/&»■■■■ imuf, ms Xi HI "\ 1 ,\-; h 1 ^ ^^ J 1 i A DIGEST OF TROPICAL MEXICO OR. J. H. REIDER A DIGEST OF TROPICAL MEXICO This Volume will be a helpful guide to all who seek a better knowledge of our little sister Republic, Mexico BY Dr. J. H. REIDER Los Angeles, Cal. AH Rights Reserved LOS ANGELES, U. S. A. GRAFTON PUBLISHING CORPORATION 1913 COPYRIGHT, 1913 By the GRAFTON PUBLISHING CORPORATION LOS ANGELES. CAL. ^^JSSHr-aS£2£;SgS* 4> Published November, i9i3 ^ TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Preface II- Early History of Mexico from 648 to 1 861 17 President Porfirio Diaz 51 The Constitution of Mexico 63 Mexico of Today 68 Facts Concerning Mexico 73 Rights of Foreigners in Mexico 80 Citizenship 84 Farm Products and Prices 90 Miner's Handy Table of Measurements 91 Rainfall of Mexico 92 States and Territories of Mexico. 95 Aguascalientes ' 95 Territory of Lower California 98 Campeche 101 Chiapas 1 04 Chihuahua ] 06 Coahuila | 09 Colima 112 Federal District 115 Durango 119 Guanajuato I 22 Guerrero . . . .- 125 Hidalgo 129 Jalisco 132 Mexico 137 Michoacan 140 Morelos 143 Nueva Leon 146 Oaxaca 149 Puebla 155 Queretaro 158 Quintana Roo Territory 164 San Luis Potosi 161 Sinaloa 166 Sonora 171 Tabasco 175 Tamaulipas 1 78 Tepic Territory 181 Tlaxcala 184 Vera Cruz 187 Yucatan 190 Zacatecas 195 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Dr. J. H. Reider Frontispiece Cathedral, Mexico City . . . . . 17 Ex-President Porfirio Diaz 51 Rubber Trees 101 Tehuantepec Senoritas 104 Cocoanut Trees 112 Fording the River 119 Loading Sugar Cane 122 Borda Gardens, Cuernavaca . . . . 137 Mitla Ruins 151 Big Tree near Oaxaca 154 Unloading Bananas 166 Melon Tree or Papaya 181 Coffee Tree 187 PREFACE In this electrical age the great majority do not have the time to investigate at length, and if they have the time, they do not always have at hand the means to enable them to make a careful study or investigation of the country and places where their business in- terests call them. Traveling has become today a college in which the finishing touches are given, not only to the young and aspiring, but is also recognized as being the most successful agency known, for the development of those powers of discernment so very essential in the commercial activities of life. The busy progressive man, who is con- stantly watching for, opportunities, does not always have the time to go out on the hunt, and is obliged to depend, to a measure, upon others who have made it their business to investigate, and look into details. Having spent sixteen years in travel and investigation in Mexico, we have gathered a fund of knowledge concerning the coun- try and its people, that is so important that our friends have urged us many times to prepare a "Digest," that it may be a prac- XI tical guide, or help to the many who are deeply interested in this old, but new coun- try of wonderful possibilities. Our methods of treatment are different from those pursued by others, who have written Guides, that the reader will readily recognize the fact, and we now offer the "Digest" to the reading public, as being just what the term "Digest" implies, a distribu- tion of facts, methodically presented, and classified for use, or ready application. It has not been our purpose to enter largely into the history of Mexico, but to simply present a "Digest" of the more important events in the history of this interesting country, bringing them down to the close of the administration of ex-President General Porfirio Diaz. We have not deemed it wise to enter upon a discussion of the present political condi- tions of the country, knowing that the settle- ment of all their troubles are in their own hands, and belong to them alone to dis- pose of. Some of the statements found in this little volume may be regarded, by some, as being somewhat overdrawn (and possibly they may be), but from our viewpoint we believe that we have not overstated facts. Our purpose has been to furnish informa- tion that will prove to be helpful to the XII reader, in acquainting him with at least some of the facts, as they exist, and as oth- ers have seen them, for as stated by Mr. Wilson in his "Resources of Modern Coun- tries," Mexico is, perhaps, the finest coun- try in the whole world. Excluding the hot lands by the gulf, the climate is generally exquisite, the soil surpassingly rich, and the mineral resources inexhaustible, and of the finest kind. This language seems like exag- geration, but it would be hard to exaggerate the excellencies of Mexico in these respects. In this connection we will also quote from an address delivered by Gen. U. S. Grant, in which he said : ''Mexico has the elements of success; she has the people; she has the soil; she has the climate, and she has the minerals." We will also quote from Prof. J. L. Lawe, of Washington, D. C., who for years was the statistician of the Department of Agri- culture of the United States Government. After spending three months in traveling all over Mexico, says : "It was a revelation to me to find in various parts of this re- public the tropical fruits growing lux- uriantly in the valleys, and a few miles dis- tant in the mountains, to find growing the fruits of the North. "I saw in the State of Veracruz, on a large plantation, growing in abundance corn, cot- XIII ton, cane, wheat, alfalfa, barley, cocoanuts, pineapples, pears, peaches, bananas, grapes, and other fruits; and on an adjacent planta- tion, I saw many of these same things, be- sides rice and coffee, both in quality and quantity as good as ever grown in Java or Japan. "On the top of a nearby mountain, I saw thousands of apples trees. On the same mountain I went to a mining camp, where fortunes were being taken out from the ground yearly, and while there I looked down into the valley, and saw as fine a stock- ranch as ever my eyes beheld. "Of course, this will sound like exaggera- tion to those in the states, but those familiar with conditions here know it to be true. "When the great Panama Canal is com- pleted I predict the greatest rush of immi- gration to the farming lands of Mexico ever known to any country in the history of the world. The reason of this is that no country on earth presents the advantages for diversified farming, as does Mexico. Its harbors are being opened up, railways are netting the whole republic, and every indi- cation points to a most brilliant future." As elsewhere stated this country with its fifteen million inhabitants lying just south of us, with a territorial expansion equaling one-fifth that of the United States, larger XIV than England, Scotland, Ireland and France combined, is so little understood, and its true character so imperfectly known. The advance it has made during the past thirty-five years is almost beyond compre- hension, and can only be accounted for when we understand the richness of the soil, the incomparable fertile plains, its great ma- terial resources, its geographical position, its topographical conditions, its great water pos- sibilities, and all aided by its unsurpassed climate. The writer wishes to express his heartiest thanks for the assistance obtained from Wil- liard J. Doran, of the Southern Pacific, Dr. Lobato's articles on Mexico, John T. Cave of Los Angeles, who have contributed informa- tion in the preparation of this little volume. Most Sincerely, J. H. Reider. XV EARLY HISTORY OF MEXICO FROM 648 TO 1861 The history of this world is the history of redemption. Nowhere in our travels has this statement been more fully demonstrated than in Mexico. The rise and fall, the turn- ing and overturning of this empire, and its final uplifting to its present status, demon- strates the oft-repeated statement, "Every- thing of worth in the world has cost the price of precious blood." One cannot read the history of this coun- try without feeling that perhaps more blood has been shed on Mexican soil than on any other portion of the earth of like dimensions. As we pass back to the year of 648 A. D., in which period most historians agree that the Toltecs appeared upon the stage of action here, and pass on down through the cen- turies to within a period of twenty-five years, the whole history of the country seems to be written in blood. Blood, human blood, in the valley, in the mountain, on the seashore — everywhere the crimson stream seems to have flowed. The sacrifice of human life in defense of that which seemed to be in harmony with 18 Guide to Mexico right, stares one in the eyes, look where and when he may. As we stand in the National Museum in the City of Mexico and look upon the sculptured work of the hands that once toiled for that which they deemed to be right and just, we are amazed. When we gaze upon the artistic work of those who figured upon the stage of action 1353 years since, and remember that we are reading the thoughts of that early people, having portrayed before us their hopes, their ambitions, their ideas of the world, God and eternity, we are made to ask, "How much have we advanced in our ideas of right, of God and of eternity?" The history of Mexico is a wonderful his- tory» and the writer has become fully con- vinced that but little of its true history has been presented to the world. Religious fanaticism has destroyed much that would prove to be deeply interesting. Religion, from the Latin Religo, to bind back, bind back to God, is the primary idea and has of times been misnamed. Much that has been denominated religion in this country has been devilism in its purity. The regenerated heart alone can hold the spirit that will en- title it to the name of a truly religious heart, out of which will spring a truly religious life. Man's sense of justice and right, his intel- ligence, will lead him to the recognition of Guide to Mexico 19 the fact that the farther he drifts away from the Divine plan of his life, the deeper be- comes the mire of unbelief, unsettled convic- tions, unrest of life and lack of usefulness toward his fellow beings, a lack of con- fidence in his surroundings, a lack of trust in his associates. The fanatical jealous spirit which mani- fested itself so strongly in the early history of this country, the slaying of multitudes, these and many other things do not present to the writer one iota of true religion, and hence it is that in the presentation of this feature of the discussion, we shall always use the term "religion" in its primary sense, that of binding back to God, for in this sense it stands side by side with Christianity. We must bear in mind that the too liberal world has misapplied the term to the great detriment of true religion. That we may impress this thought, we shall here give an illustration, that will serve to fix the true idea in the mind of the reader. When we pass back to the days of the Toltecs, in the year 648 A. D., we find them filled with jealousy because, in the temples which they found erected in this country, before their coming, by a people concerning which they and we know almost nothing, they discovered works of art that so far surpassed 20 Guide to Mexico anything they could make that their jealous spirits ordered them destroyed, and the graven stones and pictured parchments found in the places of worship were either burned, buried or so defaced that the reader of hiero- glyphics today can do little more than look with amazement upon the evidences of that frenzy called by some religion. They ob- literated the history of the races that lived generations before them, because they would have none greater than they regarded them-, selves as being. But thanks to that Provi- dence, pro-vi-dence which rules over all, we have yet left to us, in the sculptured walls, massive monoliths and mosaics the enduring monuments of a skill and artistic knowledge that causes the blush of shame to fall upon some of the latter-day artists. Aside from the sculptured walls and monoliths, we have but little to guide us in our search for knowledge of their arts, and only here and there do we find a slender ray of light that penetrates the gloom with which that primitive civilization has been en- shrouded by the bigotry and fanaticism of those who, in their efforts for self-aggran- dizement, have not only obliterated the past, but entombed themselves. In their calendar stones we have been able to learn that they understood the length of the solar year, the Guide to Mexico 21 motions of the sun, moon and stars, and to some extent a knowledge of the tides. Their silver filigree work, their polishing of stones and crystals, their mixing of tints and colors, as well as their delicate weaving, indicate a degree of skill scarcely attained by our artists of this present day. Year by year new discoveries are being made, and we are realizing more and more that the generations which lie behind us six thousand years deep have placed their hands upon each succeeding generation, and we of the present are keeping up the magnetic current of action that will bind the remotest past with the most distant future. Standing in the National Museum in the City of Mex- ico, we are deeply impressed with the kin- ship of the human race, as we look upon the mummified and skeleton forms gathered there. The phrenologist sees in those skulls alike development found in this day of boasted learning. We turn and look upon the handiwork wrought by them, and insti- tute a comparison with that seen in the workshop of today, and again and again we ask ourselves: Where did they obtain their knowledge of art, their skill of workmanship, their ideas of the Supreme Being who rules the destinies of men? Twelve hundred and fifty-three years since there came a strange 22 Guide to Mexico people to Anahuac, known as the Toltecs. They came to conquer a people of whom we have but a faint knowledge, and yet their skill in battle, their management of affairs, indicate wisdom and shrewdness truly sur- prising. A people whom we judge to have been pastoral in their habits, and especially worshipful in their lives. That they were driven from this country after a severe struggle, and possibly com- pletely destroyed, is evidenced in the chron- icles found engraven in stone, as well as by the legends handed down. As we know al- most nothing concerning them prior to their advent into the country, so, too, we have but few things to guide us in their departure from this ancient land of mysteries. In that very excellent book written by Ignatius Donnelly, "The History of Atlantis," we have a very plausible story set forth of their origin and entrance into this