iiP PiH ililP ; ; .:^:: .;,-■ 'i^;. r.jliiiiijj} ihl!;'!:!'.; iiiiiil Ip iOlbnlillilriliii; 1 1 ill, mr ■ ■ ' Book_.X)73^ CopyiightN" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF AMERICAN HISTORY CONSTITUTING A TEACHERS' MANUAL AND COURSE OF STUDY IN HISTORY AND CIVICS FOR USE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BY WILLIAM C. DOUB EX-SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA AUTHOR OF "a HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," "EDUCATIONAL QUESTIONS," "topical DISCUSSION OP GEOGRAPHY," "pupil's OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC. DOUB & COMPANY SAN FRANCISCO 1906 All rights reserved , i U8RARY of CONGRESS Two CoD(e« Received •J^N 18 190/ Cooyrieht E«try LASS «^ XXc, No. COPY B. CoPYRiGirx, 1904 By WILLIAM C. DOUB Copyright, 1905 By WILLIAM C. DOUB Copyright, 1906 By DOUB & COMPANY Set up^ electrotyped, and published, 1904 Repriuted 1905, 1906 PREFACE This little volume is a working manual for the teacher and constitutes a course in history and civics for the elementary schools. Many able educators have been consulted in the prep- aration of this course, and it is believed to be so complete in every detail that boards of education can adopt it as the course in history and civics without further reference to these subjects in the school manual or regular course of study. The discus- sions, references and questions in this volume are intended for the direct help and assistance of the teacher, the object being to reduce the teacher's work to a minimum and to provide at the same time a broad and progressive course in history and civics. Special attention is directed to "Questions for Class Recita- tions" and "Questions for Compositions and Examinations," which follow each general topic or chapter in the work for the seventh and eighth grades. A few years ago it would have been necessary to have accom- panied this little volume with an explanatory word regarding the nature of the work for which it provides. Happily, that time is now passed, for nearly all the better teachers and schools in the United States are now doing the work for which the course of study herein outlined makes specific provision. The combining of the work in civics with that on history is one of the most valuable features of this course, and a feature which has been thoroughly tested in the best schools with most satis- factory results. William C. Doub San Francisco, August 1, 1905 THE TRUE SPIRIT OF HISTORY "It is a product of the s^eneral feeling among progressive educators that history should cease to be a mere exercise in memory gymnastics, and become a genuine study of human life and experience. In the grammar school, as well as in the high school or the university, history should be so presented that man is ever seen to be its real object. It should never for a single moment be lost sight of that, while the right study of history aflfords a training for the reason and the judgment scarcely rivaled by that gained from any other source, yet the chief subject-matter is man in his political and other social relations. It is the things which are really important in human progress, in the struggle for existence, that one wishes to know. Lists of dates and genealogical tables of royal or noble person- ages are not so helpful to the youth preparing himself for citizenship as a knowledge of the institutions of his country and state, or even of his county, village or school district." — From Dr. George Elliott Howard's introductory note to Doub's "Topical Discussion of American History" (first edition). TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE 3 BOOKS II References and Abbreviations 12 HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES 15 Third Year Grade 15 Fourth Year Grade 18 Fifth Year Grade 19 Sixth Year Grade 20 INTRODUCTORY 23 Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 25 Ancient Ideas of the World 25 False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civilization. 25 Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 26 Conditions Leading to Exploration 27 Discoveries and Explorations 29 Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 29 English Discoveries and Explorations 29 French Discoveries and Explorations 29 Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 29 Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 30 Disposition of Territory in the New World 30 Decline of Spanish Power 30 Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 30 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 31 The American Indian 32 Origin of Name 32 Classification According to Civilization 32 Appearance and Manner of Living 33 Character 34 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 38 Origin, Growth and Political History 43 Virginia 43 Maryland 45 North and South Carolina 46 Georgia 47 , 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Plymouth and Massacluisetts Bay Colonies 48 Connecticut and New Haven 50 Rhode Island 50 New Hampshire and Maine '..... 50 New York 58 New Jersey 60 Delaware 61 Pennsylvania 61 The French in North America 70 French Explorations and Settlements 70 Contrast of French and English Settlements 70 Relations of the French with the Indians 71 Early Conflict between the French and the English 71 The French and Indian War ^2 Institutional Life in the Colonies tj Industrial Conditions 86 Social Conditions 93 Government 102 Religion: Growth of Religious Liberty 113 Education 117 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 131 American Institutions: Changes in, and from where Derived. 132 Government in England 132 Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America.... 135 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 138 Causes and Beginnings 140 Causes of the Revolution 140 The Beginnings of the Revolution 143 Campaigns 146 The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other States, and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the Middle States 147 Campaign against the Southern Colonies 149 Results of the War 150 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 157 The Nature of the National Government 159 The Northwest Territory 160 Conditions of Money and Business 161 Anarchy and Rebellion 162 The Constitutional Convention 162 TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 PAGE The Constitution , 165 Organization of the New Government 167 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTER- FERENCE 170 The Period of European Interference 176 Origin of American Neutrality in European Afifairs 176 The Jay Treaty 177 Breach with France 178 The Alien and Sedition Acts 178 The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 179 The Purchase of Louisiana 179 European Interference with American Commerce 180 The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independ- ence 181 The Hartford Convention 184 The Purchase of Florida 184 The Monroe Doctrine 185 Financial Legislation : the Tariff 186 Hamilton's Financial Measures 186 Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 187 The National Bank and State Banks 188 Tariff Legislation 188 Political Parties 189 Rise of Political Parties 189 Fall of the Federalist Party 190 The Republican Party 191 Growth of the Nation 192 Growth in Territory and Population 192 Movement of Population 192 Results of Westward Expansion 193 Growth of National Unity 196 Institutional Life 197 Industrial Conditions 198 Social Conditions 200 Government 201 Religion 201 Education 202 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 212 Political Methods and Political Parties 217 Meaning of Jackson's Election 217 Political Methods 217 Political Parties 219 8 TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Financial Legislation : the Tariff 221 The Tariff 221 Destruction of the National Bank 222 The Panic of 1837 223 The Independent or Sub-Treasury Sj-stem 224 Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 225 The Oregon Territory 225 Annexation of Texas 225 The Mexican War 226 The Slatory Question 227 The Abolition Movement 227 Expansion of Slave Territory; The Compromise of 1850.. 229 The Kansas-Nebraska Bill 230 The Struggle for Kansas . 231 The Dred Scott Decision 231 The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 232 The Election of Lincoln 232 Institutional Life 232 Industrial Conditions 233 Social Conditions 235 Government 236 Religion 236 Education 236 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 247 Comparative Resources of the North and the South 251 Available Soldiers, Commanders and Military Supplies... 251 Financial Resources, Facilities for Transportation 252 Secession and Beginnings 252 The Right of Secession 252 Secession 253 The Fall of Fort Sumter 253 The Battle of Bull Run 253 Campaigns 254 Scope and Nature of Campaigns; Method of Treatment.. 254 The Eastern Campaign 255 The Western Campaign 256 The Campaigns of 1864-1S65 259 The Work of the Navy in the Civil War 260 Blockade of the Southern Ports 260 Commerce Destroyers 260 The Revolution in Naval Warfare 261 Results 261 TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 « PAGE RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPxMENT AND EXPANSION.. 266 Reconstruction of the Seceded States 271 Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government 271 Death of Lincoln: His Character and Ability 271 Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 272 Reconstruction Policy of Congress 272 Some Results of Reconstruction 274 Political Methods and Political Parties 274 Political Methods 274 Political Parties 275 Financial and Industrial Legislation 276 Financial Legislation 276 Tariff Legislation 278 Industrial Combinations 279 Foreign Relations 281 Purchase of Alaska 281 Treaty of Washington 281 Application of the Monroe Doctrine 281 Growth of Arbitration 282 The Spanish-American War 283 Isthmian Canal 286 Institutional Life 286 Industrial Conditions 287 Social Conditions 291 Education 292 BOOKS This Topical Discussion of American History is to be used by the teacher as a manual and course of study in history and civics. Even when Doub's History of the United States is being used as the regular text, this Topical Discussion is designed to be of much value to the busy teacher in preparing for the recitation. Those teachers wishing to make fuller preparation may consult such of the following as are available : The United States in the Cambridge Modern History Series, Volume VH ; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies in America ; and Fiske's Discovery of America, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors, The Beginnings of New England, New France and New England, The American Revolution, and the Critical Period of American History. If possible, a copy of each of these books should be in the school library. Most of the books here designated for the use of the teacher will be read and studied with interest by more than half the pupils in the seventh and eighth grades, and especially is this true of the Fiske books. Other material of a general nature, specially suited to pupils in these two grades, should be selected, and the selection of this material should receive the teacher's most careful consideration. REFERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS Specific references are given to Doub, McMaster, Mace, Gordy, Thomas and Montgomery. If the teacher desire she can easily cite references to any other text. There should be enough copies of these books in the library for reading and ready reference, but if Doub's grammar school history of the United States is in the hands of the pupil, no other text need be used for reference because it gives special consideration to the topics outlined in this course. The abbreviations used in citing references arc as follows : D. Doub's History of the United States H. I. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 1 H. II. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 2 H. HI. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 3 H. IV. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 4 Mc. McMaster's School 1 listory of the United States Ma. Mace's School History of the United States G. Gordy's History of the United States T. Thomas' History of the United States M. Montgomery's History of the United States HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES This outline of work for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth year grades has no direct connection with the other subject- matter of this manual. This manual on American history has been prepared on the supposition that the pupil, when he begins the seventh-year work, has made no previous study of history and civics. It is generally recognized, however, that it is most desirable to give history and civics a place in the lower grades. This outline has been prepared for the specific purpose of meet- ing this demand. It is hoped that the plan of work which fol- lows will prove suggestive and valuable to those progressive teachers and schools that desire to give history and civics their proper places in the intermediate grades. The main object for doing this work in the lower grades is to re-enforce the work along other lines ; to give the pupil some preparation for the formal study of. these subjects in the higher grades ; and to give those pupils who must leave school before they reach the more advanced grammar grades some knowledge of American history. The plan as outlined below makes most of this work a part of the work on the other subjects. As arranged, the elementary work on history and civics constitutes much of the language work, and provides much excellent material for the pupil's general reading. This correlation economizes the time of the teacher and pupil, and tends to prevent an overcrowd- ing of the course of study. THIRD-YBAR GRADE All the work here outlined for the third grade is to be pre- sented orally by the teacher. After the teacher has presented the topic of the month in story form, different pupils should be required to stand and retell the story. Either before or after this oral retelling of the story by different members of the class, a pupil should be required to pass to the blackboard and write the story as the class reconstructs it. This constitutes the best 16 HISTORY AND CIVICS possible work on language, and usually secures the active inter- est and co-operation of every pupil. Under the sympathetic guidance of the teacher, each pupil, by actual practice, is learn- ing how to use capitals and the simpler marks of punctuation ; he is learning something about the use and selection of words, and about paragraphing and other princi])les of language con- struction. As the pupils reconstruct the story for the pupil at the board, they should be led by the teacher to discuss and to apply these simpler principles of constructive grammar, and to learn new ones as the complexity of their language requires their use. After the different pupils have retold the story orally, and after the class has reconstructed it on the board as indicated above, each pupil should be required to reproduce it in the form of a composition, and nothing but his best work should be accepted by the teacher. From the standpoint of language, the work on one history is of much more value to the pupil than would be a dozen lessons like those contained in the average language book. This work on the history stories, together with similar work on literature stories, and on original compositions on other subjects, should constitute nearly all the language work in the first six grades of the elementary schools, and a large part of that work in the seventh and eighth grades. In presenting the history work of each month, the teacher should weave it into story form and make it just as interesting as possible. It should always be borne in mind, however, that the stories or talks of the teacher on each topic should be true to historical fact. The talks on the topics of the first and second months — Government in the Home and Government in the School — should impress on the pupil the necessity and object of government. It may be rather difficult to present these two topics in story form, but the work on civics should begin with the child's personal environment. In the fourth grade the work on civics deals with city, county, and district government, and in the fifth grade with state government. The work on civics in these three grades should give the pupil a general idea of local and state government, and prepare him for the more formal study of government in the seventh and eighth grades. The other topics of this grade can be presented easily in story In the Loii'cr Grades 17 form of the most interesting nature. The pupil will be deeply interested in the origin of Thanksgiving and the conditions under which the Pilgrims ate the first Thanksgiving dinner. The topic of the fourth month, the Story of Christmas, can be presented in story form along the same general lines. The boyhood of Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and Grant can be made most interesting to children in story form, and will intro- duce them to the most interesting periods of our history. FIRST MONTH Talks on Government in the Home SECOND MONTH Talks on Government in the Schools Thanksgiving Christmas THIRD MONTH FOURTH MONTH FIFTH MONTH Boyhood of Washington SIXTH MONTH Boyhood of Franklin SEVENTH MONTH Boyhood of Lincoln EIGHTH MONTH Boyhood of Grant 18 HISTORY AND CIVICS FOURTH-YEAR GRADE In sttidyin.G^ the topic of the first montli, the pupils will be very much interested in talkint^ with their parents and others about the life and hardships of the early settlers of the neigh- borhood and county. They should be encouraged to secure all the information possible in order that they may become fairly familiar with the early history of their county and city. The topics of the second month, Local Government, should receive careful consideration. The pupils should secure a good idea of the government of the school district and city. They should learn how school districts are formed ; how school trustees and members of city boards of education are elected ; how teachers are elected; the object for maintaining schools; and why par- ents are so willing to be taxed for the support of the public school system. From this month's work the pupil should also learn about county and city government. He should learn how county and city officers are elected, and the general duties of the same. Some of the pupils will no doubt be acquainted with some of the county and city officials, and this personal element should be emphasized as much as possible. It is not supposed, of course, that the pupils will secure a thorough knowledge of local government from this month's work, but they should secure a general idea of the same and should have created in them a desire to learn more about the government of the school district, county, and city. The history work of the other six months of this grade is to be presented as indi- cated by the suggestions on the third-grade work. FIRST MONTH Early History of the Neighborhood and County SECOND MONTH Local Government THIRD MONTH Columbus In the Lozvcr Grades FOURTH MONTH 19 Sir Walter Raleigh Captain John Smith Miles Standish William Penn Daniel Boone FIFTH MONTH SIXTH MONTH SEVENTH MONTH EIGHTH MONTH FIFTH -YEAR GRADE The history work for this grade should deal with English history and with the history of the state in which the pupil lives. An interesting book on each of these subjects should be selected. It may be difficult in some cases to find a suitable book for the work on state history, but there are a number of books on English history that have been prepared especially for intermediate grade work. The one selected should cover the subject judiciously and should be true to historical fact. All the history material for this grade should be made a part of the subject-matter of the regular reading course. The treatment of this material should be in accordance with the suggestions on the work of the third grade, and should be made to constitute an important part of the pupil's language work. During one month of this grade the government of the state in which the pupil lives should receive careful considera- tion. From the time devoted to this subject the pupil should understand the object of state government and the reasons for dividing it into the legislative, executive, and judicial depart- 20 HISTORY AND CIVICS ments. He should learn the ofificial titles of the dififerent state officers, how they are elected, and the general powers and duties of each. SIXTH -YEAR GRADE The history work of this grade should be of such a nature as to give the pupil valuable knowledge of the early history of the nation, and to create in him a desire to read history. This is deemed very important because many pupils never attend school after this grade. The work of the sixth year should also lay a good foundation for the formal study of history in the seventh and eighth years. The material selected for secur- ing these results should be interesting and of a biographical- narrative nature. It is recommended that this material be made a part of the subject-matter for the regular reading course, but that the topics be treated in accordance with the sugges- tions on the work of the third grade. This correlation tends to check the all too prevalent habit of crowding too much work into the elementary schools. SEVENTH -YEAR GRADE INTRODUCTORY (In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1-53.) A CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA I Ancient Ideas oe the World D. 2 ; M. 1-2 II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack oe Civilization D. 2. III Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration D. 3. IV Conditions LEi\DiNG To Exploration D. 3-5. 1. Increasing Importance of Commerce D. 5-6 ; Mc. 9-10 ; Ma. 2-3 ; G. 1-2 2. Need of New Trade Routes D. 6-8 ; Mc. 10-11 ; Ma. 4 ; T. 7-9 ; M. 49. B DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS I Spanish Discoveries and Explorations D. 8-13; H. I. 4-6. 10-19; Mc. 11-14, 17-22; Ma. 6-16; G. 2-6, 8, 12-17; T. 7-16; M. 14-18; 23-27, 28-31 II English Discoveries and Explorations D. 13-14 ; H. I. 7-8, 23-25 ; Mc. 14, 26-29 ; Ma. 13, 17-21; G. 6-7, 19-24; T. 11, 14-16; M. 18-20, 33-38 III French Discoveries and Explorations D. 14-16; Mc. 26-29; Ma. 16-17; G. 89-94; T. 16-17; M. 27-28, 31-33 24 LNTRODUCTORY IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations D. 16; H. I. 10; Mc. 2G-29 ; Ma. 4-5; G. 7-8; T. 12; M. 20-22 V Dutch Discoveries and Explorations D. 17; Mc. 36-39; G. 64-68; T. 22-23; M. 67-69 C DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD D. 17-19 D DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea D. 19 II Defeat of the Spanish Armada D. 19-21 E THE AMERICAN INDIAN I Origin of the Name D. 21 ; Mc. 06 ; Ma. 21 ; T. 11 ; M. 15 II Classification According to Civilization D. 21-24; Mc. 68; Ma. 24; G. 76-77; T. 1-6 1. Savage Indians 2. Barbarous Indians 3. Half-Civilized Indians III Appearance and Manner of Living D. 24; H. I. 95-97, 116-119, 121-125; H. II. 72-76; Mc. 66-68; Ma. 23-24; G. 78-85; T. 1-4; M. 40-44 IV Character * D. 25; H. I. 113-114. 116-119; Mc. 69-70; Ma. 22-23; G. 77; M. 45-46 INTRODUCTORY CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA I Ancient Idkas Concerning the World Although the New World has existed and has been inhabited by mankind and by the lower animals for many thousands of years, it was totally unknown to the people of the Old World until a little more than four hundred years ago. For more than six thousand years the people of Europe believed that the earth was flat, and that it was covered with water except that part occupied by Europe, Asia, and Africa. They had no idea that North America, South America, and Australia existed. They did not even know how large Asia and Africa were. Some of them were acquainted with western Asia and northern Africa, but they did not know how far these continents extended. Marco Polo and a few others had visited China and had heard of Japan, but this was all that the people of Europe knew of eastern Asia, and they knew still less about southern Africa. Although great civilized nations had existed around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea for probably more than six thousand years, the people of these nations thought that the earth was many times smallei' than it is. They believed that there was nothing but dark- ness and terrors beyond the small part which they knew about, and that evil spirits and great monsters would destroy any one who ventured into this unknown space. II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civili- zation This wrong idea which the people of Europe had for so many thousand years, regarding the extent of the land and the shape of the earth, was not due to lack of a high state of civilization. The people of Greece more than twenty- 26 INTRODUCTORY three hundred years ago and the people of Rome more than two thousand years ago were much better educated than were the people of Europe four hundred years ago, when Columbus discovered the New World. The civiliza- tions which these ancient Greeks and Romans produced excelled in many ways the civilization which existed in Europe during the time of Columbus. The literature, the sculpture, and the fine, noble buildings produced by them have never yet been excelled, and in some things along these lines we cannot do as well as was done in ancient Greece and Rome. Ill Conditions in EuRorE Hindering Exploration While the people of Europe at the time the New World was discovered were not so intelligent along many lines as were the Greeks and Romans, they lived under condi- tions which would cause them to think more about the extent of the land and the shape of the earth, and hence they would naturally have a greater desire to find out the truth about these matters. The Greeks and Romans occu- pied the peninsulas of Italy and Greece, which together are not so large as the state of Texas, and less than onc- twenty-seventh as large as the rest of Europe. Half- civilized people lived in all the other parts of Europe except those parts conquered by Rome. The Greeks and Romans were kept busy defending themselves against these people and were finally compelled to submit to them. They had all they could do to learn about Europe and the other continents around the Mediterranean Sea, without trying to explore the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and they seem to have had no desire to do so. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who lived twenty-two hundred years ago, be- lieved that the earth was round and that eastern Asia could be reached by sailing west from western Europe. Some other philosophers who lived between the time of Aristotle and the discovery of America had the same idea, but the people of Greece and Rome, and later those in the rest of Europe, were too busy with the aflFairs and conditions in Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 27 the Old World to think seriously about these ideas, or to attempt to put them into practice by sailing west out over the Atlantic Ocean. IV Conditions Leading To Exploration It was quite different a little more than four hundred years ago when the New World was discovered. More people lived in Europe then than ever before, and through natural advancement and the influence of Greek and Roman laws, literature, and ideas, all Europe had become civilized. Having occupied all of Europe, having become more intelligent and progressive, it is but natural that many of the practical and educated men of Europe, as well as the philosophers, should ask themselves the question — what lies beyond the water? This desire to know more about the size and shape of the earth, together with the improvement in shipbuilding and the practical use of "the compass for the purpose of navigation, would soon have led to the exploration of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and to the discovery of America, even if the condition of commerce, which is discussed below, had not made the business men of Europe extremely anxious to secure some new way by which they could reach the rich products of India and eastern Asia. 1. Increasing Importance of Commerce The Greeks and Romans traded a great deal with the people of Asia, but when the Roman Empire was de- stroyed about fourteen hundred years ago by the half- civilized people of central Europe, this commerce was almost ruined. During the seven hundred years from the time of the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.) to 1200 A. D., Europe traded very little with Asia, the people of Europe being only half-civilized. About six hundred years ago the people of Europe had become settled in well organized governments, were becoming better civilized and educated, and were becoming better acquainted with Asia and the things produced there. 28 INTRODUCTORY The merchants of Europe began to trade the woods, metals, and other things which it produced to the people of Asia for the spices, pearls, silk, gems, and other things which they produced. V>y 1 \()i) A. D. this trade had increased until it constituted a great commerce or inter- change of products between the peoples of Europe and Asia. Great commercial cities grew up, whose prosper- ity depended largely on this commerce. \'enice and Genoa were two of the most important of these cities, and their merchants carried on an immense trade with Asia. From the commercial cities on the coast, the rich products of Asia were sent inland to the different parts of Europe, and naturally there was an increasing demand for these comforts and luxuries. 2. Need of Xcw Trade Routes The goods which Europe sent to Asia and which Asia sent to Europe had to be carried by ships and by cara- vans over one of three routes. These routes were by way of the Black and Caspian seas and thence overland to India ; across Syria to the Persian Gulf and thence by ship to India ; and by way of Egypt to the Red Sea and thence by ship to India. Now it so happened that the Turks, during the time that this trade between Europe and Asia was increasing, were gradually over- running the western part of Asia, which included the territory over which these trade routes passed. The Turks made it a regular business to capture the caravans conveying these goods and to murder those in charge. By 1400 A. D. they had almost destroyed the great commerce between Asia and Europe. It became neces- sary to give up this trade or find some new route over which the goods might be conveyed. This caused the merchants and sailors of Europe to give the question of finding a new route serious consideration. Some maintained that if the earth were round, eastern Asia could be reached by sailing west from Europe. Among this number was Christopher Columbus. On the third Discoveries and Explorations 29 day of August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, Spain, with three small ships and ninety men to test the correctness of this theory. Other men had talked and philosophized about the earth being round, but Columbus was the first to test a scientific theory by bidding good-by to the known world, sailing out into unknown seas and facing the terrors which superstition for ages had planted in the mind of man. It was an act as brave as history records. The trackless ocean was his highway ; faith in a scientific theory his guiding star. DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS I Spanish Discoveries and Explorations The Spanish people discovered and explored most of the West Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part of the United States, Mexico, Central America, and South America, except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers . whose work had direct relation to the United States or to determining the extent and shape of the earth were Columbus, Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Magellan and De Soto. II English Discoveries and Explorations The English discovered and explored the eastern part of North America from Florida to Canada. The principal English explorers were the Cabots, Drake, Gilbert, and Raleigh. III French Discoveries and Explorations The French explored the larger part of the Mississippi Valley and the eastern part of Canada, including the region of the Great Lakes. The principal French explorers were Cartier, Champlain, Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle. IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations The Portuguese made no explorations in North Amer- ica, but Americus Vespucius, while in the employ of the King of Portugal, explored the coast of Brazil in South America. 36 INTRODUCTORY V Dutch Discovkriks and Explorations Holland explored and settled the present state of New York. Henry Hudson was the principal explorer. DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD It was customary for the captain of a ship or the commander of a fleet when he discovered land in the New World, to take possession of it in the name of his sovereii^n. Thus the na- tions of Europe based their claims to territory on the "right of discovery." It was on this so-called right that Spain claimed most of the \\'est Indies, all of South America except Brazil, Central America, Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern part of the United States ; England, the Atlantic Coast from Can- ada to Florida ; France, all the territory drained by the Mis- sissippi and the St. Lawrence aiid their tributaries ; Holland. New York ; and Portugal, Pirazil. England granted her ter- ritory in North y\merica to companies and to individuals, and established some crown colonies, which were under the direct control of the sovereign. Many of these grants made by the English sovereigns were described as extending from "sea to sea," that is from the Atlantic to the Pacific. As these grants did not always extend due east and west, they frequently over- lapped, and in after years caused considerable trouble owing to conflicting claims. DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER I Spain's Early Supremacy on tiik Sf.a For more than eighty years after the discovery of America, Spain was the most powerful nation of the world. She was practically mistress of the seas, having a larger navy than any other nation. This gave her an immense advantage in securing lands and forming settle- ments in the New World. So long as she was stronger on the seas than any other nation, she could control, to a large extent, the development of America. She had secured far more of this new territory than any other Decline of Spanish Power 31 nation. She was obtaining a large amount of money from the mines of Mexico and Peru. All this tended to increase her influence in both Europe and America. II Defeat of the Spanish Armada But Spain was soon to lose this proud leadership among the nations of the world. England sent an army to assist Holland in its attempt to regain independence from Spain. Sir Francis Drake and other bold English sea captains captured the Spanish treasure ships which were on their way from Mexico and Peru. They even sailed into the Spanish harbors and destroyed vessels in sight of the people. Drake called these acts "singeing the King of Spain's beard." These acts so enraged the Spanish King, Phillip II, that he determined to invade England and an- nex it to his kingdom. In 1588 he collected a fleet of about one hundred and fifty ships which carried more than three thousand cannon. This fleet was considered so powerful that it was called the Invincible Armada. It was thought by many military men on the continent of Europe that England would be conquered. The English people were thoroughly aroused ; but they were not fright- ened. They were putting forth every effort to collect a fleet with which to meet the Armada. The English navy contained but thirty-eight ships, and most of these were small and poorly equipped. But the merchants gave their ships freely for the purpose of defense, and a fleet was collected though it was not so large nor well equipped as the Spanish fleet. Lord Effingham, Drake, Hawkins and other English sea captains were placed in command. No greater sea fighters than some of these men ever lived. The Spanish commanders did not compare with them in ability. When the Invincible Armada entered the En- glish channel, the English fleet did not make a direct at- tack, but hung on its flanks, destroying ship after ship, and in a long running fight drove the Armada through the channel into the North Sea. The defeated Spaniards could not return to Spain through the English Channel, 32 INTRODUCTORY and were forced to sail around the north of Scotland where storms destroyed so many of their ships that not more than one-third of them finally reached Spain. This crushing defeat of the Invincible Armada had a most im- portant bearing on the history of the New World. It marked the beginning of Spain's decline on both land and sea. It also marks the beginning of England as a sea power. She soon became mistress of the seas and has since held this position. All this meant that England and not Spain should have most to do in shaping the growth of America. From this time on France was England's only serious competitor in colonizing North America. THE AMERICAN INDIAN I Origin of Name; When Columbus discovered the New World he thought it a part of .\sia. He thought the islands a part of tlie East Indies, and accordingly called the inhabitants In- dians. The name was afterwards applied to all the na- tive inhabitants of America. II Classification According to Civilization 1. Savage Indians The savage Indians lived in North America. They occupied Alaska, all the Rocky Mountain region except part of Arizona and New ]\Iexico, all the territory west of these mountains, and the territory in the north be- tween Hudson Bay and the Pacific ocean. They were divided into several tribes, among the more important being the Apache. 2. Barbarous Indians The barbarous Indians also lived in North America. In the United States they occupied all the country east of the Rocky Mountains, and in Canada all the coun- try south and east of Hudson Bay. The only Indians who had any real influence on the history of the United States occupied the territory between the Mississippi The America)! Indian 33 River and the Atlantic Ocean. They are divided into three general divisions or races, IMaskoki, Iroquois and Algonquin. Each division or race consisted of a num- ber of tribes, each tribe of a number of clans, and each clan was composed of a number of families. Each race spoke a different language. The Maskokis occu- pied all of the southern states east of the Mississippi, except a portion of Tennessee and North Carolina. They included a number of tribes, the more important ones being the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws. The Iroquois race was the strongest one in North America, and it had more influence on the history of the United States than any other. It occupied New York, Pennsylvania, the country between Lakes Huron and Erie, the northeastern part of Ohio, and the larger portion of North Carolina, and Tennessee. The more important tribes of this race were the Five Nations in New York, the Hurons north of Lake Erie, and the Cherokees of Tennessee. The Algonquin race occu- pied all the country east of the Mississippi between Tennessee and North Carolina on the south, to Lab- rador on the north, except that part occupied by the Iroquois. The more important tribes of this race were the Powhatans of Virginia, the Delawares of Delaware, and the Mohegans and Narragansetts of New England. 3. Half-Ck'iliced Indians The half-civilized Indians occupied the mountain re- gions from New Mexico to Chih'. Among the more important races were the Pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, the Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incas of Peru. They built cities and temples, constructed military roads, raised various products, and made fine cloth. Ill Appearance and Manner oe Living All American Indians were alike in some respects. They had black hair, black eyes, a copper-colored skin, high cheek bones, and no beard. The barbarous Indians raised some agricultural products, but secured most of 3 S4 INTRODUCTORY their food by huntings and fishing. They Hved in hnts and wigwams, and the women did most of the hard work. This mode of hving^ required a large territory for a small number of people, and therefore the number of Indians was always small. IV Character Although the Indian was kind and hospitable to friends, he was by nature, cruel, revengeful and treacherous. He was brave and would suffer torture without complaint, but in war he used all the tactics of a coward, never making a fair open fight if he could avoid it. He delighted in torturing prisoners, and in murdering women and chil- dren. In domestic life he was lazy and filthy. But with all these faults he was intelligent, proud and haughty, and could never be enslaved. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA Questions for Class Recitations (Tn connection with the questions wliich follow, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American His- tory," pp. 1-53. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Tell what the people of the Old World for a long time believed about the shape and size of the earth. For about how long did the people have these wrong ideas? How much of the world was known before the New World was discovered? (Each pupil should draw a map of the world as known before the time of Co- lumbus.) Describe the civilization of ancient Greece and Rome. How docs this civilization tend to prove that the failure to dis- cover the New World long before it was discovered was not due to ignorance on the part of the people of Europe? Explain fully the conditions which caused the Greeks and Romans to take so little interest in learning more about the shape and size of the earth. What efifect did the barbarian invasions have on the civ- ilization of southern Europe? Before the time of Columbus, what conditions prevented the people of the other nations of Europe from discovering the New World? What did some of the phil- osophers who lived during this long period believe regarding Questions and Topics 35 the shape and size of the earth? Explain carefully how the gen- eral advance in education and civilization made the people of Europe anxious to learn more about these things. Give a care- ful discussion of the growth of commerce up to about the time Columbus discovered America. Explain how commerce was car- ried on between Europe and Asia. Explain carefully what inter- fered with this valuable commerce. Explain fully in what way this led to the discovery of America. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show the three trade routes between Europe and India, and that part of those routes that fell into the hands of the Turks.) DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS Questions for Class Recitations For what was Columbus searching when he made his voyage in 1492? Discuss his four voyages to the New World. Explain why he and other men in Europe were disappointed at the result of his discoveries and explorations. Who were the Northmen? When did they visit America? What part of America did they visit? Why are they not considered the real discoverers of the New World? Why were their voyages to America not very important? Describe the discoveries and explorations of Balboa. Describe the discoveries and explorations of Magellan. Describe the discoveries and explorations of Ponce de Leon. Of De Soto. Describe the voyages and explorations of the Cabots. Of what value were these explorations to England? Give a description of Drake's voyage around the world. Describe the attempt of Gilbert and Raleigh to establish a colony in the New World. Describe the work of Cartier. Give a description of the explorations of Champlain. Tell what you can of the work of Joliet and Mar- quette. Give a description of La Salle's work. Why was the New World called America instead of being named for Columbus? Tell what you can of Henry Hudson and his work. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the route of each of the explorers and the part of the New World discovered and ex- plored by each nation.) DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD Questions for Class Recitations What was the "Right of Discovery?" What part of the new World did Spain claim by this right? What did England claim? What part did France claim? What territory in America did other nations claim by the right of discovery? How did England dispose of her territory in the New World? Why did this cause 36 INTRODUCTORY trouble in later years? (Each pupil should draw a map of North and South America, and indicate on said map the territory that was claimed by each of the European nations that claimed any of this territory.) DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER Questions for Class Recitations How did the power of Spain compare with that of other nations at the time of Columbus? How did this help her in America? How did Spain's possessions in America help build up her influ- ence in Europe? How did the English sea captains injure Spain, and who were the most noted of these captains? Why did the king of Spain make war on England? Describe the Invincible Armada. How did the English fleet compare with the Spanish fleet? Which nation had the better commanders? Describe the battle between the Armada and the English fleet. What was the effect of the defeat of the Invincible Armada on Spain? What effect did it have on England's sea power? How did this affect North America? THE AMERICAN INDIAN Questions for Class Recitations Why were the native inhabitants of America called Indians? What is the difference between savage and barbarous Indians? Between barbarous and half-civilized Indians? Where did the savage Indians live? What part of America did the barbarous Indians inhabit? Into what races were the barbarous Indians divided? Where did each race live? How did these races differ? Name the most important tribes of each race of the barbarous Indians. Where did the half-civilized Indians live? How did they differ from the savage and barbarous Indians? What Indians had the most influence on the history of the United States, the savage, the barbarous, or the half-civilized? Why was this? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the territory which the savage and barbarous Indians occupied in North Amer- ica. This map should also show plainly the territory occupied by each race and tribe of the barbarous Indians that lived east of the Mississippi.) In what ways were all North American Indians alike? Tell all you can about the way they lived. Why were there not more Indians in so large a country? Describe the nature and habits of the Indian. Why did the white man not make slaves of the Indians as he did of the negroes? Questions and Topics 37 Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the conditions that prevented the discovery of the New World before the time of Cohimbus. Discuss the conditions that led to the discovery of America. Discuss the voyages of the North- men to America. Discuss the Spanish discoveries and explora- tions. Discuss the English explorations. Compare the explora- tions of the Spanish with those of the English in respect to loca- tion and importance. How do the French explorations compare with those of the Spanish and English? Discuss the claims of the various nations to the territory of the New World. Discuss the decline of Spanish power and its effect on America. Compare the savage, barbarous and half-civilized Indians in respect to civiliza- tion and location. Describe the appearance of the American Indian and his manner of living. Discuss the character of the Indian. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY (In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 55-163.) A THE SOUTHERN COLONIES I Virginia 1. Origin D. 32-34 ; Mc. 20-32 ; Ma. 25-27 ; G. 26-27 ; T. 19-21 ; M. 52-57 2. Character of Early Settlers D. 34; H. I. 175-177; Mc. 27-30, 97-98; G. 27-29 ; M. 57-58 3. Origin of Representative Government in America D. 34-35; Mc. 33; Ma. 30, 32-33; G. 33; T. 22 ; M. 59-60 4. Virginia Made a Royal Province D. 36; Mc. 34; Ma. 35-36; T. 39-40; M. 62 5. Quarrels Betzveen the People and the Royal Gov- ernors. D. 37 ; Ma. 36-39 6. ySir Williaui Berkeley D. 37 ; Ma. 36-39 ; G. 35 ; M. 62-65 7. Bacon's Rebellion D. 38; Ma. 39-40; G. 35-36; T. 40-41; M. 65-66 II Maryland 1. Origin D. 39; H. I. 143-146; Mc. 34-36; Ma. 41-1 '2 ; G. 37-38; T. 36-37; M. 103-104 Origin, GroT^ili and Political History 39 2. Nature of Government D. 40 ; Mc. 35 ; Ma. 43-43 ; G. 38 ; T. 37-38 ; M. 105 3. Religions Disputes D. 40; Mc. 35-36; Ma. 43-45; T. 38-39; M. 105-107 Jir North and South Carolina 1. Origin D. 41; Mc. 54-55; Ma. 45; T. 42-44; M. 113-115 2 Character of Colonies D. 41 ; Ma. 47-49, 97; T. 44; M. 115 3. Government D. 42; Ma. 46-47; T. 42-43; M. 115-116 IV Georgia 1. Origin: Character of Settlers D. 42; Mc. 57-58; Ma. 49-52; T. 57; M. 122-124 2. Government D. 43 ; T. 57-58 ; M. 125-126 B NEW ENGLAND I Origin and Growth in Population 1. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies (a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists D. 44; Mc 40; Ma. 53; G. 41-42; M. 76-77 (b) Persecution of Puritans and Separatists D. 45; H. I. 180-181; Mc. 41; Ma. 53-54; G. 42-43 ; T. 24 ; M. 77 40 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES (c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony D. 45-lG; H. I. 133-13(;; Mc. 41-4G; Ma. 54-57 ; G. 44-45 ; T. 25-28 ; M. 78-83 (d) The Foundini^ of Massachusetts Bay Colony D. 47; H. I. 25-28, 136-140; Ma. 57- 59 ; G. 46-50 ; T. 28-30 ; M. 82-85 2. Connecticut and New Haven D. 48; Mc. 50-51; Ma. 61, 72-73; G. 50-52; T. 35-36; M. 98-99, 101 3. Rhode Island D. 48; Mc. 49-50; Ma. 61-75; G. 52-56; T. 33-35 ; M. 86-88 4. A^ezv Hainpsliire and Maine D. 49-50; Mc. 47-48; Ma. 69-70; T. 36; M. 96-98 II Government in Early Nkvv England 1. Tlic Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and State D. 50; Mc. 48; Ma. 59; T. 32-33; M. 62- 63, 86, 96 2. Local Government: The Town Meeting D. 51 ; M. 81, 96 3. Govcrmnent Under the Charters D. 52-53; Mc. 46-50; Ma. 67, 69; T. 31-33; M. 85-86 4. Neiv England Confederacy (a) Origin D. 51; Mc. 51-52; Ma. 64-65; G. 56; T. 64; M. 90 (b) Nature D. 54 ; Mc. 52 ; T. 65 ; M. 90 (c) Defects and \'aluc D. 55 ; T. 65 ; M. 90 Origin, Groidli and Political History 41 Til Relations oi? the English with the Indians 1. The Indians and the Pilgrims D. 55 ; H. I. 23-30 ; Ma. GG ; G. 4G ; T. G3 ; M. 81-82 2. The Pequod War D. 56-58; Mc. 71; Ma. 71; G. 8G; T. G-l ; M. 88, 99-100. 3. The Indians and the Puritans D. 58-59 ; Mc. 71 ; T. G2-G3 ; M. 83 4. King Philip's War D. 59-GO ; Mc. 72 ; Ma. G6 ; G. 87-89 ; T. G5-G6, M. 93-94 IV Under the Royal Governors 1. Annulling of the Charter of Massachttsetts Bay Colony (a) First Attack on Charter D. Gl ; G. 58-59 (b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth D. 61 ; T. 70 (c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massa- chusetts D. 62 ; M. 95 (d) The Charter Annulled D. 63-64 ; Mc. 53 ; M. 95 2. The Despotic Ride of Andros. D. 64; Ma. 68, 74; G. 60-61 ; T. 72-75; M. 95 3. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and Connecticut D. 64-65; Mc. 52-53; T. 34, 75; M. 102 4. Overthrozv of King and Andros D. 65-66 5. Nezv En inland from i6Sq to 7/66 D. 66- Mc. 53; T. 75; M. 95. 97-98 43 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES C THE MIDDLE COLONIES I New York 1. Discovery and Settlement D. 06-07 ; Mc. 3G-39 ; Ma. 77-78 ; G. G4-GG ; M. 67-70 2. Character of the Colonists D. 68; H. I. 174; Mc. 38, 102; Ma. 77, 97, T. ^8; M. 70-72 3. Goi'erninent Under the Dutch D. 68; Ma. 7!)-83 ; G. 66-68; M. 71-73 4. The Colony Under English Control D. 69-70 ; Mc. 55 ; Ma. 83-85 ; G. 68-69 ; T. 46 ; M. 74 5. Under the Royal Governors D. 71; Ma. 84-85; G. 69-70; T. 47-48 II Ni;\v Jersey 1. Origin D. 71: Mc. 55; Ma. 86-87; T. 49; M. 75 2. Political History D. 71; Mc.55; Ma. 87-89; T. 19-50; M. 75-76 III Delaware D. 72; Ale. 56-57: Ma. 85-86; T. 56-57; M. 111-113 IV Pennsyia'ania 1. Origin D. 72-74; Mc. 55-56; Ma. 89-90; G. 71; T. 52-53; M. 118 2. Settlenient and Groivth D. 74 ; Ma. 91-94 ; G. 72, 73 ; T. 54-56 ; M. 119, 122 3. Goirrnnient D. 75 ; Ma. 95 ; G. 73 ; T. 54-57 : H. 120 4. The Province Under Deputy Governors D. 76 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY THE SOUTHERN COLONIES Virginia 1. Origin In 1G06 James I, King of England, granted the land from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac river to a company of London merchants called the London Company. This company sent out colonists who in 1607 founded Jamestown, this being the first permanent English settlement in America. The colony did not prosper at first but was saved from total de- struction by the work of John Smith, and later put on its feet by the arrival of Lord Delaware with provis- ions and about five hundred more settlers. The colony now became firmly established, and more colonists came over every year. By 1630 there were more than four thousand ; in 1670 there were more than forty thousand ; and in 1750 this number had increased to more than five hundred thousand. 