Qass_^L. V 55j Book_ - v \^-_.. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/specialreportond08unit U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUEEAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTKY. SPECIAL REPORT ON DISEASES OF THE HORSE. PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP DR. D. E. SALMON, CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF ANIMAL INDUSTRY. Drs. Michener, Law, Harbaugh, Trumbower, Liautard, holcombe, huidekoper, and dickson." PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY OP THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE. WASHINGTON": GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1890. 9 • o? -%> **> TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal, By Dr. D. E. Salmon, Chief of Bureau 7 Methods of administering medicines, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 9 Diseases of the digestive organs, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S 15 Diseases of the urinary organs, By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 59 Diseases of the respiratory organs, By W. H. Harbaugh, V. S 87 Diseases of the generative organs, By James Law, P. E. C. V. S 135 Diseases of the nervous system, By M. E. Trumbower, V. S 181 Diseases of the heart and blood vessels, By M. E. Trumboweu, V. S 219 Diseases of the eye, By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 247 Lameness, By A. Liautard, M. D., V. S 269 Diseases of the fetlock, ankle, and foot, By A. AHolcombe, D. V. S 357 Diseases of the skin, By James Law, F. E. C. V. S 419 Wounds and their treatment, By Ch. B. Michener, V. S .*. ,... 447 General diseases, By Eush Shippen Huidekoper. M. D., Vet 461 Shoeing, By Wiixiam Dickson, V. S 529 3 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Digestive apparatus 58 II. Bots 58 III. Intestinal worms 58 ■ IV. Longitudinal section through, kidney __ ... 86 V. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 86 VI. Microscopic anatomy of kidney 86 . VII. Calculi and instrument for removal 86 VIII. Instruments used in difficult labor 180 IX. Normal presentations 180 X. Abnormal presentations - 180 " XI. Abnormal presentations 180 XII. Abnormal presentations 180 XIII. Abnormal presentations 180 XIV. Anterior presentations 180 XV. Position of the left lung 134 XVI. The nervous system 218 XVII. Interior of chest, showing position of heart and diaphragm 246 XVIII. Circulatory apparatus 246 ■ XIX. Theoretical section of the horse's eye „ 268 XX. Skeleton of the horse 356 XXI. Superficial layer of muscles 356 XXII. Splint 356 XXIII. Ring-bone 356 1 XXIV. Various types of spavin 356 ■ XXV. Bone-spavin 356 XXVI. Bone-spavin 356 XXVII. Dislocation of shoulder and elbow, Bourgelat's apparatus 356 XXVIII. The sling in use 356 - XXIX. Anatomy of foot 418 XXX. Anatomy of foot 418 XXXI. Foundered feet 418 » XXXII. Ring-bone and navicular disease 418 / XXXIII. Quarter crack and remedies 418 XXXIV. Sound and contracted feet 418 XXXV. Diseases of the skin 446 XXXVI. Mites that infest the horse 446 -XXXVII. General diseases. Inflammation , 528 XXXVIII. General diseases. Inflammation 528 XXXIX. Glanders, nasal septum of horse, right side, showing acute lesions. 528 XXXX. Glanders, middle region of nasal septum, left side, showing ulcers.. 528 XXXXI. Glanders, posterior half of nasal septum, right side, showing cica- trices 528 XXXXII. Shoeing 542 XXXXIII. Shoeing 542 XXXXIV. Shoeing.. 542 5 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL Sir: I have the honor to submit herewith a report upon diseases of the horse, which has been prepared with great care by a number of the most eminent members of the veterinary profession in the United States. The production of a work of this character is a task of such magnitude that it could not be undertaken by any one man with a prospect of its early completion. It was deemed best, therefore, to divide the subject into sections and to place the preparation of each section in the hands of a veterinarian whose practical experience and reputation would in- sure a valuable contribution. By adopting this plan the contents of the volume have been made ready for the printer within a year from the time the work was begun. While, on account of this method of preparation, there may not be quite the same uniformity of style and treatment which would be expected in a volume written by a single author, it is hoped that this will not be found objectionable, and the speedy completion and the co-operation of authors who have given special attention to their subjects will prove of great advantage. The need of a work on the diseases of the horse, which could be dis- tributed to farmers as a safe and scientific guide in the treatment of this species of our domesticated animals, either when affected with slight disorders or serious illness, has long been felt. This obvious want has led to the preparation of the present volume, which is designed as the first of a series to cover the diseases of all varieties of farm ani- mals. The writer would not advise the farmer in ordinary circumstances to dispense with his veterinarian, any more than he would advise him to treat the diseases of his own family, to manufacture his own furni- ture, or to be his own blacksmith. There are, however, only too many cases in which the veterinarian can not be procured in time for success, if at all; and, consequently, the farmer who knows or has the means of learuing the nature of the disease and the proper treatment will be able to save an animal when otherwise he would lose one. It is common for intelligent people to laugh at the idea of attempting to make every man his own doctor, his own veterinarian, or his own carpenter, and in an ideal condition of society no doubt this would be absurd. But under the conditions which actually obtain on our farms, the farmer who can use tools, if but awkwardly, often finds it extremely convenient to temporarilly usurp the functions of the carpenter; and he also finds that in many cases he must treat his ailing animals or allow them to 7 8 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. suffer without treatment. Knowing- this to be the case, is it not far better for the stock-owner to have at his command the advice of veteri- narians eminent in their profession than for him to follow the absurd, often barbarous methods of treatment which have been handed down by tradition from the empiricism and ignorance of long-past ages? It is an extremely difficult matter to divest medical literature of tech- nical terms and expressions more or less incomprehensible to the gen- eral reader. This has made scientific medicine a sealed book to the masses of our people, and there is no subject of which they are more ignorant. An attempt has been made in this work to present the mat- ter in as simple language as possible, and while some of the authors have been more happy than others in this respect, it is believed that no great difficulty will be met with in any of the articles. While the subject has been treated in language of a more or less popular style and the book is intended as a guide to the farmer, its in- trinsic scientific value should not be entirely lost sight of. In many respects it is a notable contribution to existing knowledge, and it will be prized by the veterinarian not less than by the farmer. No doubt there are some defects in this first edition which the experience of the future will enable us to remedy, but as a whole the book is one which can not fail to be of immense service in educating horse-owners and in hastening the adoption of humane and scientific treatment in the dis- orders which afflict man's most patient and faithful servant. The illustrations have been very carefully drawn by Mr. Haines, the greater part of the subjects being selected by Dr. Cooper Curtice. In cases where they have been copied due credit has been given on the plates, but it should be stated here that we are indebted to Dr. John S. Billings, of the Army Medical Museum, for the use of the Auzoux models and a number of specimens of diseased feet from which drawings were made. Very respectfully, D. E. SALMON, Chief of Bureau of Animal Industry. Hon. J. M. Kusk, /Secretary of Agriculture, SPECIAL REPORT DISEASES OF THE HORSE. METHODS OF ADMINISTERING MEDICINES. By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S., Professor of Cattle Pathology and Obstetrics at the New York College of Veterinary Sur- geons, Inspector of the Bureau of Animal Industry, etc. Medicine may enter the body through any of the following designated channels: First, by the mouth; second, by the lungs and upper air- passages; third, by the skin; fourth, under the skin (hypodermic methods) ; fifth, by the rectum ; and, sixth, by intra- venous injections. (1) By the mouth. — Medicines can be given by the mouth in the form of powders, balls, drenches, and electuaries. Powders. — These should be as finely pulverized as possible, in order to secure a rapid solution and absorbtion. Their action is in this way facilitated and intensified. Powders must be free from any irritant or caustic action upon the mouth. Those that are without any disagree- able taste or smell are readily eaten on the feed or taken in the drink- ing water. When placed on the feed they should first be dissolved or suspended in water and thus sprinkled on the feed. If mixed dry the horse will often leave the medicine in the bottom of his manger. Balls. — When properly made these are cylindrical in shape, 2 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. They should be fresh, but, if necessary to keep them some time, they should be made up with glycerine, or some such agent, to prevent them from becoming too hard. Very old, hard balls, are sometimes passed whole with the manure, without being acted upon at all. Paper is to be wrapped around balls when given; it should be thin but firm ; toilet paper is the best. Balls are preferred to drenches when the medicine is extremely disagreeable or nauseating ; when the dose is not too large ; when the 9 10 horse is ugly to drench; when the medicine is intended to act slowly. Certain medicines can not, or should not, be made into balls — medicines requiring to be given in large doses, oils, caustic substances, unless diluted and thoroughly mixed with the vehicle, deliquescent or efflores- cent salts. Substances suitable for balls can be made up by the addition of honey, sirup, soap, etc., when required for immediate use. Gelatine capsules of different sizes are now obtainable and are a con- venient means of giving medicines in ball form. Drenches are to be given when the medicine is liquid, when the dose is large, and when we desire speedy action. Electuaries are medicines mixed mostly with licorice-root powder, molasses, or sirup to the consistency of honey, or a "soft-solid." They are intended, chiefly, to act locally upon the mouth and throat. They are given with a wooden paddle or strong long-handled spoon. When balls are to be given we should observe the following direc- tions: In shape they should be cylindrical, of the size above mentioned, and soft enough to be easily compressed by the fingers. If made round or egg-shaped, if too long or too hard, they are liable to become fixed in the gullet and cause choking. Balls may be given with the "balling- gun" (obtainable at any veterinary instrument maker's) or by the hand. If given by the hand a mouth speculum or gag should be used to prevent the animal from biting the hand or crushing the ball. Always loosen the horse before attempting to give a ball; if tied he may break his halter and injure himself or the one giving the ball. With a little practice it is much easier to give a ball without the mouth-gag, as the horse always fights more or less against having his mouth forced open. The tongue must be firmly grasped with the left hand and gently pulled forward; the ball, slightly moistened, is then to be placed with the tips of the fingers of the right hand as far back into the mouth as possible; as the tongue is loosened it is drawn back into the mouth and carries the ball backward with it. The mouth should be kept closed for a minute or two. We should always have a pail of water at hand to offer the horse after balling. This precaution will often prevent him from coughing out the ball or its becoming lodged in the gullet. It is. very often, impossible to get balls properly made, or to induce owners or attendants to attempt to give them, and for these reasons med- icines by the mouth are mostly given in the form of drenches. When medicine is to be given as a drench we must be careful to use enough water or oil to thoroughly dissolve or dilute it; more than this makes the drench bulky and is unnecessary. Insoluble medicines, if not irritant or corrosive, may be given simply suspended in water ; the bottle to be well shaken immediately before giving the drench. The bottle used for drenching purposes should be clean, strong, and smooth about its neck ; it should be without shoulders, tapering, and of a size to suit the amount to be given. A horn or tin bottle may be better, in that they are not so easily broken by the teeth. If the dose is a small one 11 the horse's head may be held up by the left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth by the right. The left thumb is to be placed in the angle of the lower jaw, and the fingers spread out in such a manner as to support the lower lip. Should the dose be large, the horse ugly, or the attendant unable to support the head as directed above, the head is then to be held up by running the tines of a long-handled wooden fork under the noseband of the halter ; the halter-strap or a rope may be fastened to the nose-band and thrown over a limb, beam, or through a pulley suspended from the ceiling. Another way of sup- porting the head is to place a loop in the end of a rope, and introduce this loop into the mouth just behind the upper front teeth or tusks, the free end to be run through a pulley, as before described, and held by an assistant. It is never to be fastened, as the horse might do himself serious injury if made fast. The head is to be elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the liquid out of his mouth. The line of the face should be horizontal, or only the least particle higher. If the head is drawn too high the animal can not swallow with ease, or even with safety. (If this is doubtful, just fill your mouth with water, throw back the head as far as possible, and then try to swallow). The person giving the drench should stand on some object in order to reach the horse's mouth, on a level, or a little above it. The bottle or horn is then to be introduced at the side of the mouth, in front of the molar teeth, in an upward direction. This will cause the horse to open his mouth, when the base of the bottle is to be suddenly elevated, and about 4 ounces of the liquid allowed to escape on the tongue as far back as possible, care being used not to get the neck of the bottle between the back teeth. The bottle is to be immediately removed, and if the horse does not swallow this can be encouraged by rubbing the fingers or neck of the bottle against the roof of the mouth, occasionally remov- ing them. As soon as this is swallowed repeat the operation until he has taken all the drench. If coughing occurs, or if, by any mishap, the bottle should be crushed in the mouth, lower the head immediately. Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw out the tongue when giving a drench. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and oftener do harm. Drenches must never be given through the nose; they are liable to strangle the animal, or, if the medicine is irritating, it sets up an in- flammation of the nose, fauces, windpipe, and sometimes the lungs. Cattle are easily drenched by simply holding them by the nose with the left hand, while the medicine is poured into the mouth with the right. Balls are not to be given to cattle ; they often become imbedded in the great mass of food in the stomach and act tardily or not at all. (2) Medicines are administered to the lungs and upper air passages by insufflation, inhalation, and nasal douche. Insufflation consists of blowing an impalpable powder directly into the nose. It is but rarely resorted to. Gaseous and volatile medicines are given by inhalation^ 12 as is also medicated steam or vapor. Of the gases used we may men- tion, as the chief ones, sulphurous acid gas, and occasionally chlorine. The animal or animals are to be placed in a tight building, where these gases are generated, until the atmosphere is sufficiently impregnated with them. Volatile medicines, as the anaesthetics, (ether, chloroform, etc.), are only to be given by the attending surgeon. Medicated vapors are to be inhaled by placing a bucket containing hot water, vinegar and water, scalded hay or bran, to which carbolic acid, iodine, or other medicines have been added, in the bottom of a long grain bag. The horse's nose is to be inserted into the top of the bag, and he thus in- hales the "medicated steam." Care must be taken not to have this hot enough to scald the animal. Scalding bran or hay is often thus inhaled to favor discharges in sore throat or " distemper." The nasal douche is employed by the veterinarian in treating some local diseases of the nasal chambers. Special appliances and profes- sional knowledge are necessary when using liquid medicines by this method. It is not often resorted to, even by veterinary surgeons, since the horse, as a rule, objects very strongly to this mode of medication. (3) By the Skin. — Medicines are often administered to our hair- covered animals by the skin, yet care must be taken in applying some medicines, as tobacco- water, carbolic acid solutions, etc., over the entire body, as poisoning and death follow in some instances from absorption through the skin. We must also exercise care, and not apply poisonous medicines over very large raw or abraded surfaces, for the same rea- sons. For domestic animals medicines are only to be applied by the skin for local purposes or diseases, as laudanum, chloroform liniment, etc., for neuralgia. (4) Under, the Skin — Hypodermic Method. — Medicines are fre- quently given by the hypodermic syringe, under the skin. It will not be safe for any but medical or veterinary practitioners to use this form of medication, since the medicines thus given are powerful poisons. There are many precautions to be observed; a knowledge of anatomy is indispensible. (5) By the Bectum. — Medicines may be given by the rectum when we can not give or retain them by the mouth ; when we want a local action on the last gut; to destroy the small worms infesting the large bowels; to stimulate the peristaltic motion of the intestines and cause evacuation ; and to nourish the body. Medicines are here given in the form of suppositories, or as liquid injections — enemas. Suppositories are conical bodies made up of oil of theobroma and opium (or whatever medicine is indicated in special cases), and are in- troduced into the rectum or vagina to allay irritation and pain of these parts. They are not much used in veterinary practice. Enemas, when given for absorption, should be small in quantity, neutral or slightly acid in reaction, and of a temperature of from 90° to 100° F. These, like foods given by the rectum, should only be in- 13 troduced after the last bowel has been emptied by the hand, or by copious enemas of tepid water. Enemas or clysters are mostly given to aid the action of physics, and should then be in quantities sufficient to distend the bowel aud cause the animal to eject them. Simple water, salt and water, or soap and water, in quantities of a gallon or more, may be given every half hour. It is best that the horse retain them for some little time, as the liquid serves to moisten the dung and favor a passage. Stimulating enemas (turpentine 2 ounces, in linseed oil 6 ounces), should be administered after those already mentioned have emptied the last bowel, with the purpose of still further increasing the natural worm-like movement of the intestines and aiding the purging medicine. Liquids may be thrown into the rectum by the means of a large syringe, or different kinds of complicated pumps. A very good " in- jection pipe" can be made by any tinsmith at a trifling cost, and should be constantly on hand at every stock-farm. It consists of a funnel, about 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, which is to be furnished with a pipe-like prolongation, placed at right angles to it, from 14 to 16 inches in length, and carefully rounded and soldered at the ends. This pipe must be perfectly smooth, in order to prevent injury to the rectum. Introduce this pipe to its full extent, after thoroughly oiling it, and pour the liquid into the funnel rapidly. The pressure of the atmosphere will force the liquid into the bowels. For all ordinary purposes this instru- ment is quite as good as the more complicated and expensive ones. Ordinary cold water, or even ice-cold water, is highly recommended by many as a rectal injection for horses overcome by the excessive heat of summer, and may be given by this simple pipe. (6) Intea- Venous Injections. — Injections directly into veins are to be practiced by medical or veterinary practitioners only, as are prob- ably some other means of giving medicines — intra-trachael injections, etc. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. By CH. B. MICHENER, V. S., Professor of Cattle Pathology and Obstetrics at the New York College of Veterinary Sur- geons, Inspector Bureau of Animal Industry, etc. It will not prove an easy task to write " a plain account of the com- mon diseases, with directions for preventive measures, hygienic care, and the simpler forms of medical treatment" of the digestive organs of the horse. This study includes a careful consideration of the food and drink of our animals, their quality, quantity, analyses, etc. This, of itself, is material for a book. Being limited as to space, one must en- deavor to give simply an outline ; to state the most important facts, leaving many gaps, and continually checking the disposition to write anything like a full description as to cause, prevention, and modes of treatment of disease. These articles are addressed entirely to farmers and stock-owners, and I must ask my professional brethren to bear this in mind, when disposed to complain of a want of scientific treatment of the subjects. Water. — It is generally held, at least in practice, that any water that stock can be induced to drink is sufficiently pure for their use. This practice occasions losses that would startle us if statistics were at hand. Water that is impure from the presence of decomposing organic mat- ter, such as is found in wells and ponds in close proximity to manure heaps and cess-pools, is frequently the cause of diarrhea, dysentery, and many other diseases of stock, while water that is impregnated with different poisons, and contaminated with specific media of contagion, produces death in very many instances. Considering first the quantity of water required by the horse, it may be stated that when our animals have access to water continually they never drink to excess. Were the horse subjected to ship-voyages, or any other circumstances where he must depend upon his attendant for the supply of water, it may be roughly stated that each horse requires a daily average of about 8 gallons of water. This will vary some- what upon the character of his food ; if upon green food, less water will be needed than when fed upon dry hay and grain. 16 16 The time of giving water should be carefully studied. At rest, the horse should receive water at least three times a day ; when at work, more frequently. The rule here should be to give in small quantities and often. There is a popular fallacy that if a horse is warm he should not be allowed to driuk, many claiming that the first swallow of water '"founders" the animal, or produces colic. This is erroneous. No matter how warm a horse may be, it is always entirely safe to allow him from six to ten swallows of water. If this is given on going into the stable, he should be given at once a pound or two of hay and allowed to rest about an hour before feeding. If water be now offered him it will in many cases be refused, or at least he will drink but spar- ingly. The danger, then, is not in the " first swallow " of water, but is due to the excessive quantity that the animal will take when warm if not restrained. Water should never be given to horses when it is ice-cold. It may not be necessary to add hot water, but we should be careful in placing water-troughs about our barns to have them in such position that the sun may shine upon the water during the winter mornings. Water, even though it be thus cold, seldom produces serious trouble if the horse has not been deprived for a too great length of time. In reference to the purity of water Smith, in his " Veterinary Hy- giene," classes spring, deep-well water, and upland surface-water as wholesome ; stored rain-water and surface-water from cultivated land as suspicious; river water to which sewage gains access and shallow- well water as dangerous. The water that is used for drinking purposes for stock so largely throughout some States can not but be impure. I refer to those sections where there is an impervious clay subsoil. It is the custom to scoop or hollow out a large basin in the different pas- tures. During rains these basins become filled with water. The clay subsoil being almost impervious acts as a jug, and there is no escape for the water except by evaporation. Such water is stagnant, but would be kept comparatively fresh by subsequent rains were it not for the fact that much organic matter is carried into these ponds by sur- face drainage during each succeeding storm. This organic matter soon undergoes decomposition, and as the result we find diseases of differ- ent kinds much more prevalent where this water is drunk than where the water-supply is wholesome. Again, it must not be lost sight of that stagnant surface-water is much more certainly contaminated than is running water by one diseased animal of the herd, thus endangering the remainder. The chief impurities of water may be classed as organic and inorganic. The organic impurities are either animal or vegetable substances. The salts of the metals are the inorganic impurities. Lime causes hardness of water, and occasion will be taken to speak of this when describing intestinal concretions. Salts of lead, iron, and copper are also frequently found in water, and will be referred to hereafter. 17 About the only examination of water that can be made by the aver- age stpck raiser is to observe its taste, color, smell, and clearness. Pure water is clear and is without taste or smell. It should possess a slight bluish tint. Chemical and microscopic examination will frequently be necessary in order to detect the presence of certain poisons, bacteria, etc., and can of course only be conducted by experts. Foods and feeding. — In this place one can not attempt anything like a comprehensive discussion of the subject, and I must content myself with merely giving a few facts as to the different kinds of food, prepa- ration, digestibility, proper time of feeding, quality, and quantity. Im- proper feeding and watering will doubtless account for over one-half of the digestive disorders met with in the horse, and hence the reader can not fail to see how very important it is to have some proper ideas con- cerning these subjects. Kinds of food. — In this country horses are fed chiefly upon hay, grass, roots, oats, corn, wheat, and rye. Many think that they could be fed on nothing else. Stewart, in "The Stable Book," gives the following ex- tract from Loudon's Encyclopedia of Agriculture, which is of interest at this point : In some sterile countries they (horses) are forced to subsist on dried fish, and even on vegetable mold; in Arabia, on milk, flesh-balls, eggs, broth. In India horses are variously fed. The native grasses are judged very nutritions. Few, perhaps no oats are grown ; barley is rare, and not commonly given to horses. In Bengal a vetch, something like the tare, is used. On the western side of India a sort of pigeon-pea, called gram (Cicer arietinum) forms the ordinary food, with grass while in season, and hay all the year round. Indian corn or rice is seldom given. In the West Indies maize, guinea corn, sagar corn tops, and sometimes molasses, are given. In the Mahratta country salt, pepper, and other spices are made into balls, with flour and butter, and these are supposed to produce animation and to fine the coat. Broth made from sheep's head is sometimes given. In France, Spain, and Italy, besides the grasses, the leaves of limes, vines, the tops of acacia, and the seeds of the carob-tree are given to horses. For information as to the nutritive value, chemistry, and classifica- tion of the different kinds of food, I will refer the reader again to Smith's Veterinary Hygiene. We can not, however, leave aside entirely here a consideration of the digestibility of foods ; and by this we mean the readiness with which foods undergo those changes in the digestive canal that fit them for absorption and deposition as integral parts of the animal economy. The age and health of the animal will, of course, modify the digesti- bility of foods, as will also the manner and time of harvesting, preserv- ing, and preparing the foods. In the horse digestion takes place principally in the intestines, and here, as in all other animals and with all foods, we find that a certain part only of the provender is digested; another portion is indigested. This proportion of digested and indigested food must claim passing notice at least, for if the horse receives too much food a large portion 11035 2 18 of digestible food must pass out unacted upon, entailing not only the loss of this unused food, but also calling for an unnecessary expendi- ture of vital force on the part of the digestive organs of the horse. It is thus that, in fact, too much food may make an animal poor. In selecting food for the horse we should remember the anatomical arrangement of the digestive organs, as well as the physiological func- tions performed by each organ. Foods must be wholesome, clean, and sweet; the hours of feeding regular; the mode of preparation found by practical experience to be the best must be adhered to, and cleanli- ness in preparation and administration must be observed. The length of time occupied by stomach digestion in the horse varies with the different foods. Hay and straw pass out of the stomach more rapidly than oats. It would seem to follow, then, that oats should be given after hay, for if reversed the hay would cause the oats to be sent onward into the intestines before being fully acted upon by the stomach, and as a result produce indigestion. Experience confirms this. There is another good reason why hay should be given first, particularly if the horse is very hungry or if exhausted from overwork, namely, it requires more time in mastication (insuring proper admixture of saliva) and can not be bolted as are the grains. In either instance water must not be given soon after feeding, as it washes or sluices the food from the stomach before it is "fitted for intestinal digestion. The stomach begins to empty itself very soon after the commence- ment of feeding, and continues rapidly while eating. Afterwards the passage is slower, and several hours are required before the stomach is entirely empty. The nature of the work required of the horse must guide us in the selection of his food. Rapid or severe labor can not be performed on a full stomach. For such horses food must be given in small quantity and fed to them about two hours before going to their work. Even horses intended for slow work must never be engorged with bulky, innutritious food immediately before going to labor. The small stomach of the horse would seem to lead us to the conclusion that this animal should be fed in small quantities and often, which, in reality, should be done. The disproportion between the size of the stomach and the amount of water drank tells us plainly that the horse should always be watered before feeding. One of the common errors of feeding, and the one that produces more digestive disorders than any other, is to feed too soon after a hard day's work. This must never be done. If a horse is completely jaded it will be found beneficial to give him an alcoholic stimulant on going into the stable. A small quantity of hay may then be given, but his grain should be withheld for one or two hours. These same remarks will apply with equal force to the horse that for any reason has been fasting for a long time. After a fast feed less than the horse would eat; for if allowed too much the stomach becomes engorged, its walls paralyzed, and "colic" is almost Sure to follow. The horse should be fed three or four times a day j nor 19 will it answer to feed him entirely upon concentrated food. Bulky food must be given to detain the grains in their passage through the intes- tinal tract; bulk also favors distention, and thus mechanically aids absorption. To horses that do slow work for the greater part of the time, chopped or cut hay fed with crushed oats, ground corn, etc., is the best manner of feeding, as it gives the required bulk, saves time, and half the labor of feeding. Sudden changes of diet are always dangerous.— When desirous of chang- ing the food, do so very gradually. If a horse is accustomed to oats a sudden change to a full meal of corn will almost always sicken him. If we merely intend to increase the quantity of the usual feed, this again must be done gradually. The quantity of food given must always be in proportion to the amount of labor to be performed. If a horse is to do less work, or rest entirely from work for a few days, see that he re- ceives less feed. If this was observed even on Saturday night and Sunday there would befewer cases of "Monday morning sickness, "such as colics and lymphangitis. Foods should also be of a more laxative nature when the horse is to stand for some days. Above all things we should avoid feeding musty or moldy foods. These are very frequent causes of disease of different kinds. Lung trouble, as bronchitis and " heaves," often follows the use of such food. The digestive organs always suffer from moldy or musty foods. Musty hay is generally con- sidered to produce disorder of the kidneys; and all know of the danger to pregnant animals from feeding upon ergotized grasses or grains. Leaving these somewhat general considerations, I will refer briefly to the different kinds of foods : Hay. — The best hay for horses is timothy. It should be about one year old, of a greenish color, crisp, clean, fresh, and possessing a sweet, pleasant aroma. Even this good hay, if kept for too great a length of time, loses part of its nourishment, and while it may not be positively injurious, it is hard, dry, and indigestible. New hay is difficult to di- gest, produces much salivation (slobbering) and occasionally purging and irritation of the skin. If fed at all it should be mixed with old hay. Second crop or aftermath. — This is not considered good hay for horses, but it is prized by some farmers as a good food for milch cows, they claiming that it increases the flow of milk. The value of hay depends upon the time of cutting, as well as care in curing. Hay should be cut when in full flower, but before the seeds fall; if left longer, it be- comes dry and woody and lacks in nutrition. An essential point in making hay is that when the crop is cut it should remain as short a time as possible in the field. If left too long in the sun it loses color, flavor, and dries or wastes. Smith asserts that one hour more than is necessary in the sun causes a loss of 15 to 20 per cent, in the feeding value of hay. It is impossible to state any fixed time that hay must have to cure, this depending, of course, upou the weather, thickness of 20 the crop, and many other circumstances ; but it is well known that in order to preserve the color aud aroma of hay it should be turned or tedded frequently and cured as quickly as possible. On the other hand, hay spoils in the mow if harvested too green or when not sufficiently dried. Mow-burnt hay produces disorder of the kidneys and bowels and causes the horse to fall off in condition. Musty or moldy hay has often been said to produce that peculiar disease known variously as cerebro-spinal meningitis, putrid sore throat, or choking distemper. The average horse, getting grain, should be allowed from 10 to 12 pounds of good hay a day. It is a mistake of many to think that horses at light work can be kept entirely on hay. Such horses soon become pot-bellied, fall off in flesh, and do not thrive. The same is true of colts; unless the latter are fed with some grain they grow up to be long, lean, gawky creatures, and never make as good horses as those accustomed to grain, with or in addition to their hay. Straw. — The straws are not extensively fed in this country, and when used at all they should be cut and mixed with hay and ground or crushed grains. Wheat, rye, and oats straw are the ones most used, and of these oats straw is most easily digested and contains the most nourishment. Pea and bean straw are occasionally fed to horses, the pea being preferable according to most writers. Chaff. — Wheat and rye chaff should never be used as a food for horses. The beards frequently become lodged in the mouth or throat and are productive of more or less serious trouble. In the stomach and intestines they often serve as the nucleus of the "soft concretions" which are to be described when treating of obstructions of the digestive tract. Oat chaff, if fed in small quantities and mixed with cut hay or corn- fodder, is very much relished by horses. It is not to be given in large quantities, as I have repeatedly witnessed a troublesome and sometimes fatal diarrhea to follow the practice of allowing horses or cattle free ac- cess to a pile of oat chaff. Grains. — Oats take precedence of all grains as a food for horses, as the ingredients necessary for the complete nutrition of the body exist in them in the best proportions. Oats are besides more easily digested and a larger proportion absorbed and converted into the various tissues of the body. Care must be taken in selecting oats. According to Stew- art the best oats are one year old, plump, short, hard, clean, bright, aud sweet. New oats are indigestible. Kiln-dried oats are to be refused as a rule, for even though originally good this drying process injures them. Oats that have sprouted or fermented are injurious and should never be fed. Oats are to be given either whole or crushed ; whole in the majority of instances, crushed to old horses and those having de- fective teeth. Horses, also, that bolt their feed are best fed upon crushed oats and out of a manger large enough to permit of spreading the grain in a thin layer. 21 The average horse requires, in addition to the allowance of hay above spoken of, about 12 quarts of good oats daily. The best oats are those cut about one week before being fully ripe. Not only is the grain richer at this time in nutritive materials, but there is also less waste from " scattering " than if left to become dead ripe. Moldy oats, like hay and straw, not only produce serious digestive disorders, but have been the undoubted cause of outbreaks of that dread disease in horses, al- ready referred to, characterized by inability to eat or drink, sudden paralysis, and death. Wheat and rye. — These grains are not to be used as food for horses except in small quantities, bruised or crushed, and fed mixed with other grains or hay. If fed alone, in any considerable quantities, they are almost certain to produce digestive disorders, laminitis (founder), and similar troubles. They should never constitute more than one-fourth of the grain allowance, and should always be ground or crushed. Bran. — The bran of wheat is the one most used, and its value as a feeding stuff is variously estimated. It is not to be depended upon if given alone, but may be fed with other grains. It serves to keep the bowels open. Sour bran is not to be given. It disorders the stomach and intestines and may even produce serious results. Maize — Corn. — This grain is not suitable as an exclusive food for young horses, as it is deficient in salts. It is fed whole or ground. Corn on the cob is commonly used as the food for horses affected with " lampas." If the corn is old and is to be fed in this manner it should be soaked in pure, clean water for ten or twelve hours. Corn is better given ground, and fed in quantities of from 1 to 2 quarts at a meal mixed with crushed oats or wheat bran. We must, be very particular in giving corn to a horse that is not accustomed to its use. It must be commenced in small quantities and very gradually increased. I know of no grain more likely to produce what is called acute indiges- tion than corn if these directions are not observed. Linseed. — Ground linseed is occasionally fed with other foods to keep the bowels open and to improve the condition of the skin. It is of par- ticular service during convalescence, when the bowels are sluggish in their action. Linseed tea is very often given in irritable or inflamed conditions of the digestive organs. Boots — Potatoes. — These are used as an article of food for the horse in many sections. If fed raw and in large quantities they often produce indigestion. Their digestibility is favored by steaming or boiling. They possess, in common with other roots, slight laxative properties. Beets. — These are not much used as food for horses. Carrots. — These make a most excellent food, particularly during sick- ness. They improve the appetite and slightly increase the action of the bowels and kidneys. They possess also certain alterative properties. The coat becomes smooth and glossy when carrots are fed. Some vet- erinary writers claim that chronic cough is cured by giving carrots for 22 sometime. The roots may be considered then as an adjunct to the reg- ular regime, and if fed in small quantities are highly beneficial. Grasses. — Grass is the natural food of horses. It is composed of a great variety of plants, differing widely as to the amount of nourish- ment contained, some being almost entirely without value as foods and only eaten when there is nothing else obtainable, others are positively injurious or even poisonous. Noneof the grasses are sufficient to keep the horse in condition for work. Horses thus fed are "soft," sweat easily, purge, and soon tire on the road or when at hard work. To growing stock grass is indispensible, and there is little or no doubt but that it acts as an alterative when given to horses accustomed to grain and hay. It must be given to such subjects in small quantities at first. The stomach and intestines undergo rest, and recuperate if the horse is turned to grass for a time each year. It is also certain that during febrile diseases grass acts almost as a medicine, lessening the fever and favoring re- covery; wounds heal more rapidly than when the horse is on grain, and some chronic disorders (chronic cough for instance) disappear entirely when at grass. In my experience grass does more good when the horse crops it himself. This may be due to the sense of freedom he enjoys at pasture, to the rest to his feet and limbs, and for many similar reasons. When cut for him it should be fed fresh or when but slightly wilted. PREPARATION OF FOODS. Foods are prepared for feeding for any of the following reasons : To render the food more easily eaten; to make it more digestible; to economize in amount; to give it some new property, and to preserve it. We have already spoken of the preparation of drying, and need not revert to this again, as it only serves to preserve the different foods. Drying does, however, change some of the properties of food, i. e„ re- moves the laxative tendency of most of them. The different grains are more easily eaten when ground, crushed, or even boiled. Bye or wheat should never be given whole, and even of corn it is found that there is less waste when ground, and, in common with all grains, it is more easily digested than when fed whole. Hay and fodder are economized when cut in short pieces. Not only will the horse eat the necessary amount in a shorter time, but it will be found that there is less waste, and the mastication of the grains (whole or crushed) fed with them is insured. Reference has already been made to those horses that bolt their food, and we need only remark here that the consequences of such ravenous eating may be prevented if the grains are fed with cut hay, straw, or fodder. Long or uncut hay should also be fed, even though a certain amount of hay or straw is cut and fed mixed with grain. One objection to feeding cut hay mixed with ground or crushed grains, and wetted, must not be overlooked during the hot months. Such food 23 is apt to undergo fermentation if not fed directly after it is mixed, and the mixing-trough even, unless frequently scalded and cleaned, becomes sour and enough of its scrapings are given with the food to produce flatulent (wind) colic. A small amount of salt should always be mixed with such food. Bad hay should never be cut simply because it insures a greater con- sumption of it ; bad foods are dear at any price and should never be fed. We have before spoken of the advantage of boiling roots. Not only does this render them less liable to produce digestive disorders, but it also makes them clean. Boiling or steaming grains is to be recom- mended when the teeth are poor, or when the digestive organs are weak. Of ensilage as a food for horses I have no experience, but am inclined to think that (and this opinion is based upon the imperfect manner in which the crop is often stored) disordered digestion would be more fre- quent were it extensively fed. