^^^^. -— %/ ;^\ %/ . \.^^ ''M£\ \/ '^'•: %.^^ BENNETTS LATIN SERIES. LATIN GRAMMAR. 12mo, cloth, 282 pages. LATIN LESSONS. 16mo, cloth, 191 pages. FOUNDATIONS OF LATIN. 12mo, cloth, 250 pages. PREPARATORY LATIN WRITER (based on Caesar), 16mo, cloth, 202 pages. LATIN COMPOSITION (based on Cicero) i6mo, cloth, 172 pages. QUANTITATIVE READING OF LATIN POETRY. 12mo, paper, 49 pages. CAESAR'S GALLIC WAR, Books l.-IV. i2mo, cioth, 354 pages. CICERO'S SELECTED ORATIONS. 12mo, cloth. 374 pages. VIRGIL'S AENEID, Books I.-VI. . 12mo, cloth. 491 pages. Latin Grammar BY CHARLES E. BENNETT Professor of Latin in Cornell University ALLYN AND BACON ISoston anti Ctjicago C 1 40(d3 First edition printed February, 1895. Reprinted April and September, 1895; April, 1896; July, 1897; April, 1898; May and September, 1899; April and November, 1900; October, 1901; March, 1902; April and November, 1903; July, 1904; April, 1905; April and November, 190b. Copyright, 1895, By CHARLES E. BENNETT. Army and Navy CluJJ NorfajooO 53ress J. S. Gushing & Co. - Berwick & Smith Norwood Mass. U.S.A. PREFACE. The object of this book is to present the essential facts of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly standards. While intended primarily for the secondary school, it has not neglected the needs of the college student, and aims to furnish such grammatical in- formation as is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses. The experience of German educators in recent years has tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin, and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles of the language in com- pact manuals of 250 pages.^ Within the past decade, several gram- mars of this scope have appeared which have amply met the exacting demands of the full Gymnasia! Latin course, — a period of study representing quite as much reading as that covered by the average American undergraduate. The publication in this country of a grammar of similar plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introductions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which would otherwise demand con- sideration in a student's grammar. In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and Catullus, as 1 One of the most eminent of living Latinists, Professor Eduard Wolfiflin, of Munich, has expressed the opinion that the essentials may be given within even smaller compass than this. See his Preface to the Schmalz-Wagener Lateimsche Grammatik, 1891, iii iv Preface. well as of the measures of the comic poets. Our standard editions of these authors all give such thorough consideration to versifica- tion that repetition in a separate place seems superfluous. In the matter of 'hidden quantities,' I have conformed to Lewis's Latin Dictionary for Schools, and the same editor's later Elementary Latin Dictionary. In several cases this procedure has involved a sacrifice of convictions as to the actual quantity of vowels; but the advantages of uniformity in our educational practice seemed, for the present at least, to warrant this conces- sion of personal views. The discussion of inflectional forms and of the development of case and mood constructions has been reserved for the Appendix for Teachers, where these and some other matters receive full and systematic consideration. To several of my colleagues, who have generously assisted me with their advice and criticism during the preparation and print- ing of this book, I desire to off"er my sincerest thanks, especially to Professors H. C. Elmer and B. I. Wheeler, of Cornell Univer- sity, Professor Alfred Gudeman, of the University of Pennsylvania, Professor George L. Hendrickson, of the University of Wisconsin, and ' Professors Francis W. Kelsey and John C. Rolfe, of the University of Michigan. Ithaca, N. Y., Dec. 15, 1894. PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION. In this edition I have marked all long vowels in conformity with the lists contained in my Appendix for Teachers (p. 52 ff.) . Lewis, whose Latin Dictionaries I had originally followed, has meanwhile, in the last edition of the Elementary Dictionary, accepted my markings in a majority of the cases wherein I had expressed dis- sent from him. C. E. B. Ithaca, Feb. 10, 1896. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Part I. SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY, ETC The Alphabet Classihcation of Sounds Sounds of the Letters . Syllables Quantity Accent . Vowel Changes Consonant Changes Peculiarities of Orthography PAGE I I 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 Part II. INFLECTIONS. CHAPTER I. Declension. A. Nouns. Gender of Nouns . Number Cases . The Five Declensions First Declension . Second Declension Third Declension . Fourth Declension Fifth Declension . Defective Nouns . lo II II 12 13 14 i8 28 29 30 B. Adjectives. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions Adjectives of the Third Declension 34 36 VI Table of Contents. Comparison of Adjectives Formation and Comparison of Adverbs Numerals ...... PAGE 40 43 45 C. Pronouns. Personal Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Demonstrative Pronouns I'he Intensive Pronoun The Relative Pronoun . Interrogative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns Pronominal Adjectives. 48 49 49 SO 51 51 52 52 53 CHAPTER II. — Conjugation. Verb-Stems 54 The Four Conjugations ......... 55 Conjugation of Suin .......... 56 First Conjugation .... 0.0 ... 58 Second Conjugation ... o ...... 62 Third Conjugation .......... 66 Fourth Conjugation ......<,... 70 Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation ....... 74 Deponent Verbs ........... 76 Semi-Deponents ........... 78 Periphrastic Conjugation ......... 78 Peculiarities of Conjugation ......... 79 Formation of the Verb-Stems ........ 80 List of the Most Important Verbs with Principal Parts .... 83 Irregular Verbs .......... -95 Defective Verbs ........... 102 Impersonal Verbs .. ....... . 104 Part III. PARTICLES. Adverbs 106 Prepositions ........... 107 Interjections .... ^ ,» ... . 108 Table of Contents. Vll Part IV. WORD FORMATION. I. Derivatives. PAGE Nouns 109 Adjectives . . . . . . . . , . . .111 Verbs = , . , ., . 113 Adverbs . . . .114 II. Compounds. Examples of Compounds . . . . . . , . 'i^S Part V. SYNTAX. CHAPTER \. — Sentences. Classification of Sentences . . . . . . . . -H? Form of Interrogative Sentences . . . . . . ' . • 1 1 7 Subject and Predicate . . . . . . . . . .119 Simple and Compound Sentences . . . . . . .119 CHAPTER II. — Syntax of Nouns. Subject . . . . . . . . . . . .120 Predicate Nouns . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Appositives . . . - . . . . . . .121 The Nominative . . . . . . . . . . .122 The Accusative . . . . . . . . . . .122 The Dative . . . . . . . . . . . .129 The Genitive . . . . . . . . . . > 134 The Ablative . . . „ 142 The Locative ........... 152 CHAPTER HI. — Syntax of Adjectives. Agreement of Adjectives Adjectives used Substantively Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs Comparatives and Superlatives Other Peculiarities 153 154 156 156 156 Vlll Table of Contents. CHAPTER IV. — Syntax of Pronouns. Personal Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns Reciprocal Pronouns . Demonstrative Pronouns Relative Pronouns Indefinite Pronouns Pronominal Adjectives CHAPTER V. — Syntax of Verbs. Agreement of Verbs Voices Tenses Of the Indicative Of the Subjunctive Of the Infinitive Moods In Independent Sentences Volitive Subjunctive . Optative Subjunctive . Potential Subjunctive Imperative In Dependent Sentences Clauses of Purpose . Clauses of Characteristic Clauses of Result Causal Clauses . Temporal Clauses Introduced by Postquam^ Ut, Ubi, etc. Cz<;«-Clauses .... Introduced by Antequam and Prhisquam Introduced by Dum^ Donee., Quoad Substantive Clauses . Developed from the Volitive Developed from the Optative Of Result . After non dubito, etc. Introduced by Quod Indirect Questions Conditional Sentences Use of St., Nisi. Sin . Table of Contents, ix PAGE Conditional Clauses of Comparison ...... 203 Concessive Clauses ......... 203 Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc. . . . 203 Clauses of Wish and Proviso . . ..... 205 Relative Clauses ......... 205 Indirect Discourse ......... 206 Moods in Indirect Discourse ...... 206 Tenses in Indirect Discourse ...... 208 Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse .... 209 Implied Indirect Discourse . . . . . . .211 Subjunctive by Attraction , . . . . . . .212 Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb 212 Infinitive . . . . . . . . . . .213 Participles . . . . . . . . . . .217 Gerund ............ 220 Supine ............ 223 CHAPTER Yl. — Particles. Coordinate Conjunctions ......... 223 Adverbs 227 CHAPTER VIL— Word- Order and Sentence-Structure. Word-Order 227 Sentence-Structure .......... 232 CHAPTER N\\\. — Hints on Latin Style. Nouns ............ 233 Adjectives ............ 235 Pronouns ............ 236 Verbs ............. 236 The Cases ............ 238 Part VI. PROSODY. Quantity of Vowels and Syllables .... . 240 Verse-Structure • 243 The Dactylic Hexameter • 245 The Dactylic Pentameter . . 246 Iambic Verses . . 246 Table of Contents. SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. PAGE I. Roman Calendar 247 II. Abbreviations of Proper Names . . . . o . . 249 III. Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric .,000.. 249 Part 1. — • — SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY. THE ALPHABET. 1, The Latin Alphabet is the same as the EngUsh, except that the Latin has no w. 1 . K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words ; y and z were introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign words — chiefly Greek. 2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served both as vowel and consonant ; so also V. For us, however, it is more convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. 2. I. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui. 2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes, Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants. 3. The Mutes are p, t, c, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, ch. Of these, — d) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,^ i.e. sounded without voice or vibration of the vocal chords. b) b, d, g are voiced,^ i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal chords. 1 For ' voiceless,' ' surd,' ' hard,' or ' tenuis ' are sometimes used. 2 For ' voiced,' ' sonant,' ' soft,' or ' media ' are sometimes used. B I 2 Sounds, Accent, Quantity, c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclu- sively to words derived from the Greek, and were equivalent to p + h, t + hj c + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-houses block- house. 4. The Mutes admit of classification also as Labials, p, b, ph. Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th. Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch. 5. The Liquids are 1, r. These sounds were voiced. 6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a palatal mute, also had another sound, — that of ng in sing, — the so-called n adulterinitm ; as, — anceps, double, pronounced angceps. 7. The Spirants (sometimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h. These were voiceless. 8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced. 9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain. See § 3. 3. 10. The following table v/ill indicate the relations of the consonant sounds : — Voiceless. Voiced. Aspirates. Mutes, c, k, q, th, Ch, (Labials). (Dentals). (Gutturals). Liquids, l,r, Nasals, Spirants Semivowels, m,n, (Labial). (Dental). (Guttural). a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds, do not admit of classification in the above table. Sounds of the Letters. SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is substantially that employed by the Romans at the height of their civilization ; i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 a.d. a 1. vuwcia. as m father] a as in the first syllable of ahd ; e as in they ; e as in met; i as in machine; i as in pin ; 6 as in note; 6 as in obey, melody; u as in rude; ii as in put ; y like French u^ German u. 2. Diphthongs. ae like aixvi aisle; eu with its two elements, e and ii, pro- oe like oi in oil; nounced in rapid succession ; ei as in rein ; ui occurs almost exclusively in cui and au like ow in hoiv; huic. These words are pronounced as though written kwee and ivheek. 3. Consonants. b, d, f, h, k, 1, m, n, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt. c is always pronounced as k. t is always a plain t. never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration. g always as in get; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of gw., as in anguis, languidus. j has the sound of jK as in yet. r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue, s always voiceless as in siti; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in com- pounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound of sw. V like w. zs. always like ks ; never like Eng. gz or z. z uncertain in sound ; possibly like Eng. zd, possibly like z. The latter sound is recommended. The aspirates ph, ch, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed Eng. p, c, t — so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter sounds suffice. Doubled letters, like 11, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of the combination are distinctlv articulated. Sotmds, Accent y Quantity. SYLLABLES. 4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there are separate vowels and diphthongs. In the division of words into syllables, — 1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat, ge-rit. 2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as, vit-ta, mis-sus. 3. In case of other combinations of consonants, such as can stand at the beginning of a word are joined to the following vowel ; as, ma-gi- strl, di-gnus, te-xi. 4. But compounds are separated into their component parts ; as, pei-it, ab-radit. QUANTITY. 5. A. Quantity of Vowels. A vowel is lo)ig or short according to the length of time required for its pronunciation. No absolute rule can be given for determining the quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large measure, by experience ; but the following principles are of aid : — 1. A vowel is long,i — a) before nf, ns, and before gu in nouns and adjectives in -gnus, -gna, -gnum ; as, inf ans, dignus, signum. b) when the result of contraction ; as, nilum for nihilum. c) before j ; as, hujus. 2. A vowel is short, — a) before nt, nd ; as, amant, amandus. A few rare exceptions occur in cases of compounds whose first member has a long vowel ; as, nondum (non dum) . U) before another vowel, or h ; as, nieus, tralio. Some excep- tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek ; as, Aeneas. Note. — Occasionally we meet with vowels that are sometimes long, sometimes short. Such vowels are called common. The variation appears only in poetry. Examples are the first vowel in Diana, Ohe. 1 In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above them ; as, a, i, O, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set above hort vowels: as. e. u. Accent. 5 B. Quantity of Syllables. Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length of time required for their pronunciation. Their quantity is governed by the following principles : — 1. A syllable is long,i — a) if it contains a long vowel ; as, mater, magnus, dius. b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus. c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two con- sonants (except a mute with 1 or r) ; as, axis, gaza, resto. 2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a vowel or by a single consonant ; as, mea, amat. 3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, cl, tl ; pr, cr, tr, etc, as, agri, voliicris."'^ Such syllables are called comynott. In prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as long at the option of the poet. Note. — These distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syllable requires more time for its pronunciation ; while a syllable containing a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables, the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination which takes scarcely more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa- rating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such syllables as long. ACCENT. 6. I. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first ; as, t^git, morem. 2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult (next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante- penult (second from the last); as, amavi, amantis, miserum. 3. The enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum always throw an accent back upon the preceding syllable, when the simple word is ac- cented on the antepenult ; as, miseraque, homing que. 4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -ce disappears, but without affecting the accent ; as, tanton, istic, illuc, vid^n (for vidlsne). 1 To avoid confusion, the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign. 2 But if the 1 or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding syllable is always long; as, abrurapS. 6 Sounds, Accent, Quantity. 5. In utrique, each, and pleraque, most, -que is not properly an enclitic ; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence of their other cases, — uterque, utriimque, pleriimque. 6. But in other words, -que does not throw back an accent unless it is a true enclitic, meaning and. Thus, regularly, denique, lindique, litique, itaque ; but if itaque means and . . . so (-que being enclitic), It is accented itaque. VOWEL CHANGES.i 7. I. In Compounds, — a) e before a single consonant becomes i; as, — colligo for con-lego. b) a before a single consonant becomes i ; as, — adigo for ad-ago. c) a before two consonants becomes e ; as, — expers for ex-pars. d^ ae becomes 1 ; as, — conquiro for con-quaero e) au becomes u, sometimes 6 ; as, — concludo for con-claudo ; explode for ex-plaudo. 2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ; as, — tres for tre-es ; copia for co-opia ; malo for nia(v)el6 ; cogo for co-ago ; amasti for ama(v)isti ; como for co-emo ; debeo for de(h)abe6 ; junior for ju(v)enior. nil for nihil ; 3. Parasitic Vowels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a parasitic vowel sometimes develops ; as, — vinculum for earlier vinclum. So periculum, saeculum. 4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope ; as, — ardor for aridor (cf. dridus) ; valde for valide (cf. validus). 1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated. Peculiarities of Orthography. CONSONANT CHANGES.^ 8. I. Rhotacism. An original s between vowels became r ; as, — arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) ; genus, Gen. generis (for genesis); dirimo (for dis-emo) . 2. dt, tt, ts each give s or ss ; as, — pensum for pend-tum ; versum for vert-tum ; miles for milet-s ; sessus for sedtus ; passus for pattus. 3. Final consonants were often omitted ; as, — cor for cord ; lac for lact. 4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated to a following sound. Thus: accurro (adc-); aggero (adg-); assero (ads-); allatus (adl-); apporto (adp-); attuli (adt-); arrideo (adr-); affero (adf-); occurro (obc-); suppono (subp-); offero (obf-); corruo (comr-); collatus (coml-); etc. 5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only partial. Thus : — a) b before s or t becomes p ; as, — scrips! (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum). U) g before s or t becomes c ; as, — actus (ag-tus). c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n ; as, — eundem (eum-dem) ; princeps (prim-ceps). PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 9. Many words have variable orthography. I. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc.y were the prevailing 1 Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated. 8 Sonndsy Accent, Quantity. forms almost down to the Augustan Age; after that, cum, vultus, vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc.^ down to about the same era ; later, optimus, maximus, libet, libido, etc. 2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period of the language. Examples are exspecto, expecto ; exsisto, exists ; epistula, epistola ; adulescens, adolescens ; paulus, paul- lus; cottidie, cotidie ; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which, even in those cases where actual assimilation took place in the spoken language (§ 8. 4), often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling; as, — ad-ger5 or aggero ; ad-sero or assero ; ad-licio or allicio ; in-latus or illatus ; ad-rogans or arrogans ; sub-moveo or summoveo ; and many others. 3. Compounds of jacio were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio, obicio, Ptc, but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio, objicio, etc. 4.. Adjectives and nouns in -qtiiis, -quum ; -vus, -vum ; -uus, -uum preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom ; -vos, -vom ; -uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age ; as, antiquos, anti- quom; saevos ; perpetuos ; equos ; servos. Similarly verbs in the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont, -quontuj ; -vont, -vontur ; -uont, -uontur, for the same period ; as, relinquont, loquontur ; vivont, metuont. The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts. Part II. INFLECTIONS. ♦— 10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as in Enghsh, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections; but the Latin has no article. 11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form t express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns, this process is called Declen- sion ; in case of Verbs, Conjugation. Chapter I. — Declension, A. NOUNS. 12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or quality ; as, Caesar, Caesar ; Roma, Rome ; penna, feather ; virtus, courage. 1. Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are perma- nent names of persons or places ; as, Caesar, Homa. Other nouns are Common ; as, penna, virtus. 2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract. a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects ; as, mons, monntain ; pes, foot ; dies, day ; mens, mind. 9 10 Injhctions. Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns ; as, legio, legion] comitatus, retinue. b) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, stead- fastness ; paupertas, poverty. GENDER OF NOUNS. 13. There are three Genders, — Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or gram- matical. Natural Gender. 14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names of persons ; and these are — 1. Masculine, if they denote males ; as, — nauta, sailor; agricola, /<2r;/z^r. 2. Feminine, if they denote females ; as, — mater, 7nother; regina, queen. Grammatical Gender. 15. Grammatical gender is determined not by sex, but by the general signification of the word, or the ending of its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Femi- nine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending of the Nominative Singular. The following are the general principles for determining grammatical gender : — A. Gender detenni7ied by Signification. 1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Mascu- line ; as, — Sequana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprilis, April. 2. Names of Trees, and such names of Coicntries, Towns, and Islands as end in -us, are Feminine ; as, — quercus, oak; Pontus, Pontiis; Corinthus, Corijith: Rhodus, Rhodes. Number. — Cases. 1 1 Other names of countries, towns, and islands follow the gender of their endings (see B, below) ; as, — Delphi, m. ; Leuctra, n. ; Latium, n. ; Tibur, n. ; Carthago, f. 3. Indeclinable nouns are Neuter ; as, — nihil, nothing] nefas, wrong. Note. — Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, Allia (the river) , f. B. Gender deter?m?ted by Ending of Nominative Singular. The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending of the Nominative Singular.^ Note i . — Common Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes Mascu- line, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either priest or priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also civis, citizen ; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be coinmon. Note 2. — Names of animals usually have grammatical gender, according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form may designate either the male or female; as, anser, m., goose ox gander. So vulpes, i., fox; aquila, f., eagle. NUMBER. 16. The Latin has two Numbers, — the Singular and Plural. The Singular denotes one object; the Plural, more than one. CASES. 17. There are six Cases in Latin : — Nominative, Case of Subject ; Genitive, Objective with of; Dative, Objective with to ox for; Accusative, Case of Direct Object ; Vocative, Case of Address ; Ablative, Objective with by., fro?n, in, with. 1 The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The prin- ciples for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions. 1 2 Inflections. 1. Locative. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words. 2. Oblique Cases. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Abla- tive are called Oblique Cases. 3. Stem and Case-Endings. The different cases are formed by appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the Stem.i Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case- ending thus resulting is called a termination. THE FIVE DECLENSIONS. 18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows : — Declension. Final Letter of Stem. Gen. Termination. First a -ae Second 6 -i Third \ ^ -is ( Some consonant Fourth ii -us Fifth e . -ei Cases alike in Form. 19. I. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in the Singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension. 2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike. 3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and in the Plural end in -a. 4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative Plural is regularly like the Nominative. 1 The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form, called the Root. Thus, the stem poi'ta- goes back to the root per-, por-. Roots are mono- syllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a SufiQ.x. Thus in porta- the sufifix is -ta-. First Declension. 13 FIRST DECLENSION. a-Stems. 