V'^ t. c.o ec^ cc C c rr <7_' «i cc cc: cc < : Cv.c O: S c tcecc c csrvc^ccc ^^ cC'C Cjccc cxcccc C ^^" ^^^ : <. cc. c cC "•C^CCl <. c^^bC^ ^c-' 'C K^C c ceo (3c lCl_Cc ' '4 '" ^^ 1- cc--t ^c xc W6^ cc CC' re c C3C"'- < ^'circ^cc c cc r ^cccccr <^ CcCCCCC CC cccccc CC cocccc fc . 47. — Trunk of the same tree two years after treatment. tempted, its decay would have been rapid and com- plete ; without pruning it must soon have died without yielding anything more valuable than fire- wood. The removal of numerous branches, for the purpose of restoring vigor to a decrepit tree, may seem op- posed to what has* already been stated in regard to the functions of leaves in elaborating plant food ; and it might be argued that pruning must be inju- rious, because, in shortening or removing a branch, some of the leaf organs essential to the growth of the tree must also be destroyed. Such an argument is based on a popular error of very general acceptance. It is often claimed that the healthy growth of a plant depends on the number of its leaves. It is PBUNING RESERVE TREES. 49 not, however, the number of leaves, but the total superficial area of leaf surface, which determines the vigor of growth of the plant. An ordinary practice of the nurseries affords a familiar ex- ample. A seedling tree several years old bears, perhaps, twenty or thirty leaves ; its stem is not thicker than a quill, and it does not grow vigorously. If, however, this plant is cut down to the ground in the spring, it will be replaced, in four or five months, by a stout vigorous ^'V- 48.- OldOak restored to •^ '-' vigor by numerous large amputa- shoot often aninch in diameter, tions. but carrying perhaps only six or eight very large leaves ; the superficial leaf area of the new plant is larger, although the actual number of its leaves may be considerably smaller. This is what good pruning accomplishes ; i. e., while it may reduce the number of leaves on a tree, it increases their capacity to elabo- rate plant food through increased superficial area. Scientific pruning provides too, it must be remem- bered, an abundant leaf area on the branchlets left at the extremities of all shortened branches, and ar- ranges the branches theraselves in a manner to expose the largest surface of foliage to the oblique rays of the sun. It will be seen, then, that this apparent con- tradiction between the practice and theory of pruning 50 TREE PRUNING. does not exist ; and that pruning, while it reduces, perhaps, the actual number of leaves on a tree, really increases its vigor by furnishing the largest possible leaf surface in the smallest possible space. TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. 61 CHAPTER V. THE TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. — CAVITIES IN THE TRUNK. — THE REMOVAL OF SHOOTS. Bark once injured or loosened can never attach itself again to the trunk ; and whenever wounds, abrasures, or sections of loose bark exist on the trunk of a tree, the damaged part should be cut away cleanly as far as the injury extends. Careful persons have been known to nail on to a tree a piece of loosened bark, in the hope of inducing it to grow again, or at least of retaining on the young wood its natural covering. Unfortunately the result produced by this operation is exactly opposite to that intended. The decaying wood and bark attract thousands of insects, which find here safe shelter and abundant food ; and, increasing rapidly, hasten the death of the tree. In such cases, instead of refastening the loosened bark to the tree, it should be entirely cut away, care being taken to give the cut a regular outline, espe- cially on the lower side ; for, as has been already explained, if a portion of the bark (A, Fig. 49), 52 TREE PRUNING. even if adhering to the wood, is left without direct communication with the leaves, it must die and decay. A coating of coal-tar should, of course, be applied to such wounds. Loosened Bark. — It is necessary to frequently examine the lower portions of the trunk, especially of trees begin- ning to grow old ; for here is often found the cause of death in many trees, in the large sheets of bark entirely sepa- rated from the trunk. This condition of things, which often cannot be de- tected except by the hollow sound pro- F/-. 49. duced by striking the trunk with the back of the iron pruning knife, arrests the circulation of sap, while the cavity between the bark and the wood furnishes a safe retreat for a multitude of in- sects, which hasten the destruction of the tree. The dead bark should be entirely removed, even should it be necessary in so doing to make lai-ge wounds. Attention, too, should be given to injuries to the bark caused by the fall of neigliboring trees. These may remain hidden for years, and are often only detected by the peculiar sound produced by a blow of the pruning knife. Cases of this nature require the treatment recommended for the last class. Cavities in the Trunk. — Very often when a tree has been long neglected, the trunk is seriously injured by cavities caused by the decay of dead or broken branches. It is not claimed that pruning can remove TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. 