids, kid gloves, etc. , 147. (Third R., 220,) 
 
 Labiate flowers, 187; plants, 204. (Fifth 
 R., 172.) 
 
 Lanceolate leaf, 179. 
 
 Language, grows up as a liabit, 14 ; how it 
 is to be taugiit, 16, 17, 18. See Pro- 
 gramme of Studies, 291. 
 
 Leather, 134. 
 
 Leaves, forms of, 11, 12; forms and ar- 
 rangement of, 178 ; forms of tlie margins 
 of, 183; forms of the apexes or ends of, 
 184; curiosities of, 184. (See, also, Fourth 
 R., 192-198, 214^216, 2v3). 
 
 Leguminous plants, 2<i3. (Fifth R., 161.) 
 
 Lemon, 249. (Citron family. Fifth R , 154, 
 156.) 
 
 Lemurs, 165. (Third R., 104.) 
 
 Lignum vitaj wood, 283. 
 
 Liliaceous plants, 187. (Fourth R., 186.) 
 
 Lily family of plants, 206. (Fourth R. , 186.) 
 
 Lily-shaped, 187. 
 
 Lime, fruit, 249. (Fifth R,, 157.) 
 
 Linear leaf, 179. 
 
 Linen, cloth, 271. (Fibres of. Fourth R., 
 181.) 
 
 Lines and measures, 79, 80, 
 
 Linnsean system of classification, 191. 
 (Fifth R., 142, 143.) 
 
 Linsey-woolsey, cloth, 143. 
 
 Lions, 15G. (Third R., 107-116.) 
 
 Lip-shaperl flowers, 187. (Fifth R., 172,) 
 
 Lizard.s, 174. (Fifth R., 61.) 
 
 Llamas, 154. (Tliird R., 2i!6.) 
 
 Logwood, 2S0. (Fifth R., 161.) 
 
 Mace, from nutmegs, 205. 
 
334 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Madder, 2S1. 
 
 Magnetic needle, inclination of, SI. 
 
 Maize, or Indian com, 207, 226, 234 (Fifth 
 R., 103.) 
 
 Malt, 230. 
 
 Mango, fruit, 239. 
 
 Manilla, 269. 
 
 Manners and morals. See Programme of 
 Studies, 292-316. 
 
 Manual labor schools, 55, note. 
 
 Manual of Object Lessons, Calkins's, refer- 
 red to, 22, 24, 129, and throughout the 
 Programme, 2S9-316. 
 
 Manufactures, plants used for, 266. 
 
 Marmalade, 248. 
 
 Maxims and mottoes, collection of, 819 ; 
 use of, in school instruction, see Pro- 
 gramme of Studies, 295-316. 
 
 Medicine, plants used for, 249. 
 
 Milk of cows, uses of, 133. 
 
 Millet, plant, 207, 233. (Fifth Pv., 193.) 
 
 Moleskin, cloth, 26S. 
 
 Monkey tribe, 156, 165. (Third R. , 89-104. ) 
 
 Monopetalous plants, 199, 203. (Fourth li., 
 219. In Fifth R., from 164 to 174, the 
 plants are monopetalous.) 
 
 Mordants, for setting colors, 282. 
 
 Morocco leather, 146. (Third R., 220.) 
 
 Morphine, 253. 
 
 Mucronate leaf, 184. 
 
 Mulberry-tree, 272. 
 
 Mule, 139, note. 
 
 Music, singing, etc. 
 Studies, 292-316. 
 
 Muslins, cloth, 269. 
 
 See Programme of 
 
 Orange, 247. (Fifth R., 156-7.) 
 
 Oval, 9(1. 
 
 Ovary, seed-vessel, 191. 
 
 Ovate leaf, 179. 
 
 Owls, 170. (Fifth R., 97.) 
 
 Palmate leaf, 181. 
 
 Palm family of plants, 207. (Fifth R. , 189.) 
 
 Pangolins, 162 (or ant-eaters, Third R., 
 229). 
 
 Panicle, ISS, 234. 
 
 Papilionaceous flowers, 187, 195. (Fifth R., 
 161.) 
 
 Paraguay tea-plant, 261. 
 
 Parallelogram, 90. 
 
 Parchment, 141, note. 
 
 Parsnip, plant, 224. 
 
 Peach, fruit, 213. (Fifth R., 152.) 
 
 Fear, fruit, 212. (Fifth R., 152.) 
 
 Pedicel, 188. 
 
 Peltate leaf, 180. 
 
 Penmanship, 50, 51. 
 
 Pentagon, to inscribe in a circle, CO ; def- 
 inition of, 90. 
 
 Pepper, Jamaica, 282 ; black, 2S6 ; Cay- 
 enne, 280; red, 287. 
 
 Perception, what it is, 6, 8 ; facts first learn- 
 ed by it, 10. 
 
 Perceptive faculties, early development of, 
 4, 0, 13 ; cultivation of, 16 ; the materials 
 of our knowledge derived through them, 
 19 ; voluntary exercise of the, 21. 
 
