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Cloth, 16mo, pp. 138.... -6>m things and not about them ; to proceed from the relatively simple to the more complex, from particulars to the genera], from the concrete to the abstract, from the vaguely known to the definitely apprehended, advancing ever step hy step and by insensible degrees. He would have all things presented to the senses, and to as many senses as possible. This is his Sense-Kealism. He insists on the immediate use of all things that are learned, and upon their repeated use, till they shape themselves into mental habits and develop into faculty. These are the best features of what we of the present day know as Pestalozzianism. A pronounced utilitarian in education, always however in accordance with his aim as before stated, he declares himself emphatically opposed to teaching 154 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. what is useless or too special, a declaration of which there was but too much need in liis day, and which may possibly deserve to be borne in mind in all ages. He required that all explanations should be made clear as light, and that they should be proved to have been clear by the pupil's ability to use what had been ex- plained. Finally, he demands that all subjects should be proportioned to the age and capacity of pupils. To prove the conformity of his principles of method to nature, he is over-fond of appealing to analogies from external nature, and too frequently these anal- ogies are .whimsical even to absurdity, especially in the consequences sought to be derived from them. For these, if any one is curious enough to note the vagaries of a great mind, misapprehending the true meaning of conformity to nature and of the sort of nature to which we should conform, it will be easy to refer to Prof. Laurie's Life and Educational Works of Comenius pp. 84-98, where they will be found in abundance, as examples of his syncretic method. In what has here been said, I think has been pre- sented a brief but fair sketch of the great merits of his method. His plan of organization, and his famous books, we will now consider. We have already seen that Sturm had proposed a comprehensive and systematic organization for a isecondary school with a graded series of studies ex- tending over ten years ; and that several of the Ger- man states had in the 16th century, placed below their six-class Latin schools, also German schools in which SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMEES. 155 should be taught the necessary elements of knowledge in the mother-tongue. It remained that some one should prepare a general scheme of organization, com- prehending all the years of instruction, setting to each its limits, and assigning to each its appropriate functions. This Comenius undertook with such suc- cess that his scheme corresponds remarkably in gen- eral features with our modern school organizations. He proposed to divide the years of pupilage from birth to the age of twenty-four, into four equal peri- ods, each of six years, and stated distinctly the part which each should perform in the work of developing progressively the powers of the child and youth. Up to the age of six, he would have all children trained at home or in maternal schools, in which the easy beginnings of all knowledge were to be im- parted, and the precious germs of correct personal and moral habits were to be implanted, by lessons on ob- jects and pictures, and by direction in the observation of common phenomena. The amount of time which Comenius assigned to this early training is now adopted, as is also the general subject-matter, which has been ingeniously wrought up into systematic form 'during the present century by Froebel and his follow- ers ; but the idea which Comenius entertained, of expecting this instruction from the mothers of fam- ilies, and in which he was seconded by Pestalozzi one hundred and fifty years later, has been found wholly impracticable, as might have been anticipated by any- one who knew the condition of the vast majority of 156 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. mothers, especially among the poorer working classes,. and the various distracting demands that are made upon their attention, even in more favored families. Hence this highly important training is now being assigned during its last three years to regular schools called Kindergartens, or Infant schools, with results- which wholly justify the emphasis that Comenius laid on the right direction of infant efforts and activities. From the age of six to twelve, Comenius proposed national schools for all children, girls as well as boys. These were to be schools wholly devoted to the mother tongue, for which he gives weighty reasons, though he would permit some modern language to be taught and learned by its use in the later years. He doubtless saw that this permission was little likely to be used save in the borderlands where two different languages were in close proximity. The studies in these national schools were to be, reading, writing, and reckoning, drawing, measuring, and some handi- crafts, — geography, history, Bible history, and sing- ing. Comenius proposed that each class should have a lesson book containing all that it was to learn in these subjects, as well as in morals and religion, — an expedient which has not commended itself to the experience of succeeding times. The worthy purpose which it may have had in view, of avoiding the ex- pense of many books, is now attained in German elementary schools by the use of inexpensive outlines- on which is based a large amount of oral instruction SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY REFORMERS. 157 and practice.* Thus the spirit, though not the form of the recommendation of Comenius, has been pre- served. The intellectual aim proposed for the national schools, was to train the senses and the memory, the tongue and the hand of all children, that they might learn all those things which have to do with the usual affairs of life, and which hence would always be use- ful for all, whatever might be their future calling. The training of the hand in mechanical dexterities he desires, not only " that boys may understand the affairs of ordinary life," but " that opportunities may thus be given to them to find out their special apti- tudes." The bearing of this on recent efforts for manual training will be obvious, showing Comenius as a pioneer in this effort. The school hours for the national schools, Comenius would make, two hours in the morning for the understanding and the memory, and two in the afternoon for the hand and the voice and for repetitions, transcriptions, and competitions in the various school exercises, an allotment of time which has usually been very considerably exceeded save in the lowest grades. The Latin school or gymnasium which was to re- ceive boys of ages from twelve to eighteen, Comenius proposed to have established in every province or considerable town ; and its aim should be, besides moral and religious instruction which are alwa3's to * Tor example a set of these outlines now before me (Leitf aden) for the grammar instruction during five years of Khe citizen schools, cost all to- gether twenty-four cents. 158 THE HISTORY OF MODEKN EDUCATION. be prominent objects, to train the understanding and the judgment of those who are destined to some- thing higher than commercial and manual pursuits. In this, the course is to be encyclopaedic, including four languages, viz., the vernacular, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, and besides these, the cycle of sciences then known, among which history, " the eye of life,'^ was emphasized as to be studied during the entire six years in small text-books. Comenius does not expect that a complete knowl- edge of any subject will be gained in the Latin school, but only that " a sure foundation shall be laid in each for future acquirements." The same allotment of school hours is recommended for the gymnasium as for the national school, and a like assignment of the more difficult subjects to the morning hours, while the afternoons are set apart for history, repetitions, and writing. The gymnasium was to be divided into six classes, and these were to be so named as to indi- cate the order in which subjects should be begun ; the 1st to be called grammar, the 2d physics, the 3d mathematics — physics to precede mathematics as being less abstract — the 4th ethics, the 5tli dialectics or logic, and the 6th rhetoric. The reasons for tbi& order of arrangement on pedagogic grounds Comenius gives in his Magna Didactica. For the period from the age of eighteen to that of twenty-four, Comenius proposed that there should be established an academia, i. e., university in every country or large province, to which should be sent SEVENTEENTH CENTURY EEFORMERS. 159 only the elite youtli selected for their talent through a public examination by the rectors of the schools, and in which should be retained only those who approved themselves both capable and industrious. The aim of the university should be to train the future teach- ers, and the leaders of nations in thought and action. In it, all sciences should be taught, from which stu- dents should select as specialties those for which they have the greatest taste ; while at the same time he would have systematized summaries prepared, both as introductions to the several specialties, and as en- abling those who devote themselves to some one specialty to gain some idea of its relations to other departments of human interest, — a useful purpose if properly carried out. He likewise prescribes after- noon conferences of professors with students to clear up misunderstandings, doubts, or seeming contradic- tions ; and he suggests the form of the final examina- tions, that " no one may be crowned without victory." Finally Comenius suggests that there be somewhere a Schola Scholarum for the purpose of original re- searches that should advance all sciences, make discoveries, and in general "be to the rest of the schools what the stomach is to the body, — the living workshop, supplying sap, life, and strength." It may be said that the German universities as now conducted, perform the important functions of both university and place of research, as conceived by Comenius ; but they leave the weak and indolent students to eliminate themselves by the action of examinations. 160 THE HISTORY OF MODEEN EDUCATION, The text-books of Comenius all reveal his pan- sophic and utilitarian ideas in their subject-matter, since they grasp after useful knowledge, and strive to give a taste of all useful things. In the selection, gradation, and arrangement of their matter, they are intended to exemplify his principles of method. In this they are not entirely successful, since, as he later confessed, they are too condensed, attempt too much, and as we shall presently see, expect of the pupil more than can be accomplished ; as, for example, one of them has somewhat more than 8,000 Latin words which pupils are expected to master. These faults of detail he acknowledges to be due to his neglect of his own principles. These text-books were all intended to aid in the mastery of Latin together with the mastery of things useful to be known. They make the innovation, how- ever, of basing the instruction in Latin on the vernac- ular and on things. Comenius regards the Latin merely as a means needful to arrive at the knowledge of things useful to be known, and not at all as a disci- pline of the powers, nor as a preliminary to the clas- sic literature, some of which he considered useless, and some as unfit matter for the education of Chris- tian youth. His text-books were hence intended to supersede these useless or pernicious works in school instruction, in which object they utterly failed, though their extended and long-continued use in the schools, indicates that they were found to be a great aid in acquiring Latin. These books, named not in the order SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY KEFOKMEES. 161 of their publication, but in that in which they pre- pare each for the next, are (1) the Orbis Pictus, (2) the Yestibulum, (3) the Janua, and (4) the Atrium : in addition to which the author intended to prepare a Palace of Authors. Of these the Orbis Pictus and the Janua were far the most famous, and of both these I have copies before me : the others I have not seen, and must rely on others for the brief mention that I make of them. (1) The Orbis Pictus or World Displayed, is justly famous as the first illustrated school-book that was ever published, and is the most striking example of its author's leading principle, to appeal in all possible cases directly to the senses of the pupil. Indeed, in the preface to it, he says : " Now there is nothing in the understanding which was not before in the sense. And therefore to exercise the senses well in rightly perceiving the differences of things, will be to lay the grounds for all wisdom, and all right discourse, and all discreet action in one's course of life. " In harmony with this idea, Comenius presents the child with a series of 151 pictures, ranging over the entire circle of the knowable. The parts of the pictures are numbered to correspond with their names as they occur in brief descriptions, which are given in both Latin and the vernacular placed opposite to each other in columns, that the one may be explained by the other. All these pictures are quaint, and some of them in a high degree curious, for example, the attempt to portray the wind in No. 6, the soul in No. 162 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. 43, God's Providence in No. 149, and the Last Judg- ment in No. 150. This book, published in 1657, was the next year translated into English by Charles Hoole, a London schoolmaster, with a preface ad- dressed " to all judicious and industrious schoolmas- ters ; and it is a reprint of this translation that I have now before me. This book went through many edi- tions, had an enormous sale, and was long in use. It was probably one of the most popular text-books ever written. (2) The Yestibulum or porch to the Latin tongue, contains 1,000 Latin words, embodied in 42Y sentences, and divided into seven chapters. The German and Latin are given in parallel columns, the German to be read first and then its Latin equivalent. Along with this reading, is required a progressive mastery of the inflected forms from appended tables of declensions and conjugations. This Latin primer was expected to be studied through several times, and then to be committed to memory. The index at the end of the book was intended to test the pupils' memory of the sentences in which the words occur. With this as a preparation, the boy might pass on to the Janua. (3) The Janua Aurea Linguarum Reserata, or golden door of languages swung open, contains 1,000 sentences, ranging from those somewhat brief and simple at first, to those of considerable length and complexity towards the end. These sentences are grouped in 100 sections, treating each some phase of useful knowledge, the whole field of which they are SEVENTEENTH CENTURY EEFORMEES. 163 intended to cover. They contain no fewer than 8,000 Latin words. The vernacular translation throngh whose aid the Latin is to be learned, is in parallel columns answering to the Latin, and one copy that I have, published in 1676, is adapted for study in either German, French, or Italian, two pages opposite each other being used as one to accommodate the necessary four columns. For each of the languages used there is an alphabetical index of words at the end ; but there is no lexicon, the intention being that the Latin should be learned from its correspondence with the mother-tongue ; for Comenius was of the opinion that pupils should make their lexicon for themselves by comparison of Latin usage with their own. It will be needless to more than allude to an edition of this famous work published about 1654, to which its author prefixed a lexicon in Latin — Latin to be first memorized^ followed by a grammar, also in Latin, to be mastered before proceding to the Janua itself accompanied by no vernacular. I mention it merely to show how completely a great reformer of method may abandon most of his fundamental principles,, when completely possessed with some other idea, like that of treating all kinds of useful knowledge of things, which was the hobby of Comenius. This edi- tion evidently met with little acceptance, for the^ quadrilingual edition of 1676, shortly after the death of Comenius, is on the original plan of the Janua. This book had an enormous success. It was trans- lated into twelve European languages, and some of 164 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. the Oriental ones. The Elzevir edition of 1642, which I have, makes Greek take the place of the ver- nacular ; and the quadrilingnal edition accounts for three of the European tongues. This book, like the others that have been described, was intended to be perused ten times, with much writing. No one need therefore to doubt that Comenius believed in repetition as the corner-stone of thoroughness. (4) Of the Atrium no more need be said than this, that it was a much-expanded Janua, with the same number of chapters, but with the sentences expanded to paragraphs, thus widening the circle of knowledge of the same subjects ; that it contained a Latin gram- mar written in Latin, introducing the idioms and elegances of the language ; and that it was intended to lead up to a Palace of Authors which was never prepared. As a whole, these treatises are progressive in char- acter, in spite of their faults in matters of detail. They serve also as an excellent illustration of the third of the obstacles to the progress of educational reform mentioned in a previous chapter, that, namely, which springs from the impossibility that the re- former himself should so entirely free himself from early prepossessions, as not to permit them somewhat ^o interfere with his settled principles of later date. The Magna Didactica is the great work in which Comenius has set forth his principles of education, ^nd his theoretic application of them to methods of instruction and organization. What is needful to our SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY REFOEMEES. 165' purpose in tliese regards has already been given. It remains only to speak of his ideas of discipline. This he thought should be wholly mild and kindly, and that adherence to his system would render all severity needless. For the child, he reasoned, who was not forced to study but allured to it, by kind and cheerful treatment, by promotions and prizes, by using and seeing the utility of all he learns, by an easy and orderly procedure from perception of things to ideas and words which he remembers because he first under- stands them, and by feeling in himself a growth of insight and a development of the power to judge rightly, — would be little likely to need severe disci- pline. In this idea Comenius was doubtless right, as the best modern school practice abundantly proves. To those who desire a more complete knowledge of the life and works of this greatest and most original of the Innovators, his life by Prof. Laurie, containing an analysis of his works can be confidently recom- mended. American educators owe to Mr. C. W., Bardeen an excellent reprint of the Orbis Pictus. Copies of the Janua are not impossible to be obtained through dealers in German books. For those who read German, a good translation of the Magna Didac- tica is published in Leipsic, and to this is prefixed an excellent biography of Comenius and an analytic statement of the pedagogical doctrines of the work Its German title is "Comenius, Grosse Unterrichts-. . lehre." In the introduction to this, the editor adduces facts- 166 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. to prove that this work, published first in Bohemian and later in Latin, was little known during the 17th century. The Port Royalists. The teaching community of Port Hoyal, in the opinion of French pedagogic writers, exerted a far more pervasive and lasting influence on education in France than would naturally be expected from the smallness of the circle in which it acted, or the brev- ity of the time during which its schools continued. The little scJiools as they were called, started into being in 1613, apparently as a protest against the evil moral tendency of the Jesuits ; and they were sup- pressed through the machinations of the Jesuits in 1660, after an existence of barely seventeen years. To what then is the continuance of their influence to be ascribed ? In part, I think, to the great liter- ary activity of some of the lay brothers, who wrote, besides some pedagogic treatises, several approved text-books, long current under the name of Port Royal books; in part also because they were the French representatives of some highly important principles of the educational reformers, which through them and their books became known and influential. Thus they numbered among them Nicole who wrote a treatise on the education of a prince, in which he recommends an appeal to the senses in in- .^truction wherever possible, that difficulties be pro- portioned to the growing powers of the young, and that in the education of the great, chief stress be laid SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY EEFORMEES. 167 on the heart and the morals, rather than on acquired knowledge ; Coustel,who wrote a work entitled, "Rules of Education for Children ;" Lancelot, who wrote the methods of Port Royal for teaching Latin, Greek, Italian, and Spanish, and also a catalogue of the root words of Greek, with the inviting title " Garden of Greek Roots ; " and Arnauld, celebrated for his con- troversy with the Jesuits, who aided in writing the Elements of Geometry, the Port Royal Logic or art of thinking, and a '^ General Grammar," in which the universal laws of language are sought in the reason common to human beings. These various works of the Port Royalists became widely known and es- teemed, and perpetuated their influence long after their schools were disbanded. In the line of reform, one of their great merits was the stress which they laid on the vernacular. In that age the mother tongues received little attention, as we have seen ; yet the Port Royalists made French the basis of all instruction. Whereas Latin grammar was usually taught in Latin, " the unknown by the unintelligible," as Prof. Compayre wittily remarks, they prepared in French not only a Latin grammar, but likewise grammars for the Greek and some mod- ern languages. Pupils were also taught to compose in French at an early age on subjects suited to their powers, and this work in composition was directed to the training oi judgment as well as- to the attainment of skill. In language study they greatly simplified and 168 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDTJDATION. abridged definitions and rules ; they impressed the meaning of rules by their immediate use in the read- ing of authors ; they made the most important parts prominent by such expedients, not then common, as differences of type ; they protested against the abuse of written themes^ demanding that the most time be given to the explication of authors, of which they made rather an exercise of judgment than, like the Jesuits, a study of words, making also the translation into Latin more an oral than a written exercise, while verse making was entirely optional ; instead of giv- ing colorless extracts from authors, like the Jesuits, they preferred entire works of Latin authors ; and they taught Greek to the pupil through the medium of his own language instead of through Latin, as was usual. Compayre thinks their unquestionable supe- riority is as teachers of humanistic studies ; yet hu- manities with them were not humanities of mere form as with the Jesuits, but of judgment leading to a sound use of reason and to an upright conscience. Burnier, quoted by Compayre, thus sums up the pedagogic principles and merits of Port Royal : " It simplified study, without taking from it its whole- some difficulties : it strove to make study interesting, while not converting it into a puerile play : it caused to be committed to memory only that which had first been grasped by the intelligence : it admitted only perfectly clear and distinct ideas, few precepts and many exercises on them, the knowledge of things and not merely that of words ; in short, the real develop- SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMERS. 169 ment of thought and of the faculties of the soul by means of study." So far their ideas and methods seem identical with those of the reformers, from whom however they differed widely by the light es- teem in which they held positive knowledge ; since, in the words of Nicole, they valued " the sciences only as an instrument to perfect reason." Their discipline was mild and kindly considerate, but with a tone of gravity in it akin to ascetic gloom. They eschewed any resort to praise and emulation as tending to arouse pride and self-satisfaction. Their motto " to speak little, endure much, and to pray still more," shows how entirely they relied on the aid of God and on the prayers addressed to Him for the suc- cess of their work. They had " a deep distrust of human nature," which was shown by the check which they put on the formation of friendships among the boys. " Pious practices they held in honor, yet they subordinated them to the reality of inward sentiment; hence they advised devotion, but did not impose it." '* Above all they manifested the profound and un- wearying devotion of Christian souls who give them- selves wholly and without reserve to other souls to elevate them, but injured and marred by a shade of rigidity and mysticism." Such was this small and short-lived, yet largely in- fluential teaching congregation ; exemplifying in their own way and coloring with their own spirit, some of the most far-reaching principles of the educational reformers ; and uttering a courageous protest, in a 170 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDUCATION. gainsaying age, against the spirit, the methods, and the tendencies of the Jesuits, their crafty co-religion- ists. Suspected, coerced, and finally silenced, their methods and the best features of their spirit survived them, and in the next age took the form of the wise Kollin ; and their protest against the Jesuitic spirit in education, through the letters of Pascal, gathered force ultimately to overthrov^ temporarily those by whom they had been overthrown. John Milton, 1608-1674, We have seen in the 16th century, how weighty contributions to pedagogical literature we owe to English teachers like Ascham and Mulcaster. In the 17th century England can point with pride, not merely to the powerful though indirect influence on educa- tion of Sir Francis Bacon, but also to noteworthy thoughts on education from her greatest poet, and from one of her most renowned philosophers, Milton and Locke. John Milton, best known for the past two centuries as a great poet, was chiefly distinguished in his own time for the vastness, variety, and elegance of his scholarship, for his vigor and ferocity in politico-theo- logical controversy, and for the austerity of his repub- lican principles. He is of interest to us here only as a skilful and successful schoolmaster, and as the author of a brief but significant treatise on education. The story of his life belongs to literary history, and has been told by Dr. Johnson in his " Lives of the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY EEFORMEKS. 171 Poets," with that bitterness of personal prejudice from which that remarkable man could never wholly abstain when occasion offered, and for which, to this stanch royalist and high churchman, the career of Milton presented abundant opportunity. Hence John- son cannot refrain from " some degree of merriment " on the poet's career as a master of a boys' boarding school, which however, with an air of magnanimity, he conceded that " no wise man will consider as in itself disgraceful ;" yet he contrasts satirically his ardor in hastening home from his travels when he heard that England was on the verge of a civil war, with the peaceful and humble employment in which he at once engaged. It is not wholly impossible that the poet who penned in one of his sonnets the noble line, " He also serves who only stands and waits," may have seen that the most effective way in which he could serve his native land in her trouble was by aiding to train her youth for a better destiny. Johnson writes, " It is said that in the art of educa- tion he performed wonders, and a formidable list is given of the authors, Greek and Latin, that were read in his school by youth between ten and fifteen or six- teen ; " but he expresses his incredulity in these words : *' Those who tell or receive these stories should con- sider that nobody can be taught faster than he can learn. The speed of the horseman is limited by the power of the horse. Every man that has ever under- taken to instruct others, can tell what slow advances 1Y2 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDUCATION. he has been able to make, and how much patience it requires to recall vagrant inattention, to stimulate sluggish indifference, and to rectify absurd misappre- hension." The worthy doctor here speaks doubtless from a bitter recollection of his own unhappy experi- ence as a schoolmaster. It was during the years that he devoted to teaching" and at the age of thirty-six that he wrote the little essay on education with which this sketch has to deaL At a later period of his life, after he had held consid- erable public employments, and while engaged in writing Paradise Lost, he showed his passion for his former vocation, by writing an elementary Latin method, descending, as Johnson pompously says, "from his elevation to rescue children from the perplexities of grammatical confusion, and the trouble of lessons unnecessarily repeated." In his tractate on education which is in the form of a letter to Samuel Hartlib, a learned Polish-Prussian merchant then residing in England, and a friend of Comenius, the great poet declares that he has thought much and long on a reform of education as a matter of quite vital moment. In his view, the aim of edu- cation is "to regain to know God aright." "But because our understanding cannot, in this body, found itself but upon sensible things, nor arrive so clearly ta the knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning on the visible and inferior creature^ the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching." SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMERS. 173 This sentence condenses in itself a whole chapter of pedagogic psychology ; and both in this and the entire spirit of his treatise, Milton shows himself in entire accord with the fundamental ideas of Montaigne and Comenius, alluding indeed to the Didactica, and the Janua as books with which he is acquainted. Like them he emphasizes the need of basing the work of education on knowledge of sensible things, and in- sists upon exact and orderly observation of external things as " the method necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching." Like them, he lays great stress on experience and on immediate application of what has been learned. His ideas, too, like theirs, as to the subject-matter of education, are what many in these days are apt to stigmatize as utilitarian, as though things useful to be known, should on that ac- count be regarded with suspicion as pabulum for the youthful intelligence. He differs widely from them in some points ; and wherein they differ, his scheme is doubtless less practicable than that of Comenius ; or, as he says himself, '^ I believe that this is not a bow for every man to shoot in that counts himself a teacher, but will require sinews almost equal to those which Homer gave Ulysses." Yet all these illustri- ous men, amid their differences in plans for accom- plishing their common objects, have still the same great objects in view, viz., so to reform education as to restore sense-activity and experience to their proper and fundamental place in instruction, to cultivate the understanding more while cramming memory less, 1Y4 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. * and to confine the subjects of instruction closely to those matters which will best fit the future man to perform well his duties as a citizen and a Christian. Milton's definition of education is justly famous for its force and elegance of expression : "I call there- fore a complete and generous education, that which fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnani- mously all the oflSces, both private and public, of peace and war." As a prelude to this, he arraigns " the usual method of teaching arts as an old error of the universities, not yet well recovered from the scholastic grossness of barbarous ages, that instead of beginning with arts most easy, — and those be such as are most obvious to the sense, — they present their young novices at first coming with the most intellec- tive abstractions of logic and metaphysics," so that ''for the most part they grow into hatred and con- tempt of learning." To this perverted teaching, Milton attributes the fact that when young men so bred enter on life, some betake themselves " to an ambitious and mercenary or ignorantly zealous divinity;" some are "allured to the trade of law " with no higher aim than "fat contentions and flowing fees ; " others engage in " state affairs with souls so unprincipled in virtue and true generous breeding, that flattery and court shifts, and tyrannous aphorisms appear to them the highest points of wisdom ; " and still others are content to lead a life of mere luxury and sensuous enjoyment. The scheme of education, then, that he would arrange SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY KEFOKMEES. 