20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regu- larly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are declined as follows : — Porta., gate ; stem, porta-. SINGULAR. Cases. Meanings. Terminations. JVom. porta a gate (as subject) -a Gen. portae of a gate -ae Dat. portae to or for a gate -ae Ace. portam a gate (as object) -am Voc. porta gat el -a AM. porta with, by, froin, in a PLURAL. gate -a Nom. portae gates (as subject) -ae Gen. portarum of gates -arum Dat. portis to or for gates -Is Ace. portas gates (as object) -as Voc. portae gates! -ae AM. portTs with, by, from, in gates -IS 1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate or the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates. Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declensiod. 21. I. Exceptions IN Gender. Nouns denoting males are Mascu- line; as, nauta, sailor', a^ricola., farmer ; also Hadria, Adriatic Sea. 2. Rare Case-Endings, — a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in the combination pater familias, father of a family ; also in mater familias, filius familias, filia familias. But the regular form of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these expressions ; as, pater familiae. b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs ; as, aulai. 14 Inflections. c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae ; as, Romae, at Rome, d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs; as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This termina- tion -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an entirely different case-ending. e) Besides the regular ending -is, we find also -abus in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and filia, daugh- ter, especially when it is important to distinguish these nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and filius, son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiarity ; as, libertabus (from liherta, freediuoman), equabus (mares), to avoid confusion with libertis (from libertus, freedmati) and equis (from equus, horse). Greek Nouns. 22. These end in -e (Feminine); -as and-es (Masculine). In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined as follows : — Archias, Archias. Epitome, epitofne. Cometes, comet. epitome cometes epitomes cometae epitomae cometae epitomen cometen epitome comete (or -a) epitome comete (or -a) 1. But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a, and are decHned like porta; as, grammatica, grammar; musica, music; rhetorica, rhetoric. 2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry. SECOND DECLENSION. o-Stems. 23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine ; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in the Nominative of the Masculines was -os, and -um of the Neuters -om. So also in the Accusative. Nodi. Archias Gen. Archiae Dat. Archiae Ace. Archiam (or -an) Voc. Archia Abl. Archia Second Declension. 15 Nouns in -us and -um are declined as follows : Hortus ^, garden-, Bellum, war-. stem, hortS-. stem, bell6-. SINGULAR. Termination. Termination. Nom. hortus -US bellum -um Gen. horti -1 belli -1 Dat. horto -6 bello -6 Ace. hortum -um bellum -um Voc. horte -e bellum -um, AM. horto -6 PLURAL. bello -6 Nom. horti -1 bella -a Gen. hortorum -orum bellorum -orum Dat. hortis -is bellis -Is Ace. hortos -OS bella -a Voc. horti -i bella -a Abl. hortis -IS bellis -IS Nouns in -er and -ir are declined as follows : — Puer, boy ; Ager, field; Vir, man; stem, puer6-. stem, agro-. stem, vir6-. SINGULAR. Termination. Nom. puer ager vir Wanting Gen. puerl agri viri -1 Dat. puero agro viro -5 Ace. puerum agrum virum -um Voc. puer ager vir Wanting Abl. puero agro PLURAL. viro -6 Nom. puerl agrI virl -T Gen. puerorum agrorum virorum -orum Dat. pueris agrls virls -is Ace. pueros agros viros -OS Voc. puerl agrI virl -1 Abl. pueris agrls virls -is I . Note that in words of the type of puer and vir the final vowel, of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular. i6 Inflections. In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is further modified by the development of e before r. 2. The tcllowing nouns in -er are declined like puer : adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; Liber, Bacchus; socex, father-in-law ; vesper, eveni^ig; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as signifer, armiger. Nouns in -vus, -vum, -quns. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, 24. iNouns enaing in ine iNommaiive :5inguiar m -vus, -vum, -quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin, — an earlier and a later, — as follows : — Earlier Inflection {including Caesar and Cicero). Servos, m., slave. Aevom, n., age. Equos, m., horse. SINGULAR. Nom. servos aevom equos Gen. servl aevi equi Dat. servo aevo equo Ace. servom aevom equom Voc. serve aevom eque Abl. servo aevo equo Later Inflection {after Cicero). SINGULAR. Nom. servus aevum equus Gen. servl aevi equi Dat. servo aevo equo Ace. servum aevum equum Voc. serve aevum eque Abl. servo aevo equo I. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and alwavs uniform. Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension, 25. I. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive Singular in -I (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie); as, Verglli, of Vergil., or O Vergil (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be short. 2. Nouns in -ius a;id -ium, until after the beginning of the reign of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -1 (instead of -ii); as, — Second Declension, 1 7 Nom. ingenium fHius Gen. ingdni fill These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short. 3. Filius forms the Vocative Singular in -1 (for -ie); viz., fill, O soil ! 4. 'DevLS,god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected as follows : — Nom. dl (del) Gen. deornm (deum) Dat. dis (dels) Ace. deos Voc. dl (del) AM. dis (dels) 5- 6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -orum, — a) in words denoting money and measure ; as, talentum, of talents ; m o diu m , (^Z* pecks . b) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir ; as, duuraivirum. c) sometimes in other words ; as, liberum, of the children ; socium, of the allies. Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension. 26. I. The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception : — a) Names of countries, towns, islands, trees — according to the general rule laid down in § 15. 2. b) Five special words, — alvus, belly, carbasus, flax', colus, distaff; humus, ground; vannus, winnowing-fan. c) A few Greek Feminines ; as, — atomus, atom ; diphthongus, diphthong. 2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter: pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus, crowd. c 1 8 Inflections. Greek Nouns of the Second Declension. 27. These end in -os, -6s, Masculine or Feminine ; and -on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are declined as follows : — Barbitos, m. and f., Androgeos, m., Ilion, r lyre. Androgeos. Troy. Noi7i. barbitos Androgeos Tlion Gen. barbiti Androgeo, -I Ilii Dat. barbito Androgeo Tlio Ace. barbiton Androgeo, -on Ilion Voc. barbite Androgeos Ilion AM. barbito Androgeo llio 1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um, instead of -on ; as, Delum, Delos. 2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular. 3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be con- sulted. THIRD DECLENSION. 28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i, -6, -y, -c, -1, -n, -r, -s, -t, -x. The Third Declension includes several distinct classes of Stems, — I. Pure Consonant-Stems. II. i-Stems. III. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted themselves to the inflection of i-Stems. IV. A very few Stems ending in a long vowel or a diphthong. V. Irregular Nouns. I. Consonant Stems. 29. I. In these the stem appears in its unaltered form in all the oblique cases ; so that the actual case-endings may be clearly recognized. Third Declension. 19 2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant. A. Mute-Sterns. 30. Mute-Stems may end, — 1. In a Labial (b or p); as, trab-s ; princep-s. 2. In a Guttural (g or c) ; as, remex (remeg-s) ; dux (duo-s). 3. In a Dental (d or t); as, lapis (lapid-s); miles (milet-s). I. Stems in a Labial Mute (b, p). 31, Trabs, f., beam. Princeps, m., chief. SINGULAR. Termination. Nom. trabs princeps -s Gen. trabis principis -is Dat. trabi principl -i Ace. trabem prmcipem -em Voc. trabs princeps -s Abl. trabe principe PLURAL. -e Nom. trabes principes -es Gen. trabum principum -um Dat. trabibus principibus -ibus Ace. trabes principes -es Voc. trabes principes -es Abl. trabibus principibus -ibus 2. Stems in a Guttural Mute (g", c). 32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites with the guttural, thus producing -x. Remex, m. , rower. Dux, c. , leader. singular. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. , remex remiges dux duces Gen. remigis remigum ducis ducum Dat. remigi remigibus duel ducibus Ace. remigem remiges ducem duces Voc. remex remiges dux duces Abl. remige remigibus duce ducibus 20 Inflections. 3. Stems in a Dental Mute (d, t). 33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nomi- native Singular before the ending -s. Lapis, n^ ., stofie. Miles, m. , soldier. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom lapis lapides miles milites Gen. lapidis lapidum militis militum Dat. lapidi lapidibus militi mllitibus Ace. lapidem lapides mllitem milites Voe. lapis lapides miles milites Abl. lapide lapidibus milite militibus B. Liquid Stems. 34. These end in -1 or -r. Vigil, m., ivatcJwian. Nom. vigil Ge7i. vidlis Dat. Ace. Vac. Abl. vigili vigilem vigil Victor, m., conqueror. SINGULAR. victor victoris victor! • victorem victor victore Aequor, n., sea. aequor aequoris aequori aequor aequor aequore No7n. Gen. Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. vigiles vigilum vigiles visfilibus PLURAL. victores victorum victdribus victores victores victoribus aequora aequorum aequoribus aequora aequora aequoribus 1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Nomi- native and Vocative Singular without termination. 2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension. Third Declension. 21 C. Nasal Stems. 35. These end in -n,i which often disappears in the Nom. Sing. Leo, m., lion. Nomen, n., name. SINGULAR. , PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. leo leones n5men nomina Gen. leonis leonum nominis nominum Dat. leonl leonibus nomini nominibus Ace. leonem leones nomen ndmina Voc. leo leones nomen nomina AM. leone le5nibus nomine nominibus 36. Mos, m., custom. No?n. mos Gen. moris Dat. mori Ace. morem Voc. mos Abl. more Nom. mores Ge7t. morum Dat. moribus Ace. mores Voc. mores Abl. moribus D. s-Stems. Genus, n., race. SINGULAR. genus generis generi genus genus genera PLURAL. genera generum generibus genera genera ijeneribus Honor, m., honor. honor honoris honor! honorem honor honore honores honorum honoribus honores honores honoribus I . Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in the oblique cases. In some words (honor, color, and the like) the r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, displacing the earlier s, though the forms honos, colos, etc., also occur, particularly in early Latin and in poetry. 1 There is only one stem ending in -m, — hiems, hiemis, winter. 22 Inflections. II. 2-Stems. A. Masadine and Fejninine \-Stems. 37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singu- lar, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular in -1, and the Accusative Plural in -is ; but these endings have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end- ings of Consonant-Stems. . Tussis, f., ^^/^^//; ] [gnis, m.,yfr^; Hostis, c., i enemy; stem, tussi-. stem, igni-. stem, hosti- SINGULAR. Termination. Norn. tussis Ignis hostis -is Geii. tussis Ignis hostis -is Dat. tussi Tgni host! -1 Ace. tussim Tgnem hostem -im, -em Voc. tussis Ignis hostis -is AM. tussi igni or -e PLURAL. hoste -e,-i Nom. tusses Tgnes hostes -es Gen. tussium Tgnium hostium -ium Dat. tussibus Tgnibus hostibus -ibus Ace. tussis or -es Ignis or -es hostis or -es -IS, -es Voc. tusses ignes hostes -es Abl. tussibus Tgnibus hostibus -ibus I. To the same class belong — *amussis, rule. corbis, basket. apis, bee. auris, ear. avis, bird. axis, axle. *biiris, plough-beam. clavis, key. collis, hill. scobis, sawdust. *securis, axe. Gratis, hurdle. *^cbria, fever. orbis, circle. ovis, sheep. pelvis, ^osin. puppis, stern. restis, rope. and many others. Words marked with a star have Ace. -im, Abl. -i. Of the others, many at limes show i-forms. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -i. sementis, sowing *sitis, thirst. torris, brand. *turris, tower. trudis, pole. vectis, lever. Third Declension. 23 2. Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems. Some are genuine consonant- stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, nota- bly, canis, dog; juvenis, youth?- 3. Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s ; anas, duck, for ana(ti)s; so also mors, death; dos, dowry; nox, night; sors, lot; mens, mind; ars, art; gins, tribe; and some others. B. Neuter i-Stems. 39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and -ar. They always have -1 in the Ablative Singular, -ia in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and -ium in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the i-character than do Masculine and Feminine i-Stems. Sedlle, seat ; A.nima.1, animal ; Calcsix, spur ; stem, sedlli-. stem, animali-. stem, calcari- SINGULAR. Termination. Nom. sedile animal calcar -e or wanting Gen. sedllis animalis calcaris -is Dat. sedlll animall calcari -i Ace, sedile animal calcar -e or wanting Vac. sedile animal calcar -e or wanting Abl. sedlli animall PLURAL. calcari" -i Nom. sedllia animalia calcaria -ia Gen. sedllium animalium calcarium -ium Dat. sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus Ace. sedllia animalia calcaria -ia Voc. sedllia animalia calcaria -ia Abl. sedilibus animalibus calcaribus -ibus 1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the Nominative Singular ; in others it appears as -e. 2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e ; as, Soracte, Soracte; so also sometimes mare, sea. 1 Mensis, month, originally a consonant-stem (mens-), has in the Genitive Plural both mensium and mensum. The Accusative Plural is menses. 24 Inflections. TJl. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves to the Inflection of i-Stems. 40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted them- selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the Genitive Plural, and -Is in the Accusative Plural. Their true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is shown by the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singu- lar, or -i in the Ablative Singular. The following words are examples of this class : — Caedes, f., slaughter \ stem, caed-. Arx, f., citadel 'y Linter, f., skiff; stem, arc-. stem, lintr-. SINGULAR. No7n. caedes arx linter Gen. caedis arcis lintris Dat. caedi arc! lintrl Ace. caedem arcem lintrem Voc. caedes arx linter Abl. caede arce PLURAL. lintre No7n. caedes arces lintres Gen. caedium arcium lintrium Dat. caedibus arcibus lintribus Ace. caedes, -Is arces, -Is lintres, -Is Voc. caedes arces lintres Abl. caedibus arcibus lintribus The following classes of nouns belong here : — ^) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is ; as, nubes, aedes, clades, etc. b) Many monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by one or more consonants ; as, urbs, mons, stirps, lanx. ^) Most nouns in -ns and -rs ; as, cliens, cohors. d^ Uter, venter ; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix ; and the Plurals fauces, penates, Optimates, Samnltes, Quirltes. ^) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis ; as, civitas, aetas. Third Declension. 25 41. IV. Stei ns in -1, -u, and Diphthongs. Vis, f., Sus, c. Bos, c. Jupiter, m., force ; swine ; ox, cow ; Jicpiter ; stem, vi-. stem, SU-. SINGULAR. stem, bou-. stem, Jou-. Nom. VIS SUS bos Jupiter Gen. vis suis bovis Jovis Dat. vi sui bovi Jovi Ace. vim suem bovem Jovem Voc. vis sus bos Jupiter Abl. vi sue PLURAL. bove Jove Nom. vires sues boves Gen. virium suum j bovum "jboum Dat. vTribus j suibus 1 subus j bobus 1 bubus Ace. vires sues boves Voc. vires sues boves Abl. viribus suibus subus ( bobus } bubus 1. Notice that the oblique cases of siis have H in the root syllable. 2. Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative Plural are always gruibus. 3. Jupiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem as in Jov-is, Jov-i, eU. 4. Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has passed over to the i-stems (§ 37). Senex, m., old man. Caro, f.,/!'?/^. OS, n., bone. SINGULAR. Nom. senex car5 OS Gen. senis carnis ossis Dat. seni carni ossi Ace. senem carnem OS Voc. senex caro OS Abl. sene carne osse 26 Inflections. PLURAL. Nom. senes carnes ossa Gen. senum carnium ossium Dat. senibus carnibus ossibus Ace. senes carnes ossa Voc. senes carnes ossa Abl. senibus carnibus ossibus 1. Iter, itineris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem itiner-. 2. Supellex, supellectilis, i., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The Ablative has both -i and -e. 3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems, — jecor- and jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jecoris or jecinoris, 4. Femur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem feruor-, but sometimes from the stem femin-. Thus. Gen. femoris or feminis. General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension. 43. I. Nouns in -0, -or, -OS, -er, -es are Masculine. 2. Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant); -do, -go (Genitive -inis) ; -io (abstract and' collective), -us (Genitive -utis or -tidis) are Feminine. 3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -iis are Neuter. Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension. 44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines. 1. Nouns in -6. a. Feminine: caxb, flesh. 2. Nouns in -or. a. Feminine : arbor, tree. b. Neuter : aequor, sea ; cor, heart ; marmor, marble, 3. Nouns in -6s. a. Feminine : dos, dowry. b. Neuter: 6s {oris), ?nouth Nouns in -er. a. Feminine : linter, skiff. Third Declension. 2y b. Neuter: cadaver, corpse; iter, way, tuber, timior; uber, udder. Also botanical names in -er ; as, acer, maple. 5. Nouns in -e.3. a. Feminine : seges, crop. 45. Exceptions to the Rule for Feminines. 1. Nouns in -as. a. Masculine, as, ait as (coin) ; vas, bondsman. b. Neuter : vas, vessel. 2. Nouns in -es. a. Masculine: axies, ram ; paries, wall ; pes, /ool. 3. Nouns in -is. a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis ; as, amnis, river; Ignis, fire; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail. Also — 2iS.\s, axle. piscis, fish. collis, /////. postis, post. fascis, bundle. pulvis, dust. lapis, stone. orbis, circle. mensis, month. sentis, brier. 4. Nouns in -x. a. Masculine : apex, peak ; codex, tree-trunk ; grex, flock ; imbrex, tile; poUex, thumb; vertex, summit ; calix, cup. 5. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant. a. Masculine : dens, tooth ; f 6ns, fountain ; mons, mountain : pons, bridge. 6. Nouns in -do. a. Masculine: caxdib, hinge; 6x6.6, order. 46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters. 1. Nouns in -1. a. Masculine : sol, sun ; sal, saU. 2. Nouns in -n. a. Masculine : pecten, comb. 3. Nouns in -ur. a. Masculine : vultur, vulture. 4. Nouns in -us. a. Masculine : lepus, har/^. 28 Inflections. Greek Nouns of the Third Declension. 47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these : — 1. The ending -a in the Accusative Singular; as, aethera, «^//z^r ; Salamina, Salmnis. 2. The ending -Ss in the Nominative Plural; as, Phryges, Phrygians. 3. The ending -as in the Accusative Plural; as, Phrygas, Phrygians. 4. Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocative Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, Atlas. 5. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus in the Dative and Ablative Plural ; as, poematis, poe?ns. 6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.^. But in prose the other cases usually follow the second declension ; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc. 7. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular sometimes in -is, sometimes in -1 ; as, Periclis or Pericli. 8. Feminine proper names in -6 have -us in the Genitive, but -6 in the other oblique cases ; as, — Nom. Dido Ace. Dido Gen. DIdus Voc. Did5 Dat. DId5 Abl. Dido 9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns. FOURTH DECLENSION. u-Stems. 48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Mascu- line, and -u Neuter. They are declined as follows : — Fructus ., fruit. Cornu, , horn. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. fructus fructus cornu cornua Gen. fructus fructuum cornus cornuum Dat. fructui fructibus cornu cornibus Ace. fructum fructus cornui cornua Voc. fructus fructus cornu cornua Abl. fructu fructibus cornu cornibus Fourth Declension. — Fifth Declension. 29 Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension. 49. I. Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the Genitive Singular in -1, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the Second Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the case in Plautus and Terence. 2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead of -ui; as, fructu (for fructui). 3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs ] tribus, tribe-, and in dis- syllables in -cus ; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus as well as those in -ubus. 4. Domus, house, is declined according to the Fourth Declension, but has also the following forms of the Second : — domi (locative), at home; domum, homewards, to one''s home; domo, from home ; domos, homewards, to their (etc.) hojftes. 5. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are : cornu, genu, and veru. Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension. 50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle; domus, house; manus, hajid; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe; idus (Plural), Ides. FIFTH DECLENSION. e-Stems. 51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -es, and are decHned as follows : — Dies, m, ,, day. Res, f., , thing. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nojn. dies dies res res Gen. diei dierum rgl rerum Dat. die! diebus rgi rebus Ace. diem dies rem res Voc. dies dies . res res Abl. die diebus re rebus 30 Inflections. Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension. 52. I. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -§i, instead of -ei, when a consonant precedes ; as, spei, rei, fidei. 2. A Genitive ending -i (for-ei) is found in plebi (from plebes = plebs) in the expressions tribunus plebi, tribune of the people^ and plebi scitum, decree of the people', sometimes also in other words. 3. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sometimes occurs ; as, acie. 4. With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth Declension are not declined in the Plural. But acies, series, species, spes, and a few others, are used in the Nominative and Accusative Plural. Gender in the Fifth Declension. 53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except dies, day, and nieridies, mid-day. But dies is sometimes Feminine in the Singular, particularly when it means an appoitited day. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 54. Here belong - 1. Nouns used in the Singular only. 2. Nouns used in the Plural only. 3. Nouns used only in certain cases. 4. Indeclinable Nouns. Nouns used in the Singular only. 55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification, are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus : — 1. Proper names; as, Cicero, Cicero; Italia, Italy. 2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk. 3. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, igtiorance; \ion\t2i'&, good- ness. 4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural. Thus : — a) Proper names, — to denote different members of a family, or specimens of a type ; as, Cicerones, the Ciceros ; Catones, men like Cato. Defective Nouns. 31 b) Names of materials, — to denote objects made of the mate- rial, or different kinds of the substance ; as, aera, bronzes {i.e. bronze figures) ; ligna, woods. c) Abstract nouns, — to denote instances of the quality ; as, ignorantiae, cases of igjtorance. Nouns used in the Plural only. 56. Here belong — 1. Many geographical names; as, Thebae, Thebes; Leuctra, Leuctra; Pompeji, Po7npeii. 2. Many names of festivals ; as, Megalesia, the Megalesian fes- tival. 3. Many special words, of which the following are the most important : — angustiae, narrow pass. manes, spirits of the dead. arma, weapons. minae, threats. deliciae, delight. moenia, city walls. divitiae, riches. nuptiae, 7narriage. idus, Ides. poster!, descendants . indutiae. truce. reliquiae, remainder. insidiae, ambush. tenebrae, darkjiess. majores, ancestors. verbera, blows. Also in classical prose regularly — cervices, neck. nares, nose. fides, lyre. viscera, viscera. Nouns used only in Certain Cases. 57. I. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular ; as, jussu, by the order; injussu, without the order; natu, by birth. 2. Used in Two Cases. a. Fors (chajice), Nom. Sing. ; forte, Abl. Sing. b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing. ; sponte, Abl. Sing. 3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, no one (Nom.), has also the Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied by the corresponding cases of nullus ; viz. nullius and nullo. 32 Inflections. 4. Impetus has the Norn., Ace, and Abl. Sing., and the Norn, and Ace. Plu. ; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus. 5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. b. Vicis, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing. 6. Opis, dapis, and frugis, — all lack the Nom. Sing. 7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu. ; as, cor, lux, sol, aes, 6s (oris), rus, sal, tus. Indeclinable Nouns. 58. Here belong — fas, n., right. nefas, n., impiety. instar, n., likeness. nihil, n., nothing. mane, n., morning. secus, n., sex. I . With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative, ]n the morning)., the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular. Heteroclites. 