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Dentition. — This covers the period during which the young horse is cutting his teeth, from birth to the age of five years. With the horse more difficulty is experienced in cutting the second or permanent teeth than with the first or milk teeth. There is a tendency among farmers and many veterinarians to pay too little attention to the teeth of young horses. Percivall relates an instance illustrative of this, that is best told in his own words : I was requested to give my opinion concerning a horse, then in his fifth year, who had fed so sparingly for the last fortnight, and so rapidly declined in condition in consequence, that his owner, a veterinary surgeon, was under no light apprehensions ahout his life. He had himself examined his mouth, without having discovered any defect or disease; though another veterinary surgeon was of opinion that the diffi- culty or inability manifested in mastication, and the consequent cudding, arose from preternatural bluntness of the surfaces of the molar teeth, which were, in conse- quence filed, but without beneficial result. It was after this that I saw the horse ; and I confess I was, at my first examination, quite as much at a loss to offer any sat- isfactory interpretation as others had been. While meditating, however, after my inspection, on the apparently extraordinary nature of the case, it struck me that I had not seen the tusks. I went back into the stable and discovered two little tu- mors, red and hard, in the situation of the inferior tasks, which, when pressed, gave the animal insufferable pain. I instantly took out my pocket-knife and made cru- cial incisions through them both, down to the coming teeth, from which moment the horse recovered his appetite and by degrees his wonted condition. The mouths of young horses should also be frequently examined to see if one or more of the milk teeth are not remaining too long, caus- ing the second teeth to grow in crooked, in which case the first teeth should be removed by the forceps. Irregularities of teeth. — There is quite a fashion of late years, espe- cially in large cities, to havehorses' teeth regularly "floated" or " rasped" by " veterinary dentists." In some instances this is very beneficial, while in most cases it is entirely unnecessary. From the character of 24 the food, the rubbing or grinding surface of the horse's teeth should be rough. Still we must remember that the upper jaw is somewhat wider than the lower, and that from the fact of the teeth not being perfectly apposed, a sharp ridge is left unworn on the inside of the lower molars and on the outside of the upper, which may excoriate the tongue or lips to a considerable extent. This condition can readily be felt by the hand, and these sharp ridges when found should be rasped down by a guarded rasp. Any one can do this without the aid of the veterina- rian. In some instances the first or last molar tooth is unnaturally long, owing to the absence of its fellow on the opposite jaw. Should it be the last molar that is thus elongated it will require the aid of the veterinary surgeon, who has the necessary forceps or chisel for cutting it. The front molar may be rasped down, if much patience is taken. In decay of the teeth it is quite common to find the tooth correspond- ing to the decayed one on the opposite jaw very much elongated, sometimes to that extent that the mouth can not be perfectly closed. Such teeth must also be shortened by the bone forceps, chisel, bone- saw, or rasp. In all instances where horses "quid" their food, where they are slobbering, or where they evince pain in mastication, shown by holding their head to one side while chewing, the teeth should be carefully examined. If, as is mostly the case, all these symptoms are referable to sharp corners or projections of the teeth, these must be re- moved by the rasp. If decayed teeth are found, or other serious diffi- culty detected, an expert should be called. Toothache.— This is rare in the horse and is mostly witnessed where there is decay of a tooth. I have observed it only in the molar teeth. Toothache is to be discovered iu the horse by the pain expressed by him while feeding or drinking cold water. I have seen horses affected with toothache that would suddenly stop chewing, throw the head to one side, and slightly open the mouth. They behave as though some sharp body had punctured the mouth. If upon examination there is no for- eign body found we must then carefully examine each tooth. If this can not be done with the hand in the mouth we can, in most instances, discover the aching tooth by pressing each tooth from without. The horse will flinch when the sore tooth is pressed upon. In most cases there is nothing to be done but the extraction of the decayed tooth, and this, of course, is only to be attempted by the veterinarian. There is a deformity, known as parrot-mouth, that interferes with pre- hension, mastication, and, indirectly, with digestion. The upper incis- ors project in front of and beyond the lower ones. The teeth of both jaws become unusually long, as they are not worn down by friction. Such horses experience much difficulty in grazing. Little can be done except to occasionally examine the teeth, and if those of the lower jaw become so long that they bruise the " bars " of the upper jaw, they must be shortened by the rasp or saw. Horses with this deformity should never be left entirely at pasture. 25 DISEASES OF THE MOUTH. Lampas is the name given to a swelling of the mucous membrane covering the hard palate and projecting in a more or less prominent ridge immediately behind the upper incisors. There is no doubt but that in some rare instances, and particularly while teething, there is a congestion and swelling of this part of the roof of the mouth which may interfere with feeding. In one instance in my practice I found the swelling so extensive that the mucous membrane was caught between the front teeth when the horse attempted to eat. Should this exist the swollen parts are to be scarified, being careful not to cut deeply into the structures. An astringent wash of alum water may also be beneficial. Burning of the lampas is cruel and unnecessary, and should never be permitted, as it often causes serious results to follow. It is quite a common opinion among owners of horses and stablemen that lampas is a disease that very frequently exists. In fact whenever a horse fails to eat, and if he does not exhibit very marked symptoms of a severe illness, they say at once " he has the lampas." It is almost impossible to convince them to the contrary, yet in a practice extend- ing over fifteen years I have never seen but two or three cases of what is called lampas that gave rise to the least trouble or that called for any treatment whatever. It may be put down, then, as more a disease of the stableman's imagination than of the horse's mouth. Stomatitis. — This is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the mouth and is produced by irritating medicines, foods, or other sub- stances. In cities it frequently follows from eating out of ash-barrels. The symptoms are swelling of the mouth, which is also hot and pain- ful to the touch ; there is a copious discharge of saliva ; the mucous membrane is reddened, and in some cases there are observed vesicles or ulcers in the mouth. The treatment is simple, soft feed alone often being all that is necessary. In some instances it may be advisable to use a wash of chlorate of potash, borax, or alum, about one-half ounce to a pint of water. Hay, straw, or oats should not be fed unless steamed or boiled. Glossitis, or inflammation of the tongue, is very similar to the above, and mostly exists with it and is due to the same causes. Injuries to the tongue may produce this simple inflammation of its covering mem- brane, or, if severe, may produce lesions much more extensive, such as lacerations, abscesses, etc. These latter would require surgical treatment, but for the simpler forms of inflammation of the tongue the treatment recommended for stomatitis should be followed. Ptyalism or salivation consists in an abnormal and excessive secre- tion of saliva. This is often seen as a symptom of irregular teeth, in- flammation of the mouth or tongue, or of the use of such medicines as lobelia, mercury, and many others. Some foods produce this, as clover, and particularly second crop ; foreign bodies, as nails, wheat-chaff, and 26 corn-cobs becoming lodged in the mouth. If the cause is removed, as a rule no further attention is necessary. Astringent washes may be applied to the mouth as a gargle or by means of a sponge. Pharyngitis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining of the pharynx (back part of the mouth). It rarely exists unless accompauied by stomatitis, glossitis, or laryngitis. In those instances where the in- flammation is mostly confined to the pharynx we notice febrile symptoms — difficulty of swallowing either liquids or solids ; there is but little cough except when trying to swallow ; there is no soreness on pressure over larynx (large ring of the windpipe). Increased flow of saliva, difficulty of swallowing liquids in particular, and cough only when attempting to swallow, are the symptoms best marked in pharyngitis. For treat- ment, chlorate of potash in half-ounce doses three or four times a day is the best. This may be given suspended in warm water as a gargle, or may be mixed with licorice-root powder and honey and given with a strong spoon or wooden paddle. Borax or alum water may be substituted for chlorate of potash in the same-sized doses. Soft food should be given, but I have seen some cases where the animal would eat corn from the cob better than anything else. Paralysis of the pharynx, or, as it is commonly called, "paralysis of the throat," is one of the most stubborn diseases of the horse that we are ever called to treat. A horse is suddenly noticed to be unable to eat, and his manger is found to contain much saliva and frothy food that has been returned through his nose. The symptoms which enable us to tell that paralysis of the pharynx exists are as follows : The owner says he has a horse that " can't eat." That is all he knows. We find the animal with a somewhat anxious countenance ; manger, as above de- scribed ; pulse, respiration, and temperature, at first, about the same as in health ; the horse will constantly try to eat or drink, but is un- able to do so ; if water be offered him from a pail he will apparently drink with avidity, but, if we notice, the quantity of water in the pail remains about the same ; he will continue trying to drink by the hour; if he can succeed in getting any fluid in to the back part of the mouth it comes out at once through the nose. Foods also return through the nose, or are dropped from the mouth, quidded. An examination of the mouth by inserting the hand fails to find any obstruction or auy abnormal condition, except, perhaps, that the parts are too flabby to the touch. These cases go on from bad to worse ; the horse constantly and rapidly loses in condition, becomes very much emaciated, the eyes are hollow and lustreless, and death soon occurs from inanition. Treatment is very unsatisfactory. Severe blisters should be applied behind and under the jaw; the mouth is to be frequently swabbed out with alum or chlorate of potash, 1 ounce to a pint of water, by means of a sponge fastened to the eud of a stick. Strychnia is the best agent to be used to overcome this paralysis, and should be given in 1-grain doses three or four times a day. If the services of a veterinarian can 27 be obtained he should give this medicine by means of a hypodermic syringe, injecting it deeply into the pharynx. In my experience the blister externally, the frequent swabbing of the mouth, as above de- scribed, and the use of a nerve stimulant are all that can be done. This disease may be mistaken at times for foreign bodies in the mouth or for the so called cerebro-spinal meningitis. It is to be distinguished from the former by a careful examination of the mouth, the absence of any offending body, and by the flabby feel of the mouth ; from the latter by the animal appearing in perfect health in every particular except this inability to eat or drink. Abscesses sometimes form in the pharynx and give rise to symptoms resembling those of laryngitis or distemper. Interference with breath- ing, that is of recent origin, and progression, without any observable swelling or soreness about the throat, will make us suspect the forma- tion of an abscess in this location. But little can be done in the way of treatment, save to hurry the ripening of the abscess and its dis- charge, by steaming with hops, hay, or similar substances. If the ab- scess can be felt through the mouth it must be opened by the attend- ing veterinary surgeon. DISEASES OF THE (ESOPHAGUS OR GULLET. It is rare to find disease of this organ, except as a result of the in- troduction of foreign bodies too large to pass, or to the exhibition of irritating medicines. Great care should be taken in the administration of irritant or caustic medicines that they be thoroughly diluted. If this is not done erosions and ulcerations of the throat ensue, and this again is prone to be followed by constriction — narrowing — of the gullet. The mechanical trouble of choking is quite common. It frequently occurs when the animal is suddenly startled while eating apples or roots, and we should be careful never to suddenly approach or put a dog after horses or cows that are feeding upon such substances. If left alone they very rarely attempt to swallow the object until it is suffi- ciently masticated. Choking also arises from feeding oats in a deep, narrow manger, to such horses as eat very greedily, or bolt their food. Wheat chaff is also a frequent source of choke. This accident may result from the attempts to force eggs down without breaking or from giving balls that are too large or not of the proper shape. Whatever object causes the choking, it may lodge in the upper part of the oesophagus, at its middle portion, or close to the stomach, giving rise to the designations of pharyngeal, cervical, and thoracic choke. In some cases where the original obstruction is low we find all that part of the gullet above it to be distended with food. The symptoms will vary according to the position of the body causing choke. In pharyngeal choice the object is lodged in the upper portion of the oesophagus. The horse will present symptoms of great distress, 28 hurried breathing, frequent cough, excessive flow of saliva, sweating, trembling, or stamping with the fore-feet. The abdomen rapidly dis- tends with gas. The diagnosis is completed by manipulating the upper part of the throat from without and by the introduction of the haud into the back part of the mouth, finding the body lodged here. In cervical choke (where the obstruction is situated at any point between the throat-latch and the shoulder) the object can both be seen and felt. The symptoms here are not so severe; the horse will be seen to occa- sionally draw himself up, arch his neck, and sometimes utter a loud shriek; the expression becomes anxious, and attempts at vomiting are made. The abdomen is mostly full and tympanitic. Should there be any question as to the trouble a decided conclusion may mostly be reached by pouring water into the throat from a bottle. If the ob- struction is complete you can see the gullet become distended with each bottle of water by standing on the left side of the horse and watch- ing the course of the oasophagus, just above the windpipe. This is not always a sure test, as the obstruction may be an angular body, in which case liquids would pass it. Solids taken would show in these cases ; but solids should not, however, be given, as they serve to in- crease the trouble by rendering the removal of the body more difficult. In cervical choke one can always, with a little care, feel the imprisoned object. In thoracic choice the symptoms are still less severe. Our attention will be directed to this part of the cesophagus by food or water being ejected through the nose or mouth after the animal has taken a few swallows. There will be some symptoms of distress, fullness of the abdomen, cough, and occasionally the crying or shrieking as heard in cervical choke. The diagnosis is complete if, upon passing the probang (a hol- low, flexible tube made for this purpose), an obstruction is encountered. Treatment. — If the choke is at the beginning of the gullet (pharyngeal) we must endeavor to remove the obstacle through the mouth. A mouth-gag or speculum is to be introduced into the mouth to protect the hand and arm. of the operator. Then while an assistant, with his hands grasped tightly behind the object, presses it upward and forward with all his force, the operator must pass his hand into the mouth until he can seize the obstruction and draw it outward. This mode of pro- cedure must not be abandoned with the first failure, as we may get the obstacle farther toward the mouth by continued efforts. If we fail with the hand, forceps may be introduced through the mouth and the object seized when it is just beyond the reach of the fingers. Should our efforts entirely fail we must then endeavor to force the obstruction downward by means of the probang. This instrument, which is of such signal service in removing choke in cattle, is decidedly more dangerous to use for the horse, and I can not pass this point without a word of caution to those who have been known to introduce into the horse's throat such objects as whip-stalks, shovel-handles, etc. These are 29 always dangerous, and I have seen more than one horse die from this barbarous treatment. Cervical choke. — In this, as well as in thoracic choke, we must first of all endeavor to soften or lubricate the obstruction by pouring oil or mucilaginous driuks down the gullet. After this has been done we are to endeavor to move the object by gentle manipulations with the hands. If choked with oats or chaff (and these are the objects that most fre- quently produce choke in the horse), we should begin by gently squeez- ing the lower portion of the impacted mass, and endeavoring to work it loose a little at a time. This is greatly favored at times if we apply hot fomentations immediately about the obstruction. We should persist in these efforts for at least an hour before deciding to resort to other and more dangerous modes of treatment. Should we fail, however, the pro- bang may be used. In the absence of the regular instrument, which must always be flexible and finished with a smooth cup-shaped ex- tremity, we may use a long piece of inch hose. The mouth is to bo kept open by a gag of wood or iron and the head slightly raised and extended. The probang is then to be carefully guided by the hand into the upper part of the gullet and gently forced downward until the ob- struction is reached. Pressure must then be gradual and firm. Do not, at first, attempt too much force, or the oesophagus will be ruptured. Simply keep up this firm, gentle pressure until you feel the object mov- ing, after which you are to rapidly follow it to the stomach. If, again, this mode of treatment is unsuccessful, a veterinarian or medical doctor is to be called in, who can remove the object by cutting down upon the gullet, opening it, and removing the offending body. This should scarcely be attempted by a novice, as a knowledge of the anatomy of the parts is essential to avoid cutting the large artery, vein, and nerve that are closely related to the oesophagus in its cervical portion. Thoracic choice can only be treated by means of the introduction of oils and mucilaginous drinks and the careful use of the probang. Some practitioners speak very highly of the value of thick soap-suds, gener- ously horned down the animal's throat. Stricture of the oesophagus is mostly due to corrosive medicines, pre- vious choking (accompanied by lacerations, which, in healing, narrow the passage), and pressure on the gullet by tumors. In the majority of cases of stricture we soon have dilatation of the gullet iu front of the constricted portion. This dilatation is due to the frequent accumula- tion of solid food above the constriction. Little can be done in either of these instances except to feed on sloppy or liquid food. Sacular dilatation of the oesophagus. — This mostly follows choking, and is due to rupture of the muscular coat of the gullet, allowing the inter- nal or mucous coat to hernia or pouch through the lacerated muscular walls. This sac or pouch gradually enlarges, from the frequent impris- onment of food, until it presses upon the gullet and prevents swallow- ing. When liquids are taken the solid materials are partially washed 30 out of the pouch. The symptoms presenting themselves are as follows: The horse is able to swallow a few inouthfuls of food without apparent distress; then he will suddenly stop feeding, paw, contract the muscles of his neck, and eject a portion of the food through his nose or mouth. As the dilatation thus empties itself the symptoms gradually subside, only to re-appear when he has again taken solid food. Liquids pass without any, or but little, inconvenience. Should this dilatation exist in the cervical region, surgical interference may sometimes prove effect- ual ; if in the thoracic portion, nothing can be done, and the patient rapidly passes from hand to hand by "swapping," until, at no distant date, the contents of the sac become too firm to be dislodged as here- tofore, and the animal succumbs. DISEASES OF THE STOMACH. Impaction — Stomach staggers, or gorged stomach. — These are terms given to the stomach when it is so enormously distended with food that it loses all power of contracting upon its contents. It occurs most frequently in those horses that after a long fast are given a large feed, or in those that have gained access to the grain -bin and eaten rav- enously. The proportionally small stomach of the horse, as well as his inability to vomit, will account for the frequency of stomach staggers. I have witnessed this trouble most frequently in teamsters' horses and those that are not fed as often as they should be. After a long fast it is the custom to feed abundantly. The horse bolts his food, and the stomach not having time to empty itself becomes distended and paralyzed. To prevent this condition it is sufficient to feed at shorter intervals, to give small quantities at a time, and to secure the feed- bins so that if a horse gets loose he can not " stuff himself to bursting." Symptoms. — Percivall says that "a stomach simply surcharged with food, without any accompanying tympanitic distention, does not ap- pear to occasion local pain, but to operate rather that kind of influence upon the brain which gives rise to symptoms, not stomachic, but cere- bral. Hence the analogy between this disease and staggers, and hence the appellation for it of ' stomach staggers.'" The horse soon after eat- ing becomes dull and heavy, or drowsy ; slight colicky symptoms are observed, and are continuous; he rarely lies down, but carries his head extended and low, nearly touching the ground. Dullness rapidly in- creases, the eyes are partially closed, vision is impaired, he presses or thrusts his head against the manger or sides of the stall, and paws or even climbs with his fore feet. Respirations are less frequent than in health, the pulse slow and sluggish. All these symptoms rapidly in- crease in severity; he becomes delirious; cold sweats bedew the body; he trembles violently, slobbers or vomits a sour, fermenting mass, staggers from side to side, or plunges madly about until he drops dead. Usually the bowels are constipated, although (and especially if the en- gorgement is due to eating wheat or rye) diarrhea has been observed. These symptoms resemble in some particulars those of "blind" or 31 " mad" staggers, but if we are careful to get the history of the case, i. e., ravenous eating after a long fast, or gaining access to grain-bins, we should not be in much danger of confounding them. Post-mortem ex- aminations sometimes reveal rupture of the stomach, owing to its enor- mous distension, and to the violence with which he throws himself in his delirium. If not ruptured the stomach will be distended to its utmost. Treatment for these cases is very unsatisfactory. A purgative of Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce, should be given at once. We should then try to stimulate the walls of the stomach to contraction by giving cay- enne pepper, one-half ounce, or half-ounce doses of Jamaica ginger. Injections into the rectum, last gut, of turpentine 2 ounces, in 8 ounces of linseed oil, may stimulate the bowels to act, and thus, in a measure, relieve the stomach. Cold applications applied to the head may in some cases relieve the cerebral symptoms already referred to, and some recommend bleeding for the same purpose. Tympanites of the stomach. — This is of somewhat frequent occurrence, according to my observation, but is not, I believe, as a rule, separately treated of by works on veterinary medicine. It is similar in cause and symptoms to the above, yet distinct enough to enable the careful ob- server to readily differentiate between them. In tympanites of the stomach we find this organ to be greatly distended as before, but in this case its contents are gaseous, or probably a mixture of food and gases, like fermenting yeast. This disease of the horse corresponds exactly with "hoven" or "blown" in cattle, and may be due to over- loading the stomach with young, succulent, growing herbage, clover in particular, from whose subsequent fermentation gas is liberated in quantities sufficient to enormously distend the stomach. Growing wheat or rye are also fertile causes of this distention if eaten in any con- siderable amounts. Another very frequent cause of stomach-bloat is overfeeding, particularly if given immediately before hard work. Many people, if they expect to make a long journey, think to fit their horses for the fatigue consequent thereto by giving an extra allowance of oats or other food just before starting. This is most injudicious. The horse starts to his work feeling full and oppressed ; he soon grows dull and listless, and fails to respond to the whip ; sweats profusely ; attempts to lie down ; his head is carried forward and downward, and if checked up is heavy on the reins, stumbles or blunders forward and often falls. If looked at carefully you can not fail to observe that he is unusually full over the posterior ribs. The flanks may also be distended with gas, and sound like a drum on being struck, though I have seen cases where the gases were entirely confined to the stomach. With this condition the pain and distress are constant ; the swelling referred to plainly ap- preciable; head extended and low, retching or even vomiting of fer- mented food. On placing the ear to the horse's windpipe a distinct me- tallic sound can be heard, as of air rushing through the windpipe. Such cases are rapid in their course and often fatal. 32 Treatment must be prompt and energetic. An antacid should be given, and, as these cases mostly occur on the road away, probably, from all drug-stores, you should hasten to the first house. Get common baking soda, and administer 2 to 4 ounces of it as quickly as possible. One- half ounce of cayenne pepper may be added to this with advantage, as it serves to aid the stomach to contract upon its contents, and expel the gas. Charcoal, in any amount ; chloride of lime, one-half ounce ; carbon- ate of ammonia, one-half ounce ; or any medicine that will check or stop fermentation, or absorb the gases, may be given. A physic of 1 ounce of aloes, or 1 pint of linseed oil should be given to unload the stomach and bowels. Cold water, dashed with force over the stomach, is thought by some to favor condensation of the gas. This lesson should be learned from one of these attacks — and doubtless will be if, as is often the case, the horse dies — that when a horse or any other animal is expected to do an unusual amount of work in a short time he will best do it upon a spare feed. Curb your generosity and humanity (?) for the brute un- til the journey's end, and even then wait until the horse is thoroughly rested before giving the usual feed. Rupture of the stomach. — This mostly occurs as a result of engorged or tympanitic stomach, and from the horse violently throwing himself when so affected. It may result from disease of the coats of the stom- ach, gastritis, stones or calculi, tumors, or anything thtat closes the opening of the stomach into the intestines, and very violent pulling or jumping immediately after the animal has eaten heartily of bulky food. These or similar causes may lead to this accident. The symptoms of rupture of the stomach are not constant, nor always reliable. We should always make inquiry as to what and how much the horse has been fed it the last meal. Vomiting has, pretty gen- erally, been declared to be a symptom of rupture of this organ. I wish to preface what I may say concerning this with the statement that 1 have observed vomiting when the post-mortem examination revealed rupture; that I have found rupture of the stomach where vomiting had not occurred; that I have witnessed vomiting where the horse soon after made a rapid recovery, i. e., when the stomach was not ruptured. In spite of this contradictory evidence, I am of the opinion that, taken in connection with other symptoms, this sign is of value as pointing toward rupture of the stomach. This accident has occurred in my practice mostly in heavy draught horses. A prominent symptom ob- served (though I have also seen it in diaphragmatic hernia) is where the horse, if possible, gets the front feet on higher ground than the hind ones, or sits on his haunches, like a dog. This position affords relief to some extent, and it will be maintained for some minutes ; it is also quickly regained when the horse has changed it for some other. Colicky symptoms, of course, are present, and these will vary much, and present no diagnostic value. As the case progresses " the horse will often stretch forward the fore legs, lean backwards and down- 33 wards until the belly nearly touches the ground, and then rise up again with a groan, after which the fluid from his nostrils is issued in increased quantity." The pulse is fast and weak, breathing hurried, body bathed in a clammy sweat, limbs tremble violently, the horse reels or staggers from side to side, and death quickly ends the scene. In the absence of any pathognomonic symptom Percivall says we must take into account the history of the case; the subject of it; the circumstances attending it; the swollen condition of the abdomen; the symptoms of colic that cease suddenly and are succeeded by cold sweats and tremors; the pulse from being quick and small and thready, growing weak and more frequent, and, at length running down and becoming altogether imperceptible; the countenance denoting gloom and despondency of the heaviest character; looking back at the flank and groaning; sometimes crouching with the hindquarters; with, or without eructation and vomiting. There is no treatment that can be of any use whatever. Could we be sure of our diagnosis it would be better to destroy the animal at once. Since, however, there is always the possibility of a mistaken! diagnosis, we may give powdered opium in 1 -drachm doses every two or three hours, with the object of keeping the stomach as quiet as possible. Gastritis is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the stomach. As an idiopathic disease it very rarely exists; but is mostly seen to be due to mechanical irritation, or to giving irritant and corro- sive poisons in too large doses or without sufficient dilution. The symptoms are not well marked; there is a febiile condition, colicky pains, and, mostly, intense thirst. When poisons have produced gas- tritis there will be other symptoms referable to the action of the partic- ular poison swallowed. If, for instance, the gastritis is due to a salt of lead we must expect to find difficult or labored breathing, abdominal pains, partial paralysis of extensor muscles primarily, tottering gait, convulsions, and death. Where the poisoning by lead is gradual the symptoms differ somewhat. There is a general appearance of unthrifti- ness, loss of appetite, staring coat, constipation, watery swellings under the jaws, a gray or blue line along the margin of the gums, and a pro- gressive paralysis, noted often at first in the anterior extremities. Colicky symptoms are also observed. Abortion is often noticed during chronic lead-poisoning. In all cases of lead-poisoning the stomach, and often intestines, show erosions of its lining membrane, which in other parts is darker in color, and the mucous membrane is easily stripped off. Chronic poisoning by lead is to be expected near paint works, about newly-painted buildings, where paint kegs are left in the fields, where horses take small particles of lead with their food, where soft water runs through new lead pipes, and where the drinking water is drawn from wells or cisterns containing lead. Lead can be detected in almost all parts of the body at the post-mortem examination of chronic poisoning. 11035 3 34 Treatment. — In acute gastritis, due to the careless or accidental ad- ministration of large quantities of tliis poison, we must give sulphuric acid, 30 to GO drops well diluted with water, milk, white of eggs, oils, and demulcent drinks, as linseed gruel or tea. If the gastritis is chronic, due to the long ingestion of small particles of lead, we must administer from one-half to 1 pound of Epsom salts. Iodide of potas- sium in 1-drachm doses, twice or thrice daily, are here of much service. If much pain exists it may be relieved by giving morphia in 3 to 5 grain doses, repeated two or three times a day. Where arsenic is the poison producing gastritis or gastro-enteritis (inflammation of the stomach and bowels), we have symptoms of ab- dominal pain, nausea, or vomiting, purging that is accompanied by an offensive odor, staggering gait, quickened breathing, paralysis of the hind extremities, and death. On opening a horse that has died of arsenical poisoning we are struck by the escape of large quantities of offensive gas. There are patches of inflammation and extravasation of blood in the stomach, and often in the intestines. Chemical tests should be resorted to before giving a decided opinion that death is due to arsenic. Poisoning from this agent is most common where sheep have been dipped in arsenical preparations for the " scab n and then allowed to run on pasture without first drying their wool. Arsenic is thus deposited upon the grass and is eaten by horses grazing thereon, producing the symtoms of gastritis and death. Gastritis may also occur from poisoning by copper, the mercurials, and some vegetable drugs. Gastritis produced by any of the irritant poisons is to be treated with oils and demulcent drinks. Opium may be given to allay pain and inflammation. Care should be observed in feeding for a time, being careful to give only soft and easily digested foods. BOTS — LARVAE OF THE GAD-FLY. There are such erroneous opinions extant concerning the bot and the depredations it is supposed to commit upon the horse that a some- what careful study should be made of it. Of the many insect parasites and tormentors of solipeds the gad- flies (CEstridse) are of the most importance. Cobbold, who is the best authority on the subject, says : The common gad-fly (Gastrophilus equi) attacks the animal while grazing late in the summer, its object being, not to derive sustenance, but to deposit its eggs. This is accomplisbed by means of a glutinous excretion, causing the ova (eggs) to ad- here to the hairs. The parts selected are chiefly those of the shoulder, base of the neck, and inner part of the fore legs, especially about the knees, for in these situations the horse will have no difficulty in reaching the ova with its tongue. When the animal licks those parts of the coat where the eggs have been placed the moisture of the tongue, aided by warmth, hatches the ova, and in something less than three weeks from the time of the deposition of the eggs the larva? have made their escape. As maggots they are next transferred to the mouth and ultimately to the stomach along with food and drink. A great many larvae perish during this passive mode of immigration, Borne being dropped from the mouth and others being crushed in the 35 fodder during mastication. It has been calculated that out of the many hundreds of eggs deposited on a single horse scarcely one out of fifty of the larvae arrive within the stomach. Notwithstanding this waste the interior of the stomach may become completely covered (cuticular portion) with hots. Whether there be few or many they are anchored in this situation chiefly by means of two large cephalic hooks. After the hots have attained perfect growth thej voluntarily loosen their hold and allow themselves to be carried along the alimentary canal until they escape with the feces. In all cases they sooner or later fall to the ground and when transferred to the soil they bury themselves beneath the surface in order to undergo transformation into the pupa condition. Having remained in the earth for a period of six or seven weeks they finally emerge from their pupal-cocoons as perfect dipterous (winged) insects — the gad-fly. It thus appears that hots ordinarily pass about eight months of their lifetime in the digestive organs of the horse. The species just described infest chiefly the stomach and duodenum — small gut leading from the stomach. Another species of oestrus affecting the horse is the oestrus hcemorrhoi- dalis. These are found fastened to the mucous membrane of the rectum, (last gut) or even outside upon the anus, and occasion much irritation and annoyance, and, at times, require to be removed by the fingers or forceps. The opinion, almost universally entertained, that bots frequently cause colicky pains, is erroneous. It is very common to hear by-standers declare that almost every horse with abdominal pains "has the bots," and their suggested treatment is always varied and heroic. Almost all horses in the country, as well as horses in the cities during their first year there, have " the bots." It is in exceptionally rare in- stances that they produce any appreciable symptoms or disturbances. In my own practice I have never known bots to be the cause of any serious ailment of the horse ; and only once has my father, in a practice extending over fifty years, known bots to be the cause of death. In this instance the bots seemed to have simultaneously loosened their hold upon the mucous lining of the stomach, and were forced as an im- permeable wedge into the pyloric orifice, or outlet, of the stomach, and thus, preventing the passage of food or medicine, produced death. Were the bots to attempt to fasten themselves to the sensitive lining of the bowels in their outward passage they might cause irritation and expressions of pain in the form of colicky symptoms, but this they sel- dom or never do. The opinion frequently expressed at post-mortem ex- aminations, when the stomach is found to be ruptured, that " the bots have eaten through the stomach," is again a mistake. Bots never do this; the rupture is due to overdistention of the viscus with food or gases. Some writers on veterinary medicine have even urged that bots, by their presence, stimulated the stomach secretions, and were thus actually an aid to digestion. This opinion is as far from the truth as the more general one referred to above, concerning the harm they do. Bots may, and probably do, when in large enough numbers to be fastened to the true digestive portion of the stomach, slightly interfere with digestion j the animal may not thrive, the coat stares, and emacia- 36 tion may follow ; but beyond this, with the exception already noted, they are harmless. Even were they the cause of trouble, there are no medicines that affect them ; neither acids, nor alkalies, anthelmintics (worm medicines), nor anodynes cause them to become loose and to pass out of the body. To prevent them it is necessary to watch for their eggs on the legs and different parts of the body in the late summer and autumn. Theseeggsareto be carefully scraped off and burned. Horses should not be watered from stagnant ponds, as they frequently swallow the ripening eggs with such water. It is entirely useless to attempt any treatment to rid the horse of bots ; they go at their appointed time, and can not be dislodged before this. We should remember that in following their natural course or stages of existence the bots loosen their hold during May and June mostly. They are then expelled in great numbers, and horse-owners, noticing them in the manure, hasten to us saying "my horse has the bots." If we are honest we tell him that, in the natural course of events, nature is doing for him that which we can not do. We may say in conclusion, then, that bots seldom pro- duce any evil effects whatever ; that not more than once in ten thousand times are they the cause of colicky symptoms, and that they require no medicine to eject them. INDIGESTION. Indigestion is a term applied to all those conditions where, from any cause, digestion is imperfectly performed. It is not at all uncommon to witness in the horse symptoms similar to those of dyspepsia in man. The disturbances of digestion included under this head are not so pro- nounced as to produce colic, yet our consideration of diseases of the digestive organs would be incomplete if we failed to mention this, the most frequest of all digestive disorders. The seat and causes of indi- gestion are found to vary in different horses, or even in the same horse at different times. Apart from the indigestibility of the food itself there are many causes productive of indigestion. The teeth are often at fault. Where these are sharp, irregular, or decayed the food is im- perfectly masticated and swallowed before there is a proper admixture with the saliva. Bolting of the food; the bile— secretion of the liver — may be defective in quality or quantity; there may be lack of secre- tion of the pancreatic juice, or there may be simply want of peristaltic movement of the stomach and intestines, thereby causing an interrup- tion of the passage of the ingesta. The principal seat of indigestion, however, is in the stomach or small intestines. Whenever, from any cause, the secretions from these parts are excessive or diffident, dys- pepsia or indigestion must invariably -follow. Indigestion is often due to keeping horses on low, marshy pastures, and particularly during cold weather; wintering on hard, dry hay or corn-stalks, and other bulky and innutritive food ; irregular feeding or overfeeding (though this latter is more likely to produce engorged stomach, or tympanites 3? of the stomach, which have been described by some as u acute indi- gestion.*') Symptoms, — Indigestion is characterized by irregular appetite 5 re- fusing all food at times, and at others eatiug ravenously ; the appetite is not only irregular, but is often depraved -, tbere is a disposition on the part of the horse to eat unusual substances, as wood, soiled bed- ding, or even his own feces ; the bowels are irregular, to-day loose and bad smelling, to-morrow bound ; grain often passed whole in the feces and the hay xjassed in balls or impacted masses undergoing but little change ; the horse frequently passes considerable quantities of wind that has a sour odor. The animal loses flesh, the skin presents a hard, dry appearance, and seems very tight (hide-bound). If these symp- toms occur in a single horse in a stable where others are kept we must look, not to the feed, but to the animal himself for the cause of his trouble. Treatment. — It is evident, from the many causes of indigestion and from its protean forms, that we must be exceedingly careful in our ex- aminations of the subject of this disorder. We must commence with the food, its quality, quantity, and time of feeding ', examine the water supply, and see, besides, that it is given before feeding ; then we must carefully observe the condition of the mouth and teeth ; and, continuing our observations as best we may, endeavor to locate the seat of trouble — whether it is in the stomach, intestines, or annexed organs of diges- tion, as the liver and pancreas. If the teeth are sharp or irregular they must be rasped down ; if any are decayed they must be extracted ; if indigestion is due to ravenous eating or bolting the food, we must then feed from a large manger where the grain can be spread and the horse compelled to eat slowly. In the great majority of cases I have found a cathartic, aloes 1 ounce, or linseed oil 1 pint, to be of much service if given at the outset. Any irritation, such as worms, undigested food, etc., that are operating as " causes," are thus removed, and in many instances no further treat- ment is required. There is mostly a tendency to distension of the stomach and bowels with gas during indigestion, and I have never found any treatment so effective as the following alkaline tonic: Bak- ing soda, powdered ginger, and powdered gentian, equal parts. These are to be thoroughly mixed and given in heaping tablespoonful doses, twice a day, before feeding. This powder is best given by dissolving the above quantity in a half pint of water, and given as a drench. INTESTINAL WORMS. Although there are several species of worms found in the intestines of horses, it will be sufficient, in an article like this, to refer only to three or four of the most common ones. Worms are most frequently seen in young horses, and in those that are weak and debilitated. They commonly exist in horses that are on low, wet, or marshy pastures, and in those that drink stagnant water. 