2. Character of Early Settlers The London Company was organized for the purpose of making money, and the earliest settlers came over for the same purpose. Very few of them intended to make homes and remain here permanently. Some called themselves gentlemen ; some were criminals from the jails of England ; and many were lazy and worthless. These men were governed by men appointed by the company. Captain John Smith and Sir Thomas Dale being the ablest of these early governors. Gradually a better class of men came into the colony. They came from the better class in England and came for the pur- pose of making homes for themselves and their fam- ilies. 44 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES o. Origin of Representative Guvcrnuicnl in America By 1G19 the population of Virginia had reached four thousand. Most of these settlers were from the middle class of England and were accustomed to help make their laws and to levy their own taxes. They now asked the London Company to allow them to elect a body of men to help make the laws. Their request was granted and a legislative body called the House of Burgesses was elected by the settlers. This was the first law-making body elected in America. 4. Virginia Made a Royal Province The London Company came to be very powerful, and was controlled by the Puritans who were the political and religious enemies of King James L Accordingly he had the company's charter annulled, and in 1624 Vir- ginia became a royal province, whose governor was ap- pointed by the king. The people still elected the House of Burgesses which helped make the laws. 5. Quarrels Betzcecn the People and the Royal Governors During nearly all the time that Virginia was a royal province (1G24 to 1776) there was contention be- tween the king and the royal governors on the one side and the colonists on the other, as to whether the latter should have any voice in law making. The kings and the royal governors wished to do away with the power of the House of Burgesses, but the people would not permit it. The constant friction between the people and the royal governors tended to cause the colonists to lose their respect and love for England, and this was indirectly one of the causes which led to the Revolu- tionary War. G. Sir IVilliani Berkeley One of the most important of the royal governors of Virginia was Sir William r>erkeley. His long rule was noted especially for two things : the large immigration of English colonists, and his steady opposition to the Origin, Grozcfh and Political History 45 rights of the people. He was, perhaps, the most tyran- nical of the royal governors. 7. Bacon s Rebellion Governor Berkeley's refusal to protect the people on the frontier from Indian raids forced them to defend themselves. Nathaniel Bacon organized a force for this purpose, and for this was declared a rebel by Berkeley. After Bacon's death Berkeley regained his power and punished Bacon's followers with such severity that the people W'Cre still more aroused against the oppressive rule of the royal governors. II Maryland 1. Origin King Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Balti- more, the territory including the present states of INIary- land and Delaware. Lord Baltimore's purpose was to provide a home for English Catholics. Two hundred colonists came over in 163-i and foimded the town of St. Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. In 1G88 the population of the colony had increased to about twenty- five thousand, and in 1700 there were more than one hundred forty-five thousand people living in Maryland. 2. Nature of Government By the terms of the charter Lord Baltimore and his descendants had authority over the new colony almost equal to that of the English king, but the people had the right to assist in making the laws. 3. Religious Disputes Several years after Maryland was first established, large numbers of Puritans came into the colony. Later the Episcopalians became strong also, and most of the political history of the colony is closely related to re- ligious contentions among the Catholics, Puritans and Episcopalians. 46 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES III North and South Carolina 1. Orii^in In Kido King Charles II {granted the territory between Virginia and Florida to eight of his friends among whom were Sir WilHam Berkeley, the Duke of Albe- marle, the Earl of Clarendon, and the Earl of Shaftes- bury. Before this charter was issued a few English colonists had made a settlement on Albemarle Sound and these were soon joined by others. The first settle- ment in South Carolina was made on the southern side of Charleston Harbor in 1670, and ten years later Char- leston was founded. Other settlements were soon made in both North and South Carolina, the most important being around Charleston and on the Cape Fear River. But during the first thirty-five years the growth in pop- ulation was not rapid. At first South Carolina was most populous, the settlements around Charleston in 1082 having a population of about three thousand. At the close of the seventeenth century the population be- gan to increase more rapidly. In 1750 there were about ninety thousand people living in North Carolina, and about eighty thousand in South Carolina. 2. Character of Colonists The colonists of North and South Carolina came from various nations and were members of different churches. Many came because of religious persecu- tions at home. This mixed population represented strength and determination. 3. Government The proprietors to whom the king had granted the two colonies belonged to the Church of England, and their efforts to keep all who did not belong to their church from taking any part in the government caused constant trouble between the governors, whom they ap- pointed, and the people. The people insisted on help- Origin, Grozith and Political History 47 ing make the laws and soon secured the right to elect legislative bodies. Because of frequent and serious dis- orders in the government the charter was annulled in 1729, and North and v^outh Carolina each became a royal province. IV Georgia 1. Origin: Character of Settlers In 1732 King George II granted to James Oglethorpe and twenty other men the territory between South Carolina and Florida for the purpose of making homes for men who were imprisoned for debt in England. Rich men gave money and Parliament voted a sum to aid these debtors to make another start in the new colony which was called Georgia. Oglethorpe was ap- pointed governor, and in 1733 he, with thirty-five fami- lies, made the first settlement in the last English colony to be established in America, by founding the city of Savannah. Augusta was founded the next year and five years later another settlement was made at the mouth of the Altamaha. The colony at first was not prosperous. In 1752 there were less than five thousand people living in Georgia, but from this time on the pop- ulation increased more rapidly and had reached about fifty thousand in 1766, 2. Government Oglethorpe was appointed governor before leaving England and continued to hold that office until 1743. The charter placed the government entirely in the hands of the proprietors, and the colonists assisted very little in making the laws. After Oglethorpe returned to England the afifairs of the colony got into very bad shape, and in 1752 the colony was made a royal province. 48 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES NEW ENGLAND 1 Origin and Growth in Population 1. Plymoutli and Massaclnisctis Bay Colonies (a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists Because the Pope would not grant him permission to divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn, one of her maids, King Henry Mil of England induced Parliament to pass a statute which declared him and not the Pope the head of the Catholic Church in Eng- land. Henry did not wish to make many changes in the Church of England, as the Catholic church in England was then called, but many of the English people did, and after the reform was begun by the king, it could not easily be checked. Some withdrew from the church altogether and were therefore called Separatists. Soiue wished to remain in the church and reform or purify it, and these, therefore, were called Puritans. (b) Persecution of Separatists and Puritans The Separatists were not permitted to withdraw peacefully from the Episcopal or Established church, and to establish churches of their own. In many cases their property was taken from them, they were sent to jail and the leaders were put to death. In 1607 some of them escaped from England and settled in Holland. At first the Puritans joined in these persecutions, but soon they themselves began to be persecuted, and some of them joined the Separatists in Holland. (c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony The Separatists and Puritans who had fled to Hol- land did not wish to remain there, because they were afraid that their children would acquire the speech, habits, and manners of the Dutch. They wished to find a place where they could live and worship in Origin, Grozcth and Political History 49 peace and still remain British subjects in British ter- ritory. They had heard of the success of the James- town colony and decided to establish a home for them- selves and their children in the New World. In 1620 about one hundred of these Separatists, called Pil- grims, because of their wanderings, sailed for Amer- ica in the Mayflower. On December 21st they landed on the coast of the present state of Massa- chusetts and founded the colony of Plymouth. The first winter was a severe one and more than half of the colonists died of cold, hunger, and disease. How- ever, in the face of all discouragements these men and women clung to their new home persistently. In 1630 the colony contained only three hundred sixty persons, in 1640 about three thousand and in 1670 it had reached eight thousand. (d) The Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony Charles I, who became king in 1625, was strongly opposed to both the religious and political ideas of the Puritans. The persecutions of the Puritans became worse and worse, and so they also decided to settle in the New World. In 1628 some of the leading Puri- tans purchased from the Plymouth or New England Company a large tract of land in Massachusetts lying between the Charles and the Merrimac Rivers and ex- tending from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Soon afterwards a small party of Puritans, led by John Endicott, settled at a place called Naumkeag and changed the name to Salem. In 1620 the King granted to the men who had purchased this tract of land a charter which created a corporation called the Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. Dur- ing the same year about four hundred emigrants crossed to this territory and settled at Salem, thus making it larger than Plymouth, which had been founded nine years before. During 1630 more than one thousand Puritans came to New England and 4 THE THIRTEEN COLOXIES settled the towns of Charleston, Boston, Roxbury. Dorchester, Watertown. and New Town (later called Cambridj^e). By 1635 the number of colonists in the different settlements in Massachusetts amounted to about five thousand. 2. Connecticut and Ncii' Ilairn In IGoG the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Weth- ersficld were founded by settlers from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. These three towns remained a part of Massachusetts until Hi;59, when they agreed to imite and were then known as the colony of Connecticut. In 1038 a wealthy congregation of Puritans from England founded New Haven, and around this town grew up other towns. These towns united and became the col- ony of New Haven. These two colonies kept up a sep- arate existence until 1002, when Connecticut attained a royal charter which annexed to her the New Haven colony. The united colony prospered and its advance in wealth and population was rapid. By the time of the Revolution. Connecticut contained about two hundred thousand inhabitants. 3. RJwdc Island The settlement of Rhode Island was due largely to re- ligious and political troubles in Massachusetts. Roger Williams, a Puritan minister, was banished from Massa- chusetts on account of the political and religious doc- trines he taught. With his followers he bought land from the Indians and made a settlement called Provi- dence. Other towns were founded by Anne Plutchinson and Samuel Gorton, and later all these united under the title Rhode Island. 4. Neiv IlanipsJiirc and Maine The earliest settlements in the territory later known as New Hampshire were two trading posts at Dover and Portsmouth, established in 1030 bv John Mason and Origin, Grozcth and Political History 51 Ferdinand Gorges. In the territory known as Maine but few settlements were made. It was never known as one of the colonies except as a part of Massachusetts. II Government in Early New England 1. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and State The early settlers of Virginia and a large portion of those of the other southern colonies, did not come to the New World in order to escape from religious persecu- tion. They belonged to the Episcopal or Established Church of England and therefore were under the pro- tection of the government in religious matters. They cam.e to the New World for the sake of adventure and more especially because they could make a better living for themselves and their children. They were thorough believers in the civil and political liberty which English- men enjoyed, and they and their descendants were as stout in the defense of those rights in the struggle with the English kings which ended in the Revolution, as were the people of New England. The colonists of New England, unlike those of Virginia, came to Amer-r ica mainly because of religious persecution in England. Alany of them were men of wealth and were graduates of the English Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. They planned to and did establish a state based on Puri- tan ideas of religion and government. This does not mean that the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colo- nies were places where religious liberty existed. The Puritans persecuted those who preached any doctrine other than Puritanism just as severely as they them- selves had been persecuted in England by Episcopalians. From the very first in Massachusetts the Church and State were very closely united. The laws provided that no one should vote or hold an office of any kind unless he were a member of a Puritan church or congregation. This form of government in which the Church and the State are thus connected is known as a Theocracy. 52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 2. Local Government: The Tozvn Meeting The large immigration into Massachusetts Bay Col- ony called for the immediate organization of a definite form of government. As a rule the Puritans came over as congregations, and each congregation estahlished a small town. The freemen of each town, which included the adjacent country, met at the meeting house or town hall and elected town officers and transacted all the town business. 3. GoTcnuncnt Under tJic CJiartcrs The charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay Com- pany provided for the election of a governor and a deputy governor, and of a committee of eighteen mem- bers called assistants. These officers when assembled constituted what was known as the General Court. A little later representatives were elected from each town. These met in a separate legislative body and soon se- cured more power in the government than the governor and assistants. Government in the other New England colonies was much the same. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the Church and State were entirely sepa- rate. Connecticut dififered from the other colonies in that she had a written constitution made and adopted by the people. 4. Nciv England Confederacy (a) Origin There were certain conditions in early New Eng- land which might at any time require the colonies to act together. In order to be ready in case of attacks by the Dutch, French or Indians on the frontier, all the New England colonics except Rliode Island formed a confederacy. Rhode Island was excluded because of her unsettled religious and ]~)olitical con- ditions. (b) Nature The confederation was not a real union, but a mere agreement to act together on certain general qucs- Origin, Grox^th and Political History 53 tions. The government was in charge of eight com- missioners, two elected from each colony. The com- missioners had entire control of questions arising be- tween the colonies and the Indians, or a foreign power. (c) Defects The commissioners had no power to enforce their acts ; the government was simply advisory. This lack of power made the Confederacy a weak form of union. Another weakness was that each of the colonies had the same power in the government, while they dif- fered widely in population and wealth, IMassachusetts having more inhabitants and paying more taxes than all the others combined. This caused ill feeling and weakened the Confederacy. (d) Value The Confederacy was especially valuable during the war with the Indians, 1675-78. It was also of value to all the English colonies in America, as it served to prepare men's minds for unity of action a hundred years later when union became absolutely necessary in order that the colonists might maintain their rights. Ill RKi.ATiOiNS oi' TiiK English with thk Indians 1. The Indians and the Pilgrims Up to about lO:}"), the colonists of New England were not troubled by the Indians. The Pilgrims found few Indians in the region in which they settled. With these they made a treaty of peace which was faithfully kept both by the Indians and the English for more than fifty years. The attitude of the Indians further inland was also friendly at first. 2. Pcquod IJ'ar The steady advance of the English into the Indian ter- ritory roused the dislike and jealousy of the Indians. This feeling soon led to warfare which broke out be- 54 TIIF. THTRTREN COLONIES tween the Peqnods and the settlers. This war resulted ill the destruction of the entire tribe, the most powerful tribe in New England, and the effect upon the other Indians was such that they did not attack the English for nearly forty years. 3. llic Indians and the Puritans The dealings of the Puritans with the Indians were, on the whole, just and honorable. The Puritans con- verted many of the Indians to Christianity, and tried to educate and to civilize them but without much success. The Indian and the Puritan did not understand each other. The Indian had no conception of what private ownership of land meant, and when he saw finally that selling the land to the English meant giving it up for- ever and being put out of the territory, he became un- friendly. The Indians also resented having their chiefs called to account for the misdeeds of the members of the tribes. 4, King Pltili/^'s JJ'ar When Massasoit, who had made the early treaty of peace with the English, died, and his son Philip became chief of the Wampanoags, the growing dislike and dis- trust of the Indians for the English broke out in a war. This war began in 1()75 and lasted three years with dreadful effect upon both the English and the Indians. It was much more serious than the Pequod war. Over four thousand well armed Indian warriors w^ere iniited against the English. A great deal of life and property was lost, and a heavy debt was incurred by the English. The three tribes of Indians engaged were almost com- pletely destroyed. The end of this war marks the end of Indian ])ower in New England. It was a contest between the people of a weak race who owned the soil. and the invaders who belonged to a higher and stronger civilization. As is usually the case, the more vigorous and higher civilization triumphed. Origin, Groivtli and Pulilical History 55 IV Under 'riiE: RoYAi, GovKknors 1. AnimUing of the Charter of MassacJinsetts Bay Colony (a) First Attempts King Charles I hated the Puritans and seized upon complaints made by people who had been banished from Massachusetts and others who were jealous of her power, as an excuse to attack her government. He demanded the charter in 1(335 but Massachusetts refused to give it up and trouble at home kept him from sending an army to compel obedience. (b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth In 1G42 war broke out in England between Charles I and Parliament. In 1643 the New England Con- federacy was formed, and from that time until the defeat of the King's army in 1649, New England w^as practically independent of outside power. During the time when Cromwell and Parliament ruled Eng- land without a king, New England continued to con- duct her affairs about as she pleased, with little inter- ference from the home government. (c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massachusetts When Charles II came to the throne in 1663 he made certain courteous and reasonable demands of Massachusetts Bay Colony regarding the acknowd- edging of his authority, religious toleration for Epis- copalians, and extending the right to vote to the members of other churches. The Colony refused to comply with these demands, but war in Europe pre- vented Charles from taking action against it until 1675. (d) The Charter Amiullcd The Massachusetts Bay Colony had annexed New Hampshire and Maine. The heirs of Mason and Gorges, to whom this territory had originally been granted, claimed that the territory belonged to thenl. Kine Charles sent over a commissioner to investiq:ate 56 THE 'IIIlR'l'EEN COLONIES affairs in the colony, regarding its coinpliancc with his demands, the state of feehng among the people, the colony's rights to New Hampshire and Maine, and the enforcing of English laws. The commis- sioner's report was very im favorable to the colony, and in 1(584 the charter was annulled. 3. Tlic Despotic Rule of Andros In 1085 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor of all New England, and of New York and New Jersey. One main object of the English government for this action was the union of all the northern colonies, in order to be better prepared for any attack of the French from Canada. The plan or method of bringing about this union could not have been much worse. Andros was directed to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, but this he was unable to do. He abol- ished the legislature of Massachusetts and levied taxes and arrested men without due process of law. While his rule was very despotic and arbitrary, it should be remembered that the leaders of the Puritan party did all they could to anger him, even going so far as to oppose strongly the establishment of an Episcopal church at Boston. 3. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and Couneclicnt When Connecticut and Rhode Island heard that Charles had become king, they did not do as Massa- chusetts had done. Each sent a pleasing and flattering address to him, and as a result each secured a charter which provided for a very liberal form of government. Under these charters the people of each colony elected their governors and members of the legislature. They could pass any law that did not conflict with the laws of England. The Connecticut charter remained in eflFect until 1818, forty-two years after the colonies became the United States, and the charter granted to Rhode Origin, Grozvth and Political History 57 Island remained in effect nntil 1843. Much against the will of the people of New Haven, that colony was an- nexed to Connecticut, and the history of New Haven as a separate c-olony thus came to an end in 1(5(33. New Haven had heen a strong Puritan colony, and as Charles disliked the Puritans, he was glad to annex it to Con- necticut. Rhode Island and Connecticut were both re- quired to prevent no one from voting on account of his religious belief. But they did not object to this. 4. Oz'crthrozv of King and Andros In 1688 the English rose in rebellion. King James fled to France, and by invitation of the English people, William of Orange came over from Holland and became king of England. When the people of Massachusetts heard of the rebellion in England, they arrested Gov- ernor Andros and placed him in prison. Rhode Island and Connecticut re-established governments under their old charters, and no further attempts were made by an English king to annul these liberal charters which the people of these two colonies loved so well. Massachu- setts hoped that the new king would grant her a charter that would also provide for a liberal form of govern- ment, but she was disappointed. She was granted a new charter, however, which gave her the right to elect a legislature or law-making body, and which provided that no taxes could be levied except by the legislature. The people of Massachusetts, therefore, could not be taxed except by themselves— a right dear to all Eng- lishmen, and one which the people of all the colonies were determined to have. The charter also provided that no man should be denied the right to vote or to take part in the government because of his religious ideas. Under the old charter the governor was elected liy the people ; but under the new^ charter he was ap- pointed by the king. All laws passed by the legislature had to be sent to the king for his approval before they became effective. This was not so liberal a government 58 TIIF. THIRTEEN COLONIES as that enjoyed by the people of Rhode Island and Con- necticut, hut the people of Massachusetts had to live under it until the Revolution, when all the colonies becaiue independent of England. As the new charter annexed the colony of Plymouth and the territory of Maine to the Massachusetts 15ay colony, the people of these two places also lived under the government of this charter. 5. New England from i68p to 1/66 From 1689 to 1766 Massachusetts and New Hamp- shire were governed by royal governors who were ap- pointed by the English kings, and by a legislature elected by the people. During the greater part of this time the governors and the people were quarreling about taxes and laws. All these quarrels caused the people to care less and less for the mother country and served to pre- pare them for complete separation from England. Dur- ing this time Connecticut and Rhode Island continued to enjoy the liberal government provided by their char- ters, and as a rule had very little trouble with the home government. THE MIDDLE COLONIES I Nkw York 1. Discoi'cry and Sctllciiiciit In KiOl), Henr\' Hudson, an English sailor emplo\ed by a Dutch commercial company, discovered the river which now bears his name, and explored the country bordering it. The Dutch called the territory New Netherlands and immediately began to send settlers over to secure the valuable fur trade of the region. The first settlement was made on Manhattan Island in Kill and other towns soon sprang up along the Hudson, on Long Island, and on Manhattan Island. In 1655 the territory now known as New Jersey and Delaware was taken by the Dutch and made part of their colony. Origin, Groi^iJi and Political History 59 2. Character of the Colonists While the territory was claimed and held by the Dutch, the settlers came from all parts of Europe. These first settlers came simply for trading-, not for the purpose of making homes. In order to encourage permanent settlers, valuable grants of land along the Hudson were given to men bringing to New Netherlands fifty per- manent settlers. These grants were called patroonships, and the men receiving them, patroons. This brought in many settlers, but more men of the better class came in later when cheap ownership of small holdings of land was promised. 3. Government Under the Dutch While this colony was under the Dutch control the people had very little voice in the government. The governor was appointed by the company, and although he had a council to advise him, he really had all the power in his own hands. Peter Stuyvesant stands out as the ablest of all the Dutch governors. His rule was arbitrary and he paid little attention to the rights of the people, but the wealth and population of the colony more than doubled under his administration. 4. The Colony Under Eni^lish Control New Netherlands by its position divided the English colonies into two parts, and for that reason, as well as on account of its commercial value, the English desired its possession. So in KKU the English king, Charles H, sent over a small fleet and took possession of the entire colony. In 1()7;> the Dutch again obtained con- trol of this territory, but only for one year. The Eng- lish king granted this province to James, Duke of York and Albany, and the name of the colony was changed to New York. The Duke granted the southern part of the territory to two Englishmen as a separate province under the name of New Jersey. 60 TIIF. 'IlIIRTEEN COLONIES 5, Under the Royal Corcrnors When the province was tj^iven to the Duke of York, a charter was given the people, which was based on the New Ungland charters, but did not give die people so many rights in the government. In 1G85 James became King of England and New York thus became a royal province. 'From this time the government was carried on along the same lines as the other royal colonies, that is. with a governor and council appointed by the king and an assembly elected by the people. As in New England, there was a great deal of trouble betw^een the legislature and the governor. The people never gained as much power in law-making as they did in New England or the southern colonies. II Nkw Jersey 1. Origin The real history of this colony begins in 16Gi when the Duke of York granted the territory between New York harbor and Delaware Bay to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, giving it the name New Jersey. Settlers came in from New York, New England and Europe, and the province grew steadily in population and wealth. 2. Political History When the proprietors received the grant of New Jer- sey they established a liberal form of government with a governor and council appointed by themselves, and an assembly elected by the freemen. Owing to some trouble in managing the colony, Lord Berkeley sold his share to the Quakers, and the province was divided into East and West Jersey. The Quakers organized a more liberal government in the western part, while East Jer- sey was organized on the same lines as the whole prov- ince had been. In 1()S2 William Penn and some asso- ciates became the proprietors of East Jersey. Continual Origin, Grox^th and Political History 61 trouble between the province and the proprietors led the proprietors to give up their rights in 1702, and the two provinces were united and placed directly under control of the Crown. III Delaware The first colony of any importance in this territory was established by Sweden in IGoS. Thirteen years later this territory was taken by the Dutch, and, with New Jersey, made a part of New Netherlands. When the English conquered the Dutch, Delaware remained a part of New York until 1G82 when William Penn obtained a grant to it as a part of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware organized a separate legislature and became a separate province, but remained under the governor of Pennsylvania. IV Pennsylvania 1. Origin In 1681 Charles II granted a tract of land extending from the Delaware river westward and containing forty thousand square miles, to William Penn, in payment of a debt owed by the Crown to his father. Penn's plan was to found a colony for the Quakers who were perse- cuted in England. As his colony had no sea coast, Penn bought the rights to Delaware and governed it as part of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware was made a sepa- rate colony with a separate legislature, though it re- mained under the same governor as Pennsylvania. 3. Settlement and Growth Penn put his plan before the people promising just government, religious freedom, protection of personal rights and cheap land. As a result, large numbers of Quakers from England, and settlers from all parts of Europe, especially Germany, came to this new territory at once. The growth of this colony was more rapid than that of any other American colony. (y2 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 3. Govcniuicnt When Charles II granted Pennsylvania to William Penn he placed some restrictions on his government, the most important being that all laws must be approved by the king, and that the king might tax the people of the colony directly. Penn established a very democratic form of government in the colony, the law-making power being given to a legislature of two houses, both of whose members were elected by the people. Penn acted as governor, but did not retain much power. Later he took away some of the power given the people, 4. Province Under Deputy Governors When Penn left the colony in ITOI he made a new constitution by which the assembly elected by the people had the power to make all the laws, and the governor and council appointed by the proprietor were merely advisory. The colony was left in charge of a deputy governor and secretary, and the government was carried on in this way until the Revolution. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS THE SOUTHERN COLONIES Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on the "Origin, Growth, and Political History of the Thirteen Colonies." each pupil should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 55-162. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," p. ix.) What caused the English to renew their attempts to colonize in the New World? Explain the relations between the Virginia Company and its two branches, — the London and the Plymouth companies. Describe the government which the general charter pro- vided for these three companies. What territory was granted to the Virginia Company? What part of this territory was granted at first to each of its branch companies? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the territory granted to the main or Virginia Company, and the sub-grants of this territory to the London and Plymouth Companies.) What was the object of the London Company in sending settlers to America? Describe the condition of the Jamestown settlement during the first year, and the work of John Smith. What was the character of the early settlers? Why did they come to the New World? Describe the government of the colony under Thomas Dale, and the condition of the colony under his rule. What is representative government? Describe its origin in America. What is a royal province or colony? Explain carefully how and why Virginia became a royal province. Did this change affect the law-making power of the people? Describe in a general way the relations between the royal governors and the people. What were the general results of these relations? How long was Sir William Berkeley governor of Virginia? What caused his term of office as governor to be divided? For what two things was his long rule especially noted? Describe Bacon's Rebellion, discussing its cause and results. Discuss the origin of Maryland and its growth in population. Contrast Virginia and Maryland with regard to tlu' object of settlement. What is a proprietary colony? Describe the differ- ence between the proprietary colony Maryland and the royal province Virginia in regard to the selection of governor. Con- trast ]\Iaryland and Virginia in regard to the rights and powers the people had in the government of each colony. Explain care- fully how religious disputes affected the political history of Mary- land. Describe the relations of Virginia and Maryland. 64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES Describe the origin of North and South Carolina and their growth in population. Compare the granting of this territory with the granting of Virginia to the London Company. What is the form of government that first existed in the Carolinas called? Describe the character of the early settlers. Why did they settle in these two. colonies? What rights did the people of these two colonies have in the government when it was first organized? Explain carefully how the religious beliefs of the people affected their political rights. Explain carefully to what extent the people con- trolled government in these two colonies. What caused these two colonies to become royal provinces? Describe briefly the growth of these colonics, giving the names and locations of the larger towns. Describe the origin and growth of Georgia, and give the reason for its settlement. What was the character of its early settlers? Describe the growth of this colony. Why was the colony not more prosperous? What powers did the people have in the gov- ernment? In what way was South Carolina benefited by the found- ing of Georgia? When and why did Georgia become a royal province? Questions for CoMrosiTioNS and Ex.\min.\tions Discuss the object of the settlement and the character of the settlers of each of the southern colonies. Compare these colonies with respect to growth in wealth and population. Discuss the origin of representative government in America. Compare the southern colonies with respect to the rights of the people in gov- ernment. Discuss the relations between the royal governors and the people. (Each pupil should draw a map of the southern colo- nies. Tills map should show the boundaries and the more im- portant cities, mountains, and rivers of each colony.) THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES Questions for Class Recitations Explain carefully why King Henry VIII. had himself declared the head of the Catholic church in England. Did he wish to destroy or make many changes in the doctrines of the church? How did the Episcopal church come to be established? Describe the origin of the Puritans. Describe the origin of the Separatists. How did the Separatists differ from the Puritans? How were the Puritans and Separatists treated? Why did the Separatists go to Holland? Why did they wish to leave Holland and go to America? Why were they called Pilgrims? Did they intend to settle in ]\Iassachusetts? Describe the first j'car of the life of the Questions and Topics 65 Plymouth colony. Explain carefully the conditions that caused the Puritans to wish to leave England and come to America. How did the Puritans obtain land in America? What settlements were made by the Puritans in Massachusetts? Compare the growth of the Plymouth colony with that of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Describe the origin and growth of the Connecticut colony. Describe the origin and growth of the New Haven colony. How did the Connecticut and New Haven colonies become united? What caused the settlement of Rhode Island? Tell what you can about Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Describe the growth of Rhode Island. What was the character of the first set- tlements in New Hampshire and Maine? Compare the object of the settlers of New England with that of the settlers of Virginia in coming to America. Tell what you can about religious liberty in Massachusetts. What kind of govern- ment did the people of Massachusetts establish? Explain care- fully how the life and government of the people were affected by the fact that they came over in congregations, each congrega- tion settling together. Discuss the town meetings, explaining their nature, powers, and who could take part in them. Tell what you can about the government provided for by the charter of Massa- chusetts. Tell what you can about the beginning of representative government in New England. Compare this with the beginning of representative government in Virginia. Show that it was not necessary in all the colonies for a man to be a church member in order that he might vote. Describe the government of Plymouth colony. Give a careful description of the government of Connecticut and Rhode Island. In what way did the government of Connecticut differ from that of all the other colonies? By a careful discussion show that in New England the people controlled the law-making branch of the government. What caused the for- mation of the New England Confederacy? Why was Rhode Island not admitted to this Confederacy? Describe the nature of the government provided for by the Confederacy. Why was it not a strong union? Of what value was the Confederacy? Explain carefully why the Indians at first did not trouble the Pilgrims. Explain carefully why later they became unfriendly. Dis- cuss the causes and results of the Pequod War. How did the Puritans treat the Indians as a rule? . Why were the Indians and the Puritans not able to get along well together? Discuss the causes of King Philip's War. Compare this war with the Pequod War. Give a careful discussion of the results of King Philip's War, and explain how this war affected the future relations of the people of New England with the Indians. Explain carefully why Charles I. disliked the Puritans. For what causes did the Puritans banish people from Massachusetts?' 5 66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES Describe the quarrels between ^Massachusetts and Charles I. Dis- cuss the relations between New England and the English govern- ment during the time that Cromwell and Parliament ruled England. When Charles II. became king, what demand did he make on the Massachusetts Bay colony? Were these demands reasonable? Explain fully all the conditions and circumstances that caused the charter of this colony to be annulled. E.xplain why many people in Massachusetts did not object to having the charter of their colony annulled. In what way did Governor Andros create strong opposition to his rule in Massachusetts? Explain all the circum- stances and conditions that enabled Connecticut and Rhode Island to secure new charters at this time. Explain carefully the nature of the government for which these charters provided. Explain carefully how the rule of Andros affected Connecticut and Rhode Island. Why did the king wish to unite all New England under one governor? How was the rule of Governor Andros brought to an end? Explain carefully the nature of the government pro- vided for by the new charter which the new king granted to ^lassachusetts. How did this charter affect Plymouth colony and Maine? Indicate briefly the condition of government in each of the New England colonies from 1G89 to 1776. Questions for Compositions and Examin.\tions Discuss the religious conditions in England leading to the settle- ments of New England. Describe the settlement of each of the New England colonies. Compare the New England colonies with the southern colonies in respect to the object of their settlement and character of their settlers. Discuss the Puritan ideas of government as shown in the government established in New Eng- land. Compare the New England and the southern colonies in respect to the power of the people in the government. Discuss the relation between the Indians and the settlers of New Engjand. Discuss the annulling of the charter of the Massachusetts Bay colony. Compare the relations between the people and the royal governors in New England with those between the people and the royal governors in the southern colonies. THE MIDDLE COLONIES Questions for Class Recitations In what way did the Dutch secure New York. Compare the settlement of New York with that of Virginia and of Massachusetts as regards purpose of settlement. Why was New York at first called New Netherlands? Describe the character of the early settlers. Describe the policy adopted for inducing settlers to X Questions and Topics 67 come to the colony. Describe the government of New York by the Dutch. Tell what you can of the work of Peter Stuyvesant. Discuss the conquest of New York by the English. Explain care- fully the conditions that caused New York to become a royal province. Compare the government of New York by the English with its government by the Dutch. Discuss the relations of the people with the royal governors. Describe the origin and growth of New Jersej'. Describe the government established in this colony by the proprietors. Why was the colony divided? Describe fully the conditions which caused this colony to be made a royal province. Describe the origin and growth of Delaware. Give a full and careful explana- tion of the conditions that caused William Penn to found a colony in America. Describe the settlement of Pennsylvania and its growth in population. Why did Penn buy the right to Delaware? Explain the origin of the Mason and Dixon line and its relation to slavery. Describe the government established by Penn. Com- pare the rights of the people in the government of this colony with their rights in the government of the other colonies. De- scribe the government of the province under the deputy governors. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the causes leading to the settlement of each of the middle colonies, and compare them with the causes of the settle- ment of New England and the southern colonies. Compare each of the middle colonies with the New England and southern colonies in respect to government, bringing out the powers of the people in the government of each. Compare the middle with the southern and New England colonies in respect to the character of their settlers. Compare the growth of the middle colonies with the growth of the New England and the southern colonies. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES THE I'RllXCH IN NORTH AMERICA (In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's Source Readers in American History, pp. 71-150.) I Frkncii Explorations and Sf.tti.emknts D. 83; Mc. 00-0.5; Ma. 117-121; G. S9-0 1 ; ^1. 28, 126-130 II Contrast of Frrncti and English vSkttlf.ments D. 84-86 ; T. 89-90 ; M. 131 III Relations oe the French with the Indians 1. Value of Indian Friendship D. 86; Mc. 70-71; Ma. 118-119 2. Bnmity of the Iroquois D. 86-89 ; Mc. 73-73 IV Early Conflict Between French and English 1. Conditions Makiiii:; Conflict Inevitable D. 89; Mc. 76; Ma. 121 2. Conditions Leading to English Success D. 90 3. King IVilliani's, Queen Anne's and King George's Wars, 1689-1748 D. 90-92; Mc. 76-81; Ma. 122-124; T. 85- 87; M. 131-134 V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 1. Beginnings D. 92-97; H. U. 138-141; Mc. 81-88; Ma. 124-129; G. 9.5-103; T. 90-96; M. 135-139 TIic French in North America 69 2. The War Under Pitt's Direction, 17r)8-17()3 D. 97-101; H. II. 146-150; Mc. 89-90; Ma. 129-133; G. 103-106; T. 97-100; M. 139-140 3. Treaty of Peaee; Results of the War D. 101; Mc. 90-91; Ma. 133-135; G. 106- 107; T. 100-101; M. 141-143 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA I French Explorations and Settlements The French explored the Mississippi Valley and the ter- ritory north of the Great Lakes and the English colonies. Cartier and Champlain were the first important explorers of the country along the St. Lawrence. Champlain estab- lished several permanent settlements, among them being Port Royal, Quebec and Montreal. From these early set- tlements made between KiOo and 1612, later explorers pushed on through the region of the Great Lakes and discovered and explored the Mississippi river and valley. Joliet, Marquette and La Salle were the foremost explorers of the Mississippi river and its tributaries, La Salle giving the name Louisiana to this territory. Thus in 16S3 the French claims in America included all the territory from the Appalachian to the Rocky Mountains, the region of the Great Lakes, and the country north of the English colonies, including Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. II Contrast oe French and English Settlements The difference between the French and the English colonies was due largely to the difference in the purpose and manner of settlement. The English came to make homes, while the French came for the money to be gained from the fisheries and the fur trade ; to convert the Indians ; and to gain more territory for France. Conse- quently the English built up strong and prosperous farm- ing communities along the coast, while the French spread their claims over as much territory as possible, but made few permanent settlements, most of those made being mere military trading posts. Thus while the territory occupied by the English colonics was small as compared with that claimed by France, the population of the English colonies The French in North America 71 by 1750 had reached ahiiost two niilHons, while the total French population in North America was less than one liundred thousand. III Relations oi'' the French with the Indians 1. Value of Indian Friendship As the French were very anxious to secure the fur trade, and as the Indians controlled most of this, it was necessary for the French to be on friendly terms with them. The French were very successful in winning this friendship, and this was the real source of their power. Except in the case of the Irocjuois the French were much more successful in dealing with the Indians than were the English. i. Enmity of the Iroquois By aiding the Algonquins in a battle against another tribe, the French early gained the bitter hatred of the Iroquois or Five Nations, the most powerful Indian confederacy in North America. As the Iroquois occu- pied the territory between the St. Lawrence country and the English colonies, the French were compelled to move westward in their advance, and were kept from occu- pying New York, and from coming in contact with the English. This gave the English time to develop and gather strength for the coming contest. IV Early Contest Between French and English 1. Conditions Making Conflict Inevitable When the English colonists had settled up most of the territory east of the Appalachian Mountains it was but natural that they should pass over these mountains into the Ohio Valley in search of new farming lands. When they did this it meant that the two nations must fight. If the English occupied this valley the French 72 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES in Canada wonkl l)e separated from those in the sonth- ern part of the Alississippi valley, and thus the French plans for a great Empire in America would be over- thrown. 2. Conditions Leading to English Success The permanent character of the English colonies, and the greater size of the English population made it impossible for the French to check the steady advance of the English. 3. King WiUianis, Queen Anne's and King George's Wars, i68p-i/48 These three wars were caused by trouble between France and England in Europe. It was but natural that the conflict should extend to the French and English colonies in America. But the results of these wars in America were not important. In each war the French and their Indian allies destroyed some English settle- ments on the frontier, and massacred the settlers. All that the English in America gained was Nova Scotia and some military training. During King George's War they captured Louisburg, an important military post, but by the treaty at the close of the war it was returned to France. The French secured no new territory. V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 The fourth and last war between the French and Eng- lish in the New World began, not in Europe, as had the other three, but in America. The first battle of this war was fought in 1751. This was two years before war was formally declared between France and England, and dur- ing this time several battles had been fought. In 1750 the war between the French and English in America became a part of one of the greatest wars of modern times. F.ngland and Frederick the Great of Prussia united against France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. In Europe this war TIic French in North America 73 was known as the Seven Years' War, and lasted from 1756 to 1763. In America it was known as the French and Indian War and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In a most heroic struggle, Frederick the Great, aided by England, was a match for his combined enemies in Europe and by the treaty signed in 1763 by all the nations engaged in the war, Prussia did not lose a foot of territory. The war was most disastrous to France. The treaty which closed it marked the temporary end of French Colonial Empire, but France has since secured some valuable colonial pos- sessions. She lost all her possessions in North America, and nearly all those in India. England secured the greater part of the territory that France lost, and gained more by the war than any other nation. 