59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one declension, and partly of another. Thus : — 1 . Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while the Plural is of another ; as, — vas, vasis (vessel) ; Plu., vasa, vasorum, vasis, etc. jugerum, jiigeri {acre) ; Plu , jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc. 2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension, have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus : — a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also a Nom. and Ace. of the Fifth; as, materies, materiem, material, as well as materia, materiam. b) Fames, hunger, regularly of the Third Declension, has the Abl. fame of the Fifth. c) Requies, requietis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, takes an Ace. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requi- etem. d) Besides plebs, plebis, co7nmo7i people, of the Third Declen sion, we find plebes, plebei (also plebi, see § 52. 2), of th*' Fifth. HeterogeneoiLS Nouns. 33 Heterogeneous Nouns. 60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus: — 1 . Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms, — one Masc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um ; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield; carrus, carrum, ca?'t. 2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in th'" Plural ; as, — SINGULAR. balneum, n., bath; epulum, n., feast; frenum, n., bridle; jocus, m.., Jest ; locus, in., place; rastrum, n., rake; PLURAL. balneae, f., bath-house. epulae, f., feast. freni, m. (rarely frena, n.), bridle. joca, n. (also joci, m.), Jests. loca, n., places; loci, va., passages or topics in an author. rastri, m. ; rastra, n., rakes. a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case of the first two examples above. Plurals with Change of Meaning. 61. The following nouns have one meaning in the Singular, and another in the Plural: — ■ SINGULAR. aedes, temple; auxilium, help ; CdLXcex, priso7i; castrum, fort; copia, abundance ; finis, end; f ortiina, fortune ; gratia, favor ; impedimentum, hindrance; littera, letter (of the alphabet); mos, habit ^ custoin ; opera, heip^ service; (ops) opis, help • pars, part ; sal, salt ; PLURAL. aedes, house. auxilia, auxiliary troops. carceres, stalls for racing-chariots. oastra, caitip. copiae, troops, resources. fines, borders, territory. fortunae, possessions, wealth. gratiae, thanks. impedimenta, baggage. litterae, epistle, literature, mores, character. operae, laborers. opes, resources. parte.3, party, role. sales, wit. 34 Inflections. B. ADJECTIVES. 62. Adjectives denote qjiality. They are declined like nouns, and fall into two classes, — 1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions. 2. Adjectives of the Third Declension. ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortus, puer, or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum. Thus, Masculine like hortus : — Bonus, good. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine, Neuter. Nom. bonus bona bonum Gen. boni bonae boni Dat. bono bonae bono Ace. bonum bonam bonum Voc. bone bona bonum AM. bono bona PLURAL. bono Nom. boni bonae bona Gen. bonorum bonarum bonorum Dat. bonis bonis bonis Ace. bonos bonas bona Voc. boni bonae bona Abl. bonis bonis bonis a. The Genitive Singular Masculine and Neuter of Adjectives in -ins ends in -il (not in -I as in case of Nouns ; see § 25. I ; 2). So also the Vocative Singular of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in -". Thus eximius forms Genitive eximil ; Vocative eximie. Adjectives of the First a7td Second Declensions. 35 64. Masculine like puer : — Tener, tender. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. tener tenera tenerum Gen. teneri tenerae teneri Dat. tenero tenerae tenero Ace. tenerum teneram tenerum Voc. tener tenera tenerum AM. tenero tenera PLURAL. tenero Nom. teneri tenerae tenera Gen. tenerorum tenerarum tenerorum Dat. teneris teneris teneris Ace. teneros teneras tenera Voc. teneri tenerae tenera Abl. teneris teneris teneris 65. Masculine like ager : — Sacer, sacred. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. No7n. sacer sacra sacrum Gen. sacri sacrae sacri Dat. sacro sacrae sacro Ace. sacrum sacram sacrum Voc. sacer sacra sacrum Abl. sacro sacra PLURAL. sacro Nom. sacri sacrae sacra Ge?t. sacrorum sacrarum sacrorum Dat. sacris sacris sacris Ace. sacros sacras sacra Voc. sacri sacrae sacra Abl. sacris sacris sacris I. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following are declined like tener: asper, rough; lacer, torti; liber, /ree; 36 hiflections. miser, wretched', -proB-per, prosperot^s ; compounds in -fer and -ger sometimes dexter, right. 2. Satur, /////, is declined : satur, satura, saturum. Nine Irregular Adjectives. 66. Here belong — alius, a7tother; alter, the other; ullus, afiy ; nuUus, none-, uter, which? (of two); neuter, neither] solus, atone ; totus,whote; unus, one, alone. They are declined as follows : — SINGULAR. Masculine Feminine. Neuter. Norn. alius alia aliud Gen. alterius alterius alterius ^ Dat. alii alii alii Ace. Voc. Abl. alium aliam aliud alio alia alio Nojn. uter utra utrum Gen. utrius utrius utrius Dat. utri utri utri Ace. Voc. Abl. utrum utram utrum utro utra utro I. All these words lack the Vocative. 2. Neuter is decline d like uter. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. alter altera alterum alterius alterius alterius alter! alter! ^ alter! alterum alteram alterum altero altera altero totus tota totum totius totius totius tot! tot! t5t! totum totam totum toto tota toto The Plural is re^ ^ular. ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 67. These fall into three classes, — 1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative Singular, — one for each gender. 2. Adjectives of two terminations. 3. Adjectives of one termination. 1 This is almost always used instead of alius in the Genitive. "^ A Dative Singular Feminine alterae also occurs. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 37 a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words mentioned below in § 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third Declension follow the inflection of i-stems ; i.e. they have the Ablative Singular in -1, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the Accusative Plural in -is (as well as -es) in the Masculine and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural in -ia in Neuters. Adjectives of Three Terminations. 68. These are declined as follows : — Acer, sharp. SINGULAR. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. Nom. acer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Voe. acer acris acre Abl. acri acri PLURAL. acri Nom. acres acres acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acres, -is acres, -is acria Voe. acres acres acria Abl. acribus acribus acribus 1. Like acer are declined alacer, lively; campester, level-, cele- hex, fa?nous; equester, eqtcestrian ; paluster, inarshy ', pedester, pedestrian ; puter, rotten ; saliiber, wholesome ; Silvester, woody ,' terrester, terrestrial ', volucer, winged; also names of months in -ber, as September. 2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift ^ retains the e before r, but lacks the Genitive Plural. 3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Femi- nine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words in the list, the use of the Feminine for the MascuKne is confined chiefly to early and late Latin, and to poetry. 38 InJlectio7is. Adjectives of Two Terminations. 69. These are declined as follows : — Fortis, stro7ig. SINGULAR. Fortior, stronger M. AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. Nom. fortis forte fortior fortius Cejt. fortis fortis fortioris fortioris Dat. forti forti fortiori fortiori Ace. fortem forte fortiorem fortius Voc. fortis forte fortior fortius Abl. forti forti PLURAL. fortidre, -i fortiore, -i Nom. fortes fortia fortiores fortiora Gen. fortium fortium fortiorum fortiorum Dat. fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus Ace. fortes, -IS fortia fortiores, -is fortiora Voc. fortes fortia fortiores fortiora Abl. fortibus fortibus fortioribus fortioribus I. Fortior is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives are regularly declined in the same way. The Ace. Plu. in -is is rare. Adjectives of One Termination. 70. Felix, happy. Prudens, prudetit. SINGULAR M, AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. Nom. fellx fehx prudens prudens Gen. felTcis felTcis prudentis prudentis Dat. felici fehci prudenti priidenti Ace. felTcem fellx priidentem prijde.is Voc. felix felix prudens prudens Abl. felici felici PLURAL. prudenti prudenti Nom. fehces fehcia prudentes priidentia Gen. fehcium fehcium prudentium prudentium Dat. fellcibus fehcibus prudentibus prudentibus Ace. fehces, -is fehcia prudentes, -is priidentia Voc. fehcgs fehcia prudentes priidentia Abl. fehcibus fehcibus prudentibus prudentibus Adjectives of the Third Declension. 39 Vetus, old. SINGULAR. Plus, more. M. AND F. Neut. M. AND F. Neut. Norn. vetus vetus plus Gen. veteris veteris pluris Dat. veteri veteri Ace. veterem vetus plus Voc. vetus vetus AM. vetere vetere PLURAL. plure Norn. veteres Vetera plures plura Gen. veterum veterum plurium plurium Dat. veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus Ace. veteres Vetera plures, -IS plura Voc. veteres Vetera Abl. veteribus veteribus pluribus pluribus 1 . It will be observed that vetus is declined as a pure Consonant- Stem ; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine in -es only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; dives, rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; princeps, chief; sospes, safe; superstes, surviving. Yet dives always has Neut. Plu. ditia. 2. Inops, needy., and memor, jnijidfnl, have Ablative Singular inopT, memorl, but Genitive Plural inopum, mem.orum. 3. Participles in -ans and -ens follow the declension of i-stems. But they do not have -I in the Ablative, except when employed as adjec- tives ; when used as participles or as substantives, they have -e ; as, — a sapient! viro, by a wise man ; but a sapiente, by a philosopher ; Tarquinio regnante, under the reign of Tarquin. 4. Plus, in the Singular, is always a noun. 5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives, — a) usually retain the adjective declension ; as, — aequalis, contemporary, Abl. aequali. consularis, ex-consid, Abl. consular!. So names of Months ; as, Apr!l!, April; Decembr!, De- cember. b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative Singular ; as, Celere, Celer ; Juvenale, Juvenal. 40 Inflections. c) Patrials in -as, -atis and -is, -itis, when designating places, regularly have -i ; as, in Arpinati, on the estate at Arpmum ; yet -e, when used of persons ; as, ab Arpinate, dy an Arpi- natian. 6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which are frugi, frugal^ nequam, worthless. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71. I. There are three degrees of Comparison, — the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um), to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel ; as, — • altus, high., altior, higher., altissimus, \ ^S ^^ •> I very high. fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus. felTx, fortunate, felTcior, felTcissimus. dives, rich, dlvitior, dlvitissimus. So also Participles, when used as Adjectives ; as, — doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus. egens, needy, egentior, egentissimus. 3- Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus : — asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus. pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcherrimus. acer, sharp, acrior, acerrimus. celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus. pauper, poor, pauperior, pauperrimus. a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or matiirrimus. 4. Five Adjectives in -ills form the Superlative by adding -limus to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Compara- tive is regular. Thus : — facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus. difficilis, dificult, difficilior, difficillimus. similis, like, similior, simillimus. dissimilis, unlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus. humilis, low, humilior, humillimus. Comparison of Adjectives. 4i 5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus, form the Comparative and Superlative as though from forms in -dicens, -ficens, -volens. Thus : — maledicentissimus. magnificentissimus. benevolentissimus. maledicus, slanderous, maledicentior, magnificus, 7nag?ii/icent, magnificentior, benevolus, kindly, benevolentior, a. Positives in -dicens and -volens occur in early Latin ; as, maledloens, benevolens. Irregular Comparison. 72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Compari- son ; VIZ. bonus, good, melior. optimus. malus, bad, pejor, pessimus. parvus, small. minor. minimus. magnus, large. major. maximus. multus, much. plus, plurimus. frugi, thrifty, frugalior. frugalissimus. nequam, worthless. nequior. nequissimus. I . Observe that the i L of -ior becomes j- — between vowels — in pejor and major. Defective Comparison. 73. I. Positive lacking entirely, — (Cf. prae, in front of.') prior, former, primus, first. citerior, on this side, citimus, 7iear. ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest. interior, ijuter, intimus, inmost. propior, nearer, proximus, nearest. deterior, inferior, deterrimus, worst. (Cf. citra, this side of.) (Cf. ultra, beyond.) (Cf. intra, within.) (Cf prope, Jtear.) (Cf. de, down.) (Cf. archaic potis, possibU.) potior, preferable, potissimus, chief est. 2. Positive occurring only in special cases, — postero die, anno, etc., the following day, etc., posterT, descendants, exterl, foreigners, natidnes exterae, for- eign nations. posterior, later. exterior, outer. latest, postremus,|^^^^^ 1 r late-born, \V^^^^^^^.\ posthumous, \ extremus, ] 1 . . I outennost. extimus, J 42 Inflections, inf en, gods of the lower world, Mare Inferum, Mediterranean \ inferior, lower, Sea, imus, J I supremus, last. super!, gods above, 1 . i supremus, last. Mare Superum, Adriatic Sea, J superior, higher, | ^^^^^^^ highest. 3. Comparative lacking. vetus, old, 1 veterrimus. fidus, faithful, f idissimus. novus, ;^^w, ^ novissimus,^ /^j/. sacer, sacred, sacerrimus. falsus, false, falsissimus. Also in some other words less frequently used. 4. Superlative lacking. alacer, lively, ingens, great, salutaris, wholesome, alacrior, ingentior, saliitarior. juvenis, young, senex, old, jiinior, senior. 4 5 a. The Superlative is lacking also in many -ilis, -ilis, -bilis, and in a few others. adjectives in -alis, Comparison by Magis and Maxime. 74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational compari- son, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by prefixing magis {inoi^e) and maxime {inost). Here belong — 1. Many adjectives ending in -alis, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -ious, -imus, -inus, -orus. 2. Adjectives in -us preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, adapted) arduus, steep; necessarius, necessary. a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule. The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant. 1 Supplied by vetustior, from vetustus. 2 Supplied by recentior. 3 For newest, recentissimus is used. 4 Supplied by minimus natu. 5 Supplied by maximus natu. Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs, 43 Adjectives not admitting Comparison. 75. Here belong — 1 . Many adjectives which, from the nature of their sigaification, do not admit of comparison ; as, hodiernus, of to-day, annuus, annual ', mortalis, mortal. 2. Some special words ; as, mirus, gnarus, merus ; and a few others. FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjec- tives, and depend upon them for their comparison. 1. Adver*bs derived from adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive by changing -1 of the Genitive Singular to -e ; those derived from adjectives of the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive Singular to -iter ; as, — earns, care, dearly; pulcher, pulchre, beautifidly ; acer, acriter, fiercely ; levis, leviter, lightly. a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -ter (instead of -iter), to form the Adverb ; as, — sapiens, sapienter, wisely, audax, audacter, boldly; sollers, sollerter, skillfully. 2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accu- sative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective ; while the Superlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -i of the Genitive Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -e. Thus — (earns) care, dearly, carius, carissime. (pulcher) pulchre, beautifidly, pulchrius. pulcherrime. (acer) acriter, fiercely, acrius. acerrime. (levis) leviter, lightly, levius. levissime. (sapiens) sapienter, wisely. sapientius, sapientissime. (audax) audacter, boldly, audacius, audacissime. 44 Inflections. Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation. 77. I. bene, well, melius, male, ///, pejus, magnopere, greatly, magis, multum, much, plus, nonmultum,j^^.^^^^^ minus, parum, J did, long, diutius, nequiter, 7Vorthlessly, nequius, saepius. optime. pessime. maxime. plurimum. minime. saepe, ofteji, mature, betimes, prope, near, nuper, recently, secus, otherwise, matunus, propius, potius, rather. prius, j^^^^^'^^^'^->'' I prlmum, first, \ before, j setius, less. diutissime. nequissime. saepissime. maturrime, maturissime. proxime. nuperrime. potissimum, especially. 2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form an Adverb in -6, instead of -e ; as, — crebro, frequently ; falso, falsely ; continue, immediately ; subito, suddenly ; rar5, rarely; and a few others. a. cito, quickly, has -6. 3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the Positive of the Adverb ; as, — multum, much; paulum, little; minimum, least; facile, easily. 4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the Positive in -iter ; as, — firmus, firmiter, firmly ; largus, largiter, copiously ; a. violentus has violenter. hiimanus, humaniter, /z«;;/^;^/)/; alius, aliter, otherwise. 5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of which are -tus and -tim ; as, antiquitus, anciently ; paulatim, gradually. Numerals, 45 NUMERALS. 78. Numerals may be divided into — I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising — a. Carditmls; as, unus, ^;/^; duo, /w^; etc. b. Ordinals; as, primus, y^rj/ ; secundus, j-^^ obfui hinder prosum prodesse profui am. of advantage subsum subesse subfui am at the basis of supersum superesse superfui am left Note. — Prosum is compounded of prod (earlier form of pro) and sum; the d disappears before consonants, as prosumus, but prodestis. 126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of pot- (for pote, able^ and sum ; potui is from an obsolete potere. PRINCIPAL PARTS. possum, posse, potui, to be able. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. possum, potes, potest ; possumus, potestis, possunt, I?7lp. poteram : poteramus. P^t. potero ; poterimus. Perf potuT ; potuimus. Plup. potueram; potueramus. Put. P. potuero ; potuerimus. q5 Inflections. SUBJUNCTIVE. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. possim, possis, possit ; possTmus, possitis, possint. Imp. possem; possemus. Perf. potuerim; potuerimus. Phtp. potuissem; potuissemus. INFINITIVE. Pres. posse. Perf. potuisse. PARTICIPLE. Pres. ^oi^ns {as an adjective) 127. Do, I give. PRINCIPAL PARTS. do, dare, dedi, Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. datus. Pres. do, das, dal ;; dam us, datis Imp. dabam, etc. ; dabam us. Put. dabo, etc. ; dabimus. Perf. dedi ; dedimus. Plup. dederam ; dederamus. Put. P. dedero; dederimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. dem ; demus. Imp. darem ; daremus. Perf dederim ; dederimus. Plup. dedissem ; dedissemus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. da; date. Put. dato; datote. dato; danto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. dare. dans. Perf. dedisse. Put. daturus esse. daturus. GERUND. SUPINE. dandl, etc. datum, data. Irregular Verbs. 97 1. The Passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus : dari, datur, dabatur, daretur, etc. 2. The archaic and poetic forms duim, duint, interduo, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a collateral root of simi- lar meaning. 128. Edo, / eat. This verb, in addition to its regular inflection, sometimes has dupHcate forms in certain tenses of the Present System. edo, PRINCIPAL PARTS. edere, edi, i Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. edo edimus edis, es editis, estis edit, est edunt Pres. SUBJUNCTIVE. Imp. ederem, essem ederemus, essemus ederes, esses ederetis, essetis ederet, esset ederent, essent IMPERATIVE. Pres. ede, es edite, este Fut. edito, esto editote, estote edito, est5 edunto INFINITIVE. Pres. edere, esse Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. 2,d Sing, editur, estur SUBJUNCTIVE. Lnp. 2,d Sing, ederetur, essetur 1. Observe the long vowel of the abbreviated forms, which alone distinguishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be. 2. Note comedo, comedere, comedi, coniesus or comestus, consume. H 98 Inflections. 129. Fero, I bear. PRINCIPAL PARTS. fero, ferre, tuli, latus. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. fero, fers, fert ; ferimus, fertis, ferunt.* Imp. ferebam ; ferebamus. Fut. feram ; feremus. Per/. tulT; tulimus. Plup. tuleram ; tuleramus. Fut. P. tulero; tulerimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. feram ; feramus. Imp. ferrem ; ferre mus. Perf. tulerim ; tulerimus. Plup. tulissem ; tulissemus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. fer; ferte. Fut. ferto ; fertate. ferto ; ferunto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. ferre. Pres. ferens. Perf. tulisse. Fut. latQrus esse. Fut. laturus. GERUND. SUPINE. Gen. ferendi. Dat. ferendo. Ace. ferendum. Ace. latum. Abl. ferendo. Abl. lata. 1 It will be observed that not all the forms of fer5 lack the connecting vowel. Some of them, as ferimus, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the Third Conjugation. Irregular Verbs, 99 Passive Voice. feror, ferri, latus sum, to he home. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. feror, ferris, fertur ; ferimur, ferimini, feruntur. Itnp. ferebar ; ferebamur. Fut. ferar ; feremur. Perf. latus sum ; lati sumus. Plup. latus eram ; lati eramus. Fut. P . latus ero ; lati erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. ferar ; feramur. Imp. ferrer ; ferremur. Perf. latus sim ; lati sTmus. Plup. latus essem ; lati essemus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. ferre ; ferimini. Fut. fertor ; fertor ; feruntor. 1 NFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. ferrl. Perf. latus esse. Perf. latus. Fut. latum iri. Ger. ferendus. So also the Compounds — affero afferre attuli allatus hring towara aufero auferre abstuli ablatus take away confero c5nferre contuli collatus cojnpare difFero differre distulT dllatus put off efFero efFerre extuli elatus carry off Tnfero inferre intuli illatus bring against offero offerre obtuli oblatus present refero referre rettuli relatus hring back Note. — The forms sustuli and sublatus belong to tollo. [OO Inflections. 130. Volo, nolo, malo. PRINCIPAL PARTS. volo , velle, volui. to be willing. nolo , nolle, nolui, to be unwilling. male », malle, malui. to prefer. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. vol5, nolo. malo. vis, non VIS, mavis, vult; non vult ; mavult ; volumus, nolumus, malumus, vultis, non vultis, mavultis. volunt. nolunt. malunt. Imp. volebam. n5lebam. malebam F2lt. volam. nolam. malam. Perf. volui. noluT. maluT. Plup. volueram. nolueram. malueram. Put, p. . voluero. noluero. SUBJUNCTIVE. maluerd. Pres. velim, -Is, -it, etc. nolim. malim. Imp. vellem, -es, -et. ,etc. nollem. mallem. Perf. voluerim. noluerim. maluerim. Plup. voluissem. noluissem. IMPERATIVE. maluissem, Pres. noli, nolTte. Fut. nolito, n5lit6te, nolito ; nolunto. Pres. velle. Perf. voluisse. INFINITIVE. nolle, noluisse. malje. maluisse. Pres. volens. PARTICIPLE. nolens. Irregular Verbs. lOl 131. Pi6. PRINCIPAL PARTS. fio. fieri, f actus sum, to beco7ne, be made. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGUf^AR. PLURAL. Pres. fio, fis, fit ; ' fimus, fitis, fiunt. /////. f lebam ; fiebamus. Flit. flam ; fiemus. Perf. factussum; fact! sumus. Plup. factuseram; fact! eramus. Fut. P. factus ero ; fact! erimus. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. flam ; fiamus. hnp. fierem ; fieremus. Perf. factus sim ; fact! simus, Plup. factus essem ; fact! essemus. IMPERATIVE. Pres. /I ; fite. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. Pres. fieri. Perf. factus esse. Perf. factus. Flit. factum iri. Ger. faciendus. Note. — A few isolated forms of compounds of fio occur; as> defit, lacks ; infit, begins. 132. B6. PRINCIPAL PARTS. eo, ire, ivi, itum (est), to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. SINGULAR. PLURAL. Pres. eo. Is, it; imus, Itis, eunt. Imp. ibam ; ibamus. Fut. ibo ; ibimus. Perf. ivI (ii) ; ivimus (iimus), Plup. Iveram (ieram) ; Tveramus (ieramus). Fjit. P. ivero (iero) ; iverimus (ierimus) . I02 Inflections. SINGULAR. Pres. earn ; I)}ip. irem ; Perf. Tverim (ierim) ; Phip. ivissem (iissem, Tssem) ; SUBJUNCTIVE. PLURAL. eamus. iremus. iverimus (ierimus). ivissemus (iissemus, issemus), IMPERATIVE. Pres. I; ite. Flit. Tt5; Ttote, Tto; eunto. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE Pres. Ire. Pres. iens. Perf. ivisse (isse) {Gen. euntis.) Put. iturus esse. Fut. iturus. GERUND. SUPINE. eundl, etc. itum, itu. I. Transitive compounds of eo admit ihe full Passive inflection as, adeor, adiris. aditur, etc. DEFECTIVE VERBS. Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are the most important : — 133. Used mainly in the Perfect System. Coepi, I have begim. Perf. coepT. Plup. coeperam. Fut. P. coepero. Perf. coeperim. Plup. coepissem. Memini, I remember. OdI, riiate. INDICATIVE MOOD. meminl. odT. memineram. oderam. meminera. odero. SUBJUNCTIVE. meminerim. oderim. meminissem. adissem. IMPERATIVE. Sing, memento ; Plur. mementate. Defective Verbs. 103 INFINITIVE. Perf. Put. coepisse. coepturus esse. meminisse. odisse. osurus esse. Perf. Put. coeptus, begun. coepturus. PARTICIPLE. osus. osurus. 1. When coepi governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form coeptus est ; as, amari coeptus est, he began to be loved. 