38 The intestinal worm most commonly seen is known as the Lumbricoid worm. In form it is much like the common earth-worm. It is white or reddish in color, and measures from 4 to 12 inches in length, though some have been seen that were nearly 30 inches long. In thickness they vary from the size of a rye straw to that of a lady's little finger, being thickest at the middle, and tapering at both ends. They are found singly or in groups or masses, and infest chiefly the small intes- tines. Another common variety of intestinal worm is called the pin-worm, and is found mostly in the large intestines. These are semitransparent r thread-like worms, measuring in length from 1 to 2 inches. The tape- worm, once seen, is easily recognized. It is white, flat, thin, broad, and jointed. The head is found at the smaller end of the worm. Tape- worms of the horse sometimes measure from 20 to 30 feet in length. Symptoms of intestinal worms. — Slight colicky pains are noticed at times, or there may only be switching of the tail, frequent passages of manure, and some slight straining, itching of the anus, and rubbing of the tail or rump against the stall or fences ; the horse is in poor condi- tion; does not shed his coat; is hide-bound and potbellied; the appe- tite is depraved, licking the walls, biting the wooden work of the stalls, licking parts of his body, eating earth, and being particularly fond of salt; the bowels are irregular, constipation or diarrhea being noticed. Some place much dependence upon the symptom of itching of the up- per lip, as shown by the horse frequently turning it up and rubbing it upon the wall or stalls. Others again declare that whenever we see the adherence of a dried whitish substance about the anus worms are pres- ent. The owe symptom, however, that we should always look for, and certainly the only one that may not deceive us, is seeing the horse pass the worms in his dung. Treatment. — Eemedies to destroy intestinal worms are much more ef- ficient if given after a long fast, and then the worm medicine must be supplemented by a physic to carry out the worms. Among the best worm medicines may be mentioned santonine, turpentine, tartar emetic, infusion of tobacco, and bitter tonics. To destroy tape-worms, areca nut, male-fern, and pumpkin seeds are the best. If a horse is pass- ing the long round worms, for instance, the plan of treatment is to give twice daily for three or four days a drench composed of turpen- tine, 1 ounce, and linseed oil 2 or 3 ounces, to be followed on the fourth day by a physic of Barbadoes aloes, 1 ounce. If the pin- worms are present (the ones that infest the large bowels), injections into the rec- tum of infusions of tobacco, infusions of quassia chips, one-half pound to a gallon of water, once or twice daily for a few days, and followed by a physic, are most beneficial. It should be borne in mind that intes- tinal worms are mostly seen in horses that are in poor condition ; and an essential part of our treatment then is to improve the appetite and 39 powers of digestion. This is best done by giving the vegetable tonics. One-half ounce of Peruvian bark, gentian, ginger, quassia, etc., is to be given twice a day in the feed or as a drench. Unless some such medicines and good food and pure water are given to tone up the di- gestive organs the worms will rapidly accumulate again, even though they may have all been expelled by the worm medicines proper. DISEASES OF THE INTESTINES. Spasmodic or cramp colic. — This is the name given to that form of colic produced by contraction, or spasm, of a portion of the small intestines. It is produced by indigestible food ; foreign bodies, as nails and stones in the bowels ; large drinks of cold water when the animal is warm ; driving a heated horse through deep streams, cold rains, draughts of cold air, etc. Unequal distribution of or interference with the nervous supply here produces cramp of the bowels, the same as external cramps are produced. Spasmodic colic is much more frequently met with in high-bred, round-barreled nervous horses than in coarse, lymphatic ones. Symptoms. — These should be carefully studied in order to diagnose this from other forms of colic requiring quite different treatment. Spas- modic colic always begins suddenly. If feeding, the horse is seen to stop abruptly, stamp impatiently, and probably look backwards. He soon evinces more acute pain, and this is shown by pawing, suddenly lying down, rolling, and getting up. There is then an interval of ease ; he will resume feeding, and appear to be entirely well. In a little while, however, the pains return and are increased in severity, only to again pass off for a time. As the attack progresses these intervals of ease become shorter and shorter, and pain may be continuous, though even now there are exacerbations of pain. Animals suffering from this form of colic evince the most intense pain ; they throw themselves down, roll over and over, jump up, whirl about, drop down again, paw, or strike, rather, with the front feet, steam and sweat, make frequent attempts to pass their urine, and the penis is partially erected. Only a small amount of water is passed at a time, and this is due to the bladder be- ing so frequently emptied, i. elvis; e, Border of the crest; flnfuruilzbuainv; g, Ureter. Geo.Mar.vaf'ter DArboval, p. 669. ?a^.e!'. h W ; !h?iT^Unflgraphir.gCo.New ?ork LONGITUDINAL SECTION THROUGH KIDNEY. PLATE V Structure of the Kidney. Diagrammatic. a, ^Medullary layer; b.Boundarg xone,- c,Cbrtical Icwer,- I, Excretory tube; 2/Jpen- ingon the sitnunii \ol >enal papilla.; -3 first branch of bifurcation; 4> Second braridi ol 'bifurcation; S;Third branch of bifurcation; 6, Straight collecting tube,- 7,Jiinc- tzorial tubule,- 8,Ascending portion offfenle's loop,- ^Descending portion ofjffenle's loop,- W,£oop offfenle; ll t Convoluted tubule; 12^ Midpiyhian coipuscle,- l3,Henal ar- tery,- IfyHmrich supplying the glomeruli,- I6,dfierent vessel of the glomeruli; J6, lira nch going directly to the capillaries; 17, Straight arterioles corning directlg from the renal artery; 18, Stat .igkt arteriole corning from die afferent vessel oftft^e, glomerulus; 19, Sayughl arteriole coming from tlie capillary plexus,- 10, Vascular- loop of die pyramids,- %/,E'lfervnt vessel of the glomerulus going to tfie capillary plexus; 22, Capillary plexus of the glomerular part of the cortical substance; lobular vein,- 28, Vein- receiving the venae rectae,- 2,9, Venae rectae. JVote: The shaded part of the urinary ducts represent the part in which tlie epiiheluftni^roaWJea^andofdgranulrirappearxirice. Geo.M«rx,after D'Arboval, p. 372. :<.-\~.- iV. , :!hei:nsL(lnoeraphing Co Ncw v < MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY' PLATE VI f Renal Glomerulus. d^4rtery of the glonie7-ulas; b,J3rotnch supplying tfie afferent, vessel of tlie glomerulus; c,dffe7-ent vessel of the glo7?ierizle; d,, ^Artery goi?ig directly to tlte capillary ple*xus oft/m cortical substance; e, Capill/xrgplejcus; f, Glomerulus. Renal Glomerulus ■with its afferent vessels and efferent s. a,Branc7i of renal artery; b, Afferent vessel of the giomerulzzs; c.Glonveruuis; clAftercJit vessel go- ing zrtfo corpuscle e, ofJUtilpir/lti . C7eo.Marx,after- D'ArWal, p. 373. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF KIDNEY PLATE VII. Phosphatic calculus, uric acici nucleus. X2I5 Calculus of oxalate of time. Jtevial casts. Some deprived of ' epithelium.Two are dee/jer colored, from the presence of urate of so da. Straight force/js used, in removing calculi. Haines.de] after Hurtrel D'Arboval. CALCULI AND INSTRUMENT FOR REMOVAL . «uaWi)he!msUlhcgr3FhingCoNewYjrk DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS. By W. H. HARBAUGH. V. S., Richmond, Virginia. The organs pertaining to the respiratory function may be popularly classed as follows: The nasal openings, or nostrils; the nasal chambers, through which the air passes in the head; the sinuses iu the head, com- municating with the nasal chambers; the pharynx, common to the functions of respiration and alimentation; the larynx, a complicated structure situated at the top of the wind-pipe; the trachea, or wind- pipe; the bronchi (into which the wind-pipe divides), two tubes leading fcom the wind-pipe to the right and left lung, respectively ; the bron- chial tubes, which penetrate and convey air to all parts of the lungs ; the lungs. The pleura is a thin membrane that envelops the lung and is reflected against the walls of the thoracic cavity. The diaphragm is a muscular structure, completely separating the contents of the thoracic cavity from those of the abdominal cavity. It is essentially a muscle of in- spiration, and the principal one. Other muscles aid in the mechanism of respiration, but the diseases or injuries of them have nothing to do with the class under consideration. Just within the nasal openings the skin becomes gradually but per- ceptibly finer, until it is succeeded by the mucous membrane; the line of dernarkation is not always well defined. Near about the junction of the skin and membrane is a small hole, presenting the appearance of having been made with a punch ; this is the opening of the nasal duct, a canal that conveys the tears from the eyes. Within and above the nasal openings are the cavities or fissures called the false nostrils ; if the finger is inserted up into them it will be demonstrated that the superior extremity is blind; just in this situation there is often found a little tumor, to be described hereafter. The nasal chambers are com- pletely separated, the right from the left, by a cartilaginous partition. Each nasal chamber is divided into three continuous compartments by the two turbinated bones. The mucous membrane lining the nasal chambers, and in fact the entire respiratory tract, is much more delicate and more frequently 87 88 diseased than the mucous membrane of any other part of the body. The sinuses of the head are compartments which communicate with the nasal chambers and are lined with a continuation of the same mem- brane that lines the nasal chambers; their presence increases the volume and modifies the form of the head without increasing its weight. The horse, in a normal condition, breathes exclusively through the nostrils ; no air passes through the mouth in respiration. This is one reason why horses probably are affected oftener with colds than other animals. The organs of respiration are more liable to disease than the organs connected with any other function of the animal, and, as many of the causes can be prevented, it is both important and profitable to know and study the causes. The respiratory surface in the lungs of the horse is estimated to be from 200 to 500 square feet. The cause of many of the diseases of these organs may be given under a common head, because even a simple cold, if neglected or badly treated, may run into the most complicated lung disease and terminate fatally. In the spring and fall, when the animals are changing their coats, there is a marked predisposition to contract disease, and conse- quently care should be taken at those periods to prevent other exciting causes. Badly ventilated stables are a frequent source of disease. It is a great mistake to think that country stables necessarily have purer air than city stables. Stables on some farms are so faultily constructed that it is almost impossible for the foul air to gain an exit. All stables should have an unlimited supply of pure air, and be so arranged that strong draughts can not blow directly on the animals. Hot stables are almost always illy ventilated, and the hot stable is a cause of disease on account of the extreme change of temperature a horse is liable to when taken out, and extreme changes of temperature are to be avoided as certain causes of disease. A horse taken from pasture and kept in a hot stable is almost sure to contract a cold ; the stable should be thrown open and the temperature gradually increased in such cases, when practicable, to avoid the sudden change. A cold, close stable is invariably damp, and is to be avoided as much as the hot, close, and foul stable. Horses changed from a cold to a warm stable are more liable to contract cold than when changed from a warm to a cold stable. Pure air is more essential than warmth, and this fact should be especially remembered when the stable is made close and foul to gain the warmth. It is more economical to keep the horse warm with blankets than to prevent the ingress of pure air in order to make the stable warm. Stables should be well drained and kept clean. Some farmers allow dung to accumulate in the stalls until there is hardly sufficient room for the horses. This is a pernicious practice, as the decomposing organic matter evolves poisonous gases that are predisposing or exciting causes of disease. When a horse is overheated it is not safe to allow him to 89 dry by evaporation ; rubbing him dry and gradually cooling him out is the wisest treatment. When a horse is hot — covered with sweat — it is dangerous to allow him to stand in a draught ; it is the best plan to walk him until his temperature moderates. In such cases a light blanket thrown over the animal may prevent a cold. Overwork or overexertion often causes the most fatal cases of congestion of the lungs. Avoid pro- longed or fast work when the horse is out of condition or unaccustomed to it. Animals that have been working out in cold rains should be dried and cooled out, and not left to dry by evaporation. When the tempera- ture of the weather is at the extreme, either of heat or cold, diseases ot the organs of respiration are most frequent. It is not to be supposed that farmers can give their horses the par- ticular attention given to valuable racing and pleasure horses, but they can most assuredly give them common-sense care, and this will often save the life of a valuable or useful animal. Neglect on the part of the owner is as often (perhaps oftener) the. cause of disease in the horse as neglect on the part of the servant. If the owner properly considers his interests he will study the welfare of his horses so that he may be able to instruct the servant in details of stable manage- ment, as it often happens that the fault on the part of the servant is due to want of knowledge more than to willful neglect. WOUNDS ABOUT THE NOSTRILS. Wounds in this neighborhood are common, and are generally caused by getting snagged on a nail or splinter, or by the bite of another horse; or by getting "run into," or by running against something. Occasionally the nostril is so badly torn and lacerated that it is im- possible to effect a cure without leaving the animal blemished for life, but in the majority of instances the blemish or scar is due to the want of conservative treatment on the part of the owner or attendant. As soon as possible after the accident the parts should be brought together and held there by stitches. If too much time is allowed to elapse the swelling of the parts will considerably interfere. The skin in this neighborhood is thin and delicate, and therefore it is easy to in- sert sutures. Never cut away any skin that may be loose and hang- ing, or else a scar will certainly remain. Bring the parts in direct ap- position and place the stitches from a quarter to a half inch apart, as circumstances may demand. It is not necessary to have special sur- geons' silk and needles for this operation ; good linen thread or ordi- nary silk thread will answer. The wound afterwards only requires to be kept clean. For this purpose it should be cleansed and discharges washed away daily with a solution made of carbolic acid 1 part, in water 40 parts. If the horse is inclined to rub the wound against some object on account of the irritability, his head should be tied by means of two halter ropes to prevent him rubbing the wound open. The head should be so tied about ten days, except when at work or eating. 90 TUMORS WITHIN THE NOSTRILS. As before mentioned, a small globular tumor is sometimes found within the false nostril, under that part of the skin that is seen to puff or rise and fall when a horse is exerted and breathing hard. These tumors contain matter of a cheesy consistency, and are simple. If the tumor is well opened and the matter squeezed out nature will do the rest to perform a perfect cure. If the opening is made from the out- side through the skin it should be at the most dependent part, but much the best way to open the tumor is from the inside. Quiet the animal, gently insert your finger up in the direction of the tumor, and you will soon discover that it is much larger inside than it appears to be on the outside. If necessary put a twitch on the ear of the horse to quiet him ; run the index finger of your left band against the tumor; now, with the right hand, carefully insert the knife by run- ning the back of the blade along the index finger of the left hand until the tumor is reached ; with the left index finger guide the point of the blade quickly and surely into the tumor ; make the opening large ; there is no danger ; a little blood may flow out for awhile, but it is of no conse- quence. Squeeze out the matter and keep the part clean. COLD IN THE HEAD — CATARRH. Catarrh means a discharge of fluid from the mucous membrane. The form of catarrh under present consideration is at first a congestion, followed by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the nasal chambers — the Schneideriau or pituitary membrane, as it is specifically termed. The inflammation usually extends to the membrane of the sinuses of the head and often to the membrane of the larynx and pharynx, causing the complication of sore throat. Quite frequently the membrane of the eyes is also affected, as evidenced by its congested condition and the flow of tears down over the cheeks; the nasal duct (spoken of before) is lined with a continuation of the same membrane, and hence the inflammation of the membrane of the eyes is only an ex- tension of the disease over a continuous tract, and not a specific disease as often supposed. The membrane of the nasal duct being swollen, the effect of the congestion or inflammation, the tears can not flow freely through it, therefore they escape from the eyes and flow over the cheeks. Symptoms, — The membrane at the beginning of the attack is dry, con- gested and irritable; it is of a much deeper hue than natural, pinkish- red or red. Soon a watery discharge from the nostrils makes its ap- pearance ; the eyes may also be more or less affected, and tears flow over the cheeks. The animal has some fever, which may be easily de- tected by placing the finger in the mouth, as the feeling of heat conveyed to the finger will be greater than natural. To become somewhat expert in ascertaining the changes of tempera- ture in the horse, it is only necessary to place the finger often in the 91 mouths of horses known to be healthy. After you have become accus- tomed to the warmth of the mouth of the healthy animal you will have no difficulty in detecting a marked increase of the temperature. Some veterinarians become so expert in this method of examination that they trust to it in preference to the use of thermometers. . The animal may be dull j he frequently emits a sort of sneezing snort, but does not cough unless the throat is affected j he expels the air forcibly through his nostrils very often in a manner that may be aptly called "blowing his nose." A few days after the attack begins the dis. charge from the nostrils changes from a watery to that of a thick mu- cilaginous state, of a yellowish -white color, and may be more or less profuse. Often the appetite is lost, and the animal becomes debili- tated. Treatment. — This disease is not serious, but inasmuch as neglect or bad treatment may cause it to run into a dangerous complication, it should receive proper attention. The animal should not be worked for a few days. A few days of quiet rest, with pure air and good food, will be of greater benefit than medication administered while the horse is excited and exposed to draughts and changes of temperature. The benefit derived from the inhalation of steam can not be overesti- mated. This is effected by holding the horse's head over a bucketful of boiling water so that the animal will be compelled to inhale steam with every inhalation of air. Stirring the hot water with a wisp of hay causes the steam to arise in greater abundance. By no means adopt the pernicious method of steaming — advised by some authors and prac- ticed by many people — by putting the head in a bag with hot water or scalded bran. Common sense would be sufficient to condemn the method, if those who practice it would only think. With the head so closely confined in the bag the horse is compelled to inhale over and over the foul air expelled from the lungs. This is malpractice on a healthy horse, and much worse when the animal is ill, for then it has a greater necessity for pure air. The horse should be made to inhale steam four or five times a day, about fifteen or twenty minutes each time. Particular attention should be paid to the diet. Give bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and grass if in season. If the horse evinces no desire for this soft diet, it is well to allow any kind of food he will eat, such as hay, oats, corn, etc. If the animal is constipated, relieve this symptom by injections (enemas) of warm water into the rectum (last gut) three or four times a day, but under no circumstances administer purgative medicines. For simple cases the foregoing is all that is required, but if the ap- petite is lost, and the animal appears debilitated and dull, give 3 ounces of the solution of acetate of ammonia and 2 drams of powdered chlorate of potassium diluted with a pint of water three times a day as a drench. Be careful when giving the drench j do not pound the horse 92 on the gullet to mate hi in swallow ; be patient, and take time, and do it right. . If the weather be cold, blanket the animal and keep him in a com- fortable stall. If the throat is sore, treat as advised for that ailment, to be described hereafter. When the inflammatory symptoms subside and the appetite is not re- gained, give 2 ounces each of the tincture of gentian and spirits of nitrous ether in a pint of water, as a drench, every night and morning for sev- eral days. If, after ten days or two weeks, the discharge from the nos- trils continues, give 1 dram of powdered sulphate of iron three times a day. This may be mixed with bran and oats, if the horse will eat it, but if he will not eat the food with the iron in it, give the iron as a drench, dissolved in a pint of water. It may be objected that rather more space than necessary is devoted to this simple affection ; but when it is known that there is a tendency to the extension of the trouble, and that serious complications may en- sue, the fact should be appreciated that there is every reason why the common cold should be thoroughly understood and intelligently treated in order to prevent the more dangerous diseases. CHRONIC) CATARRH — NASAL GLEET. This is a subacute or chronic inflammation of some part of the mem- brane affected in common cold, the disease just described. It is mani- fested by a persistent discharge of a thick, white, or yellowish- white matter from one or both nostrils. The sinuses of the head are the usual seat of the disease. The commonest cause is a neglected or badly treated cold, and it usually follows those cases where the horse has suffered exposure, been overworked, or has not received proper food, and, as a consequence, has become debilitated. Other but less frequent causes for this affection are : Fractures of the bones that involve the membrane of the sinuses ; and even blows on the head over the sinuses, of sufficient force to rupture blood-vessels within. The blood thus escaping into the sinus acts as an irritant, and sets up an inflammation. Diseased teeth often involve a sinus, and cause a fetid discharge from the nostril. Violent coughing is said to have forced particles of food into the sinus, which acted as a cause of the disease. Tumors growing in the sinuses are known to have caused it. It is also attributed to matter from disease of the turbinated bones. Absorption of the bones forming the walls of the sinuses has been caused by the pressure of pus collecting in them, and by tumors filling up the cavity. Symptoms. — The long-continued discharge, which varies iu quantity according to the attendant circumstances — the cause of the trouble and the part affected — will invariably indicate the disease. Great caution must be exercised when examining these cases, as horses have been condemned as glaudered when really there was nothing more ailing 93 tbetQ than nasal gleet. This affection is nob contagious, nor is it dan- gerous, although difficult to cure in some instances. In most cases the discharge is from one nostril only, which signifies that the sinuses ou that side of the head are affected. The discharge may be intermittent, that is, quantities may be discharged at times, and again little or none for a day or so. The glands under and between the bones of the lower jaw may be enlarged. The peculiar ragged-edged ulcer of glanders is not to be found on the membrane within the nostrils, but occasionally sores are to be seen there. If there is any doubt about it, you should study well the symptoms of glanders to enable you to be at least com- petent to form a safe opinion. The eye on the side of the discharging nostril may have a peculiar appearance and look smaller than its fellow. There may be an enlarge- ment, having the appearance of a bulging out of the bone over the part affected, between or below the eyes. The breath may be offensive, which indicates decomposition of the matter or bones, or, especially, disease of the teeth. A diseased tooth is further indicated by the horse holding his head to one side when eating, or dropping the food from the mouth after partly chewing it. When you tap on the bones between the eyes, below the eyes and above the back teeth of the upper jaw, a hollow drum like sound is emitted, but if the sinus is filled with pus or contains a large tumor the sound emitted will be the same as if a solid substance were struck ; by this means the sinus affected may be located in some instances. The hair may be rough over the affected part, or even the bone may be soft to the touch and the part give somewhat to pressure, or leave an impression where it is pressed upon with the finger. Treatment. — The cause of the trouble must be ascertained before treatment is commenced. In the many cases where the animal is in poor condition (in fact in all cases), he should have the most nutritive food and regular exercise. The food, or box containing it, should be placed on the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the discharge. The cases that do not require a surgical operation must, as a rule, have persistent medical treatment. Mineral tonics are of the most value. For eight days give the following mixture: Sulphate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered nux vomica, 1 ounce; mix and make into sixteen powders. Give one powder mixed with the food twice a day. AVhen all of the foregoing has been administered the following may be tried for eight days: Sulphate of copper, 4 ounces; powdered gentian, 6 oun- ces; mix and divide into sixteen powders. Give one on the food twice a day. If the animal will not eat the powder on the food, put the medi- cine in a pint of water in a bottle, shake well and give as a drench. After this substitute the following: One dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal. Much benefit is often derived from the effect of a blister over the face. 94 The ordinary fly blister plaster of the drug store mixed with one third its weight of lard is efficient. Sulphur burnt in the stable while the ani- mal is there to inhale its fumes is also a valuable adjunct. Care should be taken that the fumes of the burning sulphur are sufficiently diluted with air, so as not to suffocate the horse. Chloride of lime sprinkled around the stall is good. Also keep a quantity of the chloride under the hay in the manger so that the gases will be inhaled as the horse holds his head over the hay while eating. Keep the nostrils washed; the discharges may be washed away for appearance sake, but squirting solutions up the nose is worse than useless, as they do not come in con- tact with the diseased part. If the nasal gleet is the result of a diseased tooth the tooth must be re- moved, and the subsequent treatment will be according to indications. The operation of trephining is the best possible way to remove the tooth in such cases, as it immediately opens the cavity which can be at- tended to direct. In all those cases of nasal gleet where sinuses contain either collec- tions of pus or tumors, the only relief is by the trephine; and it is a fact that, no matter how thoroughly described, this is an operation that will be very seldom attempted by the non-professional, although the operation is simple and attended in the majority of instances with suc- cess. It would therefore be a useless waste of time to give the modus operandi. An abscess involving the turbinated bones is similar to the collection of pus in the sinuses, and must be relieved by trephining. THICKENING OF THE MEMBRANE. This is sometimes denoted by a chronic discharge, a snuffling in the breathing and a contraction of the nostril. It is a result of common cold and requires the same treatment as prescribed for nasal gleet, viz, the sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, iodide of potassium, etc. The membranes of both sides may be affected, but one side only is the rule; and the affected side may be easily detected by holding the hand tightly over one nostril at a time. When the healthy side is closed in this manner, the breathing through the affected side will demonstrate a decreased caliber or an obstruction. NASAL POLYPUS. Tumors with narrow bases (somewhat pear-shaped) are occasionally found attached to the membrane of the nasal chambers, and are ob- structions to breathing through the side in which they are located. They vary much in size; some are so small that their presence is not manifested, while others almost completely fill up the chamber, thereby causing a serious obstruction to the passage of air. The pedicel of the tumor is generally attached high up in the chamber, and usually the 95 tumor can not be seen, but occasionally it increases in size until it can be observed within the nostril. Sometimes, instead of hanging down towards the nasal opening, it falls back into the pharynx: It causes a discharge from the nostril, a more or less noisy snuffling sound in breath- ing, according to its size, a discharge of blood (if it is injured), and sneezing. The side that it occupies can be detected in the same way as described for the detection of the affected side when the breathing is obstructed by a thickened membrane. The only relief is removal of the polypus, which, like all other opera- tions, should be done by an expert when it is possible to secure one. The operation is performed by grasping the base of the tumor with suit- able forceps and twisting it round and round until it is torn from its attachment. The resulting hemorrhage is checked by the use of an astringent lotion, such as a solution of the tincture of iron, etc. PHARYNGEAL POLYPUS. This is exactly the same kind of tumor described as nasal polypus, the only difference being in the situation. Indeed, the pedicel of the tumor may be attached to the membrane of the nasal chamber as before explained, or it may be attached in the fauces (opening of the back part of the mouth) which is often the case, and by the body of the tumor falling into the pharynx it gets the name of pharyngeal polypus. In this situation it may seriously interfere with breathing. Sometimes it drops into the larynx, causing the most alarming symptoms. The ani- mal coughs or tries to cough, saliva flows from the mouth, the breath- ing is performed with the greatest difficulty and accompanied by a loud noise; the animal appears as if strangled and often falls exhausted. When the tumor is coughed out of the larynx the animal regains quickly and soon appears as if nothing was ailing. These sudden attacks and quick recoveries should lead to a detection of the trouble. The exami- nation must be made by holding the auimaPs mouth open with a balling iron or speculum and running the hand back into the mouth. If the tumor is within reach it must be removed with forceps by torsion, and the hemorrhage controlled as before advised. BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE. This often occurs during the course of certain diseases, viz., influenza, bronchitis, purpura hemorrhagica, glanders, etc. But it also occurs independent of other affections; and, as before mentioned, is a symptom of polypus or tumor in the nose. Injuries to the head, exertion, violent sneezing — causing a rupture of a small blood-vessel — also induce it. The bleeding is almost inva- riably from one nostril only, and is never very serious. The blood escapes in drops (very seldom in a stream), and is never frothy as when 96 the hemorrhage is from the lungs. (See Bleeding from the lungs.) In most cases, bathing the head and washing out the nostril with cold water is all that is necessary. If the cause is known you will be guided according to circumstances. If the bleeding continues, pour ice-cold water over the face, between the eyes and down over the nasal cham- bers. A bag containing ice in small pieces applied to the head is often efficient. If in spite of these measures the hemorrhage continues, try plugging the nostrils with cotton, tow, or oakum. Tie a string around the plug before it is pushed up into the nostril, so that it can be safely withdrawn after four or five hours. If both nostrils are bleeding plug only one nostril at a time. If the hemorrhage is profuse and persist- ent give a drench composed of 1 dram of acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water; or 1 dram gallic acid dissolved in a pint of water may be tried. INFLAMMATION OF THE PHARYNX. As already suited, the pharynx is common to the functions of both respiration and alimentation. From this organ the air passes into the larynx and thence onward to the lungs. In the posterior part of the pharynx is the sup erior extremity of the gullet, the canal through which the food and water pass to the stomach. Inflammation of the pharynx is a complication of other diseases, viz., influenza, strangles, etc., and is probably always, more or less, complicated with inflamma- tion of the larynx. That it may exist as an independent affection there is no reason to doubt, but so closely do the symptoms resemble those of laryngitis, and as the treatment is the same as for the latter disease, it is unnecessary to give it further consideration in a separate article. SORE THROAT — LARYNGITIS. The larynx is situated in the space between the lower jaw bones just back of the root of the tongue, and is retained in this position by the windpipe, muscles, and bones to which it is attached. It may be con- sidered as a box (somewhat depressed on each side), composed xninci- pally of cartilages and small muscles, and lined on the inside with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Posteriorly it opens into and is continuous with the windpipe. It is the organ of the voice, the vocal cords being situated within it ; but in the horse this function is of little or no consequence. It dilates and contracts to a certain ex- tent like the nostrils, thus regulating the volume of air passing through it. The mucous membrane lining it internally is so highly sensitive that if the smallest particle of food happens to drop into it from the pharynx the muscles instantly contract and violent coughing ensues, which is continued until the source of irritation is ejected. This is a wise provision of nature to prevent foreign substances gaining access to the lungs. That projection called Adam's apple in the neck of man is the prominent part of one of the cartilages forming the larynx. 97 Inflammation of the larynx is a serions and sometimes a fatal disease, and, as before stated, is usually complicated with inflammation of the pharynx, constituting what is popularly known as "sore throat." Symptoms. — About the first symptom noticed is the cough, followed by a difficulty in swallowing," which may be due to the soreness of the membrane of the pharynx, over which the food or water must pass, or to the pain caused by the contraction of the muscles necessary to impel the food or water onward to the gullet; or this same contraction of the muscles may cause a pressure on the larynx and produce the pain. In many instances the difficulty in swallowing is so great that the water, and in some cases the food, is returned through the nose. The mouth is hot, and saliva dribbles from it. The glands between the lower jaw bones and below the ears may be swollen. Pressure on the larynx induces a violent fit of coughing. The cough is very characteristic; it is easily seen that the animal is "coughing at his throat." The heart is more or less "poked oat," and has the appearance of being stiffly carried. The membrane in the nose becomes red. A discharge from the nostrils soon appears. As the disease advances, the breathing may assume a more or less noisy character; sometimes a harsh rasping snore is emitted with every respiration, the breathing becomes hurried, and occasionally the animal seems threatened with suffocation. Treatment— In all cases steam the nostrils as advised for cold in the head. In bad cases cause the steam to be inhaled continuously for hours, until relief is afforded. Have a fresh bucketful of boiling water every fifteen or twenty minutes. In each bucketful of water put a table- spoonful of oil of turpentine, which will be carried along with the steam to the affected parts and have a beneficial effect. In mild cases steam- ing the nostrils five, six, or seven times a day will suffice. The animal should be placed in a comfortable, dry stall (a box-stall preferred), but should have a pure atmosphere to breathe. The body should be blanketed, and bandages applied to the legs. The diet should consist of soft food — bran mashes, scalded oats, linseed gruel, and, best of all, grass, if in season, which should be carried to him as soon as cut, and a fresh supply offered often. The manger or trough should not be too high nor too low, but a temporary one should be constructed at about the height he carries his head. Having to reach too high or too low may cause so much pain that the animal would rather forego satis- fying what little appetite he might have, than inflict pain by craning his head for food or water. A supply of fresh water should be before him all the time; he will not drink too much, nor will the cold water hurt him. Constipation (if present) must be relieved by enemas of warm water, administered three or four times during the twenty-four hours. A liniment composed of 2 ounces of olive oil and 1 ounce each of solu- tion of ammonia and tincture of cantharides, well shaken together should be thoroughly rubbed in about the throat from ear to ear, and 11035 7 98 about 6 inches down over the windpipe and in the space between the lower jaws. This liniment should be applied once a day for two or three days. When the animal can swallow without much difficulty, give the fol- lowing preparation : Fluid extract hyoscyamus 1 dram, powdered chlo- rate potassium 2 drams, simple sirup or molasses 2 ounces. Mix all together and drench very carefully. Repeat the dose every six hours. If the animal is breathing with great difficulty do not attempt to drench him, but persevere in steaming the nostrils, and dissolve 2 drams of chlorate of potassium in every gallon of water he will drink ; even if he can not swallow much of it (and even if it is returned through the nostrils), it will be of some benefit as a gargle to the pharynx. When the breathing begins to be loud great relief is afforded in some cases by giving a drench composed of 2 drams of fluid extract of jab- orandi in half a pint of water. If benefit is derived, this drench may be repeated four or five hours after the first dose is given. It will cause a free flow of saliva from the mouth within thirty minutes. In urgent cases, when suffocation seems inevitable, the operation of tracheotomy must be performed. It must be admitted that this oper- ation appears to be (to the non-professional) a very formidable one, but as it is certainly a means of saving life where all other measures have failed, it is the duty of the writer to describe it. To describe this operation in words that would make it comprehensible to the general reader is a much more difficult task than performing the operation, which in the hands of the expert is one of the simplest, and attended with less danger (from the operation itself) than any of the special operations on organs. The operator should be provided with a tracheotomy tube (to be purchased from any veterinary instrument maker) and a sharp knife, a sponge, and a bucket of clean cold water. The place to be selected for opening the windpipe is that part which is found, upon examination, to be least covered with muscles. Run your hand down the front part of the windpipe and you may easily detect the rings of cartilage of which it is composed ; about 5 or 6 inches below the throat it will be the most plainly felt. Right here, then, is the place to cut through. Have an assistant hold the animal's head still; no necessity of putting a twitch on the nose. Grasp your knife firmly in the right hand, select the spot to cut, and cut. Make the cut from above to below directly on the median line on the anterior surface of the windpipe. Do not attempt to dissect your way in, that is too slow, it annoys the horse and makes him restless, and besides it gives a novice time to become nervous. Make the cut about 2 inches long in the windpipe; this necessitates cutting three or four rings. One bold, nervy stroke is usually sufficient, but if it is necessary to make several other cuts to finish the operation do not hesitate. Your intention must be to make a hole in the windpipe sufficiently large to admit the tracheotomy tube, 99 and you have not accomplished your purpose until you have done so. It is quickly manifested when the windpipe is severed, the hot air rushes out, and when air is taken in it is sucked in with a noise. A slight hemorrhage may result (it never amounts to much), which is easily controlled by washing the wound with a sponge and cold water ; do not get any of the water in the windpipe. Do not neglect to instruct your assistant to hold the head down immediately after the operation, so that the neck will be in a horizontal line. This will prevent the blood getting into the windpipe and allow it to drop directly on the ground. If you have the self- adjustable tube, it retains its place in the wound without further trouble after it is inserted. The other kind requires to be secured in position by means of two tapes or strings tied around the neck. After the hemorrhage is somewhat abated sponge the blood away and see that the tube is thoroughly clean, then insert it, directing the tube downwards towards the lungs. To insure the tube being clean, it is best to keep it immersed in a solution of 1 ounce of carbolic acid in 20 ounces of water for about thirty minutes previous to inserting it in the windpipe. The immediate relief this operation affords is wonderful to behold. The animal, a few minutes before on the verge of death from suffoca- tion, emittiug a loud wheezing sound with every breath; with haggard countenance, body swaying, pawing, gasping, fighting for breath, is now breathing trauquilly, and ten to one is nosing about the stall in search of something to eat. The tube should be removed once a day and cleaned with the carbolic acid solution (1 to 20), and the discharge washed away from the wound with a solution of carbolic acid, 1 part to 40 parts water. Several times a day the hand should be held over the opening in the tube to test the animal's ability to breathe through the nostrils, and as soon as it is demonstrated that breathing can be performed in the natural way the tube should be removed, the wound thoroughly cleansed with the car- bolic acid solution (1 to 40), and closed by inserting four or five stitches through the shin and muscle. Do not include the cartilages of the wind- pipe in the stitches. Apply the carbolic acid solution to the wound three or four times a day until healed. When the tube is removed to clean it the lips of the wound may be pressed together to ascertain whether or not the horse can breathe through the larynx. The use of the tube should be discontinued as soon as possible. It is true that tracheotomy tubes are seldom to be found on farms, and especially when most urgently required. In such instances there is nothing left to be done but, with a strong needle, pass a wax end or other strong string through each side of the wound, including the car- tilage of the windpipe, and keep the wound open by tying the strings over the neck. The operation of tracheotomy is not always successful in saving the animal's life, and the principal reason of this is, that it is deferred too long and the animal is beyond recovery before it is at' tempted. 