1. Beginnings The passing of English settlers over into the Ohio valley caused the French to construct a series of forts from. Lake Erie to the site of the present city of Pitts- burg. A small force under command of Washington was sent against Fort Duquesne, the last of these forts built, but was defeated by a much larger force of the French and their Indian allies, and was forced to sur- render. This w^as Washington's first and only surrender. After Washington's defeat England sent over a thou- sand soldiers under General Braddock to aid the colo- nies. This army was increased by the colonies, and with a force of about twenty-two hundred, Braddock marched from Virginia against Fort Duquesne. He was surprised on the march by a force of French and Indians from the fort, and defeated with great loss. This defeat was largely due to Braddock's ignorance of frontier methods of fighting. Expeditions sent by the colonies against Niagara, Crown Point and Ticonderoga were unsuccessful, and during the next two years the important forts of Oswego and William Henry were captured by the French. 74 Till' THIRTEEN COLONIES 2. The War Under Pitt's Direction, 1758-176^ William Pitt became Prime Minister of England in 1757, with full control of military operations. He was the greatest war minister England has ever had. He at once reorganized the English army, removing the in- competent officers and replacing them with men of ability. He raised a force of fifty thousand soldiers for the war in America, half of which was furnished by England and half l)y the colonies, and placed it under competent generals. From the time Pitt came into power the English were almost uniformly successful. Three of the most impor- tant French forts, Duquesne, Frontenac, and Louisburg. were captured by the English in 1758. The capture of Quebec and of Montreal in 1750 and 1760. completed the overthrow of the French in America. 3. Treaty of Peace; Results of the War Although the last battle of the French and Indian War was in 17G0, the treaty of peace was not signed until the end of the Seven Years' War in 17G3. Among other things, this treaty gave England all the territory east of the Mississippi except the island on which New Orleans stands. To Spain was given this island and all the territory west of the great river. France retained nothing in North America except two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The results of the war made it plain that the English language and English institu- tions should be supreme in North America. The Eng- lish colonies could now develop in peace so far as any foreign nation was concerned. The war brought about conditions which helped to bring on the Revolution, and the training which the colonists received in this contest with the French ])rcpared them for the conflict with the Mother country. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on the French in North America, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 71-150. See "Ex- planatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare the Spanish and English colonies in the New World with regard to purpose of settlement. Describe the Spanish settlements made in the terri- tory which now comprises part of the United States. Why did Spain not make more settlements in this territory? How was this related to the French and English colonies in North America? Give a careful description of the explorations and settlements made by Cartier and Champlain. Why is Champlain called the "Father of New France"? What part of the continent was explored by Joliet and Marquette? Discuss La Salle's explorations. (Each pupil should draw a map showing the routes of these explorers and the territory claimed by France by virtue of these explorations.) Describe the manner in which the explorers took possession of the country for France. Explain carefully how the French and English colonies differed as to purpose of settlement. Explain carefully how this affected the character of the settlements of the two nations. Compare the English and French colonies in respect to location, extent, and size of population. What caused the great difference in population? Why did the French wish to be friendly with the Indians? How did they gain the friendship of the Indians? Explain carefully why the English were less dependent on the Indians than were the French. How did the French make enemies of the Iroquois? Explain carefully how this affected the growth of the French colonies. How did the friendship of the Iroquois for the English affect the growth of the English colonies? How did the French occupy the territory which they claimed? Explain carefully why the English and the French colonists were sure to come into conflict in North America. Why was it natural that the English should pass over the Alleghanies into the Ohio Valley? Why did the French wish to prevent this? Explain carefully why the French were unable to check the westward advance of the Eng- lish. Tell what you can about King William's War. About Queen Anne's War. About King George's War. Tell what you can of the nature and results of the Seven Years' War in Europe. How was the French and Indian War in America 76 Till'. TIIIIMEEN COLONIES connected with the Seven Years' War in Europe? Why did the French build a series of forts from Lake Erie to tlie site of tlic present city of Pittsburg? Why did the English object to this? Tell all you can about Washington's expedition against Fort Duquesne. What was the effect of Washington's defeat on the Indians in the Ohio Valley? What was its effect on the English? Explain carefully why the English colonists were so slow in pre- paring for war. Give a careful discussion of Braddock's march and defeat. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show the position of all the French forts in the West, and the place where Braddock was defeated.) Describe the result of the English expeditions against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. What was the effect of all these defeats on the English? De- scribe the success of jNIontcalm in 175G and 1757. (Each pupil should draw a map that will illustrate all the battles fought in Canada and on the northern frontier of the English colonies.) Tell what you can about William Pitt and his war policy. De- scribe the taking of Louisburg. How did the capture of Louisburg aid the English? Describe fully the capture of Quebec. Com- pare the French general Montcalm with the English general Wolfe in character, ability and courage. What was the effect of the war on the history of America? What was the direct effect on the English colonists? (Each pupil should draw a map that will show all the changes in territory that were caused in America by this war.) Questions for Compositions and Examinations Compare the French and English settlements in regard to location, extent, purpose of settlement, character, and population. Discuss the relations of the French with the Indians. Compare the attitude of the French toward the Indians wtih that of the English. Discuss the enmity of the Iroquois to the French and its effect on colonial history. Describe the conditions which made war between the French and English inevitable. Discuss the con- ditions leading to English success in this struggle. Discuss in a general way King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's wirs. Explain the relation between the Seven Years' War in Europe and the French and Indian War in America. Discuss the scope of the French and Indian War. Describe the work of Washington in this war. Discuss the work of Pitt. Discuss the results of the war, including territorial changes and political effects. THE THIRTEEN COLONIES INSTITUTIONAL LIPB IN THE COLONIES D. 107-111 A INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS D. Ill I CoMMF,RCIAL InDUSTRIKS 1. The Southern Colonies (a) Products D. 111-114; H. I. 63-64, 156-159; Mc. 104; Ma. 31, 114-115; G. 116; T. 40- 44; M. 58-59, 116-117, 124. (b) Plantations D. 114; Ma. 115-116 1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manu- factures D. 114-116; Mc. 104 2. Relation to Growth of Slavery D. 116; Mc. 105; M. 61 2. New England (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture D. 116; Mc. 101-102; Ma. 113; G. 110; M. 86 2. Manufactures D. 117; Mc. 98-99; Ma. 113-114; T. 80- 81 ; M. 97 3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce D. 118; H. I. 139-140; H. II. 50-51 59-60; A[c. 101-102; Ma. 114; M. 86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES (b) Relation of Physical Conditions to Slavery D. 110 3. The Middle Colonics (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture D. 119; H. I. 147, 159-lfil ; Mc. 103; Ma. lU; G. 118 2. Manufactures D. 130; Mc. 103; Ma. 113, 114; M. 70 3. Commerce D. 121; H. II. 37-39; Mc. 103; Ma. 114 (b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery D. 122-123 II Professional Life 1. The Ministry D. 123-126; T. 32-33; M. 149 2. Medicine D. 12G 3. Laiv D. 127 B SOCIAL CONDITIONS (In connection with this subject each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1(!.")-199, and the second number, pp. l-()9.) • D. 128-130; n. I. 07-70, IGO; Mc. 93-91, 100; T. 83-84; M. 147-148 Instihitional Life in the Colonics *t^ I The Southern Colonies 1. Classes of Society D. 130-131 (a) The Negro Slave D. 133-135 : H. I. 157-159 ; H. II. 34-35 ; Mc. 105 ; Ma. 98-99 ; M. 61 (b) Indented Servants D. 135-136; H. I. 175; Mc. 97-98, 105; Ma. 98 ; T. 42 ; M. 61-62 (c) The Middle and Upper Classes D. 137-140 ; H. I. 149-152 ; Ma. 98-99 ; M. 146-147 2. Dress and Amusements D. 140-143 ; H. I. 152, 224-229 ; H. II. 19-26 ; Ma. 99-107; G. 116-118; T. 81; M. 147-148 II New England 1. Classes of Society (a) Slaves (b) Indented Servants (c) The Middle and Upper Classes D. 143-144; Ma. 98-99 2. Social Distinctions D. 144 ; Ma. 99 3. Dress and Amusements D. 145-147; H. I. 152-155, 180-182, 192-194; H. 11. 26-27, 39-42, 211-212; Ma. 99-107; G. 144-145 ; T. 81 III The Middle Colonies 1. Classes of Society D. 147 80 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES (a) Slaves (b) Indented Servants D. 147-148 ; H. I. 174, 184, 188-199 ; H. 11. 52-55 (c) The cuddle Class (d) The Upper Class D. 147-149; Mc. 38; Ma. 99-107; G. 119- 181; T. 105; M. 70-71 2. Dress and Amnscincufs D. 149-151 ; H. II. 17-19, 184, 187 C GOVERNMENT I Local Government The County, Toivnship and Parish D. 151-161 II Colonial and State Government D. 161 1. State Government (a) Lep^islative Department D. 162 (b) Executive Department D. 163 (c) Judicial Department D. 163-164 2. Colonial Government — Departments D 164 (a) Legislative Department D. 165-167 ; H. 11. 61 ; Mc. 106, 33, 35, 46, 57; T. 104, 22, 31-32, 43; M. 60, 85-86, 105 Institutional Life in the Colonies 81 (b) Executive Department D. 167-169; Mc. 106-107; H. II. 61; T. 31 ; M. 64-66, 76, 95, 105, 120 (c) Judicial Department D. 169 3. Colonial Government — Classes D. 167-169 (a) Charter Government (b) Proprietary Government (c) Royal Government III National Government D. 169-170 IV Relation oe Colonial Government to Present State Government D. 170-171 D RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY I Religious Liberty at the Present Time D. 171 II Religious Persecution in Europe D. 172; Mc. 36, 41, 47, 49; M. 76-77 III Religious Persecution in the Colonies D. 172-174; Mc. 36, 48; Ma. 111-113; T. 75-78; M. 62, 83, 86-88, 91-93, 104-107 IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Relig- ious Persecution D. 174 . 82 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES V Religious Liberty in the United States : Causes OF Its Growth D. 175-176 E EDUCATION (In connection with this subject each pupil should read the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 201-333.) I Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of THE Present Time D. 17G II Condition of Schools in England D. 177 III The Southern Colonies D. 178-180; H. I. 216-217, 224-226; Ma. 40-41. 108, 109; G. 116; T. 82; M. 62 IV New England D. 180-184; H. 1. 109-111, 206-210, 214-216, 232- 233 ; Ma. 63-64, 107, 108, 109 ; G. 113 ; T. 81-83 ; M. 88-89, 149 V The Middle Colonies D. 184-187; H. I. 218-224; Ma. 108, 109; G. 119; M. 149-150 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES The; Five Institutions INTRODUCTORY Five institutions or organizations exist among the people of every nation, state, city, and community. They are business, or industrial life; society, or social life; the state, or government; the church, or religion ; and the school, or education. These live institutions, in one form or another, may always be found, even among savages. All that any community, or its individ- uals, can think or do, must be thought or done along one or more of these lines. They include the entire life and work of every person and community. Relation oe the Individual to ThESE Five Institutions Among civilized people these institutions are plainly marked, and every person bears some relation to each of them. The nature of his work in relation to one or more of them deter- mines to what extent he is useful or harmful to the community, state, or nation. The useful, intelligent citizen follows some business or occupation successfully ; he contributes to the hap- piness and social life of the people in whose society he lives ; he takes an active interest in government or politics ; he takes an active interest in ethical or religious questions ; and he inter- ests himself in the educational affairs of his comnumity. Importance oe the Study oe Institutional Liee What is true of an individual in this respect is true also of a nation. It is very important, therefore, in studying the history of a nation to study carefully its institutional life. A nation should be judged not so nnich by the battles which it has fought, or by the territory which it owns, as by the condi- tions of its institutions. So far we have been studying the 84 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES colonies mainly as related to their political history, or the insti- tution of government, which includes among other things the wars fought and the territory secured. While it is of impor- tance to learn about the institution of government, it is of even more importance to learn about the other four institutions. We shall now study the conditions of these four institutions in the colonies, and review the institution of government. Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Industries In the study of the growth and development of the nation the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the several sections deserves the most careful consideration. This difference determined to a certain extent that the South should be, until after the American Civil War. an almost strictly agri- cultural country ; that much of the land .should be divided into large plantations; that almost the entire time and energy of the southern people should be devoted to raising tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton ; and that the labor of the South should be performed by negro slaves. It also determined to a certain extent that the people of the northern colonies should devote a large part of their time and energy to commerce and manufac- turing; that the agricultural land should be divided into a large number of small farms ; that many different kinds of agricultural products should be raised; that the labor of the North should be performed by freemen instead of by slaves; and that the social and political conditions of the North should be quite different from those of the South. Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Slavery The difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North and the South caused this great dift'erence between the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two sec- tions, by making slavery very profitable in the South and of very little profit in the North. IJccause slave labor could not be used with much profit in the North, slavery soon ceased to exist there; and because slave labor could be used with great profit in the South slavery soon became firmly established in that section. The fact that slaverv existed in the South and Institutional Life in the Colonics 85 (lid not exist in the North caused the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two sections to become more and more unlike and to drift farther and farther apart, until the American Civil War destroyed slavery. It follows, therefore, that differences in topography, climate, and soil caused slavery to exist in the South and not in the North ; that slavery caused the industrial, social, and political conditions of the North and South to become more and more unlike ; that the great differ- ence between the industrial, social, and political conditions of the North and South caused the Civil War ; and that the Civil War, by destroying slavery, has caused these conditions in the two sections to become more and more alike, and has thus unified the nation. From all this it becomes plain that the dif- ference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South, and the different industrial conditions which this difference brought about, deserve the most careful considera- tion of the student of our country's history. The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Southern Sec- tion AND oE New England are Distinctly Different By far the larger part of the country formerly included in the southern colonies and in all the southern states that border on the Gulf of Mexico is level, in fact almost flat. This coun- try is drained by broad rivers which flow into the sea or into the Gulf. The soil is naturally very rich ; the rainfall is abundant ; the climate in summer is very hot, and with the ex- ception of Maryland and the northern part of Virginia, mild and pleasant in winter. The surface of New England is made up largely of hills and mountains, and is drained by short, rapid rivers. The soil naturally is not very fertile, and the climate in the winter is cold and severe. Both the broad, fertile plains of the South, and the hills, mountains, and small valleys of New England, were covered with a great, dense forest. The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Middle Colonies The conditions of the topography and climate of this section, which embraced the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Penn- 86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES sylvania, and Delaware, arc about midway between those of the southern section on tlic one hand and of New Eng^land on the other. The soil, unlike that of New En_G,land and like that of the southern region, is rich. The rainfall is abundant, which is true also of both the other sections. The climate is not so cold as that of New England, and not so mild and pleasant as that of the southern territory. The surface of the land is not divided into a large number of small valleys, as is the case in New England ; neither does it consist of broad, extensive plains, as is the case in the southern section. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS The institution affected most directly by topography, climate, and soil is Business, or Industrial Life ; and it therefore will be the first institution discussed. Farming ; engaging in some profession, as law, medicine, or the ministry; mining; manu- facturing ; the carrying on of trade or commerce ; and all other things which men do to make a living, comprise the institution which is called Business, or Industrial Life. In order to add clearness to the treatment, the professions of law, medicine, and the ministry will be treated under the sub-head — Profes- sional Life in the Colonies. The other factors of Industrial life in the colonies will be treated under the sub-head — Com- mercial Indusl'ries. In treating the "Commercial Industries," each of the three groups of colonies will be taken up separately because the conditions of each group differ from those in the other two groups, and this difference had an important effect on some of the other institutions. I CoMMKRCiAi. Industries 1. The Soiitlicrn Colonics (a) Products Tobacco is and has been from early colonial times one of the chief southern products. After its dis- covery by the first settlers of Virginia it gained rapidly in popularity in England and raising tobacco soon became the chief occupation of the colonists of Vir- Institutional Life in the Colonics 87 ginia and iMaryland. In fact the whole Hfe of these two colonies centered around its production. It was used as money. A man's wealth was counted in pounds of tobacco. Laws were made regulating its production and the quality exported. Rice, indigo, and cotton w^ere the principal products of North and South Carolina and Georgia. These three products were as important in the three most southern colonies as was tobacco in Virginia and ]\Iaryland, and, like tobacco, they caused the growth of large plantations. Rice was the most important of these products, espe- cially in South Carolina, which led in its production. Comparatively little cotton was raised until after the Revolution and the invention of the cotton gin. The wealth of the southern colonies came largely from the exportation of tobacco, rice, and indigo. Wheat, hogs, and cattle were also raised, and resin and tur- pentine produced. (b) Plantations 1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manufactures The large number of rivers made it easy for most of the plantations to maintain their own warehouses. The vessels that carried the exports called at these warehouses on the different plantations along the rivers, and brought the things needed by the planter, but which was not produced on his planta- tion. This custom was the main reason why there were no large cities or manufactures in the southern colonies. There was no inducement for cither to grow. 2. Relation to Growth of Slavery The production of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton required a large amount of labor. ' Slave labor was cheap and well suited to this kind of work, while white labor was extremely hard to obtain. The 88 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES planter soon came to depend almost entirely on the negro slave for labor, and as the plantations in- creased in size and number, the demand for slave labor became more and more urgent, and the num- ber of slaves increased rapidly. 2. Nezv England (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture The division of the country into small valleys prevented the growth of large plantations in New England, and the climate and soil prevented the extensive production of any one staple. It was hard for any New England colony to raise more food than it required for its own use, but the variety of products was much greater than in the southern colonies. These conditions made it almost impos- sible for New England to become wealthy and prosperous from farming, and the people therefore devoted a large part of their time and energy to fishing, commerce and manufacturing. 2. Manufactures Although the colonial policy of England ham- pered the growth of ^nanufacturing, many things were made and thd^oundation was laid for the great manufacturing establishments that sprang up after the Revolution. Shops, where every form of trade was plied, lined the streets of the towns. The farmer made most of his tools and furniture and his wife spun the flax or wool, wove the cloth and made the clothing. The swift running rivers fur- nished the power for thousands of saw mills and grist mills. i Institutional Life in the Colonics 89 3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce One great source of wealth was the fisheries, of which the whale and cod were especially profitable. Large quantities of fish and fish oil were exported. The New England colonists gave a great deal of attention to commerce. New England built the best ships in the world. She built all her own ves- sels and many for other nations. She carried nearly all her exports and imports in her own ships, and her ships became an important factor in the com- merce of the West Indies and of Europe. In spite of her poor soil, and the fact that her imports were much larger than her exports, the wealth from her extensive commerce, together with the industry of her people, made New England wealthy, and caused the growth of many prosperous towns and cities, (b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery In New England natural conditions forced the people into varied occupations in which slave labor could not be used with profit. Slavery, therefore, was gradually abolished and free labor made the basis of industrial life. There was no important class of people in New England that opposed slavery on moral grounds. Its growth was controlled by industrial conditions which were due to topography, climate, and soil. ;?. The Middle Colonie^ (a) Occupations 1. Agriculture Nearly all kinds of farm products were raised in the middle colonics. The fact that the climate and soil were suited to many products tended to pre- vent the growth of large plantations and the ex- tensive production of only a few staples. Farm produce and cattle were raised and sold in large quantities. 90 'IlIE THIRTEEN COLONIES 2. Manufactures ManufacturinjT^ was carried on to considerable extent. While there were no lari^e manufacturing- cstabhshments, the beginnings were being made. In New York cloth and glass were manufactured and saw mills and grist mills were numerous. In Pennsylvania clothing was made and iron ore was mined and exported. Ships were built at Philadel- phia, and the grist mills of Pennsylvania made into flour much of the wheat raised in Maryland and Virginia. 3. Commerce Philadelphia and New York were two of the three leading commercial cities of the colonies. Their ships carried the produce of the colonies to nearly all the civilized nations of the world and brought back goods in return. (b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery Industrial conditions in the middle colonies made slavery of more value than in New England, but of much less value than in the South. Therefore the number of slaves was smaller than in the southern colonies and larger than in New England. II Pro1"KSSU)NAI< LiKii 1. The Ministry The ministry was the onl\- one of the three learned professions that held in the colonies anything like the high position they hold today. In New England espe- cially the ministers were men of fine character, good education, and strong inlluence. They were leaders of the people, not only in religion, but in education, litera- ture, and even in law-making. In later years they lost much of their influence in the government, but retained histitutional Life in the Coluiiies 91 their leadership in other respects. In tlie middle colo- nics also the ministers ranked high. They were able and energetic, and exerted great influence on the life of the people by establishing schools and by improving moral conditions. No one church was so powerful as was the Congregational church of the Puritans in New England, and hence the ministers did not have so much influence in government affairs. In most of the south- ern colonies the Episcopal church was the state church, and it was supported by public taxes. As the ministers received their salaries whether they performed their duties or not, and as many of them were unfit for their work, they exerted much less influence for good than the ministers in the other colonies. After the Revolu- tion, when the revenue from public taxes was taken away from the Episcopal Church, it secured a much abler class of ministers and they became a positive fac- tor for good in the commuity. The ministers of the other churches in the South were able men and tried to establish schools, but without success. 2. Medicine As has been staled before, medicine as a profession amounted to but very little in the colonies, especially before l?.")!). This profession developed earliest and most rapidly in Pennsylvania and in this respect Massa- chusetts came next. From the very first in Pennsylvania there were some physicians who had secured their edu- cations in the • universities of England and were well (jualified to practice medicine. These did all they could to advance the profession. In 1731 the first medical work in the colonies was produced. This was written by Dr. Cadwalder from London, who later gave a course of lectures on anatomy and physiology, and in 17r)() became one of the first physicians of the hospital in Philadelphia. In 1700 Dr. Sheppcn and Dr. Morgan established in Philadelphia a medical college which five years later became a part of the University of Penn- 92 THE THIRTEEN COLONIPZS sylvania. There were fewer quacks in Pennsylvania than in any of the other colonies. In New England, and especially in the southern colonies, druggists and barbers often practiced medicine and surgery along with their regular occupations, and this was the main reason why the people had so little respect for the medical pro- fession. There were but few good doctors in the south- ern colonies, — fewer than in New England. Many of the ministers of early New England had studied medi- cine before leaving England. They frequently acted as doctors and were better than most of those engaged in the profession. After these early ministers died the profession for a time fell into the hands of quacks who knew little about medicine. But the ability of the doc- tors soon improved and the profession became more and more respected. Just before the Revolution there were many able physicians in New England and they were highly respected. New England, however, was behind Pennsylvania in the matter of hospitals and medical schools. 3. Lazv 'Jlic profession of law was of more importance in New England and Pennsylvania than in any of the other colonies, just as was the case with the profession of medicine. Virginia, however, just before the Revolu- tion, had as many able lawyers as New England and more than 1 Pennsylvania or any of the other colonies. I'or a long time in New England, and for a longer time in Virginia, there were so few able lawyers, that the profession could hardly be said to exist at all. In Pennsylvania, on the other hand, there were a number of fairly good lawyers from the very hrst and the profes- sion was held in high esteem, which was not the case in any of the other colonies. P)Ut about 1750 the profession of law in New England was represented by a large number of very able lawyers, and a little later the same was true in \'irginia. Among the New England law- Institutional Life in the Colonies Q3 yers at this time were John Adams, Samuel Qiiincy, Samuel Gridley and James Otis ; among those in Vir- ginia were Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and George Mason. These men were just in time to prepare the colonies for, and to guide them through, the Revolu- tionary War ; and to help make, and to help put into effect, the present Constitution of the United States. Many of them made a world-wide reputation. To their wisdom and good common sense the people of the United States owe a great debt of gratitude. SOCIAL CONDITIONS The amusements of people, the social relations among the various classes of society, treatment of neighbors, customs of dress, daily manner of speaking and acting toward others, and all other things which interest or amuse men in a social way, constitute the social life of a people. Many of these social factors are closely related to industrial conditions. The social conditions in the southern colonies, in New England, and in the middle colonies, differed, and this difference was due largely to the difference in the industrial conditions in these groups of colonies. In fact, the more closely the history of any nation is studied, the plainer it becomes that its five institutions are closely related. The social conditions of a nation are closely related to each of its other four institutions, — business, govern- ment, religion, and education. Therefore, when studying any one of the five institutions in any nation, it is of importance to understand the relation of that institution to each of the other four. At the present time it is not eas}^ to realize how the people in the colonies lived, dressed, and amused themselves. This is due largely to the difference between the conditions which existed in the colonies and those which exist at the present time. It therefore becomes necessary to note carefully some of the conditions which made the social life in the colonies differ so much from the social life of today. Among the more important conditions that affected social life in the colonies 94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES were the newness of the country, the poor means of transporta- tion and communication and, in the southern colonies, the large plantations and mode of farming. The people of the colonies lived in the edge of a mighty forest that covered the entire country. At times this forest must have seemed to the lonely settlers as vast as the sea and as silent as death. They did not know how far this great forest extended, or what wild animals or races of men it contained. This life in the edge of a great, silent, and unexplored forest, and on the edge of the sea, afifected the customs and hahits of the people. The eflPect of this solitude on the lives of the southern people was emphasized by the almost total lack of cities and towns, and by the nature of plantation life. Nearly all the people lived on plantations which were usually far apart. This caused the people on the plantations to visit each other less frequently than they would have done had they lived in cities or close together on small farms. The poor means of transportation and communication in colonial times tended to make the life of the settlers still more lonely. The great improvements in modes of travel and communication since then have had a profound effect on social conditions. At the present time people, while eating breakfast, can read in the morning paper about all the important things that have taken place up to midnight of the day before, in all parts of the world reached by the telegraph. Often a new style of dress, or a new invention of some kind, will be used in many parts of the world within a few months after it is first made. It was quite different in the colonies. There were no railroads, or telegraphs, or telephones in the world at that time. People could not travel on the land except by walking, riding or driving. All mail and news had to be carried by the same means, and it should be remembered that there were very few roads then and that most of these were usually in a very bad condition. If I^oston had burned, it would have been five or six days before the news would have reached New York and many more days before the people in Virginia would have heard of it. This slow means of travel and communication made the life in the colonies, especially in the southern colonies, much more isolated and lonclv than it would have been had the Institutional Life in the Colonies 6S railroads and telegraphs existed. It also affected the customs and habits of the people by preventing them from becoming acquainted readily with the customs and habits of others. In studying the social conditions of the colonies it is well to re- member all these other conditions which helped to make the social conditions of that time so different from those of today. I The Southern Colonies 1. Classes of Society At the time of the Revolution the total population of the southern colonies v/as about fourteen hundred thousand. Of this number about six hundred twenty thousand were negro slaves. As a whole the people of the southern colonies consisted of four classes — the negro slave, the white servants, the middle class, and the upper class. The middle class which consisted of those who owned the smaller farms and plantations, shaded gradually into the upper class, which consisted of those who owned the larger plantations. In the three most southern colonies there were only three classes to be found, the middle class being absent in South Caro- line, and the upper class being absent in North Carolina and Georgia. (a) The Negro Slave Far below all other classes was the negro slave. He was under the absolute control of his master, and could be bought and sold like any other property. Many of the slaves were savages, brought direct from Africa, and they were kept in dense ignorance in order that danger of insurrection might be lessened. In some of the colonies the negroes far outnumbered the whites, and the white people lived in constant fear of uprisings. This dread is shown plainly in many severe laws relating to the negroes. They were not allowed to leave the plantation to which they belonged 96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES without permits, and if they ran away might he killed by any one on sight. A white man could not be im- prisoned for killing a negro, but he might be fined. These severe laws would indicate that the negroes were badly and even cruelly treated, but as a rule such was not the case. The negroes employed on the small farms and as house servants were, as a rule, well treated in all the colonies. On the large plantations of South Carolina and Georgia they did not fare so well, for many of the planters lived in Charleston and left the control of their plantations and negroes to overseers, who often overworked the slaves and treated them cruelly. (b) Indented Servants Indented white servants were found in all the colo- nies. An indented servant was a person sold to some one for a certain number of years. During the term of the indenture or contract he belonged to his master, and could not leave without his consent, but after he had served the time specified he became free. These indented servants and the poor whites comprised the second class of society in the colonies, but, because of race and ability, were far above the negro slave. In character they ranged from English, Scotch and Irish prisoners of war to the common criminal. Many boys and girls were stolen in England and sent over to the colonies, and some honest and hard-working, but poor people, became indented servants in order to pay for their passage to America. As a class, however, the indented servants were of poor character, for the most part transported criminals and the scum of the cities of England, and when they became free, formed the most imdesirable class in the colonies. The laws relating to indented servants were very severe. During their term of servitude their condition was little better than that of the negro slave. Institutional Life in the Colonies 97 (c) The Middle and Upper Classes The middle class in the southern colonies was com- posed of traders, merchants and small land holders, while the large land owners composed the upper class. The traders and merchants were held in contempt by the land owners, but there was no material distinction between the large and the small land owners. The owners of the large plantations were much like the country gentlemen of England, except that they were even more independent and aristocratic. They ruled the colonies in which they lived and were given cordial support by all the other classes. They were brave and emphatic in their defense of English liberty, and from this class came some of the leaders during the struggle for independence. Virginia alone, in this period, gave to the nation Washington, Jefiferson, Madison, Mar- shall and Henry. The conditions on the large plan- tations tended to develop men of strong character and ability. There were more than five hundred persons on some of these plantations, and their management required considerable ability. Frequently the owners of large plantations trained their slaves in the various trades so that very little outside help was required. 2. Dress and Amusements In dress the upper classes followed the fashions in London, wearing rich, gay colored silks and velvets, rare laces and jewels, and powdered wigs. The plantations being so large and so far apart, there was less social life in the South than in some of the northern colonies. In Charleston, however, there was more gay social life than in any other city in America. The southern land-holders possessed great hospitality, and love for social life and out-door sports. Horse-racing and hunting were their two principal amusements. Rural field sports were also very popular and were usually under the direction of the planters. 98 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES II New England 1. Classes of Society The total population of New England at the time of the Revolution was about seven hundred thousand. Of this population the number of slaves did not exceed fif- teen thousand. As in the South, there were four classes of society — the slaves, the indented servants, the middle class, and the upper class. (a) Slaves The small number of slaves in New England was due largely to industrial conditions, and the industrial conditions of New England were the result, at least to a large extent, of its topography, climate and soil. The slaves were employed almost exclusively as house servants. They were treated kindly, owing to their close personal relation with their masters, and the laws regarding them were much milder than in the South. (b) Indented Servants There were comparatively few members of this class in New England. They were treated kindly, and after they became free, they usually succeeded in going into business for themselves. (c) The Middle and Upper Classes Most of the members of these two classes were of good English stock and there was no distinct line between them. The middle class was composed of farmers, merchants, and tradesmen, and formed the mass of the population. This class was much better educated in New England than in the other colonies. There was as distinct and as strong an aristocracy in New England as in the southern colonies but it rested on a somewhat different basis. The upper or aristo- Institutional Life in the Colonies 99 cratic class was composed not of large land-holders but of those whose families for generations had been noted for their wealth and education or service to the government ; of those who were well educated ; of those who had performed valuable public service ; and of those who had been very successful as merchants or in commerce. 2. Social Distinctions Nearly all offices were filled by men of the upper class. The son of a carpenter or a bricklayer or of any one engaged in a similar occupation could not hold office. In church people were seated according to their social position, and people were compelled to occupy the seats assigned to them. A student on entering college was assigned a position according to the social standing of his father. It is rather surprising that in a new country where labor was considered honorable that so many of the every day affairs of life should have been so much affected by social position. 3. Dress and Amusements The nature of the Puritan religion had a great deal to do with the dress and amusements of the New Eng- land people. The Puritan religion made New England life earnest, simple and solemn. It taught that amuse- ments and undue hilarity and pleasure were the works of Satan. The wealthy class wore clothes of fine ma- terial but simple in style. The outdoor amusements consisted of hunting, fishing, sleighing and various athletic sports. After New England was placed under the royal governors the church lost much of its power in government affairs and the life of the people became brighter and more cheerful. While theatres were not countenanced until after the Revolution, balls and part- ies came to be an unquestioned part of social life. 100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES III The Middle Colonies 1. Classes of Society At the time of the Revolution tlie total population of the middle colonies was about six hundred and seventy thousand of which number about sixty-five thousand were slaves. With the exception of the large Dutch land-holders along- the Hudson and Mohawk rivers in New York, the people of the middle colonies were di- vided into but three well defined classes — the slaves, the indented servants, and the class corresponding to the middle class in Virginia and in New England. (a) Slaves As in New England, nearly all the slaves were em- ployed as house servants, and consequently they were usually well treated. Although the number of slaves was small, at times there was fear of a slave uprising in the large cities. All such attempts, or even indi- cations of such attempts, met with severe punishment. (b) Indented Servants The number of indented servants was larger than in New England, and they were not so well treated. With the exception of Virginia. Pennsylvania con- tained more indented servants than any other colony. (c) The Middle Class The great mass of the people belonged to this class which was vigorous, earnest and progressive. There were fewer English in proportion to the population in the middle colonies than in any of the other colonies. New York contained a large number of Dutch, and the German, French, Scotch and Irish comprised a large part of the population of Pennsylvania and Delaware. Institutional Life in the Colonics 101 (d) The Upper Class The only distinct upper class or aristocracy in the middle colonies was made up of the large Dutch land owners, whose ancestors had received grants of land along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers when the Dutch first settled New York. The owners of these estates had even more authority and power than the large land owners of the South. Each of the larger estates was entitled to one representative in the legislature of the colony. In some cases the owner held almost absolute power over his tenants, even to inflicting the death penalty for violation of laws. 2. Dress and Aiiiiiscincnts In the country and small towns the life of the people was quiet and simple. As a rule the clothes were home- made of home-spun cloth. The amusements were few and simple, consisting of corn huskings and spinning bees, and of simple out-door sports. There was more social life in the country than among the New England farmers. On festive occasions there was a good deal of drinking and dancing. In the cities there was much gay social life. In dress, the wealthier class in Phila- delphia and New York followed the London fashions closely, both men and women wearing silk and velvet and rich, bright colored materials. The principal amuse- ments were balls, parties and theatres, and clubs for the young men. With the exception of Charleston, gay social life was enjoyed to a fuller extent in New York and Philadelphia than in any of the other cities in the colonies. 102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES GOVERNMENT In beginning the formal study of government, it is sug- gested that a general view of the subject be presented to the pupil by some such discussion as the following: Each pupil attending school lives with his parents, and is therefore one member of a family. He is also a member of the school that he attends. He is a citizen or member of the county in which he lives, and whether he lives in a town, a city, or in the country, he is a member of one of the parts or subdivisions of the county. He is also a member of the state in which he lives, and as the states make up the nation, he is a member of the nation, or, as is usually said, a citizen of the United States. Each family, school, subdivision of the county, county, state, and the nation also, have certain rules or laws which are called government. Each pupil, therefore, lives under several different forms of government. He lives under the government of his parents or guardian ; under the govern- ment of his teacher and the school trustees or board of educa- tion ; under the government of the city or other division of the county in which he lives ; under the government of the county in which he lives ; under the government of the state in which he lives ; and under the government of the United States. Everyone lives under these different forms of government and must obey the rules or laws of each. Men and women of course are not under the rules of the family and school in the same way that a pupil is, but they nmst obey the general laws relating to the family and school. With so many laws it would seem that the laws of the family, school, county, state and nation would conflict and interfere with each other. They do not, however, and this is most remarkable. All these laws work in harmony. This is not the result of chance or accident. Our ancestors for thousands of years have been working at the different divisions of government and making laws for each. A long time ago when our ancestors were savages the laws were rude and simple. Ever since then the laws have gradu- ally been changed, increased in number and made better, and Institutional Life in the Colonics 103 at the present time they are being changed and made better each year. The laws have been changed and are being changed in order that boys and girls and men and women may live happier and more useful lives. I Local Government 1. The County The governments of the state and of the United States are known as the state and national governments and that of the county and all smaller divisions is known as local government. To-day in nearly all the states west of the Appalachian mountains and in many of those east, the county is the most powerful unit or division of local government. Its powers and duties are next to those of the state, and they are carried out by a board of men called commissioners or supervisors, who are elected by the people. In nearly all the counties these county boards must levy taxes and take general charge of the money affairs of the county, look after the schools, con- struct bridges and roads, and look after the poor. In addition to this board of commissioners or supervisors, there are a number of other county officers, as sheriff, treasurer, assessor, tax collector, superintendent of schools, auditor, recorder and judge. From this it will be seen that the county is a very important unit of gov- ernment. The county did not always have these great powers, but in all the colonies except New England and South Carolina the county was the most important unit of local government. In New England it possessed some important powers. In each county there was a county court composed of men elected by the people and of others appointed by the governor, which could in- terpret the laws in certain cases, lay out public roads, and oversee the township officers. It was not so im- portant as the township, however. In the South, ex- cept in South Carolina, the county had control of all im- portant local affairs. In Virginia the county court 104 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES wliose members were appointed by the governor, acted as a judicial body and had general charge of the affairs of the county, such as levying taxes, care of the public money, and appointing some of the county officers. In all the colonies except South Carolina and those of New England, the county was the local unit that elected dele- gates to the legislature or law making body of the colony. In the middle colonies the county was espe- cially important. The Pennsylvania plan of county government has been adopted by a large majority of the states. In that colony the county board consisted of three commissioners elected by all the people of the colony, and had great power in local aflfairs. A number of other county officers were elected by the people and considerable power given to them. Each county so far as its local afifairs were concerned, was a little republic. Most of the states which have adopted this plan have changed it somewhat. In New York the members of the county board were called supervisors and were elected by, and represented, the different townships of the county. This plan also has been copied in some of the states. 