2. Note that memini and odi, though Perfect in form, are Present in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force oi the Imperfect and Future; as, memineram, I rentembered; odero, / shall hate. 134. Inquam, / say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)c 135. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. Put. SINGULAR. inquam, inquis, inquit ; PLURAL. inquiunt. inquies, inquiet. Perf. -^d Sing. inquit. A.]6, I say. INDICATIVE MOOD. Pres. SINGULAR. ajo, PLURAL. ais, Imp. ait; ajebam, ajebas, ajebat ; Perf. id Sing. ait. ajunt. ajebamus, ajebatis, ajebant. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. -^^d Sing. ajat. Note. — For aisne, do you mean? ain is common. 1 04 Inflections. 136. Fari, to speak. This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present System it has — INDICATIVE 1 MOOD. Pres. SINGULAR. PLURAL. fatur. Flit. fabor, fabitur. Imp. fare. Inf. far!. Pres. Par tic . fantis, fantl, etc. Gerund, G., fandi; D . and AbL, fando. Gerundive fandus. Note, — Forms of fari are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as, — af fatur, he addresses ; praef amur, we say in advance. 137. Other Defective Forms. 1. Queo, quire, quivi, to be able, and nequeo, nequire, nequivi, to be unable, are inflected like eo, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense, and there only in special forms. 2. Quaeso, /^;//;V(2/ ; quaesumus, w^ *?;//r^«/. 3. Cedo, cette ; give jne, tell me. 4. Salve, salvete, hail. Also Infinitive, salvere. 5. Have (ave), havete, hail. Also Infinitive, havere. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun ; as, me pudet hoc fecisse, lit. it shames me to have done this ; hoc decet, tJiis is fitting. Here belong — I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather; as, — fulget fulsit // lightejis tonat tonuit // thunders Impersonal Verbs. 105 grandinat it hails ningit ninxit it snows pluit pluit it rains II. Special Verbs. paenitet paenitere paenituit it repents piget pigere piguit it grieves pudet pudere puduit it causes shame taedet taedere taeduit it disgusts miseret miserere miseruit it causes pity libet libere libuit it pleases licet licere licuit it is lawpd oportet oportere oportuit it is fitting decet decere decuit it is becoming dedecet dedecere dedecuit it is unbecoming refert referre retulit it concerns III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses. constat constare constitit it is evident praestat praestare praestitit it is better juvat juvare juvit it delights apparet apparere apparuit it appears placet place re placuit (pi acitum est) it pleases accedit accedere accessit it is added accidit accidere accidit it happens contingit contingere contigit it happens evenit evenire evenit it turns out interest interesse interfuit it concerns IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs ; as,— itur lit. it is gone i.e. sojne one goes curritur lit. it is run i.e. some ojie runs ventum est lit. // has been cotne i.e some one has come veniendum est lit. // juiist be come i.e. somebody must come pugnarl potest lit. it can be fought i.e. somebody can fight Part III. PARTICLES. 139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not admit of inflection; viz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc- tions, Interjections. ADVERBS. 140. Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial terminations have already been given above (§ j6). The following Table of Correlatives is important : — Relative and Interrogative. ubi, where ; where ? quo, whither ; whither ? unde, whence ; whence ? qua, where ; where f cum, when. quando, when ? quotiens, as often as ; how often f quam, as much as ; how much f Demonstrative. hic, here. ibi, illic, istic, there. hue, hither. eo, istuc, illuc, thither. hinc, hence. inde, istinc, illinc, thence. hac, by this way. ea, istac, iliac, by that way. nunc, now. turn, tunc, then. totiens, so often. tarn, so 7nuch. 1 06 Indefinite. alicubi, usquam, us- piam, somewhere. aliquo, to some place. alicunde, frojn some- where. aliqua, by sofne way. aliquando, umquam, S07netime. aliquotiens, some number of times. Prepositions. 107 PREPOSITIONS. 141. The following Prepositions govern the Accusa- tive : — ad erga praeter adversus (adversum) extra prope ante Infra propter apud inter secundum circa intra subter circiter juxta super circum ob supra cis penes trans citra per ultra contra pone versus post 1. Usque is often prefixed to ad, in the sense of even; as, — usque ad urbem, even to the city. 2. Versus always follows its case; as, — Romam versus^ toward Rome. It may be combined with a preceding Preposition ; as, — ad urbem versus, toward the city. 3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super- latives proximus, proxime, sometimes govern the Accusative ; as, — Ubii proxime Rhenum incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine; propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy. 142. The f ollov^ing Prepositions govern the Ablative : — sine tenus a, ab, abs de absque e,ex coram prae cum pro 1. A, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used ; before con- sonants we find sometimes a, sometimes- ab (the latter not before the labials b, p, f, v, m ; nor before c, g, q, or t) ; abs occurs only before t6, and a is admissible even there. 2. E, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used ; before consO' Hants, we find sometimes e, sometimes ex. io8 Particles. 3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as pectoribus tenus, up to the breast. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as labrorum tenus, as far as the lips. 4. Cum is appended to the Pronoun of the First and Second Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun ; usually also to the Relative and Interrogative. Thus : — mecum secum tecum quocum or cum quo noblscum quacum or cum qua vobiscum quibuscum or cum quibus On quTcum, see § 89, Footnote i . 143. Two Prepositions, in and sub, govern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Accusative they denote motion ; with the Ablative, rest ; as, — in urbem, into the city, in urbe, in the city. I. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the Ablative. 144. Relation of Adverbs and Prepositions. 1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still retain their adverbial meaning ; as, post, afterwards; ante, previously; contra, on the other hafid, etc. 2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally employed as prepositions ; as, — clam, pridie, with the Accusative. procul, simul, palam, with the Ablative. 3. Anastrophe. A dissyllabic preposition sometimes follows a relative pronoun which it governs ; as, — ii, qu5s inter erat, those ainong whom he was. INTERJECTIONS. 145. Interjections are Particles expressing emotion. They may express — 1. Surprise ; as, en, ecce, 6. 2. Joy ; as, io, euoe. 3. Sorrow and Pain ; as, heu, eheu, vae, pro. 4. Calling ; as, heus, eho. Part IV. WORD-FORMATION. •— I. DERIVATIVES. 146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter- minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or adjectives. A. NOUNS. 1. Nouns derived from Verbs. 147. I. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fern, -trix, denotes the agent; as, — victor, victrix, victor-, defensor, defender. Note. — The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems ; as, — gladiator, gladiator (from gladius). 2. The suffix -or (originally -6s) denotes an activity or a condi- tion ; as, — amor, iove; timor, fear ; dolor, ^ain. 3. The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen. -onis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -us, denote an action as in process', as, — venatio, huntijig; obsessio, blockade', gemitus, sighing; cursus, running. Note. — Rarer endings with the same force are : — a) -tura, -sura ; as, — sepultura, burial; mensura, measuring, b) -ium ; as,— gaudium, rejoicinir c) -16.6, as,— cupido, desire. 109 1 10 Word- Formation. 4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -crum, -trum, -bulum, -culum, denote the means or place of an action ; as, — lumen (luc-s-men), light; vocabulura, word', ornamentum, ornament; documentum, proof; sepulcrum, ^r^^/^. aratrum, plough; vehiculum, carriage. When the root ends in cptHecof the suffix disappears ; as,— jaculum for jac-culum (from jaoio). 2. Nouns derived from Nouns. 148. I. Diminutives end in — -ulus, (-ula, -ulum) -olus, (-ol«^? -olum), after a vowel -cuius, (-aula, -culum) -ellus, (-ella, -ellum) -illus, (-ilia? -ilium) as,— nidulus, little nest (nidus) ; virgula, wand (virga) ; oppidulum, little town (oppidum) ; filiolus, little son (filius) ; opusculum, little work (opus) ; tab ella, tablet (tabula) ; lapillus, pebble (lapis). Note i. — It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender of the words from which they are derived. Note 2. — The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminu- tive suffix, viz., -I0-. Thus : — agellus, field, for ager-lus ; lapillus, pebble, for lapid-lus. 2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates either a collection ot such persons or their function; as, — collegium, a corporation, body of colleagues (coUega) ; sacerdotium, priestly function (sacerdos). 3. The suffixes -arium, -etum, -He designate a place where objects are kept or are found in abunda?tce ; as, — columbarium, dove-cote (columba) ; olivetum, olive-orchard (oliva) ; ovile, sheep-fold (ovis). Nouns. — Adjectives. Ill 4. The suffix -atus denotes official position or honor ; as, — consulatus, cons2ilship (consul). 5. The suffix -Ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates a vocation or the place where it is carried 07i ; as, — doctrina, teaching (doctor, teacher') ; medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician) ; sutrina, cobbler'' s shop (sutor, cobbler). 6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of . . . daughter of. . . . They have the following suffixes : — a) Masculines : -ides, -ades, -Ides ; as, Priamides, son of Priam ; Aeneades, son of Aeneas ; Pelides, son of Peleus. b) Feminines : -eis, -is, -ias ; as. Nereis, daughter of Nereus ; Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of Thaumas. 3. Nouns derived from Adjectives. 149. The suffixes -tas (-itas), -tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used for the formation of abstract nouns de7ioting qualities ; as, — bonitas,^^^<^;/^-yi-; celeritas, swiftness; m.3.^nitvidiO, greatness ; auda- cidL, boldness ; diralcitia., friendship. B. ADJECTIVES. 1. Adjectives derived from Verbs. 150. I . The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force of a present participle ; as, — tremebundus, trembling; iracundus, wrathful. 2. The suffixes -ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tende7icy^ mostly a faulty one ; as, — loquax, loquacious; credulus, credulous. 3. The suffix -idus denotes a state; as, — calidus, //(?/ ; timidus, //wzV/; cwpidiMS, eager. 4. The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability^ usually in a passive sense ; as, — fragiliSj/V.^^//^ {i.e. capable of being broken); docilis, docile. 112 Word-Formation. 2. Adjectives derived from Nouns. a) From Co7n7no7t Nouns. 151. I. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of sub- stances or materials ; as, — aureus, o/ gold ; ferieus, of z'ro/i ; idi^inus, of beech. 2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -His, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus, -inus, -ivus, -ensis signify belonging to, connected with ; as, — oratorius, oratorical; legionarius, legionary; bellicus, pertaining to war ; paternus, paternal ; civilis, civil; urbanus, of the city; regalis, regal; marinus, marine; oonsularis, consular ; aestivus, pertaining to sumuier; circensis, belonging to the circus. 3. The suffixes -osus and -lentus denote /////;/ consuevi, lam wont (lit. I have become accustomed). B. Historical Perfect. The Historical Perfect is primarily the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense of descrip- Hon); as, — Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, reddi captives negavit esse utile, Regulus caine into the Senate, set forth his com7mssio7iy said it was useless for captives to be returned. 1. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth (• Gnomic Per- fect'). Pluperfect Indicative. 263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Per- fect, denotes an act completed in the past ; as, — Caesar Rhenum transTf-e decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats. Future Perfect Indicative. 264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in future time. Thus : — scribam epistulam, cum redieris, / will write the letter when you have returned (lit. when you shall have returned). a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Per- fect than the English, which commonly employs the Present Perfect instead of the Future Perfect. Sequence of Teitses. i/i Epistolary Tenses. 265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro- priate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his letter is received; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect ; as, — nihil habebam quod scriberem, neque enim novi quidquam audieram et ad tuas onines epistulas jam rescripseram, / have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have already answered all your letters. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 266. A. In Independent Sentences. See §§ 272-280. B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called Sequence of Tenses. 267. I. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical. 2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are fol- lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus : — Principal Sequence, — video quid facias, I see what you are doing. videbo quid facias, I shall see what you are doing. videro quid facias, / shall have seen what you are doing, video quid feceris, I see what you have done. videbo quid feceris, / shall see what you have dojte. videro quid feceris, / shall have seen what you have done. Historical Sequence, — videbam quid faceres, I saw what you were doing. vidi quid faceres, I saw what you were doing. videram quid faceres, I had seen what you were doing. videbam quid fecisses, I saw what you had done. vidi quid fecisses, [saw what you had done. videram quid fecisses, I had seen what you had done. 3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incompleta action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the Indicative. 1 72 Syntax. Peculiarities of Sequence. 268. I. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive; as, — demonstravl quare ad causam accederem, / have sJioivn why I took the case (lit. I showed why ^ etc.). 2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be his- torical ; as, — videor ostendisse quales del essent, / seem to have shown of what nature the gods aj'e (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indic- ative, ostendi, I showed). 3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal tense, sometimes as historical. Thus: — Sulla suos hortatur ut forti animo sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers to be stout-hearted; Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take arms. 4. Conditional sentences of the ' contrary-to-fact ' type are not affected by the orinciples for the Sequence of Tenses ; as, — honestum tale est ut vel si ignorarent id homines sua tamen pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that eve7i if 7nen were ig7iorant of it, it would still be worthy of praise for its own lovelitiess. 5. In conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type the Imper- fect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense; as, — SI solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem tu quidem eorum qui viverent exciperes, if you called 07ily those wretched who 77121st die, you would except 710 07ie of those who live. 6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus: — rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the king was so 77iuch 77ioved that he adjudged Tissapher7ies a 11 ene7)iy. This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and sub- sequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a Sequence of Tenses. 173 result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act, and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct statement. Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to a judicavit, he adjudged. To denote a result as somethi?ig cofitinuous, all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses. 7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus : — a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an historical tense ; as, — Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea restitui non possit, Verres so ruined Sicily that it can?iot be restored (Direct statement ; non potest restitui) ; ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in nullo flagrantius studium viderim, Hortetisiiis bur7ied so with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a greater desire (Direct statement: in niillo vidi, / have seen in no one) . Note. — This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of Sequence, the Perfect is used as a principal tense ; there the Perfect was used as an historical tense, b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Sub- junctive used historically; as, — nescio quid causae fuerit ciir niillas ad me litteras dares, / do not know what reason there was why you did not send me a letter. Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Imperfect Subjunctive. Method of expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive. 269. The Future and Future Perfect which are lacking to the Latin Subjunctive are supplied in subordinate clauses as follows: — I . a~) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses, by the Imperfect after historical tenses. ^) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses. This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows, by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the reference is to future time. Thus : — 174 Syntax. Galli pollicentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall order ; Gain pollicebantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls promised they would do what Caesar shotdd order ; Galli pollicentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered ; Galli pollicebantur se facttiros quae Caesar imperavisset, the Gauls promised they woidd do what Caesar should have ordered. 2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus : — timeo ne veniat, / ain afraid he will coine ; Caesar exspectabat quid consilii hostes caperent, Caesar was waiting to see what plan the etiejny would adopt. 3. Where greater definiteness is necessary the periphrastic forms in -urus sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin ; as, — non dubito quin pater venturus sit, / do not doubt that my father will come ; non dubitabam quin pater venturus esset, / did not doubt that my father would come. 4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle or where it stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by the use of the particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive ; as, — non dubito quin te mox hiijus rei paeniteat, / do not doubt that you will soon repent of this thijig ; non dubitabam quin haec res brevi conficeretur, / did not doubt that this thing woidd soon be finished. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 270. I. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not absolutely, but zvith reference to the verb on which they depend. Thus : — a^ The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous with the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, — videtur honores adsequi, he seems to be gaining honors ; videbatur honores adsequi, he seemed to be gainiftg honors . Tenses of the Infinitive. I75 h) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, — videtur honores adsecutus esse, he seetns to have gained honors ; visuB est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed to have gained honors. c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that of the verb on which it depends ; as, — videtur honores adsecuturus esse,/z^ seems about to gain honors ; visus est honores adsecuturus esse, he seemed about to gain honors. 2. Where the English says ' ought to have done,' ' might have done,' etc.. the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui, with the Present Infini- tive; as, — debuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say) ; oportuit venire, he 07ighi to have co7ne ; potuit videre, he might have seeft. a. Oportuit, vol5, n515 (and in poetry some other verbs), may take 1 Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present; as.— hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have been done. 3. Periphrastic Future Infinitive. Verbs that have no Par- ticipial Stem express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore ut or f uturura esse ut, with the Subjunctive ; as, — spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, I hope you will repent of your fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent) ; spero futurum esse ut hostes arceantur, /hope that the ene77iy will be kept off. a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the Passive, even in case of verbs which have the Participial Stem ; as, — spero fore ut hostes vincantur, / hope the enemy will be con- quered. 4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini- tive with fore ; as, — spero epistulam scriptam fore, / hope the letter will have been written ; puts me omnia adeptum fore, / think that I shall have gained everything. 1 75 Syntax. THE MOODS. MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. The Indicative in Independent Sentences. 271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts y the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts. I . Note the following idiomatic uses : — a) With possum ; as, — possum multa dicere, / might say 7nuch ; poteram multa dicere, I might have said much (§ 270, 2). b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius est, difficile est, utilius est, and some others ; as, — longum est ea dicere, it wouid be tedious to tell that ; difficile est omnia persequi, it would be difficult to enu- merate everything. The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences. 272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences to express something — 1 . As willed — Volitive Subjunctive ; 2. As desired — Optative Subjunctive; 3. Conceived of as possible — Potential Subjunctive. VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 273. The VoHtive Subjunctive represents the action as willed. It always implies authority on the part of the speaker, and has the following varieties : — A. Hortatory Subjunctive. 274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhor- tation. This use is confined to the first person plural, of the Present. The negative is ne. Thus : — eamus, let us go \ amemus patriam, let us love our country ; ne desperemus, let us not despair. The Volitive Subjunctive. 177 B. Jussive Subjunctive. 275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command. The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and is used — 1 . Most frequently in the third singular and third plural ; as, — dicat, let Jiijn tell ; dicant, let them tell y impii ne placare audeant deos, let not the 'wicked dare to appease the gods. 2. Less frequently in the second person ; as, — isto bono utare, 2ise that advantage ; modeste vivas, live temperately. C. Prohibitive Subjunctive. 276. The Subjunctive is used in the second person sin- gular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibition. As regards the use of tenses, the Perfect seems to be used where there is special excitement or emotion^ otherwise the Present ; as, — ne repugnetis, do not resist ! tu vero istam ne reliqueris, don't you leave her ! a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose. b. The distinction sometimes drawn between the Present and the Perfect in this construction, restricting the former to general prohibitions, and the latter to those addressed to a definite second person, will not hold. c. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition is by the use of noli (nolite) with a following infinitive, or by cave ne with the Subjunctive ; as, — noli hoc facere, don't do this (lit. be unwilling to do) ! nolite mentiri, do not lie! cave ne haec facias, do not do this (lit. take care lest you do). D. Deliberative Subjunctive. 277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions and excla^nations implying doubt or indignation. The 1^8 Syntax. Present is used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring to past. The negative is non. Thus : — quid f aciam, lu/iat shall I do ? ego redeam, sJiall I go back ? quid facerem, what was T to do? hunc ego non diligam, shall I not cherish this 7nan f a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in char« acter, and do not expect an answer. E. Concessive Subjunctive. 278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as granted or conceded for the sake of argnment. The Present is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past. The negative is ne. Thus : — sit hoc verum, granting that this is true (lit. let this be true) ; ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granting that pain is not the greatest evil., yet it is certainly an evil-, fuerit malus civis aliis, tibi quando esse coepit, granting that he was a bad citizen to others., when did he begin to be so toward you ? . OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of wishing. The negative is regularly ne. The use of tenses is as follows : — 1 . The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where the wish is conceived of as possible. ^1 istaeo prohibeant, may the gods prevent that I f alsus utinam vates sim, oh that I may be a false prophet I ne veniant, 7nay they not come ! 2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that something is 7iot so now ; the Pluperfect that something was not so in tJie past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by utinam ; as, — utinam istud ex animo diceres, woidd that you were saying that in earnest., (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) ; Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arcus, would that Achilles had escaped the bow of Apollo ; utinam ne natus essem, would that I had not been born- The Potential Subjunctive. 