53 defects of this nature : it can with proper application, however, arrest the progress of the evil, and in such cases should always be resorted to. The edge of the cavity should be cut smooth and even ; and all de- composed matter, or growth of new bark formed in the interior, should be carefully removed. A coatmg of coal-tar should be applied to the surface of the cavity, and the mouth plugged with a piece of well- seasoned oak, securely driven into place. The end of the plug should then be carefully pared smooth and covered with coal-tar, precisely as if the stump of a branch was under treatment. If the cavity is too large to be closed in this manner, a piece of thor- oughly seasoned oak-board, carefully fitted to it, may be securely nailed into the opening and then covered with coal-tar. It is often advisable to guard against the attacks of insects, by nailing a piece of zinc or other metal over the board, in such a way that the growth of the new wood will in time completely cover it. These operations resemble, if such a comparison is admissible, the fillings performed by dentists, and with the same object, — to check the progress of decay. A glance at Fig. 50 shows what takes place when cavities in the trunks of trees are treated in the man- ner recommended. On the right a cavity treated in this manner is shown. New layers of healthy straight- grained wood have already formed ; the circulation of sap is regular and healthy ; and the tree is entirely restored to health. On the left an old neglected 54 TREE PRUNING. wound may be seen. These instructions are equally- applicable to the treatment of large wounds, caused by the fall of branches broken by the wind, or by any other cause (Fig. 4). Removal of Shoots. — During the spring following the opera- tion of pruning, or even sooner if the tree has been pruned during the active flow of sap, numerous shoots are developed along the trunk, and especially along the lower portion of the branches. The number of such F/g. 50. — On the right an old shoots varics greatly in differ- caTity properly treated .and stop- i i i ^ ^ ped : and recovered at the end of CUt trCCS ; aUQ althOUgh thcy twenty years with sound straight- ^^^ ^^^ entirely thc rCSUlt of grained wood. On the left a wound -^ of the same sort abandoned and pruning, for SUCh shoOtS appear causing decay to penetrate to the i • i i heart of the tree. ou trccs which havc ncvcr bccn pruned, still it is clear that their number and vigor bear a certain relation to the number and size of the branches removed in pruning, and that the more se- verely a tree is pruned the more of these shoots it will develop. The removal of these lateral shoots is essential to a healthy growth of the tree, and may be easily ac- complished with a little pruning hook (Fig. 51), so light that it can be used by a child if necessary. The sharp blade is worked up and down in the direction of the grain of the wood ; the little hook rounded at the end is also sharpened, and can be used in cutting TREATMENT OF OLD WOUNDS. 35 and pulling down shoots not entirely severed by the blade. The following method may be adopted in removing these young shoots. When the second or August growth of the tree is finished, and the young shoots are still soft and tender, that is in August and September, a workman armed with two pruning hooks, fastened on long tough handles of different lengths, and carrying his pruning knife in his belt, commences the operation by cutting off all the shoots within reach of his knife. This is continued first with the short and then with the long-handled pruning hook, with which he will be able to reach to the top of the trunk of an ordinary-sized tree. In the case of very tall trees it will, of course, be necessary to use a ladder; and, ^.^ ^^ _ although this will make the removal of the Pruning took. shoots a longer and more expensive operation, it should not on this account be neglected. The pres- ence of a few shoots, along the upper part of the trunk of a large tree, does not materially interfere with its growth ; their proximity to large branches, by which they are necessarily shaded and overtopped, checks their growth and prevents any great injury to the tree. As a general rule, however, all such shoots developed on the trunk below the branches should be removed, except from very young trees, insufiiciently supplied with foliage, or when less than one third of 36 TREE PRUNING. their height is regularly furnished with branches. In such cases several shoots should be left to supply the place of branches and to regulate the flow of sap (Fig. 52). 0, It is often desirable to make two ''^p^ operations of lopping these shoots. Those on the lower portion of the trunk ^ may be cut during the first half of July; while those higher up on the tree may be left until September, to aid the flow of sap and hasten the healing of the wounds made in removing those first cut. Fig. 52.- Pres- Thc rcmoval of these shoots is one of ervation of shoots , . on the stem of a the uiost uiiportant operations connected Lro/TufficS; ^^ith scientific pruning, and it should be branches. carcfully performed as long as they con- tinue to appear, that is during two or three or at most four years if the tree was skilfully pruned at first. SEASON FOR PRUNING. 