175 was intended to rescue youth from careers so mean and inglorious, and to put them upon the attainment of the lofty ends that he proposes in his definition, by a way laborious indeed, yet withal so alluring that he believes there would be more difficulty in driving from it the dullest and most indolent, " than we now have to hale and drag our choicest and hopefullest wits to that asinine feast of sow thistles and brambles which is commonly set before them." Milton concedes the necessity of learning languages, because the knowledge and experience of individual nations is incomplete, yet he insists that " language is but the instrument conveying to us things useful to be known." Hence he blames the schools for wasting seven or eight years " in scraping together so much miserable Latin and Greek as might be learned easily and delightfully in one year." This loss of time he attributes partly to too frequent vacations, but mostly to a " preposterous exaction, forcing the empty wits of children to compose verses, themes, and orations which are the acts of ripest judgment and the final work of a head filled by long reading and observing with elegant maxims and copious invention." The practice which he denounces as preposterous has, however, proved very tenacious of life, continuing far into the present century, and being by no means extinct in the native land of Milton. Having there- fore no opinion of the value of the ancient languages as a mental gymnastic, he would have them learned by the most compendious means possible, with only 176 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. the most essential parts of grammar thoroughly prac- tised in some good short book, that they might quickly be used as a medium through which " to learn the substance of good things and arts in due order." Between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, Milton expects boys to master all good authors in Latin and Greek, together with Hebrew for purposes of scrip- ture study, whereto he thinks, " it would be no im- possibility to add the Chaldee and the Syrian dialect," with the Italian, as he naively adds, at any odd hours. This however is only language as a means of convey- ing to the hoys things useful to be known. Through these his boys are to master " the rules of arithmetic, and soon after the elements of geometry even playing as the old manner was," likewise geography and as- tronomy, the easy grounds of religion and scripture history, agriculture from classical authors, "that they may improve the tillage of their country," natural history from the same sources, trigonometry with its applications in engineering and navigation, the ele- ments of medicine, the essentials of rhetoric, logic, ethics, and poetry, and also politics that they may "know the beginning, end, and reasons of political societies." After this the boy is to dive into the grounds of law from Moses and Lycurgus and Justinian " down to the Saxon and common laws of England and the stat- utes." " These," he says, " are the studies wherein our noble and our gentle youth ought to bestow their time in a disciplinary way from twelve to one and SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFOKMERS. 177 twenty," — at convenient times for memory's sake re- viewing and systematizing all, " until they have con- firmed and solidly united the whole body of their perfected knowledge like the last embattling of a Roman legion." The relationship of this scheme of studies with the pansophic ideas of Comenius, is somewhat striking. We may well pause here to inquire with Milton, '' what exercises and recreations may best agree with and become these studies ;" for young fellows fed on so full and sturdy an intellectual diet would be quite sure to need exercise. For an hour and a half before their noontide meal, the recreations are to be of a martial character, a training in the use of all kinds of weapons and in wrestling, " as need may be often in fight to tug or grapple and to close." Then whilst resting before meat, their spirits are to be composed by '^ the solemn and divine harmonies of music," to which, like Plato and Aristotle, he ascribes '' a great power over dispositions and manners." Then again about two hours before supper, the boys are to be summoned to warlike evolutions, first on foot, then as age permits on horseback, and finally in " all the helps of ancient and modern stratagems, tactics, and warlike maxims." He expects from this that boys will go from his school fitted to command armies with more than usual credit, as the result of those physical exercises by which their bodies are enabled to endure the hercu- lean labors which his required studies impose. Besides 178 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. these regular exercises in tlie school, he provides for the older boys another recreation, in which, ever thrifty in the use of time, he proposes to combine long excursions on horseback in the spring with a pleas- ant mode of gaining knowledge of their own country and its resources, by " observing all places of strength, all commodities of building and of soil for towns and tillage, harbors and ports of trade," and with these, some idea of naval affairs, " of sailing and of sea fights." Finally when his admirable Crichton shall have gained all knowledge, wisdom, and virtue, as well from observation and experience as from converse through books with all that has been worthily said or done by great men in ages past, Milton permits him at the age of three or four and twenty to see other countries, "not to learn principles, but to enlarge experience, and make wise observations." It will be seen therefore that while Milton agrees with Mon- taigne in thinking foreign travel beneficial, he differs from him both as to its time, and the purpose that it should subserve. Montaigne would have the boy visit foreign lands while young and with a judicious tutor, that he may learn their languages by use, become acquainted with their manners and modes of life that he may be thus guarded against narrow and provincial ideas and modes of judging, and learn their history on the spot, with what he values more, the ability to judge of histories. As to the methods by which Milton hopes to achieve SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMEES. 179 the large results that he expects, it will already have been seen that they contemplate a thorough use of the senses, a guiding of the youth in all possible cases to personal experience and to immediate application in right ways of what he has learned, and the combina- tion of all that has been learned, by a right use of the understanding, into such a systematized body of doe- trine as may justly be termed wisdom. For the motive power that shall prompt boys to undertake and continue such labors, he looks chiefly to the example of teachers, which " might in a short space gain them to an incredible diligence and cour- age, infusing into their young breasts an ingenuous and noble ardor." He expects much also from " such lectures and explanations upon every opportunity as may lead and draw them in willing obedience, in- flamed with a study of learning and the admiration of virtue, so stirred up with high hopes of living to be brave men and worthy patriots, dear to God and fa- mous to all ages, that they may despise and scorn all their childish and ill-taught qualities to delight in manly and liberal exercises." 'Now as regards the motives on which Milton relies,, love of knowledge, and a high-toned ambition to excel, though they are of the most enduring influence when once thoroughly roused, it may be doubted by some teachers whether they are not directed to ends somewhat too remote to be influential with the ordi- nary run of boys in a considerable school. Doubtless, by good precepts, effectively expressed, given on aptly 180 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. -chosen occasions, not weakened bv too frequent repe- tition, and best of all, enforced and illustrated by the consistent example of respected teachers, such high motives may be awakened and kept active in the more finely endowed boys, prompting them *' to scorn de- lights and live laborious days ; " and thus a powerful public sentiment may be fostered in a school which will stir even the coarser and ruder natures. Hence if Milton's ideas in this regard bear the same heroic stamp as his scheme of studies, they are none the less worthy of the most attentive consideration of all con- scientious teachers who are intent to educate as well as to instruct, and to educate by instructing. It remains only to be said that Milton's so compre- hensive and useful scheme of studies, proposed for so lofty aims, and inspired by such high motives, was in- tended to be carried out in schools, each for one hundred and thirty boys, who were to be lodged in fair houses enclosed in spacious grounds ; and that it was meant to supersede both the English public schools and the universities for whose "asinine feast of sow thistles and brambles " he expresses so hearty a contempt. In the great lines on which he would carry out the reforms which he thinks needful in the schools, he is obviously in full sympathy with the leading principles of the educational Reformers ; whilst by the demands that he makes on the personality of the teacher both ^s example and as guide in the strenuous exertion of ■every power, he dignifies his calling to a degree which SEVENTEENTH CENTURY KEFOEMEES. 181 has come to be generally admitted only in much- more recent times. John Locke, 1632-1704. John Locke, long celebrated as a philosopher, has- an especial claim on the attention of the student of education, because of the wide influence he has ex- erted on educational history through his " Thoughts Concerning Education," and, in a much smaller de- gree, by his essay on Studies. Curiously enough, his ideas have been much less influential among his own countrymen than on the continent of Europe. Until a comparatively recent period, the typical English schoolmaster has shown little interest in educational theories and problems, so that Locke's ideas on educa- tion were long better known in France and Germany than in England. In France, especially, he inspired Rousseau with nearly every valuable thought which appears in the brilliant pages of his Emile. He seems himself to have derived some of his most character- istic ideas from Montaigne and possibly also from Rabelais, as will be apparent in the analytic examina- tion of his chief educational work. He brought to his task a pedagogic experience^ gained, not like that of Milton in the management of a considerable number of boys, nor like that of Come- nius in the organization and direction of schools and in the preparation of manuals for youth, but in the direction of the education of a few high-born boys, and in wise and friendly counsels given to people of 182 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. "distinction who sought his advice in the training of their sons. Possibly from this circumstance he, like Montaigne, favors private education and consequently neglects that of the people, believing, to use his own words, that " that most to be taken care of is the gen- tleman's calling ; for if those of that rank are by their education once set right, they will quickly bring all the rest into order." It need hardly be shown how inferior is this conception of the sphere of education to that of Luther and Comenius, both of whom be- lieved that to all youth should be given an education befitting their destiny as human beings, instead of leaving their improvement to the chance of influences that might be vouchsafed to them from above. Moreover the wise foresight of these men in contra- distinction to the narrower views of Locke, is being continually emphasized by all the movements of mod- ern civilization. Still Locke's preference for private and individual education was entirely in harmony with his belief in the decisive effects of early training in shaping the character and destiny of men. At tlie beginning of his " Thoughts," he says, " Of all the men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education. 'Tis that which makes the great difference in mankind. The little or almost insensible impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting conse- quences ; and there 'tis as in the fountains of some rivers, where a gentle application of the hand turns SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY EEFOEMEES. 183 the flexible waters in channels that make them take quite contrary courses, and by this direction given them at first in the source, they receive different ten- dencies, and arrive at last at very remote and distant places." Kow no one can fairly question the great and far-reaching effects on the character of the child due to his early experiences ; and if one fully believed that so large a part as nine-tenths of what men are is due to these early experiences, and so little as one- tenth to innate or inherited dispositions and tenden- cies, and believed besides, as Locke apparently assumes, that these influential experiences can be satisfactorily controlled by a private education, the argument for such education would be very strong. Yet its strength is rather apparent than real ; for, setting aside the important fact that such separate education would be attainable only by those who are favored by fortune, and who can find paragons for tutors, the general experience of mankind has shown that native tendencies play a much larger part in shap- ing men's characters than Locke admits in the passage that has been quoted. Indeed, in § ^^ of the same work, he forgets consistency, and refutes his earlier over-statement, by saying '' God has stamped certain characters on men's minds which like their shapes may perhaps be a little mended, but can hardly be totally altered and transformed into the contrary. — For in many cases all that we can do or should aim at, is to make the best of what nature has given, to prevent the vices and faults to which such a constitur 184 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. tion is most inclined, and give it all the advantages it is capable of." Bat besides this stubborn fact of innate dispositions, which causes the best education to expend unavail- inglj a portion of its force, we should not lose sight of another fact quite as stubborn, which is that not even the wisest man can wholly control or even fore- see the experiences that may be decisive in shaping the infinitely variable tendencies of the young. The acute Rousseau saw this difficulty, and to avoid it he proposed to isolate his Emile from all human com- panionship save that of his tutor ; but whilst he would strive thus to eliminate the dangers that spring from the strong social instincts of human beings, — one of the most influential factors in shaping character, — he ignores the fact that man can be fitted for his proper sphere of activity in human society, only by early and habitual intercourse with his fellows. From this in- tercourse, it is true that he runs a risk of being led astray : without it, it is well-nigh sure that he will be less than a normal man. Hence, despite the weighty opinion of Locke, we may feel reasonably sure that our usual mode of educating youth in the society of their fellows, notwithstanding its seeming risks, is not merely the only practicable one, but is also to be pre- ferred on theoretical grounds to a private education ; even could paragons be always found for tutors. Montaigne, it will be remembered, lays great stress on the choice of a tutor whom he would wish to be a man " with a strong and well-balanced head rather SEVENTEENTH CENTURY EEFORMEES. 185 than with a very full one," furnished with good man- ners and a sound understanding rather than with mere book knowledge. Locke emphasizes the char- acter and qualifications of the tutor even more strongly than Montaigne had done. Indeed, after his some- what discursive fashion, he recurs to this subject again and again, and in the most various connections ; so that to make out the qualities which his ideal tutor must possess, we are obliged to refer often to quite widely-separated sections of his work. Of his character, he says, " I think this province requires great sobriety, temperance, tenderness, dili- gence, and discretion, qualities hardly to be found united in persons that are to be had for ordinary sal- aries, nor easily to be found anywhere. Then too he must be thoroughly well-bred, for " to form a young gentleman, as he should, it is fit his governor should himself be well-bred, understand the ways of cai-riage and measures of civility in all the variety of persons, times, and places, and keep his pupil, as much as his age requires, constantly to the observation of them." "Besides being well-bred, the tutor should know the ways of the world well ; the ways, the humors, the follies, the cheats, the faults of the age he is fallen into, and particularly of the country he lives in," that he may be able to teach his pupil to steer his course prudently and safely through the devious paths of a deceitful and self-seeking world. In his instruction, "his great skill is to get and keep the attention of his scholar, making him com- 186 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. prehend the usefulness of what he teaches and the added power he thus gets, and making the child sen- sible that he loves him and desires his good." Finally he " should be one who thinks Latin and language the least part of education ; one who, knowing how much virtue and a well-tempered soul is to be pre- ferred to any sort of learning or language, makes it his chief business to form the mind of his scholar and give that a right disposition ; " and who, to that end, " should have something more in him than Latin, more than even a knowledge in the liberal sciences ; he should be a person of eminent virtue and pru- dence, and with good sense, have good humor and the skill to carry himself with gravity, ease, and kindness in a constant conversation with his pupil." From this description of the tutor which has been pieced together from passages scattered here and there as his mode of treatment called for them, it may be seen that Locke has a lofty ideal of the teacher and of his work. He is to be gifted with the finest of human qualities, and in their combination, the rarest ; these are to be adorned by perfect good- breeding, and their usefulness enhanced by a consum- mate knowledge of the world and of men ; with a sufficient literary and scientific knowledge, he must combine a clear conception of the aims towards which :all his educational efforts should steadily tend ; and with all these gifts and acquirements, he must above all be endowed with that rare tact and power of in- fluence which alone can make all these effective. It SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMEES. 187 may be said without reservation that the teacher of any age or country may safely make Locke's ideal tutor his model. Bred a physician, and afflicted during his entire life by feeble health, of which however he took such prudent care as to reach the age of seventy-two, Locke was naturally led to treat with more than usual ful- ness of the early physical training and care of chil- dren, insomuch that some writers on education •consider it the chief merit of the " Thoughts " that so great stress is laid on physical education. Still we may without loss give this portion of his work a some- what cursory attention, especially as the author has given an admirable condensation of his views, as follows : "What concerns the body and health, re- duces itself to these few and easily observable rules : plenty of open air, exercise, and sleep, plain diet, no wine or strong drink, and very little or no physic, not too warm and straight clothing, especially the head and feet kept cold, and the feet often used to cold water and exposed to wet." Of these rules, probably none would now be objected to save the one to keep the feet cold and exposed to wet, and the method by which Locke would secure it, by having children wear thin and leaky shoes. His remarks on diet are excellent; yet it seems strange to modern ideas, that while admitting most ripe fruits into his dietary, he should class peaches and grapes with melons and most plums, as articles to be rigidly excluded. His moderate and sensible ad- 188 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDUCATION. vice to avoid all medicine, and physicians as well^ save in cases of imminent necessity, seems to have- given to Rousseau the hint on which, in two passages of his Eraile, he writes a violent and whimsical tirade against physicians and their art, a tirade which it i& said he had later the grace to regret, but not to correct. Coming now to what in the narrower sense we con- sider education, Locke § 134 states its purposes, and what in his view should be their relative rank, as- 1st, virtue ; 2d, wisdom ; 3d, good-breeding, and 4th and last, learning. By virtue, he means not only religion with its at- tendant truthfulness, founded on " a true notion of God," which in his view, " ought very early to be imprinted on the child's mind," but also self-control, self-denial to which the child is to be early habitu- ated ; and in general, " a well-tempered soul which is to be preferred to any sort of learning." Wisdom he defines § 140, as a blending of pru- dence, foresight, knowledge of the world, and ability in affairs, with an aversion to mere cunning. To lead a child to wisdom, he believes we must begin by mak- ing him averse to trickiness as in itself shallow and contemptible, and leading soon to distrust and con- tempt. When this is duly impressed, he thinks that " to accustom a child to have true notions of things- and not to be satisfied till he has them, to raise his mind to great and worthy thoughts, and to keep him at a distance from falsehood, and cunning, which has always a broad mixture of falsehood in it, is the fittest. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMERS. 189 preparation of a child for wisdom." The rest which •can come only from time, experience, and observa- tion, can be aided only by accustoming youth " to truth and sincerity, to a submission to reason, and as much as may be to reflection on their own actions." In this moral training of the young, as in all other parts of their education, Locke strenuously objects to frequent resorts to the rod as usually *' a passionate tyranny over them — putting their bodies in pain without doing their minds any good." In place of blows and passionate chidings, and even of finely phrased precepts oft repeated, he would rely, like Aristotle, on good example and early habituation. " Pray remember," he says, " children are not to be taught (conduct) by rules which will be always slip- ping out of their memories. What you think necessary for them to do, settle in them by an indispensable practice as often as the occasion returns, and if it be possible, make occasions. This will beget habits in them, which being once established, operate of them- selves easily and naturally without the assistance of memory." He sees also that to secure this moral habituation so essential to true wisdom, the child must from the outset be accustomed to implicit obedi- ence to rightful authority. Of this he says, § 36, *' He that is not used to submit his will to the reason of others when he is young will scarce hearken or submit to his own reason when he is of an age to make use of it ; and what kind of a man such a one is likely to prove is easy to foresee." 190 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. On good breeding, Locke treats at considerable length, commenting wisely and wittily on the most common modes in which it is violated, and empha- sizing the necessity of securing it by a combination of good example and early and constant habituation, with an inbred regard for the rights and feelings of others. His golden rule for good breeding is, " not to think meanly of ourselves, and not to think meanly of others." Locke anticipates the surprise likely to be caused by his placing learning last in a treatise on educa- tion, and by his insisting that it is the least part. He justifies it in this way. " I imagine you would think him a very foolish fellow that should not value a virtuous or a wise man infinitely before a great scholar. Kot but that I think learning a great help to both in well-disposed minds ; but yet it must be confessed also that in others not so disposed, it helps them only to be the more foolish or worse men. — Learning must be had, but in the second place, as sub- servient only to greater qualities." His order of estimation is therefore first character with that which may add effectiveness to character, and afterwards knowledge, — an order which in too many cases tends to be reversed in modern practice. He strikes the key note of the subjects that ha would have taught to youth in a paragraph which oc- curs in his discussion of the recreations in which the young should be encouraged to engage. "In all the parts of education, most time and application is to be SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMERS. 191 bestowed on that which is like to be of greatest con- sequence and f requentest use in the ordinary course and occurrences of that life the young man is destined for." With this principle all parts of his scheme of studies agree. Thus he lays great stress on careful instruction in one's native tongue. Grammar should be learned " amongst the other aids of speaking well," but it should be the grammar of the youth's vernacu- lar, and its study should be limited to those only who would take pains in cultivating their style. Rhetoric he holds in low esteem as of little use for the purpose for which it is taught, which purpose he thinks may be better attained by exercise on familiar topics ac- cording to good models; and in § 189 he proposes a scheme for teaching composition which smacks strongly of Quintilian. Of logic as the art of reason- ing rightly, he thinks even more lightly than of rhet- oric". " Truth," he says, " is to be found and supported by a mature and due consideration of things them- selves, and not by artificial turns and ways of argu- ing." Latin he regards as absolutely necessary for a gentleman ; but he would have this or any other need- ful language taught by the briefest possible way, and wherever practicable, by speaking it, which is, he says, " the true and genuine way," an idea in which he agrees with Montaigne. Where this mode is im- practicable, he would have Latin taught by interlinear translations of easy authors, followed by easy books with English translations. Thus Locke appears to be 192 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. the responsible siiggester of the modern practice called Bohning^ as also of the once famous " Hamiltonian system " of learning languages. In the early stages of language instruction he thinks grammar needs no attention save what is necessary to master the inflected forms. If grammar is taught at all, it should be to one that can use the language al- ready. " How else can he be taught the grammar of it," cries Locke triumphantly. . Like Milton, he con- demns the writing of Latin themes and Latin verses, the latter however for a quite different reason from any that Milton would have urged : he discourages poetry as well as versification in any language, be- cause, as he pithily expresses it, "Pafnassusis a pleas- ant air but a barren soil." Of other studies, he would have geography on the globes early begun, and also arithmetic by daily prac- tice in reckoning, to be followed by astronomy according to the Copernican system. He would have chronology go hand in hand with geography that the two may introduce to history " which is the great mistress of prudence and civil knowledge, — and is the proper study of a gentleman or man of business." Law and the constitutional history of one's own coun- try, he agrees with Milton in deeming indispensable ; and the enlightened men of all countries seem to be coming to a modified form of this opinion. Geom- etry should be taught as far as the first six books of Euclid ; and some good short history of the Bible should precede physics as an antidote to materialisin. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY REFORMERS. 193 Of natural philosophy, however, he says, " I think I have reason to say we never shall be able to make a science of it. The works of nature are contrived by a wisdom and operate by ways too far surpassing our faculties to discover or capacities to conceive, for us ever to be able to reduce them to a science " § 190. Now at the close of the second century since this opinion was recorded by the most sagacious and in- structed philosopher of his age, this once impossible science leads all others in the importance and brill- iancy of its revelations ; and, not content with ran- sacking the mysteries of the earth, with no irreverent hand, it assails the heavens, makes the lightning its useful servant, and careers on the wings of light to the remotest confines of the universe itself. Finally Locke follows Comenius and Sir Wm. Petty * in advocacy of the training of the hand, by impressing at considerable length the importance that every man should learn some trade, and even giving a list of those trades that he would have taught, an- ticipating in this a number of those that are proposed in our own days. In this we shall see that Rousseau copies him, and urges the idea with so much eloquence that the learning of some trade becomes fashionable in France ; and even the king, the unhappy Louis XYL, becomes a skilful locksmith. It is now easy to see that, both in the subjects chosen for instruction, and in the spirit with which * See Barnard's American Journal of Education Vol. XL, p. 199, for Sir Wm. Petty's plan of an industrial school, containing nearly all valuable ideas of modern advocates of manual training. This plan dates from 1647. 194: THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. thej are presented, Locke is a pronounced utilitarian. Even Latin, now urged most largely for disciplinary ends, was in his day still indispensable to a gentleman as a means of gaining much useful knowledge, and in this view he urges it. Both this, and the methods he recommends rank him with the most thorough- going reformers. Thus he rejects all instruction that appeals merely to memory. He insists abundantly on reaching the understanding and reason of the child, and on assuring the knowledge of things before words. He advises to begin always with what is first and easiest, with what is most obvious to the senses, and to advance by easy and natural steps towards what we would ultimately unfold, making all that is taught familiar and habitual by practice, and aiming always to develop the abilities which the boy has at his stage of progress. All this clearly implies that Locke presupposes on the part of the teacher a definite and far-reaching aim^ and that he believes teaching is something far higher than the presentation of a mere memorized jumble of interesting facts. A few brief quotations will give his more important ideas in his own words. § 180, " In this as in all other parts of instruction, great care must be taken with children to begin with that which is plain and simple, and to teach them as little as can be at once, and settle that well in their heads before you proceed to the next or anything new in that science. Give them first one simple idea, and see they take it right, and perfectly comprehend it. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY EEFORMEES. 