179 POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE,. 280. The Potential Subjuactive QxpxtssQS a possibility. The negative is non. The following uses are to be noted : — 1. The Potential Subjunctive may designate a mere objective possi- bility (English auxiliary 7;iay). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. The subject is generally an indefinite pronoun. Thus : — dlcat aliquis, so?ne one may say ; dixerit aliquis, some one iiiay say. a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples. 2. The Potential Subjunctive may represent something as contingent upon a condition expressed or understood (English auxiliary should^ would). Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus : — fortiinani citius reperias quani retineas, one would more qiiickly Jind Fortune than keep it {i.e. if one should make the trial) ; paene dicam, I should almost say (i.e. if I were to express an opinion) ; crediderim, / should believe. a. Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as softened forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus : — velim mihi ignoscas, I wish you would forgive me\ nolim putes me jocari, / dont want you to think fm joking. b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303) ; as, — dies deficiat, si coner enumerare causas, time would fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reaso?is. 3. In the Imperfect the Potential occurs in the second person singu- lar (with indefinite force ; § 356, 3) of a few verbs, chiefly the following : — crederes, one might have believed •, videres, cerneres, one might have seejt, perceived; putares, one might have thought. 4. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) ctre also Potential in character. By omission of the Protasis such an Apodosis sometimes stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem, mallem ; as, — vellem id quidem, / would wish that {i.e. were I bold enough) . i8o Syntax. The Imperative. 281. The Imperative is used in commandsy admonitions^ and entreaties (negative ne) ; as, — egredere ex urbe, depart fro?n the city ; mihi ignosce, pardon me ; ^r die, farewell. 1. The Present is the tense of the hnperative most commonly used, but the Future is employed — «) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially in the apodosis of conditional sentences ; as, — rem vobis proponam ; vos earn penditote, I will lay the 7natter before you ; do you {tJteii) consider it ; 81 bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if he shall speak well, attribute it to Greek literature. b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc. ; as, — consules summum jus habento, the consuls shall have siipreme power ; hominem mortuomi in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury a dead body in the city ; amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo RomanS his legi- bus et condicionibus esto, let there be peace between Antiochus and the Roman people on the following terms and conditions. quartae esto partis Marcus heres, let Marcus be heir to a fourth {of the property) ; ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam tibi, forgive your neigh- bor often, yourself never. 2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in classical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways. See § 276, c. 3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin {why 7tot?) are often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive ; as, — quin abis, go away ! (lit. why don'' t you go a%vay /) quin vocem continetis, keep still ! (lit. why donH you stop your voices .?) quin equos conscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do we not mount our horses f) Clauses of Purpose. i8i MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. Clauses of Purpose. 282. I. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most com- monly by ut (uti), quo {that, in order that), ne {in order that not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive ; as, — edimus, ut vivamus, we eat that we may live. adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, help me, in order that this may be done 7nore easily. portas clausit, ne quam oppidani injuriam acciperent, he closed the gates, lest the towjispeople should receive any inJ7iry. a. Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional exceptions occur ; as, — haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreant, they are doing this in order to frighten Chr ernes. b. Ut ne is sometimes found, as more emphatic than ne. Thus : — ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, in order that we may not do anything carelessly. c. Ut non (not ne) is used where the negation belongs to some single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole. Thus : — ut non ejeotus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos vide- are, that you may seem 7tot driveit out among stratigers, but invited to your own friends. d. To say ^ and that not ' or ' or that not,^ the Latin regularly uses neve (neu) ; as, — ut earum rerum vis minueretur, neu ponti nocerent, that the violence of these things might be lessened, and that they might not harm the bridge ; profugit, ne caperetur neve interficeretur, he fled, that he might not be captured or killed. e. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in the second clause when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the first clause is introduced by ne. ^^82 Syntax. 2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (ubi, unde, quo) is fre- •quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause; as, — Helvetii legates mittunt, qui dicerent, the Helvetii se7it envoys to say (lit. ivlio should say^ ; haec habui, de senectute quae dicerem, / had these things to say about old age ; non habebat quo fugeret, he had jio place to which to flee (lit. whither he might flee) . a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut eg-Q, etc.; ubi to ut ibi ; unde to ut inde ; quo to ut eo. 3. Relative clauses of purpose follow dignus, indignus, and ido- iieus ; as, — idoueus fuit nem5 quern imitarere, tJiere was no one suitable for you to i)nitate {cf. nemo fuit quein imitarere, tJiere was no one to imitate^ ; dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime. 4. Purpose clauses often depend upon something to be supplied from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sen- tences ; as, — ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this (/ will say that) we depaj'ted. Clauses of Characteristic. 283. I. A relative clause used to express an essential quality or characteristic of an antecedent not otherwise de- fined is called a Clause of Characteristic, and stands in the Subjunctive ; as, — multa sunt, quae mentem acuant, there are many things which sharpen the wits. Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which are used merely to state or assume some fact about an antecedent already defined, and which therefore take the Indicative; as, — Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatus est, Cato, a delight- ful old ma7i, who was called '■The Wise."^ The Clause of Characteristic implies '■ a man of the sort that does some- thing'' ; the Indicative relative clause implies '■a man who actually does something.'' Clauses of Characteristic. 183 2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions as, est qui ; sunt qui ; nemo est qui ; nullus est qui ; unus est qui ; solus est qui ; quis est qui ; is qui ; etc. Thus : — sunt qui dioant, there are {some) who say ; nemo est qui putet, there is nobody who thinks ; sapientia est. una quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing that drives away sorrow ; quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that cannot be overthrown ? non is sum qui improbos laudem, / am not the sort of man that praises the wicked. a. Sometimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteris- tic is used after comparatives ; as, — non long-ius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigi posset, the efieviy were not too far off for a dart to reach them {\\\. further off than [a point] to which a dart could be cast). 3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion of cause {since) or opposition {although). Thus : — a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut, quippe, utpote ; as, — 6 fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris, O fortunate jnajt, since you have found a Hoiner as the herald of your valor ; ut qui Optimo jure eam provinciam obtinuerit, since he held that province by excellent right. b) Opposition : — egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures dies Athenis commoratus sum, /, al- though I had taken up Greek literature late in life, nevertheless tarried several days at Athens. 4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui (quae, quod) non; as, — nemo est quin saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often heard ; nemo fuit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers who was not wounded. 5 . Under Clauses of Characteristic belong also phrases of the type : quod sciam, so far as I know ; quod audierim, so far as I have heard. 1 84 Syntax. Clauses of Result. 284. I. Clauses of Result are usually introduced by ut {that, so that), negative ut non {so that not), and take the Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantus, talis, tot, is ( = talis), tam, or some similar word. Thus : — quis tam demens est ut sua voluntate maereat, who is so senseless as to 7nour)i of his own volition f Sicilian! ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum non possit, he has so ravaged Sicily that it ca?mot be restored to its former condition ; mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere pos- sent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could easily stop them. 2. A Resuh Clause is often introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb, qui ( = ut is), quo ( = ut eo), etc. ; as, — nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere, nobody is so old as not to think he will live a year ; habetis eum consulem qui parere vestris decretis non dubitet, you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees. a. These relative clauses of result are a development of the Clause of Characteristic, and sometimes it is difificult to distinguish the two con- structions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic, unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable. 3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quTn = ut non ; as, — nihil tam difficile est quin quaerendo investigari possit, nothing is so difficidt that it cajinot be discovered by searching. nemo est tam fortis quin rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange occurrence. Note phrases of the type : — fieri non potest quin _scribam, | ^^^^^^^^ avoid writing facere non possum quin scribam, J 4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone; to denote Result after comparatives ; aJ,,— urbs erat mtinitior quam ut primo impetu capi posset, the city was too strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. 7nore strongly fortified, than [jc?] that it could be taken ^ etc.)* Causal Clauses. 185 Causal Clauses. 285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the fol- lowing particles : — 1 . Quod, quia, quoniam. 2. Cum. 3. Quando. 286. The use of moods is as follows : — I. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the reason is tJiat of the zvritei' or speaker ; they take the Sub- junctive when the reason is viewed as that of another. Thus : — Parthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear the Parthians, because I distrust our troops. Themistocles, quia non tiitus erat, Corcyram demigravit, The- jm'stocles, since he was not safe^ inoved to Corcyra. neque me vixisse paenitet, quoniam bene vixi, / do not regret having livedo since / have lived well. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventiitem, Socrates was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young. (Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the accuser. Hence the Subjunctive.) Aedui Caesari gratias egerunt, quod se periculo liberavisset, the Aedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The reason of the Aedui.) quoniam Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit Ti- sagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for him. (The reason of Tisagoras.) noctii ambulabat Themistocles, quod somnum capere non pos- set, Themistocles used to walk at night because (^as he said) he couldnH sleep. a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunc- tive in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or say- ing, and not the contents of the thought or language, con- stituted the reason. Thus : — Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt, quod se suo nomine cum Romanis bellum gestiiros dice- rent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their co?nplement, be- 1 86 Syntax. cause they said they were going to wage war with the Romans on their own account. b Non quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non quia, not that, not because-, and non quod non, non quo non, non quin, not that . . . not-, not because . . . not', , not but what, are usually employed merely to introduce a hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive ; as, — id feci, non quod vos hano defensionem desiderare arbitrarer, sed ut omnes intellegerent, this I did, not because I thought you 7ieeded this defense, but that all might perceive ; Crasso commendationem non sum pollicitus, non quin earn valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi commendatione non videbatur, / did not promise a recommendatio7i to Crassus, not that I did not think it would have weight with you, but because he did not see7n to me to need recominendation. c. But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied to be the reason for something ; as, — hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic existimare nos est necesse, this I think, not because 1 a7n 77iyself a7i augur {which I really a77i), but because it is 7iecessary for 7(s to thi7ik so. 2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as, — quae cum ita sint, si7ice this is so; cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, ciira, si7ice you are mortal, care for what is 7Jiortal. a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum), especially si7tce ; as, — Aeduos accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus ad- ductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Aedui, especially si7ice he had undertake7t the war at their e7itreaties. 3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs the Indicative ; as, — id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, / pass over that, si7ice you so wish. Clauses with Postquam, Ubi, etc. 1 8/ Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubi, Simul ac, etc. 287. I. Postquam (posteaquam), after; ut, ubi, when; cum primum, simul, simul ac (simul atque), as soon as, when used to refer to a single occiLrrence regularly take the Per- fect Indicative ; as, — Epaminondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, '■ Satis ' inquit ' vixi,' Epa7nino7idas, after he heard that the Boeotians had con- quered, said, ^ I have lived enough? id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he moved to Corey r a ; Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as soon as he could, hiirried to the army ; ubi de Caesaris adventu certiores facti sunt, legates ad eum mittunt, when they were ii formed of Caesar'' s arrival, they sent envoys to him. a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this con- struction. 2. To denote the repeated occurrejice of an act, ut, ubi, simul atque, as often as, when following an historical tense, take the Plu- perfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3 ; 302, 3); as, — ut quisque Verris animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coni- ciebatur, whenever anybody had offended Verres''s feelings, he was forthwith put iii the stone-qtiarry ; hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspexerant, adoriebantur, whenever the ene^ny had seen any men disembarking, they attacked them. a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub- junctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act (' Indefi- nite Frequency') ; as, — id ubi dixisset, hastam mittebat, whenever he had said that, he hurled a spear. 3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluper- fect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days, months, years, etc.^, such as post tertium annum quam, tribus post annis quam. Thus : — 1 88 Syntax. paucls post diebus quam Luca discesserat, ad Sardiniam venit, a few days after he had departed from Luca he ca7ne to Sar- dijiia ; postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Cartha- ginem, after Syracuse had been seized^ he set out for Carthage. 4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs to denote a continued state; as, — postquam Romam adventabant, senatus consultus est, after they were oti the march toivards Rome, the Senate was consulted ; postquam struct! utrimque stabant, after they had been drawn up on both sides and were in position. 5. Rarely postquam, posteaquam., following the analogy of cum, take the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses ; as, — posteaquam samptuosa fieri funera coepissent, lege sublata sunt, after funerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law. Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.. A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST. 288. I. Cum, when referring to the past, takes — A. The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or Pluperfect) to denote tJie point of thne at which something occurs. B. The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to denote the situation or circumstances under which something occurs. Examples : — Indicatfv^e. an tum eras consul, cum in Palatio mea domus ardebat, or were you cotisiil at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine ? credo tum cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis magna artificia fuisse in ea insula, / believe that at the time when Sicily was powerful iti riches and resources there were great crafts in that island] eo tempore paruit cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the time when it was necessary to obey ; illo die, cum est lata lex de me, on that day when the law concern- ing me was passed. CvLxn-Clauses. 1 89 Subjunctive. Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leges commutare, prohibitus est, when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lyciirgus, he was Prevoited ', Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis bovem immolasse dicitur, when Pythagoras had discovered something new in geometry^ he is said to have sacrificed an ox to the Muses. a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases where the main clause has tum, eo die, eo anno, eo tem- pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive. 2. When the logical order of the clauses is inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present, in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases often has jam, vix, aegre, nondum ; as, — jam Gain ex oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae repente procurrerunt, the Gaiils were already preparing to fiee, when sicddenly the jnatrons rushed forth (logically, the i7ia- trons rushed forth as the Gaids were preparing to flee) ; Treviri Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse cognoscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when {sud- denly) they learned that two legions had arrived. 3. To denote a rectirring action in the past cum is followed by the In- dicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 302, 3); as, — cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eadem lectica ad cubiculum deferebatur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was {always) carried in the same litter to his room ; cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis emittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields, he would send his charioteers out from the woods. a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used ; as,— saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum amiculum dedit, often, whenever he saw some one more poorly clothed, he gave him his oion mantle ; cum procucurrissent, Numidae effugiebant, as often as they had advanced, the Numidians ran away. This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians. iQO Syntax. B. Cum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE. 289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regu- larly takes the Indicative ; as, — tum tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, your own interests are at stake when your neighbor's house is buriiing; cum videbis, tum scies, when you see, then you will know. a. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring action; as, — stabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines cu- pidinibus imperabunt, firm fnejidslup ca^i be established wkenever men shall control their desires. C. Other Uses of Cum. 290. I. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is some- times used to indicate tlie identity of one act with another ; as, — cum tacent, clamant, their silence is a shout (ht. when they are silent, they shout) . 2. Cum . . . tum. When cum . . . tum mean both . . . and, the cum-clause is in the Indicative ; but when cum has the force of while, though, it may take the Subjunctive ; as,— cum te semper dilexerim, tum tuis factis incensus sum, while I have always loved you, at the same time I- am incensed at your conduct. Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusqnam. A. With the Indicative. 291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante . . . quam, prius . . . quam) take the Indicative to denote an actual fact. 1. Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect ; as, — prius respondes quam rogo, /ossit. / /ear that he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army. C. Substantive Clauses of Result. 297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut, ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and occur with the following classes of words : — 1 . As object clauses after verbs of doing, acconiplishijig (especially facio, efficio, conficio). Thus : — gravitas morbi facit ut niedicma e^edLXOMs, the severity of disease 7nakes 21s Jieed medicine. 2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, effici- tur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequitur, relinquitur. Thus : — ex quo efJicitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,yr^w which it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good-, ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, thns it happeiis that no one can be happy ; accedebat ut naves deessent, another thing was the lack of ships (lit. it was added that ships were lacking^. 3. As predicate or appositive after expressions like jus est, mos est, consuetudo est ; also after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc. Thus : — est mos hominum ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere, it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in majiy things. D. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quin. 298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quln (used some- times as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative and interrogative expressions of dotcbt, omission^ and the like, particularly after non dubito, / do not doubt ; quia 196 Syntax. dubitat, wJio doiibts? ; non (haud) dubium est, there is no doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples: — quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae siiit , who doubts that in virtue there are riches ? non dubium erat quin venturus esset, there was ?io doubt that he was about to come. a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito ; as, — non dubitamus inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were found. b. Non dubito, I do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive, though sometimes by a quin-clause. JE7. Substantive Clauses introduced by Quod. 299. I. Quod, tJie fact that, that, introduces Substan- tive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs especially — a') In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id, illud, ilia, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus : — illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinen • dos censuit, this is especially worthy of admiratio7t, that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept ; hoc uno praestamus vel maxime feris, quod coUoqui- mur inter nos, i?i this one respect are we especially superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other. b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, etc. ; as — ^ bene mihi accidit, quod niittor ad mortem, it is well for me that I am sent to death ; bene fecisti quod mansisti, yoit did well in remaining. 2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force of as regards the fact that. Thus : — quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam tradiico, id mei muniendi causa facio, as regards the fact that I am trans- porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for the sake of strengtheni^ig myself', quod me Agamemnona aemulari putas, falleris, as regards your thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistake?t. Substantive Clauses. 197 Indirect Questions. 300. I. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used after verbs of askijig, ijiquU^mg, telling and the like. They take their verb in the Subjunctive.^ Like Direct Questions (see § 162) they may be introduced — d) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs ; as, — die mihi ubi fueris, quid feceris, tell 7ne where you were, what you did ; oculis judicari non potest in utram partem fluat Arar, it cayinot be determined by the eye in which directioji the Arar flows ; bis bina quot essent, nesciebat, he did not know how many two tiiJies two were. Note. — Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly in the following : — effugere nemo id potest quod futiirum est, no one can escape what is destined to come to pass ; but saepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but often it is 7iot even iiseful to know what is coming to pass. b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning ; as, — Epaminondas quaesivit num salvus esset clipeus, or salvusne esset clipeus, lipaminondas asked whether his shield was safe ; disputatur num interire virtus in homine possit, the question is raised whether virtue can die iii a man ; ex Socrate quaesibum est nonne Archelaum beatum putaret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he did not think Archelaus happy. Note. — N5nne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, as in the last example above. 