country. If, indeed, there existed in the Atlantic Ocean, opposite the mouth of the Mediter- ranean Sea, a large island, which was the remnant of an Atlantic Continent, and known as Atlantis, and from whence there came forth a people, more intelligent, more skilled in art and war, from whose overflowings the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, the Mississippi River, the Amazon, the west coast of Europe Guide to Mexico 23 and Africa, the Baltic, the Black Sea and the Caspian were populated, then have we a clue to the primal entrance of man upon this part of the great American Continent. As to the years intervening between the time of the de- struction of that great island Atlantis and the entrance of the Toltecs in the year 648, we have but little to guide us, and that little so speculative that we dare scarcely offer an opinion. Civilization is but a conquest over nature, and as Mr. Donnelly has well said, "The in- vention of the bow and arrow was, in its time, a far greater stride forward for the human race than the steam engine or the telegraph.'' The gnawing hunger of the wan- dering Indian could now be satisfied. The wild game that but aggravated the unsatis- fied appetite could now be brought within his grasp. The portion of country inhabited by them seems to have been that lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, and included the greater part of Central America. The capitol seems to have been Tenochtitlan, located within the confines of what is now known as the Federal District of Mexico. It required the space of about twenty-one years for the Toltecs to conquer their enemy 24 Guide to Mexico and establish themselves in the full su- premacy of this country, and for the space of five hundred years they seem to have had unmolested occupancy of the land, when a most bitter and malignant foe appeared in the persons of the Chichimecas, in the year 1170 A. D., and drove them from the home of their conquest, leaving, as the Toltecs be- fore them, but meager evidences of their ex- istence. The Chichimecas seem to have gath- ered and lived more particularly in the south- ern portion of the country, having their seat of government where the great forests of Chipas are now found. There the casas de piedras (houses of stones) may be seen to- day. According to the best information we can gather, they seem to have flourished for the brief space of eight years, when they were driven out, and the Nahuals appeared upon the stage of action in the year 1178, and in turn they were dispossessed in the year 1196 by the Aztecs or Acolhuans. We have but very meager data upon which to predicate an opinion relative to the strug- gles of the inhabitants of this country up until the coming of the Aztecs in the year 1196 A. D., since which time we have much more to guide us. And while it is true that much has been written by the would-be his- torians, it is also true that the imaginations Guide to Mexico 25 of many have been stretched to a point almost beyond elastic possibilities. We thus learn that 548 years intervened between the coming of the Toltecs and Aztecs, and that two separate and distinct peoples inhabited this country during those years. They did not seem to have a literature of their own, and seemingly no thought of per- petuating their memory outside of the graven stones and images, a few of which have been found and may be seen in the museums of this and other countries. Enough, however, has been revealed to en- able us to know something concerning the characters of their rulers, although the very names of said rulers are buried with the rubbish of the past, save, perhaps, the name of Xolotl, one of the Chichimec kings, who is represented in sculpture as well as in le- gend, as being physically a wonderful man, great in prowess in battle and greatly beloved by his people, who almost worshiped him. A legend tells us that once upon a time, when he was seated upon his throne in the presence of a great multitude of his people, six beautiful white doves came and sat upon his head, shoulders and breast. That imme- diately after the king had spoken to them, the two upon his head flew upward out of sight, 26 Guide to Mexico and their places were immediately taken by those on either shoulder, and when he ad- dressed them they arose heavenward and dis- appeared, when the remaining two perched themselves upon his head and sweetly cooed the name of the king. Then, plucking a feather from the breast of each, they dropped them upon the head of the king ; then, rising higher, they widened the circle until they disappeared from sight. The eyes of the king and multitude were fixed upon the doves, and the ten circles they made represented the ten hours the king would live, and at this time the multitude, as with one voice, exclaimed : "The doves have gone to prepare the way, and our beloved king will leave us." And so it was, when the ten hours had passed by, and before the breaking of the morning light, the doves came and sat a while, when, rising in spiral form, they passed upward and out of sight, and with their passing the spirit of their be- loved king kept them company. The beau- tiful dove, in its innocency, has not only been an object of profound admiration by the cul- tured and Christian nations of earth, but the wild uncultured savage has beheld in it that which to him was the type of the purest and the best. Upon their sculptured walls, in their weaving of most delicate tissue of silk Guide to Mexico 27 and feathers, they represent the gentle dove. When they would depict the region of peace over their land, the dove was used as a symbol. The dove was used by them to indicate their peace with their gods; to indicate to their tribal enemies they were ready to en- ter into peaceful relations with them, as well as to set forth their idea of the departure of the spirit from the perishing body. Almost nothing, as stated before, is known of the rulers before the Twelfth Century. The first Chichimec king was Xolotl, after which the following rulers appear in the order named : Nopaltzin, Quinatzin and Tecotla. Netza- coyotl is found upon the throne, and he is fol- lowed by Nezahualpilli in the year 1470. In the year 1516 Cacamatzin was made the ruler for a period of four years, when he was dis- placed by Cuicuitzcatzin, and then great dis- turbances arose, and he was dethroned the same year and Coanacotzin was declared the ruling king. During the years intervening between the years 1460 and 1520 there seemed to be great disturbances in the land, and many fac- tions arose. The nature of the dissatisfac- tions is difficult to ascertain. The empire of Montezumas was established about the year 1460, and not until the coming of Cortez in 28 Guide to Mexico the year 1521 did it give way, and Monte- zuma II was killed by an arrow thrown from a bow in the hands of his nephew, Cuautemoc, who succeeded him, and he was last in the line of the Aztec rulers, a bold warrior, a skilled marksman. As A Skilled fighter, Cuautemoc was more than a match for Cortez, and could he have had weapons of warfare the equal of those of Cortez he would have driven him from the land, or destroyed him and his men ere they could have made much of an ad- vance. This land has seen few if any braver men, men more skilled in the handling of men, and more dearly beloved by his people than Cuautemoc. That Cortez feared him greatly is evidenced not only by what he said con- cerning him, but also by the great precau- tion he exercised when brought in battle array against him. It was he who drove Cortez from the city the first time, and had not darkness come to the aid of the Spaniards they doubtless would not have been spared to make a second attempt to capture the city. We are not in sympathy with Cortez in his motives to capture this then Aztec land, any more than we should be in sympathy with the United States, our own beloved land, should it go with its strongly equipped army Guide to Mexico 29 and drive the present inhabitants from the land of their birth and adoption. We are made to doubt many times whether his com- ing has contributed greatly towards the up- lifting of this part of the American Con- tinent. Would not the civilizing influences that have made this people what they are, have also lifted the ancient Aztec from his sac- rifice of human life and idolatry to a much higher plane of living and usefulness? The streams of human blood that have flown, the sacrifice of human lives that has been made, the destruction of property, the miseducation of the masses through all these intervening years have not demonstrated that "might was right," or that "God is always with the victorious army." The ruler of the Universe sometimes permits wrongs to be perpetrated, that ultimately he may make his enemies to praise Him. Cortez sailed from the little port of San- tiago de Cuba, February 18, 1519. His fleet consisted of eleven ships, one hundred and ten sailors, sixteen cavalry men with their horses, five hundred and fifty-three foot soldiers, two hundred Cuban Indians, ten small cannon, four falconets, and two In- dian interpreters. With this small army Cortez set sail, de- 30 Guide to Mexico termined to conquer the land of the Aztecs, having emblazoned in golden letters, upon a black ensign the motto, "Amici, sequam crucem et si nos fidem habemus vere in hoc signo vincemus" — "Friends, let us follow the cross, and if we have faith we will conquer/' His first landing was made near Rio Tabasco, March 20, 1519, and it was there he captured La Marina, a native Indian of Jalisco, who proved to be of invaluable serv- ice to him in his after work, for she not only understood her own language, but also that of the Aztecs. She became his mistress and bore a child whom they called Martin, who developed into a very bright and promising youth, but was not permitted to attain his majority ere the death angel summoned him. In this connection, however, we will say that there seems to be a difference of opinion among historians in relation to the death of this son, but we do well to remember that Cortez married Doha Catalina Juarez in Cuba, whom he murdered in the garden of Coyoacan (which garden is yet preserved) , leaving no issue, and La Marina took her place, and by whom Martin was born, then after the conquest he married Dona Juana de Zuniga, and to them was born another son whom they called Martin, and he had a son by Antonio Hermosillo, whom some his- Guide to Mexico 31 torians have also named Martin, but whose real name was Don Luis, and who entered into a conspiracy to secure the rulership of the province of Martin, son of La Marina, and because of this his estate was confiscated, but was afterwards restored to him, and finally passed into the hands of the Neapoli- tan Dukes of Monteleone, which family yet control the large estates. After having partially conquered the na- tives adjacent to the river Grijalva he again set sail, and landed much against the wishes of the majority of this crew April 21, 1519, near Vera Cruz, but discontent and dissatis- faction had taken a firm hold of his men, and that coupled with the stubborness of the natives led him to resort to severe measures, even to the destruction of his ships, and when his men saw that return was impossible they deemed it best to obey their indomitable leader, and prepared to follow even to death if necessary. August 16th of the same year they started upon their march to the capital of the Aztecs. It was during this time that he displayed his skill as a leader more than ever before, for after severe fighting with the Tlaxcalans, and the loss of some of his most faithful men he not only subdued the enemy, but actually gained their friendship and to their faithful- 32 Guide to Mexico ness more than to any other ally is due the results of the conquest. Throughout the en- tire struggle they stood faithfully by him and his men, and as shall appear afterwards the second entering into the capital was due probably more to them than to any other cause. Under the cover of darkness he sur- prised the Cholucans, and captured their city, from which place he marched onward almost uninterrupted until he passed over the cause- ways of Tenochtitlan, where he stopped and rested for a few days, preparing himself and men to appear in the presence of the King Montezuma and his royal attendants, who had never seen firearms, horses, cannon and munitions of war such as Cortez then had. They regarded the horse and rider as being one being, and thought they were gods. Montezuma, the king, came out in all the royalty he could summon and met Cortez and his men on the spot that is now made sacred by the famous Hospital de Jesus, which Cor- tez erected, and founded in memory of this first meeting. This is the first and oldest hospital on the American continent. Perhaps no other monu- ment so fitting, so expressive of the truth and needs of the suffering people could have been erected ; for that marked the beginning of the infirmities and sufferings of the Guide to Mexico 3S Aztec people. It soon became apparent that the domineering and tyranical spirit of Cortez and his men would lead to the destruc- tion of the one or the other. On the night of July 1, 1520, "the noche triste, or "dismal night," the people rose up in their anger and drove the intruders out over the Causeway known as Tacuba, and in their rapid flight they did not stop until they reached Otumba, where they were joined by the Tlaxcalans, and were saved from destruction. While encamped in the city of Tlaxcala they re- ceived a fresh supply of troops and arms and munitions of war and at once began prepa- rations to return and attack the capital. His Spanish army consisted at this time of forty cavalry, eighty arquebusiers and cross bow-men, four hundred and fifty infan- try armed with lances and swords, and a battery of nine cannon, aided by perhaps three thousand Tlaxcalans, with this small army he marched forth, determined to con- quer, and thoroughly subdued a city forti- fied and containing at that time not less than one hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. December 31, 1520, he gave the order to begin the march, and August the 13th the following year he made his second triumphal entry into the capital, Tenochtitlan, now the present City of Mexico. 