100 During the time the tube is used the other treatment advised must uot be neglected. After a few days the discharge from the nostrils be- comes thicker and more profuse. This is a good symptom aud signi- fies that the acute stage has passed. At any time during the attack, if the horse becomes weak, give the following drench every four or five hours: Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. When the power of swallowing is regained and the pro- fuse discharge of thick, yellowish- white matter from the nostrils an- nounces the fact of the convalescing stage, administer the following : Tincture of the perchloride of iron, 1 ounce ; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. This should be given every morning and evening for about a week or ten days. Good nutritive food must now be given — hay, oats, and corn. Do not be in a hurry to put the animal back to work, but give plenty of time for a complete recovery. Gentle and gradually increasing exercise maybe given as soon as the horse is able to stand it. If abscesses form in connection with the disease they must be opened to allow the escape of pus, but do not rashly plunge a knife into swol- len glands ; wait until you are certain the swelling contains pus. The formation of pus may be encouraged by the constant application of poultices for hours at a time. The best poultice for the purpose is made of linseed meal, with sufficient hot water to make a thick paste. If the glands remain swollen for some time after the attack, rub well over them an application of the following : Biniodide of mercury, 1 dram ; lard, 1 ounce ; mix well. This may be applied once every day until the part is blistered. Sore throat is also a symptom of other diseases, such as influenza, strangles, purpura hemorrhagica, etc., which diseases may be consulted under their proper headings. After a severe attack of inflammation of the larynx the mucous mem- brane may be left in a thickened condition, or an ulceration of the part may ensue, either of which are liable to produce a chronic cough. For the ulceration it is useless to prescribe, because it can neither be diag- nosed ndr topically treated by the non-professional. If a chronic cough remains after all the other symptoms have disap- peared, it is advisable to give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water one hour before feeding, three times a day, for a month if necessary. Also rub in well the preparation of iodide of mercury (as advised for the swollen glands) about the throat, from ear to ear, and in the space between the lower jaw bones. The application may be repeated every third day until the part is blistered. SPASM OF THE LARYNX. This has been described by some authorities. The symptoms given are : Sudden seizure by a violent fit of coughing; the horse may reel and fall, and after a few minutes recover, and be as well as ever. The 101 treatment recommended is : Give a pint of linseed oil and after it lias operated administer 3 drams of bromide of potassium three times a clay, dissolved in the drinking water, or give as a drench in about a half pint of water, for a week. Then give a dram of powdered nux vomica (either on the food or shaken with water as a drench) once a day for a few weeks. CROUP AND DIPHTHERIA. Both of these diseases, it is claimed, affect the horse. But such cases must be rare, as veterinarians of extended experience have failed to recognize a single case in their practice. The symptoms are so much like those of inflammation of the larynx that it would be impossible for the general reader to discriminate between them. ROARING. Horses that are affected with a chronic disease that causes a loud unnatural noise in breathing are called " roarers." This class does not include those affected with severe sore throat, as in these cases the breathing is noisy only during the attack of the acute disease. Boariug is caused by an obstruction to the free passage of the air in some part of the respiratory tract. Nasal polypi, thickening of the membrane, pharyngeal polypi, deformed bones, paralysis of the wing of the nostril, etc., are occasional causes. The noisy breathing of horses after having been idle and put to sudden exertion is not due to any dis- ease, and is only temporary. Very often a nervous, excitable horse will make a noise for a short time when started off, generally caused by the cramped position in which the head and neck are forced, in order to hold him back. Many other causes may occasion temporary, intermitting or perma- nent noisy respiration, but after all other causes are enumerated it will be found that more than nine out of ten cases of chronic roaring are caused by paralysis of the muscles of the larynx ; and almost invariably it is the muscles of the left side of the larynx that are affected. In chronic roaring the noise is made when the air is drawn into the lungs; and only when the disease is far advanced is a sound produced when the air is expelled, and even then it is not near so loud as during inspiration. In a normal condition the muscles dilate the aperture of the larynx by moving outward the cartilage and vocal cord, allowing a sufficient volume of air to rush through. But when the muscles are paralyzed, the cartilage and vocal cord that are normally controlled by the af- fected muscles remain stationary : therefore when the air rushes in it meets this obstruction, and the noise is produced. When the air is ex- pelled from the lungs its very force pushes the cartilage and vocal cords out, and consequently noise is not always produced in the expiratory act. 102 The paralysis of tbe muscles is due to derangement of the nerve that supplies them with energy. The muscles of hoth sides are not supplied by the same nerve; there is a right and a left nerve, each supplying its respective side. The reason why the muscles on the left side are the ones usually paralyzed is owing to the difference in the anatomical arrangement of the nerves. The left nerve is much longer and more exposed to interference than the right nerve. This pair of nerves is given off from its parent trunks (the pneumogastrics) after the latter enter the chest, and consequently they are called the recurrent laryngeal nerves, on account of having to recur to the larynx. In chronic roaring there is no evidence of any disease of the larynx, other than the wasted condition of the muscles in question. The dis- ease of the nerve is generally located far from the larynx. Disease of parts contiguous to the nerve along any part of its course may interfere with its proper function. It is not really necessary for the nerve itself to be the seat of disease ; pressure upon it is sufficient; the pressure of a tumor on the nerve is a common cause. Disease of lymphatic glands within the chest through which the nerve passes on its way back to the larynx is the most frequent interruption of nervous supply, and conse- quently roaring. When roaring becomes confirmed medical treatment is entirely useless, as it is impossible to restore the wasted muscle and at the same time remove the cause of the interruption of the nervous supply. Before the disease becomes permanent it may be benefited by a course of iodide of potassium, when it is caused by disease of the lymphatic glands. Electricity has been used with indifferent success. Blistering or firing over the larynx is of course not worthy of trial if the disease is due to interference with the nerve supply. The adminis- tration of strychnia (nux vomica) on the ground that it is a nerve tonic, with the view of stimulating the affected muscles, is treating only the result of the disease without considering the cause, and is therefore use- less. The operation of extirpating the collapsed cartilage and vocal cord is believed to be the only relief, and as this operation is critical and can only be performed by the skillful veterinarian, it will not be described here. From the foregoing description of the disease it will be seen that the name "roaring," by which the disease is generally known, is only a symptom and not the disease. Chronic roaring is also in many cases accompanied by a cough. The best way to test whether a horse is a "roarer" is to either make him pull a load rapidly up a hill or over a sandy road or soft ground; or if he is a saddle horse gallop him up a hill. The object is to make him exert himself. Some horses require a great deal more exertion than others before the characteristic sound is emitted. The greater the distance he is forced the more he will appear exhausted if he is a roarer; in bad cases the animal becomes utterly exhausted, the breathing is rapid and difficult, the nostrils dilate to the fullest extent, and the animal appears as if suffocation was imminent. 103 An animal that is a roarer should not be used for breeding purposes, no matter bow valuable the stock. The taint is transmissible in many instances, and there is not the least doubt in the minds of those who know best that the offspring whose sire or dam is a roarer is born with an hereditary predisposition to the affection. Grunting. — A common test used by veterinarians when examining "the wind" of a horse is to see if he is a "grunter." This is a sound emitted during expiration when the animal is suddenly moved, or start- led, or struck at. If he grunts he is further tested for roaring. Grunters are not always roarers, but as it is a common thing for a roarer to grunt such an animal must be looked upon with suspicion until he is thor- oughly tried by pulling a load or galloped up a hill. The test should be a severe one. Horses suffering with pleurisy, pleurodynia, or rheu- matism, and other affections accompanied with much pain, will grunt when moved, or when the pain is aggravated, but grunting under these circumstances does not justify the term of "grunter" being applied to the horse, as the grunting ceases when the animal recovers from the disease that causes the pain. High blowing. — This term is applied to a noisy breathing made by some horses. It is distinctly a nasal sound, and must not be con- founded with "roaring." The sound is produced by the action of the nostrils. It is a habit and not an unsoundness. Contrary to roaring, when the animal is put to severe exertion the sound ceases. An animal that emits this sound is called a " high-blower." Some horses have, naturally, very narrow nasal openings, and they may emit sounds louder than usual in their breathing when exercised. Whistling is only one of the variations of the sound emitted by a horse called a " roarer," and therefore needs no further notice, except to remind the reader that a whistling sound may be produced during an attack of severe sore throat or inflammation of the larynx, which passes away with the disease that causes it. Thick wind. — This is another superfluous term applied to a symptom. The great majority of horses called " thick- winded" belong either in the class called " roarers," or are affected with " heaves," and therefore no separate classification is needed. Mares heavy with foal, horses exces- sively fat, and those that have not been exercised for so long that the muscular system has become unfit for work; horses with large bellies, and, especially, when the stomach is loaded with coarse, fibrous, or bulky food, emit a louder sound than natural in their breathing, and are called " thick- winded." The treatment in such cases is obvious : " Eemove the cause and the effect will cease." While it must be ad- mitted that " thickening of the mucous membrane of the finer bronchial tubes and air cells may cause the breathing called thick- winded," it must at the same time be admitted that there is no symptom by which the condition can be distinguished from what will hereafter be described as " heaves," by the general reader, at least. 104 THE WINDPIPE. The windpipe, or trachea, as it is technically called, is the flexible tube that extends from the larynx which it succeeds at the throat to above the base of the heart in the chest, where it terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi, the tubes going to the right and left lung respectively. The windpipe is composed of about fifty incomplete rings of cartilage united by ligaments. A muscular layer is situated on the superior surface of the rings. Internally the tube is lined with a continuation of the mucous membrane that lines the entire respiratory tract, which here has very little sensibility in contrast to that lining the larynx, which is endowed with exquisite sensitiveness. The windpipe is not subject to any special disease, but is more or less affected during laryngitis (sore throat), influenza, bronchitis, etc., and requires no special treatment. The membrane may be left in a thickened condition after these attacks. One or more of the rings may be accidentally fractured, or the tube may be distorted or mal- formed, the result of violent injury. After the operation of trache- otomy it is not uncommon to find a tumor or malformation as a re- sult or sequel of the operation. In passing over this section atten- tion is merely called to these defects, as they require no particular attention in the way of treatment. However, it may be stated that any one of the before- mentioned conditions may constitute one of the causes of noisy respiration described as " roaring." GUTTURAL POUCHES. These two sacks are not included in the organs of respiration, but sometimes pus collects in them to an extent that considerably inter- feres with respiration. They are in close proximity to the pharynx and larynx, and when filled with matter the functions of the last-named or- gans can not be properly performed. They are situated above the throat, and communicate with the pharynx, as well as with the cavity of the tympanum of the ear. They are peculiar to solipeds. They contain air, except when filled with pus. Their function is unknown. One or both guttural pouches may contain pus. The symptoms are: Swelling on the side below the ear and an intermittent discharge of matter from one or both nostrils, especially when the head is depressed. The swelling is soft, and, if pressed upon, matter will escape from the nose if the head is depressed. As before mentioned, these pouches communicate with the pharynx, and through this small opening matter may escape. A recovery is probable if the animal is turned out to graze, or if he is fed from the ground, as the dependent position of the head favors the escape of matter from the pouches. In addition to this, give the tonics recommended for nasal gleet. If this treatment fails an operation must be performed, which should not be attempted by any one unacquainted with the anatomy of the part. 105 METHODS OF EXAMINATION FOR DISEASES HAVING THEIR SEAT WITHIN THE CHEST. To lay down a set of rules for the guidance of the general reader In discriminating between the different affections of the organs of respira- tion situated in the thoracic cavity, is a task hard to accomplish. In the first place, it is presumed that the reader has no knowledge what- ever of the anatomical arrangement, and probably but a meager idea of the physiology of the organs, therefore the use of technical language, which would make the task a simple one, is out of the question. And, to one who scarcely understands the signs and laws of health, it is dif- ficult to convey in comprehensive language, in an article like this, an adequate idea of the great importance attached to signs or symptoms of disease. Then, again, the methods used for the detection of symp- toms not visible are such as require special cultivation of the particu- lar senses brought into play. It will be the endeavor of the writer, when describing the symptoms of each particular disease, to do so in such manner that a serious mistake should not be made; but for the benefit of those who may desire a more thorough understanding of the subject a brief review of the various methods employed and an ex- planation of certain symptoms will be given here. Pulse. — By the pulse is meant the beating of the arteries, which fol- lows each contraction of the heart. The artery usually selected iu the horse for " taking the pulse" is the submaxillary where it winds around the lower jaw-bone. On the inner side of the jaw-bone the artery may be readily felt and pressed against the bone, hence its adaptability for the purpose of detecting each peculiarity. The number of beats in a minute, the regularity, the irregularity, the strength or feebleness, and other peculiarities are principally due to the action of the heart. In the healthy horse the average number of beats in a minute is about forty; but in different horses the number may vary from thirty- five to forty-five and still be consistent with health. The breed and temperament of an animal has much to do with the number of pulsa- tions. In a thoroughbred the number of beats in a given time is gen- erally greater than in a coarse-bred horse. The pulse is less frequent in a dull- plethoric animal than in an excitable one. The state of the pulse should be taken when the animal is quiet and at rest. Work, exercise, and excitement increase the number of pulsations. If the pulse of a horse be taken while standing quietly in the stable it will be found less frequent than when he is at pasture. It is not within the scope of a work of this kind to give all the pecu- liarities of the pulse; only a few of the most important will be noticed. It should, however, be stated that if the reader would learn something of the pulse in disease he must first become acquainted with the pulse in health; he must know the natural peculiarities before he can detect the deviations caused by disease. 106 By a, frequent pulse is meant an increased number of beats in a given time. An infrequent pulse means the reverse. A quick pulse refers to the time occupied by the individual pulsation. The beat may strike the finger either quickly or slowly. Hence the pulse may beat forty quick pulsations or forty slow pulsations in a minute. The pulse is called intermitting when the beat now and then is omitted. The omission of the beat may be at the end of a given number of pulsa- tions, when it is termed regularly intermittent, or it may be irregularly intermittent. A large pulse means that the volume is larger than usual, and a small pulse means the opposite. When the artery is easily compressed and conveys the feeling of emptiness it is called & feeble pulse. When a feel- ing of hardness and resistance is conveyed to the finger it is termed a hard pulse. A double pulse is when the beat seems to give two rapid beats at once. Besides other peculiarities the pulse may include the character of two or more of the foregoing classes. In fever the pulse is modified, both as regards frequency and other deviations from the normal standard. When a horse is quietly stand- ing at rest, if the pulse beats fifty-five or more in a minute, fever is present. Temperature. — The temperature of the healthy horse ranges from about 99£° to 101J° F. The average may be placed at about 100° P. The temperature is subject to slight alterations by certain influences. A high surrounding temperature increases the animal temperature, and cold the reverse. Exercise increases it. Mares have a higher tempera- ture than males. Drinking cold water lowers the animal temperature. It is higher in the young than in the old. The process of digestion in- creases the temperature. The most accurate method of taking the temperature is by introduc- ing a registered clinical thermometer into the rectum. This instrument can be purchased from auy dealer in surgical instruments. Even the best made may vary somewhat from being exact, but one sufficiently true for the x>urpose is easily obtained. It should be self-registering. The thermometer should remain in the gut for about three or four minutes. Before inserting it you should be sure the mercury is below the minimum temperature. The end containing the mercury should be pushed in gently, leaving only sufficient outside to take hold of when you desire to withdraw it. In describing the symptoms of "cold in the head" the method of as- certaining an increase of temperature by placing the finger in the mouth is referred to. The method requires considerable practice and a deli- cacy of touch to become expert, but, when a thermometer is not at hand, a little practice will enable a person of ordinary intelligence to detect the existence or absence of fever. Respiration. — In health, standing still, the horse breathes from twelve to fifteen times a minute ; work or excitement increases the number of respirations. 107 The character of the breathing is changed by disease. Quick breath- ing refers to an increased number of respirations, which may be due to disease or to simple exercise. Difficult breathing is always associated with something abnormal, and is often a perfect guide to the trouble. Stertorous breathing must not be confounded with the difficult breath- ing or noisy respiration of sore throat, roaring, etc. By stertorous breathing is meant what, in the human being, is called snoring, which is due to a relaxation of the palate and not to disease of the part. In the horse it is generally associated with brain disease, when the con- sequent derangement of the nervous functions causes the relaxation of the soft palate. Abdominal breathing is when the ribs are kept as nearly stationary as possible, and the abdominal muscles assist to a much greater extent than natural in respiration ; the abdomen is seen to work like a bellows. In pleurisy, owing to the pain caused by mov- ing the ribs, this kind of breathing is always present. Thoracic breath- ing is the opposite of abdominal breathing — that is, the ribs rise and fall more than usual, while the abdominal muscles remain fixed ; this is due to abdominal pain, such as peritonitis, etc. Irregular breathing is exemplified in "heaves," and often during the critical stages of acute diseases. Secretions. — In the first stages of inflammatory disease these functions are noticed with benefit. For instance, in the common cold at the be- ginning of the attack the membrane within the nostrils is dry and con- gested, which state gradually gives way to a watery discharge, soon followed by a thick mucus. In pleurisy the surfaces are at first dry, which can be easily ascertained by placing the ear against the chest over the affected part, when the dry surfaces of the pleuraB will be heard rubbing against each other, producing a sound likened to that of rub- bing two pieces of paper one against the other. In diseases of the respiratory organs the bowels are usually constipated, and the urine becomes less in quantity and of a higher color. The skin is usually hot and dry, but there are instances when perspiration is profuse. At the beginning of the attack there is generally a chill (in most instances unnoticed by the attendant), caused by the contraction of the blood- vessels in the skin driving the blood internally. Cough. — This is usually a violent effort to remove some source of ir- ritation in the respiratory tract. The dry cough is heard during the first stages of disease of the respiratory organs. In pleurisy the cough is a dry one. The cough in pleurisy is noticeable on account of the apparent effort of the animal to suppress it. The moist cough is heard when the secretions (following a dry stage) are re-established. Cough is but a symptom — the effect of a disease. Eoaring, heaves, pleurisy, pneumonia, etc., have a cough peculiar to each affection. Auscultation. — This term is applied to the method of detecting dis- eases of the organs within the chest by listening to the sounds. Generally the ear is placed directly against the part, but occasionally 108 an instrument called the stethoscope is employed. The former is the best mode for horses. In order to gain any satisfaction or knowledge by the practice of this method the reader must first become familiar with the sounds in a healthy horse, which can only be learned by prac- tice. Much more practice and knowledge are then required to discrimi- nate properly between abnormal sounds and their significance. Percussion. — As applied to the practice of medicine this term refers to the act of striking on some part of the body to determine the condi- tionof the internal organs by the sound elicited. If a wall of acavity is struck the sound is easily distinguished from that emitted when a solid substance is knocked on. When percussing the chest, the ribs are struck with the tips of the fingers and thumb held together, or with the knuckles. An instrument called the pleximeter is sometimes laid against the part, to strike on. If the surface is soft over the part to be percussed, the left hand is pressed against it firmly, and the middle fin- ger of it struck with the ends of the fingers of the right hand to bring out the sound. This method of examination also requires much prac- tice on the healthy as well as the unhealthy animal. BRONCHITIS. As previously described, the windpipe terminates by dividing into the right and left bronchi, running to the right and left lung, respect- ively. After reaching the lungs these tubes divide into innumerable branches, gradully decreasing in size, which penetrate all parts of the lungs, ultimately terminating in the air-cells. The bronchial tubes are formed much the same as the windpipe, consisting of a base of carti- laginous rings with a layer of fibrous and muscular tissue, and lined in- ternally with a continuation of the respiratory mucous membrane. Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchial tubes. The mucous membrane alone may be affected, or the inflammation may involve the whole tube. Bronchitis affecting the larger tubes is less serious than when the smaller are involved. The disease may be either acute or chronic. The causes are generally much the same as for other diseases of the respiratory organs, noticed in the beginning of this article. The special causes are: The inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, and fluids or solids gaining access to the parts. Bronchitis is occasionally associated with influenza and other specific fevers. It also supervenes on common cold or sore throat. Symptoms. — The animal appears dull ; the appetite is partially or wholly lost; the head hangs; the breathing is very much quickened; the cough, at first dry, and having somewhat the character of a "bark- ing cough," is succeeded in a few days by a moist rattling cough ; the mouth is hot; the visible membranes in the nose are red; the pulse is frequent, and during the first stage is hard and quick, but as the dis- ease advances becomes smaller and more frequent. After a few days a whitish discharge from the nostrils ensues ; sometimes this discharge 109 is tinged with blood, and occasionally it may be of a brownish or rusty color. By auscultation or placing the ear to the sides of the chest un- natural sounds can now be heard. The air passing over the inflamed surface causes a hissing or wheezing sound when the small tubes are affected, and a hoarse, cooing, or snoring sound when the larger tubes are involved. After one or two days the dry stage of the disease is succeeded by a moist state of the membrane. The ear now detects a different sound, caused by the bursting of the bubbles as the air passes through the fluid, which is the exudate of inflammation and the aug- mented mucous secretions of the membrane. The mucus may be secreted in great abundance, which, by blocking up the tubes, may cause a col- lapse of a large extent of breathing surface. Usually the mucus is ex- pectorated, that is, discharged through the nose. The matter is coughed up, and when it reaches the larynx much of it may be swallowed, or, as the case may be, discharged from the nostrils. The horse can not spit like the human being, nor does the matter coughed up gain access to the mouth. In serious cases all the symptoms become aggravated. The breathing is labored, short, quick, but not painful. It is both thoracic and abdominal. The ribs rise and fall much more than nat- ural. This fact alone is enough to exclude the idea that the animal may be affected with pleurisy, because, in pleurisy, the ribs are as nearly fixed as in the power of the animal to do so, and the breathing accom- plished to a great extent by aid of the abdominal muscles. The horse persists in standing throughout the attack. He prefers to stand with head to a door or window to gain all the fresh air possible, but may occasionally wander listlessly about the stall if not tied. The bowels most likely are constipated; the dung is covered with slimy mucus. This appearance of the dung is usually defined by stablemen to be "cold on the bowels," or "dung covered with cold." The urine is decreased in quantity and darker in color than usual. The animal shows more or less thirst; in some cases the mouth is full of saliva. The discharge from the nose increases in quantity as the disease ad- vances and inflammation subsides. This is rather a good symptom, as it shows one stage has passed. The discharge then gradually decreases, the cough becomes less rasping but of more frequent occurrence until it gradually disappears with the return of health. Bronchitis, affecting the smaller tubes, is one of the most fatal diseases, while that of the larger tubes is never very serious. It must be stated, however, that it is an exceedingly difficult matter for a non- expert to discriminate between the two forms, and further, it may as well be said here that the non-expert will have difficulty in discrimi- nating between bronchitis and pneumonia. Therefore the writer will endeavor to point out a course of treatment in each disease that will positively benefit either affection if the reader happens to be mistaken in his diagnosis. The critic may say that this plan is not a truly scien- tific method of treating disease. The only reply necessary to be made 110 is that this series of articles is intended to be of practical value to the horse-owning public, and is in no manner intended as a text-book for experts and those already acquainted with the technical literature on the subject. Scientific terms which would make the work easy for the author would only tend to make it valueless to the general reader. Likewise a different prescription for each form and stage of the affec- tion would only confuse a person who is unable to appreciate the various phases of the disease. Treatment. — Of first importance is to insure a pure atmosphere to breathe, and next to make the patient's quarters as comfortable as pos- sible. A well ventilated box-stall serves best for all purposes. Cover the body with a blanket, light or heavy as the season of the year de- mands. Hand rub the legs until they are warm, then apply flannel or Derby bandages from the hoofs to the knees and hocks. If the legs can not be made warm with hand rubbing alone, apply the liniment recommended in the treatment of sore throat. Eub in thoroughly and then put on the bandages. Also, rub the same liniment well over the side of the chest, behind the elbow and shoulder-blade, covering the space beginning immediately behind the elbow and shoulder-blade and running back about 18 inches, and from the elbow below to within 5 or 6 inches of the ridge of the backbone above. Eepeat the application to the side of the chest about 5 days after the first one is applied. Compel the animal to inhale steam as advised for cold in the head. In each bucketful of boiling water put a tablespoonful of oil of turpen- tine. This medicated vapor coming in direct contact with the inflamed bronchial tubes is of much greater benefit than can be imagined by one who has not experienced its good effect. In serious cases the steam should be inhaled every hour, and in any case the oftener it is done the greater will be the beneficial results. Three times a day administer the following drench: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces ; bicarbonate of potassium, one-half ounce; water, 1 pint. Care must be used in drenching. If it greatly excites the horse it is best not to push it. If you see that it does harm do not persist in making the animal worse. Be satisfied with dissolv- ing one-half ounce of bicarbonate of potassium in every bucketful of water the animal will drink. It is well to keep a bucketful of cold water before the animal all the time. If the horse is prostrated and has no appetite give the following drench : Spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ounces; rectified spirits, 3 ounces; water, 1 pint. Eepeat the dose every four or five hours if it appears to benefit. When the horse is hard to drench, and if you have some one about who is expert in ad- ministering balls, give the following: Pulverized carbonate of ammonia, 3 drams; linseed meal and molasses sufficient to make the whole into a stiff mass ; wrap it with a small piece of tissue paper and it is ready to administer. This ball may be repeated every four or five hours. When giving the ball care should be taken to prevent its breaking in Ill the mouth, as in case of such accident it will make the mouth sore, which may prevent the animal from eating. If the bowels are consti- pated give enemas of warm water. Do not give purgative medicines. Do not bleed the animal. Depressing treatment only helps to bring on a fatal termination. If the animal retains an appetite a soft diet is preferable, such as scalded oats, bran mashes, and grass if in season. If he refuses cooked food allow in small quantities anything he will eat. Hay, corn, oats, bread, apples, carrots may all be tried in turn. Some horses will drink sweet milk when they refuse all other kinds of food, and especially is this the case if the drinking water is withheld for awhile. One or two gallons at a time, four or five times a day, will support life. Bear in mind that when the disease is established it will run its course, which may be from two to three weeks, or even longer. Good nursing and patience are required. When the symptoms have abated and nothing remains of the disease except the cough and a white discharge from the nostrils, all other medicines should be discontinued and a course of tonic treatment pur- sued. Give the following mixture: Pulverized sulphate of iron, 3 ounces; powdered gentian, 8 ounces; mix well together and divide into sixteen powders. Give a powder every night and morning mixed with bran and oats, if the animal will eat it, or shaken with about a pint of water and administered as a drench. If the cough remains for a length of time that leads you to think it will become chronic, say three or four weeks after the horse is appar- ently well, apply the liniment to the throat and down over the wind- pipe and over the breast. Bub it in thoroughly once a day until three or four applications are made. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in a bucketful of drinking water, one hour before each meal for two or three weeks if necessary. Do not put the animal at work too soon after recovery. Allow ample time to regain strength. This dis- ease is prone to become chronic and may run into an incurable case of thick wind. It has been stated that it will be a difficult matter for the non-pro- fessional to discriminate between bronchitis and pneumonia. In fact the two diseases are often associated, constituting broncho-pneumonia; therefore, the reader should carefully study the symptoms and treat- ment of pneumonia. CHRONIC BRONCHITIS. This may be due to the same causes as acute bronchitis, or it may follow the latter disease. An attack of the chronic form is liable to be converted into acute bronchitis by a very slight cause. This chronic affection in most instances is associated with thickening of the walls of the tubes. Its course is slower, it is less severe, and is not accom- panied with as much fever as the acute form. If the animal is exerted 112 the breathing becomes quickened and he soon shows signs of exhaus- tion. In many instances the animal keeps up strength and appearances moderately well, but in other cases the appetite is lost, flesh gradually disappears, and the horse becomes emaciated and debilitated. It is ac- companied by a cough, which in some cases is a husky, smothered, or muffled excuse for a cough, while in other cases the cough is hard and clear. A whitish matter is discharged from the nose, which may be curdled in some instances. If the ear is placed against the chest be- hind the shoulder blade, the rattle of the air passing through the mucus can be heard within. It is stated that the right side of the heart may become enlarged to such an extent that it is easily felt beating by plac- ing the hand against the chest behind the right elbow. Treatment. — Generally the horse is kept at work when he is affected with this form of bronchial trouble, as the owner says " he has only a deep cold. " It is true that some authorities express the opinion that work does no harm, but they are mistaken. Eest is necessary, if a cure is desired, as even under the most favorable circumstances, a cure is difficult to effect. The animal can not stand exertion, and should not be compelled to undergo it. Besides, there is a great probability of acute bronchitis supervening at any time. The animal should have much the same general care and medical treatment prescribed for the acute form ; if material benefit has not been derived give the following: Powdered nux vomica, 3 ounces; powdered arsenic, 70 grains ; powdered sulphate of copper, 3 ounces ; mix together and divide into thirty -four powders. Give a powder mixed with bran and oats every night and morning. An application of mustard applied to the breast is a beneficial adjunct. If all other treat- ment fails, try the following combination, recommended by a good au- thority: Hydrocyanic acid (Scheele's strength), 20 minims; nitrate of potassium, 3 drams ; bicarbonate of soda, 1 ounce ; water, 1 pint. This dose should be given every morning and evening for one or two weeks, if necessary. The diet should be the most nourishing. Bad food is harmful at any time, but especially in this disease. Avoid bulky food. Linseed mashes, scalded oats, grass and green-blade fodder, if in season, is the best diet. THE LUNGS. The lungs are the essential organs of respiration. They consist of two (right and left) spongy masses, commonly called the " lights," situated entirely within the thoracic cavity. On account of the space taken up by the heart, the left lung is the smaller. Externally, they are completely covered by the pleura. The structure of the lung con- sists of a light, soft, but very strong and remarkably elastic tissue, which can only be torn with difficulty. The lung of the foetus which has never respired will sink if placed in water, but after the 113 lung has been inflated with air it will float on water so long as healthy. This fact is made useful in deciding whether or not an animal was born dead or died after its birth. Each lung is divided into a certain num- ber of lobes, which are subdivided into numberless lobules (little lobes). A little bronchial tube terminates in every one of these small lobules. The little tube then divides into minute branches which open into the air-cells (pulmonary vesicles) of the lungs. The air-cells are little sacs having a diameter varying from one-seventieth to one- two-hundredth of an inch ; they have but one opening, the communication with the branches of the little bronchial tubes. Small blood-vessels ramify in the walls of the air-cells. The walls of the air-cells are extremely thin and consist of two layers ; the blood-vessels, being between the layers, thus expose a surface to the air in two different cells. The air-cells are the consummation of the intricate structures forming the respiratory apparatus. They are of prime importance, all the rest be- ing complementary. It is within these cells that is accomplished all that constitutes the ultimate result of the function of respiration. It is here the exchange of gases takes place. As before stated, the walls of the cells we very thin ; so, also, are the walls of the blood-vessels. Through these walls escapes from the blood the carbonic-acid gas that has been absorbed by the blood in its circulation through the different parts of the body ; and through these walls is absorbed by the blood, from the air in the air-cells, the oxygen gas which is the life-giving element of the atmosphere. Throughout the substance of the lungs the bronchial tubes terminate in the air-cells. Blood-vessels are in every part ', likewise lymphatic vessels and nerves, which require no more than mention in this paper. To give a rude idea of the arrangement of the respiratory apparatus as a whole, we may profitably compare it to a tree, for the want of a better illustration. Say that all the respiratory tract from the nasal openings back to the pharynx are the roots in the ground ; the larynx may be compared to the large part of the trunk just above the earth ; the windpipe will represent the body or the bole of the tree ; the right and left bronchi may be considered the first two or largest limbs ; the bronchial tubes are then comparable to all the rest of the limbs, branches and twigs, gradually becoming smaller and branching out more frequently, until the smallest twigs terminate by having a leaf appended ; and to complete the comparison we may as well say the leaf will do to represent the air-cells. Now, imagine all parts in and around the limbs, branches, twigs, and leaves filled in with some ma- terial (say cotton or tow) and the whole covered over with silk or satin to about the beginning of the branches on each of the first two large limbs. The cotton or tow represents the lung-tissue and the silk or satin covering will represent the pleura. It must be admitted that this is rather a rough way to handle such delicate structures, but if the reader is possessed of a good imagination he may gain, at least, a com- 11035- 8 114 prehension of the subject that will suffice for the purpose of being bet- ter able to locate the various diseases and appreciate the mechanism of the respiratory organs in their relations to each other. CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS. Inflammation of the lungs is always preceded by congestion, or, to make it plainer, congestion may be considered as the first stage of in- flammation. Congestion is essentially an excess of blood in the vessels of the parts affected. Congestion of the lungs in the horse, when it exists as an independent affection, is generally caused by overexertion when the animal is not in a fit condition to undergo more than moder- ate exercise. The methods practiced by the trainers of running and trotting horses will give an idea of what is termed " putting a horse in condition" to stand severe exertion. The animal at first gets walking exercises, then after some time he is made to go faster and farther each day; the amount of work is daily increased until the horse is said to be " in condi- tion." An animal so prepared runs no risk of being affected with con- gestion of the lungs if he is otherwise healthy. On the other hand, if the horse is kept in the stable for the purpose of laying on fat or for want of something to do, the muscular system becomes soft, and the horse is not in condition to stand the severe exertion of going fast or far, no matter how healthy he may be in other respects. If such a horse be given a hard ride or drive, he may start off in high spirits, but soon becomes exhausted, and if he is pushed he will slacken his pace, show a desire to stop, and may stagger or even fall. Examina- tion will show the nostrils dilated, the flanks heaving, the countenance haggard, and every other appearance of suffocation. How was this brought about! The heart and muscles were not accustomed to the sudden and severe strain put upon them; the heart became unable to perform its work; the blood accumulated in the vessels of the lungs, which eventually became engorged with the stagnated blood, consti- tuting congestion of the lungs. The animal, after having undergone severe exertion, may not exhibit any alarming symptoms until returned to the stable; then he will be noticed standing with his head down, legs spread out, the eyes wildly staring or dull and sunken. The breathing is very rapid and almost gasping, the body is covered with perspiration in most cases, which, however, may soon evaporate, leaving the surface of the body and the legs and ears cold; the breathing is both abdominal and thoracic; the chest rises and falls and the flanks are powerfully brought into action. If the pulse can be felt at all it will be found beating very frequently, one hundred or more to a minute. The heart may be felt tumultuously thumping if the hand is placed against the chest behind the left elbow, or it may be scarcely perceptible. The animal may tremble all over the body. If the ear is placed against the side of the chest a loud murmur will be heard, and perhaps a fine crackling sound. 