195- before you go any further ; and then add some other simple idea which lies next in your way to what you aim at ; and so, proceeding by gentle and insensible steps, children will have their understandings opened, and their thoughts extended farther than could have- been expected." § 195, " In history the order of time should govern, in philosophic inquiries that of nature^ which in all progression is to go from the place one is- then in to that which joins and lies next to it ; and so< it is in the mind, from the knowledge it stands pos- sessed of already to that which lies next and is coher- ent to it, and so on to what it aims at by the simplest and most uncompounded parts it can divide the matter into." The principles of naturalness in order, and clearness and progression in instruction could not well be stated more succinctly than in these passages from Locke. No one has recognized more sharply than he the necessity for success in instruction, of holding the mind free from the agitation of any passion and es- pecially of fear. " Is is as impossible," he says, " to- draw fair and regular characters on a trembling mind as on a shaking paper." Like most of the Reformers, he cherishes the idea of teaching all things in a kind of play, an idea which it is easy to recognize as a re- volt against the dull and joyless routine that had long passed for instruction, and which conceives as play the pleasurable activity of youth whose powers are enlisted in some study that they are brought to love. This review of Locke cannot be closed more appro- U96 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. priately than by a quotation from himself, which happily sums up his aim. " The great work of a governor is to fashion the carriage and form the mind ; to settle in his pupil good habits, and the prin- ciples of virtue and wisdom ; to give him by little and little a view of mankind, and work him into a love and imitation of what is excellent and praiseworthy ; and, in the prosecution of it, to give him vigor and industry. The studies which he sets him upon, are but as it were, the exercises of his faculties and em- ployment of his time, to keep him from sauntering and idleness, to teach him application, and accustom him to take pains, and to give him some little taste of what his own industry must perfect." The last sen- tence certainly lacks little of being a purely disci- plinary view of the office of studies. It may on the whole be doubted, whether, with all -our modern advances in education, we have yet reached the full application of the valuable pedagogic ^principles set forth by Locke. CHAPTER YIIL FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. During the entire middle ages, the education of women had been confined to those of the higher or wealthier classes, and had followed closely the course indicated by the advice given by St. Jerome to Laeta in the 4th century, — advice which since his day has ever been influential with Catholic parents in matters of female education. * St. Jerome had advised his friend to care for her daughter's early education her- self, making it mostly religious, and then to send her in her girlhood to a convent. " Let her," he says, ^' be brought up in the convent in the company of virgins. Let her learn never to swear, to think falsehood a sacrilege, be ignorant of the world, live the life of an angel, be in the flesh but not of it, and believe every human being to be of the like nature with herself." In accordance with this counsel of St. Jerome, the education of mediaeval maidens was wholly monastic, and predominantly religious. They were taught prayers and portions of the Scriptures, to be reverent to God, obedient to parents, and submissive to their husbands, if so be that they should marry. Certain feminine graces and accomplishments befitting their station in life had careful attention. They were also * See Barnard's Amer. Jour, of Edn., Vol. V., p. 594 for St. Jerome's ad- vice. (197) 198 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. taught feminine handiwork like fine sewing and em- broidery, and, more frequently than men of the same rank, they were able to read and write. During the 17th century, female education in gen- eral retained the same monastic character, but the abiIity][to read and write had become general among the girls trained in convents. Their reading was, however, almost entirely confined to books of devo- tion ; and, they were as far as possible kept in igno- rance of the real world until they were ushered into it by marriage. The too f requentl}^ disappointing re- sults of this conventual training were apparent. The noise of the great world of living, striving, sinning men and women penetrated even the walls of con- Tents, and the vivid imaginations of the young recluses transformed its empty babblement into voices of pleasures, more alluring because unknown and forbid- den, which summoned them to enjoyment. Into this world, painted in the delusive colors of fancy, they ventured on their release, ignorant of its wiles and delusions, eager rather for unwonted enjoyments than for a sober round of duties, and too often little re- strained by religious scruples which hung but loosely upon them and which they were ready to discard with their conventual garments. What wonder then that these inexperienced feet sometimes went sadly astray, that the expectations of parents and friends came to nought, and that young girls who were thought to be trained for pious wives and discreet heads of families, became, in too many FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 199 cases, the most frivolous and light-minded of triflers, without depth of principle to preserve them even from vice ! What better could be expected from empty souls, ushered without experience into glitter- ing scenes, and possessed within themselves of no intellectual resources, — than that they should feed on delusions and fill themselves with vanities and fancy these to be life ! The need of a deeper culture for girls had, therefore, in this age become apparent to many, — a culture which should store an otherwise unoccupied mind with intellectual treasures, in con- trast with which all that the world has to offer should appear in its true light and in its just proportions, — its vices stripped of their glitter, and its duties, its virtues, and its rightful enjoyments revealed as alone desirable. Thus we have seen that Comenius would offer to girls up to the age of twelve the same education as to boys, and it is obvious how great an extension this would be for girls. Yet after the age of twelve, all his thought is fixed on the higher training of boys, leaving to girls no school encouragement for the higher development of their awakening powers. In- deed it has been left to the present century and to our own country to throw open all the avenues of the higher learning to women, and sometimes in the same institutions with young men, leaving it to experience to determine whether there really is that sex differ- ence in intellectual gifts and aptitudes which has so usually been assumed. This is surely a bold advance 200 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. in the Americanization of learning, but one whose re- sults have thus far justified its boldness. With the Port Royalists who, as we have seen, made so great and beneficial changes in the education of boys, the training of girls was conceived wholly on a monastic ideal, strict and ascetic in character, di- rected rather to the moral and religious nature than to the intellectual, and adapted rather to fit its subjects for future blessedness than for present usefulness in the duties which life imposes. The great object with the sisters of Port Poyal was to make sure that their pupils should be good from principle, and there was this excellent difference from most convents, that the girls were neither required nor encouraged to pray or to attend services save the mass, unless they sincerely desired to do so. Thus they discouraged and made needless a mere formal or hypocritical performance of religious duties ; but for the needs of the intellect no larger provision was made than in other convents. To be able to read and write, to read good books of piety, to learn a little arithmetic on feast days, to gain skill in feminine handicrafts, — this was the sum of the provision for intellectual education at the Port Royal school for girls. For a brief period towards the close of this century Mme. de Maintenon, so well known at the court of Louis Xiy., in the conventual school for the daugh- ters of impoverished nobles which she founded at St. Cyr, seems to have meditated a more generous cul- ture for girls. She allowed them access to some of FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 201 the best stores of French literature. They even en- acted plays like Racine's Esther with great spirit and eclat. But she seems to have shrunk in terror from the revelation which their acting gave her, of the spirit, the vivacity, the capabilities of intellect and affection which lay hidden in these young girls. The plays were given up. The studies were limited to reading, writing, a little arithmetic for accounts, and a slight knowledge of French history. The reading of the girls was confined to pious books, but even much reading was held in suspicion. Says Mme. de Maintenon '' Reading does more harm than good to young girls. — Books make people witty, and arouse an insatiable curiosity." Instead of books she would have girls learn domes- tic economy, the duties of household and family, and especially all kinds of household work. In all these the girls were practised, and in them their directress saw a moral safeguard. "Labor," she says, "calms the passions, occupies the mind, and does not leave it time to think of evil things." This is good in its way, but it is an effort to fill an intentional intellectual void with the labor of the hands, to send forth to the responsibilities of the family life for which they were trained, busy hands coupled with an empty mind. What then might happen when the hands need no longer be busy ! To us of the 19th century it appears that Mme. de Maintenon's original project of giving to girls occu- pations for heads as well as hands, was abandoned 202 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. merely because it promised to be successful, and that had these young maidens shown less talent the causa of female education might have been substantially promoted by their kind patroness. In justice to her,, however, we should remember the prejudice against learned women which has been very slow in dy- ing out, and which then had but recently givea point to some of Moliere's comedies. Her latent pur- pose was to prepare her girls for the marriage market of that day, and to make of them women with active brains and well-stored minds might have defeated her object. Mme. de Sevigne is so widely known through her elegant letters, that it is needful only to allude to her as a woman of the 17th century, who, though she wrote nothing directly on education, was yet pos- sessed of rare intellectual accomplishments without in the least incurring the odium of being a "precieuse," and whose letters show her to have been an ardent friend to a large culture for girls. The most influential advocate in that age of a higher type of education for women, was doubtless Fenelon, Archbishop of Cambray : but as the larger part of his excellent treatise " De I'Education des Filles," is applicable equally to both sexes, and as its pedagogic ideas and methods are of great interest we will limit ourselves in this connection to what he pro- poses especially for girls, returning later to his general views on educational matters. Besides the treatise that has been alluded to, we have a letter to a friend FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 203 of his, a ladj of rank, on the training of her only daughter, which is replete with good sense elegantly expressed. Leaving aside the consideration of stud- ies, it deals with such matters as the inculcation of a taste for quiet elegance in dress, compassion for the poor and unfortunate, the unobtrusive possession of rich stores of solid knowledge, and most emphati- cally of all, deep religious principle nourished by quiet meditation. In this letter, while approving of convents as the best places for the training of the majority of girls, because of the ignorant carelessness or the frivolity of mothers, or because of their preoccupation with many domestic cares, he does not hesitate to prefer home training where it can be made such as it should be, nor does he fail to point out the risks and disadvan- tages of conventual education. He says "The world never dazzles so much as when one sees it from afar, without ever having seen it near at hand, or having been fortified against its seductions. Hence I should fear a worldly convent still more than the world it- self. — A girl who has been separated from the world only by being ignorant of it, and in whom virtue has not yet struck deep roots, is easily tempted to think that what is most wonderful has been hidden from her. She emerges from the convent like one who has been brought up in the gloom of a deep cavern, and who is suddenly exposed to the full light of day. ^N^othing is more dazzling than this unprepared-for passage, this glamour to which one has never been 204 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. accustomed. It is much better that a girl be grad- ually accustomed to the world by the side of a pious and discreet mother." From these guarded expres- sions of the pious archbishop, it is easy to infer that his opinion of a conventual education for girls is less favorable than that of St. Jerome, and that he consid- ers it only as an alternative against pressing dangers at home. Of the special education of women, he says in his treatise, " The education of women like that of men should tend to prepare them for their duties." The highest and most imperative of these duties, he be- lieves is to educate their children aright, and he indi- cates clearly the wisdom, the prudence, the piety, the gentle firmness, and the knowledge of human nature that are essential for this high office. Next to this, the girl should be trained in those things which will fit her to rule successfully her small kingdom, the household, in which he emphasizes these points : A wise economy, as remote on the one hand from avarice and sordidness as from extravagance and os- tentation on the other, and in order that they may attain this, girls should be given the care of some- thing, should learn the values of commodities, and should be taught to keep accounts with accuracy: Girls should be trained to neatness and order, which however Fenelon would have carefully guarded against degenerating into a narrow fastidiousness or a petty and annoying f ussiness : They should learn how to care for and manage servants, and in regard to FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 205 this his advice is full of a kind of wisdom such as we should hardly look for in a man and an ecclesiastic : Finally he recommends that girls should be reared with a careful regard to their probable future station in life, and with ideas suited to this as respects dress, duties, and pleasures. The intellectual culture which Fenelon proposes for girls is very far in advance of his age, and pre- sents an ideal for general female education which would do no discredit to any period. He would have girls taught to read and write well ; and, while calling attention to the badness of much that passes for read- ing, he explains that what he means by good reading is the ability to read fluently and intelligently, natu- rally and so as to give pleasure to heai-ers. They should have a practical knowledge of the grammar of their own language, and should be so well versed in the simple rules of arithmetic as to be able to use them accurately in accounts and in the ordinary business of life. To this he would add a knowledge of the ordinary business forms and of those elemen- tary ideas of law and justice which women are likely to need as well as men in many of the exigencies of life. He recommends moreover the reading of carefully chosen profane authors, works of poetry and elo- quence, and the history of France and Greece and Kome. For sacred history, he advises that there should early be given orally a series of brief and vivid narrations chronologically arranged, and presenting 206 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. the noblest and most inspiring incidents and char- acters of the Bible story. These he would have presented at intervals, not as tasks to be memorized, but rather as rewards for good conduct. The topics for such a series of narrations are given in the sixth chapter of his treatise, and they are especially worthy of note because they are probably the first suggestion of a method of teaching history from vitalized centers which is now attracting a good deal of attention. If girls are to learn any language save their own, he prefers that it should be Latin, "the language of the church," rather than Italian or Spanish. Furthermore he recommends that girls be taught music and painting, but with careful avoidance in music of everything that would unduly excite the passions, and " make innocent pleasures seem too tame." Finally they should be taught to use their hands deftly in all the usual kinds of tasteful femi- nine work. Obviously we have here a very generous scheme of general female culture, one which not merely busies the hands, but which is capable of filling both mind and heart so full of worthy and noble objects that there would be small leisure for vague fancies and vicious desires. Mme. de Lambert, the foremost disciple of Fenelon, courageously claims for her sex the right to a suitable education, in which she would add to the scheme of Fenelon a little of philosophy, especially the Cartes- ian, to give precision to the girl's thoughts and to FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 207 •enable her to talk sensibly. She enters a vigorous protest against including learning in the same ridi- cule with pedantry, by which doubtless some women were frightened away from the pursuit of learning ; and she declares that because women have been ex- •cluded from things of the spirit and from the literary -culture of letters, they have been forced to fall back on mere pleasures. Such then are the ideas which some of the best minds of the 17th century have advanced in behalf of a better education for women. They show clearly that the principles of the Renaissance are extend- ing themselves to that which is but too apt to be overlooked by men, — the need of a progressive in- tellectual elevation of the female sex. The credit of initiating this movement belongs almost solely to France ; for Germany took no other part in it than the proposal of the exiled Moravian bishop Comenius. Fenelon. It has already been remarked that besides what Fenelon did to promote the better education of women, his merits both as a highly original and in- genious teacher and as the author of pedagogic works prepared to furtlier his views as to how instruction should be given, are important facts in the educa- tional history of the 17th century. He was born of a distinguished family in 1651. He completed his college studies at the age of twenty, and then at his own earnest desire he was educated 208 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. for the priesthood of which his entire life made him in all respects a brilliant ornament. His gentle piety and his success in his parochial duties caused him to be made, at an early age, director of an institution for reclaiming Protestant women to Catholicism, and it was during the ten years that he held this place that he wrote his treatise " De I'Education des Filles,'^ a work which deserves all the influence it has exerted by the soundness of its views, and by the pedagogic ingenuity of its suggestions. In 1689, in the flower of his manhood, he was ap- pointed tutor to the young Duke of Burgundy, grandson and presumptive heir of Louis XIY. The duke was an intelligent but headstrong child, of a violent, fierce, and ungovernable temper, and with an overweening sense of his own importance; but yet possessed withal of latent possibilities which were of the greatest promise. In taming this young human tiger and reducing him to order, in developing his dormant powers, and in inculcating in him those prin- ciples which should fit him for the high destiny which seemingly awaited him, Fenelon displayed all that prudence, tact, and delicac^^ of touch which he sets forth so admirably in his treatise. He especially ex- emplified his favorite idea of indirect instructioriy which he sets forth in the 5th chapter of the treatise^ in the admirable series of Fables and Dialogues, soon to be described, which he composed for the moral in- struction of his charge. His extraordinary success with his seemingly intractable pupil caused him to- FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 209 be named Archbishop of Cambray, in which diocese for nearly a score of years he displayed the virtues of the primitive apostles, in the simplicity of his life and in his services to the poor and wretched who were exposed to the horrors of war. He ended his noble and pious life in 1715 at the age of sixty-four. On account of the nearly absolute character of the French monarchy, and the consequent enormous in- fluence which their princes exerted both on the des^ tinies of the state and on the entire tone and fabric of society, the utmost importance was attributed during the 17th century to the training of the future kings and princes of France. Hence some of the greatest and most learned men of the age, not only eagerly accepted the office of tutors to them, but also^ wrote text-books for their instruction, and sometimes^ treatises on the methods that they employed. Hence in France, the pedagogy of the 17th century has a prevailing character of something intended for princes, though the views that are expressed are usu-^ ally equally applicable to all children. Thus the famous Bossuet and other men hardly less distinguished were tutors of the Dauphin, the stupid and obstinate son of Louis XIY; and to penetrate his dull brain, Bossuet caused to be prepared the long-esteemed Delphine edition of the classics, be- sides writing himself a treatise of logic, a "Discourse on Universal History," and some other books. Thus- Fenelon prepared for the Duke of Burgundy all his pedagogic works save his treatise on the education of: 210 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. girls and the advice to a lady which has previously been referred to. That they contributed to his suc- cess with a pupil seemingly so unpromising, gives them an additional claim on our attention as the means used in an interesting pedagogical experiment. These works are the Fables, the Dialogues of the Dead, and the Adventures of Telemachus, which last was once largely used in the schools of this country as a French reading book. Of the Fables there are thirty-six, many of which are of considerable length. They are all very lively and interesting in tone, and all embody moral lessons skilfully adapted to a child of such character and such future destinies as the young prince for whom they were composed. A good example of this is the pretty story of E-osimond and Braminte and the magic ring which a fairy presented to them in turn, — showing the good and the bad uses to which unlimited power may be turned, and its fatal results, when employed for selfish or malevolent ends. Several of them were evidently intended to suggest to the quick-witted young prince the correction of the glaring faults to which he was prone, in that indirect or suggestive mode of instruction which Fenelon so greatly favored. Such, for example, are the fable of the Bee and the Fly, conveying a lesson on unreason- able anger ; and that of the youthful Bacchus and the Faun, in w^iich the Faun is represented as laughing at the blunders of Bacchus in practising the language of the gods, to whom the young god " said with a FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 211 haughty and impatient tone, ^ How darest thou laugh at the son of Jove !' ' Ah,' replied the Faun without emotion, 'How dare the son of Jupiter make any mistake ! '" To one who bears in mind the violent and haughty temper of the spoiled child with whom Fenelon had to deal, the application of fables like these is obvious. The Dialogues of the Dead form a series of seventy- nine conversations imagined to be carried on in the realm of shades by various historic or mythic person- ages, ranging from Hercules and the Trojan heroes to kings and statesmen not long dead. They evidently had a double purpose, viz., to give to his royal pupil a keener interest in historic study by familiarizing him with famous men who did much to shape the destinies of their times, whilst at the same time incul- cating wholesome ideas of many things which should fit the future king of France to reign justly and wisely. The first purpose was analogous to the plan pro- posed by Fenelon for teaching sacred liistory by a series of interesting Bible stories chronologically ar- ranged. Dr. Thomas Arnold, in an essay on classical teaching, in 1834 suggested a similar scheme for teaching history by a series of striking pictures and biographic narrations, arranged chronologicall}^ to serve as nuclei for future accretions ; and twenty years later Drs. Spiess and Yerlet embodied the idea in three concentric courses of historic and biographic narrations for German secondary schools, each course 212 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. reviewing and widening the course of the preceding one. These works have already passed through many editions. Thus this idea of FeneJon has begun to bear fruit in the last half of the 19th century. It is to be regretted from an educational point of view, that the death of the Duke of Burgundy before that of his grandfather, has taken from us any proof of the success or failure of Fenelon in his second pur- pose, that of training a wise, just, and virtuous king for France ; but the character which the young man is said to have exhibited during his brief career, so far as the roseate accounts of princes can be trusted, was such as to rouse the highest expectations among those who knew him. Besides the Fables and Dialogues, Fenelon com- posed for his pupil a number of short pieces, partly in French and partly in Latin ; and when he had grown to manhood, his old tutor gave him a final proof of the affectionate interest in which he was held by writing for his guidance the " Adventures of Telemachus," in which the son of Ulysses is repre- sented as traversing various regions in a search for his father, and learning in his journeyings the art of governing justly under the tutorship of the goddess Minerva who has concealed herself under the guise of the wise old man Mentor. This work, which was published without the knowledge of its author, at- tracted to him the lively hostility of Louis XIY., who considered it a criticism upon his policy of govern- ment, and who prohibited all intercourse of his grandson with his former tutor. FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 213 In all this Fenelon has shown us vividly how se- rious is the task of him who undertakes the duty of preparing the young for their future career, and how great is the foresight and how indefatigable the pains that should be exercised in acquitting one's self of this task. The means that he used for the accom- plishment of his purpose will repay a careful study by all educators. Let us now return to the treatise on the Education of Girls, for a brief survey of Fenelon's ideas on general education. What chiefly impresses one in this treatise is the fineness and delicacy of touch which he thinks should be displayed in the manage- ment of youth, and the great emphasis which he lays upon careful moral training, the thorough develop- ment of estimable character. The refinement of his method which appears in all his suggestions, and which Professor Compayre seems inclined to stigmatize as cajolery, is shown perhaps most obviously in his favorite mode of conveying in- struction indirectly or by suggestion, which he uses, not only to captivate attention by a striking example aptly introduced, but for the higher purpose of elicit- ing independent mental activity on the part of the pupil in the application of the truth that has been covertly presented. The Fables and Dialogues are good illustrations of this suggestive method, which it need hardly be said is eminently objective in its char- acter. His delicate discrimination is farther exemplified in 214 THE HI8T0KY OF MODERN EDUCATION. the care that he recommends in studying the innate differences of temperament and inclination in chil- dren. In this he strikingly contrasts the difference of treatment required by those gifted with lively sen- sibilities or weighted by dull ones, and unwittingly lays down the lines on which a few years later he so happily trained a prince of quick understanding, but violent, headstrong, and haughty in no ordinary de- gree. In moral education, like most educators, he lays great stress on early impressions as deeply influencing the entire future of children. It is strange that though this is so well known there is so little practical realization of it by parents and teachers. Fenelon would especially have the children of more favored parents guarded from an inordinate idea of their own importance, by guarding them from the servility of inferiors, by letting them see that the care that is be- stowed on them is due less to their merit than to their feebleness, and by showing them that they are not perfect since they improve from year to year. Like Locke, Fenelon calls earnest attention to the need of eradicating tendencies to craft and cunning, which when deeply rooted, he thinks constitute the most hopeless type of character ; and he adds to this what he thinks of nearly equal moment, false-shame, which leads to secretiveness and dissimulation : chil- dren should be early taught to be prudent and discreet without being deceitful. " The highest pru- dence," he says, ^' consists in saying little, in distrust- FEMALE EDUCATION AND FENELON. 215' ing ourselves much more tlian others, but not in dissembling speeches. Uprightness of conduct, and the general reputation of probity bring to us more confidence and esteem, and consequently more advan- tages even of a worldly kind, than deceitful ways." Moral lessons like others should be inculcated by examples and suitable narrations rather than by bald precepts. Thus he would choose for this instruction such events from the Bible " as, by affording pleasing and magnificent images, would render religion and morality beautiful and sublime." He deprecates the too common practice of making dress or delicacies for the palate, rewards for well-doing, because of the moral effects of such rewards in giving the child a false standard of value^ leading him to esteem low things more than high ones. He would rather bestow judicious praise, or give as rewards such simple and innocent recreations as appeal rather to the aesthetic and intellectual sentiments than to vanity and sensu-^ ality. In this connection he weightily says, " Of all the faculties of the child, reason is the only one on which we can depend. If carefully trained it always grows with his growth." In this, as in other pai-ts of moral education, he is in full accord with his cotem- porary Locke whose '' Thoughts on Education " ap- peared at nearly the same time. The most salient ideas of Fenelon on intellectual education may be briefly summarized. 1. He strongly advises the direction of the child's instincts rather than their repression, especially the instinct of curios- 216 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. itj which should be guided into proper channels that it may become a source of knowledge instead of ex- pending itself dangerously. Hence he is at one with the Innovators in care for observation. 2. He cau- tions against overcrowding children, while recognizing their characteristic lack of control over attention ; nor would he have them contract a habit of accepting statements without due reason. 3. He counsels great judgment and discretion in the selection of matters to be taught to the young. " Into a reservoir so little and so precious only exquisite things should be poured," he beautifully says. He not only everywhere advocates, but also shows how to practise, making learning pleasurable to youth and using ingenious expedients to secure on their part a delighted mental activity. Hence he strongly rep- robates the evil practice of setting lessons as punish- ments, as tending directly to connect unpleasant associations with what he would always have presented as a delight. Finally, not only in these principles, but also in the care that he recommends for health, ^or letting children see and feel the use for the activ- ities of life of all that they learn, for the exercise of authority mildly and without caprice, for cultivating judgment and reason by their use as fast as they de- velop, and for teaching all things, Latin included, through the vernacular and using thereto pretty and nvell-illustrated text-books, — Fenelon shows himself in harmony with educational reformers like Comenius. CHAPTER IX. ORATORY OF JESUS, AND BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. It might be questioned whether the origin of the important teaching congregation, the Oratory of Jesus, is an educational fact of such prominence as to be made one of the characteristics of the 17th century ; but wlien we reflect upon the influence it has had in promoting and re-shaping secondary education in France, a most important member among civilized states, we are likely to find a sufficient reason for giv- ing it this prominence. This religious community was introduced in France about 1614 by Pierre de Berulle who later became a cardinal. One of its leading functions was to teach.- Intended at first for the education of candidates for the priesthood, its services soon extended far beyond these limits and included the secondary education of all classes. Although never by any means an aggres- sive body, it seems evidently to have been considered by the Jesuits a quiet protest against their organi- zation, their methods, their spirit, and their tenden- cies. Hence they pursued it with unremitting hostil- ity, in spite of which however it so prospered that in fifteen years after its foundation it had charge of more than fifty houses or colleges, and grew rapidly in influence thereafter. (217) 218 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. It did in truth come into a silent antagonism with the Jesuits, in its form of organization, its principles, and its subjects of study, together with the spirit in which study was pursued. Its organization was purely Galilean : its superior resided in France, and was responsible solely to the archbishops and to the general council of the order : its members were bound by no vows save the usual vows of the priesthood, and hence were free to quit the Oratory at pleasure : and the obedience of the brothers was a purely voluntary submission to supe- riors whom they themselves elected. Hence a degree of liberty and spontaneity was enjoyed by its mem- bers of which the Jesuits never dreamed. Its principles were, — to render a cheerful obedience to officials and laws that they liad themselves or- dained : not to interfere with political matters, or, as one of them says, ''our politics is to have no politics, and nothing is more foreign to our spirit than to es- tablish and strengthen our order by human means :" to leave to individual members a large degree of personal liberty in intellectual matters : and, in in- struction, to combine a taste for profane letters wdth a love for historic facts and scientific truths, — all of which was in strong contrast with the practice of the Jesuits. In the nature and range of studies pursued, the Ora- torians differed not less widely from the Jesuits than in organization and principles. The Jesuits made •obligatory the use of Latin in communication : the OKATORY OF JESUS. 