34 Guide to Mexico Montezuma, the king of the Aztecs, proved to be a coward and wholly unfit to lead a people against an enemy, and was killed by an arrow from the bow of his nephew, Cuau- temoc, who was at the time the idol of the people, and who immediately became their leader, and could he have been equally armed with the men in Cortez' army would have undoubtedly driven the intruders unto their death in a very short time. His soldiers were untried and unskilled, consequently unpre- pared to battle with armed men. Cortez fully understood this, and it was this knowl- edge that stimulated him to that which his- torians are pleased to denominate "unexam- pled bravery,'' but which we regard as being a display of shrewdness and tact, rather than bravery. He is not necessarily a brave man who undertakes great things for ambition's sake. The basest of cowards have been known to do as much. True bravery manifests itself in noble acts, in deeds of kindness and of love. It knows no yielding when the cause is just, but knowing the cause to be without merit, yields though the yielding may be humiliating in itself. The acknowledgment of error, today, is an evidence of increasing wisdom as the days go by. Better confess that you were mis- Guide to Mexico 35 taken yesterday, than to stubbornly hold out against known error. Cortez, having entered the city, found that its riches had all been destroyed or hidden away, and in order to get possession of that to which he had no legal or moral right most cruelly tortured to death Cuautemoc, whom he had taken as prisoner, but who was too brave to yield, though the most cruel machin- ery of the Spanish Inquisition was brought to bear upon him, he died a truly brave man in defense of the principles and right of him- self and people without yielding one word as to the whereabouts of the buried treasure. So securely were they buried from the sight of men, that to this day they remain hidden from the knowledge of the world. Many have been the traditions handed down con- cerning their whereabouts, and multiplied thousands of dollars have been expended in searching for them, but all to no avail. Cortez lived after the conquest for about twenty-six years and died at the age of sixty- two in the little town of his native country, Castelleja de la Questa, Spain. From the time of his conquest of this country until his death we know but little of him, and in fact he was a man of so little importance politically that in the manage- ment of the political affairs of the country 36 Guide to Mexico he was never consulted. His great work, if great it can be called, consisted in subduing a people who were unable to combat trained and armed men in warfare. In taking by force that to which he had no moral or legal right, in slaying multiplied thousands who bravely contended for their families, homes and land. We cannot believe that that is an easy couch upon which to rest, that has been man- ufactured from the heart-strings, groans and blood of the suffering innocent. May 15, 1520, six months after the Span- iards entered Mexico, the true spirit of Cor- tez manifested itself and Montezuma was made to realize that he had taken into his bosom a viper, which would sting him and his people to death ; notwithstanding all this the great-hearted Emperor concealed his sus- picions from his people and bestowed upon Cortez and his soldiers every favor within his power, furnishing them with food, cloth- ing and the necessaries of life up until the very day when Cortez seized him as a hostage and heaped upon him all the shame and dis- grace he could conjure in the base passions of his vile nature. Within a few days it became apparent that his life was in danger, and he fled to the Coast, not knowing that Spain had sent Guide to Mexico 37 Panfilo de Narvaez to capture him and take him back to the Spanish Court to answer for crimes he had committed against the government. Cortez had not been idle, and the knowl- edge he had gained of the country and people, coupled with the fact that his life depended upon defeating Narvaez, he rallied about him the natives and succeeded in defeating his enemy, and with his stories of his won- derful discoveries in the land of the Aztecs he secured the help of the Spanish soldiers and their munitions of war, and gathering about him many of the natives as allies he returned to Tenochtitlan. On the evening of his arrival there the Aztecs were holding their annual festival in honor of their war god and the nobility of the city was gathered in the Teocalli, which was in proximity to the quarters occupied by the Spaniards. Hoping to please Cortez and his soldiers they were invited to specially prepared seats to witness the ceremonies. While their festivities were under way Al- varado and his soldiers were instructed to assault them, and the butchery commenced, and when completed not one of the six hun- dred nobility was left, and there and then vengeance cried out, and the spirit of retri- bution was implanted in the heart of the 38 Guide to Mexico Aztec, which time will never efface, so that even today the Mexican looks with disfavor upon Spaniards on the Mexican holiday. Happy, indeed, for all, if we could blot out from the pages of history the bloody in- human deeds of the Spanish Inquisition. We cannot here look into the sad events following this butchery between that time until July 1, 1520, when Cortez and his fol- lowers, in the silence of the night marched out of the city in order to escape the violence of the gathering storm. Worn out with hunger and fatigue, as well as lack of sleep the Aztecs knew not of the departure of their enemy, but as Cortez and his troops were about to pass over the bridge on the Cause- way the Indians stationed there as sentinels, gave the alarm by beating their drums and sounding their shells, and before the Span- iards could pass through the narrow defiles countless hoards rushed with the fury of a tempest upon them, and almost overwhelmed them, and the historian tells us that so many were slain, that they were piled upon one another, and formed a solid bridge over which the munition wagons and troops passed. We are told that the Spaniards lost twelve hundred, and the Aztecs more than eight thousand, making a sum total of nine Guide to Mexico 39 thousand two hundred souls that were sac- rificed on that dismal night to appease the vain ambitions of a man without conscience and without heart. We have frequently sat beneath the lone tree, now partly standing, and fenced by the city government from the curious public, kown as "Arbol Triste," which marks the spot where took place the most terrific struggle in the contest of the Aztec country. In the month of April, 1521, Cortez once more beseiged the city, and cut off all their supplies of food and water, and through starvation many more fell than by the in- struments of warfare. The number who perished during this siege is variously estimated by different historians and range between one hundred thousand and two hundred and fifty-seven thousand. Time and space forbid our dwelling upon the Vice Regal Period covering the years from 1521 to 1821, three centuries, a greater portion of which was marked by robbery, in- quisition, and shameless abuse of the people, which gradually led up to the war for Inde- pendence, and August 3, 1821, marked the beginning of the struggle for liberty. The rise and fall of the kingdoms and em- pires of earth fully demonstrate the fact that a long suffering people will endure only to a 40 Guide to Mexico certain point, and then will turn and rend. Thus it was with the Mexicans, three cen- turies of slavery was all they could endure. History also reveals another fact, that there is always a man for the occasion, a genius for the hour, a leader for the cause of right. The Washington of Mexico arose, in the per- son of an humble priest of Dolores Guana- juato, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who could not longer endure the slavery and robbery of his people and on the morning of Septem- ber 16 he rang the liberty bell and sounded forth the "Grito de Dolores" and it was taken up throughout all the land and an army of Independence was organized numbering almost twenty thousand souls. This body of men set forth with determined hearts, though poorly clad, with but few instruments of warfare to sever the bonds which had bound them in slavery for so many years. Under the guidance of their brave and pa- triotic leader, Cura Hidalgo, they attacked their enemy in the city of Guanajuato, having a population of eighty thousand, and cap- tured it, securing about five million pesos, which enabled them to secure in a meager way clothing, food and instruments of war. On October 10th, he left Guanajuato and marched to the city of Morelia, then known as Valladolid, where he found but little resis- Guide to Mexico 41 tance, and in which place his army was soon increased to eighty thousand undisciplined and we may say poverty-stricken willing soldiers, ready to lay down their lives for liberty. In a very few days he began his march to Mexico City, but he met at Monte de las Cruces (the mountain of crosses) the Span- ish General Truxillo, and defeated him, and greatly demoralized the Spanish army, and had he followed up his victory he would have marched into the City of Mexico, but instead he delayed and gave the vice regal troops time to rally, and shortly after he encoun- tered ten thousand well equipped troops un- der General Felix Maria Calleja del Rey, and was compelled to retreat with his army to the north, and did not stop until he rested at Guadalajara, the beautiful capital of the state of Jalisco, and there organized a gov- ernment and published his decrees, among which were the abolishment of slavery and the stamp duties. On January 16, 1811, a strong army of the regal soldiers was sent against him and his army of independence was dispersed, and Hidalgo with his brave generals were captured and beheaded, and their heads were placed upon pikes at the four corners of the square in Guanajuato, where they remained as warnings to all who 42 Guide to Mexico dared to rebel against the Spanish govern- ment, but this defeat did not discourage the brave patriots, for they soon found in the person of Jose Maria Morelos, another priest, and a pupil of Hidalgo, who seemed to be raised up in that hour of their great need to lead them forth, and secure for them that for which their brave leader Hidalgo gave up his life. Their new leader was so successful that he is known in history as the "Hero of a Hundred Battles." These brave leaders were struggling against great difficulties, for their efforts for liberty were misconstrued by the Catholic clergy, and they were ex-communicated, and their way strewn with hardships in order to aid the vice regal army. Morelos was after many hard-fought battles betrayed and cap- tured, and degraded by the priesthood, and finally shot at San Cristobal Ecatepec, De- cember 16, 1815. After the death of Morelos the struggle for liberty apparently was at an end, and the Spaniards were rejoicing in what seemed to them a com.plete annihilation of the foes, but the fires kindled by the brave heroes were burning, and in the year 1823, April 14, they threw to the breezes a flag known as "The Mexican flag," having three colors — white (religious purity) , red (union of Mex- Guide to Mexico 43 icans and Spaniards) , green (independence) . This flag is kown in history as the ''Tres Guarantias," — and it was under this flag that the revolutionists rallied and Mexico once more commenced a struggle for liberty, and in 1820 a congress was called and a constitu- tion was adopted which had been formulated by the great Hidalgo, which dissolved the convents, abolished the inquisition, gave free- dom to the press, set at liberty the slaves, and broke the shackles of the Spanish rule, and a Constitutional representative mon- archy was established. September 27, 1821, Iturbide was chosen to be their leader and under great display, and almost royal triumph entered Mexico City, and ended Spanish rule. But there flowed in the veins of their leader the royal blood which could not be satisfied without the establishment of nobility. This haughty spirit led him gradually into difficulties, and he soon proclaimed himself Emperor of Mex- ico, and called himself Augustin I Empera- dor. It was this act, largely, that marked the beginning of the fall of his empire. A people who had been held in slavery so many years could not endure the haughty display and he was soon banished from the country. In 1822 under the leadership of General Santa Anna, another revolution was inau- 44 Guide to Mexico gurated, and the old gave way to a new con- dition of things, and in 1823 Congress con- vened, and adopted a constitution modeled very much after our own, which will be given in a subsequent chapter. October 24, 1825, Felix Fernandez took the oath of office, and became the first president of the Republic of Mexico, and was recog- nized as such by England and the United States. December, 1823, President Monroe in his message placed a quietus upon any attempt, by any foreign power, to interfere, or at- tempt, to colonize any portion of the Western Hemisphere, thus securing the protection so much needed for the upbuilding of Mexico, as well as the other weak political divisions of Latin America, and notwithstanding the objections urged against the Monroe Doc- trine, it has stood as a mighty wall about these countries, and kept them free from the greed of the strong and aspiring powers of the Eastern world. The centralization of power has been, is and will continue to be one of the most dangerous elements with which we have to contend. Under the leadership of President Felix Fernandez the country prospered for four years, but the priest-craft was restless, and the influences they exerted soon made it ap- Guide to Mexico 45 parent that the loss of power they had sus- tained of their ecclesiastical government would lead them to extreme measures. Dis- turbances commenced to arise, and very soon heavy clouds were seen upon the horizon which plainly denoted that a terrific storm was about to break upon them, and the struggle for the separation of the church and state was on, and would continue in va- rious forms until consummated, as it was thirty years later by the great Juarez, who gave up his life to bestow upon his beloved people the inheritance of worship in har- mony with the dictates of their own con- sciences. From 1832 to 1847 Mexico was in a con- stant state of turmoil, under the leadership of such traitors as Santa Anna who precipi- tated the war between the United States and Mexico, for had it not been for his treachery and vain ambition, there would have been no occasion for the unwise steps taken at that time, and the blot resting upon our actions would not be there, for it cannot be disputed that the blush of shame should mantle our cheeks when we review history. There were those then in power who regarded the acqui- sition of territory as being of more import- ance than human lives, more to be desired than peace and prosperity. 