2. The Tozvnship In New England each county consisted of towmships. Townships were formed before the early counties were organized. This was due to the fact that the Puritans came over in congregations and established towns. A town in New England included not only the town proper, but the adjacent country also. In New England, there- fore, "Town" and "Township" meant the same in so far as it relates to a unit of local government. These town- ships had by far the most power in local affairs. Meet- ings called town meetings were held by all the voters in the township, and at these meetings people could levy taxes and direct the management of the money raised, could elect delegates to the legislature of the colony, could elect township officers, and could provide for Institutional Life in the Colonies 105 schools. In fact they could act on all the more import- ant local affairs. While the township has lost some of its powers, it is still the most important unit of local government in New England. The principle of town- ship government exists in most of the states at the present time but in a different sense than in New Eng- land. Most of the country west of the Appalachian mountains has been divided into townships by the gov- ernment of the United States, and these divisions are often used for purposes of local government. In many states the counties have been divided into districts, pre- cincts, or townships, but not the six-mile-square town- ship established by the National Government. These smaller divisions are used simply for the management of purely local affairs, and do not affect general county government. 3. The Parish In South Carolina each county was divided into sub- divisions called parishes or districts, and they were the most important unit of local government. They had much the same power as the township in New England, and the county was of even less importance than in New England. The parish remained the unit of local gov- ernment in South Carolina until after the Civil War, when the county was given control of local affairs. In Virginia the counties were divided into parishes, but the ofificers of the parish had little to do except to look after the affairs of the Episcopal Church. II Colonial and State Governmlnt Next to the county in the affairs of government is the state. The states in matters of government have control of all those things that the people have not given to the na- tional government of the United States or which are not controlled by the county or the smaller units of local gov- ernment. The people of the United States have given to 106 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES the national government control of all those things which affect the nation as a whole, and have reserved to the states all other powers of government. That part of these reserved powers which affects more directly the people of the entire state, is given to the state government. The other part of these reserved powers belongs to the county and the smaller vmits of local government. The division of all these powers of government, — national, state, and local — is stated and defined in the national and state consti- tutions, which have been adopted by the people either by direct vote or by representatives whom they have elected. The state constitutions give to the state government the power to outline and define in many ways the powers of local government, but as the state officers are elected by the people, they carry out the wishes of the people in these matters. Thus it follows that in the United States the people are the source of all power, and that they have the power to change a law or even the form of government. 1. State Government — Legislative Department National, state, and local governments consist of three departments — the legislative, the executive, and the ju- dicial. The legislative department makes the laws; the executive department executes or enforces them; the ju- dicial department interprets, or tells what the law means, and applies them to the affairs of life. The legislative department in all the states consists of two houses. The upper house is the smaller, and in every state is called the Senate. The lower house is usually called the As- sembly or House of Representatives. The legislative department of the national government also consists of two houses. The upper is called the Senate and the lower the House of Representatives. The legislative department in the county consists of the board of com- missioners or supervisors, and the legislative department of cities or other smaller units of local government con- sists of similar bodies. The members of the legislative department in all the states and in all the units of local Institutional Life in the Colonics . 107 government are elected by the people. The state legis- latures have important power and have control of many things. "All of the general laws under which our local governments and schools are organized, those referring to the state and local courts and procedure in these courts, those dealing with the making and enforcement of contracts, the transfer of property, marriage and di- vorce, with the prevention of the spread of diseases, with the incorporation of business houses — all of these form only a part of the vast number under the charge of the legislatures, the whole, covering a set of subjects of the first importance not only because there are so many, but because all are of such interest to us in our home and business life." 2. State Government — Bxeciitive Department In all the states the highest executive officer is the Governor; in the national government, he is the Presi- dent of the United States ; and in the larger towns he is called the mayor. In the counties the various county officials attend to the executive business. While the Governor is at the head of the executive department of the state, there are a number of other executive officers in the state who assist in enforcing the laws. Among the other more important executive officers of each state are the Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Con- troller, Treasurer, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and Attorney-General. The governor is always elected by the people, and so are the other executive officers, ex- cept in a few states where some of them are appointed either by the governor or by the legislature. The lieu- tenant-governor usually presides over the Senate when it is in session and takes the governor's place if he re- signs or dies, and when he is absent from the state. The other executive officers just named perform the duties of their various offices. All local officers also must assist in enforcing the laws of the state, and this is a great help to the state officers. The governor is by 108 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES far the most important executive officer in the state. He is commander-in-chief of tlie state soldiers or mihtia, and when the other state or local officers cannot enforce the laws, he may call on the soldiers to assist in their en- forcement. 3. State Government — Judicial Department The judicial department of each state consists of a supreme court and of a number of lower courts. The judicial department of the national department also consists of a supreme court and a number of lower courts. Next to the supreme court of the state are the circuit or district courts (in some states) ; next to these are the county courts ; and next to the county courts are the city courts and the justices' courts. The judges in all these courts are elected usually by the people, but in several states some of them are appointed by the gov- ernor or legislature. The members of the supreme court are elected usually by the people of the entire state, and a judge in a lower court is elected by the people in that division of the state of which he is a judge. The city courts and justices' courts try the less important cases; the county courts those which are of still more impor- tance and from the last named courts cases may be appealed to the supreme courts. Many cases may be appealed from the lowest courts in the state up through all the others, and some cases may be appealed from the state supreme court to the United States courts. 4. Colonial Government — Legislative Department The colonial governments, like the state governments of to-day, consisted of three departments — legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative department in all the colonies, like those in all the states to-day, con- sisted of two houses. The lower house was usually called house of representatives, the assembly, or house of burgesses. The members of the lower house, as is Institutional Life in the Colonics 109 the case in all the states today, were elected by the people. But there was one important difference. In all the colonies, no one could vote for a member of the lower house or for any other officer of the colony, unless he owned a certain amount of property, whereas today in the United States no property qualification is required of a voter. The upper branch of the leg^islature in the colonies was called the council and consisted usually of twelve members, called assistants or members of the Governor's council. Except in Connecticut and Rhode Island, the members of the council were either appointed by the governor or by the lower house, as was the case in Massachusetts, and approved by the governor. In Connecticut and Rhode Island, the members of the upper house were elected by the people. Thus it becomes plain that except in these two colonies, the governor, by his power of appointment, practically controlled the upper branch of the legislature. It should be remem- bered, however, that with the exception of Connecticut and Rhode Island, the upper house, or council, had very little to do with making the laws. The main duty of the council was to advise the governor and to assist him in carrying out the duties of his office. 5. Colonial Government — Executive Department The executive department in each colony consisted of the governor and the governor's council or upper house of the legislature. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the governors were elected by the people, and in Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, and Maryland they were appointed by the proprietors. In all the other colonies they were appointed by the king. The royal and proprietary gov- ernors possessed the important powers of vetoing laws passed by the legislatures, and of appointing judges and other officers. They were continually quarreling with the lower house except in Rhode Island and Connecticut where the governor and both houses worked together harmoniouslv. 110 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES G. Colonial Government — Judicial Department Tlie judicial department was merged into the execu- tive department in the colonies, the governor and his council acting as the supreme judicial body of each col- ony. The minor judicial officers were appointed by the governor, although in a few cases they were elected by the people. 7. Colonial Government — Classes Colonial government may be divided into three classes, on the basis of the manner of selecting the governor. In the charter government the people chose the governor. In the proprietary government the proprietor selected him, and in the royal government he was appointed by the king. But these names as to form of government are of very little importance. The important facts are that in all the thirteen colonies the lower, and by far the more important, branch of the law-making body was elected and controlled by the people ; that in all the colo- nies except Connecticut and Rhode Island, the council or upper house of the legislature was not elected by the people, but was appointed by the governor; and that in all the colonies, with the same two exceptions, the governor was not elected by the people, but was ap- pointed either by the king or by the proprietor. (a) Charter Government A charter government was one established by a written contract between the king and the colonists, stating the share which each should have in the gov- ernment of the colony. This charter or contract could not be changed legally without the consent of both parties. During the eighteenth century. Connecticut and Rhode Island were the only real charter colonies. Massachusetts was about half charter and half royal. Institutional Life in the Colonies 111 (b) Proprietary Government A proprietary government was established when the king granted a large tract of land to some indi- vidual, who, by the terms of the grant, had the right to organize a colony and to appoint the governor. During the eighteenth century, Pennsylvania, Dela- ware and Maryland were the only proprietary colo- nies. (c) Royal Government In the case of a royal colony, the king appointed a governor. The royal colonies were directly under the control of the king, but as stated above, the people controlled the legislative department. During the eighteenth century all the colonies, except the charter and proprietary colonies, were royal colonies. Ill National Government The national government of the colonies was the same as that of England. The English Parliament and the English king were the highest government authority in England and they were also the highest government au- thority in the colonies. The English king and Parliament bore, in a general way, the same relation to the colonies that the national government of the United States at the present time bears to the various states. When the people of the colonies became independent, they established the national government to take the place of the English king and the English Parliament. T\' Relation oe Colonial Government to Present State Government We have already seen that local government to-day is the direct outgrowth of local government in the colonies. From a study of colonial government it becomes plain, that the legislative, executive and judicial departments of the state governments in the United States at the present time are simply the modification and expansion of these depart- 112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES nicnts in tlie colonies. The colonial legislature consisted of a lower and an upper house. The lower house corre- sponds to the lower house in the state legislature today, and there have not been many important changes in its nature. The council, or upper house, in the colonies cor- responds to the state senate, or upper house, in the state legislature at the present time, but the council has under- gone a great change. The members of the senate are elected by the people and the senate has as much power in making laws as the lower house. The governor is at the head of the state executive department today, as he was at the head of that department in the colonies, but he is elected by the people. The same close relation between colonial times and the present time, exists in the judicial departments. The different courts in the colonies corre- spond closely W'ith the courts in the states at the present time, except that most of the judges are now elected by the people, and are separate and distinct bodies, whereas in the colonies the courts were often the legislative and executive departments. The colonial governments of Con- necticut and Rhode Island were so much like those of today, that their charters were adopted as their state con- stitutions and remained in effect until long after the Revo- lution, the only important change being the omission of the king's name in the public records and documents. The charter of Connecticut remained the constitution of that state until 1818, and the charter of Rhode Island remained in effect until 1842. The greatest change in government since colonial times has been in the election of officers, and in the right to vote. Nearly all officers — local, state, and national — are now elected by the people, whereas in th^ colonies many of them w^ere appointed. In the colonies no one who did not own a certain amount of property could vote for any officer of the colony, or for any local officer. At the present time no property qualification is required of any voter anywhere in the United States. All this means that the people have become much more democratic since colonial times. Institutional Life in the Colonies 113 RELIGION : GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY I Religious Liberty at the Present Time If the government of an}- civilized nation at the present time should kill or imprison or punish in any way, a person because he belonged to a certain church, its action would be severely condemned by almost every one. Scarcely any one today believes that a man should be killed or punished in any way because he may be a member of the Methodist, Presbyterian, Catholic or any other church. The right of a person to think and to act in religious matters as he may desire, so long as he does not interfere with the rights of others, is now conceded by almost everybody. So thor- oughly is this principle established and accepted that the government of the United States, or of any other civilized nation, would use its entire power to protect its citizens in their rights to enjoy quietly and peacefully their religious ideas. II Religious Persecution in Europe The right of a person to enjoy quietly and peacefully his religious ideas is called "religious liberty." Strange as it now seems people have enjoyed religious liberty but for a very short time. Less than two hundred and fifty years ago, men and women were put to death in almost every nation, simply because they wished to belong to some other church than the one protected by the government. In Spain, France and Germany thousands were killed for this reason and many more were imprisoned or otherwise pun- ished. Hundreds were put to death in England for the same reason. In all of these countries men and women were burned to death and tortured in other ways, because they would not uphold the established or state church — that is, the church protected by the government. In 1080 thousands of Huguenots were massacred in France. Women and children were dragged from their beds in the night and murdered because of their religious ideas. From 114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 1G85 to 1700 fully two hundred thousand Huguenots left France in order to escape these relic^ious persecutions. From 1550 to 1G50 more than one hundred thousand per- ished in the religious wars of Europe. Ill Rkugious Persecution in the Colonies These persecutions for religious reasons were not re- stricted to the (^Id World. Some of the English colonies in America did the same thing. For a long time in INIas- sachusetts, men and women were not permitted to estah- lish any church except the Congregational or Puritan church, or to teach or preach any religious doctrine except that of the Congregational church. The government of Massachusetts whipped, imprisoned, and banished men and women because of their religious ideas. These perse- cutions did not stop with such punishments. Four Quakers were hanged in Boston — two men in 1G59, one woman in IGGO, and another man in IGGl. These four people were hanged by order of the court, and because they demanded the right to preach the doctrine of their church. It is absolutely incorrect to say that the Puritans came to New England for the purpose of establishing religious liberty. They came to the New World in order to escape the perse- cutions of the Episcopal church in England. They had no intention whatever of permitting any church to be estab- lished in New England except the Congregational church. Some of the other colonies w^ere almost as severe as the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven. In Virginia there were severe laws against the members of all churches except those of the Episcopal church. Members of other churches were imprisoned and banished from the colony. The Catholics first settled Maryland and granted relig- ious liberty to every one in the colony, but as soon as the members of the Episcopal church secured control of the colony, they passed severe laws against the Catholics and the members of the other churches. With but few excep- tions. Catholics were persecuted in all the colonies. Rhode Island was verv liberal in reliijious matters. Pennsvlvania Institutional Life in the Colonies 115 established complete religious liberty from the very first. The members of all churches, including those of the Cath- olic church, could worship in this colony without the least fear of persecution. In 1789 the Congress of the Con- federacy recommended the religious policy of Pennsyl- vania for adoption by all the states. After the Revolution there was complete religious liberty in all the states, and no public money whatever has since been used for the support of any church. IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious Persecution It is but natural that people today should condemn, severely, the religious persecutions referred to above. But it should be remembered that the people of today would have done the same thing had they lived in those times. Neither can any church be held responsible for these per- secutions. In Europe, outside of England, the Catholic church directed the persecutions ; in England, and in Vir- ginia and Maryland the persecutions were directed by the Church of England or the Episcopal church ; and in New England it was done in the name of the Puritans or Con- gregational church. In fact, up to about two hundred and fifty years ago, the leading or state religion of almost every nation during the past twenty-five hundred years has per- secuted and killed those who did not agree with it on relig- ious questions. It may be said that religious persecutions have been due to the fact that the great mass of the people were not as well educated nor as highly civilized as they are at the present time. It has been true in the history of the world, that when a large number of the people in a nation became fairly well educated they have demanded political liberty, that is, the right to make the laws which they must obey. When the people of a nation have secured the right to make their own laws, they have usually become more liberal in religious matters. This tends to prove that religious liberty in a nation follows closely general educa- tion and political liberty, and that it does not depend on the 116 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES attitude of any church. Man by nature is narrow and unjust in reHgious matters, and it has required long cen- turies of education and civihzation to make him broad and liberal along these lines. V Rkligious Libkrty in the United States: Causes of its Growth The United States was one of the first nations to estab- lish complete religious liberty. At the beginning of the Revolution most of the colonies had already established religious liberty and the Revolution swept away the last vestige of religious persecution. One of the main things that caused the growth of religious liberty in the colonies was the establishment of public schools. For centuries the churches of the leading religion of a nation had control of education. This was also true in early Virginia and most of New England, but gradually in nearly all the colonies, the government took control of education. This made edu- cation more general and of a higher grade. It also pre- vented any church from using any public money to estab- lish schools in which children were taught its own doc- trines. In a republic like the United States a free public school system which shall not be under the control of any church and in the schools of which the doctrines of no church shall be taught must be maintained. The churches may, and most of them do, maintain private schools, but the American people insist, and wisely, that they shall not control, in any way, the free public school system. An- other thing that helped to cause the rapid growth of relig- ious liberty in the colonies, was the separation of Church and State. In the colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven, the church and state were united at first, and in Virginia and several of the other southern colonies, public money was used for the support of the church. But the Puritan church was soon separated from the government in New England, and while the Episcopal church in Vir- ginia received public money until about the time of the Revolution, it had little or no control of the government of Institutional Life in the Colonies 117 that colony. This separation of church and state helped the growth of rehgions liberty because when a church loses control of the government it is placed on an equal footing with all the other churches, and has no power to persecute anyone. This is as it should be. Religion is a question that each person must settle for himself — it is a question between each person and the Supreme Being. The churches should have no control whatever over the government or over the free public school system, and no church or person should interfere with, or persecute, any one because of his religious ideas. EDUCATION Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the; Present Time Very few of the boys and girls who are now attending the public schools in the United States realize what a great advantage they have over those who went to school fifty or even twenty-five years ago. The primary, the grammar and the high schools have improved wonderfully during the past twenty-five years. Eighty-five years ago there were very few free public schools in the United States, and they did very poor work as compared with those of today. The average high school now is doing as good work and is offering as high grade courses of study as were Harvard and Yale Colleges in 1800, and this was one hundred seventy years after Boston was founded, and one hundred sixty-four years after Harvard College was founded. It has been said by one writer that the grammar schools of today are doing as good work as did William and Mary College in Virginia one hundred twenty-seven years ago, at the beginning of the Revolution. For one hundred fifty years after Virginia and New England were first settled there were practically no public schools of any kind in any of the southern colonies. While it is true that soon after they were founded all the New England colo- 118 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES nies except Rhode Island passed laws which compelled every town with fifty or more families to maintain a public school of some kind, these laws were not always enforced. From the very first, however, there were a number of schools in New England, and in matters of education she was far ahead of all the other colonies. Nearly everybody in New England could read and write, but a majority of the children were taught at home. II Condition of Schools in England The free public school system of England was not estab- lished until 1870, thirty-three years ago. When the colo- nies were first settled, and for a long time afterwards, education in England, as compared with that of today, was in a most wretched condition. In 1700 more than half of the English people could not read or write their own names, and as late as thirty years ago (1873) twenty out of every hundred could not. When the English colonies in America were founded, there were no public schools in England. There were a number of church and other pri- vate schools, but the great mass of the boys and girls did not attend these. Therefore when the Englishmen who founded the colonies left the mother country, there were no public schools, and education was controlled by the church and by private individuals. It is but natural that these men, when they settled in the New World, should follow the same plan of education. New conditions in the colonies caused this plan to be changed somewhat. In the southern colonies the change was for the worse; in the New England and in some of the middle colonies the change was for the better. III The; Southern Colonies When the colonies were settled it was but natural that educational afifairs should be left to the church as they had been in England. As the ability of the ministers was. as a rule, poor, educational affairs were much worse in the Institutional Life in tlic Colonics 119 southern colonies than in England. Other causes of the poor condition of education in the southern colonies were the manner of living and the opposition of the royal gov- ernors to any system of education. The plantation life hindered the building up of towns or schools, and educa- tion was restricted largely to the upper class. The chil- dren of the wealthy studied under tutors, and the sons often finished their education abroad. The royal governors op- posed general education on the ground that it would make the people discontented and hard to govern. There were few schools in any of the southern colonies, those few being established by private individuals or the churches. Mary- land was the only one that made any real efifort to establish schools that should be controlled by civil power. A college was established in 1692 by royal charter from King Will- iam and Queen Mary and given their names. The work done by this college before the Revolution was no better than that done today in the grammar schools, but it was the only college in the southern colonies before the Revo- lution. IV New England The church and the ministers determined the kind and character of education in New England, just as they had in the southern colonies. The ministers of New England were of the ablest class in the colonies, well educated, ear- nest and upright. The Puritan religion demanded that every man and woman should read and understand the Bible, and it therefore became the duty of the ministers to see to it that all the people should receive enough educa- tion to enable them to do this. As early as 1647 Massachu- setts Bay Colony had a law providing that every town con- taining fifty or more families should maintain a school. This is the first instance in modern history that the civil power of any colony, state or nation provided for a public school system. The passage of this law was due to the Puritan religion and to the Puritan ministers. Other laws were passed regarding the establishment of schools in all 120 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES the New England colonics and thus the foundation of our present public school system was laid. The New England colonies also laid the foundation for some of the greatest universities in the United States. Harvard, Yale, Dart- mouth and Brown Colleges were all established during the colonial period. V The Middle Colonies Tn the matter of education the middle colonies were behind New England and ahead of the southern colonies. In New York a number of fairly good schools was estab- lished and partly supported by the government. In New Jersey there were a few good schools maintained by the towns or the Presbyterian church. Outside of Philadel- phia, education in Pennsylvania and Delaware was in a very poor condition. From the first, Philadelphia main- tained schools with only a small tuition fee. It was one of the most progressive cities in the colonies in all matters of education and learning. Franklin was her leading citi- zen and the greatest scholar in the colonies. It was due to his efforts that the University of Pennsylvania which ranked first among all colonial colleges was founded. Princeton and Kings (Columbia) Colleges were also founded during this period. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES Introductory Questions for Class Recitations Explain carefully what is meant by the institutional life of a nation. Show carefully by illustrations how the life of every citizen is related to each of the five institutions. Why should a nation be judged largely by the condition of its institutions? Tell in a general way how topography, climate, and soil brought about different conditions in the North and South. (All of the questions given above are somewhat difficult, but they are very important and should receive most careful consideration.) Make a careful comparison of the topography, climate, and soil of the southern colonies and the New England colonies. Compare the topography, climate, and soil of the middle colonies with the topography, climate, and soil of the New England and the southern colonies. Explain fully and carefully how topography, climate, and soil have affected the history of the United States. INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS Questions for Class Recitations Why do topography, climate, and soil affect business or in- dustrial conditions more than any other of the institutions? De- scribe fully what industrial life includes. What were the leading southern products? Tell all you can about the culture of tobacco in the southern colonies. Give a careful explanation of why laws were passed to regulate its production and the quality exported. Discuss the production of rice and indigo in the southern colonies. Discuss the production of cotton in these colonies. Tell to what extent other products were raised in each of the southern colonies. Explain carefully how topography, climate, and soil encouraged the growth of large plantations in the South. Discuss the selling and buying of produce and goods on the plantations. Discuss the eflfect of large plantations on the growth of cities. Explain carefully how the large plantations affected the growth of slavery. Why were there few free laborers in the South? How did the lack of free labor affect the growth of manufactures, commerce, and similar industries? 122 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES Why were there no large plantations in New England? Why did the farmers of New England raise a great variety of products instead of a few staples, as did the planters of the South? What caused many of the people of New England to engage in other occupations besides farming? Describe the manufactures of New England. Tell what you can of the fisheries. Discuss the con- ditions of trade and commerce, and explain carefully their effect on the wealth and prosperity of New England. Why was there so little slavery in New England? If instead of a hilly country, poor soil, and cold winters, New England had a warm, pleasant climate, and consisted of broad, fertile plains, what would have been the effect on industrial life and on slavery? Describe care- fully the condition of farming in the middle colonies, and explain how this condition of farming in these colonies was related to topography, climate, and soil. Compare the condition of farm- ing in the middle colonies with its condition in the southern colonies and in New England. Describe the manufactures of the middle colonies. Why did England try to prevent the growth of manufactures in the colonies? How did this affect the colonies? Describe the commerce of Philadelphia and New York. Explain carefully the efifect of industrial conditions in the middle colonies on slavery. Compare this effect with the effect of these conditions on slavery in New England and in the southern colonies. What does all this prove as regards the effect of topography, climate, and soil on the history of the United States? Compare the condition of the professions of law and medicine in the colonies with the condition of these professions today. De- scribe the character and position of the ministers of New England. Explain very fully why the ministers were of so much importance and had so much more influence in New England than in any of the other colonies. In what way and why did the ministers of Massachusetts lose much of their influence after that colony be- came a royal province? Describe the character and work of the ministers of the middle colonies. What is a state or Estab- lished church? Is it good policy to have a church supported by public taxes? What can you say of the ministers of the Established church in the southern colonies? Why did they have less influence than the ministers of the other colonies or of the other churches in the South? When the Episcopal church ceased to be the state church, what change took place in the character and in- fluence of its ministers? Describe the character and work of the ministers of the other churches in the southern colonies. What was the general condition of the medical profession in the colonies? Tell what you can of this profession in Pennsylvania, noting the ability of the doctors, the medical schools, and tiic iiDspitals, What can you say of the profession of law in the Questions and Topics 123 colonies? What change was there in the condition of this pro- fession just before the Revolution? Compare the southern with the middle and New England colonies in respect to the character and ability of their lawyers. Questions for Compositions and Examinations What is meant by the institutional life of a nation? Show by illustrations how the life of every citizen is related to each of the five institutions. Why are topography, climate, and soil important influences in history? Discuss the topography, climate and soil of the South and their effect on the industrial life of the southern colonies. Discuss the topography, climate, and soil of the middle colonies and New England, and their effect on the industrial life of these sections. Discuss the causes of the growth of large plan- tations in the South. Discuss the relation of the plantation system to the growth of slavery and to the growth of cities. Discuss the effect of slavery on manufactures and commerce in the South. Compare the industrial conditions of New England with those of the southern colonies, and discuss the cause of difference. Dis- cuss the commercial industries of the middle colonies. Discuss the conditions which tended to cause the growth of slavery in the South and to cause abolition in the North. Show the effect of this on the industrial and political life of the nation. Discuss the character and position of the ministers in the colonies, comparing those of different sections of the country. Discuss the condition of the medical profession in the colonies. Discuss the profession of law in the colonies. SOCIAL CONDITIONS Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 165-199, and the second number of these readers, pp. 1-69. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) What constitutes social life? In what way is the institution of society related to the other institutions? Explain fully the more important conditions affecting social life in the colonies, and compare those conditions with some of the conditions which exist today. Name and describe carefully the four classes of society that existed in the southern colonies. (Each pupil should draw a map of the southern colonies and indicate plainly on it the strip of country in which the large plantations and the slave population existed.) What was the condition of the negro slave when he was 124 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES first brought to America? Why was he not educated in the southern colonies? Describe the laws relating to the negroes. Why were such laws passed? Tell all you can about the actual treatment of the slaves. Explain carefully why there was a dififer- ence in the treatment of slaves in the extreme southern colonies — Georgia and South Carolina — and those southern colonies farther north. Give a careful discussion of some of the results of slavery. Describe the character of the indented servants of the southern colonies. Give a full description of how they were treated. Com- pare their condition with that of the slaves. What distinctions existed between the middle and upper classes in the southern colonies? In what way did slavery alifect the attitude of the upper class toward tradesmen and merchants? Describe the character and position of the southern gentlemen. What can you say of their patriotism? Name some of the leading patriots of our nation who belonged to the upper class in the southern colonies. Show how the conditions of plantation life tended to develop men of strong character and ability. Describe the industrial life on a large plantation. Describe the dress of the upper class. What amusements were most popular with the Southerners? Describe the rural field sports. What classes of society existed in New England? Describe each class. Describe the treatment of the slave and indented servants. Upon what basis did the distinction between the middle and upper classes rest in New England? How did this differ from the Southern basis of aristocracy? How did a man's social position in New England affect his prominence in politics? How did class distinctions enter into the every-day life of the people? How' did they affect college life? What was the effect of the Puritan religion on the dress and amusements of the people? Describe the amusements of the New England people. What effect did the coming of the royal governors have on the social life of New England? Compare the middle colonics with those of New England and the southern colonies in regard to white and slave population. What classes of society were found in the middle colonies? Com- pare the treatment of slaves in these colonies with their treatment in the southern colonies and in New England. What was the character of the indented servants of the middle colonies? What proportion of the total population of the middle colonies was of English descent? Compare this proportion with the proportion which existed in New England and in the southern colonies. Of what did the aristocracy of New York consist? Compare the owners of large estates on the Hudson w'ith the large land-holders of the South in respect to position and power. Describe the dress and amusements of the people of the country and small towns. Questions and Toffies 125 Describe the dress and amusements of the upper classes in the cities. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the general conditions aflfecting social life in the colonies. Discuss briefly the classes of society existing in the colonies. Dis- cuss the condition of the slaves in the colonies, comparing their condition in the various colonies. Discuss the middle class in New England and in the southern and middle colonies. Discuss the character and position of the upper class in New England, and in the southern and middle colonies. Discuss the social dis- tinctions existing in New England and in the South. Discuss the dress and amusements of the people of the colonies. GOVERNMENT Questions for Class Recitations Under what different forms or divisions of government does each person live? Brieflj^ describe each division. Explain care- fully how each person is a member of each of these divisions. Explain carefully why the laws of these different forms of gov- ernment do not conflict. How did these different forms of gov- ernment and these different laws come to exist? Why do we have so many different divisions of government and so many different laws? What is national government? Explain carefully what constitutes local government. What is the most important unit or division of local government Who carries out the powers and duties of the county? How are the members of this board selected? By what two names are the members of this board known? Do most of the states call them supervisors or commis- sioners? How are the supervisors elected? How are the commis- sioners elected? Explain carefully the powers and duties of the county board of commissioners or supervisors. Name some of the other more important county officials. (Before taking up the next topic, the teacher and pupils should make a careful study of the duties and powers of all their county officials, and also of their city, township, and school officials.) Compare the powers of the county in the colonies with its powers toda}^ Compare the powers and duties of the county in the New England, the southern, and the middle colonies. Explain carefully what constituted the township in New England. Explain carefully what constituted the town meeting. Give a careful ex- planation of the duties, powers, and value of the town meeting. Compare the powers and duties of the town meeting in New Eng- 126 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES land (luring colonial times with those which the county court then possessed there. Compare the powers and duties of the town meeting in New England at the present time with those which the county officials now possess. Compare the powers and duties of the county in South Carolina during colonial times with those which the parish and district possessed there at that time. Com- pare carefully the duties and powers of the county in South Carolina at the present time with those which the parish and township now possess there. What is the nature of the parish as it exists in Louisiana today? What were the powers and duties of the parish in Virginia during colonial times? What was the county board in Virginia called? What were the members of this board called? How were they elected? Explain carefully the powers and duties of the county court in Virginia. During colonial times, how did the powers and duties of the county in Virginia compare with the powers and duties of the county in Georgia, North Carolina, and Maryland? Explain carefully the changes which have taken place in the county in these states since colonial times. To what extent did the Virginia county afifect the organization of the county in the West? Compare the powers and duties of the county in the middle colonies with those which the township and parish pos- sessed there at that time. Why does the county as it existed in the colonies of New York and Pennsylvania deserve special notice? Give a careful discussion of the New York county, and explain carefully to what extent it affected the organization of the county in the West. Give a careful discussion of the Pennsylvania county and explain carefully to what extent it affected the organization of the county in the West. Compare the New York, the Penn- sylvania, and the Virginia county of colonial times with regard to powers and duties in local government. State briefly, but clearly, what the result has been in the contest of the county, township, and parish for power in local government. What will very likely be the future of the county as to power in local affairs? Explain carefully the influence and the value of the principle of township government in the smaller local aflfairs. Explain why the people desire to have these smaller units of local government. To what extent is this desire being carried out at the present time? What is the value of these smaller units of local government? What is the duty of every citizen toward them? What affairs of government are under the control of the state government? What aflfairs of government are under the control of the national government? How did each of these forms of gov- ernment secure the powers which they have? Explain carefully how the people in matters of government in the United States Questions and Topics 127 are the source of all power. Of what three departments does national, state, and local government consist? What are the general powers and duties of each department? What is the object for dividing government into these three departments? Of what two houses or divisions does the legislative department of the state and national government consist? What is the object for this division? What is the legislative department of the county? How are the members of the legislative department of state and local government selected? Discuss the powers and duties of the legislative department of state government. What is the highest executive officer in the national government called? What is he called in the state governments? Who are the executive officers in the county government? What are some of the other state executive officers called? How are the state executive officers selected? Tell what you can about the general powers and duties of the state executive officers. Of what do the judicial departments of the slate and national governments consist? How are the state and local judges elected? Tell what you can about the powers and duties of these different courts and how cases may be appealed from one to the other. In what respects are local, state, and national government alike? Explain carefully the real difference between these three forms or divisions of government. (Before taking up the next topic the teacher and pupils should make a general but careful study of the government of the state in which they live.) Into how many departments was the government of the various colonies divided? What was the lower house of the legislature called in the different colonies? How were the members of the lower house elected? Explain carefully what qualifications were required of those who voted for members of the lower house. What was the upper house of the legislature called? How were its members selected in the various colonies? Name some of the important powers and duties of the lower house in the various colonies. Name the more important powers and duties of the upper house of the legislature in the various colonies. Compare these powers and duties with the powers and duties which belong to the upper branch of the state legislature at the present time. Of what did the executive department of the government in the various colonies consist? Explain carefully how the governor in each colony was selected. Explain how the manner of selecting the governors gave rise to three so-called classes of government in the colonies. Explain in what respects these three classes of government differed. Explain carefully how the people really controlled the law-making body in each colony. What were the powers and duties of the governors in each colony? Of what did the judicial department in each colony consist? What were 128 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES the different courts in each colony called? How were the judges of these courts selected? What were tlie powers and duties of these different courts? Of what did the national government in the colonies consist? Explain carefully to what exent the colonists were willing to acknowledge the authority of Parliament. In what respect did Parliament and the legislatures of the colonies bear the same relation to the king? Why was this principle very important to the colonists, and why did they insist on carrying it out? Compare carefully the lower branch of the colonial legislatures with the lower branch of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the upper branch of the colonial legislatures with the upper branch of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the executive depart- ments of the colonial legislatures with the executive department of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the judicial depart- ments of the colonial legislatures with the judicial departments of the state legislatures. To what extent does all this indicate that state government is simply the modification and expansion of colonial government? In what respects has government changed most since colonial times? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the relation between local government in the colonies and local government at the present time. Show in what way the state legislative department today is simply an outgrowth and modification of the legislative department of the colonies. In what ways do the state executive departments today resemble the executive departments in the colonies? Explain the relation between the judicial department of today and the judicial depart- ment of the colonies. What change has there been since colonial times as to the number of officers elected directly by the people? What change has there been as to the qualifications of voters? RELIGION Questions for Class Recitations To what extent may a person at the present time do as he pleases in regard to religious matters? What is meant by religious liberty? Describe the religious persecutions which have taken place in Europe. Compare the condition of religious liberty in the United States today with its condition in Europe about the time the colonies were settled. Did the Puritans come to America for the purpose of establishing religious liberty? Tell all you can about the persecution of people in New England on account of Questions and Topics 129 their religious ideas. Describe the religious persecutions in tlie other colonies. Tell what you can about the laws made in the various colonies against certain churches. To what conditions are religious persecutions due? What is the relation between political and religious liberty? How are general education and political liberty related? Describe the religious conditions in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Explain how the establishment of public schools aided the growth of religious liberty in the United States. Explain carefully the importance of the free public school system to the welfare of the nation. What is meant by the separation of church and state? How did the separation of church and state affect the growth of religious liberty in the colonies? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the condition of religious liberty in Europe about the time the colonies were settled. Discuss the condition of religious liberty in the colonies. Discuss the growth of religious liberty in the United States. Discuss the causes of religious persecution. EDUCATION Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on Education, each pupil should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 201-233. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare carefully the schools of the colonies with those of today in regard to number, kind, and nature of work. Explain carefully the condition of schools and general education in England at the time the colonies were settled. Describe the school system that existed in England at that time. Explain fully, how and to what extent the condition of education in England affected the con- dition of education in the colonies. How did the character of the ministers influence educational conditions in the South? What was the effect of plantation life on the building up of schools? What was the attitude of the royal governors toward general education, and what effect did this have on the establishment of schools? How were the sons of rich planters educated? Describe the condition of education in the southern colonies. Tell what you can of the founding of the college of William and Mary. Give a full description of the influence of the Puritan ministers on education in New England. Explain carefully how the Puritan religion served to encourage education and the establishment of schools. Tell what you can of the first laws establishing public schools in America. Explain y 130 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES carefully why these laws were of great importance in the history of the world. Describe the public schools of each of the New England colonies. Describe the founding of colleges in New England. Tell what you can of the customs and studies in these colleges. Compare the schools of the middle colonics with those of New England and the southern colonies. What support did the government give to the schools in the middle colonies? De- scribe the educational work of the churches. How did the general education of the people of the middle colonies compare with that of the people of New England? Describe the schools of Phila- delphia, and explain fully the work of Franklin in advancing education. Compare the colleges of the middle colonies with those of New England. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the educational conditions in England at the time of the founding of the colonies. Explain how the plan of education in England affected education in the colonies. Discuss the influence of the ministry upon education in the colonies. Discuss the origin of the public school system. Compare New England, the southern, and the middle colonies in respect to general education. Why was New England ahead of the other colonies in the matter of general education? Discuss the colleges of the colonies. Compare in a general way educational conditions in the colonies with educational conditions in the United States at the present time. ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS I American Institutions: Changes in, and From Where Derived D. 198 II Government in England 1. Relation to Government in the United States D. 199 2. Outline of Struggle betzveen King and People D. 200 3. The five Rights Demanded by the Bnglish People (a) The Right of Taxation D. 201 (b) The Right of Habeas Corpus D. 2or (c) The Right of Trial by Jury D. 202 (d) The Right of Privacy in the Home D. 202 (e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter So](h'ers D. 202 4. How Englishmen Secured these Rights D. 203-206 III Transfer oe English Rights and Institutions to America D. 206-207 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS I American Institutions: Changes in, and From Where Derived From the study of colonial institutions in the previous chapter, it is plain that our institutions today are a direct outgrowth of these institutions as they existed in the colo- nies. There has been considerable change in industrial conditions, due to the great inventions and discoveries in science. Industrial progress has been Ijrought about largely through the general intellectual advanccnient, and in turn it has made further advancement possible along the line of general education. It is but natural that these changes should have had a marked effect on the other institutions. As our institutions of today are a direct outgrowth of the colonial institutions, so the institutions of the colonies were borrowed directly from England. It is a mistaken idea that the colonists began everything anew when they crossed the Atlantic. Their ideas of government, religion, and the other institutions were brought directly from Eng- land, but modified to suit the conditions in the New World. These institutions had been developing in England for more than a thousand years. II Government in Engeand 1. Relation to Government in tJie United States A brief comparison of government in the Ignited States with that in England shows that the two are closely re- lated. The form of England's government is today practically what it was when the colonists came to Amer- ica. In England government is divided into Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches, as it is in America. The king corresponds to the president ; the legislative branch in each country consists of an upper and a lower house; in many respects the judiciary of the United States is similar to that of England, and moreover the Govcrmncnt in England 133 great body of English laws has been embodied in our legal system with but few fundamental changes. In local government there are many points of similarity. The county and township existed in England centuries before America was discovered. 2. Outline of Struggle Bctiveen King and People While the English king today is the executive head of the nation, he is such only in theory. The long strug- gle between the king and parliament that lasted from the Norman Conquest, lOGG, to the end of the American Revolution, 1783, finally resulted in the complete triumph of the English parliament over the king. The early part of the struggle resulted in the acquisition of Magna Charta, 1215, and the beginning of the House of Com- mons, 1265, and the latter part was characterized by the great Puritan Revolution, 1641-1649, and the fall of arbitrary rule under George III. 3. The Five Rights Demanded by the English People The long struggle outlined above covered a period of seven centuries. The Rights that were gradually ac- quired by the English people were (a) The Right of Taxation This means the right of the people to vote taxes through their representatives. It was a protest against the practices of the kings who frequently levied taxes in an arbitrary manner, and not always for the public good. (b) The Right of Habeas Corpus This means the right of a person in prison to de- mand that cause be shown for his imprisonment. This right gave relief against arbitrary imprisonment by the kincr. 134 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS (c) The Right of Trial by Jury This right gives the accused the right to a verdict by twelve fellow citizens, and gives protection against arbitrary punishment. (d) The Right of Privacy in the Home In times past, in England and even in the colonies, general warrants were issued by courts that permitted an officer to search any house he pleased for any arti- cles suspected of being smuggled or stolen, as the case might be. At the present time, a search warrant must designate the house to be searched and must specify the articles searched for. (e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter Soldiers This right grew out of the protest against the prac- tice of quartering soldiers on private citizens during times of peace. 4. Hozv Bnglishmen Secured These Rights These five rights were not acquired at the same time ; nor was any one of these principles firmly and finally established without first having been partially gained and lost many times, according as parliament or the king was the stronger. In 1215 King John had become so oppressive that the barons took up arms against him and forced him to sign the Great Charter of English Liber- ties, or Magna Charta, as it is called. In later years the privileges gained in Magna Charta were allowed to lapse and on several occasions later kings were forced to re-affirm this charter. In 1265 the House of Com- mons was first convened and by 1400 it had become a well established branch of parliament. In spite of the growth of the power of parliament, kings in numerous cases were able to rule without its assistance. By 1600 parliament had become quite powerful. During the next half century it was to measure its strength with that of Transfer of English Rights and Institutiotis to America 135 the despotic Stuarts. In 1G28 Charles I. attempted to raise revenues without the consent of parUament, and was forced to sign the Petition of Rights. When later he violated his promises, the people arose in revolt, 1641- 1649, and Charles I. was beheaded. This made parlia- ment more powerful than ever, but it was not until the end of the American Revolution that it became finally supreme. Ill Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America When the English colonists came to America, they came as Englishmen, and even after several generations they still considered themselves Englishmen. It was but natural then that they looked upon the institutions and rights of their English forefathers as their heritage. However, in transplanting these institutions to the New World, they made some important changes that put the colonies on a more democratic basis than the mother country. This was but the natural result of colonizing in a wilderness far removed from the controlling influences and associations of the mother country. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS Questions for Class Recitations Explain to what extent the five institutions as they exist in the United States today are related to the form and condition of those institutions as they existed in the colonies. What has caused the change in these institutions since colonial times? From where did the particular forms or kinds of these institutions as they existed in the colonies come? For about how long were they being developed before they were brought to America? Explain quite fully the relation of government in England to government in the United States. Give a brief statement of the long struggle between the English king and the English people over the question of English rights. Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Taxation. Why are the people so anxious to have this right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Habeas Corpus. Why is this right so valuable? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Trial by Jury. Why is this a very valuable right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Privacy in the Home. Why are the people anxious to have this right? Ex- plain fully what is meant by the Right of refusing to Quarter Soldiers. Why is this a valuable right? What is the Magna Charta? How did the English people secure it? What did the English people do when a king disobeyed this charter, and tried to take away their rights? What is the English Parliament? What part of the national government of the United States corresponds to Parliament? When did Parliament first be- come fairly well established? How did most of the English kings treat Parliament? Discuss the struggle between Parliament and James I. and Charles I. How did America assist in helping firmly to establish the authority of Parliament? How were English rights and institutions transferred to America? What was the feeling of the colonists toward England and English rights and institutions? What caused the five institutions, and especially the institution of government, to become somewhat changed in the colonies? What was the nature of this change in the institution of government? Questions and Topics 137 Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the relation of government in England to government in the United States. Discuss the five more important English rights, explaining the nature and value of each. Discuss the struggle between the English people and their kings over these five important rights. Discuss the transfer of English rights and institutions to America. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION (In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 153-309.) A CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS I Causes of the Revolution D. 211-213 1. Bnglish Control of Colonial Commerce D. 213-215; Mc. 108; Ma. 136-137, 139-140; G. 130-133; T. 107-109; M. 152-153 2. Taxation Without Representation (a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Con- gress, 1765 D. 215-217; H. II. 153-162; Mc. 112-115; Ma. 140-145; G. 133-138; T. 110-114; M. 154-155 (b) The Declaratory Act, 1766 ; The Towns- hend Acts, 1767 D. 217-221; H. II. 162-166; Mc. 117-120; Ma. 145-146; G. 138; T. 114-123; M. 155-158 3. The Repressive or Intolerable Acts, 17^4 D. 221-222; Mc. 120; Ma. 151-152; G. 144- 145; T. 123-126; M. 158 II The Beginnings oe the Revolution 1. Grozvth of Colonial Union (a) Committees of Correspondence, 1772 D. 222-225; Mc. 121; Ma. 142-143, 146, 149-150 ; G. 142 ; T. 120-121 ; M. 159 Campaigns 139 (b) The First Continental Congress, 1774 D. 225-227; H. II. 168-169, 104; Mc. 121- 122 ; Ma. 152-155 ; G. 145-146 ; T. 125- 127; M. 159-160 2. Concord and Lexington, 1775 D. 227-231; H. II. 257-260; Ma. 155-158; G. 147-149 ; T. 128-129 ; M. 160-162 3. Siege and Capture of Boston, i'jj^-i'j'j6 D. 231-235; H. II. 208-209, 261-266; Mc. 129- 131; Ma. 151-162; G. 149-153; T. 131-134; M. 162-166 4. Declaration of Independence, 1776 D. 235-240 ; H. II. 172-175 ; Mc. 131-135 ; Ap- pendix 1-4; Ma. 162-165; G. 153-157; T. 134-139; M. 167-168 5. Comparison of Resources of England and America D. 240-243 ; T. 132 B CAMPAIGNS I Thk Campaign to Separate; New England from the; Othe:r States, and the Campaign Against Phil- adelphia AND THE Middle States D. 243-261; H. II. 191-192; Mc. 135-143, 146-149; Ma. 165-184 ; G. 158-175 ; T. 139-160 ; M. 169-182 II Campaign Against the Southern States D. 261-269; H. II. 307-309; Mc. 143-146; Ma. 186- 195; G. 181-191; T. 160-165; M. 181-188 C RESULTS OF THE WAR D. 269-270; Mc. 149-152; Ma. 195-198; G. 191-192; T. 165-166; M. 188-189 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION At the close of the French and Indian War in 17G3, the Enghsh colonists in zA.merica were loyal English subjects. They were proud of their English origin ; proud of English history, considering it part of their own inheritance. England had no more loyal subjects than the Americans. They had confidence in her government, and with reverence called her the Mother Country. Although there had been continual disagreements between the colonists and the officers in America appointed by the king, all these disputes had been local, and had not materi- ally afifected the loyalty of the colonists to England. In less than fifteen years from this time, these same colonists were in open rebellion, carrying on war against England. There were vital and far reaching causes which brought about this change of feeling, and these were the causes which led to the Revolu- tion. CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS I Causes of tiii; Revolution 1. English Control of Colonial Commerce Up to the time of the American Revolution the pre- vailing idea regarding colonies was that they were planted and existed for the benefit of the home country, especially in respect to trade. In order to control the commerce of her colonies, England passed trade laws known as the Navigation Acts, and these were funda- mentally connected with the causes of the Revolution. These laws extended from 1G51 down to the Revolution. Their object was to secure to English merchants a monopoly of the carrying trade of England and her colonies. In some cases small duties were levied on exports and imports, but these duties were levied mainly in order to secure the better enforcement of the Navi- gation Acts, and not in order to raise money for the „ . . ■ 1 41 Causes and Beginnings English government. The laws regulating colonial com- merce were not rigidly enforced in America unti after the French and Indian War. Althongh the colonists were irritated by these laws, they did not offer any seri- ous objection to them until Writs of Assistance were issued, enabling English officers to enter private houses and search for smuggled goods. These writs of assist- ance were search warrants and were so general m nature that they could be tyrannically used for personal and malicious ends, and their issuance caused bitter feeling. 2. Taxation Without Representation There was no central government in America which had the power to provide for the defense of all the colo- nies by raising soldiers and by levying taxes. It was very plain that this country would need to be protected and the British government decided to place an army m the colonies for their defense to be partly supported by the colonists by means of a tax. Parliament levied this tax itself on specific articles instead of allowing the colo- nists to tax themselves to raise the necessary amount. The colonists had no representative in Parliament. They would probably have submitted to the Navigation Acts and to the nominal taxes which some of them imposed. They would not, however, pay taxes levied for the pur- pose of revenue, and especially direct taxes, unless they had some voice in such taxation. They did not object to the amount of the tax, but to the principle involved Eno-hshmen, by more than a century of struggle, had secured the right to vote taxes through their represent tatives The colonists considered themselves English- men with all the rights of Englishmen, and hence they refused to submit to taxation without representation. In other words, the Revolution was brought about be- cause Englishmen in America were denied the rights enjoyed by Englishmen in England. It should be re- membered that these rights were denied the colonists in America, not bv the people of England, but by the King 142 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION and his ministers. The common people and the best statesmen in England, like the colonists, were opposed to the levying of taxes where the people taxed had no voice in the voting of them. William Pitt was one of the English statesmen who saw that the Americans were contending for a principle, and when he became Prime Minister, he opposed the levying of direct taxes on the colonists. He was glad that the colonists resisted the unjust taxation because he believed that if the King could unjustly tax the colonies, he might attempt to overthrow the constitutional liberties of England. (a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress, 1765 The Stamp Act passed in 17G5 was the first attempt of the English Parliament to levy internal taxes on the colonies, and the colonists strongly resented it as an infringement of their rights. This tax was put in the form of stamps to be placed on legal documents and printed papers and pamphlets, Parliament consid- ering this the easiest way of raising a tax, and the least likely to cause trouble. Virginia led the opposi- tion of the colonies by passing a set of resolutions against taxation without representation. The colonies sent to the King and Parliament many petitions against the Stamp Act. This feeling of opposition led to the calling of a congress composed of delegates from the different colonies for the purpose of draw- ing up a united remonstrance against the act. Nine of the colonies sent delegates, and this congress drew up and signed a "Declaration of Rights and Griev- ances." This was the first time that the colonies acted in unity. (b) The Declaratory Act, 1766 ; The Townshend Acts, 1767 When Parliament was forced, partly by the opposi- tion of leading English statesmen and partly by the protests of English merchants who suffered from the Causes and Beginnings 143 conditions in America, to repeal the Stamp Act, it passed at the same time what is called the Declaratory Act, which asserted the right of Parliament to legis- late for the colonies on all questions. In the follow- ing year a series of acts known as the Townshend Acts were passed which asserted the right of Parlia- ment to tax the colonists, and levied import duties on certain articles of common use. The opposition of the colonists to these acts was so violent that all ex- cept one were repealed. The tax on tea was retained merely to assert the authority of Parliament in regard to taxation. It was just this principle that the colo- nists were standing for, and they refused to pay even this tax. The tea sent over was, in most cases, not allowed to be landed, and in some cases it was de- stroyed. At Boston a body of men boarded a tea ship in the harbor and threw the tea into the ocean. This is known as the Boston Tea Party. 3. The Repressive or Intolerable Acts, i'/74 The action of the colonists regarding the tea tax angered the King and Parliament, and a series of acts were passed for the purpose of punishing Massachu- setts. The first of these acts, known as the Boston Port Bill, provided for the closing of the port of Boston, and the third act, which annulled the charter of Massachu- setts and provided for a military governor with arbi- trary power, were especially tyrannical. These acts served to rouse the people of all the colonies to the dan- ger their liberties were in, and to prepare their minds for rebellion. II The Beginnings oe the Revolution 1. Growth of Colonial Union (a) Committees of Correspondence, 1772 The royal governors were alarmed and angered at the stand taken by the colonists with regard to the tea tax, and in 1772 the governor of Massachusetts dis- 144 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION solved its legislature in order to prevent united action by the colony. Through the efforts of Samuel Adams, committees were at once appointed by the various towns in order that there might be united action, and to look after the interests of the colony. Soon events led Virginia to appoint a permanent Committee of Correspondence to communicate with the other colo- nies regarding their general welfare, and plans of action. Within a year similar Committees of Corre- spondence had been appointed in all of the colonies. The work of these committees was very important, as it prepared the Americans for united action in the struggle which was to follow. (b) The First Continental Congress, 1774 The passing of the Repressive Acts led directly to the calling of a congress of delegates by the colonies. This congress was a direct outgrowth of the Corre- spondence Committees, and it marked an advance step. It contained delegates from all the colonies ex- cept Georgia, and thus represented the feeling of the colonics as a whole. It met with the definite purpose of obtaining a redress of grievances and had as mem- bers most of the ablest men in America. In addition to drawing up a Declaration of Rights, and issuing addresses to Englishmen, to Americans, and to the King, asking for the protection of these rights, this congress decided upon a definite plan of action by all the colonies, and made provision for effectively carry- ing out these plans. 2. Concord and Lexington, 1775 When the petitions of the Continental Congress were ignored by the King and by Parliament, and Gage was sent over as military governor of Massachusetts, the colonists began active preparations for war. Arms and provisions were collected and volunteer soldiers were enrolled and drilled in the various colonies. Patriotic societies were formed among both men and women for Causes and Beginnings 145 the purpose of resisting the attacks on Enghsh rights in America. An attempt by Gage to seize snppHes stored by the colonists at Concord resulted in the first bloodshed of the war. While the number lost was small on both sides, these two engagements inflamed the colonists as no merely political act could have done. 3. Siege and Capture of Boston, 1775-1776 After the battles of Concord and Lexington the Brit- ish under Gage were shut up in Boston by colonial sol- diers. The Continental Congress assumed control of the troops besieging Boston, made Washington com- mander-in-chief, and took measures to obtain more men for the continental army, as it was now called. The battle of Bunker Hill was the most important engage- ment of this siege. While the British were victorious their victory was dearly bought. In substance it was a victory for the Americans as it gave them confidence in their ability to resist English arms. After a siege of nearly a year, the British were compelled to evacuate Boston. During this time the fortress of Ticonderoga and the small fort of Crown Point had been taken by colonial soldiers, and an unsuccessful expedition had been sent into Canada. 4. Declaration of Independence, 1776 The action of the king in rejecting all petitions, in declaring the colonists rebels, and in hiring foreign troops to put down the rebellion, led the colonists to decide upon complete independence of Great Britain. The formation of state governments, and the publica- tion of numerous patriotic writings aided the. colonists in reaching this conclusion. A resolution affirming the independence of the colonics was passed by the Conti- nental Congress on Jidy 2ud, 177(1, and two days later the Declaration of Independence was adopted. 146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 5. Comparison of Resources of England and America England had great advantages over the colonists in respect to wealth and population, but these were offset to some extent by the distance of the colonies from Eng- land, and by the hostility of other European nations to Great Britain. Both England and America suffered from lack of unity in the support of the war, but Eng- land suffered the more, for while there were many in America who sympathized with the English and even aided them, in England the leading statesmen strongly opposed the war from the beginning to the end. The colonies' greatest weakness lay in their lack of a strong central government with power to raise money and sol- diers and to conduct the war with vigor. While Eng- land could obtain almost any amount of military supplies and troops, the Americans had great difficulty in these respects. On the other hand, the Americans had an advantage in the superiority of their commanders, and in the patriotic spirit of their army. CAMPAIGNS After the English under Gage sailed away from Boston on March 17, 1776, they made no further attempt during the war to invade and subdue New England. Neither did they make any serious attempt during the war to invade and subdue Vir- ginia. Virginia and New England each contained about 700,- 000 people, which made their combined population about equal to that of all the other states. The people of Virginia and New England were united and aggressive in their opposition to England. Lexington, Concord and the siege of Boston had taught the British that an invasion of New England meant the stout and active resistance of almost every man. They knew that the people of Mrginia were just as united and determined as those of New England, and that an invasion of that state, the home of Washington, would meet with the same strong resistance. The British decided, therefore, to leave New Eng- land and Virginia, with their large and hostile populations, Campaigns 147 alone, and try to subdue the other states which contained fewer people and in which they hoped to find many people friendly to them. They thought that if they could get control of most of the other states, Virginia and New England would be com- pelled to submit. After the capture of Boston by Washington, the king and his ministers and generals, therefore, planned three general campaigns — two against the middle states and one against the far southern states. One was to capture New York City, and to secure control of the Hudson river and of as much of the state of New York as possible. The success of this campaign would have been of great value to the British, because it would have given them control of a direct line of communi- cation between New York City and Canada, and as the English had control of the sea, this would have completely separated New England from all the other states. The object of the other campaign against the middle states was to capture Phil- adelphia, the largest city in America, and to secure control of as much of Pennsylvania and New Jersey as possible. By the southern campaign the British hoped to capture the cities of Charleston and Savannah, and to secure control of Georgia, South Carolina and North Carolina. I The Campaign to Separate New England From the Other States, and the Campaign Against Phila- delphia AND THE Middle States These two campaigns were carried on at the same time. They extended over two years and ended in failure. They began in July, 177G, when a British army of 25,000 men under General Howe and a large British fleet under his brother. Admiral Howe, arrived at Staten Island from Halifax. They ended in June, 1778, when the British evacuated Philadelphia and concentrated all their northern forces in New York City. New York City was captured by the British in August, 1776, and was used as the basis of operations for both these campaigns, and also for the southern campaign. It was the last city evacuated by the British at the end of the war. As a result of three months' fighting, Howe had captured New York City and had 148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION slowly driven Washington a short distance up the Hudson, but the American army was about as large and as well prepared for battle as when the fighting began, although it was much smaller than the British army under Howe. In a short time, however, the meddling of Congress and the treachery of Lee compelled Washington with but a small part of his force to make a hurried retreat across New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Then in this darkest hour of the war came the capture of Trenton and his brilliant work which compelled the British to withdraw from nearly all New Jersey. As a result of four months' fighting the British held New York City and a few outlying posts. The attempt of General Carleton to march down the Hudson from Canada, join Howe at New York City and thus separate New England from the middle states, was a com- plete failure. In the spring of 1777 the British renewed their cam- paigns for the capture of Philadelphia and for the separa- tion of New England from the other states. Burgoyne with an army of 8,000 men was to capture the Fortress of Ticonderoga and march down the Hudson. St. Leger with a force of about 2,000 men was to capture Oswego on the east shore of Lake Ontario and march across New York to the Hudson and join Burgoyne. Plowe with some 18,000 men was to move up the Hudson and meet Bur- goyne. Before doing this he decided to capture Philadel- phia. This proved to be a mistake. He succeeded in capturing Philadelphia, but the excellent generalship of Washington compelled him to consume about four months in doing this and it was then too late to assist Burgoyne. On October 17 — a few days after Howe entered Philadel- phia — Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga on the upper Hudson. The capture of Philadelphia was of but little value to the British, for they were able to hold only as much territory as was actually occupied by their troops, while the surrender of Burgoyne was a great injury. As a result of this surrender, France soon made an alliance with America. This compelled the British to evacuate Campaigns 149 Philadelphia in the spring of 1778. On its march from Philadelphia to New York City the British army was attacked by Washington at Monmouth, and had it not been for the treachery of Lee, this battle would have re- sulted in a serious disaster to the English. The British now concentrated all their northern forces in New York City. Thus the two northern campaigns of the British ended in failure. In the fall of 1778 the British began their southern campaign, which was the third and last one and which was also to end in failure. After the battle of Monmouth the British made no fur- ther real attempt to carry on the war in the North, but confined their operations to sending out marauding expedi- tions and to stirring up the Indians on the frontiers. The more important events in the North during the remainder of the war were the storming of Stony Point by the Amer- icans, the treason of Arnold, and the total defeat of the Indians by Clark and Sullivan. The brilliant work of Paul Jones and of the American privateers is also worthy of special notice during this latter period of the war. II Campaign Against the Southern Colonies From an English standpoint this campaign was, for a time, successful. Savannah was captured, and Georgia and part of South Carolina were overrun. Several Amer- ican armies were utterly destroyed. But when the ineffi- cient Gates was superseded by Greene, the tide turned in favor of the Americans. At King's IMountain and at the Cowpens small British forces were entirely destroyed. The indecisive battle of Guilford Courthouse so weakened the British army that Cornwallis, with Greene in pursuit, re- treated to Wilmington, North Carolina. With the excep- tion of Charleston and Savannah, Greene soon forced the British to evacuate all of South Carolina and Georgia. Meanwhile Cornwallis marched north and fortified York- town. Here he was attacked by the combined French and American forces and compelled to surrender, October 19, 1781. Cornwallis's surrender practically ended the war. 150 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Results of the War As the news of the surrender of Yorktown spread through the states, the people gave themselves over to general rejoicing. There were bonfires in almost every village, for the people knew that the surrender of Cornwallis, following, as it did, Greene's great campaign in the south, ended the war. When the news reached Paris, flags were flung to the breeze, nearly all the houses were illuminated, and the French, like the Ameri- cans, gave themselves up to general rejoicing. When Lord North heard the news he walked the floor of his room in great excitement exclaiming, "My God, it is all over !" When Charles Fox, one of the leaders of the House of Commons, heard it, he sprang from his chair with a shout of joy. Many of the leading statesmen of England were equally as glad as Fox that Cornwallis had been captured. Lord North, who had been prime minister since 1770, was soon forced by the House of Commons to resign and the king was forced to appoint in his place the leader of the Whig party that had always been friendly to the Americans and opposed to the war. The fall of Lord North marked the end of the king's personal rule in Eng- land. Never since then has a king of England attempted to rule. The people, through the House of Commons, have con- trolled the government and made the laws and the king has simply reigned. The surrender at Yorktown, therefore, was a glorious victory for Englishmen as well as for x\mericans. The Americans had fought to uphold the liberties of Englishmen, just as their ancestors in England had often done in the years gone by. On September 3rd, 1783, a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, which ended the war between England on one side, and France, Spain and the L^nited States on the other. The new nation secured the territory extending from the At- lantic to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to Florida; England secured the right to navigate the Mississippi, and the Americans obtained the right to fish on the Newfoundland Banks ; the republican spirit received a remarkable stimulus throughout the world. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS Questions for Class Recitations (In connection with the questions on the American Revokition, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source Readers in American History," pp. 153-309. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) What was King George's attitude toward popular government? Explain fully why he desired to secure control of Parliament. How did he succeed in doing this? Explain quite fully why Parliament wished to tax the colonists. Was it the duty of the colonies to help pay the cost of the French and Indian Wars, and to help support the British soldiers in America? Why did the colonists object to paying the taxes levied by Par- liament? Why was King George anxious to take up this quarrel with the Americans? Discuss the Navigation Acts, explaining quite fully why they were passed. Why did the colonists not seriously object to these laws? Why were general search war- rants, called Writs of Assistance, issued in connection with these laws? Explain why the Americans objected to these Writs. What effect did the issuing of these Writs have on the people? Explain how the Stamp Act violated the right of taxation. How was this Act regarded by the Americans? Describe the action of Virginia against this Act. What action was taken by the other colonies? Discuss the Stamp Act Congress, mentioning its origin, com- position, and work. Describe how the people treated the stamp distributors and the stamped paper. Why did the Stamp Act never go into effect? Why did the English merchants have it repealed? What was the Declaratory Act and why was it passed? Describe the Townshend Acts. How were they received by the Americans? Why were all the taxes levied by them repealed except the tax on tea? Why was the tax on tea retained? Explain quite fully how the tea imported under this tax was received by the Americans. Discuss the work of Samuel Adams in relation to the "Boston Tea Party." Discuss the "Boston Massacre." What led to the passage of the Repressive or Intolerable Acts? Describe each of these acts. What effect did they have on the Americans? Explain carefully and fully how the Stamp Act, The Townshend Acts, and the attempt of the English government to send Ameri- cans to England for trial led to union of action on the part of the colonies. Explain carefully what led to the appointment of the first permanent Committee of Correspondence. Explain fully what 152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION led to the calling of the First Continental Congress. Discuss carefully the work of this Congress. What led the Americans to make active preparations for war? Describe these preparations. Describe the work of Samuel Adams in connection with these preparations. Who were the minute men? Describe the battles of Lexington and Concord. What was the effect of these battles on the Americans? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the direction of Lexington and Concord from Boston, and the British line of march.) Discuss the work of the Second Conti- nental Congress. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. Describe the siege and capture of Boston by Washington. (Each pupil should draw a map of the neighborhood of Boston, showing the position of the English and the American troops during the siege of Boston and in the battle of Bunker Hill.) Describe the capture of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Discuss the petition sent to the king by the Second Continental Congress in July, 1775, and also the resolutions passed by that Congress at the time. What do this petition and these resolutions show as to the feeling of the Americans toward England? What were Washington's attitude and feeling on the question of inde- pendence when he first took command of the army? What effect did the petition of the Congress have upon King George? How did this afTect the question of independence? When and why were state governments formed? How did the formation of these gov- ernments aid in the growth of the desire for independence? What effect did the patriotic writings of Thomas Paine have on the people? Why did King George hire foreign soldiers to figlit in America? How was this regarded in Europe and in America? Describe the passage of the Declaration of Independ- ence. What was the nature of the Declaration? How was it received by the Americans? How was the opinion in England divided regarding this war? What was the attitude of the other nations of Europe toward England? Were the Americans united in favor of the war? How did the United States compare with England in wealth? What was the source of its greatest weakness? In what respects had the United States the advantage of England in this war? CAMPAIGNS In what way did the battles of Lexington and Concord and the siege of Boston influence the British plans of campaigns? De- scribe carefully the scope and purpose of the three general cam- paigns adopted by the British after the siege of Boston. Describe the capture of New York by the British. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the battles around New York City.) Explain how the disobedience of Lee after the surrender of Fort Questions and Toffies 153 Washington injured the American cause. In what way was Lee captured bj' the English? Describe the retreat of Washington through New Jersey. Describe the capture of Trenton by Wash- ington. Explain how Washington soon after the capture of Trenton succeeded in compelling the British to give up nearly all of New Jersey. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the work of Washington from the time he began his retreat across New Jersey until he went into winter quarters at INIorristown.) Describe the invasion of Canada by Montgomery and Arnold. What two campaigns did the British renew in the spring of 1777? Describe the campaign which resulted in the capture of Philadelphia by the British. (Each pupil should draw a map fully illustrating the campaign which resulted in the capture of Phila- delphia, and also the battles which followed immediately after its capture.) In what way did Washington's work in this campaign assist in the capture of Burgoyne and his army? Describe fully the conditions and battles which led to the surrender of Burgoyne. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the campaign which resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne.) What effect did Bur- goyne's surrender have on the English government? What efifect did it have on the Americans? How did it assist in bringing about an alliance between France and America? How did the results of this alliance in Europe assist the Americans? How did this alliance affect the policy of the English government toward America? Why would not the Americans accept the liberal terms offered by the English government? Describe the condition of the American Army at Valley Forge. Why did the British leave Philadelphia in June, 1778? Describe the battle of Monmouth. Describe the storming of Stony Point. Discuss the treason of Arnold. After the battle of Monmouth why did the English army give up all the country in the middle and New England states except the city of New York and the country close around that city? What did the British hope to gain by stirring up the Indians on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and New York? Describe how Clark and Sullivan completely defeated the Indians. Tell what you can about Paul Jones. Describe the attempt of the English to capture Charleston in 1776. Why did the British not renew the campaign against the South until after 1778, when their two northern campaigns had practically failed? Describe the southern campaign from the cap- ture of Savannah in the latter part of 1778 to the capture of Charleston in 1780. Describe the work of the Americans under such southern leaders as Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Williams. Describe the campaign of Gates that resulted in his defeat at Camden. Give a full discussion of Greene's southern campaign. 154 'HIE AMERICAN REVOLUTION What was the importance of this campaign? (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating these southern campaigns.) Give a full description of the campaign which led to the sur- render of Cornwallis. How was the news of this surrender received in America, France, and England? What efifect did it have on the war? When and where was the treaty of peace signed that ended the Revolution? What territory did this treaty give to the United States? Why was the success of the y\mericans in this war a great victory for Englishmen as well as for Americans? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the causes of the American Revolution. Discuss the first period of the Revolution. (This period ended with the evacu- ation of Boston by the English.) Discuss the principles for which the Americans were fighting during this first period. Discuss the campaign against Philadelphia. Discuss the campaign which had for its object the separation of New England from the middle states. Discuss the campaign against the southern states. Discuss the events which led to the surrender of Cornwallis. Discuss the eflfect of the Revolution on political liberty in America and in Europe. Subjects for Special Study and General Review (A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the review for the seventh-grade work in history and civics. The pupils should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be permitted free access to available material when prepar- ing these papers for written discussions.) Give a written discussion of Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America. Give a written discussion of Early Discoveries and Explorations in North America. Give a written discussion of The American Indian. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth ,and Political History of the Southern Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of the New England Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and Political History of the Middle Colonies. Give a written discussion of the French in North America down to and including the French and Indian War. Give a written discussion of Industrial Con- ditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Social Con- ditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Government in the Colonies and its Relation to Government today. Give a written discussion of Religion in the Colonics. Give a written discussion of Education in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin of American Institutions. Give a written discussion of the American Revolution, including its Causes and Results. EIGHTH-YEAR GRADE THE CRITICAL PERIOD THE CRITICAL PERIOD I The Nature of the National Government D. 2G7-277; Mc. 128-129, 155-159, 163; Ma. 198- 199; G. 194; T. 131-132, 154-155, 1G8-170; M. 159, 1G2, 189 II The Northwest Territory; The Ordinance oe 1787 D. 277-279; Mc. 1G0-1G2 ; Ma. 203-20G ; G. 197- 198; T. 182-183; M. 190-191 III Conditions oe Money and Business D. 279-280; H. II. 218-220; ^Ic. 1G3-165, 198-200; Ma. 199; G. 195-19G; T. 154-158; M. 173-174, 189-190 IV Anarchy and Rebellion D. 281; Mc. 1G4; Ma. 200-202; G. 19G-197; T. 170-171 ; M. 190 V The Constitutional Convention 1. Brents Leading to tJie Convention D. 281-283; Mc. 1G5; Ma. 202-203, 20G ; G. 198, 200; T. 170-171 2. Organi::ation of tJie Convention: Character of Members D. 283-285; Mc. 166; Ma. 207; G. 200-201; T. 172-173; M. 192 3. Making the Constitution — Tlie Three Great Compromises D. 285-288; Mc. 167; Ma. 207-211; T. 173- 174; M. 192, Note 3 158 THE CRITICAL PERIOD Vl TiiK Constitution 1. Legislative Department D. 288-289; I\Ic. 1G9, 197; T. 177-i:8 2. Executive Department D. 289-290; ^Ic. 1G8, 198; T. 178-179 3. Judicial Department D. 290-294; Mc. 1G9, 197; T. 179 4. Ratification D. 294-296; Mc. 109-170; Ma. 211-213; T. 174-176; M. 193 \'II Organization of the New Government D. 296; Mc. 170-173; Ala. 221-223; T. 181-182 THE CRITICAL PERIOD I The; Nature of the National Government Although the Treaty of Paris ended the war, the condi- tions in the colonies from the standpoint of both business and government continued very serious indeed until the ratification of the Constitution in 1788. In many ways the years between 1783 and 1789 were the most dangerous and important in the history of the United States. The period covered by these years has been aptly and fittingly called by Fiske "The Critical Period of American His- tory." The bad condition of affairs during this period was due mainly to the fact that there was no strong central government in the United States. From the beginning of the Revolution until 1781, the Continental Congress direct- ed and attended to the general affairs of the states. There was no other form of national government. This Congress had no legal standing. It was not created by any consti- tution or law, and .hence its powers and duties were not defined in any way. It tried to do those things which were necessary to carry on the war with success, but as it had no power to enforce its acts or laws, its efforts were not always successful, and as a result Washington's plans were often injured. It could not raise soldiers, levy taxes, or regulate commerce — three powers that a national gov- ernment must have if it wishes to live and have its laws obeyed. All Congress could do was to ask the states to do certain things. It could not do them itself, neither could it compel the states to do them. Sometimes a state granted the request of Congress, and sometimes it did not. In 1781 — about two years before the war closed — a sort of written constitution went into effect. This constitution is known as the Articles of Confederation. It was prepared by Congress and submitted to the states in 1777, but not ratified by all the states and put into effect until 1781, This constitution simply put into written form and legal- 160 THE CRITICAL PERIOD izcd the powers which Congress had already assumed and enjoyed. Congress was still the national or general gov- ernment for all the states, and it had no more powers than it had before this written constitution or agreement had been adopted by the states. In some ways it had less power. It could not even request the states for soldiers or money unless a majorit}' of the delegates from each of nine states voted in favor of making such request, whereas before, Congress could pass any measure if but seven states voted for it. This was indeed a weak form of gov- ernment and naturally did not secure the respect of the American people or of foreign governments. Even when the war was going on, the states often did not grant the requests of Congress, and after the actual pressure of war had been removed, each state did about as it pleased. Congress had no power to carry out its treaties and agree- ments with foreign governments, and as a result these governments, between 1783 and 1780, came to have less and less respect for the United States. The American people were to blame for this weak and inefficient national government. They were afraid that a strong central gov- ernment would try to take away their rights as the govern- ment of England had tried to do. It required five hard and dangerous years after the end of the war to convince them that a strong central government was necessary to their happiness and to the welfare of the new nation. II Tiiiv Northwest Territory ; Tite Orpinance oe 1787 The most important law enacted by Congress under the Articles of Confederation was that known as the Ordinance of 1787. This law provided for the organization and government of what was then called the Northwest Ter- ritory, This territory included what is now the states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. Michigan and Wisconsin. During the greater part of the Revolution it was claimed by Vir- ginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York, but Maryland refused to ratify the Articles of Confederation until these states agreed to cede it to Congress, thus mak- Conditions of Money and Business 101 ing it the common property of all the states. By 1786 the states had given vip their individual claims and this vast territory came under the direct control of Congress. The Ordinance of 1787 providing for the government of this territory is very important, as it has been the basis of the government of all new territory since acquired by the United States, except that acquired in the recent war with Spain. The more important provisions of the ordinance were those providing for the forming of new states out of this territory, and forever forbidding the existence of slavery in the Northwest Territory. A very important result of the cession of the Northwest Territory to Con- gress was that it tended to keep the states from separating during the critical period of our history. Til Conditions of Mone;y and Business The lack of good money in the United States during the Critical Period, and the bad condition of business caused great distress. No gold or silver money was made by the United States until 1793, and all the hard money used was the coin of other nations. After the Revolution nearly all of the hard money in the United States was paid out for imported goods which were much needed by the Americans and which were sent over in great quantities from England. During the Revolution Congress issued large sums of paper' money to carry on the war, but as it soon became plain that Congress could never redeem this money, it very quickly became almost worthless. During the Critical Period there was a strong desire for paper money, which was issued by some of the states, and which, like the Conti- nental Currency issued by Congress, soon became worth- less. This worthless paper money and the lack of hard money caused conditions to become worse and worse. The people could not pay their taxes, and Congress had to borrow money for the running expenses of the govern- ment. Congress could not compel the states to comply with its request for money, and the credit of the United States became very poor among foreign nations. These u 162 THE CRITICAL PERIOD bad conditions showed tlie need of a strong^cr central i^overnment, and this need was brought home more sliarply to the people by the disputes among the states regarding the levying of import duties on one another's products, and conllicting land claims. IV Anarch V and Rebellion The disputes of the states over territory led to the rais- ing of troops by some of the state's, and while all these disputes were finally settled without actual warfare, they indicated plainly that war between the states might break out at any time. The refusal of ]^Iassachusetts to issue paper money led to the breaking out of an open insurrec- tion — known as Shay's Rebellion — against the state au- thority. Some 2,000 men took up arms, and it required more than 4,000 state troops to put down the insurrection. Such conditions alarmed all thinking people, and made them ready to sanction a central government that would be strong enough to protect life and property in all the states, and that would give peace and prosperity to the nation. V The Constitutional Convention 1. Events Leading to the Convention The desirability of opening up and settling the coun- try west of the Alleghanies led to a meeting of delegates from Maryland and Virginia at Washington's home in 1785 to discuss plans for improving navigation on the upper part of the Potomac river and for building roads in the new western country. During this meeting, which was held at Washington's suggestion, Washington sug- gested that Maryland and Virginia h(^ld a joint conven- tion for discussing further the building of roads and can- als, and for discussing uniformity of trade laws. Later it was decided to invite delegates from all the states to attend this convention, but when the meeting assem- bled at Annapolis in September. ITS-"), it was found that onlv five of the states were represented. The delegates, The Constitutional Contention ICH therefore, did not attempt to settle any of these ques- tions, but passed a resohition suggesting to all the states that they send delegates to a convention to be held at Philadelphia in May of the following year. Congress recommended to the states that they appoint such dele- gates, and all the states did so except Rhode Island. 