115 No intelligent person should fail to recognize a case of congestion of the lungs when brought on by overexertion, as the history of the case is sufficient to point out the ailment. The disease may also arise from want of sufficient pure air in stables that are badly ventilated. In all cases of suffocation the lungs are congested. It is also seen in connec- tion with other diseases. Treatment. — If the animal is attacked by the disease while on the road stop him immediately. Do not attempt to return to the stables. If he is in the stable make arrangements at once to insure an unlimited sup- ply of pure air. If the weather is warm, out in the open air is the best place, but if too cold let him stand with head to the door. By no means have him walked, as is sometimes done. Let him stand still ; he has all he can do if he obtains sufficient pure air to sustain life. If he is en- cumbered with harness or saddle remove it at once and begin rub- bing the body with cloths or wisps of hay or straw. This stimulates the circulation in the skin, and thus aids in relieving the lungs of the extra quantity of blood that is stagnated there. If you have three or four assistants let them go to work with enthusiasm, rub the body and legs well, until the skin feels natural; rub the legs until they are warm, if possible; rub in over the cold part of the legs an application of the liniment recommended for the same purpose in the treatment of bron- chitis, but do not apply it to the chest. When the circulation is re-es- tablished, put bandages on the legs from the hoofs up as far as possible. Throw a blanket over the body and let the rubbing be done under the blanket. Diffusible stimulants are the medicines indicated. Brandy, whisky (or even ale or beer if nothing else is at hand), ether, and tinct- ure of arnica are all useful. Two ounces each of spirits of nitrous ether and alcohol, given as a drench, diluted with a pint of water, every hour until relief is afforded, is among the best of remedies. But if it takes too long to obtain this mixture, give a quarter of a pint of whisky in a pint of water every hour, or the same quantity of brandy as often, or a quart of ale every hour, or an ounce of tincture of arnica in a pint of water every hour until five or six doses have been given. If none of these remedies are at hand, 2 ounces of oil of turpentine, shaken with a half pint of milk, may be given. This will have a beneficial effect until more applicable remedies are obtained. A tablespoonful of aqua ammonia (hartshorn), diluted with a pint of water and given as a drench every hour, has undoubtedly been of great service in saving life when noth- ing else could be obtained in time to be used with benefit. If the fore- going treatment fails to be followed by a marked improvement after seven or eight hours' perseverance, the animal may be bled from the jugular vein. Do not take more than 5 or 6 quarts from the vein, and do not repeat the bleeding. The blood thus drawn will have a tarry appearance. When the alarming symptoms have subsided active measures may be stopped, but care must be used in the general treatment of the ani- 116 mal for several days, for it must be remembered that congestion may be followed by pneumonia. The animal should have a comfortable stall, where he will not be subjected to draughts or sudden changes of temperature ; he should be blanketed and the legs kept bandaged. The air should be pure, a plentiful supply of fresh cold water always before him, and a diet composed principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, if in season. When ready for use again he should at first receive moderate exercise only, which may be daily increased until he may safely be put at regular work. APOPLEXY OF THE LUNGS. This is but another term for congestion of the lungs, and for practi- cal x>urposes needs no special description, except to remark that when a hemorrhage occurs during the congested state of the lungs the blood escapes from the ruptured vessels and extravasates into the lung tissue. Such cases are called pulmonary apoplexy, and usually occur during the course of some specific disease. PNEUMONIA — LUNG FEVER. Pneumonia may attack both lungs, but as a general rule one lung only is affected, and in the great majority of cases it is the right lung. The air-cells are the parts affected principally, but the minute branches of the bronchial tubes always, to a greater or less extent, are involved in the inflammation. Inflammation of the lungs occurs in three princi- pal varieties, but in a work of this kind there is no necessity to dis- criminate, and therefore the disease will be described under a common head. It already has been mentioned that pneumonia may be compli- cated with bronchitis, and it will hereafter be pointed out that it is very commonly complicated with pleurisy. In this article the disease will be considered mainly as an independent affection, and its complications will be more fully described under separate heads. The inflammation usually begins in the lower part of the lung and extends upwards. The first stage of the disease consists of congestion or engorgement of the blood-vessels, and if this condition continues the blood exudes from the vessels into the adjacent lung tissue ; if rupture of small blood-vessels occurs there will be extravasations of blood in the contiguous parts. The fluids thus escaping collect in the air-cells and in the minute branches of the little bronchial tubes, and, becoming coagulated there, completely block up the cells and exclude the air. In this condition the lung is increased in volume and is much heavier, and will sink in water. The pleura covering the affected parts is al- ways more or less inflamed. A continuance of the foregoiug phenom- ena is marked by a further escape of the constituents of the blood, and a change in the membrane of the cells, which become swollen. The exudate that fills the air-cells and minute bronchial branches undergoes disintegration, and is converted into a fatty material. The walls of the cells almost invariably remain unaltered. It must not be imagined that the foregoing changes take place in. 117 a uniform manner. While one portion is only congested another part may be undergoing disintegration, while still another part may be involved in the exudative stage. The usual termination of pneumonia is in resolution, that is, a res- toration to health. This is gradually brought about by the exuded material contained in the air-cells and lung tissues becoming degen- erated into fatty and a mucus-like substance which are removed by absorption. The blood vessels return to their natural state and the blood circulates in them as before. Much material, the result of the inflammatory process, is also gotten rid of by expectoration, or rather (in the horse) by discharge from the nostrils. In the cases that do not terminate so happily the lung may become gangrenous (or mor- tified), or an abscess may form, or the disease may be merged into the chronic variety. Pneumonia may be directly induced by any of the influences named as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, but in many instances it is due to either willful neglect or ignorance. A common cold or sore throat may run into a fatal case of pneumonia if neglected or improperly treated. An animal may be debilitated by a cold, and when in this weakened state may be compelled to undergo exertion beyond his strength ; or he may be kept in bad quarters, such as a badly ventilated stable, where the foul gases are shut in and the pure air is shut out; or the stable may be so open that parts of the body are exposed to draughts of cold air. Either of the foregoing causes may induce congestion of the lungs in an animal predisposed to it on account of having already a disease of the respiratory organs. The congestion is soon followed by the other stages of inflammation, and a case of pneumonia is established with a tendency to a fatal ter- mination, as it is altogether likely the animal will be so much reduced in constitution as to be unable to fight off a collapse. An animal is predisposed to pneumonia when debilitated by any constitutional dis- ease, and especially during convalescence if exposed to any of the ex- citing causes. Foreign bodies, such as food, accidentally getting in the lungs by way of the windpipe, as well as the inhalation of irritating gases and smoke, ofttimes produce fatal attacks of inflammation of the lung and bronchial tubes. Pneumonia is frequently seen in connection with other diseases, such as influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, strangles, glanders, etc. An abnormal state of the blood predisposes to it. Pneumonia and pleurisy are most common during cold, damp weather, and especially during the prevalence of the cold north and northeast- erly winds. Wounds puncturing the thoracic cavity may induce it. Symptoms. — Pneumonia, when a primary disease, is ushered in by a chill, more or less prolonged, which in most cases is seen neither by the owner nor the attendant, but is overlooked. The breathing becomes accelerated, and the animal hangs its head and has a very dull appear- ance. The mouth is hot and has a sticky feeling to the touch; the heat conveyed to the finger in the mouth demonstrates a fever; if the ther- 118 mometer is placed in the rectum the temperature will be found to have risen to 103° F., or higher. The pulse is very frequent, beating from seventy or eighty to one hundred or more a minute; the character of the pulse varies very much; it may be hard or feeble, large or small, intermitting, etc. There is usually a dry cough from the beginning, which, however, changes in character as the disease advances; for in- stance it may become moist, or if pleurisy sets in the cough will be peculiar to the latter affection, that is, cut short in the endeavor to sup- press it. In some cases the discharge from the nostrils is tinged with blood, while in other cases it has the appearance of matter. The ap- petite is lost to a greater or less extent, but the desire for water is increased, particularly during the onset of the fever. The membrane within the nostrils is red and at first dry, but sooner or later becomes moist. The legs are cold. The bowels are more or less constipated, and what dung is passed is usually covered with a slimy mucus. The urine is passed in smaller quantities than usual and is of a darker color. The animal prefers to have the head where the freshest air can be obtained. When affected with pneumonia a horse does not lie down, but persists in standing from the beginning of the attack. However, if pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the horse may appear restless and lie down for a few moments to gain relief from the pleuritic pains, but he soon rises. In pneumonia the breathing is very rapid, and some- times even the most negligent observer will notice that it is difficult, but when the pneumonia is complicated with pleurisy the ribs are kept as still as possible and the breathing is abdominal, that is, the abdominal muscles are now made to do as much of the work as they can perform. Remember if pleurisy is not present there is no paiu. To the ordinary observer the animal may not appear daugerously ill, as he does not show the seriousness of the ailment by violence, as in colic, but a careful ob- server will discover at a glance that the trouble is something more serious than a cold. If the reader has practiced auscultation and percussion sufficiently to discriminate the sounds, or absence of sounds, of the diseased lung from the sounds of the normal lung, he may still further satisfy himself in diagnosing the ailment. When the lung is healthy, if the chest is knocked on, a more or less resonant sound is emitted, according to the part struck ; but when the air cells are filled with the exudate of in- flammation, and the surrounding lung tissue contains the exudate and extravasated blood, the air is excluded, and the part of the lung thus affected is solidified ; now, if the chest is struck over this solidified part, a dull sound is obtained. Therefore, percussion not only shows that the lung is affected with pneumonia, but it points to the spot affected. Moreover, if pleurisy exists in conjunction with pneumonia, and the walls of the chest are knocked on with a view of gaining information from the sounds elicited, when that part immediately over the affected pleura is struck, the animal flinches, as the blows, even if they are but moderate, cause severe pain. 119 By auscultation, listening to the sounds within the ch est, we gain much information. When the ear is placed against the chest of a healthy horse the respiratory murmur is heard more or less distinctly, according to the part of the chest that is beneath the ear. In the very first stage of pneumonia this murmur is louder and hoarser ; and, also, there is heard a fine crackling sound something similar to that produced when salt is thrown in a fire. After the affected part becomes solid there is an absence of sound over that particular part. After absorp- tion begins, you will again hear sounds, which gradually change until the natural sound is heard announcing the return of health. When a fatal termination is approaching all the symptoms become in- tensified. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult; the flanks heave; the poor animal stares wildly about as if imploring aid to drive off the terrible feeling of suffocation ; the body is bathed with the sweat of death ; he staggers, but quickly recovers his balance ; he may now, for the first time during the attack, lie down ; he does so, how. ever, in the hope of relief, which he fails to find, and with difficulty struggles to his feet; he pants; he heaves ; the nostrils flap; he stag- gers and sways from side to side and backwards and forwards, but still tries to retain the standing position, even by propping himself against the stall. It is no use, as after a fearful and agonizing fight for breath, he goes down ; still instinct with the desire to live he makes a few in- effectual efforts to breathe, which only result in a horrible wheezing, gasping noise ; the limbs stretch out and become rigid, and — he rises no more. A bystauder breaks the silence with the remark, " He died hard." Such is the usual death scene when caused by pneumonia. It amounts to a veritable struggle against suffocation. Death ensues usu- ally in from ten to twenty days after the beginning of the attack. On the other hand when the disease is terminating favorably the signs are obvious. When the fever abates the animal gradually improves in appetite; he takes more notice of things around him; his spirits im- prove ; he has a general appearance of returning health, and he lies down and rests easy. In the great majority of cases pneumonia, if properly treated, is by no means a fatal disease. Treatment. — The general outline of the treatment is much the same as advised for bronchitis. The comfort and surroundings of the patient must be attended to first. The quarters should be the best that can be provided. Pure air is essential. Avoid placing the animal in a stall where he may be exposed to draughts of cold air and sudden changes, of temperature. Some authorities state that such exposure is not harmful after pneumonia has set in, but nevertheless the reader is ad- vised to pursue the conservative course and not to experiment. When making the stable comfortably warm do not prevent the access of pure air. It is much better for the animal if the air is cold and pure than if it is warm and foul. It is better to make the animal comfortable with warm clothing than to make the stable warm by shutting off the ven- tilation. The animal should have an unlimited supply of fresh cold 120 drinking water from the start. Blanket the body. Rub the legs until they are warm and then put bandages on them from the hoofs up as far as they are cold. If warmth can not be re-established in the legs by hand-rubbing alone, apply the liniment as recommended in the treat- ment of bronchitis. The bandages should be removed once or twice every day, the legs well rubbed, and the bandages re-applied. Rub well over the affected side an application of the liniment mentioned in the treatment of sore throat. The application may be repeated in four or five days. Do not use mustard ; no doubt about its acting, and acting quickly, too, but experience teaches that it is not so good as something less irritating and more prolonged in its beneficial effects. Much harm is often done by clipping off hair and rubbing in powerful escharotic blistering com- pounds. They do positive injury and retard recovery, and should not be allowed. Much benefit may be derived from hot applications to the sides of the chest if the facilities are at hand to apply them. If the weather be not too cold, and if the animal is in a comfortable stable, the following method may be tried : Have a tub of hot water handy to the stable door ; soak a woolen blanket in the water, then quickly wring as much water as possible out of it and wrap it around the chest. See that it fits closely to the skin ; do not allow it to sag down so that air may get between it and the skin. Now wrap a dry blanket over the wet hot one. The hot blanket should be renewed every half hour, and while it is off being wetted and wrung, the dry one should remain over the wet part of the chest to prevent reaction. The hot applications should be kept up for three or four hours, and when stopped, the skin should be quickly rubbed as dry as possible, an application of liniment rubbed over the wet part, and a dry blanket snugly fitted over the animal ; and especial care should be taken to cover with it the wet part of the skin. If the hot applications appear to benefit, they may be tried on three or four consecutive days. Unless every facility and cir- cumstance favors the application of heat in the foregoing manner do not attempt it. If the weather is very cold, or any of the details are omitted, more harm than good may result. In the majority of cases, warm clothing to the body, bandages to the legs, and the liniment ap- plied to legs and chest will suffice. It is possible that cases occur that may be slightly benefited by bleed- ing, but the non-expert is certainly unable to discriminate in such in- stances, and therefore blood-letting should never be practiced. Indeed, many veterinary practitioners of great experience wholly condemn the practice of bleeding in pneumonia, as positively hurtful. When pneu- monia follows another disease the system is always more or less debili- tated, and requires the careful use of stimulants from the beginning; to still further weaken the animal by tapping him (if the expression may be used), and letting escape in a stream the very source of his remaining strength, is one of the most effectual methods of retarding recovery, even if it does not hasten a fatal termination. 121 Another and oftentimes a fatal mistake made by the non-professional is the indiscriminate and reckless use of aconite. This drug is one of the most active poisons, and should not be handled by any one who does not thoroughly understand its action and uses. It is only less active than prussic acid in its poisonous effects. It is a common opinion, often expressed by non- professionals, that aconite is a stimulant; noth- ing could be more erroneous. In fact, it is just the reverse; it is one of the most powerful sedatives used in the practice of medicine. In fatal doses it kills by paralyzing the very muscles used in breathing; it weakens the action of the beart, and should not be used in any but strong or sthenic types of inflammation, and then only by the expert. After an extensive experience in the treatment of pneumonia in various sections, from the cold northern regions of Canada to the temperate climate of Virginia and North Carolina, the writer has discarded aconite entirely from the list of medicines he uses in the treatment of this affec- tion. Do not give purgative medicines. If constipation exists, over- come it by an allowance of laxative diet, such as scalded oats, bran and linseed mashes, and grass if in season. A careful observer will notice that the dung passed by the animal is coated with mucus ; this, is an indication that the bowels are in an irri- table condition ; in fact they are affected to a small extent by the dis- ease. Now, if a purgative dose is administered the irritable state is aggravated ; they become inordinately active and a diarrhea or super- purgation is established that proves a most difficult matter to check. It must be remembered that the animal is already weakened by an ex- haustive disease, and the "running off at the bowels" not only still further weakens the animal, but may cause the bowels to become in- flamed, and thus insure a fatal termination. It is a common practice among non -professionals to give aloes and oil to a horse with pneu- monia, and, considering this fact, it is no wonder that it proves such a fatal disease in their hands. If the costiveness is not relieved by the laxative diet, give an enema of about a quart of warm water three or four times a day. A diet consisting principally of bran mashes, scalded oats, grass or blade fodder, when in season, is preferable if the animal retains an appetite ; but if no desire is evinced for food of this particular descrip- tion, then the animal must be allowed to eat anything that will be taken spontaneously. Hay tea, made by pouring boiling water over good hay in a large bucket, and allowing it to stand until cool, then straining off the liquid, will sometimes create a desire for food. The animal may be allowed to drink as much of it as he desires. Corn on the cob is often eaten when everything else is refused. Bread may be tried, also apples or carrots. If the animal can be persuaded to drink milk it may be supported by it for days. Three or four gallons of sweet milk may be given during the day, in which may be stirred three or four fresh eggs to each gallon of milk. Some horses will drink milk, \ihile others will refuse to touch it. It should be borne in mind that 122 all food must be taken by the horse as be desires it. No food should be forced down him. If the auimal will not eat, you will only have to wait until a desire is shown for food. All kinds may be offered, first one thing and then another, but food should not be allowed to remain long in trough or manger ; the very fact of it constantly being before him will cause him to loathe it. When the animal has no appetite for anything, the stomach is not in a proper state to digest food, and if it is poured or drenched into him it will only cause indigestion and aggra- vate the case. It is a good practice to do nothing when there is noth- ing to be done that will benefit. This refers to medicine as well as food. Nothing is well done that is over done. The following drench should be administered every six hours: Solution of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces ; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce ; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams ; water, 1 pint. Care should be used in drenching; no recklessness such as filling the mouth with medicines, then holding the hand tightly over the nostrils and pounding on the throat and windpipe, kicking the horse in the belly or ribs, or other like conduct, should be practiced. If the animal coughs or attempts to cough while the head is up, let the head down immediately. Better to lose the medicine than to cause it to get into the lungs. There are many valuable medicines used for the different stages and ' different types of pneumonia, but in the opinion of the writer it is use- less to refer to them here, as this work is intended for the use of those who are not sufficiently acquainted with the disease to recognize its various types and stages; therefore they would only confuse. If you can administer a ball or capsule, or have any one at hand who is capable of doing it, a dram of sulphate of quinine in a capsule, or made into a ball, with sufficient linseed meal and molasses, given every three hours during the height of the fever, will do good in many cases. The ball of carbonate of ammonia, as advised in the treatment of bronchitis, may be tried if the animal is hard to drench. If the horse becomes very much debilitated, stimulants of a more pro- nounced character are required. The following drench is useful: Recti- fied spirits, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 2 ouuces; water, 1 pint. This may be repeated every four or five hours if it seems to benefit. Or 6 ounces of good whisky, diluted with a pint of water, may be given as often, instead of the foregoing. There are cases where sedatives are undoubtedly beneficial, but a knowledge both of disease and medicine is required to discriminate in such cases; therefore the only rational course to pursue in a work of this kind is to map out a line of treatment that will do good in all cases and harm in none, and at the same time be within the understanding of those who have not made a special study of disease. During the period of convalescence good nutritive food should be al- lowed in a moderate quantity. Tonic medicines should be substituted for those used during the fever. The same medicines advised for the 123 convalescing period of bronchitis are equally efficient in this case. Likewise, the same general instructions apply here. Death may occur during the first stage of the disease, owing to the severity of the fever, or it may occur during the period when the lungs are solidified by the exudate of the inflammation filling up the air cells and bronchial tubes, or it may take place later, when the exudate fails to liquify and undergo absorption, and is then due to suppuration, the formation of an abscess, or gangrene or mortification. As a matter of course pneumonia is most often fatal when both lungs are involved in the inflammation. In concluding, it may be well to remind you that if pneumonia is properly treated the great majority of cases will terminate in a complete restoration to health. In all cases much will depend on the good judg- ment of the person directing the treatment of the case. If it is seen that any one thing is doing harm, then that particular thing should be omitted. For instance, if drenching the animal is attended with harm, that is, if it unnecessarily excites him, or if he obstinately refuses to swallow the medicine, then do not further annoy him by persistently trying to do what you are able to see only makes matters worse. Omit the drenching, and dissolve 3 drams of bicarbonate of potassium in every bucketful of water he will drink of his own free will. Give the quinine in capsules or balls, and also the carbonate of ammonia balls. A ball- ing iron (or mouth speculum) may be obtained from any veterinary in- strument dealer. A little practice with it will enable you to become somewhat expert in giving medicines in the latter form. Do not give quinine and ammonia together; let at least an hour intervene between the administration of the two different medicines. PLEUKISY. The thoracic cavity is divided into two lateral compartments, each containing one lung, besides other organs. Each lung has its separate pleural membrane or covering. The anatomical arrangement of the pleura is simple to the anatomist, but a detailed description of it would be beyond the comprehension of the average reader. Suffice it to say that the pleura is the thin, glistening membrane that covers the lung, and also completely covers the internal walls of the chest. It is very thin, and to the ordinary observer appears to be part of the lung, which, in fact, it is for all practical purposes. The smooth, shiny surface of the lung, as well as the smooth, shiny surface so familiar on the rib, is the pleura. In health this surface is always moist. A fluid (called serum) is thrown off (secreted) by the pleura, which causes the surface to be constantly moist. This is to prevent the effects of friction between the lungs and the walls of the chest and other contiguous parts which come in contact. It must be remembered the lungs are constantly di- lating each time a breath is taken in, and contracting each time a breath of air is expelled. It may be readily seen that if it were not for the moistened state of the surface of the pleura the continual dilation 124 aud contraction and the consequent rubbing of the parts against each other would cause a serious friction. This, then, is the office of the pleura — to secrete or moisten its surface with a fluid to prevent the ill effects of friction. Inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy. Being so closely united with the lung, it can not always escape participation in the dis- ease when the latter is inflamed. Pleurisy may be due to the same predisposing and exciting causes as mentioned in the beginning of this work as general causes for diseases of the organs of respiration, such as exposure to sudden changes of temperature, confinement in damp stables, etc. It may be caused by wounds that penetrate the chest, for it must be remembered that such wounds must necessarily pierce the pleura. A fractured rib may involve the pleura. The inflammation following such wounds may be circumscribed, that is, confined to a small area surrounding the wound, or it may spread from the wound and involve a large portion of the pleura. The pleura may be involved secondarily when the heart or its membrane is the primary seat of the disease. It may occur in conjunction with bronchitis, influenza, and other diseases. It is commonly seen in connection with rheumatism. Diseased growths that interfere with the pleura may induce pleurisy, but it is most frequently met with in connection with pneumonia, for the reason given heretofore. Pleurisy will be described here as an independent affection, although it should be remembered that it is very often associated with the foregoing diseases. When the animal is affected with pleurisy an ordinary observer should have no difficulty in detecting the disease, provided the diagnostic symptoms are studied beforehand. The very first stage is a congested state of the blood vessels in the parts affected; the surface of the mem- brane becomes dry and roughened (this fact will be again referred to when the symptoms are described). This dry condition is followed, after a certain period, by an effusion of fluid, that is, more fluid than usual is thrown off by the membrane when in a diseased condition. This fluid accumulates in the space between the lungs and the walls of the chest, constituting hydro-thorax, or dropsy of the chest. This fluid may undergo certain changes; in it float coagulated masses called fibrin. The surface of the lung may adhere to the internal surface of the ribs. The quantity of exuded fluid varies to a great extent. In some cases the chest contains an enormous amount, and when it is not absorbed pus may be generated to a greater or less extent. Symptoms. — When the disease exists as an independent affection it is ushered in by a chill, but this is usually overlooked. About the first thing noticed is the disinclination of the animal to move or turn round. When made to do so he grunts or groans with pain. He stands stiff; the ribs are fixed, that is, the ribs move very little in the act of breath- ing, but the abdomen works more than natural; both the fore feet aud elbows may be turned out ; during the onset of the attack the animal may be restless, and act as if he had a slight colic ; he may even lie 125 down, but does not remain long down, for when lie finds no relief he soon gets up. After effusion begins these signs of restlessness disappear. If the observer looks for it, a furrow will be found running along the lower part of the chest from behind the elbow back to the flank; this is due to the endeavor of the animal to keep the ribs fixed in as near as possible an immovable position. Every movement of the chest causes excruciating pain, therefore the cough is peculiar ; it is short and sup- pressed, and comes as near being no cough as the animal can make it in his desire to suppress it. The breathiug is hurried, the mouth is hot, the temperature being elevated from 102° or 103° to 105° F. The usual symptoms that accompany fever are present, such as costiveness, scanty, dark-colored urine, etc. The pulse is frequent, perhaps seventy or more a minute, and is hard and wiry. The legs and ears are cold. Percussion is of valuable service in this affection. The ribs may be struck with the knuckles. By striking different parts you will come to a spot of greater or less extent where the blows cause much pain to be evinced. The animal may grunt or groan every time it is struck. Another method of detecting the affected part is to press the fingers between the ribs, each space in succession, beginning behind the elbow, until you arrive at a place where the pressure causes more flinching than at any other part. Auscultation is also useful. In the first stage, when the surfaces are dry and rough, if the ear is placed against different parts of the chest you will eventually come to the affected part, which will be readily manifested by a friction sound very much like that produced by rubbing two pieces of coarse paper together. The sound appears immediately under the ear, and is distinct. No such friction sound occurs when the membrane is healthy, as the natural moisture, heretofore mentioned, prevents the friction. In many cases this friction is so pronounced that it may be felt by placing the hand over the affected part. When the dry stage is succeeded by the exu- dation of fluid, this friction sound disappears. After the effusion into the cavity takes place there sometimes is heard a tinkling or metallic sound, due to dropping of the exudate from above into the collected fluid in the bottom of the cavity, as the collected fluid more or less separates the lung from the chest walls. Within two or three days the urgent symptoms are abated, owing to the exudation of the fluid and the subsidence of the pain. The fluid may now undergo absorption, and the case terminate favorably within a week or ten days. If the quantity of the effusion is large, its own volume retards the process of absorption to a great extent, and consequently convales- cence is delayed. In some cases the symptoms manifest a serious state. The pulse becomes more frequent, the breathing more hurried and labored, the flanks work like bellows, the nostrils flap, the eyes stare wildly, the countenance expresses much anxiety, and general signs of dissolution are plain. After a time swellings appear under the chest and abdomen and down the legs. These swellings are due to trans- 126 fusion of the fluid from within the chest into the surrounding tissues. The accumulation in the chest is called hydro-thorax or dropsy of the chest. When this fluid contains pus the case usually proves fatal. The condition of pus within the cavity is called enipyaenia. Pleurisy may affect only a small area of one side, or it may affect both sides. It is oftener confined to the right side. Treatment. — This varies very little from the treatment of bronchitis and pneumonia, but as frequently stated heretofore, pleurisy is so lia- ble to be complicated with either of the diseases named, the variation in the treatment may be considered as merely adjunct treatment of the pleuritic complication. The instructions in regard to the general management of bronchitis and pneumonia must be adhered to in the treatment of pleurisy. Com- fortable quarters, pure air, warm clothing to the body and bandages to the legs, a plentiful supply of pure cold water, the laxative food, etc., in this case are equally necessary and efficacious. The hot applica- tions applied to the chest as directed in the treatment of pneumonia are very beneficial in pleurisy, and should be kept up while the symp- toms show the animal to be in pain. During the first few days, when pain is manifested by restlessness, do not apply the liniment to the sides of the chest, as it will not only irritate the animal and increase the restlessness but will heighten the fever as well. After four or five days, when the symptoms show that the acute stage has somewhat subsided, the liniment may be well rubbed over the affected part with benefit, as it will greatly promote the absorption of the effusion. The application may be repeated on al- ternate days until several applications have been made. From the be- ginning the following drench should be given every six hours : Solu- tion of the acetate of ammonia, 3 ounces; spirits of nitrous ether, 1 ounce ; bicarbonate of potassium, 3 drams; water, 1 pint. If the patient becomes debilitated the stimulants as prescribed for pneumonia should be used according to the same directions. The same attention should be given to the diet. If the animal will partake of the bran mashes, scalded oats, and grass, it is the best, but if he re- fuses the laxative diet then he should be tried with different kinds of food, and allowed whichever kind he desires. In the beginning of the attack, if the pain is severe, causing the ani- mal to lie down or paw, the following drench should be given: Tinct- ure of opium, 2 ounces; raw linseed oil, 12 ounces. If the pain con- tinues, the tincture of opium may be repeated within four or five hours. If the case is not progressing favorably in ten or twelve days after the beginning of the attack, convalescence is delayed by the fluid in the chest failing to be absorbed. The animal becomes dull aud weak, and evinces little or no desire for food. The breathing becomes still more rapid and difficult. An effort must now be made to excite the absorp- tion of the effusion. An application of the liniment should be rubbed over the lower part of both sides and the bottom of the chest. The 127 following drench should be given three times a day, for seven or eight days if it is necessary and appears to benefit: Tincture of the per- chloride of iron, 1 ounce; tincture of gentian, 2 ounces; water, 1 pint. Also give 1 dram of iodide of potassium dissolved in the drinking- water an hour before feeding, every night and morning for a week or two. Hydro-thorax is sometimes difficult to overcome by means of the use of medicines alone, when an operation called paracentesis thoracis is performed. In plain language this means tapping the chest to allow an escape for the accumulated fluid. The operation is performed with a combined instrument called the trocar and canula. The puncture is made in the lower part of the chest, in the space between the eighth and ninth ribs. Wounding of the intercostal artery is avoided by in- serting the instrument as near as possible to the anterior edge of the rib. If the operation is of benefit it is only so when performed before the strength is lowered beyond recovery. The operation merely re- ceives a passing notice here, as it is not presumed that the non-profes- sional will attempt it, although it is attended with little danger or diffi- culty in the hands of the expert. We have described bronchitis, pneumonia, and pleurisy mainly as they occur as independent diseases, and have treated them in a way that an intelligent person can not possibly do harm. While it is true much more might have been said in regard to the different stages and types of the affections, and also in regard to the treatment of each stage and each particular type, the plan adopted is considered the wisest on account of simplifying as much as possible a subject of which the reader is supposed to know very little, if anything. A few words will now be devoted to these affections as they occur, when two or more exist at the same time and in the same animal. PLEURO-PNETJMONIA. The disease is so called when the animal is affected with pleurisy and pneumonia combined, which is most frequently the case. At the be- ginning of the attack only one of the affections maybe present, but the other soon follows. It has already been stated that the pleura is closely adherent to the lung. The pleura on this account is frequently more or less affected by the spreading of thff inflammation from the lung tissue. There is a combination of the symptoms of both diseases, but to the or- dinary observer the symptoms of pleurisy are the most obvious. The course of treatment to be pursued differs in no manner from that given for the affections when they occur independently. The symptoms will be your guide as to the advisability of giving oil and laudanum for the pain if the pleurisy is very severe. Do not resort to it unless it is nec- essary to allay the pain. BRONCHO-PLEURO-PNETJMONIA. This is the term or terms applied when bronchitis, pleurisy, and pneu- monia all exist at once. This is by no means a common occurrence. 128 However, it is impossible for one who is not an expert to diagnose the state with certainty. The apparent symptoms are the same as when the animal is affected with pleuro pneumonia. BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. This is also a common complication. Either one or the other may be first in operation. When bronchitis affects the smaller bronchial tubes the inflammation readily extends to the air-cells and thence to the lung tissue, constituting pneumonia. Or the bronchial tube may be second- arily involved by the extension of the inflammation from the air-cells. Nothing in regard to the treatment of this condition requires to be said here, as it has been fully described when speaking of bronchitis and pneumonia as separate diseases. A brief review of some of the unfa- vorable results of pleurisy and pneumonia will not be out of place here: SUPPURATION AND ABSCESS IN THE LUNG. There are instances, and especially when the surroundings of the pa- tient have been bad, when the inflammation terminates in an abscess in the lung. Sometimes, when the inflammation has been extreme, suppuration in a large portion of the lung takes place. Impure air, the result of improper ventilation, is the most frequent cause of this termi- nation. The symptoms of suppuration in the lung are an exceedingly offensive smell of the breath, and the discharge of the matter from the nostrils. MORTIFICATION. Gangrene or mortification means a death of the part affected. Oc- casionally, owing to the intensity of the inflammation or bad treatment, pneumonia aud pleuro-pneumonia terminate in mortification, which is soon followed by the death of the animal. ABSCESS IN THE SPACES BETWEEN THE RIBS. Abscess of the intercostal spaces has been recorded as a result of pleurisy. Following the attack of pleurisy an enlargement appears on some part of the chest, which may burst of its own accord. When it makes its appearance it is advisable to apply poultices of linseed meal and hot water, or bathe it continuously for hours at a time with water as hot as can be comfortably borne. This treatment will hasten the formation of matter. When it is soft in the center it should be lanced and the matter allowed to escape. The course of tonic treatment and nutritive food advised in the treatment of pleurisy should be kept up. HEMOPTYSIS — BLEEDING FROM THE LUNGS. Bleeding from the lungs may occur during the course of congestion of the lungs, bronchitis, pneumonia, influenza, purpura hemorrhagica, or glanders. An accident or exertion may cause a rupture of a vessel. Plethora predisposes to it. Following the rupture of a vessel the blood may escape into the lung tissue and cause a serious attack of pneu« monia, or it may fill up the bronchial tubes and prove fatal by suffocat- 129 ing the animal. When the hemorrhage is from the lungs it is accom- panied by coughing ; the blood is frothy and comes from both nostrils. Whereas when the bleeding is merely from a rupture of a vessel in some part of the head (heretofore described as bleeding from the nose) the blood is most likely to issue from one nostril only, and the discharge is not accompanied by coughing. The ear may be placed against the windpipe along its course, and if the blood is from the lungs -a gurg- ling or rattling sound will be heard. When it occurs in connection with another disease it seldom requires special treatment. When caused by accident or overexertion the animal should be kept quiet. If the cough is frequent or paroxysmal a dose composed of 2 ounces of tincture of opium in 8 ounces of raw linseed oil may be given to allay the irrita- bility, which may stop the hemorrhage by checking the cough. If the hemorrhage is profuse and continues for several hours 1 dram of the acetate of lead dissolved in a pint of water may be given as a drench, or 1 ounce of the tincture of the perchloride of iron, diluted with a pint of water, may be given instead of the lead. It is rare that the hemorrhage is so profuse as to require internal remedies. But hem- orrhage into the lung may occur and cause death by suffocation without the least manifestation of it by the discharge of blood from the nose. CONSUMPTION. Pulmonary consumption, " the same as phthisis or consumption in man," has been described by European authors as affecting the horse. It is mentioned here merely to give the writer an opportunity to say that he never saw a case of it, and never conversed with a veterinarian on the subject who has met with a case in the horse. This fact does not prove that the horse is exempt from the disease, but it at least proves that it must be rare indeed. DROPSY OF THE LUNG. This condition has been noticed as a result of heart disease, and as it is said, almost invariably to terminate fatally, no further notice of it is necessary here. HEAVES — BROKEN WIND— ASTHMA. Much confusion exists in the popular mind in regard to the nature of broken wind. Many horsemen apply the term to all ailments where the breathing is difficult or noisy. Scientific veterinarians are well ac- quainted with the phenomena and locality of the affection, but there is a great diversity of opinion as regards the. exact cause. Asthma is generally thought to be due to spasm of the small circular muscles that surround the bronchial tubes. The continued existence of this affec- tion of the muscles leads to a paralysis of them, and is considered one of the primary stages of broken wind. Some eminent veterinarians maintain that the exciting cause of broken wind is due to a lesion of the pneumogastric nerve. That there is good foundation for this opinion there can be no doubt. The pneumogastric 11035—9 130 nerves send branches to the bronchial tubes, lungs, heart, stomach, etc. All the organs just mentioned may sooner or later become involved in connection with broken wind. It may be said that broken wind is always associated with disorder of the function of digestion. It is claimed that coarse or indigestible food irritates the branches of the pneumogastric nerves which supply the walls of the stomach, and this irritation is re- flected or extended to the branches of the same nerve which supply the lungs, when the lesions constituting broken wind follow. In itself broken wind is not a fatal disease, but death is generally caused by an affection closely connected with it. After death, if the organs are examined, the lesions found depend much upon the length of time broken wind has affected the animal. In recent cases very few changes are noticeable, but in animals that have been broken-winded for a long time the changes are well marked. The lungs are paler than natural, and of much less weight in proportion to the volume, as evi- denced by floating them in water. The walls of the small bronchial tubes and the membrane of the larger tubes are thickened. The right side of the heart is enlarged and its cavities dilated. The stomach is enlarged and its walls stretched. And in many old cases the intestinal walls undergo the same changes. The important change found in the lungs is a condition technically called pulmonary emphysema. This is of two varieties: First, what is termed vesicular emphysema, which consists of an enlargement of the capacity of the air-cells (air vesicles) by dilation of their walls ; the walls after a time degenerate, and finally give way, and thus form a communication with other air-cells. The second form is called interlobular emphysema, and follows the first. In this variety the air finds its way into the lung tissue between the air-cells, or, as its name indicates, in the tissue between the small lobules. Symptoms. — Almost every experienced horseman is able to detect "heaves." The peculiar movement of the flanks and abdomen point out the ailment at once. But in recent cases the affected animal does not always exhibit the characteristic breathing unless exerted to a cer- tain extent. The cough which accompanies this disease is peculiar to it. It is difficult to describe, but the souud is short, and something like a grunt. When air is inspired, that is, taken in, it appears to be done in the same manner as in health ; it may possibly be done a little quicker than natural, but not enough to attract any notice. It is when the act of expiration (or expelling the air from the lungs) is performed that the great change in the breathing is perceptible. It must now be remem- bered that the lungs have lost much of their power of contracting on account of the degeneration of the walls of the air-cells, and also on account of the paralysis of muscular tissue before mentioned. The air passes into them freely, but the power to expel it is lost to a great extent by the lungs: therefore the abdominal muscles are brought into play. These muscles, especially iu the region of the flank, are seen to 131 contract, then pause for a moment, then complete the act of contracting, thus making a double bellows-like movement at each expiration, a sort of jerky motion with every breath. When the animal is exerted a wheezing noise accompanies the breathing. This noise may be heard to a less extent when the animal is at rest if the ear be applied to the chest. As before remarked, indigestion is always present in these cases. The animal has a depraved appetite, as shown by a desire to eat dirt and soiled bedding, which he often devours in preference to the clean food in the trough or manger. The stomach is liable to be overloaded with indigestible food. The abdomen may assume that form called "pot-bellied." The animal frequently passes wind, which is of a very offensive odor. Attacks of colic may occur, which in some cases are fatal. When first put to work dung is passed frequently; the bowels are often loose. The animal can not stand much work, as the muscular system is soft. Round chested horses are said to be predisposed to the disease, and it is certain that in cases of long standing the chest usually becomes rounder than natural. Certain "smart" individuals become very expert in managing a horse affected with " heaves ".in suppressing the symptoms for a short time. They take advantage of the fact that the breathing is much easier when the stomach and intestines are empty. They also resort to the use of medicines that have a depressing effect. When the veterinarian is ex- amining a horse for soundness, and he suspects that the animal has been " fixed," he usually gives the horse as much water as he will drink and then has him ridden or driven rapidly up a hill or on a heavy road. This will bring out the characteristic breathing of " heaves." All broken- winded horses have the cough peculiar to the affection, but it is not regular. A considerable time may elapse before it is heard and then it may come on in paroxysms, especially when first