46 Guide to Mexico February, 1836, Santa Anna marchexi forth at the head of an army of about eight thousand troops into Texas to put down a rebellion that had arisen there over the se- cession of Texas from Mexico, but he soon met his defeat at the hands of General Hous- ton, who with seven hundred and eighty- three men after a struggle of twenty minutes captured the Dictator and his entire army, and he was held until he acknowledged the independence of Texas, when he was set at liberty, and in about one year he returned to Mexico City, and influenced President Her- rera to wage war against the United States, to recover it, claiming that the annexation of Texas to the United States (for it had become a state of the Union) was a breach of international faith, and thus was begun the war of 1845 and 1846 and 1847,and end- ed in a treaty February 2, 1848, known in history as the "Peace Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo," and gave to the United States 522,955 square miles of territory, and cost in money to the United States $166,500,000, and the lives of 25,000 men. In the midst of all this struggle. President Herrera proved himself to be a wise and safe counselor, and could he have been con- tinued in power for a few years longer Mex- ico would have largely recovered from its Guide to Mexico '47 great loss, but another dictator arose in the person of General Mariano Arista who was elected in 1850 to the presidency, and in a short time another revolution broke out and he soon lost his head, and with it went his power, and then Santa Anna again appeared upon the stage of action to curse the people with his despotism, and again Jesuitism was re-established by a decree, and Santa Anna, at the solicitation of the clergy called him- self "Perpetual Dictator," and then it was that another reign of terror commenced, and when the people could endure it no longer such men as General Ignacio Comonfort, organized a revolutionist army and over- threw the haughty dictator, and he left the city August 9, 1855, forever disgraced be- fore the eyes of the world, a failure in life, and despised in death. About this time that great man Benito Juarez, appeared upon the stage of action, and threw all his unselfish life into the work of uplifting his degraded people, and correcting the evils which came down from Spanish rule for there had been placed into the hands of the clericals about one-third of the landed property, and ex- empted them and their attendants from the enforcement of the laws in the civil courts, in other words allowed them to do as they 48 Guide to Mexico pleased, but enforced the laws rigidly upon the poorer classes. Juarez, was a Zapoteca Indian, but at an early age he attracted much attention by his attainments in his studies, and especially because of his knowledge of higher math- ematics, as well as his keen insight into the theological questions of the age. At the age of thirty he held the office of Civil and Rev- enue Judge, and about this time he became deeply interested in the youthful Porfirio Diaz, and gave to him much of his time and attention, and thus placed upon young Diaz, the impress of his great mind. It was then that Diaz became a pupti of his. He prepared the first code of Criminal Laws published in Mexico, and drafted the cele- brated "Reform Laws" that led to the separa- tion of Church and State. Notwithstand- ing his humble birth, the great disadvan- tages under which he labored in early life, he placed his name high upon the escutcheon of fame, for he originated some of the great- est reform measures the world has ever known, and wisely indeed did the Congress of his country order that his name should be inscribed in letters of gold in the Chamber of the National Congress. For more than three centuries the Church had ruled with an iron hand the helpless Guide to Mexico 49 people, and it was no little task undertaken by Juarez when he enunciated the "Leyes de Reforma," and thereby declared that the priest ridden people must be set free. The church had wrung from the people more than one hundred million dollars, fully one- third of Mexico's v/ealth. Three bishops alone possessed four hundred and thirty thousand dollars. This war for Independ- ence, and separation from the church did not end until January 11, 1861, when Juarez entered the City of Mexico, and banished the bishops, the Papal nuncio and the Spanish envoy. Santa Anna, the curse of Mexico, had bor- rowed of Great Britain the sum of fifty mil- lions, and her treasury through a long con- tinued revolution was depleted, and financial ruin threatened the country, and in the month of July, 1861, Juarez, in order to gain some headway, asked Congress to suspend for two years the payment of foreign debt, but this act gave an opportunity to the clericals to open up the festering wounds, that led to the French intervention. It was at this time that the European world was watching the progress of our Civil War, and the Emperor Napoleon III believed it to be an opportune time to establish a government in Mexico by the overthrow of Juarez, and the establishment of an empire with the 50 Guide to Mexico Austrian Archduke Maximilian at its head. They believed that the Southern Confed- eracy would be successful in its attempts of secession, and would join them in building up a great empire, hence they recognized their belligerent rights, but avoided the recognition of independence only, because the other European powers gave them but little encouragement. It was here that the so-called Monroe Doctrine arose before them as a great ob- stacle. It became apparent that the North would triumph over the South, and that the Union would be maintained undivided, but most of all that the great disciplined army would enforce the observance of the Mon- roe Doctrine, for the American Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, in firm, but diplomatic language, gave the emperor to understand that a withdrawal of the troops forever from Mexico was necessary. The English and Spanish governments now commenced to realize that they had been duped by France, and they withdrew, but on April 9th, 1862, the French under General Lor- encez, marched with six thousand men to the capital, and it is in this connection that we have first brought to view the greatest of the great men of Mexico, Don Porfirio Diaz, whose life we will consider in our next chapter. EX-PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ PRESIDENT PORFIRIO DIAZ In the rise and fall of kingdoms, empires and republics, the overruling and guiding hand of the Divine One is always made man- ifest, but never more so than in the fall and rise of this land of the Montezumas. Antedating the time of the rule of Porfirio Diaz, this country was a great battlefield, as we have shown in our former articles, a field of human sacrifices and bloodshed, and no- where, perhaps, can it be more truly said, "The land flowed with rivers of blood." September 5, 1830, in the little city of Oaxaca, state of Oaxaca, there was born to Captain Jose Faustino and Donna Patrino Morey Diaz, a child, upon whom the hand of Destiny was placed, and whom God raised up to deliver this people out of darkness, super- stition and human suffering, to become a people exalted and admired by the whole world. Only those who have read with careful eyes the history of this ancient land, and marked carefully the spirit and ambition of those who preceded young Porfirio, can un- derstand the great task to which he was called, for as the fathers were, so to a large 52 Guide to Mexico measure their children were, for the **iniq- uities of the parents had been visited upon their children," from generation to genera- tion, and out of this fallen condition must they be raised, and to this end young Porfirio Diaz was born and raised up. His father, Captain Jose Faustino Diaz, was noted for his indomitable courage and patriotism, his integrity of purpose coupled with a sweet and gentle spirit was a heritage left to his son. Three years after the birth of young Porfirio in the year 1833 the father fell victim to that dread disease, cholera, which at that time proved so fatal to Mexi- co, and swept into their graves more than one-eighth of its inhabitants. Here again have we presented to us a most striking illustration of the importance and far reaching influence of the "mother life" upon the child. It is a fact that the majority of the great makers of history have had great mothers. Donna Patrona Morey, the mother of Porfirio Diaz, was of Austrian lineage, as her name indicates, her father having mar- ried a Mixteca, noted for her beauty and dignity of character, and it is this marriage which gives rise to the Indian blood which courses through the veins of General Porfirio Diaz. The blending of the Spanish, Aus- Guide to Mexico 53 trian and Indian blood has imparted to this illustrious son those characteristics of alert- ness, strength of body, and gentleness of character which have so marked his entire life. After the death of Captain Diaz, the mother fully realized that the future of her boy depended largely upon her personal ef- forts, and the ambition of her life was, that he might be trained for the church of which she was a most devout member. She also bore in mind the expressed wish of the father, that the son might be an honor to the church and a blessing to the world. In consultation with the then Bishop of Oaxaca, it was decided to educate him for the priesthood, but God's ways and plans do not always agree with ours, and so in this case it was revealed that out of human plan- nings God brought forth honor and glory to His name. Like Moses of old, Porfirio must be educated, but in a different school from that of the priesthood. That education was good as far as it served God's plans, and their honest efforts were rewarded, but the end for which they sought was overruled. Experiences were needed which the church could not furnish. The law and military tactics must be understood by the child of 54 Guide to Mexico Destiny. He will have need of them in his great work. A schooling much larger than that of the church and priesthood must be given. Hard- ships must be endured, indomitable courage must be implanted, a knowledge of laws gov- erning men must be had, the relationship of nations must be understood, and the church was not fully prepared for this extensive knowledge. In his early childhood life he exhibited a fondness for law, a longing for history, and a growing sympathy for the oppressed. At the early age of seven while in the primary schools of Oaxaca, he was frequently found engaged in heated discussions with his play- mates over the wrongs his people had, and were suffering because of Spanish rule. The spirit of the immortal Cura Hidalgo was gradually entering into him and shaping his character which was to be afterwards re- vealed to the world, and to make of him the grand character that he now is. At the early age of fourteen we find him in the Seminario Conciliar in Oaxaca, from which in a few years he graduated at the head of his class as Bachelor of Arts and Sciences, and from which he went forth to the study of law; but it was while thus en- gaged, and when the fundamental principles Guide to Mexico 55 of law had thoroughly formulated themselves in his mind, that the call of his country "to arms" became so strong that the soldier spirit, that spirit which calls for justice, would not allow him to sit quietly at his studies while his countrymen were contend- ing with a bitter foe. Casting aside for a time being his studies he heeded the call "to arms" to overthrow the would-be dictator, Santa Ana, and went forth to do that which his conscience bade him do. On December 1, 1854, when Santa Anna submitted the question to the nations of the world, as to whether he should continue in power or not, young Diaz boldly stepped for- ward and, in the presence of Santa Anna's agent and soldiers, signed the negative reg- ister, although he knew that by so doing he was taking his Hfe into his hands, and that before twenty-four hours an order would be issued for his arrest and possible execution. As contemplated by him, said order was is- sued, but again the hand of Providence which has so signally led him through life mani- fested itself in raising up a friend in the person of the jefe politico (justice of the peace) , who informed Porfirio of his danger, and he was thus enabled to outwit his ene- mies and make his escape under the cover 56 Guide to Mexico of night by fleeing through the mountains; the daring of that escape reads more like a fabled story. After a long and dangerous journey he reached Ejutia and offered his services to Captain Herrera, who had taken up arms against Santa Anna. It was not long before his honesty of purpose, coupled with his bearing and administrative talents, en- deared him to all with whom he had to do, and to none more than to the officers over him, and he found himself called upon fre- quently to counsel with his superior officers. It was at the siege of Tenango that he had his first experience of genuine warfare, and it was in that first battle that he revealed himself as possessing the true spirit of a master general. After the defeat of Santa Anna he was ap- pointed jefe politico of Ixtlan, the name of which place was changed to that of Villa Juarez, in honor of Benito Juarez, it being his birthplace. It was while exercising ju- dicial power in his honored place that the spirit of young Diaz seemed to reach out and up,as never before for the salvation of his people, he realizing more and more how much they were living beneath their privileges, and beneath that standard of truth and liberty which the immortal Juarez ever held before them. Guide to Mexico 57 It was about this time that the organiza- tion of the National Guards was perfected and Porfirio was elected captain of the Fourth Company of the Second Battalion, and he immediately resigned his civil posi- tion, though at a greatly reduced salary, and in August, 1857, he went forth to quell the insurrection in Jamiltapec. It was during this battle that he made manifest