2. Organisation of the Convention: Character of Members The Constitutional Convention is distinctly American, and the one that framed our National Constitution is by far the most important one ever held in America. It was composed of fifty-five members and represented all the states except Rhode Island. In almost every case the states sent their ablest men, and it is no doubt true that never before or since have so many able men come together for the purpose of discussing government. Washington, Franklin and Madison were the chief men in the convention, but others were of only a little less importance. Although their work was to be very im- portant, but few of the members had a definite idea of what they were to do, because the resolution which called the Convention simply stated in a general way that it was called for the purpose of providing a better central government for the United States. Washington was elected president of the Convention, and it sat with closed doors, everything being kept secret until its work was complete. 3. Making the Constitution — TJie Three Great Com- promises Some of the niembers of the Convention were afraid that the people would not ratify a constitution that pro- vided for a strong central government, and they there- fore suggested that the work of the Convention be re- stricted to revising the Articles of Confederation. It was soon decided by the advice of Washington and other leaders, to make a new constitution instead of trying to patch up the old one. Several plans for the new 164 THE CRITICAL PERIOD constitution were submitted to the convention by dele- gates from the various states. The \'irginia plan, among other things, provided for a national legislature of two houses, the members of the lower house to be elected by the states according to their population or wealth, and those of the upper house to be elected by the members of the lower. This plan would give the large states much more power than the small states. The New Jersey plan proposed that the national legis- lature should consist of one house in which all the states should have the same number of representatives. This would give the small states an advantage and the gov- ernment would be simply a league of states as before. The matter was finally settled by a compromise, but not until the discussion had nearly broken up the Conven- tion. It was agreed that the national legislature should consist of two houses. The lower house, called the House of Representatives, was to be composed of mem- bers elected directly by the people, and the number of members from each state was to be determined by the number of people in that state. The upper house, called the Senate, was to be composed of two members from each state, and they were to be elected by the state legislatures. This was the first great compromise of the Convention. The next compromise was between the northern and southern states over the question as to whether the slaves should be counted as population when apportioning representatives to a state. The southern men wished to have all the slaves counted, while the northern members did not want any of the slaves counted as population. It was compromised by agreeing to allow five slaves to count as three white people when estimating population and national taxes. The third great compromise was over the question of commerce and the importation of slaves. All the south- ern states were opposed to giving the new government complete control of commerce. South Carolina and Georgia wanted the right to continue the importation The Constitittion 165 of slaves, but nearly all the other states were opposetl to this. Finally it was agreed that Congress should have complete control of commerce and that slaves might be imported until 1S08. VI Thi; Constitution 1. Legislative Department The new Constitution provided for a national legis- lature, called the Congress of the United States, com- posed of two houses — a lower house, called the House of Representatives, and an upper house, called the Sen- ate. The members of the lower house are elected by the people for a term of two years. The national govern- ment therefore acts upon each individual citizen, while the government under the Articles of Confederation acted upon the states. This is a most important differ- ence, as it makes our present central government, a national government, while under the Articles of Con- federation the government was simply a confederation of states. The members of the Senate are elected by the state legislatures for a term of six years. They repre- sent the states and not the people directly. All the powers not granted to the national government by the Constitution or prohibited to the states by it, still belong to the states, or the people. The Constitution, however, gave the new government all the power necessary for a strong national government. 2. Executive Department The Constitution created a strong executive depart- ment. The head of this department is called the Pres- ident of the United States. He is Commander-in-Chief of the army and navy of the United States, and in addition to other important duties, he must defend the Constitution and execute the laws passed by Congress. There is also a vice-president elected at the same time and in the same manner as the President. In order 166 THE CRITICAL I'RRIOD to assist the President, Congress has, from time to time, created a number of executive departments, whose secretaries constitute the President's Cabinet, and are consulted by him on important matters. In addition to his executive duties the President takes an important part in legislation, since he may veto any bill passed by Congress, and such bill cannot then become a law unless it is passed in each house of Congress by a two-thirds vote. 3. Judicial Department The Constitution created a judicial department which was to consist of a Supreme Court of the United States, and of such inferior courts as Congress might see fit to establish. By the wise legislation of Congress the judicial department has become of great importance in our government. In addition to the Supreme Court, which is at the head of the department, a number of lower courts have been created by Congress. All tlie judges of all these courts are appointed by the President, but each appointment must be confirmed by the Sen- ate. It is the duty of these courts to interpret and apply the laws that relate to the national government. The Constitution, the laws passed by Congress, and the treaties of the United States are interpreted by the regular United States courts. Cases may be tried first in the District Courts, then appealed in succession to the Circuit Courts, Circuit Court of Appeals, and to the Supreme Court. In all cases the decision of the Supreme Court is final. The Supreme Court may declare an act of the President's, or a law passed by Congress unconstitutional and therefore null and void. Thus the Supreme Court is at the very head of the national government. No other judicial body in the world has such power, and in establishing such a body the Constitutional Convention created a new principle of government. Organization of the New Government 167 4. Ratification When the Constitution was given to the states for ratification the people soon became divided into two parties, and there began one of the ablest and most remarkable campaigns in the history of America. Alan}' feared that the central government provided was too strong and might become unjust and overthrow the rights of the people. Those favoring the ratification of the Constitution were called Federalists, and those opposed, Anti-Federalists. Hamilton and Madison were the leaders of those who favored the Constitution, and they did a magnificent work in urging its adoption. The Constitution provided that it should go into effect as soon as ratified by nine states. The nine states neces- sary had ratified the Constitution by March, 1788, and the others soon followed. VII Organization of thi; New Gove;rnmi;nt By the ratification of the new Constitution, the gov- ernment created by the Articles of Confederation came to an end. The first presidential election under the Constitution occurred in January, 1789. Washington received every vote, and thus became the first President of the United States. John Adams received the next largest number and became vice-president. Congress at once proceeded to organize the different depart- ments of government in accordance with the Consti- tution. It passed laws organizing the judicial depart- ment, and establishing four cabinet departments. Thus came to an end the Critical Period of American History, and thus went into effect the present Constitution of the United States. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS THE CRITICAL PERIOD Questions for Class Recitations Why may the time between 1783 and 1789 be called "The Critical Period of American History?" Describe the nature of the national government during the Revolution until the adoption of the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Describe the nature of the national government provided for by the Articles of Confedera- tion. In what way did the Articles of Confederation assist to bring about the bad condition of affairs that existed during the Critical Period? During this period why were the people opposed to creating a strong central government? To what territory did the Ordinance of 1787 apply? Describe in full the government provided for by this ordinance. Discuss the importance of this ordinance with regard to slavery and the government of the territories of the United States. Describe fully the conditions of money and business during the Critical Period. What brought about these conditions? Give a careful discussion of the more important results of these conditions. Describe fully what is meant by "Anarchy and Rebellion" during the Critical Period. How did this threaten the life of the nation? How did these disturbances assist in preparing the way for the adoption of a strong central government? Describe fully the events leading to the Constitutional Conven- tion. Tell what you can about the men that composed the con- vention. How was the convention organized. Did the convention exceed the purpose for which it was called? Describe fully each of the three great compromises of the convention. (In studying the national government in accordance with the questions which follow, the pupil should make constant use of the Constitution.) For how many departments of government did the new Constitu- tion provide? Compare this plan of government with that which existed during colonial times and also with that which exists in the states at the present time. Describe in a general way the legislative department created by the Constitution. What powers and duties belong to the House of Representatives that do not belong to the Senate? What are the reasons for this? What powers and duties belong to the Senate that do not belong to the House of Representatives? What are the reasons for this? Describe the general powers and duties of Congress. How are senators and representatives elected? What is the reason for Questions and Topics 169 having a senator's term of office longer than that of a representa- tive? Describe in a general way the executive department created by the Constitution. How are the President and Vice-President of the United States elected, and for how long a term? Describe in full the President's Cabinet and its general powers and duties. Describe fully the general powers and duties of the President. What power has the President in legislation? What are the duties of the Vice-President? Describe in a general way the judicial department created by the Constitution. Describe briefly the different classes of United States courts. Discuss the general powers and duties of the judicial department. Compare with regard to its power the Supreme Court of the United States with the supreme courts of other nations. W^hen the Constitution was submitted to the people for their approval, why were many opposed to its ratification? Explain fully what is meant bj' Federalist and Anti-Federalist during the cam- paign for the ratification of the Constitution. Who were some of the leading Federalists and Anti-Federalists? Who wrote "The Federalist," and what was its effect on the campaign for the ratification of the Constitution? Discuss briefly the campaign which resulted in the ratification of the Constitution. Discuss the organization of the new government. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the nature of the national government during the Critical Period. Discuss the conditions of the country during the Critical Period. Discuss the Ordinance of 1787. Discuss the events which led to the Constitutional Convention. Explain fully the three great compromises. Discuss the national government provided for by the Constitution. Discuss the ratification of the Constitution. NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE A THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE (In connection with the study of period of European inter- ference, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 217-315.) I Origin of American Neutrality in European Affairs, 1793 D. 302-307; Mc. 20()-207 ; Ma. 227-228; G. 217- 219; T. 189-190; M. 198-199 II The Jay Treaty, 1795 D. 307-309; Mc. 207-209; Ma. 229-230; G. 219; T. 190-191; M. 202-204 III Breach with France, 1799-1800 D. 309-311; Mc. 210-214; Ma. 230-232; G. 220- 221; T. 194-197; M. 204 IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 D. 311-313; Mc. 211-212; Ma. 232; G. 221-222; T. 195; M. 205 V The X^irc.tnia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798- 1799 D. 313; Mc. 212-213; Ma. 232-235; G. 222- 225; T. 195-196; M. 205 VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 D. 314-316; Mc. 218; Ma. 237-238; G. 229-232; T. 201-204; M. 208-209 VII European Interference with American Com- merce, 1800-1812 1. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-1810 D. 316-319; Mc. 224-227; Ma. 241-243; G. 237-239; T. 210-211; M. 211 The Period of Enro['can Interference 171 2. Jefferson's Bmhargo Policy, iSoy-iSog D. 319-320; Mc. 226-228, 250; Ma. 244; G. 239-241; T. 211-212; M. 211-212 VIII The; War o^ 1812, or the War for Commercial Independence, 1812-1814 1. Causes D. 320; H. III. 228-231; Mc. 231; Ma. 244-247; G. 242-244; T. 215; M. 215-217 2. llie War on Land D. 321-327; H. III. 274-312; Mc. 233, 235, 238; Ma. 247-248; 251-255; G. 246, 247- 248, 249-250 ; T. 216-233 ; M. 217-218, 222- 224 3. The War on the Sea D. 327; H. III. 223-255; Mc. 234-237; Ma. 248-252, 253; G. 244-246,246-247, 248; T. 217-220; M. 218-220, 222-223 4. Results D. 328; Ma. 255-256; G. 252 (a) Treaty of Peace, 1814 (b) Commercial and Industrial Results (c) Effect on the Nation IX The Hartford Convention. 1814 D. 328; Ma. 256; G. 251; T. 224-225; M. 224 X Purchase of Florida, 1819 D. 329; Mc. 260-262; Ma. 258-259; T. 230-231; M. 227 172 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE XI Till-; IMoNKoii; Doctrini-:, 1833 D. 330-332; Mc. 2()2-26o ; Ma. 2G7-2G8 ; G. 251- 256; T. 238-240; M. 232-233 B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF I Hamilton's Financial Measures, 1790-1791 D. 332-337; Mc. 198-202; Ma. 223-226; G. 211- 213, 214; T. 184-186; M. 197-198 1. Tariff Duties 2. Excise 3. I'unding of ' National Debt 4. Assumption of State Debts 5. Establishment of the United States Dank II Jkj'i'krson and Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801-1809 D. 337; Mc. 216-218; Ma. 236 ill TiiK National Bank and State Banks D. 338; Mc. 255-257; Ma. 224, 256; T. 226-227 IV Tariee Legislation 1. The First Tariff Act, 1789 D. 338; Mc. 197; Ma. 223; T. 184; M. 197, 246n 2. Grozi'th of the Idea of Protection D. 339; Mc. 303; Ma. 241, 257; T. 231, 232, 240, 248; M. 245-246 C POLITICAL PARTIES I Rise of Political Parties D. 340-342; Mc. 170, 202-203; Ma. 221, 224, 225- 228, 230; G. 211, 220, 263; T. 174-175, 189; M. 195 Grozvth of the Nation 173 II Fall of the Federalist Party D. 342; Mc. 211, 259; Ma. 232-235, 245; T. 195, 198, 225, 228 III The Republican Party D. 343-345; Mc. 215, 229, 259-260, 277, 297-301; Ma. 235-236, 256; G. 224-226; T. 198-201, 228- 229, 241-242; M. 206 D GROWTH OF THE NATION (In connection with the study of this subject, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 143-215.) I Growth in Territory and Porulation D. 345; Mc. 241, 244-246, 266-268; Ma. 237, 238- 240, 258 ; G. 226, 229, 232, 254 ; T. 244 II Movement of Population D. 345-347; Mc. 241-242; Ma. 214, 221; G. 229, 232 1. Cattscs 2. Direction III Results of Westward Expansion 1. Formation of States D. 347; Mc. 243-245; Ma. 257-259 2. Internal Improvements D. 347; Mc. 251-252, 279-286; Ma. 216- 218; 260-264; T. 209, 233-235, 245; M. 231- 232, 235-236 3. Strui::;glc Over Slavery: The Missouri Compro- mise, 1820 D. 348-351; Mc. 274-276; Ma. 219, 259-260; T. 235-238; M. 227-231 IV Growth of National Unity D. 351-353; Ma. 255 174 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE I Industriai, Conditions D. 353; Mc. ;!()I-:5();'. ; ALn. 215-216 1. Manufactures D. 353-355; Mc. 219-250; Ma. 216 2. Agriculture D. 355-356; Mc. 248-249; T. 244 3. Commerce D. 357; Mc. 248-249; Ma. 215, 241, 257 4. Transportation and Communication D. 357-360; H. III. 84-104; Mc. 252-253; Ma. 216-218. 240, 260-264; G. 207, 228, 234, 256, 259-263; T. 212, 233-235, 244 II Social Conditions (In connection with the study of this subject each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1-142.) D. 361; H. III. 56-61, 126-138, 143-149; Ma. 218-219 III Government D. 362 IV Religion D. 362 ; H. III. 53 ; Ma. 219 V Education (In connection with this subject, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 317-371.) D. 363-364; Ma. 264-266 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE The history of the United States from the time the new government was organized in the spring of 1789 to the begin- ning of the Civil War in 1861, may be divided into two periods. The first period extends from 1789 to about 1828, and the second period from about this date to the Civil War. This division is based on strictly historical grounds, and is not made simply as a matter of convenience. The history of the United States during each of these periods was shaped and controlled by many forces and conditions, but there were cer- tain causes and conditions that had the main or controlling effect upon the history of each period. During the greater part of the first period, the interference of foreign nations in the affairs of the United States had a profound, important, and controlling effect on our history. A large part of the legislation of Congress related either directly or indirectly to this interference. This constant meddling in our affairs by Europe led finally to another war wuth England, which secured for the United States the proper respect and consideration of all the other nations. The main or controlling force in the history of the United States during the second period was the question of slavery in its relation to the westward growth of the nation in territory and population. During both periods the growth of the United States in territory, wealth and popu- lation was most rapid and important, but the main question in relation to this growth during the first period was European interference and the main question during the second period was slavery. During the first period, however, slavery was quietly becoming more and more firmly established in the South, but the pressure of foreign nations on the United States and the manner in which the western country was settled, kept this question fairly quiet. The opposition to Europe during the first period tended to unite the American people and to create in them a patriotism and love for the nation and the National government, and to break down the idea of state 176 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE sovereignty that existed when the Constitution was adopted. Durinji- this first period, however, slavery was quietly causing the social and the industrial conditions of the North and v^outh to become more and more unHke, and during the second period this resulted in bitter discussions that ended in a dread- ful ci\il war. It therefore becomes plain that the controlling forces or conditions in the history of the L^nited States from 1789 to about 1828 were European interference in our affairs and the rapid growth of the nation in territory and population, and that the controlling force or condition in our history from about 1828 to 18G1 was the slavery question in relation to this continued rapid growth of the nation in territory and popu- lation. Because of these controlling forces and conditions, the first period will be called, National Growth and European Interference, and the second period wdll be called, Westward Expansion and Slavery, THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE I Origin oi? American Neutrality in European Affairs, 1793 In 1793 war broke out between France and England. The people of the Ignited States were in favor of assisting France. To do this meant the destruction of American commerce, and war with the English and Indians along the frontier of the United States. It also meant that the United States would be involved in. European struggles which did not affect American affairs. The time had come when the United States must decide whether she would meddle in European affairs which did not concern her particularly and which must often involve a useless loss of life and property, or whether she would remain neutral, Washington foresaw the vast importance of this decision, and after mature deliberation announced in a proclamation that the j^olicy of the l''^nited States should be non-interference in I'.uropean affairs. This decision marked Washington as a statesman of the highest rank. The people all over the Ignited States, in mass meetings and through the press, were urging the government to The Period of European Interference 177 assist France, but Washington held fast to his purpose, and was finally sustained by Congress. This action on Washington's part was made doubly hard by the presence in America of Genet, an agent of the French government, who roused great enthusiasm among the people, and swung public opinion to the side of the French. By the treaty made with France during the Revolution, the United States was under obligations to aid France in case of war with Great Britain. The United States, however, was not called upon by the French government to fulfill these obligations. The American government would have been placed in an awkward position had such a demand been made. Thus was born American Neutrality and the United States has ever since held steadfastly to this principle. The importance to the United States of this principle or unwritten law can hardly be overestimated. It has saved this nation from many a bloody and useless war, and has permitted it to develop its natural resources unmolested by European quarrels and conflicts. The United States under Washington established the unwrit- ten law that she should not interfere in the affairs of Europe which did not concern her, and thirty years later, under Monroe, she established the unwritten law that no European nation should interfere with strictly American affairs vmless directly concerned. TI The Jay Treaty, 1795 Some important questions had been left unsettled b)' the treaty of 1783 at the close of the Revolution, and the war between France and England gave rise to other dif- ficulties, especially concerning American trade. The Eng- lish insisted on enforcing what is known as the "Rule of 175G" which provided that a neutral could not enjoy in time of war a trade prohibited in time of peace. For in- stance : The Americans were not allowed to trade with the French West Indies in time of peace, but when the war broke out with England, the French were glad to open their West Indian ports to American commerce for the sake of obtaining supplies. By the Rule of 1750, 12 178 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE which Great Britain now put into force, this trade was forbidden to Americans, and thus their conimcrce was greatly injured. Another contention arose regarding the right of England to impress British sailors from American vessels into the I>ritish navy. England claimed the right to search American vessels anywhere on the seas for British sailors, and to forcibly remove them to British ships. In order to settle these various difficulties, Chief Justice Jay was sent by Washington to England to make a treaty. Some of the provisions of the treaty were not favorable to the United States and there was much ad- verse discussion before the treaty was finally ratified. While the treaty was not favorable to American interests it accomplished its purpose — the avoidance of war with England at that time. III Brkacii with France, 179()-17n9 The Jay treaty gave to England valuable commercial rights. France was irritated by the Genet affair and the Neutrality Proclamation, and the Jay treaty, favorable as it was to England, still further exasperated her. The Genet affair had done much to turn American sympathy from France, and the insults to the American representa- tives in France — the X. Y. Z. afifair — roused the indigna- tion of the United States. For awhile diplomacy seemed unable to avert war between the two countries. In fact fighting actually began on the sea, but the uniform suc- cess of the American navy and a change of government in France caused her to re-open diplomatic relations and war was averted. IV Tniv Alien and Skdition Acts, 1708 The firm stand taken by the Federalists in the trouble with France made Adams and the Federalists very popu- lar, but the passage by Congress of several laws, known as the Alien and Sedition Laws, brought them suddenly into great disfavor. The violent and abusive attacks on the administration and tlic Federalist leaders by the Re- publican papers, a large nuiuber of whose editors were TJic Period of European Interference 1^9 foreigners, led to the passage of these laws. The first law against aliens raised the period of residence necessary for naturalization to fourteen years. The act known as the Alien Act gave the President power to deport from the United States any foreigners whom he considered dangerous to the country. The Sedition Act gave the President and the officers of the government the right to imprison and fine those who uttered or wrote anything of a seditious or treasonahle nature against the govern- ment, or even anything which tended to defame the gov- ernment or any of its officers. The Sedition Act was aimed at the press, and was the first and last attempt of the national government to interfere with its freedom. V The: Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798-1799 The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked by the Republicans led by Jefiferson and Madison. They felt that the Federalist party was using its power in the gov- ernment to destroy the rights of the people. This feeling took definite shape in the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky, which passed resolutions on the subject. The Kentucky resolutions were drawn up by Jefferson and were quite radical. They stated that the Constitution was a compact between sovereign states, and that the laws passed by Congress which were judged unconstitutional by a state might be declared null and void by that state. The Virginia Resolutions were drawn up by Madison. They also called the Constitution a compact, and put forth nullification as the rightful remedy in case of the passage of laws in violation of the Constitution. Both of these series of resolutions are of great importance because they were the first definite expression of the doctrine of State Rights as opposed to National Sovereignty. VI The Purchase oe Louisiana, 1803 The Mississippi river was the main outlet for the com- merce of all the American territory between the Alle- ghanies and the Mississippi, hence the possession of the mouth of the great river was a matter of great importance 180 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE to the settlers of this re<^ion. So long as Spain held this, there was little to be feared by the Americans, for Spain was a weak nation, and by a treaty made in 17i)5 allowed the United States the right of deposit — that is, the right to land merchandise, or to transfer it from river boats and steamers to sea-going vessels — at New Orleans. In 1802 Spain ceded the entire Louisiana territory, including the mouth of the Mississippi, to France. This was a just cause of alarm and protest for the Americans. Napoleon, who was master of France and very powerful in conti- nental Europe at that time, had plans for building up an American Empire, and seemed to be in a position to do so. The closing of the port of New Orleans to American trade at the time of the transfer of the territory from Spain to France brought forth such a protest from the western settlers that Jefferson sent a commission to France to try to buy the territory at the mouth of the river. Napoleon at first refused, l)ut the failure of an expedition to San Domingo, and the renewal of war with England led him to change his mind and he offered to sell not only the land at the mouth of the river, but the whole of the Louisiana territory to the United States. He was afraid that England might get possession of this territory, and, if France must lose it, he preferred that it should belong to the United States. The price paid for this vast domain was only $15,000,000. During the administrations of Washington and Adams, Jefferson had advocated a strict construction of the Con- stitution, but in the purchase of Louisiana he gave it a looser construction than the Federalists had ever dared to give. VTI EUROPKAN InTERFKRKNCK with AlMTRTCAN COMMKRCK, 1800-1812 1. Decrees ami Orders in Council, 1S06-1S10 From 1803 to 1815, France and England were con- tinuously at war. Each nation tried to injure the other bv destroving its commerce. In order to do this the The Period of European Interference 181 British by "Orders in Council" and Napoleon by "De- crees," would declare the ports of the other to be in a state of blockade, although they were unable to make such blockade effective by actually keeping war vessels at the ports declared blockaded. England and France both claimed the right to take as prizes all merchant vessels trading with the enemy in violation of the com- mercial regulations which each had issued. This pol- icy, if carried out, would have resulted in the destruc- tion of American commerce. The United States, how- ever, maintained that a neutral state had a right to trade freely with either of the nations at war, unless her ports were actually blockaded. From 1803 to 1809 the dispute on this point between the United States and the two nations at war, England and France, was almost continuous ; and on several occasions it came very nearly involving the United States in war. In fact it would have done so had it not been for the weak attitude of Jefferson. 2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, i8o/-i8op Jefferson tried to injure first England and then France by having Congress pass what were known as the Non-importation and the Embargo Acts. The Non- Importation Act forbade the importation of goods from England. The Embargo was much more severe and forbade the sending of any goods from the United States to any foreign nation. As the Embargo bore more heavily on America than on any other nation, it was not a success, and was abandoned. A law forbidding com- merce with England or France but allowing it with other nations was passed in place of the Embargo Law, and was much better for American commerce. Mil TiiK War oi^ 1812, ok tiik War I'OR CommI'RCIal Inde- rENDENCE, 1812-1814 1. Causes The causes of this war were primarily interference with American trade, and impressment of American 182 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE seamen. The character of the United States Congress at this time had much to do with the immediate decla- ration of war. Very few of the statesmen who con- trolled affairs during- and for a quarter of a century after the Revolution were now members of the national legislature. Statesmen of a younger generation had come into power. They represented the young and ris- ing democracy of America, and especially of the West. They were full of hope and strength, believed in the fu- ture greatness of the United States, and were humiliated and annoyed by the continual insults offered this nation by France and England. From the very first they were determined to end this humiliation, even though compelled to resort to war. Both England and France were involved in offenses against American commerce and American seamen; but Great I'ritain was not only the greater offender in these respects, but had also of- fended in other ways, so war was declared against her. The arrogant bearing of the English leaders toward America was irritating to Americans, and the continual Indian troubles on the frontiers, which were due largely to English iniluence, also caused bitter feeling. 2. The ITar on Land In this war the Americans were, as a rule, unsuc- cessful in their campaigns on land. The soUliers were untrained, and the t)fticers, frequently owing their ap- pointments to political reasons, were generally incom- petent. Neither nation, however, was successful in in- \ading the territory of the other. The two most notable events of the war on land were the capture of Washing- ton and the burning of its public buildings by the British, and the disastrous defeat of an army of British veterans at New Orleans by General Jackson. 3. The War on the Sea Although, at the beginning of the war, the Americans had but twelve vessels as against England's twelve bun- Tlic Period of European Interference 183 dred, the American navy succeeded in winning a series of brilliant victories, and often against great odds. Because of England's superiority in the number of ships, most of the American vessels were finally either driven from the sea or blockaded in the harbors of the United States, Perhaps even more important than the work of the regular navy was the injury which Ameri- can privateers did to the commerce of England. 4. Results (a) Treaty of Peace The points of dispute which caused the war were not mentioned in the treaty of peace. The treaty provided for the restoration of the conquests of both parties, and arranged for the settlement of boundary disputes and other minor points. (b) Commercial and Industrial Results The main result of this war was the commercial independence of the United States, and never since then has any nation interfered with American com- merce or attempted the impressment of American seamen. The restrictions on commerce during the war caused the birth of American factories by com- pelling the capitalists, especially those in the North, to invest in manufacturing rather than in shipping enter- prises, and by compelling the people of the country to rely upon home industry for their manufactured goods. (c) Effect on the Nation The war had the effect of welding the Nation more firmly, and of making it independent not only of Europe, but of its own colonial traditions. It com- pelled a broader interpretation of the powers of the Constitution. The Nation now took a higher posi- tion among the nations of the world than it had held before. 184 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN IN lEREERENCE IX TiiK Hartford Convention, 1814 As one of the principal industries of New I{n<;land was foreign commerce, the Embargo and Non-Importation pol- icy of Jefferson, and especially the Enforcement Act which provided drastic measures for the enforcement of this policy, bore heavily upon the business interests of that sec- tion. The people of New England soon became strongly opposed to these laws which interfered with her commerce. In 1809 the legislature of Massachusetts passed resolu- tions which in spirit were much the same as the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. New England was strongly Federalist, and was vigorously opposed to Jefferson and the principles of the Republican party. The people of New England were also inclined to be friendly with Eng- land because of commercial relations with that nation, and were therefore opposed to the War of 1812. As this war progressed. New England became still more strongly op- posed to it, and events seemed to indicate that her leaders were contemplating some kind of armed resistance to the national government. In 1814 delegates from the various New England states met in convention at Hartford, Con- necticut, to consider ])lans for unity of action on the part of New England. This convention conducted its pro- ceedings behind closed doors, and drew up resolutions (.k'claring, among other things, that when the Constitution was violated by acts of Congress, it became the duty of a state to interpose its authority. The Convention sent a delegate to Congress bearing these and other resolutions of a similar nature, but before the delegate reached Con- gress, peace was declared. X Tiuv l\'KcriASE oi' Ei.oKn)A, 181!) The United v^tales had long wished to secure the Elor- idas, and during the war of 1812 had seized a part of West Florida. Spain was unable to govern well her pos- sessions so far from home, and Florida was in a constant turmoil. It was made a refuge by all sorts of criminals, and vsas the source of constant trouble to the United The Period of Hiti(>l\\i)i Infcrfcrcnce 1S5 States. The invasion of Florida by an expedition under Andrew Jackson which had been sent against the Semi- nole Indians in Georgia, brought matters to a crisis. This resulted in Spain's selling East Florida to the United States for $5,000,000 and giving up all her claims to West Florida. The United States, at the same time, gave up its claim to Texas. XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1833 About 1815 Russia announced that she claimed the Pa- cific Coast from Alaska down to the 51st parallel, and that no foreign vessel should approach within one hun- dred miles of the shore. It was her evident intention to extend her influence southward and to shut out the United States from the Pacific Coast. John Ouincy Adams, as Secretary of State, entered a vigorous protest against these designs of Russia, in which he stated that neither North nor South America was open to further European colonization. Between 1810 and 1822 all of the Spanish- American colonies in North and South America, taking advantage of the weakened condition of Spain, threw off Spanish authority and established independent republics, wdiich were recognized by the United States as independ- ent powers. These republics included Mexico and all of South America save Brazil, which still belonged to Por- tugal, In 1S15 nearly all of the European powers, except England, formed what is known as the Holy Alliance, their object being to perpetuate monarchial government and to assist Spain in the recovery of her lost possessions. Great Britain proposed that the United States combine with her against this Holy Alliance. The United States declined to act in concert with Great Britain, but Presi- dent Monroe, at the suggestion of Adams, included in his annual message to Congress a statement known as the Monroe Doctrine. This statement defined the attitude of the United States on the question of European coloniza- tion in the New World and European interference with American republics. The doctrine has ever since been 1S6 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE adheretl to 1)\' the I/nited States, aiul in substance is as follows : 1. European nations will not be pcrniittetl to establish any new colonies in America or to add any more territory to those already existing-. 2. Kuropcan nations will not be permitted to interfere with the internal afifairs of American republics. The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the prin- ciple of American Neutrality established by Washington. FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF I Hamilton's Financial INIkasures, 1790-1791 The new government found the national treasury empty, with a debt of about $54,000,000 on hand, and the credit of the United States both at home and among for- eign nations almost worthless. Alexander Hamilton, Sec- retary of the Treasury, broug"!!! forward a plan for plac- ing the financial affairs of the government on a firm foundation. This plan proved him to be one of the ablest financiers in the United States. His plan was as follows : 1. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. 2. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled liquors. 3. The funding of the National Debt. The old bonds of the nation had fallen to twenty-five per cent of their face value. New LTnited States bonds were to be issued for the total face value of the old and ex- changed for them. 4. The assumption of state debts. Debts contracted by the states during the Revolution for its support were to be assumed and paid in full by the national government. 5. Establishment of the United States Bank. The management of the bank was to be private, but the Financial Legislation 187 United States was to be a lari;"e shareholder, reserv- ing the right of examining- into its financial condition. His object here was to enable the government to man- age its financial affairs more easily and to give stabil- ity to money matters thronghont the country. After much discussion Hamilton's entire plan for estab- lishing the credit of the national government was adopted. The result of its operation was better than Hamilton him- self had dared hope. The credit of the United States was firmly established, both at home and abroad. It was not - long before a dollar's w^orth of United States bonds was worth a dollar of gold in London, whereas before a dollar's worth of these bonds was worth less than twenty-five cents. The success of this plan tended to give the people confidence in the strength, power, and dignity of the na- tional government. n jKFt'iiRSON AND Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801-1809 The public debt of the United States had increased from about $77,000,000 in 1793 to nearly $83,000,000 in 1800. The income had increased in the same period from less than $4,000,000 to more than $10,000,000. Jefferson ad- vocated a reduction of public expenses in order to lessen the taxes and to pay the public debt. The Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, formed a plan for the car- rying out of this policy. The reduction in expense was accomplished by reducing the army about one-half, and the navy from twenty-seven vessels in commission for service to seven, and by stopping all construction of ves- sels for the navy. This was practically the destruction of the military defenses of the Nation, but this policy, to- gether with other measures, was so successful in accom- plishing its purpose that by 1808 the public debt had been reduced to $45,000,000 and the taxes had been reduced more than $1,000,000, although the expenses of the gov- ernment had constantly increased, and Louisiana had been bought and paid for in this period. Gallatin's suc- cess marks him as a financier of great ability. 188 NATIONAL GROW'III AND EUROPEAN IN'IERFERENCE IJI TiiK National Banks and Statk Banks At the time of the estal)hshment of the National Bank in 17!)1 there were only four State hanks in existence ; when the twenty-year charter of the National Bank ex- pired in l.Sll, there were eighty-eight of these state banks in existence, and in the three years following this number was more than doubled. In general these State banks were hostile to the National bank, for they hoped to secure its business and the government deposits. Some of the states were interested in these banks, and for that and other reasons took action in their legislatures against re- newing the charter of the National Bank. Many feared the influence of this bank as a monopoly, and also as a corrupt factor in politics. All these and other influences prevented the renewal of the charter in ISll, and thus during the war of 1812, when most needed, a tried and solid financial system was lacking in the United States. At the close of the war the financial affairs of the nation were in a bad condition and because of this, Congress in 18 1(), renewed the charter of the United States Bank for a period of twenty 3'ears. iV Taku-i- Lkcislation 1. The I' list Tariff .let, jySc^ In order to secure revenue for the new government the first Congress at once proceeded to levy import duties. During the discussion of the bill for this pur- pose, the (juestion as to whether one of the main objects of import duties shouUl be the protection of American industries, was first brought before the American peo- ple. The main (object of this bill as passed was the obtaining of revenue, but the law was also protective in a small measure. 3. Grozvth of the Idea of Protection Up to 181() there was very little change in the tariff policy of the United States. While the duties were changed and in many cases increased from time to Political Parties 180 time, the principle of tariff for revenue chiefly remained the same. The War of 1813, however, had aided the development of American manufactures and their pro- tection and encouragement by the government became a matter of great importance. This led to the passing of a tariff law in 1816 which had for its express pur- pose the protection of American industries. This prin- ciple was established still more firmly by the passage in 1824 of a still higher protective tariff. There was practically no opposition to the tariff policy of the government up to the adoption of the principle of protection. Even in ISIG the opposition was not strong, but in the few years following it gathered strength, especially in the South. The northern and eastern states had developed valuable manufacturing interests, and these sections were, as a whole, favorable to a protective policy. The South, on the other hand, had remained almost entirely agricultural, and had de- veloped no manufacturing interests of importance. The people of the South, therefore, thought they had nothing to gain by the principle of protection, and became strongly opposed to it. While those in New England who were engaged in manufacturing favored a pro- tective tariff, those who were engaged in foreign com- merce were opposed to it from the first. POLITICAL PARTIES I Rise of Political Parties Political parties in the United States had their real origin during Washington's administration. They began with the difference of opinion on the part of the people and statesmen of the United States as to the nature of the new government. Section 8, Article I, of the Constitu- tion, after enumerating specific duties of Congress, says that Congress shall have power "To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all Powers vested by this 190 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof." Washington, Hamilton and Adams were the leaders of those who thought that the Constitution should be loosely interpre- ted ; that is, that this clause should be taken to mean that the new government should exercise not only the powers specifically granted to it by the Constitution, but that it should also assume such implied powers as might be necessary or even expedient to carry out those powers specifically given to it. They wished to centralize the government, and believed that it should be controlled by the well-born, educated and wealthy classes, Jeflferson • and Madison were the leaders of those who believed that the Constitution should be strictly construed ; that Congress should assume only such implied powers as were abso- lutely necessary to carry out the powers specifically given to it. They did not believe that the government should be centralized or controlled by the up]icr classes. They had faith in the common people, and believed that the affairs of government could be safely entrusted to them. But while Jeflferson held these democratic views, his ideas were very different from those represented by the rising democracy which came into power with the election of Jackson in 1828. During his administration, Jefferson, in a measure, became converted to the loose construction of the Constitution. Washington, Hamilton and yVdams and their followers became known as the Federalist party, and Jefferson and his party were called the Anti-Federalist or Republican party. II Faix or TnK Fki)i;rai.tst Party During the first years of the government under the Constitution the Federalist party was supreme. Washing- ton and John Adams were Federalist presidents, Wash- ington's term lasting from 1789 to 1707, and Adams's from 1797 to 1801. To that party must be given the credit of establishing the government upon a sound and not too radical basis. Yet it was doomed by its very makeup Political Parties 191 to early destruction. It was out of harmony with the rising- democratic spirit of the RepubHc, and its fall marked not only the end of a political party, but also the passing of the old aristocratic ideas of government from American political life. The chief cause of the fall of the Federalist party was its theory of government by the leaders rather than by the mass of the people, which was not in accord with the democratic tendencies of the age, and it was this that made the fall of the party permanent. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts brought a great deal of impopularity on the party, which was fur- ther weakened by internal dissensions. The opposition of the Federalists to the War of 1813 gave the death blow to their already fallen party. Ill The Republican Party Wliile the Federalists did not entirely disappear as a political party until after the War of 1812, they lost most of their importance in political life after the election of Jefferson in 1800, and the rest of this period was a period of Republican supremacy. The rapid growth of the West was an important factor in the growth of the Republican party. The new states carved out of the ter- ritory west of the Alleghanies represented the rising dem- ocracy of the Repul)lic — the belief that one man is as good as another irrespective of his wealth or birth. The effect of this belief in American politics is first seen in the election of Jefferson, and later in the election of the war congress of 1811-13. Jefferson was the first Repub- lican president, holding that office from 1801 to 1800. He was followed by Madison, 180!)-! 81 7. Monroe, who was president from 1817 to 1835 was nominally a Republican president, but his administratiou was characterized by an almost total lack of party feeling, so much so that this period is commonly known as the "Kra of good feeling." John Quincy Adams was the fourth of the Republican presidents, and it was during his administration that the party broke up into personal factions. 192 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE GROWTH OF THE NATION I Growth in Tkkkitorv and Population At the close of the Revolution the territory of the United States extended from the Atlantic to the Missis- sippi, and from Canada to Florida. Of all this vast area of over 800,000 square miles, less than 300,000 were occupied ; and of the 3,000,000 inhabitants, the great mass lived east of the Appalachian mountains. By the end of this period (1828) the area of the United States had increased — through the acquisition of the Louisiana ter- ritory in 1803 and of Florida in 1819 — to more than 2,000,000 square miles, of which G00,000 were settled. The population had reached nearly 12,000,000, the in- crease in the V/est being much more rapid than in the East. n AIOVI'MF.NT OF PoPUT:iO WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY (1) California was to be admitted as a free state, while Utah and New Mexico were to be organized as territories without any provision as to slavery. This practically nul- lified the Missouri Compromise, for while that measure was passed to settle the slavery question in the Louisiana territory, it was but natur:il that the parallel of 3G° .30' should be considered as extendiui;- with the acquisition of new territory, as the boundary line between free and slave territory. (2) The slave trade was to be prohibited in the Dis- trict of Columbia. (3) A strict fugitive slave law should be passed by Congress. After violent discussion this compromise was adopted. W'hile, as in the case of the Missouri Compromise, many thought that the slavery question was now settled, the Compromise of ISoO was but a temporary measure, and secured luerely a short lull in the slavery agitation. Ill Till-; Kansas-Nkhraska Biij,, 1854 The I'ugitive Slave Law, which was part of the Com- promise of 1850, was energetically made use of by the slave owners of the South, and this served to create a more intense feeling against slavery in the North. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," though an unjust representation of the slavery system, was a powerful instrument in intensifying this feeling. Under these conditions the Democrats elected Pierce to the Presidency, and secured control of both Houses of Congress. The leaders of both parties were anxious to let the slavery question rest, but Senator Douglas introduced a bill, known as the Kansas-Nebraska Dill, which provided for the organization of Kansas and Nebraska into territories, and which expressly stated that the question of slavery should be left to the people of these territories. As Kansas and Nebraska were both entirely north of 30° 30', this was a direct violation of the Missouri Compromise, and the bill was strongly opposed on that The Slavery Question 231 account by the Free-soilcrs. The bill as iinally passed, however, provided expressly for the repeal of the Missouri Compromise and thus re-opened the slavery question in all this western territory. IV Struggle; for Kansas, 1854-1861 As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed, a long, severe struggle for Kansas began. Since this territory would be free or slave as the settlers should decide, both the North and the South hurried in settlers in order to se- cure a majority of voters. In addition to the actual set- tlers a large number of men came into Kansas from Mis- souri temporarily for the specific purpose of carrying the election for slavery by force and fraud. By illegal methods they succeeded in electing a wholly pro-slavery legislature. As the free-state settlers had not been al- lowed to vote, they formed a government of their own and asked for admission to the Union. The struggle which followed was a bloody one and lasted until 1861, when it was settled by the admission of Kansas to the Union as a free state. V The Drkl) Scott Decision, 1857 Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from ]\Iis- souri into the free state of Illinois, and then into territory, which by the Missouri Compromise was to be forever free. On his return to ]\Iissouri he sued for his freedom on the ground that slavery could not exist on free soil, and there- fore his residence in the free North had made him free. The Supreme Court of the United States held that a slave was not a citizen, but property, and therefore had no rights in the courts. This meant that neither the Congress of the United States nor the legislature of a state or territory could interfere with slavery. It meant that slavery could exist in all the northern states and in all the western terri- torv. This decision still further embittered the North. 232 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY \'I LiNCOLN-DoUGI.AS DlvBATKS, 1858 In 1858 Stephen A. Douglas, a leading Democrat, was a candidate for re-election to the United States Senate from the state of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln was the Repub- lican candidate, and a series of debates between the two men was held in various towns of Illinois during the cam- paign. In these debates the principles of "squatter sov- ereignty," the Dred Scott decision, and other phases of the expansion of slavery were ably discussed. While the Democratic candidate won the election, the debates served to bring Lincoln into national prominence, and to put the issues on slavery forcibly before the people. Some of the admissions forced from Douglas concerning the control of slavery by Congress, alienated the extreme Southern Democratic party in the following presidential election. VII Eli'XTion 01" Lincoln^ ISGO Lincoln's position on the slave question was made plain in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, in which he declared that he was emphatically opposed to the extension of slavery, and that the nation must in time become all slave or all free. The majority of the people in the North agreed with him. While the Republican party disclaimed any in- tention of interfering with slavery in the states where it existed, the South recognized that the election of Lincoln to the presidency meant that slavery would not be further extended and therefore considered it necessary, in order to preserve the institution of slavery, to withdraw from the Union. This withdrawal marks the beginning of the Civil War. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE During the period from 1828 to 18()0 there was a marked de- velopment in the United States along institutional lines. This statement, however, applies more especially to the North and West, for in many ways institutional life in the South remained Institutional Life 233 almost stationary. The growth and apphcation of hberal democratic ideas had an important effect on county, state and national government. There was great development in the North and West along industrial lines, and a marked growth in social, religious and educational matters. The South did not have her share in this general advancement, for slavery caused her to remain almost strictly agricultural, and thus her institutional life was becoming more and more unlike that of the rest of the nation. Events were soon to prove that these diverging lines of growth could not be brought together peace- ably. I Industrial Conditions This period was one of wonderful industrial advance- ment for the nation as a whole. Foreign immigration, im- portant inventions, improvements in machinery of all kinds, and the marked improvement in transportation and communication with the consequent opening up of the country, were all factors in this industrial advance, and re- sulted in the building up of great manufacturing and com- mercial interests, the building of cities, and the develop- ment of new industries. White labor was unable to com- pete with slave labor, consequently not only foreign im- migrants passed by the slave holding states and went into the North and Northwest, but a large number of the white laborers whose homes w^ere in the South left their old homes and went North where free labor prevailed. Free labor is necessary for advancement along commercial and manufacturing lines, and hence the South was shut out from developing its immense natural resources along these lines and was kept at almost a standstill industrially. The northern free states in 18(50 outnumbered the southern slave holding states in white population by about 10,000,000, or more than two to one. Since agriculture tends to scatter population, and manufacturing and com- merce tend to centralize it, many cities sprang up in the North but very few in the South. 234 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVI-.RY 1. Means of Trans [^ortation and Continunicalion: Oilier Inventions The first railroad was built in the first years of this period and by 1860 there were about 30,000 miles of railways in operation in the United States. This enormous growth had a most important effect on in- dustrial conditions. It opened up large areas of new country to trade and greatly cheapened the cost of transportation, thus making many industrial changes. During this period street horse-cars were first put into use in the cities. In ISM the first telegraph line in the W'orld was constructed and by 1S()0 telegraph lines w'cre in operation throughout settled parts of the country. The telegraph and the steam railway have done more to do away wnth sectionalism than any other influence, for they have brought all parts of the country into close contact, and thus have made for the unity of the nation. 2. Agricnltnre Agriculture continued to be the one great industry of the South. The great demand for cotton by the north- ern and the English manufacturers caused cotton to be- come the chief southern product. In the northern and northwestern states large amounts of food-stuff's, par- ticularly wheat and corn were raised and great quanti- ties were exported. 3. Manufactures and Mining The manufacturing interests which had their rise in the preceding period increased wonderfully during this period. The many new inventions, including the reaper, the sewing machine, improvements in agricultural and household implements as well as in machinery for fac- tories, and the extensive use of steam engines of various kinds were a part of, and were stimulating to, the great advance in manufactures. By 1800 the value of the manufacturing industries had reached several thousand Institutional Life 235 millions, and more than a million people were given em- ployment in the factories. Great progress was made during this period in the de- velopment of the iron industry. This was due largely to the increased demand caused by the building of rail- roads, bridges, and machinery of all kinds. Pennsyl- vania was the center of the iron industry. Coal at this time first began to be used as a fuel in place of wood, and this caused the development of coal mines. The mining of gold and silver and other minerals began to be carried on in the western states during the latter part of this period. The real development of the mineral resources of the country, however, took place in the period following the Civil War. 4. Commerce and Cities While an important commerce, both domestic and foreign, had been built up in the preceding period, it was now greatly improved and extended. This was due largely to the improved methods of transportation together with the growth of manufactures. By the end of this period American domestic and foreign commerce combined had become greater than that of any other nation. The rapid growth of commerce and manufac- tures was closely related to the rapid growth of cities. IT Social Conditions Socially, as well as industrially, the South was at a standstill. Class distinctions remained about the same. The new democracy which was leveling all classes in the North and West exerted but little influence here. Class privileges had largely disappeared in the northern and western sections of the country during the preceding period. It was at this time that great improvements in the conditions of the working classes began to be made in the way of better modes of living, higher wages and shorter hours. 236 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY III GoVliRNMKNT As has already been stated, the p^rowth and application of liberal democratic ideas during this period, had a marked effect on government in the United States. This is indicated by the election of Jackson, and the origin of national nominating conventions. Especially was this shown in the many new constitutions formed by new and old states during this time, in which the powers of the governors and legislatures were in many cases limited. The judicial department was also brought more under popular control by changes in the method of selecting judges. In many cases where the judicial officers had been appointed for terms lasting during good behavior, they were now elected by the people for comparatively short terms. The town and county governments were made more democratic, particularly in the new western states, by the enlarging of the number of officers elected directlv by the people. JMunicipal government now first became important, for before this time both the numlier and size, of the cities were small. As in the case of the state and county governments, the government of the cities was very democratic. IV Rkligion About 1830 a great wave of religious enthusiasm to- gether with a general reforming spirit swept over the whole nation, and resulted in the rapid growth of church organizations, especially of the Evangelical sects. In the latter part of this period, slavery caused a division in some of these churches and different branches were formed, such as North and South Methodists. The Mormon church had its rise at this time, and the persecution of its members on account of their doctrines led to its migration into the West, where it formed a sort of state of its own. V Education This was a period of mental awakening and intellec- tual advance in many directions. The public school sys- Institutional Life 237 tern continued to grow with the country. High schools, academies, and colleges made a distinct advance in all parts of the Union. Thousands of newspapers and maga- zines were published, and some of our best American authors, including Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Bryant and Lowell among the poets, and Bancroft, Parkman, Mot- ley and Prescott among the historians, wrote at this time. Henry Ward Beecher, Hawthorne and Wendell Phillips also belonged to this period. It is noticeable that most of this advance along educational lines took place in the non- slaveholdins: states. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS Questions for Class Recitations Over what part of American history docs the period of National Growth and European Interference extend? What were the main features or characteristics of this period? Over what part of American history does the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery extend? What were the main features or characteristics of this period? Explain carefully tlic relation between tlic main features of these two periods. POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES Questions for Class Recitations Describe some of the main results which the growth of liberal democratic ideas brought about during the period of National Growth and European Interference. Explain how the first six Presidents of the United States represented the upper or aristo- cratic class of society. For how long did these men control the national government? To what class did both Washington and Jefferson believe the higher officials of tlie national government should belong? What were their ideas as to who should vote? Explain carefully in what v/ay the election of Jackson was con- trary to the ideas of Washington and Jefferson. Discuss the character of Jackson, and siiow how his election marks the com- plete triumph of democracy in the United States. E.xplain care- fully the difference between the democracy of Jefferson and the democracy of Jackson. (This question deserves the most careful consideration.) Upon what basis were men appointed to office under the national government before Jackson was elected President? Give a careful explanation of the Spoils System. When, by whom, and why was this system introduced into national politics? Discuss the evil effects of the Spoils System. How has Congress in recent years tried to overcome the evil effects of this system? What is a presidential elector? How is the number of presi- dential electors to which each state is entitled, determined? Why did those wlio framed tlie Constitution desire that the President should be elected by electors instead of directly by the people? Give a careful explanation of how the electors were chosen during the early history of the nation under the Constitution. Explain how this affected the interest which the people took in the election of the President. Explain how the growth of democratic ideas affected the manner of electing electors. How did this affect the Questions and Topics 239 interest which the people took in the presidential election of 1824 and the one of 1828? Before the presidential campaign of 1832 how were the can- didates for President and Vice-President nominated? How were they nominated in the campaign of 1832? What is the object and the composition of national nominating conventions? What was the origin and what is the nature of national political plat- forms? Explain carefully how the complete state and national organization of political parties gave the people control of, and increased their interest in, presidential elections. Give a full explanation of the nature and object of the campaign methods which the complete organization of political parties brought about. Why, in what way, and when did the Republican party break up? What nev/ parties were formed during this period, and when were they formed? Who were the Democratic Presidents during this period, and over what years did the term or terms of each extend? Explain the principles of the Democratic party. What was some of its most important work? Who were the Whig Presidents, and over what years did the term of each extend? Discuss the principles of the Whig party. Explain why these principles were not carried out when this party was in power. What effect did this have on the party? What caused the organization of the Republican party, and what was therefore one of the main principles of this party? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Compare, by a discussion, the main features or characteristics of the period of National Growth and European Interference with the main features or characteristics of the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Give a careful discussion of the meaning of Jackson's election. Discuss the Spoils System, including its origin, development, and effect. Give a careful discussion of this subject, — manner of electing presidential electors, including the effect of the change in the manner of electing. Discuss the origin and result of national nominating conventions, platforms, and campaigns. Discuss the reorganization of political parties during Jackson's first administration. Discuss the principles and impor- tant measures of the Democratic party during this period. Discuss the principles of the Whig party and the cause of its fall. Discuss the origin of the Republican party. FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF Questions for Class Recitations Explain why the tariff of 1828 is known as the Tariff of Abomi- nations. Explain carefully how this tariff came to be passed. 240 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY Why had the South become opposed to the protective principle of the tariff? How was the tariff of 1828 received in tlie South? Compare the doctrine stated in the Exposition and Protest of South Carolina with the doctrine stated in the Virginia and Ken- tucky Resolutions, and in the Hartford convention. In what way had Calhoun changed his views on these questions? What do you think caused him to do this? What is meant by the right of nullification? Describe carefully the trouble which the national government had with South Carolina over the question of the tariff. What were the terms of the compromise tariff of 1832? What other changes were made in the tariff during this period? When was the first and the second charter of the United States Bank granted, and when did each of these charters expire? What is meant by a monopoly? Explain why Jackson was opposed to the United States Bank. Explain the way in which this bank became the main issue in the presidential campaign of 1832. Ex- plain how Jackson succeeded in destroying the United States Bank. Explain carefully how the destruction of the United States Bank caused the organization of manj' state banks. What led to the issuing of large sums of paper money? What is hard money? Why was this paper money not so good as hard money? Explain the meaning of speculation. Explain carefully how the distribution of the government funds among the state banks, and the making of paper money by these banks, led to a great deal of speculation at this time. What first caused the paper moncj^ that was issued by the state banks to become of less value than gold or silver? What is meant by specie? What is meant by specie payment? Explain carefully why Jackson issued his specie circular. How did this circular cause paper money to become of still less value? Describe the conditions that caused a surplus of forty million dollars to accumulate to the credit of the United States during the years 1835 and 1836. What was done with this surplus? Ex- plain carefully how the distribution of the surplus to the various states caused the value of paper money to become still less. When the paper money became almost worthless, how was business affected? What is the condition of business when a financial panic is said to exist? Describe the condition of business during the financial panic of 1837. Describe the Independent or Subtreasury System. How did the panic of 1837 lead to the establishment of this system? QUESTIONS FOR Compositions and Examinations Give a full discussion of the tariff of 1828 and the trouble which the national government had with South Carolina over this tariff. Give a full discussion of the United States Bank, showing clearly Questions and Topics 241 how its destruction led to the financial panic of 1837. Discuss the Independent Treasury System. GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND POPULATION Questions for Class Recitations What were the boundaries of the United States at the close of the Revolution? Describe the increase in the territory of the United States between the Revolution and 1820. Explain carefully the importance to the United States of the territory secured during this time. Why were Jefferson and other leading Americans anxious to secure the Oregon country, and why was the territory of special value to the United States? Explain events leading to the final settlement of the Oregon question, and the terms of the treaty'that settled this question. What conditions caused the South to desire to secure more slave territory? Describe the settlement of Texas by the Ameri- cans. Was there anything unusual about this advance of the Americans into Texas? Explain carefully how Texas became independent of Mexico. Why was the South strongly in favor of annexing Texas, and why was the North opposed to this? Explain how the annexation of Texas and the Oregon question became important issues in the presidential campaign of 1844. Explain how the annexation of Texas brought on the Mexican War. Do you think the United States was justified in beginning this war? Give reasons for your answer. Briefly describe General Taylor's campaign. Briefly describe General Scott's campaign. Give the time, place, and explain the terms of the treaty that ended the war with Mexico. How was additional territory secured from Mexico in 1853? Explain carefully how the United States secured all the territory which it secured from the beginning of the American Revolution to the beginning of the Civil War. Explain the value to the United States of each addition in territory. How did the growth of the United States in population during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery compare with its growth in territory? What states were formed in the great central plain during this period? Discuss the growth in population of the Oregon Territory. Discuss the growth of California and its admission to the Union. Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the entire controversy between England and the United States over the Oregon Territory. Discuss the conditions and 242 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY events which led to the annexation of Texas. Discuss the causes, campaigns, and results of the war with Mexico. Discuss quite fully the growth of the United States in territory and population, including the importance of this growth. THE SLAVERY QUESTION Questions for Class Recitations Explain why the question of slavery during this period would be related naturally to the growth of the nation in territory. To what extent did the Missouri Compromise settle the question of slavery? Describe the gradual abolition of slavery in the northern states, and explain carefully the reasons for this. What was the feeling in the South toward slavery from about the close of the Revolution to 1800? W^hat was the cause of this feeling?. Explain carefully the conditions which caused the South, after about 1800, to become more and more in favor of slavery, and which caused slavery to become more and more firmly rooted in southern industrial, social, and political life. What is meant by abolition and Abolitionists as related to the slavery question? Describe the growth of the abolition sentiment in the North, and explain the attitude of the Abolitionists toward slavery. On what grounds did the Abolitionists force the South to defend slavery? Describe fully how the people in the South and most of those in the North treated the Abolitionists. Why did the Abolitionists send petitions to Congress? Explain the attitude of the southern members of Congress and of many of the northern members toward these petitions against slavery. Explain what is meant by the Gag Resolutions. In what way did these resolutions violate the Constitution of the United States? What effect did these resolutions have on the people of the North? What effect did the slavery petitions and their discussion in Congress and by the press have on the people of the South? Explain very fully why the South was very much opposed to the admission of California as a free state. Why was the North strongly in favor of admitting California into the Union as a free state? In what way was the question of slavery in relation to the territory secured from IMexico first brought up for discussion in Congress? Explain the conditions that caused Clay and Webster to submit and urge the adoption of the Compromise of 1850. Explain each provision of this compromise, and the effect or bear- ing of each of these provisions on the slavery question. What was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what was its effect on the slavery question? In what way did the Fugitive Slave Law and the strong attempt of the South to enforce it affect the slavery Questions and Topics 243 question? Explain carefully what was meant by the doctrine of Popular or Squatter Sovereignty. Who was the author of this doctrine? How did it afifect the question of slavery in all the western territory? Explain the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska l.ill. Explain fully how the doctrine of popular sovereignty as applied in the Kansas-Nebraska bill affected the settlement of Kansas. How did the struggle in Kansas inllucnce the people of both the North and the South in regard to the slavery question? What were the conditions that led to the Dred Scott Decision? State clearly the principles of this decision, and explain carefully what would have been their efifect on slavery if they had been fully carried out. What general effect did the Dred Scott Decision and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill have on the people of the North? Discuss the conditions that led to the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. Explain the main- phases of the slavery question that were dis- cussed in these debates. Explain the attitude of both Lincoln and Douglas on these questions. What efifect did these debates have on the people of the nation? What efifect did they have on the future of Lincoln and Douglas in connection with the presidential campaign of ISGO? Tell why the election of Lincoln caused some of the southern states to secede. Explain very fully how the topography, climate, and soil of the eastern part of the United States caused slavery to be abolished in the North and not to be abolished in the South. Explain how the invention of improved weaving machinery and the cotton gin affected the growth of slavery in the South. 1 o what extent was the difference in the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South the real or fundamental cause of the American Civil War? In your opinion, what would have been the result, so far as slavery is concerned, if the colonists who settled in the South had settled in the North, and those who settled in the North had settled in the South? What general effect was slavery having on industrial conditions in the South? If slavery had been quietly restricted to the cotton-raising states and the border slave states, and if the question of slavery had not become an important issue between the North and South, what do you think would have finally been the fate of slavery in the southern states? Questions for Compositions and Examinations Discuss the conditions affecting the growth of slavery. Discuss the rise of the Abolitionists, and the effect of their work on the slavery question. Discuss the Gag Resolutions and their effect on the slavery question. Discuss the conditions which led to the Compromise of 1850, and the provisions and results of this com- promise. Discuss the Kansas-Nebraska bill and its efifect on the slavery question. Discuss the Dred Scott Decision. Discuss the 244 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY Lincoln-Douglas Debates, including in this discussion the con- ditions which led to these debates, the principles discussed in them, and their results on the future of slavery. Beginning with the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North and South, give a careful discussion of the causes which led to the American Civil War. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE Questions for Class Recitations What was the nature of the growth along institutional lines during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? What were the conditions or factors which cnuscd this growth? Com- pare the industrial growth of the South witli that of the North and Northwest. Explain carefully what caused this difference. Compare the North and South with regard to population and cities, and give the causes for the difference which existed between the two sections in these respects. Review briefly the improvement in means of transportation and communication that was made during the period of National Growth and European Interference. Explain fully what might have been the effect on the nation if the railroad and the telegraph had not been invented. Explain why the nation is smaller to-day for purposes of business and government tiian was the state of New York or the state of Pennsylvania before the railroad and telegraph came into use. In what way did the railroad help to settle up the country? Explain carefully how the railroads helped the growth of the feeling of national unity. Discuss what the results would be today if all the railroads and all telegraph lines were destroyed. Describe the origin of railroads in the United States and the character of those first built. Describe the growth of railroads in the United States up to 1860. Describe the origin of the tele- graph and the growth of telegraph lines in the United States up to 1860. Describe the origin of the trans-Atlantic cable. Explain carefully the value of the telegraph. Describe briefly the growth of inventions in the United States from 1790 to 1860. Name some of the more important inventions made during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. De- scribe the origin of the sewing machine, and explain its importance to industrial conditions. Describe the origin of the reaper and the threshing machine, and explain their importance to industrial con- ditions. Describe carefully some of the other inventions and dis- coveries made during this period, and explain the value of each. In- dicate in a general way the value to mankind of all these inventions and discoveries. Questions and Topics 245 Describe the condition of agriculture in tlie different sections of the country. Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery affected the growth of agriculture. What can you say about the development of the great mineral resources of the nation? Explain how the invention of new machinery affected the growth of manufactures. What was the condition of the manu- facturing industry in 1860? How did its condition then compare with its condition to-day? Explain how the growth of agriculture and manufactures afifected the growth of commerce. What was the condition of American commerce in 1860, and how does its condition now compare with its condition then? What was the condition of the American shipping industry at that time, and how does its condition now compare with its condition then? Ex- plain carefully the effect of agriculture, manufacture, and com- merce on the growth of cities. Show plainly how the growth of cities in the North and South during this period illustrates this principle. In what way was slavery connected with the growth of cities in the South? What was the most important change in social conditions during the periods of National Growth and European Interference and Westward Expansion and Slavery? Discuss each of the classes which existed in southern society during the latter period. Explain carefully why these sharp class distinctions still existed in the South. Give a full and careful discussion of the causes which tended to destroy class distinctions in northern society. Explain the effect of these causes or principles on social relations in the North. How did the railroads affect the manners, customs, and amusements of the people? Compare the amusements of the people in the country with the amusements of those in the cities. Explain the conditions which enable the people to have better food and better clothes. What was the nature of the change in government during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Explain in what way this was true with regard to the changes in national government. Explain in what way it was true with regard to the changes in state government. Explain in what way it was true with regard to changes in local government. Explain in what way and why these changes did not apply to the South. Explain carefully why the judicial department of government is so very important. Explain carefully wiiy the selection of judges is of so great importance. Why may the election of judges by ])opu]ar vote be iniwisc and result in injury? If you were voting for a man for the position of judge, and there were several candidates, how would you decide for which one to vote? What was the nature of the changes or growth in religious con- ditions during this period? How did this growth affect the 246 WES rWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY standard of morals among the masses of people? Review briefly the condition of education during the period of National Growth and European Interference. Describe carefully the growth of the public school system during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Describe the conditions which existed during this time that caused rapid improvement in the public schools after the Civil War. What was the condition of literature during the period of National Growth and European Interference? What was the condition during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Name some of the more important writers of this period, and one of the more important works of each. Explain carefully the efTect that the work of these men had on the masses of the people. In what way did the work of these men afTect literature and education after the Civil War? What effect did the Civil War have in this respect? Questions for Compositions and E.xaminations Discuss the nature of the industrial changes which took place during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss the improvements in the means of transportation and communi- cation, and the effect of this improvement on the industrial and social life of the nation and on the growth of national unity. Discuss some of the other important inventions and discoveries of .this period, and their effect on the industrial life of the nation. Discuss the growth of agriculture and manufactures. Discuss the growth of commerce and cities. Discuss the changes in social conditions. Discuss the changes in government. Discuss the changes in religion. Discuss the growth of literature and the public schools. THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR (In connection with the study of this suhject each pupil should read the fourth number of Hart's Source Readers.) COMPARATR^E RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH I AvAiLABLi; Soldiers, Commanders and Military Supplies D. Ui; Mc. 423-424; Ma. 340-341; G. 320-321; T. 332-335, 341 ; M. 298-299 H Financial Resources: Means oe Transportation D. 445-447 ; Mc. 423 ; Ma. 340-341 ; G. 320-321 ; T. 360-361; M. 333 SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS I The Right oe Secession D. 447-450 ; G. 318 II Secession D. 450-452; Mc. 378-381; Ma. 332-337; G. 319; T. 323-335; M. 292-297 HI The Fall oe Fort Sumter D. 452-454; Mc. 382; Ma. 337-339; G. 322-324; T. 326, 338, 330, 331; M. 394-296 IV The Battle of Bull Run D. 154; Mc. 387-388; Ma. 311-343; G. 324-327; T. 33()-337; M. 300-302 CAMPAIGNS I Scope and Nature oe Campaigns: Method oe Treatment D. 455-457; G. 328; T. 338; M. 302 J48 THE AMERICAN CIVIL W AR II Tin: EastkriX Campaign 1. 'fJic first Advance on Richmond D. 457-459; Mc. 392-304; Ma. 343, 354-357; G. 33G-342 ; T. 340 ; M. 310-313 2. TJie Battles of Antictam and Fredericksburg D. 459-4fil; Mc. 391; Ma. 357-359; G. 342; T. 347-348 ; M. 313-314 3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation D. 461; Mc. 394-39G; Ma. 358-359; G. 348- 350; T. 349-352; M. 314 4. The Battles of Clmncellorsville and Gettysburg D. 462-464; Mc. 396; Ma. 359-362; G. 343- 347; T. 353-356; M. 315-317 III The Western Campaign 1. The Western Commanders D. 464-466 2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee D. 466-468; Mc. 388-391; Ma. ;M8-352; G. 331-336; T. 341-343, 353; M. 305-308 3. The Capture of New Orleans D. 468; Mc. 3!)l-;!92; Ma. 352-353; G. 336; T. 346; M. 308-310 4. TJie Battles of Perryrille and Murfreesboro: Re- sult of the Year's Work — 1S62 D. 469-470; Ma. 35:5-354; T. 3-18; M. :',13-;",1 I 5. Capture of Jlcksburg D. 471; Mc. 397-398; Ma. 3(52-36 1; T. 356- 357; M. 317-320 the Work of the Navy in the Civil War 24435; T. 494-495, 497-500; M. 395- 398 (b) Political D. 512; Mc. 483; Ma. 455, 457, 460; G. 435-436; T. 495-496; M. 396-398 VI The Isthmian Canal (To be discussed by the teacher) D. 512-513 ; Ma. 461-462 ; M. 404 INSTITUTIONAL LIFE I Industrial Conditions 1. Improved Means of Transportation and Commu- nication *D. 514; Mc. 434-435, 456; Ma. 415-417, 417-418; G. 399-400, 440; T. 396-397, 399- 401, 410, 414, 464; M. 341-342, 344-346 2. Other Inventions and Discoveries D. 515; Mc. 459; Ma. 420-422, 434-438; G. 4Q| g ^4 ; T. 464 ; M. 349-351 3. Manufacfures and Agricidture D. 516-518; Mc. 454, 457, 459; Ma. 418-424, 426-427; G. 388-390; T. 415, 464; M. 347, 351, 373, 375, 400 4. Commerce and Popidation D. 518-519; G. 393-396; T. 464, 500; M. 383- 384, 405 270 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 5. The Nezv South D. 510; Mc. 454; Ma. 428-434; G. 385-392; T. 432-434, 4G5 ; M. 3G0-363 6. The Deirlopmcnt of the Nezv West D. 520-522 ; Mc. 454-458 ; G. 393-402 ; T. 465 ; M. 381 II Social Conditions D. 522 ; Mc. 460 ; Ma. 431-432 ; T. 439-440, 461 III Education 1. A' attire of Development D. 523-524; Ma. 432, 442-446; G. 390, 441- 444; T. 466-471; M. 402 2. The Public Bleiiicntary School System D. 525 3. The Public High School System D. 526 ; Ma. 444 ; G. 442 4. Universities, Colleges and Special Schools D. 526 ; Ma. 440 ; G. 442 % RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES I Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government When the Civil War closed, the governments of the Confederacy and of the states forming the Confederacy w^ere completely broken up, and the nation was confronted with the serious problem of restoring the South to its proper political and constitutional relations to the national government. In order to restore these states to their proper places it was necessary first to determine into just what relation to the national government they had been placed by secession. Some, among whom were Lincoln and Johnson, held that states could not secede and there- fore the southern states had never left the Union ; that the attempted secession had merely had the effect of destroying the constitutional privileges of those taking part ; that these privileges might be restored through the pardoning power of the President ; that as soon as state governments were re-established these states could resume their former places in the Federal government. Others maintained that secession had reduced the seceding states to the condition of territories, and that Congress could manag^[|fcse territories just as it pleased. The view which p^^HIed ultimately was a medium one, — that the southern states had not lost their statehood, but that they had lost their constitutional rights as states, and that Congress had the power to restore these rights at its dis- cretion. II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability In the midst of the rejoicing over the termination of the war, Lincoln was shot down by a half-crazed sympathizer of the South. In some respects he is the most remarkable 272 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPiMENT AND EXPANSION man in American history. Born in abject poverty and raised in a wilderness, by his energy he attained the high- est place in the nation. A man of lofty character and ability, and possessed of a great amount of common sense, he carried the nation through the greatest crisis in its history. III Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson Lincoln, acting on his theory regarding the political relation of the seceded states to the national government, issued a proclamation in December, 18G3, in which, with some exceptions, he promised to pardon all those in rebel- lion who w^ould lay down their arms and take an oath to support the Constitution and all laws or proclamations concerning the emancipation of slaves. He also prom- ised that a new state government might be organized in a seceded state as soon as the number of persons taking the oath in that state w'as one tenth as large as the number that had voted in 18G0, and that such state would then be given full recognition by the national government. Four states reorganized upon this basis. After Lincoln's death the same policy was pursued by Johnson in reconstructing the remaining seceded states, but his work was not allowed to stand by Congress, which was determined to have a voice in the reconstruction. IV Reconstruction Policy oe Congress The Emancipation Proclamation had freed the slaves only in the seceding states. Tn dV^r to abolish slavery throughout the Union the Thirieenth Amendment was proposed by Congress in January, 18G5, and was ratified by the necessary number of states during the year and proclaimed in force in December. Many of the southern legislatures deemed it necessary to enact certain laws for the control of the freedmen. These laws restricted the freedom of the ex-slaves, and stirred up strong feeling in the North by causing people to believe that the South was trying to re-enslave the negro. Reconstruction of Seceded States 273 In order to protect and aid the ex-slaves, Congress, early in 1S65, passed a measure which provided for the establishment of what was called the Freedmen's Bureau. The severe labor or vagrancy laws passed in many of the southern states in 1865 and ISfifi, led Congress to continue this bureau to 1870, and to enlarge its duties and powers for the aid and protection of the freedmen. The radical Republicans had gradually gained control of Congress by ISHH, and they were strongly opposed to Johnson's lenient reconstruction policy. Congress pro- posed the Fourteenth Amendment, which made the negro a citizen. The southern states refused to ratify this amendment. Congress then passed a Reconstruction Act which required the seceded states to ratify this amendment before they might send Senators and Representatives to Congress. This completely overthrew the reconstruction work done by Johnson. Six of the seceded states soon complied with this reconstructive act. The ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment by these six states completed the number necessary to make it a part of the constitu- tion. In July, 1868, it was declared to be in full force and effect. The refusal of the southern states to ratify th-e Four- teenth Amendment giving the negro the rights of citizen- ship led to the passage by Congress of a series of acts limiting the President's power and placing severe restric- tions on the southern states. The Reconstruction Act itself provided for the division of the southern states into military districts each under the command of an army officer. This act m.ade it necessary for the seceded states to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution before being re-admitted to the Union, the Thirteenth Amendment having already been made a part of the Con- stitution. It also fixed such conditions upon the suffrage in these states that the voting lay almost altogether in the hands of former slaves and immigrants from the North — "carpet baggers," as they were called — who flocked into the South after the war to profit by conditions there. By 274 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION thus shutting- out the southerners from voting, Congress secured in six of the states the formation of conventions that would ratify the proposed amendment. In February, ISfiO, Congress proposed the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. This gave the negro the right to vote. Those states which had refused to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment were now obliged to ratify both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments before they could re-enter the Union. Having been ratified by a sufficient number of states, the Fifteenth Amendment went into effect in March, 1870. With its ratification by the last of the seceding states in 1871, the political recon- struction of the South came to an end. V SoMi$ Riisur.Ts OF Reconstruction Johnson's impeachment grew out of the reconstruction affair. He vetoed nearly all the measures enacted by Congress, and they were passed over his veto. Stanton, his Secretary of War, was opposed to him and he at- tempted to remove Stanton, contrary to a law passed by Congress. He was impeached but acquitted. The reconstruction acts are largely responsible for the race question in the South to-day. Under "carpet bag" and negro rule, backed up by the military arm of the government, the southern states were robbed of many millions of dollars. This and the enfranchisement of the negro has kept the race question alive. POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES I PouTiCAL Methods The chief change in political methods since the Civil War is the introduction of the Australian ballot system and its adoption throughout the Union. This removed opportunity for fraud and protected the secrecy of the ballot. It was a most important reform. A marked ad- vance in the political methods is shown by the enactment of Civil Service Laws by which the appointment of many Political Methods and Political Parties 275 federal officers must be made on the basis of ability and not on the basis of political service. In 1871 Congress passed a Civil Service Reform Act. This law gave the President the power of selecting a commission which should devise a better plan for the appointment of men to all offices under his control. Grant was anxious to enforce this law and better the Civil Service, but the members of Congress, desiring the offices for political purposes, re- fused to vote money to carry out the reform. As a result, it proved of little value. In 1S.S;1, Congress passed the "Pendleton Civil Service Act." This law gave the Pres- ident the power of making appointments to office by means of examination, and officers thus appointed could not be removed so long as they did their work well. Pres- ident Arthur placed a large number of offices under this civil service regulation, and President Cleveland increased the number. Many of the best citizens of the United States hope that this law marks the beginning of the downfall of the Spoils System. II Political Parties During most of the time since the Civil War, the Re- publican party has had control of the national govern- ment, but the Democratic party has always been strong enough to exert a powerful influence, and has twice suc- ceeded in electing a president. Of the eleven presidents since 18 G4, Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Ar- thur, Harrison, McKinley and Roosevelt were Republicans, while Cleveland served two terms as a Democratic presi- dent. Immediately after the close of the war the chief political issue was the reconstruction of the seceded states. Since then the two main political issues between the Dem- ocratic and Republican parties have been the money ques- tion and the tariff question, although, of course, there have been many minor issues. The many industrial and social questions have given rise to a number of other political parties. Among these are the Populist or People's party, the Prohibition party, and the Socialist party. 