brought out of the stable into the cold air, or when excited by work, or after a drink of cold water. The cough is usually the first symptom of the disease. Treatment. — When the disease is established there is no cure for it. Proper attention paid to the diet will relieve the distressing symptoms to a certain extent, but they will undoubtedly re-appear in their inten- sity the first time the animal overloads the stomach or is allowed food of bad quality. Putting aside all theories in regard to the primary cause of the affection, it is generally admitted that it is closely allied to derangement of the digestive organs, most particularly the stomach. This being the fact, it is but reasonable to infer that if the animal is allowed nothing but food of the best quality the predisposition to " heaves" is lessened. Clover hay and bulky food generally, which, as a rule, contains but little nutriment, have much to do with the cause of the disease, and therefore should be entirely omitted when the animal is affected, as well as before. A high authority asserts that the disease is unknown where clover hay is never used. The diet should be con- fined to food of the best quality and in the smallest quantity. The bad, 132 effect of moldy or dusty hay, fodder, or food of any kind can not be overestimated. A small quantity of the best hay once a day is suffi- cient. The animal should invariably be watered before feeding; never directly after a meal. It is a good plan to slightly dampen the food to allay the dust. The animal should not be worked immediately after a meal. Exertion, when the stomach is full, invariably aggravates the symptoms. Turning on pasture gives relief. Carrots, potatoes, or turnips chopped and mixed with oats or corn are a good diet. Many different medicines have been tried, but not one has yet been discovered that gives even partial satisfaction in the treatment of broken wind. Arsenic, however, is about the only remedy that retains any reputation of being efficacious in palliating the symptoms. It is best administered in the form of the solution of arsenic in hydrochloric acid (Liq. Acidi. Ars.), which should be obtained from the drug store, as it is then of a standard preparation. Each ounce of the solution con- tains a little over 4£ grains of arsenic. A tablespoouful mixed with bran and oats three times a day for about two weeks, then about twice a day for about two weeks longer, then once a day for several weeks, is a good way to give this remedy. If the bowels do not act regularly, a pint of raw linseed oil may be given once or twice a month. It must, however, be borne in mind that all medical treatment is of secondary consideration; careful attention paid to the diet is of greatest impor- tance. Broken-winded animals should not be used for breeding pur- poses. A predisposition to the disease is likely to be inherited. CHRONIC COUGH. A chronic cough may succeed the acute diseases of the respiratory organs, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, laryngitis, etc. It accompanies chronic roaring, chronic bronchitis, broken wind. It may succeed in- fluenza. As previously stated, cough is but a symptom and not a dis- ease in itself. Chronic cough is occasionally associated with diseases other than those of the organs of respiration. It may be a symptom of chronic indigestion or of worms. In such cases it is caused by a reflex nervous irritation. The proper treatment in all cases of chronic cough is to ascertain the nature of the disease of whieh it is a symptom, and then cure the disease if possible, and the cough will cease. The treatment of the affections will be found under their appropriate heads, to which the reader is referred. PLEURODYNIA. This is a form of rheumatism that affects the intercostal muscles, that is, the muscles between the ribs. The apparent symptoms are very similar to those of pleurisy. The animal is stiff and not inclined to turn around ; the ribs are kept in a fixed state as much as possible. If the head is pulled round suddenly, or the affected side struck with the hand, or if the spaces between the ribs are pressed with the fingers the animal will flinch and perhaps emit a grunt or groan expressive of 133 much pain. It is distinguished from pleurisy by the absence of fever, cough, the friction-sound, the effusion into the chest, and by the exist- ence of rheumatism in other parts. The treatment for this affection is the same as for rheumatism affecting other parts. WOUNDS PENETRATING THE WALLS OP THE CHEST. According to the theory of some teachers of physiology, when an opening is made in the wall of the chest, sufficient for the admission of air, a collapse of the lung should occur. But in practice this is not al- ways found to be the case. The writer has attended several such cases, and one in particular was not seen until about twelve hours after the wound was inflicted. It is true the breathing was considerably altered, but no bad effect followed the admission of air into the thoracic cav- ity. The wound was closed and treated according to the method of treating wounds generally, and a speedy and perfect recovery was made. The wound may not penetrate the pleura ; in such cases no great harm is done, but if the pleura is penetrated pleurisy may follow, and even pneumonia if the wound involves the lung. The condition called pneumo-thorax means air in the chest. This may be due to a wound in the wall of the chest, or it may be due to a broken rib, the sharp edge of which wounds the lung sufficiently to allow air to escape into the space between the lung and ribs, which is natu- rally a vacuum. Air gaining access to the thoracic cavity through a wound may have a peculiar effect. The wound may be so made that when the walls of the chest are dilating a little air is sucked in, but during the .contraction of the wall the contained air presses against the torn part in such a manner as to entirely close the wound ; thus a small quantity of air gains access with each inspiration, while none is allowed to escape until the lung is pressed into a very small compass and forced into the anterior part of the chest. The same thing may occur from a broken rib inflicting a wound in the lung. In this form the air gains access from the lung, and there may not even be an opening in the walls of the chest. Decomposition of the fluid in hydro-thorax, with consequent generation of gases, is said to have caused the same con- dition. In such cases the air is generally absorbed, and a spontaneous cure is the result. But when the symptoms are urgent it is recom- mended that the air be removed by a trocar and canula or by an aspirator. The treatment of wounds that penetrate the thoracic cavity should, for the foregoing reason, be prompt. It should be quickly ascertained whether or not a foreign body remains in the wound, then it should be thoroughly cleaned with a solution of carbolic acid one part in water forty parts. The wound should then be closed immediately. If it is an incised wound it should be closed with sutures ; if torn or lacerated, a bandage around the chest over the dressing is the best plan. At all events, air must be prevented from getting into the chest, as soon and as effectually as possible. The after treatment of the wound should 134 principally consist in keeping the parts clean with the solution of car- bolic acid, and applying fresh dressing as often as required to keep the wound in a healthy condition. Care should be taken that the discharges from the wound have an outlet in the most dependent part. (See wounds.) If the wound causes much pain it should be allayed with a dose of tincture of opium in raw linseed oil, as advised in the treat- ment of pleurisy. If pleurisy supervenes, it should be treated as ad- vised under that head. THUMPS — SPASM OP THE DIAPHRAGM. " Thumps " is generally thought to be, by the inexperienced, a pal- pitation of the heart. While it is true that palpitation of the heart is sometimes called "thumps," it must not be confounded with the affec- tion under consideration. In the beginning of this article on the diseases of the organs of res- piration the diaphragm was briefly referred to as the principal and es- sential muscle of respiration. Spasmodic or irregular contractions of it in man are manifested by what is familiarly known as hiccoughs. Thumps in the horse is identical with hiccoughs in man, although the peculiar noise is not made in the throat of the horse in all cases. - There should be no difficulty in distinguishing this affection from pal- pitation of the heart. The jerky motion affects the whole body, and is not confined to the region of the heart. If one hand is placed on the body at about the middle of the last rib, while the other hand is placed over the heart behind the left elbow it will be easily demonstrated that there is no connection between the thumping or jerking of the dia- phragm and the beating of the heart. If the ear is placed against the body it will be discovered that the sound is made posterior to the region of the heart. In fact, when the animal is affected with spasms of the diaphragm the beating of the heart is usually much weaker and less preceptible than natural. Thumps is produced by the same causes which produce congestion of the lungs, and is often seen in connection with the latter disease. If not relieved, death usually results from con- gestion of the lungs, as the breathing is interfered with by the inordi- nate action of this the principal muscle of inspiration so much that proper aeration of the blood can not take place. The treatment should be precisely the same as prescribed for congestion of the lungs. RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. Post mortem examinations reveal a great many instances of rupture of the diaphragm. It is the general opinion among veterinarians that this takes place after death, and is due to the generation of gases in the decomposing carcass, which distend the intestines so that the dia- phragm is ruptured by the great pressure against it. Of course it is possible for it to happen before death and by strangulating the knuckle of intestine that may be in the rupture cause death; but there are no symptoms by which it may be diagnosed. :*r : ,~ : '<:/\. T ' : h "**w -■'^^ ? %> DISEASES OF THE GENERATIVE ORGANS. By Dr. JAMES LAW, F. R. C. V. S., Professor of Veterinary Science, etc., in Cornell University. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE TESTICLES — ORCHITIS. In the prime of life, in vigorous health, and on stimulating food stall- ions are subject to congestion of the testicles, which become swollen, hot, and tender, but without any active inflammation. A reduction of the grain in the feed, the administration of 1 or 2 ounces of Glauber salts daily in the food, and the bathing of the affected organs daily with tepid water or alum water will usually restore them to a healthy condition. When the factors producing congestion are extraordinarily potent r when there has been frequent copulation and heavy grain feeding, when the weather is warm and the animal has had little exercise, and when the proximity of other horses or mares excite the generative in- stinct without gratification, this congestion may grow to actual inflam- mation. Among the other causes of orchitis are blows and penetrating wounds implicating the testicles, abrasions of the scrotum by a chain or rope passing inside the thigh, contusions and frictions on the gland under rapid paces or heavy draught, compression of the blood-vessels of the spermatic cord by the inguinal ring under the same circumstances, and finally, sympathetic disturbance in cases of disease of the kidneys, bladder, or urethra. Stimulants of the generative functions, like rue, savin, tansy, cantharides, and damiaua may also be accessory causes of congestion and inflammation. Finally, certain specific diseases like mat du co'it, glanders, and tuberculosis, localized in the testicles, will cause inflammation. Apart from actual wounds of the parts the symp- toms of orchitis are swelling, heat, and tenderness of the testicles, straddling with the hind legs alike in standing and walking, stiffness and dragging of the hind limbs or of the limb on the affected side, arching of the loins, abdominal pain, manifested by glancing back at the flank, with more or less fever, elevated body temperature, acceler. ated pulse and breathing, inappetence, and dullness. In bad cases the scanty urine may be reddish and the swelling may extend to the skin and envelopes of the testicle, which may become thickened and doughy r pitting on pressure. The swelling may be so much greater in the con- 135 136 voluted excretory duct along the upper border of the testicle as to sug- gest the presence of a second stone. Even in the more violent attacks the intense suffering abates somewhat on the second or third day. If it lasts longer it is likely to give rise to the formation of matter (ab- scess). In exceptional cases the testicle is struck with gangrene or death. Improvement may go on slowly to complete recovery, or the malady may subside into a subacute and chronic form with induration. Matter (abscess) may be recognized by the presence of a soft spot, where pressure with two fingers will detect fluctuation from one to the other. When there is liquid exudation into the scrotum, or sack, fluctuation may also be felt, but the liquid can be made out to be around the testicle and can be pressed up into the abdomen through the inguinal canal. When abscess occurs in the cord the matter may escape into the scrotal sack and cavity of the abdomen and pyaemia may follow. Treatment consists in perfect rest and quietude, the administration of a purgative (1 pound to 1J pounds Glauber's salts), and the local appli- cation of an astringent lotion (acetate of lead 2 drams, extract of bella- donna 2 drams, and water 1 quart) upon soft rags or cotton wool, kept in contact with the part by a suspensory bandage. This bandage, of great value for support, may be. made nearly triangular and tied to a girth around the loins and to the upper part of the same surcingle by two bands carried backward and upward between the thighs. In severe cases scarifications one-fourth inch deep serve to relieve vascular ten- sion. When abscess is threatened its formation may be favored by warm fomentations or poultices, and on the occurrence of fluctuation the knife may be employed to give free escape to the pus. The result- ing cavity may be injected daily with a weak carbolic acid lotion, or salol may be introduced. The same agents may be used on a gland threatened with gangrene, but its prompt removal by castration is to be preferred, antiseptics being applied freely to the resulting cavity. SAEOOOELE. This is an enlarged and indurated condition of the gland resulting from chronic inflammation, though it is often associated with a specific deposit like glanders. In this condition the natural structure of the gland has given place to embryonal tissue (small, round cells, with a few fibrous bundles), and its restoration to health is very improbable. Apart from active inflammation, it may increase very slowly. The dis- eased testicle is enlarged, firm, non-elastic, and comparatively insensi- ble. The skin of the scrotum is tense, and it may be cedematous (pit- ting on pressure), as are the deeper envelopes and spermatic cord. If liquid is present in the sack the symptoms are masked somewhat. As it increases it causes awkward, straddling, dragging movement of the hind limbs, or lameness on the affected side. The spermatic cord often increases at the same time with the testicle, and the inguinal 137 ring being thereby stretched and enlarged, a portion of intestine may escape into the sack, complicating the disease with hernia. The only rational and effective treatment is castration, and even this may not succeed when the disease is specific (glanders, tuberculosis). HYDROCELE— -DROPSY OF THE SCROTUM. This may be merely an accompaniment of dropsy of the abdomen, the cavity of which is continuous with that of the scrotum in horses. It may be the result, however, of local disease in the testicle, spermatic cord, or walls of the sack. The symptoms are enlargement of the scrotum, and fluctuation under the fingers, the testicle being recognized as floating in water. By press- ure the liquid is forced, in a slow stream, and with a perceptible thrill, into the abdomen. Sometimes the cord, or the scrotum, are thickened and pit on pressure. Treatment may be the same as for ascites, yet when the effusion has resulted from inflammation of the testicle orcord, astringent applications (chalk and vinegar) may be applied to these. Then if the liquid is not re absorbed under diuretics and tonics, it may be drawn off through the nozzle of a hypodermic syringe, which has been first passed through carbolic acid. In geldings it is best to dissect out the sacks. VARICOCELE. This is an enlargement of the venous network of the spermatic cord, and gives rise to general thickening of the cord from the testicle up to the ring. The same astringent dressings may be tried as in hydrocele, and this failing castration may be resorted to. ABNORMAL NUMBER OF TESTICLES. Sometimes one or both testicles are wanting ; in most such cases, however, they are merely partially developed, and retained in the in- guinal canal, or the abdomen (cryptorchid). In rare cases there may be a third testicle, the animal becoming to this extent a double monster. Teeth, hair, and other indications of a second foetus have likewise been found in the testicle, or scrotum. DEGENERATION OF THE TESTICLES. The testicles may become the seat of fibrous, calcareous, fatty, carti- laginous, or cystic degeneration, for all of which the appropriate treat- ment is castration. They also become the seat of cancer, glanders, or tuberculosis, and castration is requisite, though with less hope of ar- resting the disease. Finally they may become infested with cystic tape- worms, or the armed round worm (sclerostomum equinum). 138 WARTS ON THE PENIS. These are best removed by seizing them between the thumb and fore- finger and twisting them off. Or they may be cut off with scissors and the roots cauterized with nitrate of silver. DEGENERATION OF PENIS — PAPILLOMA, EPITHELIOMA. The penis of the horse is subject to great cauliflower-like growths on its free end, which extend back into the substance of the organ, obstruct the passage of urine, and cause very fetid discharges. The only resort is to cut them off, together with whatever portion of the penis has be- come diseased and indurated. The operation, which should be per- formed by a veterinary surgeon, consists in cutting through the organ from its upper to its lower aspect, twisting or tying the two dorsal arteries and leaving the urethra longer by half an inch to 1 inch than the adjacent structures. EXTRAVASATION OF BLOOD IN THE PENIS. As the result of kicks, blows, or of forcible striking of the yard on the thighs of the mare which it has failed to enter, the penis may be- come the seat of effusion of blood from one or more ruptured blood- vessels. This gives rise to a more or less extensive swelling on one or more sides, followed by some heat and inflammation, and on recovery a serious curving of the organ. The treatment in the early stages may be the application of lotions, of alum, or other astringents, to limit the amount of effusion and favor absorption. The penis should be sus- pended in a sling. PARALYSIS OF THE PENIS. This results from blows and other injuries, and also in some cases from too frequent and exhausting service. The yard hangs from the sheath, flaccid, pendulous, and often cold. The passage of urine occurs with lessened force, and especially without the final jets. In cases of local injury the inflammation should first be subdued by astringent and emollient lotions, and in all cases the system should be invigorated by nourishing diet, while 30-grain doses of nux vomica are given twice a day. Finalty, a weak current of electricity sent through the penis from just beneath the anus to the free portion of the yard, continued for ten or fifteen minutes and repeated daily, may prove successful. SELF-ABUSE — MASTURBATION Some stallions acquire this vicious habit, stimulating the sexual in- stinct to the discharge of semen, by rubbing the penis against the belly or between the fore limbs. The only remedy is a mechanical one, the fixing of a net under the penis in such fashion as will prevent the ex- tension of the penis, or so prick the organ as to compel the animal to desist through pain. 139 MAL DU COIT — DOURINE. This is propagated, like syphilis, by the act of copulation and affects stallionsand mares. It has been long known in Northern Africa, Arabia, and Continental Europe. It was imported into Illinois in 1882 in a Percheron horse. From one to ten days after copulation, or in stallions it may be after some weeks, there is irritation, swelling, and a livid redness of the ex- ternal organs of generation, sometimes followed by the eruption of small blisters one-fifth of an inch across, on the penis, the vulva, clitoris, and vagina, and the subsequent rupture of these vesicles and the forma- tion of ulcers or small open sores. Vesicles have not been noticed in this disease in the dry climate of Illinois. In the mare there is frequent contraction of the vulva, urination, and the discharge of a watery and later a thick viscid liquid of a whitish, yellowish, or reddish color, which collects on and soils the tail. The swelling of the vulva increases and decreases alternately, affecting one part more than another and giving a distorted appearance to the opening. The affection of the skin leads to the appearance of circular white spots, which may remain distinct or coalesce into extensive patches which persist for months. This with the soiled tail, red, swollen, puckered, and distorted vulva, and an in- creasing weakness and paralysis of the hind limbs, serve to characterize the affection. The mare rarely breeds, but will take the male and thus propagate the disease. The disease winds up with great emaciation and stupidity, and death in four months to two years. In horses which serve few mares there may be only swelling of the sheath for a year, but with frequent copulation the progress is more rapid. The penis may be enlarged, shrunken, or distorted; the testicles are unusually pendant and may be enlarged or wasted and flabby; the skin, as in the mare, shows white spots and patches. Later the penis becomes par- tially paralyzed and hangs out of the sheath ; swelling of the adjacent lymphatic glands (in the groin) and even of distant ones, and of the skin, appear, and the hind limbs become weak and unsteady. In some instances the glands under the jaw swell, and a discharge flows from the nose as in glanders. In other cases the itching of the skin leads to gnawing and extensive sores. Weakness, emaciation, and stupidity increase until death, in fatal cases, yet the sexual desire does not seem to fail. A stallion without sense to eat except when food was put in his mouth, would still neigh and seek to follow mares. In mild cases an apparent recovery may ensue, and through such animals the disease is propagated to new localities to be roused into activity and extension under the stimulus of service. The diseased nerve centers are the seat of cryptogamic growths. (Thannhoffer). Treatment of the malady has proved eminently unsatisfactory It be- longs to the purely contagious diseases, and should be stamped out by the remorseless slaughter or castration of every horse or mare that has had sexual congress with a diseased animal. A provision for Govern- 140 ment indemnity for the animals so destroyed or castrated, and a severe penalty for putting any such animal to breeding, would serve as effectual accessory resorts. CASTRATION OF STALLIONS. This is usually done at one year old, but may be accomplished at a few weeks old, at the expense of an imperfect development of the fore parts. The simplicity and safety of the operation are greatest in the young. The delay till two, three, or four years old will secure a better development and carriage of the fore parts. The essential part of castration is the safe removal or destruction of the testicle and the arrest or prevention of bleeding from the spermatic artery found in the anterior part of the cord. Into the many methods of accomplish- ing this, limited space forbids us to enter here, so that the method most commonly adopted, castration by clamps, will alone be noticed. The animal having been thrown on his left side, and the right hind foot drawn up on the shoulder, the exposed scrotum, penis, and sheath are washed with soap and water, any concretion of sebum being carefully removed from the bilocular cavity in the end of the penis. The left spermatic cord, just above the testicle, is now seized in the left hand, so as to render the skin tense over the stone, and the right hand, armed with the knife, makes an incision from before backward, about three- fourths of an inch from and parallel to the median line between the thighs, deep enough to expose the testicle and long enough to allow that organ to start out through the skin. At the moment of making this incision the left hand must grasp the cord very firmly, otherwise the sudden retraction of the testicle by the cremaster muscle may draw it out of the hand and upwards through the canal and even into the abdomen. In a few seconds, when the struggle and retraction have ceased, the knife is inserted through the cord, between its anterior and posterior portions and the latter, the one which the muscle retracts, is cut completely through. The testicle will now hang limp and there is no longer any tendency to retraction. It should be pulled down until it will no longer hang loose below the wound and the clamps applied around the still attached portion of the cord, close up to the skin. The clamps, which may be made of any tough wood, are grooved along the center of the surfaces opposed to each other, thereby fulfilling two im- portant indications, (a) enabling the clamps to hold more securely and (b) providing for the application of an antiseptic to the cord. For this purpose a dram of sulphate of copper may be mixed with an ounce of lard and pressed into the groove in the face of each clamp. In apply- ing the clamp over the cord it should be drawn so close with pincers as to press out all blood from the compressed cord and destroy its vitality, and the cord applied upon the compressing clamps should be so hard- twined that it will not stretch later and slacken the hold. When the clamp has been fixed the testicle is cut off one-half to 1 inch below it, 141 and the clamp may be left thus for twenty-four hours ; then, by cutting the cord around one end of the clamp, the latter may be opened and the stump liberated, without auy danger of bleeding. Should the stump hang out of the wound it should be pushed inside with the finger and left there. The wound should begin to discharge white matter on the second day in hot weather, or the third in cold, and from that time a good recovery may be expected. CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO SUCCESSFUL CASTRATION. The young horse suffers less from castration than the old, and very rarely perishes. Good health in the subject is all important. Castra- tion should never be attempted during the prevalence of strangles, in- fluenza, catarrhal fever, contagious pleurisy, bronchitis, pneumonia, purpura hemorrhagica, or other specific disease, nor on subjects that have been kept in close, illy ventilated, filthy buildings, where the system is liable to have been charged with putrid bacteria or other products. Warm weather is to be preferred to cold, but the fly time should be avoided or the flies kept at a distance by the application of a watery solution of tar, carbolic acid, or camphor to the wound. CASTRATION OF CRYPTORCHIDS (RIDGLINGS). This is the removal of a testicle or testicles that have failed to de- scend into the scrotum, but have been detained in the inguinal canal or inside the abdomen. The manipulation requires an accurate an- atomical knowledge of the parts, and special skill, experience, and manual dexterity, and can not be made clear to the unprofessional mind in a short notice. It consists, however, in the discovery and removal of the missing gland by exploring through the natural channel (the inguinal canal), or, in case it is absent, through the inguinal ring or through an artificial opening made in front and above that channel be- tween the abdominal muscles and the- strong fascia on the inner side of the thigh (Poupart's ligament). Whatever method is used, the skin, hands, and instruments should be rendered aseptic with a solution of murcuric chloride 1 part; water 2,000 parts (a carbolic acid lotion for the instruments), and the spermatic cord is best torn through by the ecraseur. In many such cases, too, it is desirable to sew up the external wound and keep the animal still, to favor healing of the wound by adhesion. PAIN AFTER CASTRATION. Some horses are pained and very restless for some hours after castra- tion, and this may extend to cramps of the bowels and violent colic. This is best kept in check by carefully rubbing the patient dry when he rises from the operation, and then leading him in hand for some time. If the pain still persists a dose of laudanum (1 ounce for an adult) may be given 142 BLEEDING AFTER CASTRATION. Bleeding from the wound in the scrotum and from the little artery in the posterior portion of the spermatic cord always occurs, and in warm weather may appear to be quite free. It scarcely ever lasts, however, over fifteen minutes, and is easily checked by dashing cold water against the part. Bleeding from the spermatic artery in the anterior part of the cord may be dangerous when due precaution has not been taken to prevent it. In such case the stump of the cord should be sought for and the artery twisted with artery forceps or tied with a silk thread. If the stump can not be found, pledgets of tow wet with tincture of muriat6 of iron may be stuffed into the canal to favor the formation of clot and the closure of the artery. STRANGULATED SPERMATIC CORD. If in castration the cord is left too long, so as to hang out of the wound, the skin wound in contracting grasps and strangles it, pre- venting the free return of blood and causing a steadily advancing swelling. In addition the cord becomes adherent to the lips of the wound in the skin, whence it derives an increased supply of blood, and is thereby stimulated to more rapid swelling. The subject walks stiffly, with straddling gait, loses appetite, and has a rapid pulse and high fever. Examination of the wound discloses the partial closure of the skin wound, and the protrusion from its lips of the end of the cord, red, tense, and varying in size from a hazel-nut upward. If there is no material swelling and little protrusion the wound may be enlarged with the knife and the end of the cord broken loose from any connec- tion with the slun, and pushed up inside. If the swelling is larger the mass constitutes a tumor, and must be removed. (See below.) SWELLING OF THE SHEATH, PENIS, AND ABDOMEN. This occurs in certain unhealthy states of the system, in unhealthy seasons, as the result of operating without cleansing the sheath and penis, or of keeping the subject in a filthy, impure building, as the result of infecting the wound by hands or instruments bearing septic bacteria, or as the result of premature closure of the wound, and im- prisonment of matter. Pure air and cleanliness of groin and wound are to be secured. Antiseptics, like the mercuric chloride lotion (1 part to 2,000) are to be applied to the parts; the wound, if closed, is to be opened anew, any accumulated matter or blood washed out, and the antiseptic liquid freely applied. The most teuse or dependent parts of the swelling in sheath or penis, or beneath the belly, should be pricked at intervals of 3 or 4 inches, and to a depth of half an inch, and antiseptics freely Vised to the surface. Fomentations with warm water may also be used 143 to favor oozing from the incisions and to encourage the formation of white matter in the original wounds, which must not be allowed to close again at once. A free, eream-like discharge implies a healthy action in the sore, and is the precursor of recovery. PHYMOSIS AND PARAPHIMOSIS. In cases of swelling, as above, the penis may be imprisoned within the sheath (phymosis) or protruded and swollen so that it can not be retracted into it (paraphymosis). In these cases the treatment indi- cated above, and especially the scarifications, will prove a useful pre- liminary resort. The use of astringent lotions is always desirable, and in case of the protruded penis the application of an elastic or simple linen bandage, so as to press out the blood and accumulated fluid, will enable the operator to return it. TUMORS ON THE SPERMATIC CORD. These are due to rough handling or dragging upon the cord in castra- tion, to strangulation of unduly long cords in the external wound, to adhesion of the end of the cord to the skin, to inflammation of the cord succeeding exposure to cold or wet, or to the presence of septic or irritant matters. These tumors give rise to a stiff, straddling gait, and may be felt as hard masses in the groin connected above with the cord. They may continue to grow slowly for many years until they reach a weight of 15 or 20 pounds, and contract adhesions to all surrounding parts. If disconnected from the skin and inguinal canal they may be removed in the same manner as the testicle, while if larger and firmly adherent to the skin and surrounding parts generally they must be care- fully dissected from the parts, the arteries being tied as they are reached and the cord finally torn through with an ecraseur. When the cord has become swollen and indurated up into the abdomen such removal is impossible, though a partial destruction of the mass may still be at- tempted by passing white hot pointed irons upward toward the inguinal ring in the center of the thickened and indurated cord. CASTRATION BY THE COVERED OPERATION. This is only required in case of hernia or protrusion of bowels or omentum into the sack of the scrotum, and consists in the return of the hernia and the application of the caustic clamps over the cord and inner walls of the inguinal canal, so that the walls of the latter become adherent above the clamps, the canal is obliterated, and further pro- trusion is hindered. For the full description of this and of the opera- tion for hernia in geldings, see article on hernia. CASTRATION OP THE MARE. Castration is a much more dangerous operation in the mare than in the females of other domesticated quadrupeds, and should never be resorted 144 to except in animals tbat become unmanageable on tbe recurrence of heat, and tbat will not breed or tbat are utterly uusuited to breeding. Formerly tbe operation was extensively practiced in Europe, tbe incision being made tbrougb tbe flauk, and a large proportion of tbe subjects perisbiug. By operating tbrougb tbe vagina tbe risk can be largely obviated, as tbe danger of unbealthy inflammation in tbe wound is greatly lessened. Tbe animal sbould be fixed in a trevis, witb each foot fixed to a post and a sling placed under tbe body, or, better, it may be thrown and put under chloroform. The manual operation demands special professional knowledge and skill, but it consists essentially in making an opening through the roof of the vaginajust above the neck of the womb, then following with the hand each horn of the womb until the ovary on tbat side is reached and grasped between the lips of forceps and twisted off. It might be torn off by an ecraseur especially constructed for the purpose. The straining tbat follows the operation may be checked by ounce doses of laudanum, and any risk of protru- sion of the bowels may be obviated by applying the truss advised to prevent eversiou of the womb. To further prevent k S; <> 1 'Haines.clel after Fleming. . : a:ce:'.aVVi!te.'!n;U?^ri[b;r,P ^.tkw': INSTRUMENTS USED IN DIFFICULT iABOTi. PLATE IX. after Pieman Vertebro -Sacral jpresentaUoiz . Haines, del. Lxmvb o -Sacral _presentation . TNTORIVLAL PRESENTATIONS. Sacketl & Wllhelms Lilho &3. N Y PLATE XI. after Fleming Transverse presenAtitio7i-Cfoper view. affer Fleming Sterrvo~abdo7Mnalprese7ita/;io7L~Jfe(idMidFee£eii^ Raines, affer Fleming . ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS. SackelL & Wllhelms Uho Co N Y PLATE AE. ITlTTTTmTi Thi(j/7i and, croup presentation,. fler Fleming. Anterior presentation. Mad-limb deviation,. SackensWllhelmsUlhoCo NY AB INFORMAL PRESENTATIONS. fi^ajte. xnr. Anterior presentation,. ffea/£ tiimecLonsicle.. a^VCyTS Anterior ■ presentation,, ffecul tfzrrie&onback. Haines, del Sackell S Wllhelms LilhoCo. N Y ABNORMAL PRESENTATIONS. I §1? 1 1 I PS ^E o 1 *2 [.:'■ ^ a I H ^ i ; ; , '^ to »— i P to o en w Cfi to < u en to o WH £ P p 'S DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. By M. R. TRUMBOWER, V. S. THE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BRAIN AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system may be regarded as consisting of two sets of organs, peripheral and central, the function of one being to establish a communication between the centers and the different parts of the body, and that of the other to generate nervous force. The whole may be arranged under two divisions : First. The cerebrospinal or nervous sys- tem of animal life. Second. The sympathetic, ganglionic, or nervous system of organic life. Each is possessed of its own central and periph- eral organs. In the first, the center is made up of two portions, one large and expanded- the brain — placed in the crauial cavity; the other elon- gated — spinal cord — continuous with the brain, and lodged in the canal of the vertebral column. The i)eripheral portion of this system consists of the cerebro-spinal nerves, which leave the axis in symmetrical pairs, and are distributed to the skin, the voluntary muscles, and the organs of common and spinal sensation. In the second, the central organ consists of a chain of ganglia con- nected by nerve cords, which extends from the head to the rump on each side of the spine. The nerves of this system are distributed to the involuntary muscles, mucous membrane, viscera, and blood vessels. The two systems have free intercommunication, ganglia being at the junctions. Two substances, distinguishable by their color, enter into the forma- tion of nervous matter, viz, the white or medullary, and the gray or cortical substance. Both are soft, fragile, and easily injured, in con- sequence of which the principal nervous centers are always well pro- tected by bony coverings. The nervous substances present two dis- tinct forms — nerve fibers and nerve cells. An aggregation of nerve cells constitutes a nerve ganglion. The nerve fibers represent a conducting apparatus, and serve to place the central nervous orgaus in connection with peripheral end 181 182 organs. The nerve cells, however, besides transmitting impulses, act as physiological centers for automatic or reflex movements, and also for the sensory, perceptive, trophic, and secretory functions. A nerve consists of a bundle of tubular fibers, held together by a dense areolar tissue, and inclosed in a membranous sheath — the neurilemma. Nerve fibers possess no elasticity, but are very strong. Divided nerves do not retract. Nerves are thrown into a state of excitement when stimulated, and are, therefore, said to possess excitable or irritable properties. The stimuli may be applied to, or may act upon any part of the nerve. Nerves may be paralyzed by continuous pressure being applied. When the nerves divide into branches, there is never any splitting up of their ultimate fibers, nor yet is there ever any coalescing of them ; they retain their individuality from their source to their termination. Nerves which convey impressions to the centers are termed sensory or centripetal, and those which transmit stimulus from the centers to organs of motion are termed motor or centrifugal. The function of the nervous system may, therefore, be defined in the simplest terms, as follows: It is intended to associate the different parts of the body in such a manner that stimulus applied to one organ may ex- cite or depress the activity of another. The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis within the cra- nium, which may be divided into four parts — the medulla oblongata, the cerebellum, the pons Varolii, and the cerebrum, and it is covered by three membranes called the meninges. The first of these membranes, the dura mater, is a thick, white, fibrous membrane which lines the cavity of the cranium, forming the internal periosteum of the bones; it is con- tinuous with the spinal cord to the extremity of the canal. The second, the arachnoid, is a delicate serous membrane, and loosely envelops the brain and spinal cord; it forms two layers, leaving between them the arachnoid space which contains the cerebro-spinal fluid, the use of which is to protect the spinal cord and brain from pressure. The third, the pia mater, is closely adherent to the entire surface of the brain, but is much thinner and more vascular than when it reaches the spinal cord which it also envelops, and is continued to form the sheaths of the spinal nerves. The medulla oblongata is the prolongation of the spinal cord, extend- ing to the pons Varolii. This portion of the brain is very large iu the horse; it is pyramidal in shape, the narrowest part joining the cord. The pons Varolii is the transverse projection on the base of the brain, between the medulla oblongata and the peduncles of the cerebrum. The cerebellum is lodged in the posterior part of the cranial cavity, immediately above the medulla oblongata; it is globular or elliptical in shape, the transverse diameter being greatest. The body of the cere- bellum is composed of gray matter externally and white in the center. The cerebrum, or brain proper, occupies the anterior portion of the 183 cranial cavity. It is ovoid in shape, with an irregular flattened base, and consists of lateral halves or hemispheres. The greater part of the cerebrum is composed of white matter. The hemispheres of the cerebrum are usually said to be the seat of all psychical activities. Only when they are intact are the processes of feeling, thinking, and willing possible. After they are destroyed, the organism comes to be like a complicated machine, and its activity is only the expression of the internal and external stimuli which act upon it. The cerebellum is the great and important central organ for the finer co-ordination and inte- gration of movements. Injuries to the cerebellum cause disturbance of the equilibrium of the body, but do not interfere with the psychical activities or the will or consciousness, neither does an injury to these parts give rise to pain. The spinal cord or spinal marrow is that part of the cerebro-spinal system which is contained in the spinal canal of the backbone, and extends from the medulla oblongata to a short distance behind the loins. It is an irregularly cylindrical structure, divided into two lateral symmetrical halves by fissures. The spinal cord terminates posteriorly in a pointed extremity, which is continued by a mass of ner- vous trunks — cauda equina. A transverse section of the cord reveals that it is composed of white matter externally and of gray internally. The spinal cord does not fill up the whole spinal canal. The latter con- tains, besides, a large venous sinus, fatty matter, the membranes of the cord, and the cerebro-spinal fluid. The spinal nerves, forty-two or forty-three in number, arise each by two roots, a superior or sensory and an inferior or motor. The nerves originating from the brain are twenty-four in number, and arranged in pairs, which are named first, second, third, etc., counting from before backward. They also receive special names, according to their func- tions, or the parts to which they are distributed, viz : 1. Olfactory. 2. Optic. 3. Oculomotor. 4. Pathetic. 5. Trifacial. 6. Abduceus. 7. Facial. 8. Auditory. 9. Glosso-Pharyngeal. 10. Pneumogastric. 11. Spinal- Accessory. 12. Hypoglossal. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Inflammation may attack these membranes singly, or any one of the anatomical divisions of the nerve matter, or it may invade the whole at once. Practical experience, however, teaches us that primary in- flammation of the dura mater is of rare occurrence, except in direct mechanical injuries to the head or diseases of the bones of the cranium. Neither is the arachnoid often affected with acute inflammation except as a secondary result. The pia mater is most commonly the seat of inflammation, acute and subacute, but from its intimate relation with the surface of the brain the latter very soon becomes involved in the 184 morbid changes. Practically, we can not separate inflammation of the pia mater from that of the brain proper. Inflammation may, however, exist in the center of the great nerve masses, the cerebrum, cerebellar, pons Varolii, or medulla at the base of the brain, without involving the surface. When, therefore, inflammation invades the brain and its enveloping membranes it is properly called encephalitis ; when the membranes alone are affected it is called meningitis ; or the brain sub- stance alone, cerebritis. ENCEPHALITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES. Causes. — Exposure to extreme heat or cold, excessive continued cere- bral excitement, direct injuries to the brain, such as concussion, or from fracture of the cranium, sometimes as a sequelae to influenza, pyaemia, poisons having a direct influence upon the encephalic mass, etc. Symptoms. — Acute encephalitis may be ushered iu by an increased sensibility to noises, with more or less nervous excitability, contraction of the pupil of the eyes, and a quick, hard pulse. In very acute attacks these symptoms, however, are not always noted. This condition will soon be followed by muscular twitchiugs, convulsive or spasmodic move- ments, eyes wide open with shortness of sight. The animal becomes afraid to have his head handled. Convulsions and delirium will develop, with inability of muscular control, or stupor and coma may supervene. Where the membranes are greatly implicated convulsions and delirium with violence may be expected, but where the brain substances is prin- cipally affected stupor and coma will be the prominent symptoms. In the former condition the pulse will be quick and hard, in the latter soft or depressed with often a dilatation of the pupils, and deep, slow, ster- terous breathing. The symptoms may follow one another in rapid suc- cession, and the disease approach a fatal termination in less than twelve hours. In subacute attacks the symptoms are better defined, aud the animal seldom dies before the third day. Within three or four days gradual improvement may become manifest, or cerebral softening with partial paralysis may occur. In all cases of encephalitis there is a marked rise in temperature from the very onset of the disease, with a tendency to increase until the most alarming symptoms develop, suc- ceeded by a decrease when coma becomes manifested. The violence and character of the symptoms greatly depend upon the extent and location of the structures involved. Thus, in some cases we may find marked paralysis of certain muscles, while in others we may have spas- modic rigidity of muscles in a certain region. Very rarely the animal becomes extremely violent early iu the attack, and by rearing up, strik- ing with the fore feet, or falling over, may do himself great injury. Usually, however, the animal maintains the standing position, propping himself against the manger or wall until he falls from inability of mus- cular control or unconsciousness. Occasionally he may go through a 185 series of automatic movements in his delirium, such as trotting or walk- ing, and if loose in a stall will move around in a circle persistently. Early and persistent constipatiou of the bowels is a marked symptom in nearly all acute affections of the brain ; retention of the urine, also, is frequently observed. Chronic encephalitis. — This may succeed the acute stage, or may be due to stable miasma, blood-poison, narcotism, lead-poisoning, etc. Contrary to acute encephalitis, this form is not characterized iu its ini- tial stages by excitability, quick and hard pulse, and high fever. The animal appears at first stupid; eats slowly; the pupil of the eye does not respoud to light quickly; the animal often throws up his head Oi shakes it as if suffering sudden twinges of pain. He is slow and slug- gish in his movements, or there may be partial paralysis of one limb, one side of the face, neck, or body. These symptoms, with some varia- tions, may be present for several days and then subside, or the disease may pass into the acute stage and terminate fatally. Chronic encepha- litis may affect an animal for ten days or two weeks without much var- iation in the symptoms before the crisis is reached. If improvement commences the symptoms usually disappear in the reverse order in which they developed with the exception of the paralytic effects, which remain intractible or permanent. Paralysis of certain sets of muscles is a very common result of chronic, subacute, and acute encephalitis, and is due to softening of the brain, or to exudation into the cavities of the brain or arachnoid space. MENINGITIS — THE MAD STAGGERS OF THE OLD WRITERS — INFLAM- MATION OF THE CEREBRAL ENVELOPES. Causes. — Excess of heat or cold, wounds of the cranium and mem- branes, rheumatism, influenza, rupture of meningeal blood-vessels, etc. Symptoms. — In an attack of acute meningitis the symptoms appear very suddenly aud are often extremely violent. The violent pain in the head is indicated by the animal flying back in the halter, plunging for- ward or running ahead, regardless of obstacles or obstructions in the way. The pulse is very rapid, the breathing accelerated or panting, the pupils of the eyes contracted, and the muscles of the body quiver- ing. All these symptoms may develop within a few minutes or in a few hours. If the animal does not obtain relief, spasms or rigidity of the muscles along one or both sides of the neck or back will become manifest, the head will be held elevated, the eyeballs will retract into their sockets, the eye-lids twitch, convulsions and furious delirium will soon appear, followed by coma and death. Acute meningitis may result fatally in a very few hours. During the whole course of the disease the more violent symptoms occur in paroxysms, and the least noise or disturbance serves to induce them. In the quiescent periods the animal appears dull and drowsy. The urine is frequently ejected in spurts aud strong efforts are made to pass manure. In subacute 186 meningitis the symptoms will develop more slowly and be less marked by violence. The sensory functions may not be much interfered with until the near approach of death. In such attacks the animal may suffer for a week or longer and ultimately recover. In meningitis the temperature varies from 103° to 107° F., according to the severity of the attack. The violent symptoms of this disease must not be confounded with those of rabies. In the latter the violence is directed at some object or upon the animal himself; in the former no malice is shown toward the at- tendant or surrounding objects, but is simply the manifestation of ex- cruciating pain in the head. Meningitis may be distinguished from encephalitis and cerebritis by the absence of marked localized paralytic symptoms, or of coma, until the near approach of death. It is charac- terized by violence, increased sensibility, and delirium. CEREBRITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN SUBSTANCE. Causes. — The causes giving rise to this disease are very numerous. Among them may be mentioned all those named heretofore as causing encephalitis and meningitis, cystic and calcareous tumors, thrombi, uraernic poisoning, metastatic abscesses, septic infection, etc. Symptoms. — Cerebritis, when unaccompanied by other disease, is sel- dom recognized as such during life. It is always localized in extent, and the symptoms manifested depend upon the location of the organic change for their character. The symptoms, therefore, are as varied as the causes; they are usually of slow development and persistent. Ver- tigo or giddiness may be regarded as a constant symptom. The ani- mal may stop on the road, shake his head, or stagger, apparently un- decided in what direction to go. There may be contraction of the pu- pils, cramp of the muscles on the side of the neck or face, pulse small and hard and variable in frequency, often, however, slower than normal. The temperature is slightly increased, the respiratious may be slow aud deep, the appetite capricious, bowels constipated; rapid emaciation is a common symptom. ISuch conditions may be apparent for a week or two weeks; then the horse may become comatose. The pupils dilate, the pulse becomes intermitting, swallowing difficult, the muscles which were previously rigid become relaxed and paralyzed, and the urine may either be retained or be discharged involuntarily. In this way the ani- mal may survive another week and then die in a paralyzed and uncon- scious state. Not infrequently, however, few of those symptoms are manifested, for in some cases the paralysis "Is sudden from extensive lesions of the brain, and the animal may die within twenty -four hours. SOFTENING AND ABSCESS OF THE BRAIN. This is one of the terminations of cerebritis. It may also be due to an insufficient supply of blood as a result of diseased cerebral arteries and of apoplexy. 187 Symptoms.— Drowsiness, vertigo, or attacks of giddiness, increased timidity, or fear of familiar objects, paralysis of one limb, hemiplegia, imperfect control of the limbs, and usually a weak, intermittent pulse. In some cases the symptoms are analagous to those of apoplexy. The character of the symptoms depends upon the seat of the softening or abscess within the brain. CEREBRAL SCLEROSIS. This is a result of an inflammation in the structure of the brain af- fecting the connective tissues, which eventually become hypertrophied and press upon nerve cells and fibers, causing their ultimate disappear- ance, leaving the parts hard and indurated. Symptoms. — This condition gives rise to a progressive paralysis, and may extend along a certain bundle of fibers into the spinal cord. Com- plete paralysis almost invariably supervenes and causes death. PATHOLOGY OP ACUTE BRAIN AFFECTIONS. On making post mortem examinations of horses which have died in the first stages of either of those diseases, we will find an excessive en- gorgement of the capillaries and small blood-vessels, with correspond- ingly increased redness and molecular changes in both contents and the walls of the vessels. If the death has occurred at a later period of the disease, in addition to the redness and engorgement we will find that an exudation of the contents of the blood-vessels into the tissues and upon the surfaces of the inflamed parts has supervened. If the case has been one of encephalitis we will usually find more or less wa- tery fluid in the ventricles (natural cavities in the brain), in the sub- arachnoid space, and a serous exudation between the convolutions and interstitial spaces of the gray matter under the membranes of the brain. The amount of fluid varies in different cases. In some where the ani- mal's blood was very plastic, exudations of a membranous character may be present and are found attached to the surface of the pia mater. In meningitis, especially in chronic cases, in addition to the serous effusion, we find changes which may be regarded as characteristic in the formation of a delicate and highly vascular layer or layers of membrane or organized structure on the surface of the dura mater, and also indi- cations of hemorrhages in connection with the membrauous formations. Hasmatoma or blood tumors may be found embedded in this membrane. In some cases the hemorrhages are copious, causing paralysis or apoplexy, followed by speedy death. In cerebritis, or inflammation of the interior of the brain, there is a tendency to softening and suppuration and the formation of abscesses. In some cases the abscesses are small and numerous, surrounded with a softened condition of the brain matter, and sometimes we may find one large abscess. In cases of recent development the walls of the ab- scesses are fringed and ragged and have no lining membrane. In older 188 or chronic cases, the walls of the abscesses are generally lined with a strong membrane, often having the appearance of a sac or cyst, and the contents have a very offensive odor. Treatment. — In all acute attacks of inflammation involving the mem- branes or cerebral masses, it is the pressure from the distended and engorged blood-vessels, and the rapid accumulation of inflammatory products, that endangers the life of the animal iu even the very early stage of the disease. The earlier the treatment is commenced to lessen the danger of fatal pressure from the engorged blood-vessels, the less amount of inflammatory products and effusion we have to contend with later on. The leading object then to be accomplished iu the treatment of the first stages of encephalitis, meningitis, or cerebritis is to relieve the engorgement of the blood-vessels before a dangerous degree of effu- sion or exudation has taken place, and thereby lessen the irritation or excitability of the affected structures. If we fully succeed in this stage in the accomplishment of this object, we certainly prevent a second stage of the disease, and it will only be required to continue a treat- ment which will tend to lessen irritability to prevent a second engorge- ment from taking place. But if the attempt to relieve the engorgement in the first stage has been only partially successful, and the second stage with its inflammatory products and exudations, whether serous or plastic, has set iu, then the main objects iu further treatment are to keep up the strength of the animal and hasten the absorption of the exudative products as much as possible. To obtain these results, when the animal is found in the initial stage of the disease, where there is unnatural excitability or stupor with increase of temperature and quick- ened pulse, we must rely upon the safest and quickest acting remedy at hand, which is copious bleeding from the jugular vein. Especially in acute meningitis, bleeding is imperatively demanded. The finger should be kept on the pulse, and the blood allowed to flow until there is a marked fluttering or softening of the pulse. As soon as the animal recovers somewhat from the shock of the bleeding, the following medi- cine should be made into a ball or dissolved in a pint of warm water, and be given at one dose : Barbadoes aloes, 7 drams ; calomel, 2 drams ; powdered ginger, 1 dram; tincture of aconite, 20 drops. The animal should be placed in a cool, dark place, as free from noise as possible, and cloths wrung out of hot water placed on his head. These should be renewed frequently for at least twelve hours. When the auimal becomes thirsty half an ounce of saltpeter may be dissolved in his drinking water every six hours. Injections of warm water into the rectum may facilitate the action of the purgative. Norwood's tiuct- ure of veratrum viride, in 20 drop doses, should be given every hour, and one dram of solid extract of belladonna every four hours, until the symptoms become modified and the pulse regular and full. If this treatment fails to give relief the disease will pass into the ad- vanced stages, or if the animal has been neglected in the early stages 189 the treatment must be supplanted with the hypodermic injection of ergotin, in 5-grain doses, dissolved in a dram of water, every six hours. The limbs may be poulticed above the fetlocks with mustard. Gold water or ice-bags should now take the place of the hot- water cloths on the head. Warm blanketing, to promote perspiration, is to be ob- served in all cases in which there is no excessive perspiration. If the disease becomes chronic — encephalitis or meningitis — we must place our reliance upon alteratives and tonics, with such incidental treatment as special symptoms may demaud. Iodide of potassium in 2 : dram doses should be given twice a day, and 1 dram of calomel once a day, to induce absorption of effusions or thickened membranes. Tonics, in the form of iodide of iron in dram doses, to which is added 2 drams of powdered hydrastis, may also be given every six or eight hours, as soon as the active fever has abated. In all cases, after the disappearance of the acute symptoms, blisters (cantharides ointment) should be applied behind the poll. When paralytic effects remain after the disappearance of all other symptoms, sulphate of strychnia in 2-graiu doses, in combination with the other tonics, may be given twice a day, and be continued until it produces muscular twitching. In some cases of paralysis, as of the lips or throat, benefit may be derived from the moderate use of the electric battery. Many of the recoveries will, how- ever, under the most active and early treatment, be but partial, and in all cases the animals become predisposed to subsequent attacks. A long period of time should be allowed to pass before the animal is ex- posed to severe work or great heat. When the disease depends upon mechanical injuries they have to be treated and all causes of irritation to the brain removed. If it is due to stable miasma, ursemic poison- ing, pyaemia, influenza, rheumatism, toxic agents, etc., they should receive prompt attention for their removal or mitigation. Cerebral softening, abscess, or sclerosis, are practically inaccessible to treatment, otherwise than such relief as may be afforded by the administration of opiates and general tonics, and, in fact, the diagno- sis is largely presumptive. CONGESTION OP THE BRAIN — MEGRIMS. Congestion of the brain consists in an accumulation of blood in the vessels, also called hvpersemia, or engorgement. It may be active or passive — active when there is an undue determination of blood or diminished arterial resistance, and passive when it accumulates in the vessels of the brain, owing to some obstacle to its return by the veins. Causes.— Active cerebral congestion may be due to hypertrophy of the left ventricle of the heart, excessive exertion, the influence of ex- treme heat, sudden and great excitement, artificial stimulants, etc. Passive congestion may be produced by any mechanical obstruction which prevents the proper return of blood through the veins to the heart, such as small or ill-fitting collar, which often impedes the blood 190 current, tumors or abcesses pressing ou the vein in its course, and or- ganic lesions of the heart with regurgitation. Extremely fat animals with short thick necks are peculiarly subject to attacks of cerebral congestion. Simple congestion, however, is merely afunctional affection, and in a slight or moderate degree involves no immediate danger. Extreme engorgement, on the contrary, may be followed by rupture of previously weakened arteries and capillaries and cause immediate death, designated then as a stroke of apoplexy. Symptoms. — Congestion of the brain is usually sudden in its mani- festation and of short duration. The animal may stop very suddenly and shake his head or stand quietly braced ou his legs, then stagger, make a plunge, and fall. The eyes are staring, breathing hurried and stertorous, and the nostrils widely dilated. This may be followed by coma, violent convulsive movements, and death. Generally, however, the animal gains relief in a short time, but he may remain weak and giddy for several days. If it is due to organic change of the heart or to disease of the blood-vessels in the brain, then the symptoms may be of slow development manifested by drowsiness, dimness or imperfect vision, difficulty in voluntary movements, diminished sensibility of the skin, loss of consciousness, delirium, and death. In milder cases effu- sion may take place in the arachnoid spaces and ventricles of the brain followed by paralysis and other complications. Pathology. — In congestion of the brain the cerebral vessels are loaded with blood, and the venous sinuses distended to an extreme degree, and the pressure exerted upon the brain constitutes actual compres- sion, giving rise to the symptoms just mentioned. On post mortem ex- aminations this engorgement is found universal throughout the brain and its membranes, which serves to distinguish it from inflammations of these structures, in which the engorgements are confined more or less to circumscribed portions. A prolonged congestion may, however, lead to active inflammation, and iu that case we will find serous and plastic exudations in the cavities of the brain. In addition to the in- tensely engorged condition of the vessels we find the gray matter of the brain redder in color than natural. In cases where several attacks have occurred the blood-vessels are often found permanently dilated. Treatment. — Prompt removal of all mechanical obstructions to the circulation. If it is due to venous obstruction by too tight a collar, the loosening of the collar will give immediate relief. If due to tumors or abscesses, a surgical operation becomes necessary to afford relief. To revive the animal if he become partially or totally unconscious cold water should be dashed on the head, and if this does not afford ready relief recourse must be had to bleeding to lessen arterial tension. Tinct- ure of veratrum viride or of aconite root may be given in twenty-drop doses every hour until consciousness returns. If the limbs are cold tincture of capsicum or strong mustard water should be applied to them. If symptoms of paralysis remain after two or three days, an active 191 cathartic and iodide of potassa will be indicated, to be given as pre- scribed for inflammation of the brain. Prevention. — Well adjusted collar, with strap running from the collar to the girth, to hold down the collar when pulling up grade; regular feed aud exercise, without allowing the animal to become excessively plethoric; moderate checking, allowing a free and easy movement of the head; well ventilated stabling, proper cleanliness, pure water, etc. SUNSTROKE — HEAT EXHAUSTION. The term sunstroke is applied to affections occasioned not exclusively by exposure to the sun's rays, as the word signifies, but by the action of great heat combined generally with other causes, such as dryness and rarefaction of the air and an unusual accumulation of electricity. Exhaustion produced by a long continued heat is often the essential factor, and is called heat exhaustion. Horses on the race track under- going protracted and severe work in hot weather often succumb to heat exhaustion. Draught horses exposed to the direct rays of the sun for many hours, which do not receive proper care in watering, feeding, rest in shady places, suffer very frequently from sunstroke. Symptoms. — Sunstroke is manifested suddenly. The animal stops, drops his head, begins to stagger, and soon falls to the ground uncon- scious. The breathing is marked with great stertor, the pulse is very slow aud irregular, cold sweats break out in patches on the surface of the body, and the animal often dies without recovering consciousness. In heat exhaustion the animal usually requires urging for some time previous to the appearance of any other symptoms, generally per- spiration is checked, and then he becomes weak in his gait, the breathing hurried or panting, eyes watery aud bloodshot, nostrils dilated and highly reddened, assuming a dark, purple color ; the pulse is rapid and weak, the heart bounding, followed by unconsciousuess and death. If recovery takes place convalescence extends over a long period of time, during which incoordination of movement may persist. Pathology. — Sunstroke, virtually active congestion of the brain, often accompanied by effusion and blood extravasation, characterizes this condition, with often rapid and fatal lowering of all the vital functions. The death may be due in many instances to the complete stagnation in the circulation of the brain, inducing anaemia or want of nourishment of that organ. In other cases it may be directly due to the excessive compression of the nerve matter controlling the heart's action, and cause paralysis of that organ. Treatment. — Under no circumstances is blood-letting permissible in sunstroke. Ice or very cold water should be applied to the head and along the spine and half an ounce of carbonate of ammonia or 6 ounces of whisky should be given in a pint of water. Injections, per rectum, of moderately strong ginger tea or weak ammonia water may be used with benefit. Brisk friction of the limbs and the application of spirits 192 of camphor often yield good results. The administration of the stimu- lants should be repeated in one hour if the pulse has not become stronger and slower. If the animal is suffering from heat exhaustion similar treatment may be used, with the exception of cold to the head and spine, for in this case cloths wrung out in hot water should be ap- plied. In either case, when reaction has occurred preparations of iron and general tonics may be given during convalescence : Sulphate of iron 1 dram, gentian 3 drams, red cinchona bark 2 drams; mix and give in the feed morning and evening. Prevention. — In very hot weather horses should have wet sponges or light sun-shades on the head when at work, or the head may be sponged with cold water as many times a day as possible. Proper attention should be given to feeding and watering, never in excess. During the warm months all stables should be cool and well ventilated, and if an animal is debilitated from exhaustive work or disease he should re- ceive such treatment as will tend to build up the system. An animal which has been affected with sunstroke is very liable to have subsequent attacks when exposed to the necessary exciting causes. APOPLEXY — CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE. Apoplexy is often confounded with cerebral congestion, but true apoplexy always consists in rupture of cerebral blood-vessels, with blood extravasation and formation of blood clot. Causes. — Two causes are involved in the production of apoplexy, the predisposing and the exciting cause. The predisposing cause is degen- eration or disease which weakens the blood-vessel, the exciting cause is any one which tends to induce cerebral congestion. {Symptoms. — Apoplexy is characterized by a sudden loss of sensation and motion, profound coma, and stertorous and difficult breathing. The action of the heart is little disturbed at first, but soon becomes slower, then quicker and feebler, and after a little time ceases. If the rupture is one of a small artery and the extravasation limited, sudden paraly- sis of some part of the body is the result. The extent and location of the paralysis depend upon the location within the brain which is functionally deranged by the pressure of the extravasated blood ; hence these conditions are very variable. In the absence of any premouitory symptoms or an increase of tem- perature in the early stage of the attack we may be reasonably certain in making the distinction between this disease and congestion of the brain or sunstroke. Pathology. — In apoplexy we are generally able to find an atheromatous condition of the cerebral vessels with weakening and degeneration of their walls. When a large artery has been ruptured it is usually fol- lowed by immediate death, and large rents may be found in the cere- brum, with great destruction of brain tissue, induced by the forcible pressure of the liberated blood. In small extravasations producing 193 local paralysis without marked general disturbance, the animal may recover after a time; in such cases gradual absorption of the clot takes place. In large clots atrophy of the brain substance may follow, or softeniug and abscess from want of nutrition may result, and render the animal worthless, ultimately resulting in death. Treatment. — Place the animal in a quiet, cool place, avoid all stimu- lating food. Administer, in his drinking water or feed, 2 drams of the iodide of potassa twice a day for several weeks if necessary. Medical interference with sedatives or stimulants is more apt to be harmful than of benefit, and blood-letting in an apoplectic fit is extremely hazardous. From the fact that cerebral apoplexy is due to diseased or weakened blood-vessels, the animal remains subject to subsequent attacks. COMPRESSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — In injuries from direct violence a piece of broken bone may press upon the brain, and according to its size the brain is robbed of its normal space within the cranium. It may also be due to an extrava- sation of blood or to exudation in the subdural or arachnoid spaces. Death from active cerebral congestion results through compression. The occurrence may sometimes be traced to the direct cause, which will give assurance for the correct diagnosis. Symptoms. — Impairment of all the special senses and localized paraly- sis. All the symptoms of lessened functional activity of the brain are manifested to some degree. The paralysis remains to be our guide for the location of the cause, for it will be found that the paralysis occurs on the opposite side. of the body from the location of the injury, and the parts suffering paralysis will denote, to an expert veterinarian or physician, the part of the brain which is suffering compression. Treatment. — Trephining, by a skillful operator, for the removal of the cause when due to depressed bone or the presence of foreign bodies. When the symptoms of compression follow other acute diseases of the brain, apoplectic fits, etc., the treatment must be such as the exigencies of the case demands. CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN. Causes. — This is generally caused by an animal falling over back- ward and striking his poll, or perhaps falling forward on his nose ; by a blow on the head, etc. Symptoms. — Concussion of the brain is characterized by giddiness, stupor, insensibility, or loss of muscular power, succeeding immediately upon a blow or severe injury involving the cranium. The animal may rally quickly, or not for hours ; death may occur on the spot or after a few days. When there is only slight concussion or stunning the animal soon recovers from the shock. When more severe, insen- sibility may be complete and continue for a considerable time; the animal lies as if in a deep sleep; the pupils are insensible to light; the pulse fluttering or feeble ; the surface of the body cold, muscles 11035 13 194 relaxed, and the breathing scarcely perceptible. After a variable in- terval partial recovery may take place, which is marked by paralysis of some parts of the body, often of a limb, the lips, ear, etc. Con- valescence is usually tedious, and frequently permanent impairment of some organs remains. Pathology. — Concussion produces laceration of the brain, or at least a jarring of the nervous elements, which if not sufficiently severe to produce sudden death may lead to softening or inflammation, with their respective symptoms of functional derangement. Treatment. — The first object in treatment will be to establish reac- tion or to arouse the feeble and weakening heart. This can often be accomplished by dashing cold water en the head and body of the animal; frequent injections of weak ammonia water, ginger tea, or oil and turpentine should be given per rectum. In the majority of cases this will soon bring the horse to a state of consciousness. In more severe cases mustard poultices should be applied along the spine and above the fetlocks. As soon as the auimal gains partial consciousness stimulants, in the form of whisky or capsicum tea, should be given. Owing to severity of the structural injury to the brain or the possible rupture of blood-vessels and blood extravasa- tion, the reaction may often be followed by encephalitis or cerebritis, and will then have to be treated accordingly. For this reason the stimulants should not be administered too freely, and they must be abandoned as soon as reaction is established. There is no need for further treatment unless complications develop as. a secondary result. Bleeding, which is so often practiced, proves almost invariably fatal in this form of brain affection. We should also remember that it is never safe to drench a horse with large quantities of medicine when he is un- conscious, for he is very liable to draw the medicine into the lungs in inspiration. Prevention. — Young horses, when harnessed or bitted for the first few times, should not have their heads checked up high, for it frequently causes them to rear up, and, being unable to control their balance, they are liable to fall over sideways or backwards, thus causing brain con- cussion when they strike the ground. ATOEMIA OF THE BRAIN. This is a physiological condition in sleep. Causes. — It is considered a disease or may give rise to disease when the circulation and blood supply of the brain are interfered with. In some diseases of the heart the brain becomes anaemic, and fainting fits occur, with temporary loss of consciousness. Tumors growing within the cranium may press upon one or more arteries and stop the supply of blood to certain parts of the brain, thus inducing anaemia, ultimately atrophy, softening, or suppuration. Probably the most frequent cause is found in plugging or occlusion of the arteries by a blood-clot. 195 Symptoms. — Imperfect vision, constantly dilated pupils, frequently a feeble and staggering gait, and occasionally cramps, convulsions, or epileptic fits occur. Pathology. — The exact opposite of cerebral hyperemia. The blood- vessels are found empty, the membranes blanched, and the brain sub stance softened. Treatment. — Removal of the remote cause when possible. General tonics, nutritious food, rest, and removal from all causes of nervous excitement. ATROPHY OF THE BRAIN. This condition is produced by a fault in nutrition, embracing the causes which induce ansemia. Gradual absorption and shrinking of brain substance may arise from the constant and increasing pressure arising from the growth of tumors, degeneration in the arterial walls, hydrocephalus, etc. Atrophy of the brain may be general or localized. The cerebrum may waste away in a remarkable degree before any indi- cation of disease becomes manifest. Symptoms. — It may give rise to viciousness, paralysis, disorders of special sensation, coma, etc. Treatment is of no avail. HYDROCEPHALUS — BRAIN DROPSY. This disease is most often seen in young foals and is manifested by an unnaturally large forehead. The forehead bulges out, and the cra- nial bones may be separated from their connections, and a part of the braiu be covered by the skin only. Foals seldom survive this affection, and treatment is useless. In horses hydrocephalus is a result of chronic meningitis, when an effusion of serum is poured out into the ventricles and arachnoid spaces of the brain. The disease is some- times indicated by a difficulty in controlling voluntary movements, coma, etc. When effusion as a result of meningitis is suspected, iodide of potassa in 2-drani doses may be given twice a day and a strong blister applied behind the ears. TUMORS WITHIN THE CRANIUM. Tumors withi n the cranial cavity and the brain occur not infrequently, and give rise to a variety of symptoms, imperfect control of voluntary movement, local paralysis, epilepsy, etc. Osseous tumors, growing from the walls of the cranium, are not very uncommon. Dentigerous cysts, containing a formation identical to that of a tooth, growing from the temporal bone, sometimes are found lying loose within the cranium. Tumors of the choroid plexus, known as brain sand, are frequently met with on postmortem examinations, but seldom give rise to any appreci- 196 able symptoms during life. They are found in horses at all ages, and are of slow development. They are found in one or both of the lateral ventricles, enveloped in the folds of the choroid plexus. Melanotic tumors have been found in the brain and meninges in the form of small, black nodules, in gray horses, and in one instance are believed to have induced the condition known as string-halt. Fibrous tumors may develop within or from the meningeal structures of the brain. Gliomatous tumor is a variety of sarcoma very rarely found in the structure of the cerebellum. Treatment for tumors of the brain is beyond our ambitiou in the pres- ent age. SPASMS — CRAMPS. Causes. — Spasm is a marked symptom in many diseases of the brain and of the spinal cord. Spasms may result from irritation of the motor nerves as conductors, or may result from irritation of any part of the sympathetic nervous system, and they usually indicate an excessive action of the reflex-motor centers. Spasms may be induced by various medicinal agents given in poisonous doses, or by effete materials in the circulation, such as mix vomica or its alkaloid strychnia, lead prepara- tions, or an excess of the urea products in the circulation, etc. Spasms may be divided into two classes: tonic spasm, when the cramp is con- tinuous or results in persistent rigidity, as in tetanus; clonic spasm, when the cramping is of short duration, or is alternated with relaxa- tions. Cramps may be distinguished from choleraic movements by the extreme pain or suffering which they induce. Spasms may affect invol- untary as well as the voluntary muscles, the muscles of the glottis, intestines, and even the heart. They are always sudden in their devel- opment. SPASM OF THE GLOTTIS. This is manifested by a strangling respiration; a wheezing noise is produced in the act of inspiration; extreme anxiety and suffering for want of air. The head is extended, the body profusely perspiring; pulse very rapid; soon great exhaustion becomes manifest; the mucous membranes become turgid and very dark-colored, and the animal thus may suffocate in a short time. SPASMS OF THE INTESTINES. (See '•Cramp-colic") SPASMS OF THE NECK OF THE BLADDER. This may be due to spinal irritation, or a reflex from intestinal irrita- tion, and is manifested by frequent but ineffectual attempts to urinate. 197 SPASM OF THE DIAPHRAGM — THUMPS. Spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm, the principal muscle used in respiration, is generally occasioned by extreme and prolonged speed- ing on the race-track or road. The severe strain thus put upon this muscle finally induces irritation of the nerves controlling it, aud the con- tractions become very forcible and violent, giving the jerking charac- ter known among horsemen as thumps. This condition may be distin- guished from violent beating of the heart by feeling the pulse beat at the angle of the jaw, and at the same time watching the jerking move- ment of the body, when it will be discovered that the two bear no rela- tion to each other. (See "Palpitation of the Heart.") SPASM OP THE THIGH, OR CRAMP OF A HIND LIMB. This is frequently witnessed in horses that stand on sloping plank floors — generally in cold weather — or it may come on soon after severe exercise. It is probably due to an irritation of the nerves of the thigh. In cramps of the hind leg the limb becomes perfectly rigid, aud at- tempts to flex the leg are unsuccessful ; the animal stands on the affected limb, but is unable to move it; it is unnaturally cold; it does not, how- ever, appear to cause much suffering unless attempts are made to change position. This cramp may be of short duration — a few minutes — or it may persist for several days. This condition is often taken for a dis- location of the stifle-joint. In the latter the foot is extended backward, and the horse is unable to advance it, but drags the limb after him. An examination of the joint also reveals a change in form. Spasms may affect the eye-lids, by closure or by retraction. Spasm of the sterno- maxillaris muscle has been witnessed, and the animal was unable to close the jaws until the muscle became relaxed. Treatment. — An anodyne liniment, composed of chloroform 1 part and soap liniment 4 parts, applied to cramped muscles will usually cause relaxation. This may be used where single external muscles are affected. In spasm of the glottis inhalation of sulphuric ether will give quick relief. In spasm of the diaphragm, rest aud the adminis- tration of half an ounce of chloroform in 3 ounces of whisky, with a pint of water added, will generally suffice to bring relief, or if this fails give 5 grains of sulphate of morphia by hypodermic injection. If spasms result from organic disease of the nervous system, the latte r should receive such treatment as its character demands. In cramp of the leg compulsory movement usually causes relaxation very quickly; therefore, the animal should be led out of the stable and be forced to run or trot. Sudden nervous excitement, caused by a crack of the whip or smart blow, will often bring about immediate relief. Should this fail, the anodyne liniment may be used along the inside of the thigh, and chloroform, ether, or laudanum given internally. An ounce of the chloral hydrate will certainly relieve the spasm when given internally, 198 but the cramp may return soon after the effect has passed off, which in many cases it does very quickly. Convulsions. — Although there is no disease of the nervous system which can be properly termed convulsive, or justify the use of the word convulsion to indicate any particular disease, yet it is often such a prominent symptom that a few words may not be out of place. Gen- eral, irregular muscular contractions of various parts of the body, with unconsciousness, characterize what we regard as convulsions, and like ordinary spasms are dependent upon some disease or irritation of the nervous structures, chiefly of the brain. No treatment is required; in fact, a general convulsion must necessarily be self-limited in its dura- tion. Suspending, as it does, respiratory movements, checking the oxygenation and decarbouization of the blood, the rapid accumulation of carbonic acid gas in the blood and the exclusion of oxygen quickly puts the blood in a condition to produce the most reliable and speedy sedative effect upon the nerve excitability that could be found, and consequently furnishes its own remedy, so far as the continuance of the convulsive paroxysm is concerned. Whatever treatment is insti- tuted must be directed towards a removal of the cause of the convulsive paroxysm. CHOTCEA. Chorea is characterized by involuntary contractions of voluntary muscles. This disease is an obscure disorder, which may be due to pressure upon a nerve, cerebral sclerosis, small aneurisms in the brain, etc. Choreic symptoms have been produced by injecting granules of starch into the arteries entering the brain. Epilepsy and other forms of convulsions simulate chorea in appearance. Stringhalt is by some termed chorea. This is manifested by a sudden jerking-up of one or both hind legs when the animal is walkiug. This symptom may be very slight in some horses, but has a tendency to in- crease with the age of the animal. In some the catching-up of the af- fected leg is very violent, and when it is lowered to the ground the motion is equally sudden and forcible, striking the foot to the ground like a pile-driver. Very rarely chorea may be found to affect oue of the fore legs, or the muscles of one side of the neck or the upper part of the neck. Involuntary jerking of the muscles of the hip or thigh is seen occasionally, and is termed shivering by horsemen. Chorea is often associated with a nervous disposition, and is not so frequent in animals with a sluggish temperament. The involuntary muscular contractions cause no pain, and do not appear to produce much exhaustion of the affected muscles, although the jerking may be regular and persistent whenever the animal is in motion. Treatment. — In a few cases, early in the appearance of this affection, general nerve tonics may be of benefit, viz, iodide of iron, 1 dram ; pul- verized nux vomica, 1 dram ; pulverized Scutellaria, 1 ounce. Mix, and give in the feed once a day for two weeks. If the cause is connected yrith organic brain k'sious treatment is usually unsuccessful. 199 EPILEPSY— FALLING FITS. The cause of epilepsy is seldom traceable to any special brain lesions. In a few cases it accompanies disease of the pituitary body, which is located in the under surface of the brain. Softening of the brain may give rise to this affection. Attacks may occur only once or twice a year, or they may be of frequent recurrence. Symptoms. — No premonitory symptoms precede an epileptic fit. The animal suddenly staggers ; the muscles become cramped ; the jaws may be spasmodically opened and closed, and the tongue become lacerated between the teeth ; he loams at the mouth and falls down in a spasm. The urine flows away involuntarily, and the breathing may be tempo- rarily arrested. The paroxysm soon passes off, and the animal gets on his feet in a few minutes after the return of consciousness. Treatment. — Dashing cold water on the head during the paroxysm. After the recovery 1 dram of oxide of zinc may be given in his feed twice a day for several weeks, or benefit may be derived from the tonic prescribed for chorea. COMA — SLEEPY STAGGERS. This condition, like that of spasm and convulsion, is generally not a disease, but merely a symptom manifested as a result of a variety of brain affections, such as atrophy, chronic meningitis with effusion, tumors in the lateral ventricles, etc. Another form of coma is that which accompanies acute diseases of the brain, wherein the animal may be unconscious, with sterterous breathing, difficult respiration, etc. We meet, however, with a type of coma in horses which can not easily be attributed to any special disease of the brain, unless it be a modified form of congestion, which is sometimes amenable to treatment. This condition is termed immobilite by the French, and sleepy staggers by our stablemen. It is usually attributed to habitual overloading of the stomach with bulky food and want of exercise. Symptoms. — Sleepy staggers is characterized by drowsiness, partial insensibility, sluggish and often staggering gait. The animal is in- clined to drop his head in the manger and to go to sleep with a wad of hay in his mouth, which he is apt to drop when he awakens. He will stand for a long time with his legs placed in any awkward position in which the owner may choose to put them. The bowels are constipated, the pulse slow and soft, with no fever or pain. The animal may remain in this condition for many months without much variation of symptoms, or he may become entirely comatose, with delirium or convulsions, and die. Chronic cases are always much better in cold weather than in the summer. Treatment. — Moderate bleeding from the jugular vein, 1 gallon from a medium-sized horse, and 1^ or 2 gallons from a very large, heavy horse. This should be immediately followed by a cathartic, composed 200 of aloes 6 drams, croton oil 6 drops, and 1 dram of cnpsicum, to be made iuto a ball with bard soap, molasses, or bread soaked in water, and given on an empty stomach. After the cathartic has ceased to operate give one large tablespoonfnl or half an ounce of the following mixture twice a day: Pulverized hydrastis, pulverized ginger, sodium bicarbonate, of each 4 ounces; mix. In some cases iodide of potassa in dram doses twice a day, alternated each week with 1 dram of calomel twice a day, will prove successful. In cases where there is a deep coma or almost continuous unconscious- ness, ice bags or cold-water cloths should be applied to the head — be- tween the ears, dropping well down over the forehead and extending backward from the ears for 4 or 5 inches. PARALYSIS — PALSY. Paralysis is a weakness or cessation of the muscular contraction, by diminution of loss of the conducting power or stimulation of the motor nerves. Paralytic affections are of two kinds, the perfect and the im- perfect. The former includes those in which both motion and sensi-. bility are affected ; the latter those in which only one or the other is lost or diminished. Paralysis may be general or partial, The latter is divided into hemiplegia and paraplegia. When only a small portion of the body is affected, as the face, a limb, the tail, it is designated by the term local paralysis. When the irritation extends from the pe- riphery to the center it is termed reflex paralysis. Causes. — They are very varied. Most of the acute affections of the brain and spinal cord may lead to paralysis. Injuries, tumors, disease of the blood-vessels of the brain, etc., all have a tendency to produce suspension of the conducting motive power to the muscular structures. Pressure upon, or the severing of, a nerve causes a paralysis of the parts to which such a nerve is distributed. Apoplexy may be termed a general paralysis, and in non-fatal attacks is a frequent cause of the various forms of palsy. GENERAL PARALYSIS. This can not take place without producing immediate death. The term is, however, usually applied to paralysis of the four extremities, whether any other portions of the body are involved or not. This form of palsy is due to compression of the brain by congestion of its vessels, large clot formation in apoplexy, concussion or shock, or any disease in which the whole brain structure is involved in functional disturbance. HEMIPLEGIA — PARALYSIS OF ONE SIDE OR HALF OF THE BODY. Hemiplegia is frequently the result of a tumor in the lateral ventricles of the braiu, softening of one hemisphere of the cerebrum, pressure from extravasated blood, fracture of the cranium, or it may be due to 201 poisons in the blood, or to reflex origin. When hemiplegia is due to or the result of a prior disease of the brain, especially of an inflammatory character, it is seldom complete; it may only affect one limb and one side of the head, neck, or muscles along the back, and may pass off in a few days after the disappearance of all the other evidences of the primary affection. In the majority of cases, however, hemiplegia arises from emboli obstructing one or more blood-vessels of the brain, or the rupture of some vessel the wall of which had become weakened by degeneration and the extravasation of blood. Sensibility in most cases is not impaired, but in some there is a loss of sensibility as well as of motion. In some cases the bladder and rectum are involved in the paralysis. Symptoms. — In hemiplegia the attack may be very sudden, and the animal fall down powerless to move one side of the body ; one side of the lips will be relaxed ; the tongue may hang out on one side of the mouth ; the tail curved around sideways ; an inability to swallow food or water may be present, and often the urine dribbles away as fast as it collects in the bladder. Sensibility of the affected side may be en- tirely lost or only partial ; the limbs may be cold, and sometimes un- naturally warm. In cases wherein the attack is not so severe the ani- mal may be able to maintain the standing position, but will have great difficulty in moving the affected side. In such cases the animal may recover from the disability. In the more severe, where there is com- plete loss of the power of movement, recoveries are rare. PARAPLEGIA — TRANSVERSE PARALYSIS OF THE HIND EXTREMITIES. Paralysis of the hind extremities is usually due to some injury, or inflammation affecting the spinal cord. (See "Spinal Meuingitis" and "Myelitis.") It may also be due to a reflex irritation from disease of peripheral nerves, to spinal irritation or congestion caused by blood poisons, etc. Symptoms. — When due to mechanical injury of the spinal cord, from a broken back or spinal hemorrhage, it is generally progressive in its char- acter, although it may be sudden. When it is caused by agents in the blood it may be intermittent or recurrent. Paraplegia is not difficult to lecoguize, for it is characterized by a weakness and imperfect control of the hind legs, and powerless tail. The urine usually dribbles away as it is formed and the manure is pushed out, ball by ball, without any voluntary effort, or the passages may cease entirely. When paraplegia is complete, large and ill-con- ditioned sores soon form on the hips and thighs from chafing and bruis- ing, which have a tendency to quickly weaken the animal and necessi- tate his destruction. 