 Perennials, 185. ( fourth R., 185, 187, 220.) 
 
 Perfoliate leaf, 181. 
 
 Perpendiculars, 56, 57. 
 
 Personate flower, 187. 
 
 Perspective, linear, 63 ; perspective, plane, 
 64 ; vanishing points, 65: point of sight, 
 66 ; centre of the picture, 67 ; horizontal 
 line, 67 ; exercises in perspective draw- 
 ing, 65 to 78. 
 
 Peruvian bark, 254. 
 
 Napiform root, 186. 
 
 Natural order of the presentation of sub- 
 jects, 13. 
 
 Natural Philosophy. See Programme of 
 Studies, 315, 316. (Fourth R., 276-325; 
 Fifth R., 317-356.) 
 
 Nature's system of teaching, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 19. | Petals, 190. (Fourth R., 219.) 
 
 Nightshades, plants, 274. Petersham cloth, 143. 
 
 Numbers, early exercises in, 30, 31, 32, 34, 'Petiole, 179. 
 37, 3S, 40. See Programme of Studies, 'Phonetic analysis, 49. 
 2;)1. [Phonics, phonic spelling, 48, 49. 
 
 Nutmeg-tree, 284. Physical exercises. See Programme of Stud- 
 
 Nux vomica, 266. ies, 291-316. 
 
 Pilot-cloth, 143. 
 
 Oak family of plants, 204. (Fourth R.,! Pine-apple, 246. (Fi^h R., 185.) 
 
 175-6; Fifth R.,174.) 
 Oats, 207, 234. (Fifth R., 193.) 
 Ob-cordate leaf, ISO, 184. 
 Object system, the, not new in principle, 3, 
 
 Pink-shaped, 187. 
 Pinnate and pinnatifid, 181. 
 Pistil of the flower, 191. (Fourth R., 21S, 
 ■23.) 
 
 11; its applications, 14; no danger of Plantain-tree, fruit of, 245. 
 
 caiTying it too far, 2l ; not the science of 
 '•'• common things," 21 ; principles of, 3- 
 22, 289, 290, 316. 
 
 Ob-lanceolate leaf, 179. 
 
 Ob-ovate leaf, 179. 
 
 Obtuse leaves, 184. 
 
 Octagon, to inscribe in a circle, 59 ; defini- 
 tion of, 00. 
 
 Octahedron, 62. 
 
 Olive, plant, 242; olive-oil, 243, 252. 
 
 Onion, plant, 222. 
 
 Opium, 252. 
 
 Plants, descriptions of, 177-2S7 ; econom- 
 ical uses of, 209-287. See Programme 
 of Studies, 291-313. (Fourth R., 171- 
 229; Fifth R., 140-212.) 
 
 Plum, fruit, 213. 
 
 Poisons, medicinal, vegetable, 274. 
 
 Pollen of plants, 191, 235. 
 
 Polyhedrons, the five regular, 61, 63. 
 
 Polypetalnus plants, 199, 201. (Fourth R., 
 219; I'Mfth R., all the plants from 147 
 to 104.) 
 
 Pomegi'anate, 244, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 835 
 
 Poppy, 251. 
 
 Potato, sweet, 221 ; common, 221. 
 
 Pouched quadrupeds, ICS. (Third R.,-236.) 
 
 ''I'rimary Ubject Les.son.-;," references to, 
 82, note, 8'.>, and tliroughout the Pro- 
 gramme of Studies, 289-310. 
 
 Principles of science— the generalization of 
 facts, 10, 11. 
 
 Printing letters, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, S4, 37, 
 38, 40. See Programme, 291. 
 
 Prism, 91. 
 
 Proverbs, maxims, etc., collection of, 319. 
 
 Punctuation, 39, 41. 
 
 Quadrant, definition of, 91. 
 Quercitron bark, 280. 
 Quilts, cloth, 268 ; quiltings, 269. 
 Quince, description of, 212. 
 Quinine, 254. 
 
 Rabbits, 159. (Third P., 231.) 
 
 Raceme, tlower-stem, 188. 
 
 Races of mankind, 163. 
 
 Radish plant, 220. 
 
 Raspberry plant, 218. 
 
 Reading, elementary theory of teaching, 
 
 5 ; how to teach, 8, 9 ; exercises in, 26, 
 
 28, 30, 31, 32, .35, 38, 39. 
 Reniform leaf, ISO. 
 
 Repand, undulate, or wavv leaves, 183. 
 Reptiles, 173 ; orders of, 174^-5. (Fifth R., 
 
 51-72.) 
 Rhetoric and English literature. See Pro- 
 gramme of Studies, 314-316. 
 Rhinoceros, 160. (Third R., 187.) 
 Rhomb, definition of, 90. 
 Rhomboid, definition of, 90. 
 Rhubarb, plant, 249, 
 Rice-birds, 171, 232. 
 Rice, plant, 207, 231. 
 Ringent fiower, 187. 
 Rodents, or gnawing animals, 153, 160, 
 
 168. (Third R., 231.) 
 Roots of plants, 186. (Fourth R., 182- 
 
 185) 
 Ruminating animals, 132, 151, 158, 166. 
 