219 Oratorians promoted a thorough study of the mother tongue and taught all subjects in it up to the fourth year of school, after which Latin was required save in history which was always taught in French. Tlie Jesuits made large use of Latin themes and verses : the fathers of the Oratory laid quite as much stress on explanation of texts, on oral work, and on imita- tion of what had been explained. The study of the Jesuits was almost exclusively literary on \X\q formal side, other subjects being mere accessories to this : the Oratory combined instruction in the spirit of lit- erature with a generous measure of mathematics, physics, philosophy, and history; this last subject, indeed, was strongly emphasized and extended through all their classes, beginning with sacred history and ending with the history of France. They united tlie study of geography with that of history, and enlivened it by the use of mural charts. A similar expedient to enliven the study of Latin grammar was also devised by one of the Oratorians, in the form of five charts of different colors, one for genders and declensions, a second for conjugations, a third for preterites and supines, and the other two for syntax and quantity. In Greek it was counted sufficient to be able to read it understandingly without writing it; and that comparative study of languages, which at Port Eoyal gave birth to Arnauld's General Grammar, was not undertaken by the Oratory. Fi- nally, it may be said that in philosophy they followed Plato and Descartes rather than Aristotle and the 220 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. schoolmen. In all tins it may be seen that their ten- dency was not only away from the Jesuits, but towardsr the principles of the educational reformers. Their discipline, while mild and winning like that of the Jesuits, yet avoided the spiritual subjugation,, the espionage, and the spirit of equivocation which were so freely charged against their rivals. The Oratorians produced also authors like Bernard Lamy, and Thomassin, in whose works we find em- bodied the principles and practice of the organization mingled with ideas peculiar to themselves. The former in his " Conversations on the Sciences," treats of studies in general, and of letters more than sciences. His idea of education is that it consists of three parts^ acquisition of knowledge, justice of judgment, and rectitude of conduct ; the first of which he conceives to be chiefly valuable for the second, and both these that they may lead to the third. The resemblance of this to Locke's idea is sufficiently striking. Lamy like Fleury would have study begin with a good Logic, a curious perversion of the educational process, which would undertake to teach how to reason correctly before taking care to develop the power to reason at all, or providing materials for the exercise of reason. To the theory of logic he de- mands that practice in mathematics and especially in geometry be added. " There is," he says, " no study fitter to exercise the judgment than geometry and other parts of mathematics." In this combination of the doctrine of logic with its practice, Lamy follows in the track of Kamus. OEATOEY OF JESUS. 221 In language he believes in beginning with versions, recommends a scheme having some similarity to that of Comenius, and suggests interlinear translations. He decries Latin versification, and proposes as the order in which Latin authors shall be studied, Ter- ence, Csesar, Sallust, Cicero, Yirgil, and Horace. I am inclined to think we may find in a sentence of Lamy the hint of one of the fundamental ideas of Rousseau ; " we are the work of God," says Lamy ; ^' we have therefore no reason to think we are bad." The key note to Thomassin is to be found in his idea that " there is hardly one of the classic authors of Greece and Rome who does not illustrate some ob- scurities in Holy Writ." Hence much that he wrote is a plea for the study of classic authors from a Chris- tian stand-point, not only on account of the pure morality of many of them, but because he believed that at bottom their fables are mere distortions of Christian doctrines, derived from natural religion or from traditions communicated by travellers. More- over he fancied that Hebrew was the original lan- guage, and that Greek and Latin were mere off-shoots therefrom ; and from the combination of these ideas, he was led to emphasize the importance of the study of etymologies leading to comparative philology. The materials from which this sketch of an influ- ential teaching congregation has been condensed, have been mainly derived from Prof. Compayre's " Criti- <5al History of the Doctrines of Education in France." 222 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. What has been named as the last of the character- istic facts in the educational history of the lYtb century is one which has a special interest for Amer- icans : it is that with the beginnings of permanent colonization in this country, we have also the begin- nings of efforts for education, efforts too which in at least one case look towards free, general, and even compulsory education. Of these beginnings we must here content ourselves with a mere brief sketch that it may take its proper chronological place in the series- of important educational facts. The early colonists of North America seem in all cases to have realized the need of education for their children, and to have made creditable efforts to pro- vide for it, the form which these efforts assumed differing in different colonies. In the colonies south of New York, provision for education was with few exceptions made by private schools or by parental teaching of the elements of learning. Not a few of the wealthier families sent their sons to England for their training. Yet early efforts were made in Yir- ginia with the aid of friends in the mother country for the establishment of both schools and a college in that colony ; but the project failed by reason of Indian wars, and the money that had been raised was lost. To Yirginia however belongs the credit of founding the second college on this continent, the college of William and Mary. This institution was chartered in 1693, and received large endowments in money and lands, besides the proceeds of a tax on tobacco, and BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 223 the fees for the survey of the public lands which was placed under its charge. Many of the leading patriots- of Virginia received their education within its walls ;^^ but it has in recent years fallen into a neglect and de- cay that is greatly to be deplored in the case of an institution so venerable. The documents of the Colonial History of JSTew York contain numerous evidences of the care of the early Dutch settlers for the maintenance of clergy and schoolmasters. The duty of patroons and citizens in this regard is emphasized ; taxes are decreed ; com- plaints are made of the misdirection of funds intended for schools ; the salaries and fees of schoolmasters are defined ; the secretary of the Dutch West India Company stirs to emulation by pointing to the efforts of the New England colonies ; and the names of sev- eral of the early Dutch teachers, beginning in 1633 with Adam Koelenstan, are preserved in these docu- ments or in those so industriously collected by Dr. Pratt, late Assistant Secretary of the JSTew York board of Regents of the University. After New York fell into the hands of the English, the chief care that seems to have been given to schools during the 17th century was to assure that whatever instruction was given should be in the English tongue. All teachers were required to be licensed by the Archbishop of Canterbury — later by the Bishop of London — or by the royal governor ; and some fu- tile efforts were made to suppress the Dutch schools, which seem to have sprung up in nearly every Dutch hamlet. 224: THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. Much the most significant of the early educational efforts, however, were those made in New England, first in Massachusetts, but followed very soon by Con- necticut. The Boston Latin school was founded in 1635, the next year after the settlement of the town was begun, and claims to be the oldest existing school in the United States, — a claim however which is dis- puted in favor of the school of the Eeformed Dutch Church in New York which was opened in 1633. In 1636, what has now become famous as Harvard Uni- versity was founded, receiving its name from John Harvard, its chief early benefactor, and having for its foremost object the training of a learned clergy. The early years of this now wealthy institution, like those of most American colleges, were years of a struggle with poverty. Its studies were marked by some of the same characters which we have seen in European schools, — a master}^ of the Latin being re- quired for entrance, then Greek, Hebrew and two other Oriental tongues, logic and ethics including pol- itics, arithmetic and geometrj^, the Bible and divinity, a little history and less science, — such was earlj^ Har- vard. But even more interesting than this early provision for the higher learning, was the wise interest that was shown to provide instruction for all the children in the elements of learning. Thus in 1642 we find the General Court of Massachusetts "taking into serious consideration the great neglect of many parents and masters in training up their children in learning and BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 225 labor," ordering that this evil shall be remedied by the officers of the towns, and empowering them to punish neglect by fines or even "to put forth as ap- prentices the children of such as they shall find not Able and fit to employ and bring them up." Five years later, the General Court passed the law which is usually counted as the beginning of the American common school system. " It being one chiefe project of yt ould deluder Sathan, to keep men from the knowledge of ye Scripture, as in former times by keeping yem in an unknown tongue, so in this latter times by persuading from ye use of tongues, yt so at least ye true sence and meaning of ye origi- nal might be clouded by false glosses of saint-seeming deceivers,— yt learning may not be buried in ye grave of oE fathrs in ye church and commonwealth, the Lord assisting o£ endeavors. It is therefore ordered " 1st, that when any town has increased to fifty fam- ilies it shall establish a school to teach all youth to read and write, the teacher to be paid either by par- ents and masters or by tax as the majority of the town officers may decide ; 2d, that towns of a hun- dred families shall establish a grammar school in which boys may be prepared for the university ; and 3d, that a fine of 5£ be imposed on towns that shall fail for more than a year to obey this order. As the towns grew richer during the century, this fine for neglect was doubled and then quadrupled. Thus we have in these old laws the outlines of a sys- tem of schools, and stringent provisions for enforcing 226 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. obedience to them by communities as well as individ- uals. Laws of kindred tenor and with sanctions akin to those contained in these two acts, were in less than ten years passed also by both the colonies that now form the state of Connecticut. In many New En- gland towns also portions of the public lands were set apart for school purposes, and Massachusetts early set the example of appropriating one sixty-third of her public lands to create a fund for the support of schools. Such were the remarkable efforts for education made by the American colonies, during the poverty^ the weakness, and the struggles with an untamed nat- ure and wild men, of the first century of their exis- tence. These efforts appear even more remarkable when we consider the condition of general education in the mother country of most of the colonists, and generally in Europe. In England there is yet no thought of caring for the education of the poor, nor is there likely to be for a century to come. The instruction of the high-born and wealthy is carried on either by tutors, and private schools kept chiefly by clergymen, or in those great secondary schools called public schools of which we have seen that so many were added during the 16th century to those already existing. The studies in these schools follow closely that literary direction marked out in the preceding century by the state of culture, and systematized by Sturm, with Latin and Greek, themes and versification, as their chief sub- ject-matter. BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION. 227 We have seen in France and Germany vigorous and to some degree successful efforts to secure atten- tion to the vernacular in schools. Like efforts were made in England by Eichard Mulcaster in 1582, and again by John Brinsley, in 1612, but neither effort met with any favor. Brinsley's book on the gram-- mar school gives us however a view of the school hours which is worth noting. They extended from 6 A. M. to 5:30 p. M. with a recess of two hours at noon and two intermissions of fifteen minutes each. Thus there were nine hours of school work ; and honest Brinsley seems to fancy that a word of defence is needed for the two intermissions lest some may think they do nought but play. In France, during this century, there was very little effort to educate the common people. JSTear its close in 1685 La Salle and the order of Brothers of the Christian Schools, which he founded, began their ef- forts for the gratuitous instruction of poor children, and they even established a training school for the supply of teachers suitable for their purpose, thus in some slight degree mitigating the general ignorance. The education of the more opulent classes was largely in the hands of the Jesuits who were, says Compayre, the real masters of education in France; to whose schools must be added the rapidly growing numbers of those controlled by the Congregation of the Ora- tory recently described. In Germany all classes of schools greatly suffered, when they were not entirely broken up, by the hor- :228 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. rors of the terrible Thirty Years' War. After its close in 1648, the universities and secondary schools re- vived under the fostering care of cities and princes, and the methods prevailing in them were somewhat bettered, with the growing regard for the vernacular and the increasing use of text-books in German ; whilst the study of Greek classics declined, a fact which Paulsen illustrates by the very small number of editions of Greek authors that appeared between the beginning of the 17th century and 1Y70. * With this decline in many schools, seems to have been cor- related the rise of a kind of Lutheran Scholasticism, marked by the study of logic and metaphysics and the revival of disputations. Popular schools, where they were established, were mostly very bad, both from the poverty of the peas- antry who had relapsed into a condition of semi-bar- barism, and from the lack of well-instructed teachers. The teachers are described by Dr. Dittes as wof ully ignorant of even the most elementary school subjects. Moreover various services besides teaching were ex- acted from the schoolmaster. He was church singer, organist, and clerk, secretary and servant of the bor- ough, and attendant at weddings and baptisms : he brushed shoes and clothes, split the pastor's wood, threshed his corn, and collected his perquisites : some even worked at trades to eke out a wretched subsist- ence. Such multiplied and servile tasks might well be expected to make of the teacher a mean-spirited * which later was added a Book on primary education. In the Dissertation and the 7th Book " On the In- ternal Government of Classes and Colleges," Rollin gives at large his views on moral and religious educa- tion, most of which have now become educational commonplaces. A few things will however bear repetition even now. " It is virtue only," he says,. " which fits men to fill public positions rightly. It is the good qualities of the heart which give value to- IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 255 other qualities, and which, while making the true merit of the man, render him also a fit instrument for promoting the well-beingof society." This truth certainly is as needful to be emphasized to-day as when E-ollin uttered it. Again, with regard to moral and religious impres- sions, he considers all stated lessons ineffectual, since they put the young on their guard and are apt to close their hearts ; while the lessons of celebrated men in history which occur in their reading, seeming to be presented by chance, are unsuspected and may be made effective by judicious remark. " Not," he sa- gaciously remarks, " that I believe it needful to insist much on moral reflections. The precepts which relate to morals should be short and sharp, and hurled like a dart. This is the surest means of causing them to gain a permanent lodgment in the soul." In the counsels which he gives for the training of youth and which he arranges under thirteen heads, he follows closely in the footsteps of Fenelon and Locke to both of whom he acknowledges his indebtedness ; but he mingles in his treatment of their common opinions, happy remarks of his own, one of which is worth quoting as a specimen of many : " The sov- ereign skill in education consists in knowing how, by a happy temperament, to ally a strength which holds children without repelling them, with a gentleness which wins without softening them." In turning now to his discussion of studies, I desire to call especial attention — (1) to the stress that he 256 THE IIISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. lays upon the study of the mother tongue, and the means which he proposes to acquire elegance in its use ; (2) to liis ideas in regard to the teaching of Greek and Latin ; (3) to the emphasis with which he recom- mends the study of history and the method by which he would have it taught ; and (4) to his earnest recom- mendation of the training of observation by true object teaching. (1) Kightly to estimate the merit of Rollin in what he proposes for the cultivation of the mother tongue, it should be borne in mind that the use of one's ver- nacular was little practised in schools or among the learned, that Rollin had himself written little save in Latin to the age of sixtj^, and that his sketch of a method of teaching the vernacular was probably the first that was ever published since the scheme of Quintilian in his Institutes. This will be likely to increase our admiration for his pedagogic sagacity, since he recommends and shows definitely how to use every means now em- ployed by the most enlightened educators in the teaching of their mother tongue, viz., early care for articulation and pronunciation, and for the correct use of words : grammatical study ; literature ; trans- lation from other languages ; and composition. In grammar, he advises that the knowledge of principles should be made progressive, that these be carefully applied in the pupil's reading with exact reasons for the use of all words, that the rules should be carefully chosen with omission of all that are but IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 257 little used or are beyond the comprehension of pupils, and that but little be given each day in a pleasing manner under the guise of conversation or of consult- ing pupils about proper forms of expression. As to literature, he proposes a list of good French authors of his day, especially historians, which he would have read and explained a half-hour daily ; and he gives models of the mode of exposition, the etymological and grammatical remarks, the philolog- ical explanations, the observations on style, and the moral reflections which might appropriately be intro- duced. He also makes the novel but sensible sugges- tion that when the taste and judgment of youth are somewhat matured, it would be well to introduce brilliant but sophistical authors for analysis and crit- icism. Of translation, its difficulties, and exigencies, and of the character of good translations, he treats fully, with many examples of translations by good authors compared with the originals, and their merits or de- fects pointed out. Composition he would have begin with brief stories or fables, advancing to letter-writing with care for its proprieties, and this followed by de- scriptions and narrations on familiar subjects, para- phrases of passages from classic authors, and finally free treatment of subjects suggested by the pupil's reading. This is a full and generous course of study of the mother tongue, so skilfully carried out and so well illustrated by examples that the best practice of 258 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. modern schools can suggest little to improve it save in details. It would be interesting to know how far that skill in the use of their own tongue which marks well-educated Frenchmen, is due to the continuing influence of the course and methods suggested by Rollin. (2) RoUin lays little emphasis on Greek, in which he thinks it sufficient that boys should be able to read authors understandingly ; but, after the manner of his time, he deems it essential that Latin should be mastered for all the uses of a current language. Yet in this he would have the early instruction given in French, " because in every science and in all knowl- edge, it is natural to pass from a thing known and clear to one unknown and obscure." The necessary inflected forms, and the commonest principles of syn- tax, he would have early applied in the reading of easy passages from authors rather than in attempts to write Latin as was then common, additional rules being supplied only so fast as they are needed or as fair occasions can be made for their use. The writ- ing of themes he would reserve for a much later stage of progress when boys shall have acquired a considerable stock of words and forms of expression, requiring them however to use what they possess in translating easy sentences into Latin. No haste is to be made, since " they will learn fast enough if they learn well." He proposes an order for the exposition of authors in advanced study, which, in accordance with his unique but excellent IMPOKTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 259' method, he illustrates by abundant examples in con- siderable passages from authors, which are expounded as models for students and young professors. In gen- eral, it may be said that the reforms in classic instruc- tion which he proposes, are in the direction of that new and enlightened Humanism, which at a little later date began to make its appearance in Germ any » (3) The aim that Rollin proposes in the study of history is, " To form the mind and heart of youth, to inspire in them a taste for reading especially historic reading, and to make them understand the good they may derive from it " ; and he declares his belief that when properly taught it becomes a school of morals^ for all men, and hence is " the first master that should be given to the young." What he considers right in- struction in history will be guided by the following principles, — to bring into it clearness and order by due attention to geography, and by a proper frame- work of chronology, with few but important dates ;. to observe the customs, laws, and usages of nations ;. to search most of all for truth ; to seek the causes of events with diligence ; to make a careful study of the characters of nations and of their great men ; to ob- serve whatever concerns morals and the proper guid- ance of life, and especially what has relation to re- ligion. More than a third of his treatise is devoted to an illustration of these principles, in a series of striking historic pictures drawn from ancient times. Nay more, deploring the lack of a work on ancient history^ •^60 THE HISTORY OF MODEEN EDUCATION. -suitable for youth in colleges, he supplied this lack a few years later by his well-known History ; but, be- lieving "that the natural order demands that in history we advance from the ancient to the modern, and not deeming it possible to find time during the course of the college classes to study that of France," he omitted it. For this Professor Compayre seems disposed to blame him, instead of being thankful that a man already seventy years old, undertook so much out of a pure regard for the interests of youth. (4) What Kollin suggests for the training of the senses occurs in the 6th Book of his treatise, under the head of Philosophy. In this he includes pliysics and natural history, together with what we now under- stand by philosophy. He remarks, " I give the name ^ Physics for Children,' to a study of nature which calls for little but the use of the eyes, and which for this reason is in the power of every one, even of ■children. It consists in giving attention to the ob- jects which nature presents to us, in regarding them with care, and in admiring their various beauties, but without seeking into their hidden causes, which is the province of the physics of the scientist. I say that -even children are capable of this, for they have eyes, and do not lack curiosity." He proposes a series of object lessons drawn from plants and animals, which he recommends to mingle -aptly with brief reflections " suited to form the heart, and to lead through nature to religion." He crowns -all this by giving sensible practical directions to IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 261 teachers how to prepare themselves for giving these object lessons successfully, foreseeing every difficulty that is likely to arise, and striving in this as in every other branch he teaches, to make his treatise a prac- tical guide to teachers. When we consider that, though reformers like Comenius and Locke had for nearly a century insisted on the proper use of the senses, the scheme of Kollin is doubtless the first definite proposal of a means, pleasant and not over-loaded to accomplish a purpose long considered desirable, and that it is even so well conceived that it might now be profitably copied, we shall find new occasion to admire the pedagogical sa- gacit}^ of its author. Finally, what we ought especially to admire in Rollin is the spirit of practical pedagogic helpfulness that characterizes every part of his treatise. Like the skilful architect, he accompanies all his plans with clear and definite specifications. Whether in moral teaching, or in the various belles-lettres branches, or in the training of the senses, he illustrates all the plans he proposes with examples so numerous, so wisely chosen, and so thoroughly presented, as to make their adoption by young professors, easy. In this he certainly had no predecessors among writers on education ; nor since his day have there been., many who, in this respect, have equalled him. Section 2d.— Rousseau. There are few books which a man of taste who is interested in educational questions would be likely ta :262 thp: history of modern education. read with greater pleasure than Rousseau's Emile. There is certainly none in which the reader has need of greater judgment and more constant care, that he may disentangle the valuable educational truths it presents, from the maze of brilliant sophisms and striking paradoxes in which they are often enveloped, .and which are the more dangerous because the author himself evidently presents them in good faith, and urges them with an elegant warmth and grace that few can wholly resist. Nor is there any other work on education of which it is so difficult to give a brief but satisfactory account, — an account that shall fairly present the author's most prominent ideas with some- thing of his own coloring, emphasizing that to which he gives emphasis, and overlooking no important error, yet being blind to no important truth. This difficulty arises in part from his carelessness about consistency ; but still more from the fact that his plan of carrying an individual presented under the name of Emile through what he considers a typi- cal course of normal development, from infancy to adult years, not stopping even with his marriage, but oxhibiting the results supposed to follow from such a training when his hero falls into divers unlooked-for misfortunes, — gives opportunity to this erratic genius to discuss all kinds of social, political, moral, and re- ligious questions, which he introduces so ingeniously that they seem wholly germane to the pedagogic mat- ter in hand, but end often by wholly obscuring it. It is easy to select a certain number of maxims from IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 263 Kousseau, or even sometimes to cull their opposites, and to call them his fundamental pedagogic ideas. This a number of persons have done, but without any very close agreement on what is fundamental. Yon Kaumer more wisely has attempted an abstract quoted in the author's own words under proper heads, but no abstract however fairly made, can give a just repre- sentation of E-ousseau. There is in the Emile little of educational value which is absolutely new ; yet Rous- seau, possesses in a transcendent degree the art of so presenting and enforcing old truths that they impress themselves on the mind as they had never done be- fore, and produce all the effect of novelty. In this sense he may be said to have effectually rediscovered and taken possession of several pedagogic regions which had before been sighted rather than appropri- .ated. The pity is that he has so often marred the happy islands on which he plants his standard by peopling them with chimeras. Who then was this Rousseau, and through what ex- periences was he qualified to produce a work which has doubtless had great influence on more recent -educational history ? He was born in Geneva in 1712, his father who was a watchmaker being of French ■origin, and apparently not distinguished for honesty. Deprived from infancy of a mother's care, he grew up under the charge of an aunt, a volatile and sensi- tive child, feeding his young fancy with romances, none of which he understood, as he says, but all of which he felt. He was apprenticed first to an attor- 264 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. ney and then to an engraver, but showed no capacity for either employment. From the latter he ran away,, and henceforth his life was unsettled and homeless. He was for a time in a Catholic school, and became a Catholic, renouncing this faith later when he had gained distinction for Protestantism, but reflecting no credit on either. He entered the service of a noble- man for some time who strove to educate him for a higher position. Then from the age of twenty-one he lived for some years with Mme. de Warens, where he pursued with great zeal philosophic and political studies, gained some knowledge of Latin, and acquired that store of materials of which later he made such brilliant use. It is needless to go into detail on the steps of his erratic and unhappy career. Whatever of pedagogic experience he had was gained in a few years as tutor in a family ; but he seems always to have been a keen observer of human nature, especially as exhibited in the young, for which his sensitive temperament pe- culiarly fitted him ; and to this his Emile owes much of whatever pedagogic value it possesses. Yet with all his keen perception of child character and child modes of gaining knowledge, he showed no love for his own five children ; for he sent them one after the other, as soon as they were born, to a foundling hos- pital, leaving no marks by which they might after- wards be identified and reclaimed. This, and many other discreditable circumstances of his unsettled life, we know from his astonishing "Confessions," in IMPOETANT EDUCATIONAL TEEATISES. 