2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive of the direct discourse ; as, — nescio quid f aciam, / do not know what to do. (Direct : quid f aciam, what shall I do ,') 1 Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as c6n- sidera quam variae sint hominum cupidines, consider how varied are the desires of men. ( Direct : quam variae sunt hominum cupidines !) 198 Syntax. 3. After verbs of expectation and ejideavor (exspecto, conor, experior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question intro- duced by SI ; as, — conantur si perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break through. a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted ; as, — pergit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia fer- rent, he proceeded to the nearest cave {to see) if the tracks led thither. 4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in the main by the same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4) ; viz. : — utrum . . . an ; -ne an ; an Examples : — quaero utrum verum an falsum sit, quaero verumne an falsum sit, quaero verum an falsuin sit, quaero verum falsumne sit. - /ask whether it is true or false? a. 'Or not' in the second member of a double question is ordinarily expressed by necne, less frequently by an non ; as, — di utrum sint necne, quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods or not. 5. Hand scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first member of the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense : / am inclined to think., probably., perhaps ; as, — hand scio an hoc verum sit, /am inclined to think this is true. 6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in Indirect Questions. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences (§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or coii- ditiofi), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the Apodosis (or conclnsion\ We distinguish the following types of Conditional Sentences : — Conditional Sentences. 199 First Type. — Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Supposed Case. 302. I. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used ; as, — si hoc credis, erras, if yoii believe this, you are mistaken; naturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow Nature, we shall never go astray ; SI hoc dixisti, errasti, zf you said this, you were in error. 2. Sometimes the Protasis takes tlie Indefinite Second Person Singu- lar (§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of the Indicative ; as, — memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, 7nemory grows weak unless you exercise it. 3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Prot- asis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 288, 3); as, — 81 quis equitum deciderat, pedites circumsistebant, if any one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him. a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated action ; as, — si dicendo quis diem eximeret, if {ever) anybody consumed a day in pleading ; SI quando adsideret, if ever he sat by. 4. Where the sense demands it the Apodosis in conditional sen- tences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Inde- pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.') ; as, — SI hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent; SI hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep silent. Second Type. — Supposed Case represented as Contingent. 303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Pres- ent or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis; as, — si hoc dicas, erres, ] if you should say this, you would be mis- si hoc dixeris, erraveris, J taken. SI velim Hannibalis proelia omnia describere, dies me deficiat, if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, time would fail me ; 200 Syntax. mentiar, sT negem, / should lie, if I should deny it ; haec SI tecum patria loqtiatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your country should plead thus with you, would she not deserve to obtain her request f a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type is of the Potential variety. b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in th Apodosis of sentences of the Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the consummation of a result more positively ; as, — aliter si faciat, nullam habet auctoritatem, if he should do otherwise, he has no authority. Third Type. — Supposed Case represented as Contrary to Fact. 304. I. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present time, and the Pluperfect referring to past ; as, — Si amici mei adessent, opis non indigerem, if my friends were here, I should not lack assistance ; ' I j si hoc dixisses, errasses, if you had said this, yoji would have erred ; sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil efficeret, philosophy would not be desired, if it accomplished nothing; consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless de- liberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ances- tors would not have called their highest deliberative body a senate. 2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the past, especially to denote a continued act, or a state of things still ^.yivfimr: 3 = iiaeiius, runue, oato, eT nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam £§ ad earum studium contulissent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters, unless they had been {constantly^ helped by them ; num igitur si ad centesimum annum vixisset, senectutis eum suae paeniteret, if he had lived to his hundredth year, would he have regretted {and now be regretting) his old Conditional Sentences. 20I 3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz. — a) Frequently in expressions of ability^ obligation^ or neces- sity, as, — nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turfied to folly, they could have thrown off the yoke ; Note. — In sentences of this type, however, it is not the possibility that is repre- sented as contrary-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought from the context. Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent understood {^CLud they would have shaken it off). When the possibility itself is conditioned, the Subjunctive is used. eum patris loco oolere debebas, si ulla in te pietas esset, yo2i ought to revere him as a father, if you had any sense of devotion. b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations ; as, — si Pompejus occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma ituri, if Poinpey had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms ? Bi unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have had to die. Protasis expressed -withoat Si. 305. I . The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si, but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context ; as, — alioqui haec non scriberentur, otherwise {i.e. if matters were other- wise) these things would not be written ; non potestis, voluptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtiitem, you cannot retain virtue .^ if you direct everything with reference to pleasure. 2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive serves as Protasis. Thus: — eras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (lit ask to-morrow, etc.) ; haec reputent, videbunt, if they consider this, they will see (lit. let them consider, etc.)\ cave haec facias, beware not to do this ! (Originally : do this ! then beware I i.e. if you do it, beware I Hence beware not to do it!) 202 Syntax. Use of Nisi, SI Non, Sin. 306. I. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; si non nega- tives a single word ; as, — ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, / should be hard-hearted unless 1 loved you', but — ferreus essem, si te non amarem, / should be hard-hearted if I did NOT love you. In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived, In the second, the notion of loving. 2. Si non (si minus) must be employed : — ^) When an apodosis with at, tamen, cert§ follows ; as, — dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen ocoultabo, if I cannot crush viy sorrow, yet I will hide it. b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form ; as,— si feceris, magnam habebo gratiam ; si non feoeris^ ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you do not do it, I shall pardo7i you. a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus is admis- sible; as, — hoc si assecutus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, /// have attained this, I am glad ; if not, I console myself. 3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin ; as, — hunc mihi timorem eripe ; si verus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus, ut timere desinam, relieve me of this fear ; if it is well foimded, that I may not be destroyed', but if it is groundless, that / may cease to fear. 4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo, nihil) ; as, — nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but 7mirder. a. Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity. 5. Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed (often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as, — nisi vero, quia peifecta res non est, non videtur punienda, tin- less indeed, becaitse aji act is ?iot constuntiiated, it does not seetn to 7nerit punisJinient. Clauses of Compai'ison. — Adversative Clauses. 203 Conditional Clauses of Comparison, 307. I. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro- duced by the particles, ac si, ut si, quasi, quam si, tamquam SI, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. They are fol- lowed by the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis, as indicated in the. following examples: — tantus patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis esset, as great fear seized the senators as {would have seized theiii) if the ejiemy were already at the gates ; sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi res dubia aut obscura sit, dut why do I use these witnesses, as (/ should do) if the matter were doubtful or obscure ; serviam tibi tamquam si emeris me argento, / will serve you as though y 01 1 had bought me for money. 2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regu- lar principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third exam- ples), where the English uses the Past and the Past Perfect. Concessive Clauses. 308. The term ' Concessive ' is best restricted to those clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which have the force oi granted that, etc. (see § 278); as,— Git fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, granted that he is a thief and a robber, yet he is a good cofnmatider ; at hoc verum sit, granted that this is true ; ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granted that pain is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil. a. Here also belongs the use of the Subjunctive with licet (see \ 295, 6), where licet has the force oi he may, they may, etc. ; as, — fremant omnes licet, dicam quod sentio, they may all shout, {but) I shall say what I think. Adversative Clauses with Quamvis, Quamquam, etc. 309. Clauses introduced by quamvTs, quamquam, etsi, tametsi, cum, although, while often classed as ' Conces- sive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive 204 Syntax. clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede any- thing, but rather state that something is true in spite of something else. They accordingly emphasize the adver- sative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these clauses have different meanings and take different con- structions, as follows : — 1. Quamvis, however much., although., does not introduce a state- ment of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense ; as, — homines quamvis in turbidis rebus sint, tamen interdum animis relaxantur, /;/ however stirring events men inay engage., yet at times they relax their e?iergies ; non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state., though it be beset by dangers. 2. Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, although., introduce a statement of fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense) ; as, — quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tamen justitia id maxime efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so espe- cially ; Caesar, etsT nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen id quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, though he did not yet know the plans of the enemy, yet was siispecting what actually occurred. a. Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. The latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible for si. (See §^ 302-304.) 3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive; as, — Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, Atticus did 7iot seek ho7iors, though they were open to him. 4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 308, a) and sinks to the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the Subjunctive, Present or Perfect ; as, — licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, though all terrors hang over me, {yet) I will lend aid. 5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce principal clauses ; as, — quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do f speak? Clauses of Proviso. — Relative Clauses. 205 6, In post-Augustan writers quamquam is freely construed with the Sub- junctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes either the Indicative or tlie Subjunctive. Thus : — quamquam moveretur his vocibus, although he -was moved by these words ; quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought ; quamvis infesto animo perveneras, though you had come with hostile intent. Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dummodo, denoting a Wish or a Proviso. 310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive (negative ne) and have two distinct uses : — I. They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish entertained by the subject of the leading verb ; as, — multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam consequantur, many ?ieglect honor in their desire to obtain power {if only they may attain ) ; omnia postposui, dum praeceptis patris parerem, I made everything else secondary., iji 7ny desire to obey the injiuictions of niy father ; hi) obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, nothing hinders you in your desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you. II. They are used to express a proviso {^provided that ') ; as, — oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear ; manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria, old men retain their factdties, provided only they retain their interest ai^d vigor ; nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, let the7n marry, provided no dowry goes with it. Note. — Of these two uses of dum, modo, and dummodo, the first is the original one ; the second has grown out of the first, and frequently retains the origi- nal notion of wishing, as in 5derint, dum metuant. Relative Clauses. 311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro- nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs. 312. I. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood, especially clauses introduced bv those General Relatives which are doubled or have the suffix -cunque ; as, — 2o6 Syntax. quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever it is, I fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts ; quidquid oritur, qualecunque est, causam a natura habet, what- ever comes into beitig, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause in Nature. 2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of any of the three types mentioned in §§ 302-304; as, — qui hoc dicit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type) ; qui hoc die at, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this (Sec- ond Type) ; qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have been jnis taken. '^ INDIRECT DISCOURSE {ORATIO OBLIQUA). 313. When the language or thought of any person is quoted without change, that is called Direct Discourse {pmtid Recta)', as, Caesar said, ^ TJie die is cast! When, on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to depend upon a verb of saying, tJiijiking, etc., that is called Indirect Discourse {O ratio Obliqtia) ; as, Caesar said that the die zvas cast ; Caesar tJioiigJit that his troops were victorious. a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect Discourse, see § 331. MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Declaratory Sentences. 314. I. Declaratory Sentences upon becoming Indirect change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunc- tive ; as, — Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium teneretur non esse se senatorem, Regulus said that as long as he was held by his pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct : qnam diu teneor non sum senator.) Indirect Discourse. 207 2. The verb of sayings thinkings etc., is sometimes to be inferred from the context ; as, — turn Romulus legates circa vicinas gentes misit qui societatein conubiumque peterent : urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex infimo nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around aitiong the neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of ijtter- rnarriage, {saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a modest beginning. 3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of the writer are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, and hence regularly take the Indicative; as, — certior factus ex ea parte vici, quam Gallis concesserat, omnes noctu discessisse, he was inforjned that all had departed by night from that part of the village which he had granted to the Gauls. 4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form, and in sense is principal. It then takes the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where qui is equivalent to et hic, nam hic, etc. ; as, — dixit urbem Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse bar- baris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufra- gium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the barbaj'ians like a bulwark, near which (= and near it) the fleets of the King had twice met disaster. 5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading verb, or can easily be supplied from the context ; as, — cum id nescire Mago diceret, when Mago said he did not know this (for se nescire). Interrogative Sentences. 315. I. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunc- tive ; as, — Ariovistus Caesari respondit : se prius in Galliani venisse quam populum Romanum. Quid sibi vellet ? Cur in siias possessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that he 2o8 Syntax. had come hito Gaid before the Roman people. What did he {Caesar^ 77iean ? Why did he come into his domain ? (Direct : quid tibi vis ? cur in meas possessiones veins ?) 2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis- course. Thus : — quid est levius (lit. what is 7nore trivial, — nothing is more trivial) of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the In- direct. 3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain un- changed in mood in the Indirect; as, — quid faceret, what was he to do ? (Direct : quid faciam?) Imperative Sentences. 316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the In- direct ; as, — milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct: intermittite.) a. The Negative in such sentences is ne ; as, — ne suae virtuti tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own valor ! TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. A. Tenses of the Infinitive. 317. These are used in accordance with the regular principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270. a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus : — scio te haec egisse may mean — I know yon were doing this. (Direct: haec agebas.) I know you did this. (Direct: haec egisti.) I know you had do?ie this. (Direct: haec egeras.) Indirect Discourse. 209 J5. Tenses of the Subjunctive. 318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying is Princi- pal ; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used after an historical tense ; as, — Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturiim, Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would 7nake peace. a. For the sequence after the Perfect infinitive, see § 268, 2. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. Conditional Sentences of the First T>pe. 319. A. The Apodosis. Any tense of the Indicative is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive (§§ 270; 317,4 B. The Protasis. The protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence of Tenses. Examples : — Direct. Indirect. - 1 - _ ,. _ f dico, si hoc credas, te errare ; SI hoc credis, erras, \ ^ _ ' ' [ dixi, SI hoc crederes, te errare. si hoc credes, errabis, | ^^^°' ^' ^^^ ^^^^^^' ^^ erraturum esse ; [ dixi, si hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. r dlco, si hoc credideris, te erraturum I esse ; I dixT, SI hoc credidisses, te erraturum I -,- -j-t.- --4.- f dico, SI hoc crederes, te erravisse ; SI hoc credebas, erravisti, ^ _ _ ' _ ' _ ' [ dixi, SI hoc crederes, te erravisse. a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after an his- torical tense. p 2IO Syntax. Conditional Sentences of the Second Type. 320. A. The Apodosis. The Present Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infini- tive of the Indirect. B. The Protasis. The Protasis takes those tenses of the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses. Examples : — - , _ _ ,_ _ f dico, SI hoc credas, te erraturum esse: SI hoc credas, erres, J _ _ _ _ _ [ dixi, SI hoc crederes, te erraturum esse. Conditional Sentences of the Third Type. 321. A. The Apodosis. I. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes: — a) In the Active Voice the Future Infinitive. b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum esse (fore) ut, with the .Imperfect Subjunctive. 2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse becomes : — a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse. b) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut with the Imperfect Subjunctive. B. The Protasis. The protasis in Conditional Sen- tences of this type always remains unchanged. Examples : — si hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixT), sT h5c crederes, te erra- turum esse ; si hoc credidisses, erravisses, dico (dixT), sT hoc credidisses, te erraturum fuisse ; si hoc dixisses, piinitus esses, dico (dlxI), sT hoc dixisses fiitu- rum fuisse ut punireris. 322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause, or a Indirect Discourse. 21 1 quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.^, it stands in the Perfect Sub- junctive in the form -urus f uerim ; as, — ita territi sunt, ut arma tradituri fuerint,i nisi Caesar subito advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given up their amis, had not Caesar suddenly arrived', non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris,^ / do not doubt that, if you had said this, you woidd have made a mistake. a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent, remain unchanged ; as, — non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, vituperatus esses, / do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have been blamed. b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a con- ditional sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely -urus fuissem) is used; as, — quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erratiirus fueris (or fuisses). c. Pottii, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive; as. — concursu t5tiu6 civitatis defensi sunt, ut frigidissimos quoque oratores populi studia excitare potuerint, t/iey were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the interest of the people would have been enough to excite even the most apathetic orators. IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose Indirect character is merely implied by the context; as, — demonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates de immortali- tate animorum disseruisset, there were explained to i}ie be- sides, the argu7nents which Socrates had set forth concerning the immortality of the soul {i.e. the arguments which, it was said, Socrates had set forth) ; Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit, Paetus gave me all the books which {as he said) his father had left. 1 Tradituri fuerint an.d erraturus fueris are to be regarded as repre- senting tradituri fuerunt and erraturus fuisti of Direct Discourse. (See 2 1 2 Syntax. SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION. 324. I. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Sub- junctive are frequently attracted into the same mood, especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute an essential paj't of one complex idea ; as, — nemo avarus adhuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis, no i7iiser has yet been found who was satisfied with what he had ; cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et animi et ingenii redderent, as they brought forward differ- ent arguments, while each mirrored his own individual tyfie of mi?id and natural bent. quod ego fatear, pudeat, should I be ashamed of a thing which I admit? 