276 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION I Financial Legislation 1. The National Debt and the National Banking System The finances of the national government were in a bad state at the beginning- of the Civil War, the treasury being entirely empty. Consequently the government was forced to begin borrowing money soon after the war began. The supply of gold was soon exhausted and Congress was forced to issue paper money. About $500,000,000 of this paper money was issued during the war, and it was made a legal currency for all kinds of business, although no one could require the government to exchange gold or silver for it. Besides this paper money, the government issued bonds to the value of more than $1,000,000,000. During the Civil War the National bank system of the United States was established. This system is en- tirely different from the United States Bank destroyed by Jackson. It was established for the purpose of cre- ating a market for the sale of L^nited States bonds, in order that money might be secured to carry on the war. The law which established this system provides that not less than five persons, with a combined capital of not less than $100,000 may establish a national bank. They must invest a sum amounting to at least one third of their capital in United States bonds, and the govern- ment will then give them bank notes, not exceeding in value ninety per cent of the par value of these bonds. A tax levied by Congress on the notes of state banks caused most of them to become national banks, and thus the national government was able to sell large quantities of its bonds. The national banking system as first established has been slightly modified and at the present time is an important feature of the financial svstem of the United States. Financial and Industrial Legislation 277 2. Resumption of Specie Payment During the Civil War gold and silver largely disap- peared from circulation, and paper money was in use throughout the country. In order to bring the finances of the country back to a gold and silver basis, Congress passed a law in 1864, which provided that the Treasury Department should pay out gold and silver in return for paper money, all the paper money thus secured to be destroyed. Within four years the amount of paper money in circulation was reduced from nearly $500,- 000,000 to $356,000,000. The destruction of so much paper currency caused a scarcity of money, and in re- sponse to the demand of the people, specie payment was discontinued in 1868. In 1879 it was resumed and the finances of the country have ever since been on a hard money basis. 3. Gold and Silver Standards Standard money is money that must be accepted in payment for all debts, and the material out of which this money is made must be coined by the United States mints practically free of charge for any one who takes the material to the mint and complies with the regula- tions. Until 1873 both gold and silver were standard moneys in the United States, — that is, any one possess- ing either gold or silver could have it coined into money. In 1873 the coinage of silver as a standard circulating medium was partially discontinued, and in 1876 the coinage of silver as a standard money was abolished. In 1878 it was again made a standard money, but the amount the government could coin during each year was limited. The law providing for this is called the Bland Silver Bill. In 1890 Congress passed what is known as the Sherman Act. This law directed the Secretary of the Treasury to buy about $15,000,000 worth of silver each year. After 1891 it was provided that the silver bought need not be coined, but silver certificates for 4,500,000 ounces of silver must be issued 278 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION each month and these redeemed in gold and silver. In order to protect the gold reserve in the United States Treasury, the Sherman Act was repealed in Cleveland's second administration. In the spring of 1900 Congress passed a law which declared, in substance, that the gold standard would be maintained in the United States. II Tariff Legislation Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax levied on goods brought into the United States from another coun- try. One of the main objects of a tariff is to obtain the money required for meeting the expenses of government and the payment of the national debt. Another object is to protect home industries. Many believe that tariff duties should be so levied as to protect the manufacturing and agricultural interests of the country. This means that all goods which can be produced in the United States should be required to pay an import duty so as to secure a better home market for home products and thus increase home production. On the other hand, many believe that a pro- tective tariff raises the price of goods and products and benefits only those who produce the articles on which an import duty is levied. These people therefore believe that a tariff should be levied for the purpose of revenue only, and that tariff duties should be levied only on such articles as are used by the wealthier classes. The majority of the people of the United States, however, believe that, in addition to raising a revenue for the expenses of the government one of the main objects of tariff duties should be the protection of home industries. During the war high tariff rates were levied in order to raise money to meet the expenses of the war, and in order to protect the manufacturing interests which were being heavily taxed. Since the war the tariff has rcinained strongly protective in nature. The W^ilson Bill, passed during Cleveland's second administration, modified the tariff in many re- spects, but it retained a large number of protective fea- tures. During IMcKinlcy's administration, a tariff with Financial and Jnduslrial Legislation 279 full protective features was restored, and is still in oper- ation. The principle of a protective tariff is becoming more and more an accepted part of the economic policy of the United States. Ill Industrial Combinations 1. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organisations A corporation is an organization recognized by law, and empowered to transact a certain kind of business as though it were one person. The wonderful industrial progress of the United States has made it possible for men to amass large fortunes. These fortunes, singly or in combinations, have been used for the purpose of building long railroad lines, developing large mining in- terests, and carrying on other great enterprises. They have often taken advantage of the great power which they possess in order to crush out smaller enterprises having less financial backing. A vast corporation often takes the place of many individual business concerns. For example, the Western Union Telegraph Company was organized in 1886 out of forty small telegraph com- panies. Many lines of railroads have been combined into a few trunk lines. The Standard Oil Company has taken the place of any number of smaller oil companies. When great corporations were first organized they were brought into sharp competition with other corporations engaged in the same lines of business, and prices were kept at a low mark. The people received the benefit of this competition. The corporations soon learned that it was to their advantage to form combinations, thus avoiding competition with one another. Vast combines or trusts have now been formed in almost every line of business. In order to protect themselves against the combina- tions of capital referred to above, and to better their condition, many of the laboring people of the country have comlMucd at different times and under various 280 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION names. Most of these labor unions have united and formed state federations, and the state federations are represented in what is known as the American Federa- tion of Labor, which exercises general control over nearly all the labor unions in the United States. By their combined efforts, the labor unions have shortened the hours of labor, raised wages and accomplished many other things which, taken together with the natural advantages and great industrial development of the United States, have raised the condition of the Amer- ican laborer above that of any other nation in the world. 2. Lazi's Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Other Organisations The aggressive, and sometimes illegal, methods of great corporations and trusts, and some unjust and un- American demands of a few labor organizations, con- stitute one of the greatest problems now before the American people for solution. Corporations and trusts and labor unions are no doubt beneficial and necessary to our industrial development, but it has become quite evident during the last few years that the great mass of the American people must see to it that they do not infringe upon, nor interfere with, the great principles of personal freedom and personal initiative in business and labor, which have made possible the great growth of the American nation. Already laws having this object in view have been passed by both the national and state legislatures. Among such laws are those known as the Interstate Commerce Act passed by Con- gress in 1887, and the Railroad Rate Bill, passed in 1906. These laws provide for the supervision of rail- roads by a national commission whose duty it is to pre- vent unfair discrimination between shippers, and to pre- vent combinations formed for the purpose of destroying competition and raising prices. Among the laws passed with special reference to labor, are the Contract Labor Law, which prohibits any person in the United States Foreign Relations 281 from importing foreign laborers under contract, laws restricting Chinese immigration, and laws making eight hours a full day's labor in certain kinds of government employment. In 1903 Congress created the new execu- tive department of Commerce and Labor. Many states have passed laws regulating railway fares, and restrict- ing the powers and defining the duties of corporations and tnists. FOREIGN RELATIONS I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 In October of 1SG7 the United States purchased Alaska, a territory containing 590,000 square miles, from Russia for about $7,000,000. At that time Alaska was thought to be valuable only for its furs, fisheries and lumber, but valuable mineral deposits have since been opened there, and it no doubt possesses other valuable resources. II Treaty of Washington, 1871 The treaty of Washington provided for the settlement by arbitration of the questions in dispute between the United States and Great Britain. These questions were : The disputed boundary line between British Columbia and the territory of Washington, the rights of American fishermen in Canadian waters, and the claim of the United States for damages for the destruction of American com- merce during the Civil War by vessels fitted out in Brit- ish ports. This last mentioned is known as the "Alabama Claims" and was settled by the board of arbitration, which awarded $15,500,000 damages to the United States. This treaty is important, because it is the first notable example of the voluntary arbitration by two great nations of ques- tions in dispute. in Application of tlie Monroe Doctrine 1. The French in Mexico, 1861-186/ During the Civil War a French Army had been sent into Mexico, and a French Empire had been established 283 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION with Maximilian, an Austrian Archduke, as Emperor. Soon after the close of the war, the Secretary of State intimated to the French g-overnmcnt that the United States was now in a position to enforce the principles of the Monroe Doctrine, and the French soldiers were at once removed from Mexico. 2. The Venezuelan Boundary^ iSc^y Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon the boundary between their territory in South America. Venezuela appealed to the United States and the United States asked Great Britain to submit the question to arbitration in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. Great Britain claimed that the world had outj^rown that doctrine. On receiving a note from the British gov- ernment containing these views, Cleveland, with the authority of Congress, appointed a commission to deter- mine the boundary in dispute. In a proclamation to Congress he stated that when the boundary line had been determined by the commission, the United States should fight if necessary in order to maintain it. Eng- land then consented to have the matter submitted to arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served as a notice to the world that the United States would strictly enforce the Monroe Doctrine. In 1903 several Euro- pean powers blockaded some of the Venezuelan ports with a view of collecting debts due from Venezuela. Through the influence of this government the matter was referred to the Hague Tribunal. All of these in- cidents tended to serve notice that the American people were going to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. It is perhaps recognized by Europe today more than ever before as a fixed principle in regard to the affairs of the New World. IV Growth of Arbitration 1. Application of the Principles of Arbitration The principle of arbitration has for some time been employed in the settling of domestic difficulties in the Foreign Relations 283 United States, such as disputes between laborers and their employers. This has been particularly effective in the settlement of great strikes which have threatened the various industries of the nation, and even in some cases the welfare of the whole nation. An instance of this latter kind may be found in the great coal strike of 1902-1903 in the Pennsylvania coal fields, which was settled by arbitration after causing great injury to in- dustries and untold suffering among the people of the nation. As has been stated, the settlement of disputes between Great Britain and the ITnited States by a board consisting of arbitrators appointed by outside nations was the first notable application of arbitration to inter- national affairs. It marked a distinct advance in the settlement of international questions and has since be- come recognized as the best way in which to deal with many international difficulties. 2. The Hague Tribunal, i8pp In 1899, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, delegates from twenty-six nations met at the Hague in Holland for the purpose of providing for a permanent Court of Arbitration for the settlement of difficulties between nations without their going to war. The work of this conference met with the heartiest approval of the various nations of the world, and as a result the Hague Tribunal of Peace has been established. It is the object of this tribunal to settle all such questions arising between nations as may be submitted to it justlv and fairly, and to thus promote the peace and welfare of the world. The United States has been among the foremost in urging the principles of arbitration. V The Spanish-American War, 1898 1. Causes The remote cause of this war was the Spanish mis- government of her West Indian possessions, which 284 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION caused continual rebellion among the inhabitants and endangered American property interests there. i\Iore- over the American people felt a great deal of sympathy for the people who were struggling to establish a re- publican government, and against whom a cruel and bloody warfare was being waged to crush this rebellion. The immediate cause of the war was the destruction of the American battleship IMaine, in the harbor of Havana, with the loss of more than two hundred and fifty sailors. It has not yet been proven, but it was generally believed that the destruction of the vessel was due to the Spaniards. At any rate it served to arouse the people of the United States and led directly to the war for the independence of Cuba. 2. Campaigns (a) Naval Warfare The American navy decided the success of the United States in this war. Two naval battles were fought, one off the southern coast of Cuba, and one in the Philippine Islands which belonged to Spain, and where a part of the Spanish navy was stationed. In these two battles the Spanish navy was practically destroyed, without the loss to the American forces of a single ship, and with the loss of but one man. With her navy destroyed, Spain could not hope to make any effective resistance on the land, either in the Philip- pines or in the West Indies. (a) The A\'ar on Land The chief campaign of the war had for its object the capture of Santiago. Two vigorous battles were fought at El Caney and San Juan before the city was captured by the Americans. Another successful cam- paign was begun at Porto Rico, but was soon stopped by the declaration of peace. A third army was sent to the Philippines, where it aided in the capture of the chief city, Manila. Foreign Relations ^^^ 3. Results The xvar itself was of comparatively little importance but its results are of great importance to the United States As an immediate result Cuba became mde- pendent of Spain and the United States gained consid- erable territory in the management of which she has entered upon some new policies, (a) Territorial Results r.y the treaty of peace after the close of the war the United States 'acquired the Philippine Islands, Guam, Porto Rico and other Spanish West Indian Islands giving Spain in return $20,000,000. This war had shown the military value of the Hawaiian Islands, and thev were also annexed to the United States in 1898. The annexation of Hawaii had been proposed to the United States before, and would very likely have taken place in any event, but the war hastened it. (b) Political Results The political effect of this war is far reaching and may vitally affect the policy of the United States. _ If these possessions are treated as colonies, the United States may be compelled to mix in Asiatic and European afifairs, thus to a certain extent abandon- ing the principle of neutrality established by Wash- ington, to which the United States has always strictly adhered. Previous to the acquisition of this territory all of the country acquired by the United States had been practically unsettled, leaving for the American people the development of its resources and its prepa- ration for becoming an integral part of the Union. Most of the territory acquired from Spain during the recent war is thickly populated, and if it be held as colonial possessions, and the constitution of ^ the United States be not permitted to extend over it, a new principle will have entered into the American government. These questions belong to the future, 286 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION and their solution will make some of the most im- portant work of American statesmen. VI The Isthmian Canal As early as 1S.")0 the huikling of a ship canal thronp^h some part of Central America was discussed, and a treaty made between England and America regarding the neu- trality of such canal when built. From time to time treat- ies were made concerning a canal to be built through Central America, but nothing was accomplished. The Spanish-American war emphasized the value of such a canal, and in 1901 the matter was taken up again. A second treaty was then made with England, guaranteeing the neutrality of the proposed canal, but giving the United States the right of ownership and defense. The construc- tion of the canal was then taken up by Congress. Two routes were proposed, one by way of Nicaragua and the other by way of Panama. A large sum was appropriated for the construction of the canal and negotiations were at once begun with Colombia for a canal by way of Panama. Upon the rejection by Colombia of the treaty giving the United States the power to construct the canal, Panama revolted and established a republic which was at once recognized by the United States and the other leading nations. The United States succeeded in making very favorable arrangements with the government of Panama and the treaty arranged by representatives of the United States and Panama was promptly ratified by both govern- ments in 1904, and work on the canal was at once begun. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE The development of the institutional life of the United States since the Civil war has been remarkable, particularly along industrial lines. There has been very little change in the con- ditions of Government and Religion, except the natural de- velopment along lines laid down in the previous periods. Institutional Life 287 Socially some new factors have entered into national life, and educationally the advance of the nation has been marvelous. I Industrial Conditions The industrial progress of the United States since the Civil war has not been equalled in any other period of the world's history. This industrial development has affected the entire institutional life of the nation, and has made the United States the wealthiest nation in the world. 1. Improved Means of Transportation and Cominnnica- tion The development of the United States in these re- spects during the last forty years is remarkable. In 1860 there were 30,000 miles of railroads ; at the present time there are over 200,000 miles and new roads are constantly being built. In 18G0 there were no railways west of the Missouri river. The first line reaching the Pacific was completed in 1869 and four other trans- continental lines have since been built, and, together with their branches, have penetrated every part of the West. The railroads have been a most important agency in national industrial and social development. Realizing this, the government has done much to en- courage the building of railroads. For this purpose it has given to railroad companies more than 200,000,000 acres of land and $60,000,000. In addition to railroads, street-car systems are in use in all the cities and even in the larger towns and in thickly populated suburban dis- tricts. The use of electricity as a motive power has caused great improvements in transportation. Great steamship lines have been organized, and transportation by water much improved. The successful laying of oceanic cables has been accomplished during this last period, and now nearly all parts of the civilized world are in close communication. The telephone, too, has been invented and perfected within the last thirty years. The effect of this great advance in means of transporta- •288 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION tion and conimnnication can hardly be overestimated. It has aided tlie industrial growth of the nation by mak- ing it possible to develop the great natural resources of the country, especially of the interior part. It has also had a profound efifect on the industrial development of the country by creating an immense home market for the products of all parts of the nation. If the railroads did not exist, a large share of the products of many parts of the United States would never find a market The improved means of transportation and communica- tion have also exerted a great and beneficial infiuence on the nation socially by bringing the people into closer touch, doing away with sectionalism, and thus promot- ing the growth of a true national life. 2. Other Inventions and Discoveries More inventions have been made during this period than in any other period in the world's history. These cover nearly every field of production and activity. The period is marked by the very rapid development of elec- tricity as a power. The period is also remarkable from the standpoint of discoveries in the various branches of science. 3. Mannfactnrcs and A^^ricidiurc In 1860 the manufactured products of the United States were valued at $3,000,000,000. The estimated annual value of the present output from its factories is over $14,000,000,000, being greater than that of any other country in the world. The growth of the iron and steel industries is most remarkable. In 1800 Eng- land led the world in the production of iron and steel. Now the United States is far in advance of that country. This is but a single instance of the rapid growth of manufacturing interests in the United States. Over 5,000,000 people arc employed in her factories. Nearly all of her large cities are hives of industrial enterprise, and the products of her factories are carried to the mar- kets of everv countrv in the world. Institutional Life 289 Agriculture continues to be one of the leading indus- tries. The developing of the Middle West and the Pacific Coast has placed the United States in the front rank of agricultural nations. The building of railroads and the extension of irrigation have been important fac- tors in this agricultural development. Stock raising has also become an important industry in the West. Im- mense amounts of food stuffs are raised and exported by the United States and they form one of the chief sources of the wealth of the country. The United States furnishes 80 per cent of all the cotton raised in the world, and its annual exports of provisions, bread stuffs and cotton have a value of about $800,000,000. 4. Commerce and Population The growth of commerce has kept pace with that of manufactures. On both the Atlantic and Pacific Coast are located great ship-building concerns, where not only American vessels, but also vessels of all kinds for for- eign nations are built. The total foreign commerce of the United States exceeds that of any other nation, and her domestic commerce is several times greater than that of any other nation. At the present time (1905) the population of the United States, not including Alaska and the territory secured as a result of the Spanish-American War, is about 80,000,000, or about two and a half times what it was at the close of the Civil War. The immense foreign immigration since the Civil War has had a most important effect on industrial con- ditions in the United States. Without the labor of these immigrants many of the great industries could not have been built up. Their labor has been valuable par- ticularly in the building of railroads and in the working of mines. Of late years, however, many of the immi- grants have been of a lower class, and have come in such numbers that many believe that the continued prac- tically unlimited admission of immigrants is becoming a 290 RFXONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPAIENT AND EXPANSION serious menace to our institutions, and that Congress should pass stringent laws concerning immigration. 5.. The New South The abolition of slavery produced a revolution in the labor system of the South. Before the War, as has been stated, slavery had been the corner stone of south- ern society. With the emancipation of the slaves this society passed away, and on its ruins rose a "New South," having free labor as its foundation. The South has gained greatly by this change. The production of cotton has more than doubled since ISGO. At that time the capital invested in southern manufacturing indus- tries was so small as to scarcely require mentioning. There is now invested in machine-shops, mills and work- shops more than $50,000,000 of capital. Thousands of miles of railroads have been built. Coal and iron mines have been opened up. Atlanta, Chattanooga, New Orleans, Augusta, Birmingham, and other southern cities now have manufacturing establishments which rival those of the North and West. 6. The Development of the New IVest The discovery of gold and silver and other mineral mines in the Rocky Mountains and in the country lying west of these mountains early caused a great stream of immigration to start westward. At first the covered wagon w-as the principal means of transportation. Later came the overland stage-coach, and later still rail- roads reaching to the Pacific. These railways have had more infiuence on the development of the West than any other single factor. The recent discoveries of immense oil fields in California promise to make the Pacific Coast a more important manufacturing region, by supplying a cheap fuel, the lack of which has been a serious draw- back to manufacturing interests on the coast. The utilization of the mountain streams by converting their force into electric power is also furnishing cheap motive Institutional Life 291 power. Another important factor in the development of the West has been the extensive use of irrig^ation by which arid lands have been made fertile, and homes for thousands of settlers have been created. The fact that the national government has decided to assist in reclaim- ing western lands by irrigation should result in greatly increasing the productive farming area of the West. II Social Coxditioxs There have been many changes in the social conditions during this time. Some of these changes have been for the better and some for the worse. The more important factors that have tended to change and modify the social conditions of the nation during this period are the negro question, the immense foreign immigration, the great in- dustrial advance with the resulting creation of vast private fortunes, and the improvement in means of transportation and communication. The last factor has done more than anything else to break down local- ism in manners and customs, and to unify the social life of the nation. The coming to the United States of so many of the worst classes of Europe is having an un- desirable effect on social conditions, because these im- migrants congregate in large cities and do not readily assimilate American customs and ideals. The negro question which was created by the emancipation and en- franchisement of the negroes, more vitally concerns the South. The solution of this question rests largely with the people of the South, and in this work they deserve the sympathy and co-operation of ever}' citizen of the nation. Industrial education promises to be the most important factor in the solution of this problem. The great industrial development of the nation has tended, on the whole, to advance social conditions, be- cause it has enabled the great mass of the people to have better homes, better clothes, better food, and more lux- uries, and to enjoy more fully the pleasures of social life. On the other hand the tendency of large private 202 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION fortunes is to create class distinctions based on wealth. While there are some undesirable tendencies and con- ditions in the social life of the nation, the great improve- ment along industrial lines has caused and is causing a steady improvement in social conditions. Til Education 1. Natiire of Development In no respect has the advance of the United States since the Civil War been more marked than in the mat- ter of education, and especially is this true in the South. This great advance in education throughout the United States is seen in the present condition of the public school system and in numerous institutions of higher education; in the number and ((uality of newspapers and magazines; in institutes, conventions and clubs of various kinds, which have for their object mutual im- provement ; and in the number of nuiseums, libraries and art galleries. 2. TJie Public Elementary School System The free elementary public school system as it exists in the United States today has been built up and de- veloped almost entirely since the Civil War. There were public schools before the Civil War and they were doing excellent work, but there were not many free pul)lic schools before that time and in efficiency and equipment those schools were far inferior to those of today. Just before the Civil War the people were be- ginning to demand free public schools as a right, and this soon resulted in placing the general management of the school system under the control of state school officials and in the levying of state school taxes. This was a new principle in education, for before, such mat- ters had been left almost entirely in the hands of city and county officials. At the present time the constitutions of nearly all the States make ample provision for the Institutional Life 293 maintenance of the free public schools. Nearly all of the states west of the Alleghany mountains, under the direction of Congress, set aside, at the time of their organization, certain lands in each township for the support of public schools. In most cases these lantls have been sold, and the money obtained from their sale constitutes a school fund, the interest on wdiich is used for school purposes. When additional money is needed it is raised by direct local and state taxation. Although each state has its own school system, and there is a wide difference as to the length of school terms, qualifications and salaries of teachers, courses of study and similar matters, there are strong forces at work which tend to make the schools uniform through- out the United States. Among these forces are state and national educational associations, and the National Bureau of Education, the latter being under the direct control of the national government. 3. The Public High School System The advance in high school education during this period, has been as great and as important as the im- provement in the elementary schools. The whole pub- lic high school system has been developed largely within the last forty years, the number of high schools doubling within the last ten years. The high schools have been aptly termed the colleges of the common people. Their service in strengthening the work of the elementary schools and in giving the young people of all classes an opportunity for a higher education, can hardly be over- estimated. Many of the public high schools in the United States today ofifer courses of study of as high grade as did Yale and Harvard a hundred years ago. 4. Uiiii'crsitics, Colleges ami Special Schools The growth of the state universities is one of the most notable features of the advance in education. Nearly everv state in the Union has established an institution 2'J4 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION of this kind, supported by taxation, grants of public land, and appropriations by the legislatures. Several great institutions of learning and numerous smaller col- leges have been established throughout the United States by private individuals. These institutions of higher education are having an important effect on American character and ideals. There have been established within the United States during this period many special schools, among which are normal schools for the training of teachers ; medical schools for the training of physicians and surgeons ; law schools for the training of lawyers ; and many other technical schools for the training of men and women along professional and technical lines. QUESTIONS AND TOPICS RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDER.\TE STATES Question's for Ci_\5S Recitatioxs What was the condition of government in the seceded states at the close of the Civil War? Explain the question which this condition brought before the national government. Explain care- fully each of the three ^■^ew5 which were held regarding the rela- tion of the seceded states to the national government. To what extent did Lincoln carry out his views, and what did he say his future policy in the whole matter would be? Describe the circum- stances of Lincoln's death. How was his death received by the northern people? Explain why the news of his death was received with sincere sorrow and regret bj' the entire civilized world. Why was his death an especially great loss to the South? De- scribe the early life of Lincoln. Discuss Lincoln's character and ability. Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's policies of reconstruction. Explain how and to what extent Johnson carried out his policy. Read and explain the Thirteenth Amendment. Explain the nature of the laws which the new state legislature of the South passed for the control of the negroes. Why did the South pass these laws? What effect did the passage of these laws have on the northern people? Explain carefully how Congress, when it met in December, 1S65. treated the reconstruction policy of Johnson. Explain the creation, power, and purpose of the Freedmen's Bureau. Explain the relation and feeling which existed between Congress and Johnson over the Freedmen's Bureau and other matters of reconstruction. Read and explain the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment. Explain carefullj- how this amendment was received in the South, and why it was so received. Bj- this time what was the attitude of the people of the North on the question of reconstruction? Explain carefullj- the plan of recon- struction provided for in the Reconstruction Acts. How did the seceded r-tate.«; receive these acts? Read and explain the provisions of the Fifteenth Amendment. In what way was this amendment connected with the end of the political reconstruction of the South? Discuss the impeachment of President Johnson. Explain how the reconstruction policy of Congress enabled northern immigrants and the negroes to control for a time some of the state legislatures of the South. How did the southern people feel about this? How would you have felt? Explain the relation between the race ques- 296 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION tion and the reconstruction of the seceded states. Give your opin- ion as to the wisdom of making the Fifteenth Amendment a part of the Constitution. POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES Questions for Class Recitations Explain the Australian ballot system. Explain carefully why the adoption of this system was a very important advance in political methods. Why is it very important for the people to take an active part in the selection of candidates for office? How may they do this? Describe the Spoils System, and explain the bad results of this system. Explain carefully the object of the Civil Service Laws. Give the history of these laws in the United States and what they have accomplished. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Republican party since the Civil War. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Demo- cratic party during this period. Discuss the leading issues between these two parties during this period. Discuss the conditions caus- ing the formation of other parties. FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION Questions for Class Recitations What was the condition of the finances of the national govern- ment at the beginning of the Civil War? Why did the govern- ment find it necessary to issue paper money? What is a national bond? Why did the government issue bonds during the war? Describe the national bank system. Why was it created? What action did Congress take against the state banks? What is specie payment? When the paper money was first issued, could it be exchanged for gold and silver money? What effect did this have on the use of gold and silver money in business affairs? Explain what is meant by the resumption of specie payment in 1S()4. What effect did this have on the amount of paper money in circula- tion? After ISdl, when and for what reason was si)ecie payment discontinued, and when was it resumed? lCxi)lain fully what is meant by standard money. L^p to 1873, what was standard money in the United States. Explain carefully how silver since 1873 has gradually lost its position as a full standard money. Explain the two main objects for which tariff duties are levied. Explain the two different views regarding the value of the pro- tective principle of the tariff. What is your opinion as to the Questions and Toi'ics 297 merits of the protective system? Beginning with the Civil War, trace and explain the tariff legislation of the nation. What is a corporation? For what purposes are corporations organized? What is a trust? Give some examples of vast cor- porations or trusts. In what ways are they benehcial, and in what ways are they harmful? What is a labor union? Wliy were labor unions organized? In what way have they benefited the working classes? What is meant by personal freedom and personal initia- tive in business and industry? (This question should receive a most careful discussion by teacher and pupils.) Explain carefully how freedom in business and industry and fair, open, and honest industrial competition are principles that are absolutely necessary to the prosperity and happiness of the American people. Why is it necessary that the people see to it that great combinations do not interfere with these principles? Explain in what waj'S certain combinations have done so or have threatened to do so already. Describe those laws which have already been passed for the purpose of restricting the powers and defining the duties of corporations, trusts, and other combinations. FOREIGN RELATIONS Questions for Cl.\ss Recitations How did the United States secure Alaska? Describe the terri- tory. Of what value is it to the United States? Explain how the seizure of the Confederate commissioners on the British vessel Trent created a strong feeling among the northern people against Great Britain. Why was the government of the United States not very anxious after the Civil War to settle the disputes between this country and England? Discuss the pro- visions of the Treaty of Washington. Explain the final results secured by the provisions of this treaty. Why is this treaty of special importance? Describe the conditions in Mexico during the Civil War. Ex- plain how the principles of the Mqnroe Doctrine applied to these conditions. Discuss the Venezuelan l)oundary dispute, and the ap- plication of the Monrdc dndrine to this case. Mow did the Mon- roe Doctrine apply to the recent blockade of the ports of Vene- zuela? What effect did all this have on the Monroe Doctrine? (The teacher should consult magazines covering this period for material on this topic. The American Review of Reviews is es- pecially valuable.) What is meant by arbitration? Describe the appointing of a board of arbitration. Give examples of its use in settling difficulties between laborers and their employers in the United States. Of what value is arbitration in cases of this kind? 298 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION Give instances of the application of the principle of arbitration to international affairs affecting the United States. Discuss the establishment of the Hague Peace Tribunal. Give a history of this tribunal and its work. What can you say of its probable value to mankind? Discuss the causes of the Spanish-American War. Discuss the leading naval battles of this war, and discuss their effect. Describe the campaign for the capture of Santiago. (Each pupil should draw up a map illustrating the important battles of this war.) Discuss the terms of the treaty of peace. Tell all you can about the character and conditions of the territory acquired by the United States through this treaty. How did the Spanish-.A.merican War affect the annexation of Hawaii? (Each pupil should draw a map showing the territorial acquisitions of the United States as a result of this war.) How is the territory acquired by this war governed at the present time? Compare the government of Hawaii with that of the Philippine Islands. Compare the con- ditions in the territory acquired from Spain with those in the terri- tory previously acquired by the United States. Why was a dif- ferent policy adopted in the government of this new territory from that followed in the organization and government of the other terri- tory of the United States? In what way, if in any, do the results of the Spanish-American War tend to violate the principle of American neutrality established by Washington? In what way may the Spanish-American War cause a new principle to enter into the government of the United States? Tell all you can of the history of the Panama Canal. (Each pupil should draw a map showing the two routes proposed.) Dis- cuss the importance of this canal, and estimate its probable value to the United States and to the commerce of the world. INSTITUTIONAL LIFE Questions for Cl.'\ss Recitations Discuss the nature of the changes in the institutional life whicli have taken place since the Civil War. Explain very carefully why tlie period between 1828 and ISOO will always stand unique and unrivaled in the history of the world as regards means of trans- l)ortation and communication. (This last question deserves very careful consideration.) Describe the n.iture and value of those new inventions and discoveries which have affected means of transportation and communication since 18G0. Describe the in- crease in railroad mileage since 1860. Explain carefully how this wonderful growth of the railways of the nation has affected in- dustrial and social conditions. Compare the number and nature Qucstiuiis ami Topics 299 of the inventions made since the Civil War with those made dur- ing the period before that war. How did the people of the United States continue to compare with the people of other nations in regard to the making of inventions and discoveries? Describe the inventions made for the practical application of electric power. What is your opinion concerning the future use of electricity for practical purposes? Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery and the increased production of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods have caused the rapid development of the mineral resources of the na- tion. In what way have the new inventions and the increased production of useful machinery caused an increased production of manufactured goods and agricultural products? (This question deserves very careful consideration.) Describe briefly the growth of agriculture during this period. Describe briefly the growth of manufactures during this period. What is your opinion regard- ing the future growth in the United States of the agricultural and manufacturing industries? Explain the relation between the growth in the farming and manufacturing industries and the growth in commerce, cities, and population. Compare the foreign commerce of the United States with the foreign commerce of other nations. Discuss the domestic commerce of the United States, explaining the causes of its growth, and comparing it with the domestic and foreign commerce of other nations. Compare the population of the United States in 1860 with its population in 1905. What have been the causes of this rapid growth? Describe the growth of the cities during this period. Explain carefully what have been the causes of this growth. Why is this unusual tendency to crowd to the cities thought to be against the best interests of the nation? Compare the growth of the South during this period with her growth during the period before the Civil War. What were the causes of this change? How did the abolition of slavery afifect the building of railways in the South? How did it afifect the growth of manufactories and the production of cotton? How did it afifect the growth of population? Compare the growth of the West during this period with the early settlement and growth of the other sections of the United States. Compare the popula- tion of this western country in 1860 with itts population in 190.5. Explain carefully the growth of the West in means of transporta- tion and communication, and in wealth and commerce. What can you say as regards the probable future growth of the western country? Explain carefully each of the more important factors that have brought about changes in the social conditions of the nation since 300 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION the Civil War. Explain how improvement in means of trans- portation and communication affected social conditions during this period. What effect lias tlie ininii,nrati()n of undesirable people from tliC nations of Europe had upon the social conditions of the nation? Explain the iniporiauec of the race question to the social conditions of the nation. I low has the great industrial growth of the nation affected social conditions? What is your opinion concerning the continued improvement in social conditions? How does the growth of education in the United States since the Civil War compare with the industrial growth? What things give evidence of this educational growth? Explain carefully how this great educational advance indicates a bright future for the nation. In what vital way is the question of teachers' salaries related to the growth of education? Give a very careful discussion of the growth of the elementary public school system. Give a very careful discussion of the growth of the public high school system. Give a very careful discussion of the growth of colleges, universi- ties, and special schools. What i*"' the especial value to the nation of these schools of higher and special education? Questions for Compositions and Examin.\tions Discuss the relation of the Confederate states to the national government at the end of the Civil War. Discuss the death, character, and ability of Lincoln. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Johnson. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Congress, in- cluding a careful discussion of the results of this policy. Discuss the changes in political methods which took place during this period. Discuss the political parties of this period and their posi- tion on the leading political issues. Give a careful discussion of the nation's linancial legislation. Beginning with 1800, give a careful discussion of tariff legislation in the United States. Give a careful discussion of corporations, trusts, and other combina- tions. Discuss the Treaty of Washington. Discuss the applica- tion of the principles of the Moin-oe Doctrine during this period. Discuss the growth of arbitration in domestic and international affairs. Discuss the Spanish-.Xnurican War and its territorial results. Discuss the ways in which the form of government ad- opted by Congress for the territory secured from Sjiain tends to introduce new principles into the government o{ the United States. How may the results of the Spanish-.Vmerican War modify the principles of American neutrality in European affairs? Discuss the history and importance of the Isthmian Canal. Give a careful discussion of the industrial growth of the nation during the forty- five years between 1860 and 1905. Discuss the growth of the South during this period. Discuss the growth of the West during Questions and Topics 301 this period. Discuss the changes in social conditions which have occurred since 1860. Give a careful discussion of the growth of schools and education in the United States since 1860. Subjects for Special Study and General Review (A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute the review for the eighth-grade work in history and civics. The pupil should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and should be permitted free access to available material when prepar- ing these papers or written discussions.) Beginning with the Revolution, give a written discussion of the Growth of the United States in Territory and Population. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Change in Industrial Conditions. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Social Conditions. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Government. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Religion. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Educa- tion. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written discus- sion of the Growth and Changes in Financial Conditions and Financial Affairs. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written discussion of the Tarif? Policy of the United States. Give a writtten discussion of the Growth of Slavery in the United States. Give a written discussion of the American Civil War, including its causes and the reconstruction of the seceded states. Beginning with Washington's first administration, give a written discussion of the Foreign Relations of the United States, including the period of European Interference, the War with Mexico, and the Spanish-American War. Beginning with Washington's first administration, give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Political Parties and Political Methods. JAN 18 1907