202 LOCOMOTOR ATAXIA — INCOORDINATION OF MOVEMENT. This is characterized by an inability to properly control the move- ment of the limbs. The animal appears usually perfectly healthy, but when he is led out of his stall his legs have a wobbly movement, and he will stumble or stagger, especially in turning. When this is con- fined to the hind parts it may be termed a modified form of paraplegia, but often it may be seen to affect nearly all the voluntary muscles when they are called into play, and must be attributed to some pressure ex- erted on the base of the brain. LOCAL PARALYSIS. This is frequently met with in horses. It may affect many parts of the body, even vital organs, and it is very frequently overlooked in diagnosis. FACIAL PARALYSIS. This is a frequent type of local paralysis, and is due to impairment of function of the motor nerve of the facial muscles, the portio dura. The cause may exist at the base of the brain, compression along its course after it leaves the medulla oblongata, or to a bruise after it spreads out on the great masseter muscle. Symptoms. — A flaccid condition of the cheek muscles, pendulous lips, inability to grasp the food, often a slow and weak movement in chew- ing, and difficulty and slowness in drinking. LARYNGISMUS PARALYTICUS —ROARING. This condition is characterized by roaring, and is usually caused by an inflamed or hypertrophied bronchial gland pressing against the left recurrent laryngeal nerve, which interferes with its conducting power. A similar condition is occasionally induced in acute pleurisy, where the recurrent nerve becomes involved in the diseased process or compressed by plastic exudation. PARALYSIS OF THE RECTUM AND TAIL. This is generally the result of a blow or fall on the rump, which causes a fracture of the sacrum bone and injury to the nerves supply- ing the tail and part of the rectum and muscles belonging thereto. This fracture would not be suspected, were it not for the loss of motion of the tail. INTESTINAL PARALYSIS. Characterized by persistent constipation ; frequently the strongest purgatives have no effect whatever on the movement of the bowels. In the absence of symptoms of indigestion, or special diseases impli- cating the intestinal canal, torpor of the bowels must be attributed to 203 deficient innervation. This condition may depend upon brain affec- tions, or be due to reflex paralysis. Sudden checks of perspiration may induce excessive action of the bowels or paralysis. PARALYSIS OF THE BLADDER. This usually affects the neck of the bladder, and is characterized by incontinence of urine — the urine dribbles away as fast as it is secreted. The cause may be of reflex origin, disease of the rectum, tumors grow- ing within the pelvic cavity, injury to the spinal cord, etc. PARALYSIS OF THE OPTIC NERVE — AMAUROSIS. A paralysis of eyesight may occur very suddenly from rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, acute local congestion of the brain, the admin- istration of excessive doses of belladonna or its alkaloid atropia, etc. Symptoms. — In amaurosis the pupil is dilated to its full extent, the eye looks clear, but does not respond to light. Paralysis of hearing, of the external ear, of the eyelid, partial paral- ysis of the heart and organs of respiration, of the blood vessels from injury to the vaso motor nerves of the oesophagus, or loss of deglutition, palsy of the stomach, all may be manifested when the supply of ner- vous influence is impaired or suspended. Treatment. — In all paralytic affections there may be anaesthesia or im- pairment of sensibility in addition to the loss of motion, or there may be hyperesthesia or increased sensibility in connection with the loss of motion. These conditions may call for special treatment in addition to that for loss of motion. Where hyperesthesia is well marked local anodynes may be needed to relieve suffering. Chloroform liniment or hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of sulphate of morphia will allay local pain. If there is marked anaesthesia or loss of sensibility it may become necessary to secure the animal in such a way that he can not suffer serious injury from accidents which he can not avoid or feel. In the treatment of any form of paralysis we must always refer to the cause, and attempt its removal if it can be discovered. In cases where the cause can not be determined we have to rely solely upon a general external and internal treatment. Externally, fly-blisters or strong irri- tant liniments may be applied to the paralyzed parts. In hemiplegia they should be applied along the bony part of the side of the neck; in paraplegia, across the loins. In some cases hot-water cloths will be beneficial. Internally, it is well to administer 1 dram of powdered nux vomica or 2 grains of sulphate of strychnia twice a day until twitch- ing of some of the voluntary muscles occur ; then discontinue it for sev- eral days, and then commence again with a smaller dose, gradually in creasing it until twitching recurs. In some cases Fowler's solution of arsenic in teaspoonful doses twice a day, in the drinking water, proves beneficial. Occasionally benefit may be derived from the application 204 of the electric current, especially in cases of roaring, facial paralysis, paralysis of the eyelid, etc. Nutritious but not too bulky food, good ventilation, clean stabling, moderate exercise if the animal is capable of taking it, good grooming, etc., should be observed in all cases. SPINAL MENINGITIS— INFLAMMATION OF THE MEMBRANES ENVELOP- ING THE SPINAL CORD. Causes. — This may be induced by tbe irritant properties of blood- poisous, exhaustion, and exposure, spinal concussion, all forms of injury to tne spine, tumors, caries of the vertebrae, rheumatism, etc. Symptoms. — A chill may be the precursor, a rise in temperature, or a general weakness and shifting of the legs. Soon a painful, convulsive twitching of the muscles sets in, followed by muscular rigidity along the spine, in which condition the animal will move very stiffly and evince great pain in turning. Evidences of paralysis or paraplegia develop, retention or incontinence of urine, and oftentimes sexual excitement is present. The presence of marked fever at the beginning of the attack, associated with spinal symptoms, should lead us to suspect spinal men- ingitis or myelitis. These two conditions usually appear together, or myelitis follows inflammation of the meninges so closely that it is almost impossible to separate the two ; practically it does not matter much, for the treatment will be about the same in both cases. Spinal meningitis generally becomes chronic, and is then marked principally by paralysis of that portion, or parts of it, posterior to the seat of the disease. Pathology. — In spinal meningitis we will find essentially the same con- dition as in cerebral meningitis; there will be an effusion of serum be- tween the membranes, and often a plastic exudation firmly adherent to the pia mater serves to maintain a state of paralysis for a long time after the acute symptoms have disappeared by compressing the cord. Finally, atrophy, softening, and even abscess may develop within the cord. Unlike in man, it is usually found localized in horses. Treatment. — Bags filled with ice should be applied along the spine, to be followed later on by strong blisters.. The fever should be controlled as early as possible by giving 20 drops of Norwood's tincture of vera- trum viride every hour, until the desired result is obtained. One dram of the fluid extract of belladonna, to control pain and vascular excite- ment of the spinal cord, may be given every five or six hours until the pupils of the eyes become pretty well dilated. If the paiu is very in- tense 5 grains of sulphate of morphia should be injected hypodermically. The animal must be kept as free from excitement as possible. If the urine is retained in the bladder it must be drawn off every four or six hours. In very acute attacks the disease generally proves fatal in a few days. If, however, the animal grows better some form of paraly- sis is apt to remain for a long time and the treatment will have to be directed then toward a removal of the exudative products and a 205 strengthening of the system and stimulation of the nervous functions. To iuduce absorption iodide of potassa in 2 dram doses may be given dissolved in the drinking water twice a day. To strengthen the sys- tem, iodide of iron 1 dram twice a day and 1 dram of nux vomica once a day may be given in the feed. Electricity to the paralyzed and weakened muscles is advisable; the current should be weak, but be continued for half au hour two or thtee times daily. If the disease is due to a broken back, caries of the vertebrae, or some other irremedi- able cause, the animal should be destroyed at once. MYELITIS — INFLAMMATION OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE SPINAL CORD. This is a rare disease, except as a secondary result of spinal menin- gitis or injuries to the spine. Poisoning, by lead, arsenic, mercury, phosphorus, carbonic-acid gas, etc., has been known to produce it. Myelitis may be confined to a small spot in the cord or may involve the whole for a variable distance. It may lead to softening, abscess, or de- generation. Symptoms. — The attack may begin with a chill or convulsions; the muscles twitch or become cramped very early in the disease, and the bladder usually is affected in the. outset, in which there may be either retention or incontinence of urine. These conditions are followed by complete or partial paralysis of the muscles posterior to the locality of the inflamed cord, and the muscles begin to waste away rapidly. The paralyzed limb becomes cold and dry, due to the suspension of proper circulation; the joints may swell and become cedematous; vesicular eruptions appear on the skin, and frequently gangrenous sloughs form on the paralyzed parts. It is exceedingly seldom that recovery takes place. In a few instances it may assume a chronic type, when all the symptoms become mitigated, and thus continue for some time until septicaemia, pyaemia, or exhaustion causes death. Pathology. — The inflammation may involve nearly the whole length of the cord, but generally it is more intense in some places than others; when due to mechanical injury the inflammation may remain confined to a small section. The cord is swollen and congested, reddened, often softened and infiltrated with pus cells, and the nerve elements are de- generated. Treatment. — Similar to that of spinal meningitis. SPINAL SCLEROSIS. This is the sequence of myelitis, when some mild form of the disease has been existing. Thickening and hardening of the interstitial tissues of the cord, the result of inflammatory products, constitute sclerosis. The affected section has a gray appearance, is firmer than the surround- ing tissue, sometimes presents a depressed surface and at other times may be elevated above the general level of the cord. 206 Symptoms. — Paralysis of sensation or motion in local muscles, and when located in the region of the neck may present the symptoms of locomotor ataxia or inco-ordiuation of movement. Spinal sclerosis may be suspected when these symptoms succeed an attack of myelitis. Treatment. — The iodide of iron may be given in dram doses twice a day for a week, alternating with two-grain doses of sulphate of strych- nia twice a day for a week. SPINAL CONGESTION AND SPINAL HYPEREMIA. The distinction between congestion and hyperemia is one of degree rather than kind. lu both we find an excess of blood. In hypersemia the current is unusually rapid, in congestion it is unusually slow. The distinction between hypersemia and inflammation is also difficult to make; one is only the forerunner of the other. As the blood vessels of the pia mater are the principal source of supply to the spinal cord, hy- persemia of the cord aud of the meninges usually go together. The symp- toms are, therefore, closely allied to those of spinal meningitis and myelitis- When the pia mater is diseased the spinal cord is almost in- variably affected also. Cause. — Sudden checking of the perspiration, violent exercise, blows, and falls. Symptoms. — The symptoms may vary somewhat with each case, and closely resemble the first symptoms of spiual meningitis, spinal tumors, and myelitis. First, some disturbance in movement, lowering of the temperature, and partial loss of sensibility posterior to the seat of the congestion. If in the cervical region it may cause interference in breathing and the action of the heart. When in the region of the loins there may be loss of control of the bladder. When the congestion is sufficient to produce compression of the cord, paraplegia may be com- plete. Usually fever, spasms, muscular twitching, or muscular rigidity are absent, which will serve to distinguish spinal congestion from spinal meningitis. Treatment. — Hot- water applications to the spine, one-dram doses fluid extract of belladonna repeated every four hours, and tiuctureof aconite root 20 drops every hour until the symptoms become ameliorated. If no inflammatory products occur the animal is likely to recover. SPINAL ANAEMIA. This may be caused by extreme cold, exhausting diseases, spinal em- bolism or plugging of a spinal blood-vessel, an interference with the circulation through the abdominal aorta, from compression, thrombosis, or aneurism of that vessel ; the spinal vessels may be caused to contract through vaso-motor influence, a result of peripheral irritation of some nerve. 207 Symptoms. — Spinal anaemia causes paralysis of the mnscles used in extending the limbs. When the bladder is affected it precedes the weak- ness of motion, while in spinal congestion it follows, and increased sen- sibility, in place of diminished sensibility, as in spinal congestion, is ob- served. Pressure along the spine causes excessive pain. Treatment. — If the exciting cause can be removed the animal recov- ers ; if this fails, the spinal cord may undergo softening. SPINAL COMPRESSION. When caused by tumors or otherwise when pressure is slight, it pro- duces a paralysis of the muscles used in extending a limb and contrac- tion of those which flex it. When compression is great it causes com- plete loss of sensibility and motion posterior to the compressed part of the cord. Compression of a lateral half of the cord produces motor paralysis, disturbance in the circulation, and difficulty of movement, an increased sensibility on the side corresponding to the compressed section, and a diminished sensibility and some paralysis on the opposite side. Treatment. — When it occurs as a sequence of a preceding inflammatory disease, iodide of potassa and general tonics are indicated. When due to tumors growing within the spinal canal, or to pressure from dis- placed bone, no form of treatment will result in any benefit. SPINAL HEMORRHAGE. This may occur from changes in the wall of the blood-vessels, in con- nection with tumors, acute myelitis, traumatic injuries, etc. The blood may escape through the pia m ater into the sub-arachnoid cavity, and large clots be formed. Symptoms. — The symptoms are largely dependent upon the seat and extent of the hemorrhage, as they are principally due to the compres- sion of the cord. A large clot may produce sudden paraplegia accom- panied by severe pain along the spine ; usually, however, the paralysis of both motion and sensation is not very marked at first; on the second or third day fever is apt to appear, and increased or diminished sensi- bility along the spine posterior to the seat of the clot. When the bladder and rectum are involved in the symptoms it indicates that the spinal cord is compressed. Treatment. — In the occurrence of injuries to the back of a horse, whenever there is any evidence of paralysis, it is always advisable to apply bags of ice along the spine to check or prevent hemorrhage or congestion, and 2 drams of the fluid extract of ergot and 20 drops of tincture of digitalis may be given every hour until three doses have been taken. Subsequently tincture of belladonna iu half-ounce doses may be given three times a day. If there is much pain, 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, injected under the skin, will afford relief and lessen the excitability of the animal. In all cases the animal should be kept perfectly quiet. 208 SPINAL CONCUSSION. This is rarely observed in the horse, and unless it is sufficiently se- vere to produce well-marked symptoms it would not be suspected. It may occur in saddle-horses from jumping, or it may be produced by falling over an embankment, or a violent fall upon the haunches may produce it. Concussion may be followed by partial paralysis or spinal hemorrhage, generally, however, it is confined to a jarring and some disturbance of the nerve elements of the cord, and the paralytic effect which ensues soon passes off. Treatment consists in rest until the ani- mal has completely recovered from the shock. If secondary effects fol- low from hemorrhage, or compression, they have to be treated as here- tofore directed. SPINAL TUMORS. Within the substance of the cord glioma, or the mixed gliosarcoraata, is found to be the most frequent, tumors may form from the meninges and the vertebrae, being of a fibrous or bony nature, and affect the spi- nal cord indirectly by compression. In the meninges we may find gli- oma, cancers, psammoma, fibromata ; and aneurisms of the spinal arteries have been discovered in the spinal canal. Symptoms. — Tumors of the spinal canal cause symptoms of spinal irri- tation, or compression of the cord. The gradual and slow development of symptoms of paralysis of one or both hind limbs or certain muscles may lead to a suspicion of spinal tumors. The paralysis induced is progressive, but not usually marked with atrophy of the muscles, or in- creased sensibility along the spine. When the tumor is within the spi- nal cord itself all the symptoms of myelitis may be present. Treatment — General tonics and dram doses of nux vomica may be given; iodide of iron or iodide of potassa in dram doses, three times a day in feed, may, in a very few cases, give some temporary benefit. Usually the disease progresses steadily until it proves fatal. NEURITIS— INFLAMMATION OF A NERVE. This is caused by a bruise or wound of a nerve, or to strangulation in a ligature when it is included in the ligation of an artery. The changes in an inflamed nerve are an enlargement, reddening of the nerve sheath, spots of extravasated blood, and sometimes an infiltration of serum mixed with pus. Symptoms. — Acute pain of the parts supplied by the nerve, and absence of swelling or increased heat of the part. Treatment. — Hypodermic injections of from 3 to 5 grains of morphia to relieve pain, hot fomentations, and rest. If it is due to an inclusion of a ligature, the nerve should be divided abope and below the ligature. 209 NEUROMA — TUMOR OF A NERVE. Neuroma may be from enlargement of the end of a divided nerve, or due to fibrous degeneration of a nerve which has been bruised or wounded. Its most frequent occurrence is found after the operation of neurotomy for foot lameness, and it may appear only after the lapse of months, or even years. Neuroma usually develop within the sheath of the nerve with or without implicating the nerve fibers. They are oval, running lengthwise with the direction of the nerve. Symptoms. — Pain of the affected limb or part is manifested, more es- pecially after resting awhile, and when pressure is made upon the tumor it causes extreme suffering. Treatment. — Excision of the tumor, including part of the nerve above and below, and then treat it like any other simple wound. INJURY TO NERVES. These may consist in wounding, bruising, laceration, stretching, com- pression, etc. The symptoms which are produced will depend upon the extent, seat, and character of the injury. Recovery may quickly take place, or it may lead to neuritis, neuroma, or spinal or cerebral irri- tation, which may result in tetanus, paralysis, and other serious de- rangements. In all diseases, whether produced by some form of ex- ternal violence or intrinsic causes, the nerves are necessarily involved, and sometimes it is to a primary iujury of them that the principal fault in movement or change of nutrition of a part is due. It is often diffi- cult or impossible to discover that an injury to a nerve has been in- flicted, but whenever this is possible it may enable us to remedy that which otherwise would result in permanent evil. Treatment should consist in relieving compression, in hot fomentations, the application of anodyne liniments, excision of the injured part, and rest. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS. This may occur sporadically as an encephalitis, with implications of the spinal cord and its meninges. Usually, however, it appears as an enzooty in a stable, city, or farming district, not infrequently extend- ing long distances in certain well-defined lines, along rivers, valleys, or along ridges and mountains. For this reason the enzootic cerebro- spinal meningitis has been attributed by some veterinarians to atmos- pheric influences. The first written history we have of this disease was published about thirty years ago by Dr. Isaiah Michener, of Carners- ville, Pa., in a pamphlet entitled " Paralysis of the Par-Vagum." Sev- eral years later Prof. A. Large, of Brooklyn, 1ST. Y., gave it the name of " cerebro-spinal meningitis " on account of its similarity to that disease in the human family. Dr. J. C. Michener, of Colmar, Pa., in 1882, suggested the name of " Fungosus Toxicum Paralyticus," in view of (,he exciting cause being found in foods undergoing ferine ntatiou, Xu 11035 14 210 England a similar disease has been called " grass staggers," due to eatiug rye grass when it is ripening or when it- is cut and eaten while it is heating and undergoing fermentation. In eastern Pennsylvania it was formerly known by the name of "putrid sore throat" and "choking distemper." A disease similar in many respects, which is very prevalent in Virginia, especially along the eastern border, is com- monly kuown by the name of " blind staggers," and in many of the southern States this has been attributed to the consumption of worm- eaten corn. Professor Large attributed the cause of the disease to a lack of sanitary conditions, poisonous gases, or emanations depending upon defective sewerage in cities, defective drainage ou lands in the country, and deficient stable ventilation. These reputed causes, however, are inadequate to account for so-called enzootic or epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis. It frequently proves as fatal on the hills and table-lands of Hunterdon County, N. J., Bucks, Montgomery, Lehigh, and Northampton Counties, Pa., as it does in the dark, damp, illy ventilated stables in New York or Philadelphia. It attacks animals which have been running at pasture, where drainage has been perfect, as well as animals which have been stabled and kept on dry food, regardless of variation in any apjjreciable sanitary condi- tion. It affects horses of all ages and both sexes ; temperament or con- dition does not alter their susceptibility. Mules are attacked as well as horses, and the mortality is equally as great. There is, however, a variable severity of symptoms and degree of fatality in different out- breaks. That there is some specific cause which induces this disease is cer- tain, for it is neither contagious nor infectious. Personally, I believe the cause is connected with the food, either developed in it through some fermentative process or upon it in the form of one of the many parasitic fungi which grow on plants, grains, and vegetation. That these, when they are consumed at certain stages of their development, make a poisonous impression upon the brain and ultimately induce structural changes is shown, I think, by the history of the outbreaks wherever they can be traced. In many instauces the outbreak of the disease has been simultaneously witnessed where brewers' grains, oats, and hay have been fed, which could be traced from place to place, from one diseased center to another. That they were the carriers, if not the prime factors, can not be denied. Symptoms. — The symptoms which typify sporadic or epidemic cerebro- spinal meningitis in man are seldom witnessed in equal distinctness among horses, viz : excessive pain, high fever, and early muscular rigidity. In the recognition of the severity of the attack we may divide the symptoms into three grades. In the most rapidly fatal attacks, the animal may first indicate it by weak, staggering gate, partial or total inability to swallow solids or liquids, impairment of eyesight ; twitch- ing of the muscles, and slight cramps may be observed. This is soon 211 followed by a paralysis of the whole body, inability to stand, delirium in which the animal sometimes goes through a series of automatic move- ments as if trotting or running; the delirium may become very violent and the animal in his unconsciousness bruise his head in his struggles very seriously, but usually a deep coma renders him quiet until he expires. Death in these cases usually takes place in from four to twenty-four hours from the time the first symptoms became manifest, The pulse is variable during the progress of the disease ; it may be almost imper- ceptible at times, and then again very rapid and irregular ; the res- pirations generally are quick and catching. When attacked in this rapidly fatal form we may be able only to distinguish it from encepha- litis when other animals in the same stable or neighborhood are simi- larly affected. In the next form in which it may develop, it first be- comes manifest by a difficulty in swallowing and slowness in mastica- tion, and a weakness which may be first noticed in the strength of the tail ; the animal will be unable to switch it or to offer resistance when we bend it up over the croup. The pulse is often a little slower than normal. There is no evidence of pain ; the respirations are unchanged, and the temperature little less than normal ; the bowels may be some- what constipated. These symptoms may remain unchanged for two or three days and then gradual improvement take place, or the power to swallow may become entirely lost and the weakness and uncertainty in gait more and more perceptible ; then sleepiness or coma may ap- pear ; the pulse becomes depressed, slow and weak, the breathing ster- terous, and paroxysms of delirium develop, with inabilityto stand, and some rigidity of the spinal muscles or partial cramp of the neck and jaws. In such cases death may occur in from six to ten days from the commencement of the attack. In many cases there is no evidence of pain, spasm, or fever at any time during the progress of the disease, and finally profound coma develops and death follows, painless and without a struggle. Iu the last or mildest form, the inability of voluntary control of the limbs becomes but slightly marked, the power of swallowing never en- tirely lost, and the animal has no fever, pain, or unconscious movements. Generally the animal will begin to improve about the fourth day and recover. In a few cases the spinal symptoms, manifested by paraplegia, may be the most prominent symptoms ; in others they may be altogether ab- sent and the main symptoms be difficulty in mastication and swallow- ing; rarely it may affect one limb only. In all cases where coma re- maius absent for six or seven days the animal is likely to recover. When changes toward recovery take place, the symptoms usually leave in the reverse order in which they developed, but local paralysis may remain for some time, rarely persistent. One attack does not give immunity, for it may recur at some later time and prove fatal. Horses have been known to pass through three attacks, being affected for a week or longer each time. 212 Treatment.— In the worst class of cases treatment is very seldom successful, and it is dangerous to attempt the administration of medi- cine by the mouth, on account of the inability of the animal to swallow. Cold shower baths may possibly induce revulsive action iu connection with stimulants per rectum, 4 to 6 ounces of whisky in 2 pints of milk; the inhalation of ammonia vapor from a sponge saturated with dilute aqua ammonia may arouse consciousness. In the second class of cases the treatment recommended by Professor Large consists in giving a cathartic composed of 1 ounce of aloes and the administration of 1 to 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, alternated every three hours with 30 drops of tincture of aconite root, and the application of blisters to the neck, spine, and throat. When the animal is unable to swallow, oue-fourth-graiu doses of sulphate of atropia may be injected under the skin every four, six, or eight hours, as the case may demand. The atropia is a heart stimulant, increases capillary circulation, and quiets pain and excitability. This treatment has been followed by very gratifying results in the hands of Professor Large and others. When the most prominent symptoms abate give such food as they may be able to eat, keep fresh, cool water constantly before them, support them in slings if necessary ; clean stabling and plenty of fresh air are of the utmost importance. Pathology. — Post mortem examination reveals more or less congestion of the blood vessels at the base of the brain, effusion in the ventricles and in the subarachnoid space both in the cranial and the spinal cavi- ties. Plastic exudation is often found adherent to the pia mater of the brain, anterior part of the spinal cord, and in the region of the loins. The brain and cord appear softened in some cases where the greatest evidence of inflammatory action existed. Hygienic measures needful. — Whenever this disease appears in a stable all the animals should be removed as soon as possible. They should be provided with clean, well ventilated, and well-drained stables, and each animal should receive 1 dram of the extract or half an ounce of the tincture of belladonna twice a day for several days. The abandoned stable should be thoroughly cleansed from all waste matters, receive a coat of whitewash containing 4 ounces of carbolic acid to the gallon, and should have time to dry thoroughly before the horses are replaced* A complete change of food is of the very greatest importance, on ac- count of the belief that the cause resides in diseased grain, hay, and grass. TETANUS — LOOK-JAW. This disease is characterized by spasms affecting the muscles of the face, neck, body, and limbs, of all the muscles supplied by the cerebro- spinal nerves. The spasms or muscular contractions are rigid and per- sistent, yet mixed with occasional more interse contractions of convul- sive violence. 213 Causes. — The causes are classified under two heads, traumatic where it is the result of injury, aud idiopathic where it is due to other causes than injuries, such as cold and damp, excessive fright, uervous exhaust- ion from overwork, chronic irritation caused by worms in the intestiues, etc. In the majority of instauces the cause of tetanus can be traced to wounds, especially pricks or wounds of the feet or of tendinous structures. It sometimes follows castration, docking, the introduction of setous, inclusion of a nerve in a ligature, etc. It may come on a long time after the wound is healed, three or four months. In some countries where tetanus appears to be enzootic the presumption is that it is due to a specific germ. Horses with a nervous, excitable disposition are more predisposed than those of a more sluggish nature. Stallions are more subject to develop tetanus as the result of wounds than geld- ings, aud geldings more than mares. Symptoms. — The attacks may be acute or subacute. In an acute at- tack the animal usually dies within four days. The first symptoms which attract the attention of the owner is difficulty in chewing and swallowing, an extension of the head and protrusion over the inner part of the eye of the membrana nictitans or haw. An examination of the mouth will reveal an inability to open the jaws to their full extent, and the eudeavor to do so will produce great nervous excitability and increased spasm of the muscles of the jaw aud neck. The muscles of the neck and along the spine become rigid and the legs are moved in a stiff manner. The slightest noise or disturbance throws the auimal into increased spasm of all the affected muscles. The tail is usually elevated and held immovable; the bowels become constipated early in the attack. The temperature and pulse are not much changed. These symptoms in the acute type become rapidly aggravated until all the muscles are rigid — in a state of tonic spasm — with a continuous tremor running through them ; a cold perspiratiou breaks out on the body ; the breathing becomes painful from the spasm of the muscles used iu respiration ; the jaws are completely set, eye-balls retracted, lips drawn tightly over the teeth, nostrils dilated, aud the animal presents a pict- ure of the most extreme agony until death relieves him. The pulse, which at first was not much affected, will become quick and hard, or small and thready when the spasm affects the muscles of the heart. In the subacute cases the jaws may never become entirely locked ; the nervous excitability aud rigidity of muscles are not so great. There is, however, always some stiffness of the neck or spine manifest in turn- ing ; the haw is turned over the eye-ball when the uose is elevated. It is not uncommon for owners to continue such animals at their work for several days after the first symptoms have been observed. All the symptoms may gradually increase in severity for a period often days, and then gradually diminish under judicious treatment, or they may reach the stage wherein all the characters of acute tetanus become de- veloped. In some cases, however, we find the muscular cra.mp.-s almost 214 solely confined to the head or face, perhaps involving those of the neck. In such cases we have complete trismus — lock-jaw — and all the head symptoms are acutely developed. On the coutrary, we may find the head almost exempt in some cases, and have the body and limbs per- fectly rigid and incapable of movement without falling. Tetanus may possibly be coufouuded with spinal meningitis, but the character of the spasm-locked jaw, retraction of the eyeballs, the diffi- culty in swallowing due to spasms of the muscles of the pharynx, and, above all, the absence of paralysis, should serve to make the distinction. Treatment. — The animal should be placed in a box-stall without bed- ding, as far away as possible from other horses. If in a country district, the animal should be put into an outbuilding or shed, where the noise of other animals will not reach him ; if the place is moderately dark it is all the better; in fly time he should be covered with a light sheet. The attendant must be very careful and quiet about him, to prevent all un- necessary excitement and increase of spasm. A cathartic, composed of Barbadoes aloes, 6 to 8 drams, with which may be mixed 2 drams of the solid extract of belladonna, should be given at once. This is best given in a ball form ; if, however, the ani- mal is greatly excited by the attempt or can not swallow, the ball may be dissolved in 2 ounces of olive oil and thrown on the back of the tongue with a syringe. If the jaws are set, or nearly so, an attempt to administer medicine by the mouth should not be made. In such cases one quarter of a grain of atropia, with 5 grains of sulphate of morphia, should be dissolved in 1 dram of pure water and injected under the skin. This should be repeated sufficiently often to keep the auimal continually under its effect. This will usually mitigate the severity of the spasmodic contraction of the affected muscles and lessen sensibility to pain. Good results may be obtained sometimes by the injection per rectum of the fluid extract of belladonna and of cannabis indica, of each 1 dram, every four or six hours. This may be diluted with a quart of milk. When the animal is unable to swallow liquids, oat-meal gruel aud milk should be given by injection per rectum to sustain the strength of the animal. A pailful of cool water should be constantly before him, placed high enough for him to reach it without special effort; even if he can not drink, the laving of the mouth is refreshing. Excellent success fre- quently may be obtained by clothing the upper part of the head, the neck, and greater part of the body in woolen blankets kept saturated with very warm water. This treatment should be continued for six or eight hours at a time. It often relaxes the cramped muscles aud gives them rest and the animal almost entire freedom from pain ; but it should be used every day until the acute spasms have permanently subsided in order to be of any lasting benefit. If the cause is due to the iuclusiou of a nerve in a ligature, the divi sion of the nerve becomes necessary. When it is due to a wound all foreign substances should be searched for and be removed ; if from a 215 wound which has healed an excision of the cicatrix may be beneficial. In all cases it is not uncommon to have a partial recovery followed by relapse when the animal becomes excited from any cause. RABIES — HYDROPHOBIA — MADNESS. This disease does not arise spontaneously among horses, but is the re- sult of a bite from a rabid animal — generally a dog or cat. The devel- opment of the disease follows the bite in from three weeks to three months — very rarely in twelve or fourteen days. Symptoms. — The first manifestation of the development of this disease may be an increased excitability and viciousness; very slight noises or the approach of a person incites the animal to kick, strike, or bite at any object near him. Very often the horse will bite his own limbs or sides, lacerating the flesh and tearing the skin. The eyes appear star- ing, bloodshot ; the ears are on the alert to catch all sounds ; the head is held erect. In some cases the animal will continually rub and bite the locality of the wound inflicted by the rabid animal. This symptom may precede all others. Generally the bowels become constipated and he makes frequent attempts at urination, which is painful and the urine very dark colored. The furious symptoms appear in paroxysms; at other times the animal may eat and drink, although swallowing ap- pears to become painful towards the latter stage of the disease, and may cause renewed paroxysms. The muscles of the limbs or back may be subject to intermittent spasms, or spasmodic tremors ; finally the hind limbs become paralyzed, breathing very difficult, and convulsions supervene, followed by death. The pulse and respirations are increased in frequency from the outset of the attack. Eabies may possibly be mistaken for tetanus. In the latter disease we fiud tonic spasms of the muscles of the jaws, or stiffness of the neck or back very early in the attack, and evidence of viciousness is absent. Treatment — As soon as the true nature of the disease is ascertained the animal should be killed. Prevention. — When a horse is known to have been bitten by a rabid animal immediate cauterization of the wound with a red-hot iron may possibly destroy the virus before absorption of it takes place. PLUMBISM — LEAD-POISONING. This disease is not of frequent occurrence. It may be due to habitu- ally drinking water which has been standing in leaden conductors or in old paint barrels, etc. It has beeu met with in enzootic form near smelting works, where, by the fumes arising from such works, lead in the form of oxide, carbonate, or sulphate was deposited on the grass and herbage which the horses ate. Symptoms. — Lead poisoning produces derangement of the functions of digestion and locomotion, or it may affect the lungs principally. In 216 whatever system of organs the lead is deposited mostly there will we have the symptoms of nervous debility most manifest. If iu the lungs the breathing becomes difficult aud the animal gets out of breath very quickly when he is compelled to run. Roaring also is very frequently a symptom of lead-poisoning. When it affects the stomach the animal gradually falls away in flesh, tbe hair becomes rough, the skin tight, and colicky symptoms develop. When the deposit is principally iu the muscles partial or complete paralysis gradually develops. When large quantities of lead have been taken in and absorbed, symptoms resem- bling epilepsy may result, or coma aud delirium develop aud prove fatal. In lead-poisoning there is seldom any increase in temperature. A blue line forms along the gums of the front teeth, and the breath assumes a peculiar offensive odor. Lead can always be detected in the urine by chemical tests. Treatment. — The administration of 2-dram doses of iodide of potassa, three times a day. This will form iodide of lead in the system, which is rapidly excreted by the kidneys. If much muscular weakness or paralysis is present, sulphate of iron in dram doses, and strychnia in 2- grain doses may be given twice a day. In all cases of suspected lead- poisoning all utensils which have entered into the supply of feed or water shoul d be examined for the presence of soluble lead. If it occurs near lead works great care must be given to the supply of uncoutam- inated fodder, etc. UEJEMIA. Urcemic poisoning may affect the brain in nephritis, acute albuminu- ria, or when, from any cause, the functions of tbe kidneys become im paired or suppressed aud urea (a natural product) is no longer elimi nated from these organs, causing it to accumulate in the system and give rise to ursemic poisoning. Symptoms. — Ursemic poisoning is usually preceded by dropsy of the limbs or abdomen ; a peculiar fetid breath is often noticed ; then drow- siness, attacks of diarrhea, and general debility ensue. Suddenly ex- treme stupor or coma develops ; the surface of the body becomes cold ; the pupils are insensible to light ; the pulse slow and iutermittiug ; the breathing labored, aud death supervenes. The temperature through- out tbe disease is seldom increased, unless the disease becomes compli- cated with acute inflammatory disease of the brain or respiratory organs, which often occur as a result of the urea in the circulation. Albumen and tube casts may frequently be found in the urine. The disease almost invariably proves fatal. Treatment. — This must be directed to a removal of the cause. (See ''Diseases of the Kidney.") ELECTRIC SHOCK. Electric shock, from coming in contact with electric wires, is becom- ing a matter of rather frequent occurrence, and has a similar effect upon 217 the animal system to a shock from lightning. Two degrees of electric or lightuing shock may be observed, one producing temporary contrac- tion of muscles and insensibility, from which recovery is possible, the other killing directly, by producing a condition of nervous and general insensibility. In shocks which are not immediately fatal the animal is usually insensible, the respiration slow, labored or gasping, the pulse slow, feeble, and irregular, and the pupils dilated and not sensitive, or they may be coutracted and sensitive. The temperature is lowered. There may be a tendency to convulsions or spasms. The predominat- ing symptoms are extreme cardiac and respiratory depression. Treatment. — Sulphate of atropia should be given hypodermically in one quarter grain doses every hour or two hours until the heart beats are invigorated, the number and fullness of the respirations increased, and consciousness returns. Stimulating injections per rectum may also be useful in arousing the circulation} for this purpose whisky or am- monia water may be used. -VJ SV tvj