2. Similady a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive is put in the Subjunctive vv^hen the two form one closely united whole ; as, — mos est Athenis quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti, // is the custom at Atheiis every year for those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle. (Here the notion of ' praising those who fell in battle ' forms an inseparable whole.) NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 325. These are the Infinitive, Participle, Gerund, and Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb, on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the other. Thus : — As Verbs, — rt) They may be limited by adverbs ; b) They admit an object \ c) They have the properties of voice and tense. As Nouns or Adjectives, — a) They are declined ; b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions. Noun and Adjective Forms of the Verb. 213 THE INFINITIVE. Infinitive without Subject Accusative. 326. This may be used either as Subject or Object. Note. — The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express purpose; as, nec dulces occur- rent oscula nati praeripere, and no sweet children will run to snatch kisses. A. As Subject. 327. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs, particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, delectat, placet, libet, licet, praestat, condiicit, expedit, decet, pudet, interest, etc. ; as, — dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, // is sweet and noble to die for ojie's country ; virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, // is the part of brave 7nen to endure pain with patience ; senatui placuit legates mittere, the Senate decided (lit. it pleased the Senate) to send envoys. 2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative ; as, — aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, it is one thing to be irascible^ another to be angry ; impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do whatever you please with impunity, that is to be a king. a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as, licuit esse otioso Themistocli, lit. it was permitted to Themisto- cles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals. B. As Object. 328. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action of the same subject, particularly after — V0I6, cupio, malo, nolo; c6^it6,m.ediitor, purpose, intend; Clebeo, ought ; neglego, neglect ; scatuo, constitno, decide-. vereor, timeo, /^: ; as, esse potest (close of pentameter) . b) Cadences frequently employed. \j ; as, auxerant. w \j \ as, comprobavit. www w ; as, esse videatur. w w ; as, rogatii tuo. 1 So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter X {cht^. Thus : — multos laesI defend! neminem 232 Syntax, B. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE. 351. I. Unity of Subject. — In complex sentences the Latin regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members ; as, — Caesar primum suo, deinde omnium ex conspectu remotis equis, ut aequato periculo spem fugae toUeret, cohor- tatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first re?noved his own horse from sighi, then the horses of all, in order ^ by makifig the danger equals to take away hope of flighty encouraged his men and joined battle. 2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main clause and a subordinate one, stands before both ; as, — Aedul cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem mittunt, since the Aedui could not defend themselves^ they sent envoys to Caesar ; ille etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paci serviendum putavit, although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he thought he ought to aim at peace. a. The same is true also i) When the Subject of the main clause is Object (Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause; as, — Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum. esset, maturat ab urbe proficisci, when this had been reported to Caesar he hast et led to set out from the city. 2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the same time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main clause ; as, — L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. PompSnius tri- bunus plebis diem dixit, M. Po7npo7iius, tribune of the people, institided proceedings against Lucius Man- lius though he had bee?i dictator. 3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative clauses more commonly precede the main clause ; indirect questions and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follov^^ ; as, — postquara haec dixit, profectus est, after he said this, he set out ; SI quis ita agat, imprudens sit, zf any one should act so, he would be devoid of foresight ; accidit ut una nocte omnes Hermae deicerentur, it happened that in a single night all the Hermae were thrown down. Sentence-Structicre. — Hints on Style, 233 4. Sometimes in Latin the main verb is placed within the sub- ordinate clause ; as, — si quid est in me ingeni, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, if there is any talent in me^ and I know how little it is. 5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used, designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are inserted within the main clause ; as, — Caesar etsi intellegebat qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum ad se venire jussit, though Caesar perceived why this was saidj yet., lest he should be forced to spend the siuni7ier among the Treveri., he ordered Indtitiomarus to come to him. In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of the sentence is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional character of their language ; in English we generally avoid it. 6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus : — At hostes cum misissent, qui, quae in castris gererentur, cog- noscerent, ubi se deceptos intellexerunt, omnibus copiis subsecuti ad flumen contendunt, but the enemy when> they had sent uien to learn what was going on in camp., after dis- covering that they had beeji outwitted^ followed with all their forces and hurried to the river. Chapter VIII. — Hints on Latin Style. 352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to style than to formal grammar. NOUNS. 353. I. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is involved, the Latin is frequently much 7nore exact in the use of the Plural than is the English ; as, — 234 Syntax. domos eunt, they go home (i.e. to their homes) ; Germani corpora curant, the Germans care for the body ; animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers ; dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night. 2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively, the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the Singu- lar; as, — omnia sunt perdita, everything is lost ; quae cum ita sint, since this is so ; haec omnibus pervulgata sunt, this is very well known to all. 3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espe- cially less bold i7i the personification of abstract qualities. Thus : — a puero, a pueris, from boyhood-, Sulla dictatore, in Stdla^s dictatorship ; me duce, 7inder ?ny leadership ; Roman! cum Carthaginiensibus pacem fecerunt = Rome made peace with Cartilage ; liber doctrinae plenus = a learned book ; priidentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est = Themistocles^s fore- sight saved Greece. 4. 'The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see § 147, i) denote a permanejtt or characteristic activity; as, — accusatores (professional) accusers; oratores, pleaders ; cantores, singers ; Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arfninius, liberator of Germany. a. To denote sing-le instances of an action, other expressions are commonly employed ; as, — Numa, qui Romuld successit, Numa, successor of Romulus ; qui mea leg-unt, my readers ; qui me audiunt, ?ny auditors. 5. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of a Noun. In English we say: ^The war against Carthage'' ; ^ a Journey through Gatd ' ; ' cities 071 the sea ' ; ' the book in my hands ' ,* ^ the fight at Sala7Jiis'' ; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another mode of expression. Thus : — a) A Genitive ; as, — dolor injiiriarum, rese7itment at injuries. Hints on Style, 235 b) An Adjective ; as, — urbes maritimae, cities on the sea ; pugiia Salaminia, t/ie fight at Satamis. c) A Participle ; as, — pugna ad Cannas facta, the battle at Catinae. d) A Relative clause ; as, — liber qui in meis manibus est, the book in my hands. Note. — Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo- sitional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are typical examples : — transitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain ; excessus e vita, departure from life ; odium erga Romanos, hatred of the Romans ; liber de senectute, the book on old age ; amor in patriam, love for one^s country. ADJECTIVES. 354. I. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjec- tives are — ^) A Genitive ; as, — virtutes animi = moral virtues ; dolores corporis = bodily ills. b) An Abstract Noun ; as, — novitas rei = the strange circumstance ; asperitas viarum = rough roads. c^ Hendiadys (see § 374, 4) ; as, — ratio et or do = systematic order ; ardor et impetus = eager onset. d) Sometimes an Adverb ; as, — omnes circa populi, all the snrroicnding tribes ; suos semper hostes, their perpetual foes. 2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified by an Adjective ; as, — doctrina, theoretical knowledge ; prudentia, practical knowledge ; oppidum, walled town ; libellus, little book 236 Syntax, 3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with proper names ; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other word used as an Appositive of a proper name ; as, — Socrates, homo sapiens = the wise Socrates ; Scipio, vir f ortissimus = t/te doughty Scipio ; Syracusae, urbs praeclarissima =/amo?is Syracuse. 4. An Adjective 7nay be equivalent to a Possessive Genitive ; as, — pastor regius, the shepherd of the king] tumultus servilis, the uprising of the slaves. PRONOUNS. 355. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fondness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the main one ; as, — a quo cum quaereretur, quid maxime expediret, respondit, when it was asked of him what was best, he replied. (Less commonly, qui, cum ab eo quaereretur, respondit.) 2. Uterque, ambo. Uterque means each of two', amb5 means both ; as, — uterque f rater abiit, each of the two brothers departed {i.e. sepa- rately) ; ambo fratres abierunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together. a. The Plural of uterque occurs — i) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56) ; as, — in utrisque castris, in each camp. 2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of persons or things ; as, — utrique duces clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev- eral in number) were famous. VERBS. 356. I. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs a Passive is supplied : — a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with esse, etc. ; as, — in odio sumus, we are hated ; in invidia sum, I am envied; Hints on Style. 237 admirationi est, he is admired; oblivione obruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by oblivion) ; in usu esse, to be used. b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus : — agitarl as Passive of persequi ; temptari as Passive of adoriri. 2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied — a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Depo- nent ; as, — adhortatus, having exhorted; veritus, having feared. b) By the Ablative Absolute ; as, — hostium agris vastatis Caesar exercitum reduxit, hav- ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back his arfny. c) By subordinate clauses ; as, — eo cum advenisset, castra posuit, haviftg arrived there, he pitched a camp ; hostes qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst into the city. 3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (= '•one'''). Cf the English ' Yoit can drive a horse to water, but you canH make him drink.'' But in Latin this use is mainly confined to certain varieties of the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280), Jussive (§ 275), De- liberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples : — videres, you could see ; iitare viribus use your strength ; quid hoc homine facias, what are you to do with this maji f mens quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum instilles exstinguuntur senectiite, the intellect and mi)id too are ex- tinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouritig oil into the la7np ; tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab eis membra divelli citius posse diceres, they clung to their possessions with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies. 238 Syntax. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 357. I. To denote '•so many years, etc., afterwards or before'' the Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with post and ante (see § 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus :^ post quinque a.nn6&,fve years afterward ; paucos ante dies, a few days before; ante civiB.6.xieyiniwa\, four years before ; post diem quartum quam ab urbe discessimus,/i7^/r days after we left the city ; ante tertium annum quam decesserat, t/iree years before he had died. 2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the same Infinitive ; as, — Romanes Hannibalem vicisse constat. Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the Romans, Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infini- tive ; as, — Romanes ab Hannibale viotos esse constat, it is well established that the Rojnans were defeated by Hannibal. PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OP THE DATIVE. 358. I. The English /^;r does not always correspond to a Dative notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of pro with the Ablative, vis. in the senses — a^ In defense of; as, — pro patria mori, to die for one''s country. b) Instead of , in behalf of ; as, — unus pro omnibus dixit, one spoke for all. haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said in behalf of the law. c) In proportion to ; as. — pro multitudine hominum, in proportion to the popula- tion. Hints on Style. 239 2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in Latin by ad, a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either scribere ad aliquem, or scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion is or is not predominant. So in several similar expressions. 3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with., co7it ending with., sometimes take the Dative. This construction is a Grecism. Thus : — se miscet viris, he mingles with the 77ien ; contendis Homero, you contend with Homer. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE. 359. I. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor, the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, — hortus patris est, the garden is my father'' s ', mihi hortus est, I possess a garden. 2. The Latin can say either stultl or stultum est dicere, it is foolish to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Gen- itive; as, — sapientis est haec secum reputare, // is the part of a wise man to consider this. Part VI PROSODY. 360. Prosody treats of metres and versification. 361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different in character from English, In our own language poetry is based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables. Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poeti- cal form consisted in a certain succession of long and short syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time. This fundamental difference in the character of English and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in character of the two languages. English is a strongly accented language in which quantity is relatively subordi- nate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative lan- guage, in which accent was relatively subordinate. QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels and syllables have been given above in § 5. The following peculiarities are to be noted here : — I. A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel (§ 5. ^. 2), but the following exceptions occur: — 240 Quantity of Vowels and Syllables. 241 a) In the Genitive termination -ius (except alterius); as, illius, totius. Yet the i may be short in poetry ; as, illius, totius. ^) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension ; as, diei, aciei. But fidei, rei, spei (§ 52, i). c) In fio, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er. Thus : fiebam, fiat, fiunt ; but fieri, fierem. d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the Greek ; as, dius, Aeneas, Dareus, heroes, etc. 2. A diphthong is usually long (§ 5. B. 2), but the preposition prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel ; as, pra^acutus. 3. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants (§ 5. i5. 2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the follow- ing word ; as, terret populum. Occasionally the syllable is long when both consonants are in the following word ; as, pro segete spioas. 4. A vowel before j is regularly long, but is short in compounds of jugum ; as, bijugis, quadrijugis. 5. Compounds of jacio, though written inicit, adicit, etc.^ have the first syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-. The actual pro- nunciation of such words is not clear. Reicio has e. Quantity of Final Syllables. A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel. 363. I. Final a is mostly short, but is long in the following situations : — a~) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension ; as, porta. U) In the Imperative ; as, lauda. c) In indeclinable words (except ita, quia) ; as, triginta, con- tra, postea, interea, etc. 2. Final e is usually short, but is long — a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension; as, die, re; hence hodie, quare. Here belongs also fame (§59.2.^). U) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, monS, habe, etc. ; yet occasionally cave, vale. c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declen- sion, along with fere and ferme. Bene, male, temer6, saepe have e. if) In e, de, me, te, se, ne (?tot, lest), ne (verily). 242 Prosody. 3. Final i is usually long, but is short in nisi and quasi. Mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, have regularly i, but sometimes i; yet always ibidem, ibique, ubique. 4. Final o is regularly long, but is short — a) In ego, duo, modo {ojily), cito. b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in Nominatives of the Third Declension; as, amo, leo. c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro ; as, profundere, proficlsoi, profugere. 5 . Final u is always long. B. Final Syllables eiidiiig in a Consonant . 364. I . Final syllables ending in any other consonant than s are short. The following words, however, have a long vowel : sal, sol, Lar, par, ver, fur, die, due, lae, en, non, quin, sin, sic, cur, hie ^ {this). Also adverbs in c ; as, hie, hue, istie, illue, etc. 2. Final syllables in -as are long; as, terras, amas. 3. Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short — a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems (§ 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in the Genitive; as, seges (segetis), obses (obsidis), miles, dives. But a few have -es ; viz. pes, aries, abies, paries. b) In es (thoH a7't'), penes. 4. Final -os is usually long, but short in 6s (ossis), compSs, impos. 5. Final -is is usually short, but is long — a) In Plurals ; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis, nubis (Ace). b) In the Nominative Singular of Nouns of the Third Declen- sion with long vowel in the Penult of the Genitive ; as, Samnis (-itis). c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of the Fourth Conjugation ; as, audis. d) In -VIS, force ; is, t/iou goest ; fis ; sis; velis ; nolis ; vis, t/iou wilt ; (mavis, quamvis, quivis, etc.). 6. Final -us is usually short, but is long — a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension ; as, fructus. 1 Rarely hic. Verse-Structure. 243 ^) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem ; as, palus (-udis), servitus (-utis), tellus (-uris). 365. Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity; as, Aenea, epitome, Deles, Pallas, Simois, Salamis, DIdus, Paridi, aer, aether, crater, heroas. Yet Greek nouns in -cop regularly shorten the vowel ; as, rhetor, Hector. VERSE- STRUCTURE. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 366. I. The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, tech- nically called a mora (w). A long syllable ( ) is regarded as equiva- lent to two morae. 2. A Foot is a group of syllables. The following are the most important kinds of feet : — Feet of Three Morae. Feet of Four Morae. v^ Trochee. \u \j Dactyl. \j Iambus. \j \j Anapaest. 3. A Verse is a succession of feet. 4. The dififerent kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dac- tylic, Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their structure. 5. Ictus. In every foot the long syllable naturally receives the greater prominence. This prominence is called ictus. ^ It is denoted thus : /_ Kj \j \ /-\j. 6. Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is called the thesis ; the rest of the foot is called the arsis. 7. Elision. Final syllables ending in avowel, a diphthong, or -m are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. In reading, we ordinarily omit the elided syllable entirely. Probably the ancients slurred the words together in some way. This may be indi- cated as follows : corpore in lino ; multum ille et ; monstrum hor- rendum ; causae irarum. a. Omission of elision is called hiatus. It occurs especially before and after monosyllabic Interjections ; as, O et praesidium. 1 Ictus was not accent, — neither stress accent nor musical accent, — but was simply tne quantitative prominence inherent in a long syllable. 244 Prosody. 8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a caesura {cutting). Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis. 9. Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Cata- lectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one or more syllables ; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete. 10. At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final syllable may be either long or short (syllaba anceps), and may ter- minate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a vowel. 1 1 . Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the 7mmber of dipodies (pairs of feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, accordingly. SPECIAL PECULIARITIES. 367. I . Synizesis (Synaeresis) . Two successive vowels in the interior of a word are often united into a long syllable ; as, — aureis, deinde, anteire, deesse. 2. Diastole. A syllable usually short is sometimes long; as, — videt, audit. 3. Systole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short ; as, — steterunt. a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed out of vogue in the ordinary speech. 4. After a consonant, ,i and u sometimes become j and v. The preceding syllable then becomes long; as, — abjete for abiete ; genva for genua. 5. Sometimes v becomes u ; as, — silua for silva ; dissoluo for dissolve. 6. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. Such a verse is called an Hypermeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Syuapheia. Thus : — ignari hominumque locorumque"^ erramus. Verse- Structure. 245 7. Tmesis {cutting). Compound words are occasionally separated into their elements ; as, — quo me cunque rapit tempestas, for quocunque, etc. 8. Syncope. A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two consonants ; as, — repostus for repositus. THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER. 368. I. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theoretically of six dactyls. But in all the feet except the fifth a spondee ( ) may take the place of the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either long or short (syllaba anoeps). The following represents the scheme of the verse : — 2. Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot. Such verses are called Spondaic. A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable ; as, — armatumque auro circumspicit Oriona cara deum suboles, magnum Jovis incrementum. 3. Caesura. a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic Hexam- eter is affer the thesis of the third foot ; as, — arma vit*umque cano || Trojae qui primus ab oris. b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second foot ; as, — Inde toro || pater Aeneas || sic orsus ab alto est. c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syl- lables of the third foot ; as, — O pass! graviora || dabit deus his quoque finem. This caesura is called Feminine as opposed to the caesura after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under a and h). 246 Prosody. d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot. This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by the Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus : — solstitium pecori defendite ; || jam venit aestas. DACTYLIC PENTAMETER. 369. I. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts, each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long syllable. Spondees may take the place of the dactyls in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a word. The scheme is the following: — 2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with the Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Ele- giac Distich. Thus : — Vergilium vidi tantum, nee amara TibuUo Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae. IAMBIC MEASURES. 370. I. The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic Trimeter (§ 366, ii) called also Senarius. This is an acata- lectic verse. It consists of six Iambi. Its pure form is : — W \J W W \J \J Beatus ille qui procul negotiis. The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot ; less fre- quently in the fourth. 2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach (www) may stand in any Ibot but the last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent. Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w w w) occurs. 3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great free- dom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, viz. the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely admitted in any foot except the last. SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR. I. JULIAN CALENDAR. 