265 which they are detailed with amazing frankness and often with bitter self-reproaches. Yet he considers himself a being innocent of wrong because his inten- tions were always good, but that he was greatly mal- treated by fortune and by false friends. Despite all the errors and miseries of his career, he gained high reputation as a brilliant and versatile writer. Besides his Confessions, and the Emile which is his most enduring work, he wrote several philo- sophic and political treatises which attracted much attention in that excited period, and which are thought by some to have hastened the French Revolution, whose approach he predicted in the 3d Book of the -Emile while urging the claims of manual employ- ments on the sons of high-born families. It is more probable that his treatises are rather symptoms of the deep-seated disease which was silently but surely eat- ing out the life of the French monarchy and aristoc- racy, than influential causes of that bloody tragedy. His melancholy career ended in 1778, not without suspicions of suicide. The chief pedagogic merit of the Emile, in my opinion, is to be found in these four things : viz., (1) that it is the first noteworthy study of child nature and child development from a pedagogical standpoint ; (2) that it everywhere emphasizes the absolute im- portance of training the senses and bodily capabilities as the only sure basis of memory, judgment and understanding ; (3) that it gives hints and even more explicit directions for the beginning of instruction 266 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. from the standpoint of the child's experience, in such branches as geography, physics, and history, the spirit of which methods has entered into modern practice ; and (4) that in the 5th Book we have what Dr. Dittes considers the best treatise that has yet appeared on the education of girls. Every one of these great merits is marred by grave faults of extravagance and paradox, by graver errors of opinion on points often of vital moment, by sug- gestions of wholly impracticable means, and by expectation of results whose realization would be fa- tal to the author's ultimate purpose. Hence, that we may better understand the cause of Rousseau's va- garies, and so be the better able to discern and appre- ciate the truth he delivers, it will be profitable for us to consider his most fundamental errors before dis- cussing the undeniable merits that have just been named. We will confine ourselves to the two that are really fundamental, because they give form and coloring to his entire treatment of the problem of right education, and are the source of most of his par- adoxes. He sets out with the postulate that " all is good as it issues from the hands of the Author of things; everything degenerates in the hands of man." In this he intends no reference to the dogma of the fall of man and its consequences ; but he means the man of any period, all whose faults, prejudices, and evil inclinations he considers due to the perversion of ten- dencies which originally were wholly good, by influ- IMPOETANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 267 ences exerted upon him by his fellow men, and that too mostly at an age when he has power neither to resist nor to choose. We need not pause to consider the consequences of this doctrine in regard to man's responsibility for his own mature acts, nor its contra- diction of the history of progressive human advance- ment which on this theory would have been impossible, nor its contravention of the universal opinion of mankind as expressed in their actions ; we have only to observe its effects on his mode of treating the education of the young. Believing that the native state of man is good, it is a question how to preserve his primitive goodness, and to allow it to develop without perversion. Be- lieving that perversion and degeneracy are due to men and society, it is a question how to protect the child from the malign influence of his fellows. Hence his repeated insistence on restoring the child to "the state of nature," and his constant reference of every- thing to this assumed state of nature. He means by this, not exactly the savage state, for which in some of his writings he is thought to betray a predilection born of ignorance ; but a fancied state, made up of man's best aspirations after the agreeable, the fit, and that which will promote happiness and perfection, when unchanged by the influences to which he is sub- jected. Hence, that this fancied state of nature may be secured, that nought may interfere with conformity to these primitive dispositions to goodness, and, in 268 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. short, to assure a complete control of all circumstances that maj influence character, — his Emile is to be iso- lated from his fellows until the age of fifteen ; to be reared in the country, communing solely with nature, in company with a paragon of a tutor who shares all with him ; to be subjected to no obvious control save that which comes from the invincible facts and proc- esses of nature ; to form no habitudes, and to shape no opinions save those which the phenomena of nature cause spontaneously to germifiate within him ; to gain no moral ideas save that of property as the result of individual efforts; and, indeed, ''to lose time " rather than, in efforts to utilize it, to run a risk of thwarting the work of nature in him. Emile is not even to know how to read until he is twelve years old, when Eousseau thinks that the processes of physical growth have so far advanced as to afford a relative surplus of energy which may safely be used for his intellectual development. These are a few of the more obvious vagaries into which he is led by his idea of conforming education to a fancied state of nature, and thus promoting the innate dispositions to goodness ; but this idea colors every part of his scheme of education for both sexes. Rousseau's second fundamental error controls the plan of his work and its division into distinct parts or Books. It is the assumption that within certain tol- erably well-marked limits of age, certain capabilities of our nature so predominate as to be practically un- mixed with any powers or tendencies that look to IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 269 more advanced stages for their complete develop- ment. Thus he conceives four, or more properly five well-marked stages of development, forming the five Books of his treatise. The first deals with the vegetative age, and includes the care and training of the infant from birth until it is able to talk. The second period ends at the age of twelve, during which he assumes that the senses and the physical nature dominate, without reason and cer- tainly without moral ideas ; and this period he would dedicate to securing physical well-being, to thorough training of the senses, and to permitting the child to be acted upon by and to conform himself to the inter- play of nature's forces. In the third period, between the ages of twelve and fifteen, judgment and reason are supposed to make their appearance, and this, which is one of the most suggestive Books, is there- fore dedicated to a scheme of rapid intellectual devel- opment. The fourth period, between the ages of fifteen and twenty, the critical period as he considers it, is that in which, with the awakening of the human passions, he conceives that the youth first becomes capable of moral and religious ideas, and hence that moral and religious education should here begin. This fourth Book forms nearly a third of the entire work, but lengthy as it is, it is never tedious. It abounds in passages of striking eloquence, some of which have .become famous, but is marked by an unusual abun- dance of his peculiar notions. Some of its religious 270 THE HISTORY OF MODEEN EDUCATION. ideas which have been generally condemned, were considered of so dangerous a tendency as made it ex- pedient for the author to flee from France to avoid imprisonment, and caused the book to be publicly burned by the Protestants of Geneva as well as by the Catholics of Paris. The fifth Book which treats of female education under the name of Sophie, the future spouse of Emile, is devoted also to the completion of Emile's education, by his conceiving an ardent affection for one of the opposite sex, by his undertaking foreign travel that he may learn complete self-government and gain the knowledge and experience essential to the exercise of his duties as a citizen, and by his assumption of the offices of husband, father, and member of the state. Such is an outline of Rousseau's scheme of educa- tion, and such the assumption on which it is based. And yet it needs no unusual observation of children and youth to assure any one, not influenced by a the- ory, that Rousseau's idea of the normal course of human development is wholly incorrect ; that, in point of fact, judgment and reason do not wait till the twelfth year before they can be effectually ap- pealed to in matters within the range of the child's experience; and that still less is the ^^outh incapable of true sympathy or real ideas of right and wrong until the age of puberty : indeed, without early sub- jection to authority, and without proper intercourse with his fellows, he would be practically ignorant of the natural relations on which morality is based. IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TKEATISES. 2Y1 And yet it is obvious that this erroneous assump- tion gives the key to the entire plan of his work. Still more, it colors largely his entire mode of treat- ment of his scheme of education. For example, in Book 2d, he attacks Locke's judicious maxim of using reason with children, with the argument that at the age of ten children not only have no apprehension of reason but have no need of training. " Reason is," he says, ^' the rein of strength, and the child has no need of that rein. Let him instead feel early on his proud head the hard yoke which nature imposes on man, — the heavy yoke of necessity." Many exam- ples akin to this could be cited to show the manner in which this fundamental error influences his treat- ment of educational questions. In my opinion the primal source of most of the extravagances which mar his work, obscure his mer- its, and furnish to his critics a fruitful supply of injurious quotations, may be found in these two er- roneous assumptions which we have just considered ; and it is quite possible that when we see that Rous- seau's chimerical ideas flow not from mere wanton- ness and caprice, but are the natural outcome of honest but erroneous convictions in a spirit so fanciful as his, we shall gain a fairer view of the spirit by which he is actuated, and shall be in a better position to pass a candid judgment on his undeniable merits. Moreover, the examination of his errors has afforded a convenient means to give a brief and connected view of the plan and scope of his treatise, any ana- 272 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. lytic discussion of which would be both tedious and confusing. We are now in a position to review in a spirit of fairness his substantial contributions to a sound pedagogy. (1) In the very preface of his treatise, he claims as its chief merit that it is intended to be a profound and careful study of the psychology of childhood. " We do not know childhood," he says. " From the false notions we have of it, the farther we go the more widely we stray. The wisest men confine them- selves to what it is important that men should know, without considering what children are in a condition to understand. They always seek for the man in the child without thinking of what he is before becoming a man. This is the study to which I have applied myself the most, so that if my whole method should prove chimerical and false, one may always set out from my observations. I may have seen very ill what should be done, but I believe I have observed well the being on whom we must operate. Begin then by studying your pupils better, for very surely you do not know them." Again in Book 3d he exclaims, " I wish some ju- dicious man would give us a treatise on the art of observing children." This wish has awaited its ful- filment until recent times, when the trained intelli- gence of men like Perez and Taine, Preyer and Chas. Darwin, has been turned to the operations of young minds. To Rousseau, however, is due the credit of having first called definite attention to the need of IMPOETANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 273 such a study, and of having done something of value in it himself. The record of this may be found in Book 2d of the Emile, where he treats of the training of the senses and of teaching the child by sense ex- periences his actual relation to the material world, its properties, and its forces. Here also we may justly admire his acuteness in observing that the speech of children has often " a different meaning for them and for us," a fact to ivhich he rightly attributes many of the amusing say- ings of children, and which he thinks causes errors sometimes of lasting consequence. In this connection, too, it may be remarked that we owe to Kousseau a vigorous plea for care in forming the early speech of the child, and in assuring a right use of the organs of speech. It would be easy were it needful to multiply quotations showing Rousseau's deep appreciation of the truth that any reliable science of education must liave its foundations in a thorough study of the opera- tions of the young intelligence. (2) Rousseau was by no means the first to call at- tention to the importance of training the senses and I)odily capabilities. We have already seen the em- phasis laid on this by Comenius and Locke, and that even the cautious and conservative Rollin would have the exercise of the senses cared for during the entire childhood and youth, and expects from this care note- worthy results. But no one before nor since Rousseau, not even Pestalozzi, has like him made his entire :«cheme of education depend on sense and bodily training, or on the results flowing from this. 274 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. He proposes that to the twelfth year the entire ac- tivity of the child shall be given to this kind of train- ing, no literary tasks, no learning even to read, unless he desires it for its present obvious utility, but all care to be devoted to the senses and the body, and to their development. "Do not exercise strength only,'' he says, " but also all the senses which direct it; de- rive from each all the aid possible, verifying the im- pressions of one by another ; measure, count, weigh, compare ; do not use strength until after having esti- mated resistance, and always let the estimate of the effect precede the means." Bat besides this thorough cultivation of the senses and muscular adaptations, insisted on by him during the period of childhood, it should be remembered that Rousseau's entire scheme of advanced education pre- supposes trained senses and physical capabilities- obedient to the will, and calls for their thorough use- as an indispensable means for gaining usable knowl-^ edge, the only kind of knowledge that he values. Inr this line is his insistence on manual training. It is only within the last score of years that efforts have been made to give to youth some dexterity in the use of common tools ; yet Rousseau, adopting a suggestion? of Locke, urges manual training at much length and with great eloquence, not only as a useful means of education, but also as a resource in unforeseen mis- fortunes ; and it is in this connection that he makes his celebrated prophecy of the near approach of an age- of political and social revolutions. IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 275 (3) In intellectual education as a whole, he empha- sizes all the fundamental principles which are now commonly accepted in instruction, viz., thorough use of the observing powers, the self-activity of pupils instead of mere receptivity, advancement by easy and natural steps, the cultivation of mental power rather than the loading of memory, holding the interest of pupils by the presentation of proper subject-matter, the avoidance of over-crowding and precocity, of sham knowledge and superficiality, and in general, con- formity to the powers, needs, and individuality of the child, ^one of these principles were wholly new : every one of them had been advanced by preceding Innovators : but Kousseau vividly exhibits them all in action, and exemplifies their possibilities in the development of the child. In his hands they are no longer abstract propositions, but embodied and there- fore impressive realities. Yet the exemplification of these great principles is by no means the measure of his services to intellec- tual education. His most significant addition to the art of instruction, is his suggestion of the methods of teaching such subjects as geography, physics, history, civics, and drawing. In physics, for example, he would begin with the observation of familiar physi- cal phenomena, in which Emile does all the work and makes the discoveries with an imperceptible guidance of his tutor, devising and making apparatus to verify the results of his observations, and thus, slowly in- deed but surely, reaching the conception of physical uniformities of operation, or laws. 276 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. In the study of geography, he would set out from the terrestrial features of the home ; in history, from biography ; in civics, from the most familiar relations of men to their fellows ; and in drawing, from at- tempts at delineating common things rather than from copying pictures already made. Save in the case of history, the first effective suggestion of these sensible modes of procedure seems to have come from Rousseau, and their adoption marks an important advance in the art of instruction. (4) The 5th Book of the Emile in which Rousseau gives his ideas of the proper education of women, has the fewest glaring faults, and is the most satisfactory part, of the- en tire treatise. The aim that he proposes for this education, viz., to fit woman to please and in- terest man, to be his complement and fit companion, and to make his home pleasant, is not a very lofty one according to some modern ideas; yet despite some faults, Dr. Dittes is right in considering it one of the best treatises on female education that has yet ap- peared. He draws the picture of the girl as she appears to him to be by nature, and again as he thinks she should be when properly educated, with his usual skill and grace. Like Fenelon, he objects to a conventual education for girls, and for the like reasons. Rather he would have them educated at home under the eye of the judicious mother, by whose wise guidance they should be taught to know the world as it really is, to penetrate its unreality, and to gain wisdom to avoid IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 277 its allurements. Home and family life are, in his opinion, the sphere of good women, to a taste for which they should be trained by the example of good mothers, and by a sweet home life throughout their youth. For success within this sphere they should be carefully educated, by the development of taste that they may please all within its circle, by acute knowl- edge of human nature and its springs of action, that they may manage with tact in all social relations, and by a proper cultivation of intellect and heart, that they may be interesting companions and retain the enduring esteem of husbands and friends by their in- telligence and unpretending virtues. He would have the moral and religious education of girls very early begun, because, as he says, " If one waited until they are able to discuss those deep ques- tions methodically, we should run the risk of never discussing them at all " ; which is about equally true of both sexes, though Rousseau^s preconceived theory blinds him to the fact. In justice to him however it should be added, that he thinks the religious beliefs of women are more subject to authority, and their conduct more subject to public opinion, than is the case with men ; and that hence it is needful only to state to them clearly what is to be believed and done ; — a statement which makes his inconsistency in the religious education of the two sexes, a trifle less glar- ing. Moral and religious instruction, he would not per- mit to be gloomy and irksome : it should be bright 278 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. and brief, exact and reverent, and be constantly im- pressed by corresponding example. But " the idea of duty has no force unless we join to it motives which impel us to fulfil it. Hence make girls feel all the value of wisdom and virtue, and you will make them love them," by showing " that their virtues and their duties are the source of their pleasures and the foundation of their rights." The idea of the existence of a Supreme Arbiter of human destinies, whose children we all are, and through whom all human rights and duties are rooted in the very nature and relations of things, he thinks should be early impressed on girls and made habitual with them. But if on girls, why not equally on boys? We have seen his reasons, but they are obviously in- sufficient. Were his vague idea expanded into the form of an argument, it would take this form : Rea- son does not awake till about the age of twelve ; but girls will believe without reason while boys will not ; hence make a wide difference in the time and mode of their religious and moral education. In this as in other things, he insists '' that everything consists in re-establishing or preserving the natural sentiments," repeating his fundamental idea that man by nature is wholly good, and that his errors and corruptions spring from education and external infl^uences. As in the education of the boy he would make Robinson Crusoe his chief text-book, so in Sophie's hands he would place Telemaque that she may form from it her ideal of the heroic youth, who alone shall be worthy of her feminine perfection. IMPOKTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 279 Such then appear to me to be the most salient and fruitful errors, and such the most important teachings of this remarkable book, a book which has inspired many reformers of education like Basedow, and Pesta- lozzi, and Froebel, and which is said not to have been without influence on philosophers like Kant. It is not only the most influential pedagogic work which the 18th century produced, but it is also the best index of the interest with which educational questions were regarded in the period of feverish unrest which pre- ■jceded the outbreak of the French Eevolution. Other French thinkers of more philosophic character, like Oondillac, Helvetius, and Diderot, contributed to pedagogy ideas all of which are of interest, and some of them, of value, e. g., Diderot's principles in the selection and arrangement of studies, and Helvetius's belief that all men who are ordinarily well organized have equal potential talent ; but as these works are little known outside of France, it does not seem ex- pedient to dwell upon them here. Section 3d.— Immanuel Kant. The father of the famous German philosopher Xant was a saddler, and is said to have been of Scotch descent, to which fact the curious in such matters might be inclined to attribute the metaphysical ge- nius of his son. Immanuel was born in Konigsberg in 1724. He received his early education in his na- tive place, and after some years' experience as a private tutor, he took his degree at the university of Xonigsberg in 1755. The next fifteen years of his 280 THE HISTORY OF MODEEN EDUCATION. life were spent in lecturing on metaphysics and math- ematics, during which he was offered and refused the chair of poetry. Finally in 1Y70 he was made pro- fessor of logic and metaphysics in his native univer- sity in which he passed the remainder of his life, dying in 1804. Such was the inflexible regularity of his habits^ and such the tenacity of his affection for the city of his birth, that during the entire period of his profes- sorship he is said never once to have set foot out of Ivonigsberg. The uneventful record of his life is, that he was born, lived fourscore years during which he never married, did a famous work in his chosen line, and died full of honors as of years,— all in Kon- igsberg. As professor of philosophy, he gave lectures on pedagogy, which from their form in his collected works, would seem to have been more than once re- modeled, though without material change in their fundamental ideas. Kant evidently entertained a lofty idea of the power and effects of education. " Man," he says, " can become man only through education ; he is nothing but what education makes him, and he can be educated only by man." Believ- ing thus, he more than once expressed the wish that an experiment might be made under favorable con- ditions, remote from the interference of parents and princes, to test how far education can be carried and what may be its results. "This only," he says, "is the cause of evil, that nature is not brought under rules. In man lie only the germs of good." IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 2S1 Hence tlie need of an education directed accord- ing to an ideal of humanity and its entire destiny. Towards this, however, he admits that mankind can approximate but slowly; "for insight depends on education, and in turn education depends on insight, which can come only from the transmitted experience and knowledge of many generations." As a step in the right direction, he proposes that children should be educated, not merely for the present state of things, but for the future possibly better condition of the race. But " if children are to become better than their parents, pedagogy must become a study, otherwise nothing is to be hoped for from it." " Unless mech- anism in education is changed to science and thus puts forth Tiarirmnioiis efforts, one generation might pull down what another had built up." Hence " the regulation of the schools should depend only on the judgment of the most enlightened judges. — Only through the efforts of men of more extended pur- poses, who have at heart the elevation of the world, and who are capable of the idea of a future better condition, is the gradual approximation of human nature to its destined end possible." " Behind educa- tion lies hidden the great secret of the perfection of human nature." In the view of Kant education is made up of disci- pline, cultivation, and the attainment of prudence and morality. The human being needs discipline to tame his original savagery, to guard" him from departing 282 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. from true manhood through yielding to animal im- pulses, to bring him gradually to all the native dispo- sitions of humanity, and finally to lead him to the right use of his own reason. He needs cultivation that all his capabilities may be adapted to the accom- plishment of any desired end ; and of these two, Kant says that early discipline is the more vitally necessary, for "He who is not cultured is rude, while he who is not disciplined is barbarous, and neglect of discipline is a greater evil than neglect of culture, for this can be remedied later whilst that can never be," Again man needs to be made prudent, that he may be fitted for the society of his fellows, may be es- teemed and have influence through the possession of good manners, politeness, and a worldly wisdom in virtue of which he is able so to bring his talents to bear upon other men as to make them helpful to his purposes. Finally he should be made moral that he may be disposed to choose only really good ends, ends which are held in esteem by every one and which can be the ends of all under like conditions. *' How exceedingly important it is," he says, " to teach children from their youth up to avoid vices, not merely because God has forbidden them, but because they are in themselves worthy to be avoided " ; also to reverence and regard the rights of men, and es- pecially of the poor and lowly. To this last end, Kant would have a catechism of right prepared for schools and an hour given for its daily 'study, " that the children may learn and take to heart the rights of IMPOETANT EDUCATIONAL TEEATISES. 283 man, that thing most valued by God (Augapfel) on earth." From Kant's ideal of education, it is obvious that his chief interest centres in character-development, which he terms jpractical education because it has to do with conduct and the training of the will. Through this, the young human being is to be fitted to become a self-directing and free-acting man, by learning so to control his selfish inclinations that he may befitted to become a member of society, by attaining freedom of the will through the habitual recognition of its limi- tations as well as through its habitual proper use, and by gaining an inward value and worthiness of his own, and never belittling this worth of humanity in his own person by vices or mean compliance. The great problem of education, in the view of Kant, is how to combine subjection to legal compul- sion with the proper use of individual freedom. " I should accustom my pupil," he says, "to endure a limitation of his freedom, and at the same time guide him in making a proper use of his freedom. Without this, all is mere mechanism, and the youth released from tutelage does not know how to make a proper use of his freedom." He recommends that from early years, the child be left free to act where he will not ignorantly hurt himself or interfere with the rights of others, that he be taught that he cannot gain his ends save by permitting others to gain theirs, and latest of all that he be shown that whatever compulsion is imposed on him is in the interest of his own true 284 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. freedom, guiding liim to its orderly use that he may not be dependent on the care of others. The will is not to be broken, but trained to yield to natural obstacles. " Breaking of the will generates a slavish way of thinking ; natural opposition on the contrary brings about tractableness." Both in this sentence and in his discussion of punishments, Kant strikes the key-note of Herbert Spencer's chapter on Moral Education. Mere empt}^ emotion, and a sentimental sympathy issuing in nothing, he would discard as factors in edu- cation : " Let the child, he says, be full not of feeling, but of the idea of duty;— let him learn to put self- respect and inward worthiness, in place of the opinions of men ; inward worth of action and accomplishment in place of words and emotions ; reason in place of feeling ; and clieerfulness and good-humored piety in place of a cruel, timid, and gloomy devotion." What Ivant considers the vital traits of an estimable character are these four, 1st obedience, i. e., subjection to lawful authority and to the idea of duty ; 2d truth- fulness which he considers " the essential foundation of character ; " 3d sociality or inclination to friend- ship with one's fellow men ; and 4:th candor which he calls " a modest self-confidence." This statement of what should be considered the essential traits of a worthy character has great interest as originating with the greatest pf philosophers. Early religious ideas, he declares, should be incul- cated, not as matters of memory or imitation, but as a IMPOETAKT EDUCATIONAL TREATISES. 285 general law of duty rooted in the nature of things and independent of the humors of men. Religion is applied morality, that is, morality applied to the knowledge of God. " We must first begin," he says, " with the child from the law which it has in itself. Man is blameworthy in himself when he is sinful ; this is grounded in himself, and not because it is for- bidden by God.' The divine law must appear at the same time a law of nature, for it is not arbitrary." The idea of God is best given under the analogy of a Father under whose care we are, from which naturally springs the conception of all men as one great family, and the cosmopolitan sentiment on which Kant lays stress. A few ideas of the Supreme Being should thus be given to children that they may know when they see men pray why and to whom they pray, and may be prepared to do the same understandingly when they reach the age of maturing reason. So far as concerns the methods of education, Kant is in substantial agreement with the essential principles of the educational reformers. Himself the veriest creature of routine, he seemingly agrees with Rousseau in discouraging the formation of habits that the pupil may be free from their tyranny; but the connection seems to show that this agreement is only apparent, and that Kant has in view only sensual indulgences. Again by a judicious definition of the difference in intention and spirit of work and play, he dissipates the oft-recurring notion of making learning a kind of play, which, when it means anything else than mak- 286 THE HISTORY OF MODEEN EDUCATION. ing learning pleasant by adapting it to the capacity of pupils, and investing it with a living interest, is cer- tainly a pleasing delusion. Finally, by a sagacious question as to the correla- tion of the course of development of the individual with that of the human race in time, Kant gave the hint * which Herbert Spencer, ascribing its origin to Comte, has wrought up into an ingenious theory in his work on Education ; and which presents an in- teresting analogy with Agassiz's generalization that the embryological, i. e., physical development of the individual corresponds with the course of develop- ment in time of the class to which it belongs. The pedagogical treatises of these three eminent men, not only represent the best educational thought of the ISth century, but are types of very unlike kinds of ability. Rollin, calm and judicious, system- atic and practical, illumines with the clear light of pedagogic insight every educational problem that he treats, and might safely be placed in the hands of a young teacher as a reliable guide. The brilliant and versatile but erratic Rousseau dazzles and bewilders, quite as often as he instructs those whom his eloquence attracts ; but far more than either of the others he inspires men to strive for the improvement of society by a more rational training of the young. The pro- found intellect of Kant displays its power, not in any systematic treatment of education, but in the es- tablishment of great fundamental points of view, and * Kant, Samtliche Werke, Vol. IX. p. 375. IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL TEEATISES. 287 in striking suggestions which he left to others to elaborate. They are remarkable educational repre- sentatives of a striving but unsettled age, of which Kant voices the aspirations, Rousseau typifies the tumult of effort, and Rollin represents the purpose to achieve the practical. CHAPTEE XII. TI. BASEDOW AND THE PIIILANTHKOPINIC EX- PERIMENT. Basedow who, with his coadjutors Campe and Salzmann, became famous through his educational experiment in the Philanthropinum at Dessau, was born the son of a wigmaker in Hamburg, in 1723, and diedin 1Y90. His father was a stern man who seems to have seen no signs of promise in his son until he had run away and attached himself to a gen- tleman in a distant place. This man soon discovered that the runaway was a lad of quite unusual ability. Hence the father, first seeing his son ario-ht throuo:h ■ o too another's eyes, persuaded the bo}" to return, and put him to school at a gymnasium. Here he earned small sums of money by writing poetry and tutoring other boys, and spent it in dissipation, presumably of a mild type. Later he went to the university of Leipsic to study theology with the purpose of becoming a clergyman. He however attended but few lectures, studying by himself instead, in a desultory and unordered fashion, and reading philosophic treatises from which he picked up a choice stock of heterodox opinions that barred him out from his destined profession, and col- ored all his later efforts and fortunes. Next he became tutor in a family where he showed his peda- (288) THE PHILANTHEOPINIC EXPERIMENT. 