57 CHAPTER VI. SEASON FOE PRUNING. — THE USE OF COAL-TAR. Season for Priming. — The most favorable season of the year for pruning is the autumn, when the days are still long and pleasant. The sudden and severe frosts, however, which often occur at this season of the year, are dangerous, and in some instances have a tendency to cause decay in freshly made wounds. In winter the days are too short, and often too stormy, to allow continuous work of this nature ; while the loss of sap which occurs when trees are pruned in the spring, although considerably checked by the use of coal-tar, is probably rightly considered injurious. The leaves interfere with pruning during the summer months when, too, there is danger of the workmen inflict- ing injury on the growing tender shoots of neigh- boring trees ; but a tree may be pruned at any season of the year, and the best time for pruning is that which is most convenient, and when it can be most cheaply performed. All trees, whatever the nature of the soil in which they grow, may be advantageously and profitably 58 TBEE PR UNING, pruned, with the exception perhaps of trees growing on ver}^ poor and barren soil. These, as a general rule, can produce nothing more valuable than fuel, and hardly justify the cost and labor of pruning. The Use of Coal-tar. — Coal-tar, a waste product of gas works, is a dark-brown imperishable substance with the odor of creosote. It can be applied with an ordinary painter's-brush, and may be used cold, except in very cold weather, when it should be slightly warmed before application. Coal-tar has remarkable preservative properties, and may be used with equal advantage on living and dead wood. A single appli- cation without penetrating deeper than ordinary paint forms an impervious coating to the wood cells, which would without such covering, under external influ- ences, soon become channels of decay. This simple application then produces a sort of instanta- neous cauterization, and preserves from decay wounds caused either in pruning or by accident. The odor of coal-tar drives away insects, or prevents them, by complete adherence to the wood, from injuring it. After long and expensive experiments the director of the Parks of the City of Paris finally, in 1863, adopted coal-tar in preference to other preparations used for covering tree wounds, as may be seen in all the prin- cipal streets of the capital. Objections to other Preparations. — Efforts have been made for a long time to discover some method of covering the wounds inflicted on trees, either acciden- tally or by the hands of man. The remedy usually SEASON FOR PRUNING. 59 recommended from time immemorial is the oint- ment of St. Fiacre, a mixture of loam and cow dung. Various preparations, too, used in grafting, and having rosin, wax, and grease, as their basis, have at different times been very generally recommended for this purpose. These preparations are expensive ; and, as they must be aj^plied hot, it is not prac- ticable to use them on a large scale. Their use, too, is attended with serious difficultieSo As the new growth of wood spreads over the wound, these thick coatings are either broken or pushed aside bodily, ac- cording to the power of resistance of the material used ; and the wood is again exposed and a safe retreat for injurious insects prepared. One coat of coal-tar is sufficient for wounds of or- dinary size ; but, when they are exceptionally large, a second coat may, after a few years, be well applied. In warm countries, like the south of France, the great heat of summer renders coal-tar so liquid that it is often impossible to properl}^ treat wounds made at that season. In such cases another coat should be applied during the following winter. Effects of Coal-tar on the Elm. — The effect of coal- tar on the Elm is not always as satisfactory as upon other forest trees, such as the Oak, Ash, Sycamore, Birch, Maple, etc. The application of a coat of coal- tar on all of these gives at once to the wound a hard firm surface ; on the Elm, however, it does not always adhere firmly, owing to the formation on the surface of the wound of the water blisters common to this 60 TREE PRUNING. tree. In such cases the coal-tar which does not adhere firmly should be rubbed off and another coat applied to the wound. Employment of Coal-tar in protecting Young Plantations against Animals. — Coal-tar may be used with excellent effect in protecting young plantations from the at- tacks of rabbits, and other game, or such domestic animals as goats and sheep. Satisfactory results have been obtained too, from the use of coal tar in protect- ing young trees from horses, which often take special delight in tearing off the entire bark from certain kinds of trees, particularly Elms and Poplars. This is not, however, always a' safe or desirable remedy, as it necessitates covering a large part of the stem, and this is often fatal to the tree either by producing asphyxia, from which trees treated in this manner are liable to suffer, or, perhaps, by the action of the powerful acid contained in coal-tar itself, which, used in large quantities, might perhaps affect the sap. Employment of Coal-tar on Fruit Trees. — It is for this reason that the application of coal-tar should not be made except with considerable caution in the treat- ment of wounds on drupacious fruit trees (Cherries, Peaches, Plums, etc.), and especially on the Plum- tree. It has often been observed that the bark of fruit trees of this class have suffered from the appli- cation of coal-tar. This is not the case, however, with Pome-bearing trees (Apples, Pears, etc.) ; to these coal-tar may be applied with perfect safety. It must not be supposed from these remarks that SEASON FOR PRUNING. 