 (Third R., 205.) 
 Runcinate leaf, 264. 
 Rye, plant, 207, 22S. 
 
 Saffron, plant, 580. 
 
 Sagittate leaf, 179. 
 
 Salver-shaped flowers, 186. 
 
 Sarsaparilla, plant, 250. 
 
 Saurian.s 174. (Fifth R., 61.) 
 
 Science built up on the object system, 11 ; 
 
 why adapted to childhood, 13, 14. 
 Scourer, a, 143. 
 
 Sea-weeds, 209. (Fifth R., 208-211.) 
 Sector, definition of, 91. 
 Sedge, plants, 207. (Fifth R., 190.) 
 Semicircles, definition of, 91. 
 Senna, plant, 253. 
 Sensation, what it is, 6, 8. 
 Sepals of the calyx, 190. (Fourth R., 219.) 
 Serpents, 174. (Fifth R., 69.) 
 Serrate leaves, 1S3. 
 Shaddock, fruit, 249. (Fifth R., 157.) 
 
 Sheep, uses of, 141 ; kinds of, 142, 167. 
 
 (Third R., 219-224.) 
 Sheeting, cloth, 268. 
 Shoddy, cloth, 144. 
 
 Shrubs defined, 1S5. (Fourth R., 187.) 
 Silk and silkworms, 272. 
 Sinuate leaves, 183. 
 Size and form. See Programme of Studies, 
 
 292-299. 
 Solids, foi-ms, etc., 89 ; definitions of, 90, 91. 
 Spelling, elementary theory of teaching, 5 ; 
 
 exercises in, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 37, 38, 40, 
 
 182. 
 Spermaceti, 169, note. (Third R., 238.) 
 Sphere and spheroid, 91. 
 Spices, plants used for, 282, 286, 287. 
 Spike, a flower-stem, 188. 
 Square, how to draw it, 57 ; definition of, 90. 
 Stamens of the flower, 190. (Fourth R., 
 
 218, 233.) 
 Stems of plants, 185. 
 Stipules, 179. 
 
 Stomach of ruminating animals, cut of, 133. 
 Stone-pine-tree, 242. (Fifth R., 183.) 
 Stramonium, 274. 
 Strawberry, plant and fruit, 218. 
 Strychnine, 260. 
 Sugar-cane, Cliincse, 233; common, 236. 
 
 (Fifth R., 193.) 
 Sugar-mills, 230. 
 Swine, uses of, etc., 139, 140, 167. (Third 
 
 R., 189.) 
 
 Tallow, 134. 
 
 Tanning and tannin, 134, note. 
 
 Tartan, cloth, 143. 
 
 Tea-dx-inking, effects of, 258. (Fifth R., 
 
 155-6.) 
 Tea plant, Chinese, 256; of Paraguay, 261. 
 
 (Fifth R., 155.) 
 Tetrahedron, 62, 91. 
 Thallogens, a class of plants, 208. (Fifth 
 
 R., 144, and 202 to 212.) 
 Tobacco plant, 274; uses of, 275, 276. 
 Toothless quadrupeds, 167. (Third R., 229.) 
 Trapezium and trapezoid, definitions of, 
 
 90. 
 Tree, defined, 1S5. 
 
 Triangle, to inscribe a circle in, 58; to de- 
 scribe a circle about, 58; definition of, 
 
 90. 
 Trumpet-flower plants, 204. (Fifth R., 172.) 
 Truncate leaves, 1S4. 
 
 Tuber, tuberous root, 186. (Fourth R., 184.) 
 Tubular, 187. 
 Turmeric, 280, 284. 
 Turnip, plant, 223. 
 
 Turtles or tortoises, 174. (Fifth R. , 54-60.) 
 Tweed, cloth, 143. 
 Type Letter-cards, their use, 29, 80, 31, 34, 
 
 37, 38, 40, 89. 
 
 Umbel, form of flower-stem, 188. 
 Umbelliferous plants, 203. (Fifth R., 161.) 
 
 Vanilla, plant, 277. 
 Varnish-tree, 278. 
 Vellum, 149, note. 
 
SB6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Venison, 147. 
 Vultures, ITO, 
 
 (Fourth E., 96.) 
 
 Whale tribe of animals, 163. (Third E., 
 
 238.) 
 Wheat, plant, 207, 226. (Fifth E., 192.) 
 Wheel-shaped, or rotate, 187. 
 Whorled leaves, 182. 
 Willow family of plants, 205. (Fifth E,, 
 
 178.) 
 
 Wines, from grapes, 215. 
 
 Woad, a plant, 279. 
 
 Wool, qualities of, 142. 
 
 Words, should not precede ideas, 6, 24; 
 
 taught as the I'epresentatives of things, 
 
 24 ; calling them at sight, 26. 
 Worsted, 145. 
 Writing, penmanship, 50, 51. 
 
 Zebra, the, 139, note. (Third E., 191.) 
 
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