289 gogic instinct by devising a method of teaching Latin whicli later he published, and by which he taught first himself and then his pupil. At the age of thirty he became professor in an academy for noble youths, but gave such offense to the patrons of the institution by a heterodox treatise, as caused his trans- fer to the gymnasium at Altona. Here, too, untaught l)y experience, he published other heterodox and con- troversial pamphlets which put him and his family under a social ban, and caused them to be excluded from the communion to the great distress of his wife. In 1Y68, he published a treatise on Schools and Studies, and at about the same time, an announce- n;ent of an elementary book of human knowledge, for whose publication he appealed for money to kings and princes. The money was obtained and the book appeared, preceded by a Method Book for fathers and teachers. The Elementary Book was a kind of ISth century Orbis Pictus, illustrated by a hundred engrav- ings, some of them astonishing in the matters depicted, and was intended to teach children nature, morals, natural unsectarian religion, the duties of citizens and business affairs, without weariness by appealing to sense experiences. In lYTO, with the aid of an assistant, Wolke, he began an educational experiment on his infant daughter Emilie, apparently as a test of Kousseau's theories. Of this child Wolke is claimed to have made an infant prodigy who, at the age of five years, besides having an unusual knowledge of things, gained through the senses, was able to speak 290 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDrCATION. German, French and Latin, knew God as a father, and was fond of domestic duties. She seems to have played a considerable part as an example of what right methods of education were supposed to be able to accomplish. It should be noted, however, that in the Method Book, Basedow in some respects departs widely from Rousseau's vagaries, especially in regard to the time when religious and intellectual education should begin, and in insisting that it is best that the child should be educated among children. He wisely says, " Are not the mutual duties of those who have like rights, those in which we need a manifold practice ? But can a child that is brought up in solitude without playmates be practised in these duties by his tutor in any possible way ? " In 1771 the prince of Anhalt-Dessau invited Base- dow to Dessau, where with the aid of this prince and large contributions of money from other high quar- ters, in 1774 he founded his Philanthropinum, an institution in which an experiment was to be made for a thorough reform of the methods of education on the lines laid down by Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau. Although its name would claim for it a purpose to benefit mankind, it was in reality a board- ing school for the rich, so that Dittes derisively calls Basedow's projects "the pedagogy of the boarding school." In 1776, to advertise the Philanthropinum more widely and to obtain more money for his projects, he THE PHILANTHROPINIC EXPERIMENT. 291 sent out an " Invitation " to an examination to be held in May, in which the results of their teaching should be shown. In this " Invitation," he declares it to be his aim in education " to form a cosmopolite whose life shall be as harmless, as devoted to the public good, and as contented, as it can be shaped by edu- cation .... The art of all arts is virtue and content- ment." Pie promises a colorless religion that will be equally acceptable to all. Latin, French, and German, mathematics, and a knowledge of nature and art are to be thoroughly taught with very little memorizing ; and double as much progress in studies as is usual, is promised by an unforced study, through harmony with the philanthropinic training and mode of life ; while much culture of sound reason is to be gained by the practice of a truly philosophic mode of thinking. He undertakes to teach children to understand and read a language in six months, and to make them fair scholars in it in a year, and he declares that he has already done it, — alluding probably to Emilie. He also says that " he has devised methods to make the work of learning three times as brief and three times as easy and pleasant as usual. All sciences, through uniformity of text-books, are to be put into such relations that one part shall always shorten and lighten another; and only that which is for the com- mon good is to be taught out of each science." Yerily we seem to hear the voice of Ratich, addressing us after a sleep of a century and a half ! And yet 292 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. Basedow, unlike Ratich. is not merely feeding us with vague promises and proposals, but is giving too sanguine accounts of an experiment already in prog- ress, and mistaking fervent hopes for present accom- plishments. The proposed examination was held ; many noted persons resorted to it from different quarters ; favor- able reports of its results were published ; and the next year Kant wrote an eulogistic article on the Philanthropinum calling for a revolution in education in place of a reform, and predicting that the Philan- thropinum would teach and inspire teachers, and thus " be like seed corn." The rectors of gymnasien how- ever opposed, and Herder, then at the height of his fame, likened the projects of Basedow to an attempt to raise a forest of oaks in ten years, by cutting out their main roots, and declared " he would not entrust to him calves to educate, not to speak of men." Yet despite this opposition, the experiment seemed on the high road to an assured success. Neuendorf, the overseer of the school, strove like Trotzendorf to make it a little republic in which the pupils should make their own laws and feel their need of them ; manual labor was introduced, following the idea of Rousseau ; the numbers increased, and in 17S2 there were fifty-three pupils from all parts of Europe. Other schools sprang up in imitation of it, of which one, founded in 17S-i by Salzmann at Schnepfenthal in Gotha, still exists. And yet, before the end of the century, not only the original Philanthropinum had THE PHILANTHROPINIC EXPERIMENT. 293 become extinct, but also all its imitators save the school at Schnepfenthal. The cause of its rapid decline may doubtless be traced rather to grave defects in the character and claims of its projector, than to any lack of worth in the objects that were sought to be attained, or to any lack of necessity that efforts should be made for their attainment. The object that was sought was a radical change, or as Kant phrased it, a revolution in the current methods, purposes, and adjuncts of education. And that a radical change was necessary is evident both from the testimony of Kant, and from the de- scription which Yon Kaumer gives as holding good for the education of the times with but few shining exceptions. It was an educational system in which grammar and barren memory played a chief part ; in which eyes were used only for reading and writing, and ears only to listen to the dull routine lessons and coarse tirades of schoolmasters ; in which school rooms were dis- mally gloomy, and punishments frequent and savagely severe ; and in which youth, hampered and tricked out in ornamental clothing, with hair elaborately dressed and smeared with pomade, and with daggers at their sides, were driven through a joyless round of nncomprehended studies, All this Basedow in the Philanthropinum undertook to change, and thus to set an example to all Europe of the direction that education, following the precepts of Comenius and Rousseau, should henceforth take in care for body, mind, and soul. 294 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. In his methods there are doubtless many absurdi- ties and much that is overstrained. This is espec- ially true of some things introduced in moral education, and of the instruction in '' natural religion," in regard to which he was what we should now call a cranky and into which he introduced an elaborate and silly ceremonial. There was also a lack of frankness bor- dering on charlatanry in his treatment of Latin. He believed in teaching only useful things, and he thought Latin had wholly ceased to be useful ; yet avowedly for financial reasons, he made Latin very prominent in his school, thus publicly fostering while privately contemning it. Had he shown the same worldly wisdom and spirit of adaptation in other re- spects, in conforming his purposes and methods some- what to the exigencies of the times, the Philanthropi- num might have had a different and more-enduring history. Yet, though this immediate experiment failed, it was far from coming to naught. An influence went out from it which spread through Germany, and was not without effect in other parts of Europe. Many books were written disseminating its ideas, one of which, " The Swiss Family Kobinson " written by Campe, is still a favorite with the young. The atten- tion of men was called to the folly and uselessness of many things that prevailed in the schools ; the real merits of the philanthropinic ideas worked their way into education through men who avoided their defects ; *' peculiar pedagogic thoughts and views were called THE PHILANTHROPINIC EXPERIMENT. 295 forth in men by so great a pedagogic reform " ; and minds were made receptive for the efforts of Pesta- lozzi, with whom began the educational revolution for which Kant longed. Indeed Basedow's bold, confident, and assertive spirit had gained such hold on the minds of men, that even when discredited by disaster, it left them in an expectant attitude with regard to education wholly favorable to any future reformer. Thus his experiment was a success, even in its failure. The character of Basedow has been alluded to as the undoubted cause of the brief life of the school he founded. Although his ability and his eloquence were remarkable, yet his character was marred by defects which unfitted him for a leader in an educa- tional enterprise. His skeptical and disputatious though evidently religious spirit, betrayed him on the most important occasions into a strange lack of world- ly prudence. The young Goethe, who in 1774 was his travelling companion, gives some curious illustrations of this and other traits of his character. On a tour whose object was to obtain money from the benevo- lent, and in which success depended on the favorable impression he should make, he continually affronted people, and closed their purses with their hearts by uncalled-for ventilation of his skeptical ideas about the Trinity. He was fond of teasing people by running counter to their tastes. Thus seeing Goethe's dislike for the vile tobacco that he smoked, and the viler-smelling 2^6 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. tinder with wliicli he often relighted it, he took special pleasure in filling their room with the nauseous fumes. This same trait reveals a coarseness of nature which marks also some of his works on school sub- jects, showing a lack of delicacy which was little fitted for success in a great educational experiment involving striking innovations, whose acceptance de- manded the utmost fineness of touch and refinement of feeling, — such as we have remarked in Fenelon. Even more injurious than all else to the fortunes of his school was his over-sanguine disposition, which betrayed him into describing ideas that he had con- ceived as though they were things already accom- plished. Examples of this have already been given in speaking of his " Invitation." By his bold asser- tions, extravagant expectations were excited ^ and when these were not realized, a disappointed public was little disposed to believe that the institution had any real merit whatever. The career of Basedow, like that of Ratich, affords a striking example of how completely the personality of the educator, especially when he undertakes the role of a reformer, colors all his work and brings with it success or failure to his efforts. He who must in some respects run counter to the prejudices and habitudes of men, has need of the most consummate prudence and tact, — prudence that he may rouse no needless opposition, and tact that he may win men to cooperation by so presenting new ideas that they may seem like the embodiment of the vague aspirations of THE PHILANTHROPINIC EXPERIMENT. 297 his hearers, — that thus, while he is really accomplish- ing his own purposes they may seem to be accom- plishing theirs. !N"ot only was Basedow singularly lacking in these two qualities, so essential to the successful reformer, but also others of his personal characteristics contributed to the failure of his well- meant efforts. In the career of Pestalozzi, we shall see an illustration in an opposite sense of the influ- ence of the educator's personality, — in a life of suc- cessive failures caused by peculiar defects, yet crowned with enduring renown by virtue of great and uncommon excellences of character. In conclusion it may be said that the ideas which Basedow especially emphasized in his experiment, present few or no novelties to one familiar with pre- vious educational history. The idea of following nature in all things, religion included ; of appealing in all possible cases to direct observation ; of giving^ careful training to the body, and to the physical capa- bilities, by manual work, and by dress permitting free movement ; of teaching only useful things ; of educat- ing the intellect that the feelings may gain right direction ; and of guiding the young by love instead of by blows, — are each and all recognizable as the common property of several Innovators ; but what they held as theory, he endeavored to exemplify in practice. The value of his idea of training the young to be cosmopolitan rather than patriotic may well be doubted ; and his effort to inculcate a mere colorless religion, bearing no sectarian tint, however laudable 298 THE HISTOEY OF MODERN EDUCATION. may have been its purpose, was not merely puerile in its method, but was strongly though unconsciously tinged by his own peculiar heterodox views. The influence exerted by this experiment, in an age of so high-wrought expectations, was doubtless great, even though it failed ; and Pestalozzi was the inheritor of the results of that influence. CHAPTER XIIL YII. PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. The career of Pestalozzi is one peculiarly difficult to understand. The anomaly of enduring success amidst continuous failures is apt to strike the observer as a puzzle that hardly admits a rational solution. The explanation which Dr. Dittes essays to give of this curious phenomenon, is therefore worth quoting as that of one of the foremost among German educa- tors, and of one who strikes the key-notes of Pesta- lozzi's character with intelligent sympathy. It is as follows : " The most influential of all German peda- gogues has been a man who, neither through general culture, nor through clearness of pedagogic insight, nor through mastery of method, nor through talent for organization and direction, nor finally through enduring creations, towered above his great prede- cesssors and contemporaries, or even reached their level. On the contrary, in all these respects he remained far behind other educators. "What made liim great was his inexhaustable love for the people, liis pure heart, his glowing enthusiasm, his restless efforts and sacrifices for human welfare through liuman culture, and this too at a time which had finally gained a sense for educational ideals, and (299) 300 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. hence elevated the promoter of such ideals to undying- renown." That is to say, through the efforts of men like Rousseau and Basedow, the times were ripe for educational reform ; and the unselfish love and fiery enthusiasm of Pestalozzi fitted him to express the needs of the times and to enforce their remedy, despite his lack in most of those qualities which are usually thought essential to make up the successful teacher. A review of the career of Pestalozzi will, I think,, convince us that Dittes' solution of the enigma of Festalozzi's fame and enduring influence, is probably as satisfactory as any that can be offered. John Henry Pestalozzi was born January, 1746 in Zurich where his father was a respectable physician. He had the misfortune when only five years old to lose his father, of whose masculine influence a boy so peculiarly constituted as he, stood in special need.. Under the care of his mother and of a faithful maid, he grew up a clumsy and awkward, yet withal good- natured and obliging lad, whom his school-fellows nicknamed Harry Oddity von Foolville. He passed, seemingly with average credit, through the various grades of the Zurich schools ; showed himself quick to grasp ideas, but very careless about the forms in which he embodied them ; received through one of his teachers, Bodmer by name, a strong bent to natural history, and towards caring for the happiness and freedom of the people; and was powerfully stimu- lated by reading Emile which just then was published. PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 301 The educational views of this book doubtless impressed him the more from their strong contrast with what he was experiencing ; whilst its political ideas kindled in the heart of the boy, already disposed to the love of liberty by the teaching of Bodmer, a hatred of the aristocracy which was never wholly quenched. He was destined for the ministry, but is said to have failed completely in his first attempts to preach. It was unfortunate for his earthly happiness that he permitted himself to be discouraged by these early failures ; for those who observe the touching and persuasive eloquence of his later addresses, and the impassioned fervor which glows in many passages of his educational works, cannot fail to be convinced that his peculiar abilities would have found their fittest place in the church. The church, however, lost one who would have proved a burning and shin- ing light, and he turned to the law. This profession did not harmonize with his ardent love for his fellow men ; hence in his twenty-second year, he abandoned literary ideas altogether, bought an unpromising tract of land, built a house which he called Neuhof, and betook himself to the cultivation of madder. Here in 1769 he married Anna Schulthess who brought him a considerable fortune, and with whom he lived nearly fifty years in most harmonious union. The letter in which he declared to Anna his senti- ments and wishes, and which is quoted in some of his biographies, is remarkable for the frankness with which it discloses all his faults and weaknesses, of 302 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. which he was fnlly conscious, as also his aspirations for the future, from which he looked for a troubled life. These anticipated troubles came early to the young couple; for the madder enterprise proved a costly failure, wholly, as Pestalozzi confesses, through his own lack of Business capacity. Then in 1775 he converted his home into an industrial school for poor children, who were expected to pay for their support by field labors and spinning and weaving, while receiving school instruction at stated hours. From the outset this undertaking met with diffi- culties, from the lack of skill and docility of the pupils, from the stupid interference of parents who freqivently removed their children as soon as they were decently clothed and became useful, but most of all from "the lack of solid knowledge of fabrics, men, and business " on the part of its manager. The school finally went to pieces in 1780, and left Pesta- lozzi impoverished and deprived of confidence in himself, but with a better knowledge of the class which he desired to benefit, and for which his benev- olent feelings suffered no abatement. In the eighteen years which followed at Neuhof, years often of great privation, Pestalozzi laid the foun- dation of his reputation as a writer on education by the publication of two works which contain the funda- mental ideas of all his later efforts. One of these, " Leonard and Gertrude," which appeared in 1781, is by far the most widely known of all his works. In the form of a homely but touching story of the life in PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 303 a Swiss village, in which Gertrude acts the part of the good angel, it was intended, in the words of its author, " to promote a better education of the people by setting out from their real situation and their natural relations." " It was," as he says in the preface to a second edition published in 1803, "my first word to the heart of the poor and forsaken in the land, my first word to the mothers of the land and to the heart which God gave them to be to their children what no man on earth can be in their stead." It was the first expression of an idea which he never abandoned dur- ing his long life, to place the first education of child- ren in the hands of mothers, and to so methodize and even mechanize instruction as to render this possible. This, which was also the idea of Comenius, was the fruitful germ from which much later sprang the practicable scheme of Froebel, the kindergarten. This work attracted great attention, and roused among his friends the hope that he might be a suc- cessful novelist. This, however, was not the kind of success that Pestalozzi craved ; and the next year, seeing that the interest of his story had withdrawn attention from the educational ideas he wished to impress, he wrote " Christopher and Alice " to accent them more fully. This book gained little notice, and probably failed entirely to reach the class he had chiefly in view. Daring the succeeding years which cover a period of wars and tumults for Europe, most of his writings were of a political and ephemeral character, yet with a thread of appeal for better popu- lar education running through many of them. 804 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. In 1798, the idea occurred to the government officials, on account of his incessant political activity, that he probably wanted some office to keep him quiet ; but to their surprise, when asked what post he would accept, Pestalozzi answered, " I wish to be a school- master." He was taken at his word, and in Septem- ber, 1798 he was sent to Stanz to collect and care for the poor children who had been orphaned and made homeless by the war. Here then at the age of fifty- two, and with no pedagogic experience save the luck- less industrial undertaking at Neuhof, Pestalozzi entered on his illustrious educational career. He soon collected in a deserted convent, which was given up to his use, eighty homeless children. Igno- rant and neglected, ragged and filthy, brutalized by extreme want, and afflicted with various nameless ills, they were unpromising subjects for an effort at adapt- ing the conditions of home life to the needs of num- "bers assembled in a school, such as Pestalozzi had in view. " A person who had the use of his eyes," he says, " would not have ventured it ; fortunately I was blind, otherwise I should not have ventured it." Here then with only the aid of a housekeeper, he entered on his task. The children were taught and cared for only by him. He slept in their midst; he performed for them the most menial services ; he prayed with them, and strove to nourish in their hearts the germs of good principles : he combined manual labor with instruction that they might become able to support themselves. Forced by the necessity of the PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 305 situation, he devised the plan of concert recitation and a system of monitorial teaching, in which the few who were able to read were set to teach those more ignorant. His unselfish labors for these desolate children were meeting with unlooked-for success, when the return of the French army in June, 1799, scattered the pupils, and their overtasked teacher gained a brief period of rest. Later in the same year, he was per- mitted to teach in the primary schools of Burgdorf, a town of some importance in the canton of Bern. Here he continued his experiments in elementary instruction, encountering some opposition, partly relig- ious, and partly envious. He says, " It was whispered that I myself could not write, nor work accounts, nor even read properly. Popular reports are not always wholly destitute of truth ; it is true that I could not write, nor read, nor work accounts well." What was there then in him to fit him for his work ? Ramsauer, one of his pupils at this time, and afterwards a teacher of some note, speaks of " his sacred zeal, his devoted love which caused him to be entirely unmindful of himself, which struck even the children, made the deepest impression on me and knit my childlike and grateful heart to his forever." After less than a year of this teaching, he opened a school in Burgdorf in conjunction with Krusi and others, which was the germ of the famous Pestaloz- zian Institution. In 1805, this school was removed to Yverdun, and soon gained a European reputation. 306 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. Pupils flocked to it from various nationalities ; ardent students resorted thither to learn the secret of its methods ; and its fame attracted many distinguished visitors. In 1809, von Raumer, the future historian of education, spent some months in the school with a ft'iend, and his account of it is therefore an inside view, evidently candid but not highly eulogistic. At that time there were 165 pupils, of whom less than half were Swiss, the rest being German, French, Russian, Italian, Spanish, and even American. There were besides thirty-two persons in the institution to learn its methods. But though the school was famous and apparently flourishing, the seeds of discord were early sown, which should ultimately bring disaster. For a time the self-sacrificing spirit, the unselfish zeal for human improvement, and the untiring devotion to duty of its director, inspired in his associates kindred senti- ments, and united them all in harmonious efforts for the great cause in-which they were engaged. But as the numbers increased, and new elements were intro- duced into the school, the effects of Pestalozzi's "un- rivalled incapacity for government " and management began to make themselves felt. A strong hand was needed to guide a large establishment, and unhappily the man on whom the director relied for the strength which he knew he himself lacked, seems not to have been gifted with conciliatory manners. Hence dis- affection and discord arose, and invaluable teachers were lost. PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 307 Again, Pestalozzi's eager desire that the results of the teaching should be shown at their best to the many distinguished visitors, that thereby his purpose in the spread of better methods of instruction might be promoted, insensibly led to an undue attention to. those branches which could most easily be exhibited to visitors ; whereby those moral and religious charac- teristics which mature only in silence, were measure- ably less emphasized, and the education became one-sided. From this cause also heart-burnings arose among the teachers, since it was easily seen that those among them were most favored whose work would make the most impressive display. Pestalozzi struggled long against these tendencies, but in vain. The evils springing from the limitation& of his own nature, were too strong to be overpowered by his unselfishness and his unfailing love. The in- stitution declined, and was finally closed in 1825, after an existence of about twenty years. The old man, already verging on his eightieth year, retired to his old home at Neuhof where his only grandson resided ; and there, after writing his last two works, one of which bears the pathetic title " The Song of the Dying Swan," he died in February, 1827, having just completed his 81st year. So much has needed to be said on the incidents of his life, even in a brief sketch, because his life and character are so intimately intertwined with his edu- cational efforts, that the influence which the latter have exerted can hardly be understood apart from the 308 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. former. He taught and influeDced even more by what he was and what he desired than by what he did ; for, from his want of disciplined skill, and from the peculiar enthusiastic eagerness and lack of fore- sight which marked his nature, his practice often stands in the most imperfect relations with his theories and his real purposes. Witness, for example, his frequent violations, both in his teaching and in some of his method books, of his own fundamental principle, of proceeding in all possible cases from the observation of things, and using language only to express ideas already con- ceived. His so-called object lessons are often mere lists of names of things by no means present, accom- panied by other lists of properties by no means observed. It might be said that they were intended as guides only for the subjects to be selected by teachers ; but von Haumer's observations show that these compends were not so used in Yverdun. We are not therefore to expect from Pestalozzi that conformity of his practice to his principles which is common with less eager and more self-contained natures. He is to be judged rather by his spirit and his purposes than by what he did. The great purpose of Pestalozzi's efforts was " to reform educational methods in the interest of the poor and oppressed." To this he was prompted by an unwavering love of man and compassion for his often- wretched condition. This purpose and this love inspire all his works, and illuminate all his acts, so far as his acts could express his deepest convictions. PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 30^ They appear even more clearly in his industrial school at Neuhof, his orphan school at Stanz, his home school at Burgdorf, his institution at Yverdun, and his eager- ness when feeble with age to found a poor school at y verduiT, than in works like " Leonard and Gertrude/^ or" Christopher and Alice," or How Gertrude Teaches her Children." To so reform methods of instruction that the element- ary teaching might be done at home by the mothers, was a favorite idea of his during his entire life ; and in order that persons wholly untrained, as most mothers are, might use his methods with success, he strove so to simplify and even to mechanize them, a& to make their results depend rather on the nature of the processes than on the skill of the teachers. He did not even resent the charge of mechanizing method. On the contrary, once in the Burgdorf days, when an ofl&cer of the canton accused him of desiring to make instruction mechanical, Pestalozzi said " He hit the nail on the head, and supplied me with the very expression that indicated the object of my endeavors." That this was no mere chance expression, but rather the statement of a settled purpose, is shown by the objection made by von Raumer to the procedure he had witnessed at Yverdun. He says " The com- pendiums were to render all peculiar talent and skill in teaching as good as unnecessary. These methodical compends were like machines which unfortunately could not quite perform their office without human aid, as for instance, however perfect the printing 310 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. press, it must always be tended by a man who really needs hardly the most common human reason for his duties. Pestalozzi's idea of a teacher was not much better than this : according to his views, such an one had nothing to do but to take his pupils thix)ugh the compend with pedantic accuracy, according to the directions for its use, without adding thereto or dimin- ishing therefrom." This was certainly a low view of the teacher's functions, and is one to which the disciples of Pesta- lozzi at the present day would be unwilling to subscribe. It is especially strange that one who like Pestalozzi was engaged in a crusade against the dead mechanism of the schools of his time, should have seriously pro- posed to substitute for it another kind of mechanism, — the mechanism of an unvarying method. The erroneous course of thought by which he was led to make so serious a departure in his practice from the principles which he enforces so often and so well in his works, was probably something like the following : — He saw clearly that many of the worst evils of his time grew out of the neglect of popular education and the ignorance thence resulting : his ardent love for the people which was his most prominent and characteristic motive, impelled him to remedy these evils by striking at their source in popular ignorance : but he was firmly persuaded that the only effectual remedy lay in remitting the elementary instruction to mothers in the home : hence to carry out this imprac- ticable plan with persons unskilled in teaching, he PESTALOZZI AND HIS WOKK. 311 attempted to devise methods whose results should depend not on skill but on processes. Could his effort have succeeded, and such methods have been intro- duced into every wretched home, it does not seem probable that the evils at which he aimed would have been remedied ; for mere mechanical processes can never promote intelligence or moral thoughtfulness, without which the worst fruits of ignorance remain untouched. A favorite idea of Pestalozzi's, which is strongly emphasized by some of his modern followers, was that all elementary instruction should be related to num- ber, form and words, — number leading to arithmetic, form to drawing and writing, form and number to geometry, and words to the right use of language as the embodiment of ideas. Yon Raumer criticises these categories as referring too exclusively to sight, and hence seemingly exclud- ing many sensible properties of objects which, though embodied in language, cannot properly be considered under either number or form ; and thus, as he thinks, they run counter to Pestalozzi's most fundamental principle, that the basis of all instruction and especially of elementary instruction, should be laid on observa- tion and the proper use of the senses. Doubtless this idea from its simplicity fascinated its author, and prompted a spirit so little circumspect as his to push its application too far; yet when we consider how absorbing a part sights and word-sounds play in the sense experiences of the young, and that the really 312 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDUCATION. important phenomena which cannot readily be num- bered or reduced to form, can at least be recognized by name as experiences of sense, it is obvious that Pestalozzi's idea may easily be so applied as to be helpful in elementary teaching. His biographer, De Guimps, who was one of Pesta- lozzi's pupils, tells us that his most philosophic coad- jutor, ISTiederer, made these three things the essence of his method, viz. Aim, Starting-Point and Con- nection. His aim was the development of the entire man through the fise of his powers. The starting- point was to be in the child's tastes, and his ideas gained by previous experience. By connection was meant that exercises should be duly graduated to the powers of pupils, and so arranged that every exercise should grow out of the last and prepare for the next. In conclusion let us enumerate what may fairly be considered the essential features of Pestalozzi's educa- tional scheme. These are as follows ; (1) To develop the child and to form his mind through his own personal activity, rather than to attempt to furnish him with useful knowledge. (2) To base all instruction on intuition, i. e., obser- vation