61 coal-tar cannot be used on the Plum, or other trees of its class. On the contrary, there is no substance which can replace it in the treatment of large wounds on these trees ; but it should be used cautiously, espe- cially in the case of young trees, and should not be allowed to needlessly run down the trunk ; and it is well to remember that the more active a remed}^, the greater the care necessary in its application. 62 TREE PRUNING, CHAPTER YII. SOFT WOODS. — POPLARS.— CONIFERS. Soft Woods. — Woods with little density or strength are called "soft woods " or '* white woods," in dis- tinction from hard woods, such as oak, elm, ash, etc. Such woods are easy to work and in great de- mand for many purposes. The trees yielding wood of this sort grow often three or four times as rapidly as hard-wood trees, and are therefore more profitable to cultivate. To this class belong many trees with deciduous foliage such as the Poplars, Willows, Lin- dens, etc., and most conifers. The general rules for pruning are applicable to trees of this class, and it is only necessary to say a few words in regard to the treatment proper for Poplars and Conifers. Poplars. — The Poplars, owing to their rapid growth and the excellent quality of the wood yielded by them, constitute a group of considerable interest. The growth of these trees is often so rapid that it is prac- ticable to make the length of their trunks equal one third to one half of the entire height of the tree, and thus greatly increase their value for industrial pur- SOFT WOODS. 63 poses. The large branches of trees of this family are very brittle, and are easily broken by wind or ice, and should be shortened in the manner already explained for hard-wood trees. Conifers. — These trees, which are generally grega- rious and form extensive forests, are valuable subjects for Sylviculture, on account of the readiness with which they reproduce themselves from seed, and be- cause they admirably prepare the soil to produce hard woods and especially the Oak. Of the two operations of pruning — the cutting close to the trunk, and the shortening of branches — the second need not often be applied to the natural pyramidal form of Firs and Spruces : for these trees nothing is necessary beyond removing, when possible, dead or dying branches. The Pines, however, when not growing under the conditions peculiar to them, that is crowded together, often develop enormous branches, which greatly in- terfere with the beauty and the value of the trunk, the only portion of the tree possessed of any value. The rules laid down for shortening the branches of Oaks and other deciduous trees are, in case of neces- sity, applicable to Pines ; that is, one third or one half of the length of the branches may be safely cut away. It is essential, however, to preserve at the end of the shortened branches an abundant supply of foliage as the branch of a coniferous tree deprived of leaves is more certain to perish than the branch of a deciduous tree under similar circumstances. A Pine may in this way be made to assume the natural form it would have 64 TREE PRUNING. had if grown under normal conditions ; the trunk lengthens and thickens regularly, giving to the tree an economic value for many purposes of construction, and especially for the masts and spars of vessels. As a Pine grows, the lower branches die and dry up. The resin with which these are impregnated prevents their decay ; and these dead branches, embedded in the new wood form the knots which interfere with the growth of the tree and produce holes in the boards and planks cut from it. Such defects can be greatly diminished by cutting off all dead or dying branches close to the trunk ; while a coat of coal-tar will pre- vent or reduce the flow of resin from the wound. The practice of leaving a short stump to an ampu- tated branch, adopted by some persons to prevent the loss of sap, although less objectionable in the case of coniferous trees, should never be adopted. Such stumps must be cut again the following year close to the trunk, or cushions of wood will form about their base, cover- ing the trunk with protuberances (Fig 53). These greatly injure Fig. 53. — Effect on the \\-^q appearaucc and value of the Pines of leaving the stump . i i i • of an amputated branch. trCC, aud neCCSSltatC, ShOUM it be found desirable to remove later such excrescences, wounds two or three times as large as an original cut close to the trunk would have made. The custom of pruning Pines is very general in France, and is often carried to excess. The removal SOFT WOODS. 65 of all branches, with the exception of a few at the top of the tree, must greatly interfere with the growth in diameter of the trunk ; and healthy branches should not be removed for the sake of creating a clean trunk of more than one half or at the most two thirds of the entire height of the tree. 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