those na- tural gifts for leadership that have so dis- tinguished him in his life. It was while making a charge that he was wounded in the breast, the ball passing near his heart and lodged in his hip. Notwith- standing this wound he charged the enemy and drove them from their position and won the day, and covered himself with honors. His excellent health, temperate habits of life and courageous spirit aided him greatly, and he soon recovered, and led in the defense of his native city, Oaxaca, in the month of November, 1857, against the repeated as- saults of General Cobos, who when he dis- covered that he could not outwit nor out- general Porfirio Diaz, retired to Tehuante- pec, and then, at the order of General Majia, Porfirio followed and defeated him. It was for the bravery and wisdom of Porfirio that he was made Comandante of Tehuantepec. From this time forward his rise was rapid, 58 Guide to Mexico until he reached the highest position his coun- try could give him. We have neither time nor space to follow him in his brilliant cam- paign against the enemies of his country. It was while lying upon his sick bed, recover- ing from an attack of typhoid fever, that he was elected to represent his native state in the National Congress. Again during his services as Congressman he revealed the true spirit of the statesman and soldier, for during the session of June 24, 1861, when Leonardo Marquez attacked the national capital, he arose before the As- sembly and said, "I am a soldier before everything when my country needs me," and he immediately left the Assembly and joined the forces under General Mejia, and in every place assigned him he acquitted himself so intelligently and bravely that the eyes of his country were turned upon him with admir- ation. For two months he followed the enemy through the fastnesses of the moun- tains until the night of August 13, 1861, in the little town of Jalatlaco, in a hand-to- hand contest lasting all night long he once more defeated Marquez, and next we hear of him entering triumphantly into the cap- ital city, where he was immediately made a brigadier general. By this time his people had learned to Guide to Mexico 59 know that Porfirio Diaz is one of the great- est commanders of men in the world, and his presence as a leader was sought after in all parts of this then disturbed land. Those were critical days for this country for, as the historian will remember that dur- ing the year 1861 payment was stopped of the interest on certain bonds, which gave an opportunity for France, England and Spain to enter this country and demand not only interest but also the payment immediately of the bonds. France disregarded the treaty of Soledad, while England and Spain respected it, so that in February, 1862, Eng- land and Spain withdrew their armies, which , left the French army alone upon the field. It was just there that the Monroe doctrine exerted its influence for the salvation of Mexico. General Lorencez was in command of the French army, and General Zaragoza of the Mexican army. They immediately com- menced to line up for battle, and while all odds seemed in favor of the well-equipped, well-disciplined army, under modern meth- ods, supported by a rich and powerful coun- try, yet the end plainly declared that the victory is not always with the powerful, but that right makes might. The untrained, poorly clad and worse equipped soldiers of 60 Guide to Mexico Mexico had only the inspiration that they were fighting for their homes, their country and native land, but this was enough to move them to noble daring and suffering such as the world has seldom seen. The proud French soldier, who never knew be- fore what it was to retreat from a foe, was driven from place to place before the vic- torious barefooted soldiers led by the con- quering Diaz. It will require too much time and space to follow him in his marches and victories over the enemy, and we shall pass to notice that next we find General Diaz surrounding the City of Mexico, cutting off every avenue of escape, and on June 30th, General Marquez surrendered, and General Diaz triumphant- ly took up his headquarters in the school of mines, where he remained until the return of Juarez, to whom he delivered the garri- son. Loved and honored as a great liberator and benefactor of his people, he humbly laid down his weapons of warfare and retired to private life, but such as he can not live in privacy, for there are too few such, and the demands of a strong administration soon called him to the presidency of his beloved country. In 1876 he was almost unanimously elected Guide to Mexico 61 to the presidency of Mexico, and at once with his usual executive and organizing power commenced the regeneration of his country by the subsidizing of railroads, steamships, building of manufactories, encouraging agri- culture and mining, building of schools and colleges, and increased the revenues in a single year from $16,000,000 to $20,000,000, but in nothing did he achieve greater re- sults than in the compelling of respect for the laws of the country, something so much overlooked by his predecessors. Implicit obedience to the laws of the land has contributed more, perhaps, to the up- building of the country than any other fac- tor. The evasion of law is that which de- stroys the life of any country. The security of life and property in the Republic under his administration is recognized throughout the civilzed world, and hence the vast amount of foregn capital invested there. The wise administration of law, the en- couragement given to all law-abiding per- sons, whether native or foreign, attracted millions of foreign capital every year. In conclusion we wish to add that time nor space allotted me will not permit us to say much more of this "creator" of order and national wealth of Mexico, for he stands to- day as one of the greatest statesmen and 62 Guide to Mexico builder of nations the world has ever seen. With a record of more than fifty years of self-sacrificing labor, and with the wealth of almost eighty-two years of national bur- dens upon his shoulders, yet he watches with unselfish interest over every care and symp- toms of his beloved country, and though in a foreign land, he patiently and joyfully waits the hour when the Master of us all shall say, "Well done, thou faithful servant; thou hast kept the faith ; henceforth there is laid up for thee a crown of righteousness which the Lord the righteous Judge shall give thee." We once heard him say, with upturned eyes, "God knows, that I love my children. They say that I am a dictator; perhaps I am, but God knows that I do not want to be such, but I suppose I am. I am obliged to be, for many of my children do not know where liberty begins, and where it ends, and I am obliged to hold them with a firm hand, because I love them." CONSTITUTION OF MEXICO The Constitution of 1857, that great book, the Tables of the Law of Mexico, the synthesis of its socio-political creed, as it sprang from the soul and heart of its people, represented by a group of patriots, who, after enduring the ordeal of war, answered the call of their fellow-citizens to form a constitutional congress. On February 5th, as they met together, the following constitution was unanimously adopted. As you will see, the spirit and purposes are not unlike our own constitution, that insures to all who set foot upon the shores of their country, the right of life and liberty, the right of property, freedom of thought and conscience. Article I. The Mexican people recognize the rights of man as the basis and the sole object of social institutions. Art. II. In this Republic all are born free. Slaves who set foot upon the national ter- ritory recover by that act their liberty and have a right to the protection of the laws. Art. III. Instruction is free. Art. IV. Every man is free to adopt the professional, industrial pursuit, or occupa- 64 Guide to Mexico tion which suits him, the same being useful and honorable, and to avail himself of its products. Art. V. No one shall be obliged to render personal service without his full consent. Art. VI. The expression of ideas is free, except in case it attacks morality, the rights of a third party, provokes some crime or misdemeanor, or disturbs public order. Art. VII. The liberty to write and to pub- lish writings, on any subject whatsoever is inviolable. Art. VIII. The right to petition, exercised in writing, in a peaceful and respectful man- ner is inviolable. Art. IX. No one may be deprived of the right peacefully to assemble or unite with others for any lawful object whatsoever. Art. X. Every man has a right to possess, and carry arms for his security and legiti- mate defense. Art. XI. Every man has a right to enter and go out of the Republic, to travel through its territory, and change his residence with- out the necessity of a letter of security, pass- port, safe conduct or other similar requisite. Art. XII. There are not, nor shall there be recognized in the Republic, titles of nobility or prerogatives, or hereditary honors. Art. XIII. In the Mexican Republic no one Guide to Mexico 65 may be judged by special law, nor by special tribunals. Art. XIV. No retroactive law shall be en- acted. Art. XV. Treaties shall never be made for the extradition of slaves. Art. XVI. No one may be molested in his person, family, domicil, papers and posses- sions except in virtue of an order written by competent authority. Art. XVII. No one may be arrested for debts of a purely civil character. Art. XVIII. Imprisonment shall take place only for crimes which deserve corporal pun- ishment. Art. XIX. No detentions shall exceed the term of three days, unless justified by a writ showing cause of imprisonment and other requisites which the law establishes. Art. XX. In every criminal trial the ac- cused shall have the following guarantees: 1. That the grounds of the proceedings, and the name of the accuser, if there shall be one, shall be made known to him. 2. That his preparatory declaration shall be taken within forty-eight hours, counting from the time he may be placed at the dis- position of the judge. 3. That he shall be confronted with the witnesses who testify against him. 66 Guide to Mexico 4. That he shall be furnished with the data which he requires, and which appear in the process, in order to prepare for his defense. 5. That he shall be heard in defense by himself, or by counsel, or by both, as he may desire. In case he could have no one to de- fend him a list of official defenders shall be presented to him in order that he may choose one or more who may suit him. Art. XXI. The application of penalties, properly so called, belongs exclusively to the judicial authority. Art. XXII. Punishments by mutilation and infamy, by branding, nogging, the bas- tinado, torture of whatever kind, excessive fines, confiscation of property, or any other unusual or extraordinary penalties, shall be forever prohibited. Art. XXIII. In order to abolish the pen- alty of death, the administrative power is charged to establish, as soon as possible, a penitentiary system. Art. XXIV. No criminal proceedings may have more than three instances. No one shall be tried twice for the same offense, whether by the judgement he be absolved or condemned. The practice of absolving from the instance is abolished. Art. XXV. Sealed correspondence which Guide to Mexico 67 circulates by the mails is free from all in- quiry. Art. XXVI. In time of peace no soldier may demand quarters, supplies, or other real or personal service without the consent of the proprietor. Art. XXVII. Private property shall not be appropriated without the consent of public use, and without previous indemnification. Art. XXVIII. There shall be no monopo- lies, nor p|laces of any kind for the sale of privileged goods, nor prohibitions under titles of protection to industry. Such is the constitution framed by Con- gress, and subscribed to by the Minister of War, Ignacio Comonfort, who on December 12, was elected president, which gave to Mexico at that time two presidents, the other being Juan Alvarez. MEXICO OF TODAY In Our former articles we traced the his- tory of Mexico down to the entrance of Gen- eral Porfirio Diaz to the presidency of his country, and in this article we shall only at- tempt to speak of some of the more promin- ent factors which entered into the upbuild- ing of the Republic of Mexico. For thirty years under the wise administration of President Diaz the entire country enjoyed a degree of peace and prosperity unsurpassed by any nation in the wide world. He found the country bankrupt, without credit or fa- vorable influence among the nations of the world; he left it elevated to a position in the galaxy of nations that called for no con- fusion or embarrassment upon the part of its intelligent citizens. This position was made easily possible by the great fertility and productiveness of its soil, its delightful climate, its sparkling mountain waters, of which the great his- torian Humbolt, in his history, says "They are the best in the wide world," as well as the unsurpassed mineral wealth of its moun- tains, for be it known that Mexico has pro- Guide to Mexico 69 duced more than one-half of the silver of the entire world. Its gold, copper, zinc and many other precious metals, its vast beds of coal, its great store house of petroleum, now being opened up, believed by experts to be the larg- est in the world, these and the following facts we trust will give to the reader en- larged views of the great country lying to the south of us. Of the present political conditions we have nothing at this time to say, except that it is a matter of their own, and we believe that the solution of the political questions will be settled in the near future. Every country has had and will continue to have its own internal difficulties, as we have had in the past. For more than thirty-two years Mexico enjoyed a period of peace and pros- perity unsurpassed by her neighbors to the north or south of her. The United States has its multiplied mil- lions in bank seeking more profitable invest- ment, and as they search they are learning to know that this is not only a great mineral- ized country, but its great store houses of oil, and coal are waiting that development and exploitation which capital alone can bring about. Almost every part of the Republic is feel- 70 Guide to Mexico ing the introduction of new blood and new business life. The agriculturist is examining with much care and the horticulturist is learning to