and experience, and to connect intimately with this the correct use of language, that the child may clearly express what he clearly conceives. Pestalozzi justly thought that his greatest service to education consisted in making the proper . use of the senses effective as the basis of all good teaching, and in con- necting this with the due use of language ; and if any PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 313 one thing were to be named as the distinctive charac- ter of Pestalozzianism at the present day, it would doubtless be this. (3) To furnish the pupil's mind with clear funda- mental notions, or " mother ideas " as a preparation for all the more advanced work, as for example in geometry, geography, and most other studies. (4) To popularize science by an objective presenta- tion of its truths ; in regard to which it may be said that in making science-teaching objective, more has been effected than merely to make it popular ; it has become deeper and more fruitful ; and in the form of laboratory study, its essential corollary, it is leading- to a rapid extension of man's knowledge of nature. (5) To conform the order of instruction to nature and common sense by beginning witli that which is within the range of the pupil's experience, advanc- ing from this gradually, keeping pace with his pro- gressive development, and dwelling so long and so repeatedly on each step that he may be sure to master- it thoroughly. In the application of this principle^- Pestalozzi pushed so far the idea of beginning with the near^ as to propose that object lessons should^ begin with the child's own body, evidently confound- ing the physically near with that which is nearest in the order of apprehension. He was wiser in recom- mending that religious education should set out from, the child's love for the mother, and that this love should then be directed to God as the parent of all. (6) To join practical skill with theoretic knowledge 314 THE HISTORY OF MODKBN EDUCATION. by associating manual with mental labor, thus insur- ing the habitual cooperation of mind and heart with hand. It is only within recent years that educators have become alive to the importance and possible value of this idea in education. The idea is, however, by no means original with Pestalozzi, as we have repeatedly seen. (7) To base the relation of teacher and child on love^ and to pay due respect to the child's individuality. This principle, as has been seen, was the chief source of Pestalozzi's power as a practical teacher, atoning :for many serious faults in both matter and manner, and achieving results whicli, as they are described, seem marvellous. DoubtJess the race of teachers has still much to learn about the power of this principle, the most difficult of all to apply in the management vof schools. (8) To make all education culminate in character, and to make character the standard by which the value of all educational processes is to be measured. (9) Above all to restore the home to what Pesta- lozzi conceived to be its proper place in education, and hence to make home instruction possible. This favorite idea of his has already been noticed, and its impracticability shown as a scheme for general element- .ary education. Yet he thought so highly of it, " that he wished to prove by actual experiment that those things in which domestic education possesses advantages, should be imitated in public education." His schools at Burgdorf and Yverdun were really an experiment PESTALOZZI AND HIS WORK. 315 in this direction ; and that which distressed him most ^t Yverdun was, that with the increase of numbers ^nd the complexity necessarily resulting therefrom, the home spirit that prevailed at Burgdorf grew less and finally disappeared. Of all these principles, it is easy to see that little is absolutely new with Pestalozzi. Indeed it might be thought that most of his educational activity was merely an attempt to enforce and reduce to practice the best and wisest ideas of his predecessors. Such a supposition would, I think, be incorrect. In point of fact, fertile as he was in ideas and impulsive in action, he appears to have been wofully ignorant of what others had done or attempted in the same field of effort in which he was engaged. Hence not seldom, it is said, he toiled over discoveries that others had already made, or instituted experiments on what was already recognized as valueless or impracticable. Above all, he thus lacked the advantage which a spirit like his so much needed, of comparing his ideas and efforts with those of others. He once said that he had not read a book in thirty years. It would doubtless have been better and •easier for him if he had. No one man, however orig- inal, can be as wise as all men ; and he who permits himself to be shut out from the experience of his fellows, runs the risk of making many vain and many needless efforts. Men, who like Pestalozzi, toil unselfishly for their fellows, toil that coming generations may be spared 316 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDUCATION. some of the difficulties that they encountered ; and they have a right to expect that the records of their experience shall not be unheeded. To this end history is written, that men may glean wisdom from the experience of their predecessors ; and that Pesta- lozzi failed to do this, should be counted rather as a grave error than as a tribute to his originality. It was doubtless fortunate for the fame of Festalozzi, that the time of greatest eclat of his school at Yverdun coincided with the period of deepest humiliation of Germany under the conquering arms of Napoleon. In that hour of seemingly hopeless darkness, Fichte summoned the German people to a universal educa- tion of the coming generation to a new and nobler national consciousness, as the means of their future elevation, and pointed them to Pestalozzi for the principles on which such an education should be based. This advice was heeded ; and thus Pestalozzi became to Germany, and through Germany to the world, the representative of those principles which for two centuries a series of educational reformers from Ratich and Comenius down to Basedow, had with little effect proclaimed. The doctrines of the Innovators became henceforth the evangel of a new education ; and they were stamped indelibly with the name, not of Comenius, nor Rousseau but of Pestalozzi. CHAPTEE XIY. •GENERAL REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. In concluding this consideration of the educational ■characteristics of the 18th century, it is essential briefly to review the course of school progress both higher and elementary in several leading European countries, and in America. In the course of this review, we shall have occasion to observe the growth in Germany of a movement for general elementary education, and of a conviction that such education to be effective cannot be left to local and spasmodic efforts, but must be made an affair of the State, which the State must plan, prescribe, supervise, and insure. We shall also see that before the close of the century the vernacular tongues have triumphed in the instruc- tion of both higher and lower schools, in all the leading European states, and that thus the essential condition of universal education has been secured ; and that Latin has been relegated to its proper place, as a subject of study by no means necessary, as once it had been, as the vehicle of all knowledge worth gaining, or as a medium of communication among men of culture, but yet vitally interesting if so pur- sued that we may become familiar with modes of life and thought with which, though now very remote in (317) 318 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. point of time, we are still connected by close bistorie ties tbat cannot safely be severed. The provisions for education in England and Scot- land were much the same as were noted in the pre- ceding century. English secondary instruction carried on in the famous public schools, underwent no marked change in either matter or manner ; whilst elementary training, which was remitted wholly ta private efforts or to private benevolence, was provided for by tutors or in private schools, and rarely reached the poorer classes until the last decade of the century^ From the conflicting accounts given by the partisans of reaction and of the Revolution in France, we may infer that during this century France was well sup- plied with classical schools and colleges, since it is affirmed that there were about 600 colleges, besides about sixty higher faculties in forty academic centres. In these higher schools, which were mostly frequented by the more opulent classes, though occasionally low- born boys of extraordinary promise, like Moliere and Rollin, were found in them, the studies were domin- antly literary, and were directed quite as much to form as to substance. Yet the verbal repetition of lessons had been somewhat modified by the exposition of authors ; and the French language, already famous- in literature, had gained a foothold in instruction. The teaching body was mostly clerical, though the Jesuits, with their immobility of spirit, had so declined in influence that in 1764 the order was expelled from France, its place being taken by Oratorians, and other KEVIEAV OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 319 religious bodies. If this higher instruction be judged by the number of its schools, or by its most brilliant representative products, it would be ranked high ; but if, on the other hand, we could know what were its average and general results, our estimates of its worth would possibly be considerably modified. It is claimed by some persons that, although during this century no governmental care was given to general elementary education, still a large provision was made for the instruction of the humbler classes by various religious bodies, chiefly by the followers of La Salle. If we reflect that at the beginning of the Revolution the Christian Brothers numbered 1,000 teachers, enough at most for the instruction of 100,000 pupils, without deducting for the Brothers who were employed in secondary schools ; and if we add to these for the poor children occasionally instructed by other clerical persons as many more, — we may readily apprehend how scanty a provision this would be for a school population which in 1790 could not have been less than about three millions. When we farther learn that the schoolmaster, when not a priest, was also sexton, beadle, chorister, grave- digger, and bell-ringer ; that he was to attend on marriages, baptisms, and burials ; that his instructions were given not to classes but to individuals, class instruction being unknown save among the Christian Brothers ; and that his first duty was to teach the children their prayers and to lead them daily to church, any residue of time being devoted to teaching 320 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. them to read, write and count, — we shall doubtless conclude that the humbler our estimate of the extent and depth of the elementary instruction given to the poor of France during the 18th century, the more likely it will be to correspond with the truth. Such was the condition of education in Austria during the first seventy years of this century that Dr. Dittes says that in 1773 but little more than half of the children in Vienna received any instruction, that in Lower Austria sixteen per cent, in Bohemia six per cent, and in Silesia four per cent only, attended any school, while in other provinces of the empire the state of education was still worse. But in 1774 Maria Theresa, after her realm had somewhat recovered from the exhaustion of the wars in which she had been involved, entered vigorously on the work of organizing general education ; and during the short residue of her life she did a work for schools such as no crowned head had ever before dreamed of. At her death in 1780, there were already in Austria 6,200 ''German schools," among which were fifteen Normal schools and eighty-three High schools. For the prosecution of this work she called to her aid the justly famous John Ignacius von Felbiger. He had already approved himself a man fitted for the duties of minister of education in a period of active growth, by the remarkable work he had done in his Silesian diocese, in organizing and sustaining element- ary schools for the wretched inhabitants. Though a Catholic abbot, he had drawn his pedagogic inspira- REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PKOGKESS. 321 tion from a Pietistic source. He had privately visited Hecker in Berlin, had examined and approved the Real school, and teachers' seminary, had at his own expense sent promising young men to learn Hecker's methods, and had largely adopted his Realistic ideas, while engrafting the training of teachers on schools which should serve as models to surrounding districts. With his energetic aid the empress accomplished the great work that has been mentioned, organizing a system which included, besides elementary and higher schools, also schools for girls and several Normal Model schools. To Maria Theresa is due also the credit of recog- nizing and rewarding the merit of Ferdinand Kinder- mann, who in her Bohemian dominions had been active in organizing elementary schools for the poor, and who, to interest the people in them, added to the usual elementary subjects, instruction in various local indus- tries, thus earning the title of " Creator of Industrial schools." Although after the death of the empress, Felbiger was permitted to retire to an ecclesiastical position where he died in 1788, her immediate successors car- ried forward the educational work that she had begun, until near the close of the century, when a clerical reaction began under which the schools of Austria suffered greatly. No other country shows so marked educational advancement during the 18th century as Germany ; and this is especially true of secondary education. 322 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. The movement of the Pietist Francke, with the wide- reaching and well-omened impulse that it gave to the training of teachers, to the founding of Real schools, and to the pursuit in larger measure of studies other than those of a purely literary character, was not only German in its origin, but during this century, expended its force chiefly on the schools of Germany. Like- wise Basedow's Philanthropinum, though it was attended with misfortune, doubtless did much good, both by attracting attention to practical studies and to novel ideas, and by promoting a more rational dress and regimen in the secondary schools, which were widely corrupted by senseless French fashions. To these changes, which were mostly in a realistic direction, was added during the century, in both gymnasien and universities, the very marked improve- ment in Humanistic studies, to which attention was directed in a previous chapter. Through the efforts of men like Gesner, Ernesti, Heyne, and F. A. Wolf, there arose in all the higher institutions a thoroughly enlightened Humanism, which, no longer contenting itself with the study of correct form and of grammat- ical minutise addressed to adhesive memory, strove by philological methods to assure a realization of the ideas, and modes of thinking and living presented by classical authors, and a hearty appreciation of their beauties. Thus Gesner, in recommending a style of classical study in which pupils with their whole soul and undivided attention fix their eyes on the author that REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PROGKESS. 323^^ they read, striving only to understand him and to- enjoy his beauties, tells us that " when he read Terence with his boys in this manner, they sat with parted lips, hushed in breathless silence, their eyes, their ears, their thoughts intent, — smiling too, since their emotions were mirrored in their looks ; " but when, with the same boys, he read Euripides in the usual dragging piece-meal fashion, " they sat indeed with open mouths because they yawned, and silent because they dozed." ^ Through such a change in the spirit of Humanistie study as is here illustrated, as well as through the preparation of young men to teach in this spirit, which Gesner, Heyne, and Wolf cared for in their philologic seminaries, secondary instruction in Germany was very materially improved in this respect, and assumed its present form. Finally the movement to make German the medium of higher instruction became dominant in this century,, through its growing use in university lectures, in which Thomasius seems to have led the way, first in Leipsic and later in Halle : this was naturally followed by its use in the gymnasium, so that the despairing cry arose in many quarters that the world was surely relapsing into barbarism, since even from university chairs one might no longer hear any other language than German. Doubtless the growth during this age of a noble and truly national literature had much influence, here as elsewhere, in hastening the dis' * Von Raumer, Gesch, der Padagogik, Vol. II. p. 147. 324 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. use of Latin as a spoken tongue, and thus indirectly prepared the way for universal education by the use of the vernacular. The improvement in the popular elementary schools during this century was not, however, commensurate with that in the higher institutions. During the last part of the I7th century and in the 18th, most if not all of the German states recognized elementary educa- tion for all children as a matter of state policy, and urgently pressed on the parishes the duty of providing it for all, — so urgently indeed in some cases that some have looked upon the decrees as the beginning of school compulsion ; but the duty, being left to local efforts, was largely neglected or else very carelessly performed. The peasant considered the schools a needless bur- den, and offered a stupid resistance to them ; the nobility dreaded the effects of any enlightenment on the lower classes, and hence were unfriendly to schools ; and the clergy to whom the oversight of schools was entrusted, were too often indifferent to their interests, •or even obstructed their progress. Hence little really effective work was done. In many regions there were no schools ; in more there were very poor ones. ^School houses were often mere huts ; school appliances were very defective or wanting; and the country teachers, whom the Teachers' Seminaries had not yet reached, were still recruited from the failures in other vocations, and were an inefficient class " whose income was mean and whose social consequence was small." REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 325 This account, which is given bj Dr. Dittes, bears a striking resemblance to the descriptions given by credible witnesses of the schools in the United States- during the first decades of the present century. Prussia made the most noteworthy efforts of any of the German states for the advancement of general education. The father of Frederick the Great, penu- rious though he was and fond of tall soldiers, established a small school fund, founded about 1735 the first Prus- sian school for training teachers, with one of Francke's adherents at its head, and made efforts to enforce attendance in schools, but evidently with small suc- cess.* It is said that during his reign about 1,700 elementary schools were established in his dominions^ It has already been stated that Frederick the Great early adopted Hecker's school for teachers as a state institution ; besides which he long made energetic efforts for the improvement of popular education, by establishing considerable school funds, and by vig- orous directions to tlu)se charged with the duty of supervising the schools. The small results of his- efforts, due to the lukewarmness or the opposition of the parishes, the clergy, and the church boards, so discouraged him, however, that in 1779 he determined that " Old soldiers who could read, write, and cipher, and were in other respects well fitted for schoolmasters- in the country should be employed." When, however, the efforts of governments had accomplished so little in lifting the load of popular * Schmidt, Gesch. der Padagogik Vol. III., p. 513. 326 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. ignorance and unreasoning opposition, a school re- former arose in the ranks of the nobility, who, by his benevolent work upon his own estates, by the schools that he founded, by the elementary school and method books that he prepared, and by the influence that went forth from his generous exertions, justly won for himself the title of " Father of the Prussian Country Schools." This man was Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow, whose life extended from 1T34 to 1805^ The early years of his manhood were passed in the military service ; but the last forty-five years of his life he devoted to the improvement of his large •estates. He gives a vivid and pathetic account of the manner in which the misery of the peasantry, grow- ing out of their gross ignorance and consequent stupid obstinacy, was forced upon him in a period of pesti- lence, and of the resolution that then sprang up in his soul to remedy this evil by a general education practi- cally suited to their condition and their needs. It is sufficient for our purpose to say that, at his own expense, he established schools on his estates, trained teachers for their work, devised methods for their use suited to the intelligence of children sunk in heredi- tary ignorance, and even prepared school-books, which exerted a wide influence from the manner in which they appealed to the observing powers and brought into use rudimentary faculties of judgment and reasoning. By the example that he gave, of the manner in which the problem of general education for a large ignorant REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 327 population could be successfuly attacked, and of the kind of training needed by teachers for this special work, von Rochow closed the 18th century with the promise of a brighter day for the German elementary school, a promise which the 19th century has made a reality. In our own country the 18th century was marked, as is well known, by Indian raids, by French and Indian wars, and finally by the long struggle of the Revolution and of the subsequent reconstruction. Under such circumstances, it could hardly be expected that education would make any great advance. Aside from New England and to a very small extent in New York, education depended on private and benevolent efforts ; and everywhere, with but few honorable exceptions, the elementary teachers, even where not stained with vices, were men of but meagre knowl- edge and exceedingly narrow views, who opened schools for lack of other employment or as a stepping- stone to something more agreeable, and the meagre- ness of whose salaries was commensurate with their qualifications. In New England the legal requirements for general elementary education were continued, but the subjects attempted were few and the means used were humble. The staple were the so-called Three R's, reading, writ- ing, and reckoning ; but the sole reading-books were the Bible, the Psalter, and the limited exercises in the New England Primer and spelling books like Dil- worth's. Near the close of the century, these were 328 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. supplemented by Webster's reader and long-used spelling book, and by Caleb Bingham's American Preceptor and Columbian Orator. At about the same time Pike's and Daboll's Arithmetics superseded Hod- der's which had been long in use. Geography and English Grammar were rarely touched. Morse's Geography and Bingham's Young Lady's Accidence, both, I think, the first American books on these subjects, were published in the last two decades of the century. The 1809 edition of Morse which is before me, contains but two maps, those of the world and of N. America ; and the preface to the first edition, 1789, shows that it was intended " as a reading book, that our youth of both sexes, at the same time that they are learning to read, might imbibe an acquaintance with their country and an attachment to its interests." Yet meagre as were the studies and appliances, and poor as were the teachers, the vigorous youth of those earlier days seem often to have made effective use of what they had. Reading matter was far from plenty, in the homes as in the schools, but the little that was at hand was perused to mastery, undiluted by a flood of trashy fiction ; the specimens of penmanship which exist in the copy books and ciphering books still preserved by old families, show that beautiful writing was not uncommon ; and the soundness of judgment and skill in affairs displayed by many men whose educational advantages had been limited to what was taught in the New England common schools, REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRESS. 329 testify to the thorough use that was made of what these schools had to offer. In New York during this century, I know of but three legislative provisions for education. The first of these, in 1702, at the instance of Governor Cornburyy established a free grammar school for seven years in New York city, and gave it a grant of £50 a year. The second, by an act passed in 1732, gave legislative aid for seven years to a public school in New York, in which should be taught Latin, Greek and mathe- matics, and which is claimed to have been the germ from which sprung King's college, now Columbia. The third, by an act passed in 1795 on the recommen- dation of Governor Clinton, appropriated $100,000 a year for five years for the encouragement of schools."^ South of New York, whatever elementary instruction was given was wholly a matter of private undertaking on the part of parents, societies, or would-be school- masters, save perhaps to a slight extent in New Jersey. More remarkable than the efforts for elementary education in those troubled times, were the provisions that were made for higher education ; for not less than twenty-two colleges had their origin in the 18th' century. Among these were such famous institutions as Yale, which began in 1701 as a collegiate school at Saybrook, and was without settled home until 1716' when it was fixed in New Haven ; the college of New Jersey, founded at Princeton in 1746, but which had *This act appropriated £20,000, which by some is made $50,000, and by- others $100,000. 330 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. its germs twenty years earlier in the " Log College " of Rev. William Tennent ; the University of Penn- sylvania which began in 1749 as an academy, and grew in less than a decade into a college ; and Colum- bia, which was founded in 1754 by funds donated by private individuals, by £3282 received from a lottery, and by £400 given by the king from whom it received its early name of King's College. Brown and Bowdoin, Dartmouth and Williams, Kutgers and Union, date from this century, besides other colleges somewhat less frequently mentioned. l^or should we neglect to mention the establishment in 1784 of the University of the State of E'ew York as a central organization for the purpose of incorpo- rating and having the oversight of academies and colleges, of reporting yearly on the condition of the institutions under its charge and of conferring degrees higher than A. M. On the whole it may fairly be said that, when we consider the circumstances of this new and sorely troubled country, the degree of educational zeal that was displayed in it during the 18th century was not surpassed by that of any of the older European civilizations. Note. — Altliougli I am aware that, from the 15th century, the schools and universities of the Netherlands compared favor- ably with those of any of the surrounding countries ; that the interest in education of the early Dutch settlers of New York, so emphatically shown in many of tlie documents of the Document- ary History of New York, is an inheritance of the spirit that prevailed in the mother country of the emigrants ; and that dur- ing the 18th century, schools, as well as flourishing universities, existed ; yet it has not seemed expedient to include any account of them in tliis brief review. CHAPTER XY. EDUCATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS. OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. It is probable that every age is prone to magnify its own achievements, and to vaunt them above all that has hitherto been done. It is certain that this ^self-magnifying spirit characterizes the 19th century, if we may judge of it by the outgivings of those who seem to be the accepted mouth-pieces of public opin- ion. So far, however, as one may be supposed to judge dispassionately of his own times and what they have accomplished, this century is likely to be dis- tinguished in future ages, not more for its inventions, its discoveries in science, and its industrial progress, than for the unprecedented educational activity which it has displayed, — an activity which has extended to all classes of society, and which has produced its most remarkable results in the very lowest classes. It would obviously be premature at the present time to attempt in any detail to weigh the significance of the educational events which this century has wit- nessed, or to pass any definite judgment upon them. The facts are too near at hand, they are too numer- ous and complex in character, their actual results are still too little apparent, to admit of that truth of depic- tion and justness of perspective which should belong (331) 332 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. to an attempt at a historic picture ; even were the warmth of personal feeling which present events are calculated to excite, not sure to give an undue color- ing to many parts. Time is the only sure test of the relative importance of historic events. It often buries in comparative obscurity many occurences which to the actors seemed to be of first rate importance, and leaves in bold prominence that which to contemporary observers- seemed of inferior moment. Thus it is doubtful whether, to the men of the 18th century, the struggle of vernacular tongues for recognition in instruction seemed fraught with the wide-reaching significance which we can now see that it really had. To the contemporaries of Francke, the fiery religious zeal which pervaded his institutions was doubtless a far more interesting phenomenon than either his efforts for the better training of teachers for his schools, or the realistic cast of studies and purposes of instruction that prevailed in them ; yet the first was compara- tively transient, whilst the importance of the other two is becoming daily more apparent. These considerations need not, however, deter u& from examining in their broader aspects the most striking educational facts of our own century, though they will in most cases render impossible any very reliable estimate of their permanent importance. I will therefore state what seem to me to be the most noteworthy of these facts in the order in which we shall examine them more fully. NINETEENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 333 The first fact that will be likely to arrest the atten- tion of even the casual observer, is the enormous pedagogical activity by which the 19th century has been characterized, an activity which has been dis- played, partly in literary or quasi-literary efforts, partly in educational experiments some of which have become accepted educational usages, and partly also in wide-spread educational associations. A second fact has been the rapid spread of schools of every kind, but most especially of schools for universal elementary education, with the growth ■of which has been correlated a tendency to give the elements of learning to all children free from individ- ual expense, and to insure to every child at least a minimum of training by making school attendance •compulsory. A third very interesting fact is the great extension of the means for the professional training of teachers which has taken place during the century, without which the increase in the number of popular schools would have been likely to disappoint the public expec- tations by the meagreness of their results. A fourth noteworthy fact is the careful provision that has been made in many of the European states for thoroughly supervising the work of the schools, — a provision whose benefits are being rapidly extended to many parts of the United States, since it is seen that its importance for the efficiency of the schools is second only to that of the training of teachers for their work. 334: THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. The zeal of the advocates of manual and technical training has forced on the attention of every one what we may fairly consider a fifth characteristic of the educational history of the century ; though we shall have occasion to observe that the idea of associating the training of the hand with the intellectual and moral education of youth, is far less modern thaa many of its advocates seem to suppose. The very considerable improvements that during this century have taken place in schools and methods^ of instruction, on the general lines of the Innovators^ but in which Pestalozzianism has been the chief rallying cry, will claim attention as a sixth educational fact, and one of the most interesting of all, since it is- that through which all other facts of the same order gain their significance. A seventh fact of no small interest is the vigorous dis- cussion which this century has witnessed of the relative^ value of various studies as means of culture, in the course of which the claims of the classics, of the mathe- matics, and of the sciences of nature, have been examined diligently and with some heat ; and its interest is enhanced when we consider that since the days of Plato and Aristotle the culture value of studies has been comparatively little emphasized, whilst a comparison of culture values has hardly been thought of. This fact is of special interest, as an awakening of the dormant Humanitarian ideal, which seems destined more and more consciously to influence the education of the future. NINETEENTH CENTUEY CHARACTERISTICS. 