371. I . The names of the Roman months are : rius, Martius, Aprilis, Maius, Junius, Julius (Quintilis i prior to 46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilisi before the Empire), September, Octo- ber, November, December. These words are properly Adjectives in agreement with mensis understood. 2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month : — a) The Calends, the first of the month. b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh in March, May, July, and October. c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fif- teenth in March, May, July, and October. 3. From these points dates were reckoned backward ; consequently all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days before the Calends of the month next following. 4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is designated as pridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus. The second day be- fore was designated as die tertio ante Kalendas, Nonas, etc. Simi- larly the third day before was designated as die quarto, and so on. These designations, of course, are aritiimetically inaccurate, but the Romans reckoned both ends of the series. 5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form of an Adjective agreeing with Kalendas, NonSs, Idus. Various forms of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common : — a) die quinto ante Idus Martias ; b) quinto ante Idiis Martias ; c) quinto (V) Idiis Martias ; d^ ante diem quintum (V) Idiis Martias. 1 Originally the Roman year began with March. This explains the names Quintilis, Sextilis, September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc. 247 248 Supplements to the Grammar. 6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with the prepositions in, ad, ex ; as, — ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the iWi of SepieiJiber. ex ante diem quintum Idus Octobres, yr^w the nth of October. 7. In leap year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February. The 24th was designated as ante diem VI Kalendas Martias, and the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal. Mart. 372. CALENDAR. Days of the Month. March, May, July, October. January, August, December. April, June, Sep- tember, November. February. I Kalendis. Kalendis. Kalendis. Kalendis. 2 VI. N5nas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. 3 V. III. III. III. 4 IV. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. 5 III. NONlS. NONis. NoNis. 6 Pridie Nonas. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idiis. VIII. Idns. 7 N5nIs. VII. VII. VII. 8 VIII. Idas. VI. VI. VI. 9 VII. V. V. V. 10 VI. IV. IV. IV. II V. III. III. III. 12 IV. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idiis. Pridie Idiis. 13 III. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. IDIBUS. 14 Pridie Idiis. XIX. Kalend. XVIII. Kalend. XVI. Kalend. IS IDIBUS. XVIII. XVII. XV. 16 XVII. Kalend. XVII. XVI. XIV. 17 XVI. XVI. XV. XIII. 18 XV. XV. XIV. XII. 19 XIV. XIV. XIII. XI. 20 XIII. XIII. XII. X. 21 XII. XII. XI. IX. 22 XI. XI. X. VIII. 23 X. X. IX. VII. 24 25 26 IX. VIII. VII. IX. VIII. VII. VIII. VII. VI. VI. V. (VI.) '■ IV. (V.) " 27 28 VI. V. VI. V. V. IV. III. (IV.) •• Prid.Kal.dll.Kal.) 29 30 31 IV. III. Pridie Kalend. IV. III. Pridie Kalend. III. Pridie Kalend. (Prid. Kal.) (Enclosed forms are for leap-year ) Figiii'es of Syntax. 249 II. ABBREVIATIONS OF PROPER NAMES. 373. A. = Aulus. Mam. = Mamercus. App. = Appius. N. = Numerius. C. = Gaius. P. = Publius. Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. — Quintus. D. = Decimus. Sex. = Sextus. K. = Kaeso. Ser. = Servius. L. = Lucius. • Sp. = Spurius. M. = Marcus. T. = Titus. M\=Manius. Ti. = Tiberius. III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC. A. Figures of Syntax. 374. I . Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words ; as, — sed enim. audierat, but {she was afraid)., for she had heard, etc. 2. Brachylogy is a brief or condensed form of expression; as, — ut ager sine cultura fructuosus esse non potest, sic sine doc- trina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultiva- tion, so the mind (camiot be productive') without learning. ' Special varieties of Brachylogy are — a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two ; as, — * minis aut blandlmentis corrupta, = {terrified) by threats ,or corrupted by flattery. b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as, — dissimilis erat Chares eorum et factis et moribus, lit. Chares was different fro7n their co7iduct a7id character, i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc. 3. Pleonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression; as, — prius praedicam, lit. I will first say in advance. 4. Hendladys (eV 8ta Svotv, one through two) is the use of two nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a Genitive or an Adjective ; as, — febris et aestus, the heat of fever ; celeritate cursuque, by swift running. 250 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric. 5. Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introduction of an epithet in advance of the action which makes it appropriate : as, — submersas obrue puppes, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships, i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships. a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus : — nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow Marcellus is (lit. you know Marcellus, how slow he is). Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry. 6. Anacoltithon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the con- struction of the sentence ; as, — turn Anci filii . . . impensius eis indignitas crescere, then the sons of Ancus . . . their indignation increased all the more. 7. Hysteron Prdteron consists in the inversion of the logical order of two words or phrases ; as, — moriamur et in media arma ruamus = let us rush into the midst of arms and die. B. Figures of Rhetoric. 375. I. Litotes is the use of two negatives for an emphatic affirmative; as, — baud parum laboris, no little toil {i.e. much toil) ; non ignoro, I am not ignorant {i.e. I am well aware). 2. Oxymdron is the combination of contradictory concep- tions : as, — • . _ _ _ . • jr n ' sapiens insania, wise folly. 3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial); as, sensim sine sensu aetas senescit. 4. Onomatopoeia is the suiting of sound to sense ; as, — quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum, ^Afid shake with horny hoofs the solid ground.'' INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. Note. — Compounds are not given unless they present some special irregularity. The references are to sections. A. abdo, 122, I, 2. abicio, 122, III. abnuo, 122, 11. aboleo, 121, I. absterged. 121, III. absum, 125. accendo, 122, I, 4. accidit, 138, III. accio, 121, I, N. accipiS, 122, III. acquTro, 122, I, 6. acuo, 122, 11. addo, 122, I, 2. adhaeresco, 122, IV, 2. adiplscor, 122, V. adolesco, 122, IV, i. adsum, 125. advenio, 123, IV. affero, 129. afificio, 122, III. affligo, 122, I, I, a. agnosco, 122, IV, i. ago, 122, I, 3. algeo, 121, III. .alo, 122, I, 5. amicio, 123, III. amo, 120, I. amplector, 122, V. ango, 122, I, 7. aperio, 123, II. appeto, 122, I, 6. arceo, 121, II, a. arcesso, 122, I, 6. ardeo, 121, III. aresco, 122, IV, 2. arguo, 122, II. ascendo, 122, I, 4. aspicio, 122, III. assentior, 123, VII. assuefacio, 122, III. assuefio, 122, III. audio, 123, I. aufero, 129. augeo, 121, III. aveo, 121, II, a, N. 2. C. cado, 122, I, 2. caedo, 122, I, 2. calefacio, 122, III. caleflo, 122, III. caleo, 121, II, a. calesco, 122, IV, 2. cano, 122, I, 2. capesso, 122, I, 6. capio, 122, III. careo, 121, II, a. carpo, 122, 1,1, a. caveo, 121, V. cedo, 122, I, I, b. censeo, 121, II, b. cerno, 122, I, 6. cieo, 121, I. cingo, 122, I, I, a. circumsisto, 122, I, 2. claudo, 122, I, I, b. claudo, 122, I, 7. coemo, 122, I, 3. coepi, 133. coerceo, 121, II, a. cognosco, 122, IV, I. cogo, 122, I, 3. colligo, 122, I, 3. 251 COlo, 122, I, 5. comminTscor, 122, V. comperio, 123, V. compleo, 121, I. concutio, 122, III. condo, 122, I, 2. conlero, 129. confiteor, 121, VII. congruo, 122, 11, consenesco, 122, IV, 2. consero, 122, I, 5. consero, 122, I, 6 {plant), consldo, 122, I, 4. consists, 122, I, 2. conspicio, 122, III, constat, 138, III. constituo, 122, II. consuesco, 122, IV, i, consulo, 122, I, 5. contineo, 121, II, b. contingit, 138, III. coquo, 122, I, I, a. crepo, 120, II. cresco, 122, IV, i. cubo, 120, II. cupio, 122, III. curro, 122, I, 2. debeo, 121, II, a. decerno, 122, I, 6. decet, 138, II. dedecet, 138, II. dedo, 122, I, 2. defendo, 122, I, 4. deleo, 121, I. deligo, 122, I, 3. 252 Index to the Principal Parts demo, 122, I, 3. desero, 122, I, 5. desino, 122. I, 6. desum, 125. dico, 122, I, I, a, diffeio, 129. diligo, 122, I, 3. dimico, 120, II. dirimo, 122, I, 3. diripio, 122, III. diruo, 122, II. discerns, 122, I, 6. disco, 122, IV, I. dissero, 122, I, 5. distinguo, p. 87, footnote. divid5, 122, I, I, b. do, 127. doceo, 121, II, b. doleo, 121, II, a. domo, 120, II. dQco. 122. I. I. a. edo, 122, I, 2. edo, 122, I, 3. effero, 129. effugio, 122, III. egeo, 121, II, a, N. i. elicio, 122, III. emineo, 121, II, a, N. i. emo, 122, I, 3. eo, 132. esurio, 123, VI. evado, p. 87, footnote, evanesco, 122, IV, 3. excolo, 122, I, 5. excud5, 122, I, 4. exerceo, 121, II, a. experior, 123, VII. expleo, 121, I, N. explic5, 120, II. exstinguo, p. 87, footnote, extimesco, 122, IV, 2. F. faciS, 122, III. fallo, 122, I, 2. fateor, 121, VII. faveo, 121, V. ferio, 123, VI. tfTO. 129. The references are to sections. ferveo, 121, VI. figo, 122, I, I, b. findo, 122, I, 2, N. fingo, 122, I, I, a. flo, 131. flecto, 122, I, I, b. fieo, 121, I. fioreo, 121, II, a, N. 1. fluo, 122, II. floresco, 122, IV, 2. fodio, 122, III. foveo, 121, V. frangS, 122, I, 3. fremo, 122, I, 5. frico, 120, II. frigeo, 121, II, a, N. 2. fruor, 122, V. fugio, 122, III. fulcio, 123, III. fulgeo, 121, III. fulget, 138, I. fundo, 122, I, 3. fungor, 122, V. furo, 122, I, 7. G. gemo, 122, I, 5. gero, 122, I, I, a. glgno, 122, I, 5. gradior, 122, V. H. habeo, 121, II, a. haereo, 121, III. haurio, 123, III. horreo, 121, II, a, N. i. I. ignosco, 122, IV, I. illicio, 122, III. imbuo, 122, II. immineo, 121, II, a, N. 2. impleo, 121, I, N. implies, 120, II. incipi5, 122, III. incolo, 122, I, 5. incumbo, 122, I, 5. indulged, 121, HI. indu5, 122, II infero, 129. ingemlsco, 122, IV, 2. insum, 125. intellego, 122, I, 3. interficio, 122, III. intersum, 125. invado, p. 87, footnote, invenio, 123, IV. Irascor, 122, V. J. jaceo, 121, II, a. jacio, 122, III. jubeo, 121, III. jungo, 122, I, I, a, juvo, 120, III. L. labor, 122, V. lacesso, 122, I, 6. laedo, 122, I, I, b. lambo, 122, I, 7. largior, 123, VII. lateo, 121, II, a, N. i. lavo, 120, III. lego, 122, I, 3. libet, 138, II. liceor, 121, VII. licet, 138, II. loquor, 122, V. luceo, 121, III. ludo, 122, I, I, b. lugeo, 121, III. luo. 122. II. M. maereo, 121, II, a, N. 2. malo, 130. maneo, 121, III. matiiresco, 122, IV, 3. medeor, 121, VII. memini, 133. mereo, 121, II, a. mereor, 121, VII. mergo, 122, I, i, b. metior, 123, VII. metuS, 122, II. mico, 120, II. minuo, 122, II. misceo, 121, II, b. of the Most Important Verbs. 253 miseret, 138, 11. misereor, 121, VII. mitto, 122, I, I, b. molo, 122, I, 5. moneo, 121, II, a. mordeo, 121, lY. morior, 122, V. moveo, 121, V. nanciscor, 122. V. nascor, 122, V. necto, 122, I, I, b. neglego, 122, I, 3. ningit, 138, I. niteo, 121, II, a, N. i. nitor, 122, V. noceo, 121, II, a, nolo, 130. nosco, 122, IV, I, nubo, 122, I, I, a. Q. obduresco, 122, IV, 3. oblino, 122, I, 6. obliviscor, 122, V. obmutesco, 122, IV, 3. obruo, 122, II. obsolesco, 122, IV, i. obsum, 125. obtineo, 121, II, b. odi, 133. offero, 129. oleo, 121, II, a, N. I. operio, 123, II. oportet, 138, II. opperior, 123, VII. ordior, 123, VII. orior, 123, VI L paenitet, 138, II. palleo, 121, II, a, W. i. pando, 122, I, 4. parco, 122, I, 2. pareo, 121, II, a. pario, 122, III. pasco, 122, IV, I. pascor, 122, 4V, t. The references are to sections. patefacio, 122, III. pateflo, 122, III. pateo, 121, II, a, N. i. patior, 122, V. paveo, 121, V. pellicio, 122, III. pello, 122, I, 2. pendeo, 121, IV. pendo, 122, I, 2. perago, 122, I, 3. percello, 122, I, 2. N. percrebresco, 122, IV, 3. perdo, 122, I, 2. perficio, 122, III. perfringo, 122, I, 3. perfruor, 122, V. perlego, 122, I, 3. permulceo, 121, III. perpetior, 122, V. peryado, p. 87, footnote. peto, 122, I, 6. piget^ 138, II. pingo, 122, I, I, a. placeo, 121, II, a. plaudo, 122, I, I, b. pluit, 138, I. poUeo, 121, II, a, N. 2. poUiceor, 121, VII. polluo, 122, II. pono, 122, I, 6. posco, 122, IV, I. possido, 122, I, 4. possum, 126. poto, 120, I. praebeo, 121, II, a. praestat, 138, III. praesum, 125. prandeo, 121, VI. prehendo, 122, I, 4. premo, 122, I, i, b. prodo, 122, I, 2. promo, IC2, I, 3. prosum, 125. prosterno, 122, I, 6. pudet, 138, II. pungo, 122, I, 2. R. rado, 122, I, I, b. rapio, 122, III. reddo, 122, I, 2. redimo, 122, I, 3. refercio, 123, III. refero, 129. refert, 138, II. rego, 122, I, I, a. relinquo, 122, I, 3. reminlscor, 122, V. reor, 121, VII. reperio, 123 V. repo, 122, i, I, a. resisto, 122, I, 2. respuo, 122, II. restinguo, p. 87, footnote, retineo, 121, II, b. rldeo, 121, III. rodo, 122, I, I, b. rubeo, 121, II, a, N. i. rumpo, 122, I, 3. ruo, 122, II. quaero, 122, I, 6. quatio, 122, III. queror, 122, V. quiesco, 122, iV. i. saepio, 123, III. salio, 123, II. sancio, 123, III. sapio, 122, III. sarcio, 123, III. scindo, 122, I, 2, N. sclsco, 122, IV, 2. scribo, 122, I, I, a. sculpo, 122, I, I, a. seco, 120, II. sedeo, 121, V. sentio, 123, III. sepelio, 123, I. sequor, 122, V. sero, 122, I, 6. serpo, 122, I, I, a. sileo, 121, II, a, N. , sino, 122, I, 6. solvo, 122, I, 4. sono, 120, II. spargo, 122, I, I, b. sperno, 122, I, 6. splendeo, 121, II, a, N. i. spondeo, 121, IV. statuo, 122, II. sterno, 122, I, 6. -stinguo, 122, I, I, a. 254 Index to the Most Important Verbs. strepo, 122, I, 5. strideo, 121, VI. stringo, 122, I, 1, a. struo, 122, II. studeo, 121, II, a, N. suadeo, 121, III. subigo, 122, I, 3. subsum, 125. sum, 100. sumo, 122, I, 3. suo, 122, II. supersum, 125. sustineo, 121, II, b. T. taceo, 121, II, a. taedet, 138, II. tango, 122, I, 2. tego, 122, I, I, a. temno, 122, I, i, a. tendo, 122, I, 2. teneo, 121, II, b. tero, 122, I, 6. terreo, 121, II, a. The references are to sections. texo, 122, I, 5. timeo, 121, II, a, N. i. tingo, 122, I, I, a. tollo, 122, I, 2, N. tonat, 138, I. tondeo, 121, IV. tono, 120, II. torpeo, 121, II, a, N. i. torqueo, 121, III. torreo, 121, II, b. trado, 122, I, 2. traho, 122, I, I, a. tremo, 122, I, 5. tribuo, 122, II. trudo, 122, I, I, b. tueor, 121, VII. tundo, 122, I, 2. U. ulcTscor, 122, V. unguo, 122, I, I, <2. urgeo, 121, III. uro, 122, I, I, a. utor. 122. V. V. vado, 122, \,\,b, valeo, 121, II, a. veho, 122, I, I, a. vello, 122, I, 4. venio, 123, IV, vereor, 121, VII. vergo, 122, I. 7. verro, 122, I, 4. verto, 122, I, 4. vescor, 122, V. veto, 120, II. video, 121, V. vigeo, 121, II, a, N. i. vincio, 123, III. vinco, 122, I, 3. vireo, 121, II, a, N. i. viso, 122, I, 4. vivo, 122, I, I, a. volo, 130. volvo, 122, I, 4. vomo, 122, I, 5. voveo, 121, V. GENERAL INDEX. The references are to sections and paragraphs. A. -a, ending of nom. sing., ist decl., 20; for e in Greek nouns, 22, i. a, ab, abs, use, 142, i ; with town names, 229, 2. a to denote agency, 216. to denote separation, 214. with town names, 229, 2. -a- stems, 20. Abbreviations of proper names, 373. Ablative case, 17 ; 213 f. formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d decl., 67, a ; 70, 1-5. genuine abl. uses, 214 f. absolute, 227. of agent, 216. of accompaniment, 222. of accordance, 220, 3. of attendant circumstance, 221 ; 227, 2, e). of cause, 219. of comparison, 217. of degree of difference, 223. of fine, 208, 2, b. of manner, 220. of means, 218. of penalty, 208, 2, b. of place where, 228. of place whence, 229. of price, 225. of quality, 224. of separation, 214. of source, 215. of specification, 226. of time at which, 230. of time during which, 231, i. of time within which, 231. of way by which, 2i3, 9. ^'\Xh/aci5,/td, 218, 6. 2 Ablative case, with prepositions, 142 213 f. with verbs of filling, 218, 8. with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8. abs, 142, I. absens, 125. Absolute ablative, 227. time, of participles, 336, 4. use of verbs, 174, a. Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b) ; 55, 4, -abus, 21, 2, e). ac, 341, 2, b) ; = as, than, 341, i Acatalectic verses, 366, 9. Accent, 6 ; in gen. of nouns in -ium, 25, I and 2. Accompaniment, abl. of, 222. Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3. Accusative case, 17 ; 172 f. of duration of time, 181. of result produced, 173, B of extent of space, 181. of limit of motion, 182 f. of person or thing affected, 173, A\ 175. in exclamations, 183. as subj. of inf., 184. with adv. force, 176, 3. with compounds, 175, 2. with passive used as middle, 175, •2,d). cognate ace, 176, 4. Greek ace, 180. synecdochical ace, 180. two aces., direct obj. and pred. ace, 177 ; person affected and result pro- duced, 178; with compounds o{ trans, 179; with other compounds, 179, 2; with prepositions. 141 ; 179 f. retained in pass., 178, 2. Accusing, verbs of, constr., 208 f. c). c). -ius and 176. 55 256 General Index. The references are to accuso, constr., 178, 1, d). deer, 68. Acquitting, verbs of, constr., 208 f. ac SI, 307, I. ad, ' toward,' ' in vicinity of,' 182, 3. -ades, 148, 6, a. adg- = agg-, 9, 2. Adjectives, 62 f . ; 354; derivation of, 150 f. of 1st and 2d decl., 63 ff. in -ius, gen. sing., 63, a. of 3d decl., 67 ff. ; in abl., 70, 5. comparison of adjs., 71 f. ; in -er, 71, 3; in -His, 71, 4; comparative lacking, 73, 3; defective comparison, 73; not admitting comparison, 75; comparison by tnagis and mdxime, 74. numerals, 78 f. syntax, 233 ff. agreement, 234 f. used substantively, 236 f. denoting part of an object, 241, i. with force of adverbs, 239. force of comp. and superl., 240, i. not followed by infinitive, 333. not used with proper names, 354, 3. equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4. special Latin equivalents of Eng. adjs., 354, I. equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2. as pred. ace, 177, 2. position of adj., 350, 4. adl- = all-, 9, 2. admoneo, constr., 207. adr- = arr-, 9, 2. ads- = ass-, 9, 2. ad sensujH, constr., 235, B,2, c\ 254, 4. adiilescens, 9, 2. adulter, decl., 23, 2. adult us, 114, 2. Adverbs, formation and comparison, 76 f. ; 140, 157. in -iter from adjs. in -us, yj, 4. tzis and -tim, 77, 5. in -0, yj, 2. numeral, 79. as preps., 144, 2. derivation df, 157. special meanings, 347. position, 350, 6. Adversative clauses, 309. conjunctions, 343. aedes, 61. sections and paragraphs. aequor, decl, 34. aequum est, 271, i, ^). «'?-^._57. 7- aetas, decl., 40, i, e) ; id aetdtis, 185, 2. -aeus, 152, 3. aevotu, 24. Agency, dat. of, 189 ; abl., 216. Agent, abl., 216. ager, decl., 23. -di, case-ending, gen. sing., ist decl., poet., 21, 2, b). ain, 135, N. ajo, 135. alacer, comp., 73, 4. aliqua, 91, 2. aliqui, 91 ; 91, 2. aliquis, 91 ; 252, 2 ; aliquis dicat, dlxerit, 280, I. -dlis, 151, 2. alius, 66 ; 92, 1 ; used correlatively, 253, i. alius ac, 341, \, c). Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N. allicid, 109, 2, b). Alliteration, 375, 3. Alphabet, i. alter, 66 ; 92, i ; used correlatively, 253. I- Alternative questions, 162, 4; indirect, 300, 4. alteruter, 92, 2. alvus, gender of, 26, i, b). ama>idus sum, 115. amdturus sum, 115. ambo, 80, 2, a; 355, 2. amo, loi. amplius — amplius quam, 217, 3. an, 162, 4, and a) ; 300, 4; haud scio an, nescio an, 300, 5. Anacoluthon, 374, 6. Anapaest, 366, 2. Anaphora, 350, 11, <5). Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3; 144. 3- anceps {syllaba anceps) , 366, 10. Afzdrogeos, dec]., 27. animal, decl., 39. anim'i, 232, 3. annbn, 162, 4. Answers, 162, 5. ante in expressions of time, 144, i ; 357, i. Antecedent of rel, 251. attraction of, 251, 4. incorporated with rel, 251, 4. General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. 257 Antecedent omitted, 251, i. repeated with rel., 251, 3. Antepenult, 6, 2. antequam, with ind., 291 ; with subjv., 292. Anticipation, 374, 5. -anus, 151, 2; 152, i; 3. Aorist tense, see Historical perfect. Apodosis, 301. in conditional sent, of ist type, 302, 4. Apposition, 169 ; partitive, 169, 5 ; with voc. in nom., 171, 2; genitive, 202. Appositive of locative, 169, 4; with ace. of limit of motion, 182, 2, a\ with town names in abl. of place whence, 229, 2. position of, 350, 2. Arch I as, 22. arguo, constr., 178, i, . f'ldb, 114, I. fido, with abl., 219, i, a. fidus, 73, 3, fier em, fieri, 362, i, c). Fifth decl., 51 f. Figures of rhetoric, 375. of syntax, 374. fil'i, 25. 3- filia,/Uiabus, 21, 2, e). Final clauses, see Purpose clauses. Final consonant omitted, 8, 3. Final syllables, quantity, 363,364. finis, fines, 61. Finite verb, 95. fid, 131. fid, with abl., 218, 6. First conj., loi. First dec!., 20 f. ; peculiarities, 21. flagttd, constr., 178, i, a), fodio, 109, 2, d). Foot, in verse, 366, 2. ' For,' its Latin equivalents, 358, i. fore, page 57, footnote 3. fore ut, 270, 3. forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote 2. foris, 'Z'2Z, I, c. Formation of words, 146 f. fors, forte, 57, 2, a. fortior, 69. fortis, 69. fortuna, fortunae, 61. Fourth conj., 107. Fourth decl., 48 ; dat. in -u, 49, 2 ; gen. in -i, 49, i ; dat. abl. plu. in -ubus, 49, 3- fraude, 2.7.0, 2. frenum, plu. of, 60, 2. Frequentatives, 155, 2. fret us, 218, 3. Fricatives, 2, 7. fructus, decl., 48. frugi, compared, 72 ; 70, 6. frugis, 57, 6. fiuor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fllgid, 109, 2, fl). /«J, fuisti, etc., for sum, es, etc., in com- pound tenses, p. 60, footnote; p. 61, footnote. fungor, 218, 1 ; in gerundive constr., 339, 4. fur, decl., 40, i, d). fUrto, 220. 2. sections and paragraphs. Future tense, 261 ; with imperative force, 261, 3. time in the subjv,, 269. perfect, 264 ; with future meaning, 133. 2. imperative, 281, i. fliturum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3. G. gaudeo, 114, i. Gender, 13-15 ; in ist dec!., 20, 21 ; in 2d decl., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d decl., 43 f. ; in 4th decl., 50; in 5th decl., 53; determined by endings, 14; by signification, 15, A ; heterogeneous nouns, 60. gener, decl., 23, 2. Genitive, 17 ; in -I for -ii, 25, i and 2 ; of 4th decl. in -i, 49, i ; of 5th decl. in -i, 52. 2; of 5th decl. in -ei, 52, i; in -e, 52, 3 ; of ist decl. in -di, 21, 2, b) ; of ist decl. in -as, -zi, 2, a) ; gen. plu. -um for -aruyn, 21, 2, d) ; -um for -drum, 25,6; gen. plu. lacking, 57, 7 ; syntax of, 194 f. of characteristic, 203, i. of charge with judicial verbs', 208. of indefinite price, 203, 4. of indefinite value, 203, 3. of material, 197. of measure, 203, 2. of origin, 196. of possession, 198. of quality, 203. of the whole, 201. appositional, 202. objective, 200. of separation, 212, 3. subjective, 199, with adjs., 204; with participles, 204, I, a. with causa, gratia, 198, I. with verbs, 205 f. ; of plenty and want, 212 ; with impers. verbs, 209. position of gen., 350, i. genus, decl., 36; id genus, 185, i. -ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2; adjs., 65, i. Gerund, 338 ; with object, 338, 5. Gerundive, 337, 8. Gerundive const., 339, 1-6 ; in passive periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f. ; gen. de- noting purpose, 339, 6: with dat. of purpose, 19T. 3 ; 339, 7. 262 Genei'al Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. gnZirus, not compared, 75, 2. Gnomic present, 259, i ; perfect, 262, i. gradior, 109, 2, c. Grammatical gender, 15. gratia, with gen., 198, i ; gratia, gratlae, 61. Greek nouns, ist decl., 22 ; 2d decl., 27 ; exceptions in gender, 26, i, c) ; 3d decl., 47 ; Greek ace, 180 ; Greek nouns in verse, 365. grus, decl., 41, 2. gu=gv,2, 3- Guttural mutes, 2, 4. stems, 32. H. habed, with perf. pass, partic, 337, 6. Hadria, 21, i. Hard consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote i. haud, use, 347, 2, a; /^a«(/ jc/^ an, 300, 5. y^^zz^^, 137, 5. Hendiadys, 374, 4, /^d?rJ, 232, 2. Heteroclites, 59. Heterogeneous nouns, 60. Hiatus, 366, 7, a. hie, 87 ; 246, I ; 246, 2. hie?ns, 35, footnote. Historical tenses, 258 ; historical present, 259, 3 ; 268, 3 ; historical perfect, 262, B ; historical infinitive, 335. honor, decl., 36. Hortatory subjv., 274. hortus, decl., 23. hoscine, 87, footnote 2. hostis, decl., 38. hujusce, 87, footnote 2. humi, •22,'2., 2. humilis, comp., 71, 4. humus, gender of, 26, i, <5). Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a). Hypermeter, 367, 6. Hysteron proteron, 374, 7. I. i, I, I ; becomes/, 367, 4 ; instead of u in some words, 9, i. t-stems, 37 ; 39 ; not always ending in -is, 38,3. -I, gen. of 2d decl., nouns in -ius and -/«;« in, 25, I and 2. gen. of 4th decl., nouns in -us, 49, i, gen. of 5th decl., nouns, 52, 2. ?-stem, VIS, 41. /, in abl., 3d decl, 38, i ; 39. adjs., 67, 3, a ; 70, 5. participles, 70, 3. patrials, 70, 5, c). -la, 149. Iambus, 366, 2. Iambic measures, 370. trimeter, 370. -ianus, 152, i. -ias, 148, 6, b^. -ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, b). -ibo, in future, 116, 4, <^). Ictus, 366, 5. -icus, 151, 2; 152, 2. ?^ aetatis, 185, 2. id genus, 185, i. z<^ temp or is, 185, 2. Zi^ ^«(9/.y, 57, 6 ; ,2., 2. vestr'i, 242, 2. vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; as possessive gen., 242, 2, a. veto, with inf., 331, II, vetus, 70; compared, J2> 3- vl, 220, 2. vicem, 185, i ; vicis, vice, 57, 5, b. 2/2 General Index. The references are to sections and paragraphs. victor, decl., 34. viden, 6, 4. video, with pres. partic, 337, 3. vigil, decl., 34. violenter, jj, 4, a. vir, decl., 23, , gen. plu. of nouns compounded with, 25, 6, (5). vhile secus, 185, i. virus, gender of, 26, 2„ z/w, dec)., 41. Vocative case, 17 ; 19, i ; 171 ; in -i for -le, 25, I ; position of, 350, 3. Voiced sounds, 2, 3, a. Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b). Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a. Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, i. Volitive subjunctive, 272 f. volniis, 9, I. volb, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a\ 270, 2, a; with subjv., 296, i, a. volt, 9. I. volt us, 9, I. voluntate, 220, 2. -volus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5. Vowels, 2, I ; sounds of the, 3, i ; quan- tity of, 5, A; contraction of, 7, 2; par- asitic, 7, 3. Vowel changes, 7. vulgus, gender of, 26, 2. -t^2h^>' f is°^ > A^ c ° " " -» "^^ 'oK .^'\ -^^0^ ^^^ .'^^r /^DOBBS BROTHERS^ \^ ^ -^^ I LlBftARY BINDING CO., INC.I