know that this semi — as well as tropical country, affords opportunities such as can be found on no other part of the American con- tinent. The introduction of modern labor-saving machinery is a sure indication of the rapid advance along the line of farming and manu- facturing interests. The commercial life of this country is rapidly feeling the uplift of American push and energy, and the better classes are readi- ly adopting new ways and new methods. The large number of young people who are being sent to the United States to be edu- cated, as well as the establishment of new colleges and institutions of higher education such as : Academies of Fine Arts, schools of Civil Engineering, schools of Medicine, Law Schools, Academy of Commerce, Academy of Arts and Trades, Conservatories of Music, Military Schools, Schools of Mines, Normal Schools for teachers, schools for the deaf, dumb and blind, all indicate the higher plane of advancement into which this people have passed. Guide to Mexico 71 This new young life is moulding opinion, changing customs, and producing a spirit of progress that is destined to make this coun- try in time one of the best in the new world. It has all the elements of strength, such as climate, natural resources, geographical po- sition, etc. The rapid progress of this country has been apparent to every observer, not only in the establishment of new industries, but in the great amount of interest elicited upon the part of capitalists of other countries. The advance agents of foreign corpora- tions as well as of private capital have been and are investigating every part of the Re- public, and quietly investing millions of dol- lars. That this Is a country of vast and varied resources is becoming more and more recog- nized by capitalists all over the world. We do not believe that we are too opti- mistic when we say that Mexico is one of the most promising fields on the North American continent. When an individual or a nation has learned to respect itself much has been gained to- wards the elevation of all brought within the radius of its influence. In our sixteen years of association with this people we have been impressed not only 72 Guide to Mexico with their natural politeness, but also with their keen perceptiveness to recognize the things that contribute to their social, as well as domestic interests. They have had many things to overcome, habits that have worn themselves into their inner life from which it has been difficult to extricate themselves, but contact and recogni- tion of more advanced living and thinking has done much for them, and in the years to come they will startle the world with their advancement. We very much doubt whether there is a nation upon the face of the earth that can show greater advancement in all things than this people during the past twenty-five years. We are not unmindful of the recent con- duct of the banditti element in driving out the Mormons from their peaceful and pros- perous homes. For this the government is not to blame, but will be made to suffer. There is a degree of respect shown to the self-respecting American that is not often seen among foreigners in foreign lands, but alas, we are sorry to say that there are many Americans who have come to this country in the past, and a few are coming, who have no respect for themselves, for their country or those about them, and they commence to kick and knock against the government, and Guide to Mexico 73 everything connected with it. This people have awakened to the fact that many of this class are here because they cannot remain in their own country, the land of their birth, and are a stench in the nostrils of a self-re- specting people. Human nature is the same the wide world over, and the evidences of pure thinking, which produces chaste living, are recognized readily by the intelligent Mexican as by any other class of people upon the face of the earth. FACTS CONCERNING MEXICO, The area of Mexico with its islands is about 765,784 square miles. It is about one-fifth the size of the United States. Its greatest width is about 700 miles. Its narrowest width is 116 miles. The islands are mostly on the west side and contain 1421 square miles. The coast country has an extension of 5483 miles. The highest mountains are covered per- petually with snow. The mountain ranges are in height from 10,528 feet to 18,072 feet. 74 Guide to Mexico The highest plateaus are in the Mesa Cen- tral. The widest plains are in the north. The mesas and plateaus range in altitude from 4995 feet, to 8630 feet. The longest river or the (Mississippi of Mexico) is the Lerma or Santiago, and it is about 800 miles from where it takes its rise to where it empties into the Pacific Ocean. The Rio Grande or Bravo, which forms a part of the northern boundary, is 1500 miles long. There are twelve large rivers in the Re- public. There are ten large lakes. Mexico is noted for its mineral waters, which are scattered all over the Republic. The Southern half of Mexico lies below the Tropic of Cancer, but the great ele- vation moderates the power of the tropical sun, and gives to us some of the most de- lightful climates in the world. The hot zone has an average temperature of 86° to 88° Fahrenheit. The temperate zone has an average of 73° to 77° Fahrenheit. The cold zone has an average of 59° to 62° Fahrenheit. The east coast has the most violent wind storms. Guide to Mexico 75 The perpetual snows are found at a height of 12.460 feet. From November to April rain seldom falls, but from May to October rain often falls, and from July to September we have fre- quent rains. Cold rains are seldom known. The most delightful climates of the world are found in Mexico. The prevailing language is Spanish. There are 80 languages and dialects spoken. The prevailing religion is the Roman Cath- olic, but all of the principal denominations are represented. The church is independent of the state. In 1857 the division of the country into states and territories was commenced. There are at this time one Federal District, three territories, and twenty-seven states. These states and territories are divided with re- spect to their geographical position into three groups : Legislative, judicial and execu- tive. The President's salary is 50,000 pesos per year. The Federal District is modeled much like the District of Columbia, and the form of government is much the same as that of the United States. The national railroads of Mexico recently merged consist of 7600 miles. 76 Guide to Mexico These lines constitute a net work of com- munications completely covering the coun- try. There are at this time 16,750 miles of rail- road in the Republic, and in addition there are concessions applied for and granted for one hundred and fifteen other branches and lines. The very liberal policy of the government has, and is contributing to the upbuilding of the great railroad system of the country. In 1876, when President Porfirio Diaz came into power, there were only 350 miles of railroad in the Republic, thus we learn that under his wise administration there have been con- structed 16,400 miles of railroad. The Mexi- can government has during the past few years expended more than 150,000,000 pesos in the upbuilding of her railroad system. In 1861 Mexico had 8,000,000 inhabitants, but has at this time about 15,000,000. She has expended for improvements apart from her civil and military list not less than $350,000,000. Mexico has a compulsory education law. In 1876 there were no public schools, but at this time there are 11,000, and more than 1,000,000 children in attendance. One-half of all the silver of the world has been taken from the mines of Mexico. Guide to Mexico 77 There are more than 300 species of min- erals in Mexico. Since 1902 Americans alone have invested in mining $131,000,000 in gold. The state of Jalisco has the greatest num- ber of copper mines, having 302, while Sonora next in number, has 234. During the years 1821 and 1822 it is esti- mated that Spain took out $140,000,000 of gold and silver . In 1821, when Mexican independence was declared, a broad and liberal policy was adopted towards foreign countries, and the ports of Mexico were thrown open to foreign commerce, and that was the beginning of the rise of Mexico commercially. When her independence was declared the bleeding upon the part of the Spaniards was stopped. In the various agricultural enterprises the Americans alone have invested $35,000,000 gold. In railroads, mines, agriculture, etc., the Americans have invested in Mexico $856,- 000,000 gold, while England and France have invested about $56,000,000 gold. There are more than 1200 American com- panies doing business in Mexico. About 70% is placed in railroads. The future of Mexico as an oil country is 78 Guide to Mexico great, and by experts it is believed that it will prove to be one of the greatest oil regions in the world. The great abundance of silver, copper, gold, lead, coal, marble, oil, fine woods, fer- tility of her soil, ever-living pastures coupled with her unequaled climate will make of Mexico one of the most prosperous nations on the face of the globe. Twelve years ago Mexico had but ten banks with a combined capital of $42,000,000, ex- isting under the government charter, today there are 38, all of which are chartered with a combined capital of $176,000,000. It is a most singular thing that Mexican banks conducted by the Mexican people never fail, the failures which are but few, are among foreigners. Mexican government bonds are quoted at a premium in all the money markets of civiliza- tion. Mexico was placed upon a gold basis a few years since. As to the stability of the government there is no longer a question of doubt upon the part of those who are intelligently informed. The land taxes are exceedingly low, and the assessments are based upon the productions. The titles are as good as in any country. All titles are so made as to constitute an Guide to Mexico 79 abstract in themselves, and are recorded with greater care than in the United States. Mexico does not have to contend with labor unions, communism, nihilism, and the many- other isms which are militating so much against the prosperity of many countries. In the message delivered by President Diaz to Congress on September 16th, 1906, he very plainly set forth his attitude upon the question of unions and strikes. *The execu- tive is willing to recognize the right of the working classes to associate themselves, pro- vided that they respect all legitimate inter- ests, as much, as those of the capitalists as those of the workingmen themselves. If the right to refuse to work under determined conditions is respected, the right of others, who may accept the conditions to work under them, is no less to be respected. Both are the necessary and obligatory accompaniments of individual liberty." "The executive is resolved to respect all rights and to preserve undisturbed, the pub- lic order, hopes, from the good sense and patriotism of the capitalists and the Mexican workingmen, that each may always consider the rights of the other, a condition which will redound to their own welfare and to that of the country at large." In our next article we will treat upon the rights of "Foreigners in Mexico." RIGHTS OF FOREIGNERS IN MEXICO In the Republic of Mexico the great ma- jority of difficulties experienced by foreign- ers is due to nervousness and a lack of knowl- edge of the existing laws. The laws by which the Mexican people are governed do not differ much from our own laws, but one of the car- dinal principles of the Mexican officials is the enforcement of existing laws. When we rightly understand the laws gov- erning the country, we will learn that they are extremely simple and just, and if any favor is shown it is towards the foreigner. The Governor of Durango, Hon. Esteban Fernandez, states in a letter recently written by him in speaking of the attitude of the Mexican people towards foreigners: "The Government is always disposed to do all that it may be able to assist and encourage the settlement of honest and industrious foreign- ers, affording them aid and protection." Our sixteen years of close observation leads us to confirm this statement. All foreigners have been as safe in Mexico as in their own native country until the re- cent difficulties, and no discrimination what- ever is made against investors, and the Guide to Mexico 81 acquisition of property, except in a limited zone along the border, where a difference is made as a matter of protection to the coun- try, such as is found in all countries. The more than one billion dollars of Amer- ican gold invested upon the part of those who have made a careful study of the country is all the argument needed to prove the secu- rity, as well as the advantages, in commer- cial life. The majority of Americans who have gone into this country and resisted the many temptations, and attended strictly to busi- ness, have and are prospering. Mining, agriculture and stock raising are the principal industries in which Americans are engaged, and the laws governing these in- dustries are quite like those of the United States. The mining laws are very liberal and grant the same privileges to foreigners as those granted to Mexicans. Unclaimed mineral bodies may be de- nounced, whether on government or private lands. A mining claim is one hundred meters by one hundred, or ten thousand square meters. The possession of a claim gives no right to the surface ground within the boundaries, so that such parts as are occupied have to be settled for separately, but 82 Guide to Mexico there is seldom any difficulty as to this, and if there should be any trouble the same law prevails there as here, governing such cases. A fee of ten dollars Mex. has to be paid on taking up each claim, and an annual tax of silver has to be paid on taking up each claim, and an annual tax is levied forever there- after, so that the first year's claim costs twenty dollars and thereafter ten dollars per annum. You can take up as many claims as you are willing to pay for. If the tax is not paid the claim is forfeited, and the property is open for re-denouncement for other par- ties the same as here. The possession of land in Mexico is governed by the same laws as those operating here. The taxes are nominal and vary in the dif- ferent states, ranging from three dollars to five dollars per year for one thousand acres. In Mexico you pay your stamp tax on what you sell, and if you have nothing to sell you have nothing to pay. The