335 Section I.— Pedagogical Activity. Any attempt at an examination of the vast pro- duct of literary activity in the domain of peda- gogy during the 19th century would be manifestly impossible, until time has winnowed from it all that is ephemeral, and left prominent only the enduring. German treatises, which are the most numerous of any, would alone fill a very considerable library ; and many among them, like the works of Herbart and Beneke, Waitz and Dittes, Schrader and Nohl, which would be most desirable additions to an educator's library, are inaccessible to most English speaking teachers, from lack of translation. Froebel's Educa- tion of Man, and Preyer's interesting study of child- hood, have found translators; Barnard's American Journal of Education, that wonderfully rich pedagogic collection, has given in English dress, but in detached portions, a large part of von Raumer's History of Pedagogy, and also much of Pestalozzi's writings. Bosenkranz's Philosophy of Education has met with favor in the annotated translation of it which has appeared ; but when one reflects on the rich stores of pedagogic thought and experience that are hidden from the inquiring teachers of our own country in an unfamiliar tongue, and on the thoroughness of treat- ment which characterizes many of these treatises, one can but hope that several carefully selected works of German pedagogues may soon be made accessible to English-speaking teachers. Possibly none would be more widely acceptable than the second and third 336 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDUCATION. parts of Dittes' Scliule der Padagogik, followed by Waltz's Allgeraeine Padagogik, and Paulsen's Ges- chichte des Gelehrten Unterriclits. While Germany has been most prolific in pedagogic literature, other European countries have shown a creditable zeal in this line. A few excellent French works have already been rendered into English ; some others ought soon to find translators, especially the brilliant and valuable work by Prof. Compayre entitled " Histoire Critique des Doctrines de I'Education en France, &c." The remarkable work of Rosmini on " Method in Education," though but a portion of a large projected treatise, proves that Italy has felt the impulse of the pedagogic spirit of the 19tli century. I am inclined to think that Great Britain deserves to rank next to Germany in the influence exerted by its contributions to the literature of education, a num- ber of which are quite as well known in America as in England. Such are the works of Mr. Gill and Prof. Laurie ; the excellent lectures of Mr. Fitch on teaching ; the interesting sketches of educational reformers by the lamented Mr. Quick ; the lectures of Mr. Joseph Payne, so well adapted to inspire teachers to seek right principles of instruction and to use them in right ways ; and Dr. Bain's " Education as a Science," a somewhat detailed treatment of gen- eral pedagogy, in which every point that is discussed is sharply referred to its scientific basis in those sciences in which the author is himself so eminent an authority, and whose treatment of controverted points NINETEENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 35Y is 80 forcible that, where we are inclined to disagree with the author, we feel ourselves compelled to fall back on something more substantial than mere pre- conceived ideas. But of all that has been written in English, during the present century, probably no pedagogic treatise has attracted more wide-spread attention, or has exerted more influence than Herbert Spencer's " Education," It is characterized by that clearness of exposition and felicity of illustration of which Mr. Spencer is so great a master and which never leaves one in doubt as to his opinions. Of all the pedagogic works of the century that have appeared in English, I am inclined to think that a brief examination of this will give us the fairest sample of the nature and direction of peda- gogic thought. This treatise, which appeared originally as four Keview articles considering education from as many different points of view, in its collected form, consists of four chapters treating respectively, of the best means of Education, of Intellectual, of Moral, and of Physical education. In the first chapter he propounds the question *' What knowledge is of most worth ? " and gives to it an answer which, though widely and vigorously con- troverted, seems to be gaining yearly more adherents, at least for the present. Philosopher as he is, he sees that for any definite answer to a question of such vital moment, some standard of relative value must be fixed which is likely to meet with general acceptance ; 368 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. and he proposes in substance this proposition as such a standard, viz.: that the relative value in education of various groups of studies should be tested by inquir- ing how G&Gctiv elj thej pro?note complete living. To this proposition, he adds a statement of those forms of activity which, in his view, constitute a com- plete human life, arranging them as follows in the order of their relative importance : (1) the activities of self-preservation, (2) those that are needful to secure the necessaries of life, (3) those that pertain to the rearing and training of offspring, (4) those that pro- mote proper social and political relations, and (5) those that look to the culture and gratification of the aesthetic feelings and taste. He ingeniously reasons " that these divisions sub- ordinate one another in the foregoing order, because the corresponding divisions of life make one another possible in that order." Thus man must first know how to preserve his physical existence, and to minister by his activities to his daily recurring needs, before he is fit to have and to rear children ; the proper rearing and training of children takes precedence of social and political duties, because " the goodness of a society ultimately depends on the nature of its citizens," and this nature " is more modifiable by early training than by anything else ; " and finally all these are more vitally necessary than the various sources of elegant pleasure, such as are afforded by music, poetry, elo- quence, and the fine arts, because " society supplies the conditions of their growth, and also the ideas and sentiments they express." NINETEENTH CENTURY CHAKACTERISTICS. 33& Without pausing just at present to question the sufficiency of his statement of those activities which constitute complete living, let us see to what choice^ of means his postulates lead him, with the addition of this farther postulate, that "acquirement of every kind has two values, — value as knowledge, and value- as discipline,"— or as the Germans phrase it, — a material and a formal value. Without entering at all into the process of illustrative exposition which he adopts, and in which he is so remarkably expert, it i& sufficient to say that, examining separately each of the activities that he recognizes as to the kind of knowl- edge and training that it demands for its successful conduct, he finds in every case that sciencei^ the most efficient means. It is to be observed, however, that in the extension which he gives to the term science^ it includes not only the sciences of nature, but also sociology and psychology, mathematics and history,, excluding only the science which embodies all others,, the science of language. Finally, after establishing to his own satisfaction the preeminence of science as a means of preparation for the various activities of human life, he proceeds- farther to show that, better than language, it trains memory, judgment, and reasoning ; and that moreover it affords a most efficient training in morals and religion. It is easy, however, to see that in consider- ing science as a means for developing the moral and religious side of man's nature, Spencer has tacitly narrowed his view of science and limited it to the- sciences of nature. .^40 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. On a closer examination of this famous chapter, philosophical though its analysis appears, strongly as its conclusions seem to be enforced, and convincing as its argument is likely to impress one as being on a rimitive meanings of all the foreign words, even in idiomatic expressions, should be strictly adhered to, and the force of the inflected forms should be expressed ; and through the repeated use of whatever was thus learned. This curious modification of the method of Comenius and of a suggestion of Locke, was intro- duced first in New York in 1815, and later in Eng- land, making for a time a good deal of noise ; but after the death of its author in 1831, it sunk out of sight. It was significant chiefly as a reaction against the old grammatical system of teacliing languages. The method of the Frenchman Jacotot who died in 181:0, if we may judge of it from the presentation given by his enthusiastic admirer and expounder, Joseph Payne, had much more both of originality and merit than that of Hamilton, besides being appli- cable to other things than language. Its cliief maxim he thus expressed, — " II faut apprendre quelque chose, et y rapporter tout le reste," which may be translated, — ^' Master whatever you learn and proceed by the method of comparison." That this was the real import of his seemingly incomplete maxim, is shown by the four explanatory NINETEENTH CENTURY CHAKAOTEEISTICS. 379 words which he added to it, viz., learn, repeat, com- pare, verify, i. e., learn thoroughly ; repeat often for sure memory ; compare, to discriminate, systematize, and generalize, thus assuring clear and distinct ideas ; verify by bringing principles to the test of facts, and by assuring the value of facts as organizable parts of a system of thought by bringing them under the principle to which they belong. Explained thus, the method of Jacotot is quite as applicable to science and history as to language which he had specially in view. Its chief merit lies in the demands which it makes upon the intellectual activity of the pupil in compari- son and verification. In the last half of thecentur}^ we also hear much of the " Natural Method " of learning languages, by whicli should be meautthe nearest practicable approx- imation to the way in which a child learns his vernac- ular, that is to say, by imitation and use. For school use, various systems have been devised to facilitate the acquisition of the words, idioms, and variable forms of language, and to accustom pupils to think and express thought with the new signs for ideas. So far as they are helpful, all these systems must depend on the frequent and varied use of a growing stock of words and forms of expression, conformed to the principles of the given language. Inasmuch as they attack the grammar through the medium of the language, and master its forms and principles only so fast as they are needed, they are certainly more natural pedagogically than the method of approach- 380 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. ing the language through the grammar which they have so Largely superseded. Meanwhile these methods and the others that have been mentioned, owe their interest to us in this con- nection by no means wholly to their own intrinsic merits as improvements, but in an even higher degree to the testimony that they bear to the influence of the reformatory ideas in educational practice. Previous ages had shown little practical disposition to inquire about modes of procedure in instruction, and still less to devise and test new ones. The improvements that were made were limited in extent and limited in range of influence. Sound theories of education had far outstripped any effort to realize them in practice. The 19th century has shown a disposition to change all this ; and besides, whatever of substantial improve- ment has been made reaches downward to the entire body of youth, instead of being limited to the small numbers in higher institutions. In one highly important practical respect most schools are still far too backward. They regard their work too exclusively as instruction and too little as education, the development of inner worthiness of character. And yet, under conditions such as now tend to become prevalent throughout the civilized world, in which the will of the body of the people is becoming the real governing power, it is obvious that a well-balanced character and an illuminated conscience are vitally essential correlates of an intelligence trained and informed. NINETEENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 381 From this defect in education spring many public and private evils of which we hear constant and bitter complaints. The public schools, having the charge of youth at the most plastic age, when character may most easily be shaped, present the most effective agency by which these evils may gradually be cor- rected ; but to do this, they must train and educate more, while not instructing less, or rather they must aim to educate through instruction and discipline. Discipline also needs to be regarded, no longer in its lowest aspect as a means for preserving tolerable order in schools, but as a powerful agent for the guidance of the feelings and the will, for training to honorable and upright conduct, and for assuring cor- rect moral estimates of actions. When these are assured, religious instruction will find something in the experiences of youth with which to build ; for while religion forms the only sure basis for character, like other educative agencies, it must work with materials which the individual experience furnishes, in order to assure reliable results. In speaking of the improvements in educational practice which tlie 19th century has initiated, we can- not fail to remark one of its most brilliant and prom- ising achievements, in the systematic direction of the playful instincts of young childhood by Froebel and his disciples. That the plays of children should be made even more amusing and inspiring to them by a regulated association with their equals in age; and that, by a wise guidance in an affectionate spirit, 382 THE HISTOKY OF MODERN EDrCATION. their efforts for amusement should be made effective in developing their physical capabilities, their senses, their feelings, and their intelligence, was certainly a wise and benevolent application of an idea which Quintillian dimly conceived, which Comenius pro- posed, and which Pestalozzi always cherished. It is meeting with wide acceptance in both Europe and America ; and, if used in a proper spirit as a means of healthful childish development, and not to promote mere precocity, it offers a cheering prospect for that future better condition of the race for which Kant looked. We ought to be able to expect from it the measurable correction of some of the evils which writers on education have in all ages deplored, — evils resulting from undirected or misdirected youthful activities, and from deplorable but indelible immoral impressions made upon plastic childish minds. Section YII. The Greek writers who treated of education laid great stress on the educational effects of music, as did all their countrymen, and the Koman writers repeat their opinions without any considerable practical sym- pathy with them. But from the fall of the Roman Empire down to the 19th century, comparatively little seems to have been thought or said about the purely disciplinary value of studies. When men contended about what should be taught to youth, their interest was centered on the merit or absurdity of studies in a literary point of view, on their intrinsic value as matters of knowledge or opinion, or on the manner in NINEl'EENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 383 which they might affect accepted religious beliefs. Latin was regarded as a necessary means for gaining knowledge, of which it was the accepted vehicle. Greek and Hebrew were to be mastered because in them was embodied the word of God. Great stress was laid on useful knowledge, with a growing tendency in later periods to attribute greater utility to some kinds of knowledge than to others ; but the effect of studies in developing the powers of those who mastered them was tacitly assumed rather than strongly emphasized. Certain unfavorable results of a too exclusive devotion to mathematics were, how- ever, pointed out by Descartes and others. Certainly there is shown no disposition to bring into comparison and relative valuation various studies as means for disciplining the powers. In so far as the efforts of the Innovators were directed to studies, they aimed to select such as would be most obviously useful to pupils in the course of life to which they were destined ; where their atten- tion was directed to a reform of methods of teaching by securing conformity to nature, they recognized an order in which subjects enlist the interest of children, and in which therefore they may most successfully be taught, but with little effort to estimate the special formal efficiency of this or that group of studies in- cultivating certain forms of mental power or moral worth. During the current centuty, there has obviously been a great change in this respect. There has been 384: THE HISTORY OF MODEKN EDUCATION. a great increase in the subjects of lively human inter- est and important human use ; and a still greater increase in the volume of knowledge that is available for the purposes of education. An intolerable pressure has thus been brought to bear upon all kinds of educational institutions, and educators have been forced to face the question of a selection among many desirable subjects of study. We are in a period, therefore, in which it becomes imperative to take careful account of our pedagogic stock in trade, to consider all subjects dispassionately, and to so rearrange our programmes of instruction as to attempt only the practicable, while conforming them both to the present condition of culture and to the laws of growing mind. In this readjustment, not only the classics are to be weighed which have long had a settled place, and the mathematics which during recent ages have won for themselves increased consideration ; but also modern languages and their literature, history with the great increments of value which it has received from later investigations, and the sciences of nature which are so largely the growth of the 19th century. Connected with these last as intimately allied to them, are the sciences of man, psychology and ethics, both as sub- jects to be reckoned with in the selection of studies, and as indispensable aids in the solution of the prob- lems which selection and arrangement present. In all such periods of readjustment, two parties of diametrically opposite tendencies are sure to make NINETEENTH CENTURY CHAKACTERISTICS. 385 their appearance ; the Conservatives, wedded to that to which they are accustomed, deprecating any change, and ingenious to find reasons why there should be none, are certain to forebode dire disaster as the result of innovations on what the past has consecrat- •ed ; whilst the Kadicals, zealous for a thorough reform, would sweep clean the ground, and build anew with fresh and often little-tested materials which they see the most convincing reasons for employing. Between these opposing parties and their views, the contest is sure to be warm if not embittered ; but from their struggle the truth is pretty sure ultimately to emerge triumphant, though usually, for reasons that have before been given in a different connection, the victory is apt to be slow in declaring itself. Thus, at the beginning of the Kenaissance period, we have witnessed the long and envenomed contest which scholasticism and its methods waged against the new spirit of the age with its better subjects and its newly- devised modes of presentation ; and we have been taught by this to expect that changes, to be most beneficial, must be slowly wrought. The problem which is presented to the 19th century is by no means so simple as that which the Middle Ages offered to the newer time. Then the lines could be sharply drawn between scholasticism and the humanities. Now the conflicting, and in some cases, exclusively urged claims of four great groups of studies are to be duly weighed and carefully adjusted. It is evident therefore that the problem is a delicate 386 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. one, and needs to be approached in a wise and judicial spirit, — a spirit which would not needlessly reject the old because it is old, nor accept the new because it has the charm of novelty, but would judge, decide,, and readjust with all the aids which the advancing science of man, and especially of the young man, can bring to a consideration so important. • It needs hardly to be said that the educators of the- 19th century have attacked this problem with great zeal and vigor ; it is to be regretted that it can not also be said that they have generally striven impar- tially to reach the truth rather than to sustain a preconceived opinion. A marked and most interest- ing feature of this " Conflict of Studies " has been a general disposition to discuss the various groups of studies, not merely in their material, but also in their formal aspect, — not to be content only with display- ing the utility of some favored subjects, but to show how far and to what purpose they train the faculties of the growing youth to use all knowledge most effectively. Thus we have already seen that Herbert Spencer, in urging the superior claims of sciences in education, does not deem it sufficient to illustrate what he thinks the superior utility of science for the right conduct of life, but goes on to show in what respects its disci- plinary value is great. Thus Sir "William Hamilton, in his trenchant criticism of the study of mathematics,^ says "The question does not regard the value of *Edinburg Review, Jan., 1836. NINETEENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 387 mathematical science considered in itself or in its objective results, but the utility of mathematical study in its subjective effects, as an exercise of the mind ; '^ and he limits himself to proving that "none of our intellectual studies tends to cultivate a smaller number of faculties in a more partial or feeble manner than mathematics." The touchstone that he applies is wholly formal and disciplinary efficacy. In like manner the advocates of the classic languages — and they have been many — abandoning as no longer tenable the ground on which Montaigne and Locke considered Latin necessary for a gentleman, and on which Comenius and Milton proposed easier and speedier means for its mastery,— that is, the ground that it was indispensable as a medium through which to learn things useful , — have been ingenious, not merely in urging other and higher utilities, but also in setting forth its wide range of formal efficiency in the devel- opment of the faculties and capacities of youth. This change in the point of view from which all studies are considered to an increasing degree in the 19th century, is chiefly significant because it marks a revulsion from the bald utilitarianism of the middle and later ages, to the true Christian ideal of education^ the noble humanitarian ideal which looks upon the infinite worth of man as the destined heir of immor- tality as far more important than any of the temporary and earthly uses of his activities, and hence regards his development to the full perfection of his nature as- the chief purpose of education. '388 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. Thus the historic races, after groping long for the tjhief end of man, — after seeking it in devotion to family, or caste, or state, in duty or utility, or in a meditative self-abnegation which aims to become more than man by being less through neglect of present •duties,— are finding it at length in the duty of striv- ing for the perfection of human nature, as a corollary of the truth, so long ago proclaimed by Christ, of the worth of the human personality. Vigorous as have been the discussions concerning the relative value and the disciplinary efficiency of studies which this century has witnessed in all civil- ized countries, nowhere have such discussions been conducted with greater ardor than in Germany, and nowhere on the whole in a broader and more philo- sophic spirit. It must be confessed, however, that ■sometimes an un philosophic heat has been displayed, ^nd that somewhat too often, such illogical ad captan- dum phrases as " disinterested studies," and " Ameri- canization of studies," have been used, — as though studies valuable for discipline were any less valuable because they happen to be useful, — or as though allu- ■sionsto the possible crudities in thought or practice of a people engaged in taming a vast new country, had any place in a grave educational discussion. This discussion has had the form of a struggle between the respective advocates of the Gymnasien and the Real-Schulen, and has been correlated with successive readjustments, of the programmes of these ;great secondary schools. In these readjustments, one of NINETEENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 389" whicli is even now in progress in Prussia, the disinter- ested observer may see a wise practical effort to give due weight to all the great groups of studies, viz.^ mathematics, history, the sciences, and languages, among which the vernacular is gaining a large place The struggle has not yet reached a definitive ter- mination, but Professor Paulsen of Berlin, in his- recent '' History of Learned Instruction in Germany,"" regards the tendencies of the movement as sufiiciently marked to justify a prediction as to its future course. He predicts that in the future Greek is likely to be relegated to the list of occasionally chosen electives;^^ that Latin may retain its place, but in a more restricted form ; that the time thus gained will be given, in part at least, to a more fruitful study of the vernacu- lar and its literature in their historic development ; and that there is likely to be a renewal of attention to the sciences of man, — philosophy and logic, ethics- and politics. Of other groups of studies he says little,, evidently taking for granted that they have conquered for themselves an amount of recognition that is not likely to grow less. The recent course of events- seems already to promise a verification of his prophecy,, at least in some particulars. Whatever may be the final outcome of the contro- versy long waged between the humanists and the- scientists, each party looking exclusively at one side of a great complex truth, — the world has thereby had impressed upon it the fact that all studies, rightly pursued, have a value to the student transcending^ 390 THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. their mere utility ; and the distinct recognition which the 19th century has thus given to the humanitarian idea in education, may justly be considered the crown- ing point of its educational history. For, when we have solved the question how to make a man of the greatest worth in himself, then it will be found that both these other weighty questions are also solved, viz., how shall a man be made most useful ? and, what knowledge is of most worth ? That man will be most useful who has grown most completely up to the full measure of his powers : that knowledge will be of most worth, which, while ministering to his growth, has, by dint of thinking, been so incorporated with his entire series of experiences as to be in the fullest sense usable. So far as I can judge, we have now surveyed the educational progress of the 19th century in the several aspects which will be likely most forcibly to impress the future historian. Should specimens of our peda- gogical treatises, essays, and periodicals, of our pro- ceedings, reports, and text-books, fall into the hands of the historian of some coming century, in any reasonably complete form, he will doubtless credit us with a degree of literary activity in the realm of ped- agogy hitherto unprecedented, — while possibly expres- sing some mild surprise that we apparently laid so much stress on text-books. He will be likely to remark that our essays towards a consistent organization of schools, were creditable for an age relatively so little enlightened. He will call attention to the fact that NINETEENTH CENTURY CHARACTERISTICS. 391 in the 19th century, education, from being the privi- lege of the few, was made the prerogative of the masses of the people ; while possibly mentioning, as a remarkable illustration of the lingering rudeness of manners, the fact that it was in some cases found necessary to force so precious a boon as education on unwilling recipients. He will give due praise to our efforts in the nearly new field of training teachers for their profession, and of providing for some supervis- ion of their work. He will probably give us credit for making a tolerable attempt, to train hands and eyes as well as mind, to provide for technical educa- tion, and to supersede by trades' schools the rude method of apprenticeship. He may possibly note that we made some observable progress in educa- tional practice, but will be quite as likely to wonder that we did not make a more complete use of the rich stores of sound educational theory that were ready at ■our hands. And finally, should he think it worth his while to read as matters of antiquarian curiosity our eager disputes over questions which to him have assumed the character of axioms, he may chance to observe that the 19th century seemed to be dimly dis- covering the lofty humanitarian ideal which had been announced by the founder of its religion, and on which his more-favored age is acting with clear con- sciousness of its demands. IKDEX. American Education, early, 222, 327 Arnauld, Antoine, 167 Ascham, Roger, 97 Associations of teachers, 348 English Secondary Education, 32, 318 Epistles of obscure men, 27 Erasmus, 52 Ernesti and the new humanism. Bacon, Sir Francis, 115 249 Bain, Alexander, 336 Barnard, Henry, 347 Fables of Fenelon, 210 Basedow, 288 Felbiger, J. I. von, 325 Brothers of the Christian Schools, Female Education, 103, 197, 204 227 Fenelon, 202, 207 Burgdorf, 305 Fleury, 118 Francke, 233 Colet and St, Paul's School, 26 French Education, 227, 318, 372 Columbia College, 329, 330 Froebel, 335, 352, 372, 381 Comenius, John A., 148 eompayre, 336, 342 Compulsory Education, 40, 354 Conformity to Culture, idea of, 47 Conformity to Nature in Studies, 47, 126 Conventual Education, 197, 203 Culttrre Value of Studies, 334, 382 Descartes, Dialogues of the dead, 115 211 Ecclesiasticiem in Education, 113 Education.— H. Spencer, 337 Education des Filles,— Fenelon, 202 Education, over-estimates of, 153, 183, 291, 296 Education, popular, 324, 349 Emile, Rousseau— defects of 266 Emile, its chief merits, 265, 272 England, Education in, 32, 226, 318 Gargantua— Rabelais, 69 Gedike, reasons for the human- ities, 251 Germany, Education in, 34, 228, 321, 350 German Secondary Schools, 34, 249, 321 Gesner and the new humanism, 249 Goettingen and the new human- ism, 245, 250 Greek in Schools, 20, 288, 389 Guudling and the new University Spirit, 248 Halle, rise and influence of, 234, 248 Hamilton's (Jas.) Method, 378 Harvard, 224 Hecker, J. J. and real Schools, 240 Heyne in Goettingen, 251 History, Teaching of, 205, 211, 259 39-i THE HISTORY OF MODERN EDUCATION. Humanistic Education, 19, 29, 90 Humanitarian ideal of Education, 387, 390 Humanism, the new, 249, 322 Jacotot and his method, 378 Janua Linguarum — Comenius, 1G2 Jesuit Schools, 103 St. Jerome on Education of girls, 197 Kant and his ideas on Education, 279 Kindergarten, 35G, 381 Kindermann and Industrial Edu- cation, 321, 371 Lambert, Mme. de, 206 Lamy, 220 La Salle, 227 Latin in Schools, 157, IGO, 167, 175, 191, 258, 389 Leonard and Gertrude— Pestalozzi, 302 Locke, John. 181 Luther, Martin, 40, 48 Magna Didactica— Comenius, 164 Maintenon. Mme. de, 200 Mann, Horace, 347 Manual Training, 157, 193, 274, 334, 368 Maria Theresa, 320 Massachusetts, 224, 364, 366 Melanchthon, 84 Milton, John, 171 Money, relative value of, 4, 99 Montaigne, 74 Mulcaster, Richard, 98 Natural method in Languages, 379 Neander, Michael, 95 Neuhof— Pestalozzi, 301 Nicole, 167 New Humanism, 249 New York, Education, 223, 329, 351, 362, 366 Normal Schools, 243, 321, 364 Object Lessons proposed by Rollin, 260 Observation, training of, 129, 160, 273 Obstacles to Educational reform, 134 Oratory of Jesus, 217 Orbis Pictus— Comenius, 161 Payne, Joseph, 336 Pedagogic Seminar— Gesner, 245 Pestalozzi, his principles, 299, 312, 375 Petty, Sir Wm., 193, 369 Philanthropinum, 290 Philosphers, influence in Educa- tion, 115 Pietists, 232, 237 Positions— Mulcaster, 99 Port Royal, 166 Princely Education in France, 209 Princeton, College of. New Jer- sey, 329 Rabelais. 68 Ramus, 63 Ratich, 140 Real School, rise of, 129, 238 Reformers of Education, princi- ples of, 126, 374 Reuchlin^ 27 Rochow, von, and rural Schools, 326 Rollin, 253 Rosmini, 33i3 Rousseau, 261 Sadolet, Abp. and compulsory Education, 43 Schoolmaster— Ascham, 97 School Organization, 87, 91, 154, 351 Scotland, Education in, 229 Secondary Schools, growth of 32 Semler, Christoph, 239 Senses, training of, 153, 260, 273 Spencer, Herbert, 337 Spener, P. J., 232 StauB,- Pestalozzi, 304 INDEX. 395 States General on Comijuleory Education, 43 Studies, readjustment of, 384 Sturm, Johann, 88 Supervision of Schools, 107, 333, 3G5 Utilitarianism in Education, 131 University of Pennsylvania, 330 University Spirit, modern, rise of, 247 University of State of New York, 330 Teaching as an Art — Ratich, 145 Teacher, ideal of,— Locke, 185 Teachers' Seminaries, 242, 360 Teachers' Institutes, 363 Teachers, Training of, 105, 227, 23G, 241, 333, 300 Text-books, American, 327 Thomassin, 221 Thoughts on Education— Locke, 181 Traite des Etudes— Kollin, 254 Trotzendorf, Valentine, 93 Vernacular in Instruction. 128, 256, 323, 376 Vives, Ludovico, 60 William and Mary College, 222 SVolf, Christian, 248 Wolf, F. A., 251 Yale College, Yverduu, 329 305 ■ THE SCnO OL B ULLETIN FUBLICA '1 'IONS.- The Cyclopedia of Education. This largest and handsomest of our publications is an octavo volume of 662 pages, price $3.75. 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