revenues are collected at the custom houses and by revenue stamps, hence it is that land taxes are so very light. Taxes are always collected in advance, with the privilege to pay six to twelve months in advance. The laws of different states vary. A fail- Guide to Mexico 83 ure to pay your tax on mining claims will incur a penalty. Mining men are generally agreed that the mining laws of Mexico are better laws, and more favorable to mining interests, than those of any other country. According to the last report the output of metal amounted to $192,000,000.00, and the amount of capital invested equals $954,209,- 348.00. There are in all about five hundred mining companies registered in the Secre- taria de Fomenta. There are upwards of twenty-four thousand mining claims regis- tered, covering over seven thousand acres of mineral land. The production of gold and silver between the years of 1878 to 1906 was 1,746,561,206 pesos, and it is estimated that there have been taken out of the mines of Mexico more than six billion pesos, and yet we believe that the mining industry is in its infancy. The Batopilas mine in the State of Chihua- hua is the largest and richest silver mine the world has ever known, and is producing con- tinuously two hundred thousand ounces of silver per month. The Rosario mine, in the same state, is the largest gold mine in the world. Its total out- put is recorded to be not far from $100,000,- 000.00 in gold. CITIZENSHIP A citizen in a republic, or a subject in a monarchy, may be defined as an individual member of both sexes, and of all ages and conditions, whether native born or natural- ized, of a body politic, owing its allegiance and support, and entitled to its protection, at home or abroad, as to his or her personal property. The rule is that the child follows the citi- zenship of the parent, regardless of place or birth: if legitimate that of the father, if illegitimate that of the mother, the wife that of the husband. Article XIV of the constitution of the United States declares that all persons born or naturalized in the United States and sub- ject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. The Mexican constitution provides that all born within or without the territory of the Republic of Mexico, of Mexican parents, and foreigners naturalized according to the laws of the federation are Mexicans. Also for- eigners who acquire real estate in the repub- lic, or have children born in Mexico, are Guide to Mexico 85 Mexicans, provided they do not declare their will to retain their nationality. The Mexican law of the 28th of May, 1886, declares that foreigners that may have chil- dren born in Mexico are Mexican citizens, provided they do not prefer to retain their character as foreigners. There are other classifications of citizens under the Mexican laws like the provisions in other nations, which time will not permit us to consider here. In the case of the acquisition of real estate by foreigners, he must at the time of the ac- quisition state to the notary or proper judge whether or not he desires to obtain Mexican nationality as granted under paragraph III of the XIII Article of the constitution and the decision of the foreigner, in this particular, shall appear in the deed. If he elects a Mexi- can nationality, or omits to make any declara- tion on this point, he may within a year apply to the Department of Foreign Affairs in order to comply with the requirements of Article LX, that he may be considered as a Mexican. If foreigners have children born in Mexico, on registering the birth of the child, the father shall state before the judge of the Civil Register what his intention is as to re- 86 Guide to Mexico taining his citizenship, and the same shall be entered in the registration act. Said Mexican law of 1886 provides, Article V, that the nationality of moral entities, or persons, as regulated by laws authorizing their being constituted, and consequently all those forms according to the law of the re- public shall be Mexican, provided that, in addition they have in the republic their legal domicile. This law applies to corporations or compa- nies, and means that if a corporation is con- stituted according to the laws of Mexico, its legal status is Mexican, even though its mem- bers are foreigners. The Mexican law secures to foreigners all the civil rights enjoyed by Mexicans, and all the guarantees granted by Sec. I Art. I of the constitution. An individual after having been natural- ized in a country may renounce such citizen- ship and renew his native allegiance or may become naturalized in any other country. A naturalized citizen cannot free himself from any legal obligation belonging to his former sovereignty at the time he left his country, and if he returns to his native land he may be compelled to comply with his for- mer obligations, and may also be held liable to trial for all actions punishable by the laws Guide to Mexico 87 of his native state committed prior to his immigration, saving the limitations estab- lished by the law of his own country. Should he return to his own land and settle there, with the intention of remaining, he generally loses his new alliance and becomes again a citizen of his own original country. In this case he is presumed to have renounced his acquired citizenship. Citizenship may terminate by process of law, as by punishment for a criminal offense, or sentence of death, or exile, which in most nations destroys civil rights. It may be lost by leaving a country, or by long continued absence. It may be recovered by compli- ance with the laws of the native state, and by its consent. Naturalized citizens while in a foreign country are entitled from their governments to the same protection of persons and prop- erty that is accorded to the native born citi- zens under like circumstances. The residence or domicile of an individual is important, and generally speaking too lit- tle attention is paid to this matter. It fixes his legal or civil status, and controls the va- lidity of his acts which are determined by the law of the place where they occurred. Hence all countries have classified what they denominate "Domiciled Strangers," 88 Guide to Mexico meaning those individuals who have acquired a legal domicile within the territorial juris- diction of a foreign state by freely selecting a place as a permanent residence for the transaction of business, with no intention of change of citizenship. The status of an individual at the bar of international law is largely determined by his domicil, and in time of war the character of the person as an enemy, or neutral, is fixed by it. Nations hold that they have an inherent right to expel foreigners whose presence they deem a source of danger to the nation. In the United States this right is deemed to be an essential attribute of its sovereignty. Mexicans claim the same right. In the United States there are restrictions as to the acquisition of real estate by for- eigners. In the United States the ownership is controlled by the laws of the different states of the Union. Some states allow the holding of lands on the same conditions as citizens ; others exact residence, and the oath of allegiance, in others a declaration of an intention to become naturalized. In this article we have quoted several times from an article written by Judge Sepulveda of Mexico City, who is an authority upon this subject. Guide to Mexico 89 In Mexico the acquisition of vacant lands in a frontier state or territory is absolutely prohibited to the natives of the respective boundary nations, and to those naturalized in them. Foreigners also cannot without previous permission of the President of the Republic, acquire real estate in the frontier state or territory, which is not vacant land, within twenty leagues, or sixty miles, of the line of the frontier. At the time of the enactment of the above law there was also a law passed which was prohibitive concerning the coast country, but according to the best authorities said law has become obsolete practically, and yet it is better to make the declaration before the proper officials if land is desired within five leagues of the coast. By so doing all doubt can be removed, and difficulties avoided. In Mexico, mines are regarded as real estate, and are so treated. FARM PRODUCTS AND PRICES The following tables have been prepared with great care and will be found reliable : Wheat, per bushel $1.25 Corn, per bushel .75 Barley, per bushel 75 Wheat straw, per ton 12.00 Baled straw, per ton 12.00 Barley, straw and grain 25.00 Alfalfa, baled 25.00 Butter, per pound .50 Eggs, per dozen .30 All kinds of grain and fine fruits command higher prices than in the United States. The above prices are, generally speaking, about the average throughout the republic. In the larger centers of population eggs, butter, milk, etc., are quoted higher. MINER'S HANDY TABLE OF MEASURE- MENTS 1 Vara equals 2.75 feet. 1 Meter equals 3.281 feet. 1 Vara equals 0.8388 of a meter. I square Vara equals 7.5625 square feet. 1 square Meter equals 10.7643 square feet. 1 square Vara equals .7086 square feet. 1 Acre equals 43.560 square feet or 4840 square yards. 1 Acre equals 5892.25 square Varas or 4046.7 square meters. 1 Mile equals 1609.26 meters. 1 Pertenencia equals 100 meters square. 1 Hectare equals the same as one Pertenen- cia. 1 Hectare equals 2.47 Acres. 1 Kilometer equals five-eighths of a mile. 1 Kilo of silver equals $36.50 (subject to variation) . 1 Gram silver equals $3.56 (subject to va- riation). 1 Dollar weighs 27.4 Grams. 1 thousand dollars weigh 27.40 Kilos. 1 hundred dollars weigh 2.74 Kilos. The metric system has been legally adopted by Mexico. INCHES OF RAINFALL Inches. Aguascalientes — . 23 Colima 40 Guadalajara 45 Guanajuato 28 Jalapa 60 Patzcuaro 41 Pachuca 43 Oaxaca 32 Inches. Puebla 43 Queretaro 19 Real del Monte, Hgo 35 Saltillo 26 San Juan del Rio.. 20 San Luis Potosi.... 14 Silao 21 Monterey 17 Tuxam, Ver 50 Mexico City 22 Tezuitlan 60 Matamoros, Veracruz 43 Tamps 22 Linares 31 Leon 26 Lagos 33 Zacatecas 35 Zapotlan 28 Tampico 45 Durango 25 In our former articles we briefly reviewed Mexico historically, from the days of the Toltecs down to the time when General Porfirio Diaz assumed control of the reins of government, and this review was followed by chapters on "President Porfirio Diaz," "Mexico of Today," "Facts Concerning Mex- ico," and our last on "The Rights of Foreign- ers in Mexico." We are endeavoring in these articles to Guide to Mexico 93 make them as brief and practical as pos- sible by acquainting our readers with helpful information concerning the entire Republic. At the time of the outbreak of this present revolution the Americans were scattered all over the Republic, and in almost every municipality the impress of the energetic foreigner was seen and felt. We know of no country where so many opportunities present themselves to the wide-awake American. In this day of expansion, as well as unrest in social and commercial life, we find that the trend of population is to the southv/est. The constant search for new and untried fields, the hopes of securing fortunes in a day are great incentives, and lead, especially the American mind, to watch constantly for grand opportunities. We have reached a period in the history of commercial enterprise where we have to take into consideration many more things than those that were considered to be necessary by our forefathers. Climatological and sanitary conditions have entered so largely into the calculations of the intelligent of our day that in the ab- sence of favorable conditions but little can be done in promoting any enterprise. The well proven accounts of the richness of the soil, the mild and equable climate, the 94 Guide to Mexico health-giving and inspiring influences, these and many other things have turned the eyes of the ambitious wealthseeker towards Mex- ico. The towns and cities that are springing up like magic, the railroads that are span- ning and binding this great land with their bands of steel, all present to the homeseeker unequaled opportuntiies for investments. The spirit of developments bring better methods, and with better methods spring forth better results, and these results implant contentment, happiness and prosperity. Every department of agricultural enter- prise has presented to it in this great south- west country unequaled inducements. The markets of the world are at our doors, the ex- tended sea coast afford facilities for market- ing such as are seldom met with. Because of these things there are many inquiries concerning Mexico, and the writer has concluded that he can do no better thing than to in this way, place before the readers of this publication a brief digest of the differ- ent states and territories, all of which he has visited (with two exceptions, Yucatan and Quintana Roo territory) and made the subject of much study. We shall consider the states and territories as they appear alphabetically. The first of which will be Aguascalientes. STATES AND TERRITORIES OF MEXICO AGUASCALIENTES This is one of the smaller states, and has only 3080 square miles, with a population of 140,180, or 45.5 inhabitants per square mile. It is bounded on the north by Zacatecas, on the east by Zacatecas and Jalisco, on the south by Jalisco and Zacatecas, and on the west by Zacatecas. Its capital is Aguascaliente, which has a population of about 40,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its factories and mining works. The state lies quite high in the center and west. Its altitude, the mountains, the prevailing winds, the temperature which averages be- tween 57 and 62 degrees F. annually, give to us a fine climatical condition. Its mountains rise up to 1829 meters, 1935, 2100 and 1924 above the sea level, so that, generally speaking, we have a most delightful climate. The orographic system in the region of Ascientos is quite broken, and we find the temperature ranging between 32 and 36 de- grees F., which gives to us a cold climate. This is also true of those ranges which at- 96 Guide to Mexico tain an altitude 2114 meters, as found in the north, the Cirro de Altamira. On the table- lands between Aguascalientes and Calvillo we find many beautiful table lands, where in earlier days have been builded up fine ranches and cattle farms. This state presents many characteristics of being very rich in mineral, and, in fact, some of the richest mines in the country have been found here. Under the old Aztec reign vast sums of silver were taken from its mines, and later the Spaniards shipped large quantities to enrich the Spanish treasury. It is generally believed that this is one of the richest states in mineral in the Republic. The Mexican Central railroad passes from north to south through the state. There are a number of small towns ranging from 1000 to 5000 inhabitants, but the princi- pal city is the capital, Aguascalientes, which has a population of 45,000, and is at an ele- vation of 6181 feet above sea level. It is the seat of the mining industries of all that re- gion of country, and possesses the largest smelting plant in that part of the Republic. It also contains the national railway shops, where there are several thousand men em- ployed. The city, Aguascalientes (hot waters) , de- rives its name from the hot springs found in Guide to Mexico 97 the suburbs of the place, the waters of which are piped into many of the buildings. This state, though small in area, is very promising, and is destined to rank high in commercial interests. TERRITORY OF LOWER CALIFORNIA The territory is bounded on the north by the United States, on the east by Gulf of California, and on the west and south by the Pacific ocean. It is about eight hundred miles long, and its greatest width is one hundred and eighty- seven miles. It is the longest peninsular formation on the American continent. In its orographic formation it dips gradually towards the Gulf shore. The mountain ranges reaching out of the United States extend throughout its entire length and fall away from the center both ways toward the Gulf and Pacific coast. This long volcanic range is very broken, and in places the mountains rise to the heighth of 6179 feet above the level of the sea. Many of these mountains are filled with mineral, but the entire hydrographic system is largely void of streams and springs of liv- ing water, and unlike the many systems on the west coast, there is a marked absence of vapors from the sea to supply the much- needed water for irrigation and domestic purposes. Guide to Mexico 99 This great lack of water, coupled with the existing barometrical influences, give a tor- rid climate. There are but few winds, and those are generally very hot and dry and we find the temperature averaging about 76 de- grees F. The volcanic soil is of such a nature as to permit vegetation but little absorbent mate- rial, consequently everything tends to a tor- rid condition, and the inhabitants find the direct rays of the sun excessively hot. The broken sinuous condition of the coast line gives many little inlets and bays, and near these where the climatical conditions favor, vegetation is very rank. The entire territory has about 60,000 square miles, with a population of 43,104, or one and a third persons per square mile. One of the capitals is the beautiful city of La Paz, on the Gulf, and has about 17,00 in- habitants. The other capital is Ensenada, which has a population of 3000. We find in this territory many most favor- able conditions, but the great scarcity of water militates against the development of the country, and if water can be developed, Baja California will become one of the great- est cotton fields in all the country. We have three distinct climates. In the 100 Guide to Mexico east we have a torrid condition, in the center very hot, and in the west and north adjoin- ing the United States we have a temperate climate. The great bodies of mineral of different kinds will no doubt in time attract capital, and the science of man will overcome the now existing barriers. aj$i*' • D l-H S! Q 09 a w o Guide to Mexico 123 that on account of altitude the climate is temperate, with an average of 71.6 degrees as maximum, and 27 to 60.8 degrees as medium. The rich soil with the fine water system, the mild and pure atmos- phere accounts very readily for the large population of the state. It is cold in the mountainous regions, and temperate in the regions covering the slopes towards the south and east. As we follow the slopes of the mountains south we find Chamacuero, Apasco, Celaya, Salamanca, Irapuato, Silao, Leon and other prosperous towns, which form the border of the line Bajio, so noted for its fertility. This region slopes towards the south, with an average altitude of 1810 meters, but varies from 1825 to 1798 meters. This may be classed a temperate climate. As we pass southward we find another region lower in its conformation, with a large basin formed by the rivers of the states, as La Laja coming from Alende, and passing in Celaya, the Guana juata River, which flows into the preceding rivers. The Comanja gives rise to the Turbio, which passes near Leonand, flows into the Lerma, and down across the Plains of Acam- baro, Salvatierra, Salamanca and Santa Ana Pascuesco, leaving on the south the valley 124 Guide to Mexico of Santiago. This basin is not entirely level, but is crossed by small ranges, which modify to a certain degree the country where these elevations are found. All tropical fruits grow here luxuriantly and the chemical elements in the soil are such as to produce the finest of sugar cane. The temperature of these regions form a hot climate, thus we are led to see that the state has three climatological zones : Cold in the northern regions, temperate from Apasco to Leon and from Irapuato to Salamanca; warm from the south banks of the river Laja in Celaya, and the entire south bank of the Lerma, with the region west of Irapuato, Cueramaro. This is a very rich state in minerals, and some of the finest mines in the Republic are found here, and we may truly say that the state is one of the most promising. Its abundant mineral resources are des- tined to place it high in the list of great wealth producers. STATE OF GUERRERO This great mountainous state consists of 22,700 square miles of territory, with a pop- ulation of 417,621, or 18.4 persons to the square mile. It is a region of country consisting of mountains, valleys and rivers. The adjoin- ing states on the north and east all dip towards Guerrero. We find in the southern part a depression of the Sierra Madre range running from east to west, and extending over the southern part of the state. Its northern part dips to form the Mescala basin, while the Southern Sierras, known for their silver ad gold mines, extends to the Pacific Coast. It is, perhaps, one of the most broken states of the Republic. On the north the state is bounded by Mich- oacan, Mexico, Morelos and Pueblo, on the east by Oaxaca, on the west by Michoacan, and on the south by the Pacific Ocean. Commencing over the line in the state of Mexico, we find numerous branches of the Sierras which extend into Guerrero modify- ing and changing the climatical conditions. This zone is rich in gold and silver mines. 126 Guide to Mexico and we have our doubts as to there being a richer state in minerals on the American continent. The district of Tasco has an average tem- perature of 62 degrees to 64 degrees F., and on account of its elevation has a delightfully- pure atmosphere, a mild and beautiful cli- mate, and must be called temperate. As we travel southwest, following the road to Puente de Ixtla, we find Iguala, a beautiful little city at an altitude of 919 meters above the sea, and having and annual temperature of 80 to 84 degrees Fahr. From here we pass to Teololapan and Tlachapa, where we find a very broken coun- try of about the same temperature and alti- tude. The topography indicates a decline until it reaches the banks of the Mescala, where a deep basin is formed, extending from the northeast to the southwest. This basin is so completely surrounded that the temperature is extremely hot, and at times almost un- bearable. The mountain ranges of this state extend southeast and northwest, and run almost par- allel with the coast, thus dividing the stale into two equal parts, the northern forming Guide to Mexico 127 the basin of the Mescala, and the southern the broken coast of the Pacific. In this zone, which is composed of plains, valleys, canyons and passes, are located Tix- tla, Chalapa, Jalpa, Chilpancingo, Ometepec and Ayutla, the altitudes of which are 1000, 890, 840, 725 and 500 meters above sea level, and all have about the same average temper- ature or 84 degrees, which gives us a torrid climate. The slopes of the ranges are fringed with many permanent streams running from north to south, and here we find a warm climate, owing to the lack of ventilation. In this region are located the towns of Aca- pulco, Cayuca, San Marcos, Tucpan, Petat- lan, Simmatanejo, Goleta and a number of small villages. We have here many fine farms and cattle ranges, and a most delightful climate. We find three different climates: Tem- perate in the region of Tasco, hot in the basin of Mescala from Iguala to the foot of the Sierra Madre del Sur, torrid from the southern slope of the Sierra Madre to the shore of the Costa Grande. Its timber and mineral riches can never be successfully exploited until railroad facili- ties — and these are now being provided — 128 Guide to Mexico are opened up. Acapulco is one of the best ports of entry for large vessels on the Pacific Coast, and the city is destined in time to be an important place. There are several lines of railroads now building, opening up new fields. HIDALGO. The state of Hidalgo has a population of 507,456, and an extension of 7,600 square miles, or 66.7 persons per square mile; thus we learn that this is one of the most thickly populated states in the Republic. The capitol of the state is Pachuca, which has a population of 37,487. This state is located on the Central Tablelands, and is very much broken by spurs of mountains, which lift themselves in places over in the state of Vera Cruz, and present to us an annual temperature of 59 to 60 degrees Fahr. The state is divided into five districts, known as Huichapam, Ixmiquilpan, Actopam, Apam and Tulancingo. The altitude of the districts vary from 2486 to 2198, which furnish us with a tem- perate zone. In the examination of that portion in which the capital of the state, Pachuca, is located, we find the orographic system extends from northeast to southwest, and is very broken, and highly mineralized, and is considered one of the oldest and best mining districts in the Republic. 130 Guide to Mexico This is a cold zone with a very low tem- perature, the average of which is from 53 to 55 degrees Fahr., while the altitude is from 2590 meters to 2900 meters above the sea level, giving us a climatical condition most favorable for mining enterprises. Just northeast of Tulancingo we have the "Barranca Grande," which is formed by the openings of the mountains from Apulco to the great Laguna of Mextitlan. Into this Laguna the waters of the Grand River empty, which inundates the whole region, creating paludism and rendering the surrounding country unhealthy. This Laguna very greatly militates against the settlement of this immediate portion of the state, but steps are being taken to drain off the waters, when that which is now ob- jectionable is removed this will become one of the richest parts of the state. The temperature is that of the torrid lands, and the thermometer shows an annual aver- age of 78 to 84 degrees Fahr. On the eastern side we have a series of very high ranges, called the Sierra de Hue- huetla. These ranges are very broken, and out of them we find many living streams, which have their origin in the springs of the mountains. Here we have a cold climate, and we do not know of a region of country in the Guide to Mexico 131 entire Republic where the thermometrical changes are more frequent and pronounced than there. The closely sheltered towns, such as Huc- jutla, have a climatical condition giving us an annual temperature of 71 degrees Fahr., while the barometrical conditions on the nearby mountains produce a cold climate upon them. Passing on to that part of the state through which flows the Moctezuma and Amojo, we find an extremely torrid condi- tion, and where we also find the cultivation of tropical products carried on extensively and great quantities of tropical fruits and plants gathered for the markets. This is a state of most wonderful resources and possibilities, and will doubtless rank among the very first in agricultural produc- tions, as well as to continue to give to the world large returns of minerals. The mining industries of this state read like fairy tales, and by many well versed in its possibilities it is believed that the future will be more productive than has been the past. JALISCO. The state of Jalisco, of which Guadalajara is the capitol, is bounded on the north by Sinaloa and Durango, on the south by Michoacan and Colima, on the east by Guana- juato and Aguascalientes, and on the north- east by Zacatecas. The state has an area of 38,400 square miles, and a population of 1,274,558, or 34 inhabitants per square mile. It produced last year 18,000,000 bushels of corn, 3,000,000 bushels of wheat and 1,000.- 000 bushels of beans. It has 663,727 head of cattle, or more than any other state in the Republic ; it has 76,529 head of hogs, and stands second in point of number in the Republic, and has 67,174 head of sheep. In all kinds of livestock it leads in number and quality. No state in the Republic has intro- duced more thoroughbred stock to be crossed with the native stock than Jalisco, hence the class of stock excels in quality. The large acreage of fine pasture, green the year around, makes it the leading live- stock state of the Republic. The public lands are scheduled at $3.60 per Guide to Mexico 133 acre, but there are no more public lands to. be had, all having been withdrawn from the market. There is no other state in the Republic so rare and variable, owing to its orographic and hydrographic formation, which gives rise to such different climates as those of this state. In the center of the state there is a large hydrographic valley extending from the southeast to northwest. In this valley, com- mencing at La Barca in the state Michoacan, and crossing the Lake Chapala, runs the Tlo- lolan River, which has its rise in the Laguna de Lerma in the state of Mexico. This river is augmented by different tributaries on its way, and crosses the southern part of the state of Guanajuato, and separate Michoacan and Jalisco, as it moves forward towards the above-mentioned valley. The descent is so rapid as to cause to be cut a deep basin, the sides of which are very perpendicular. It is due to the peculiar for- mation that we have the mild and even cli- mate of this entire region of country. The topography of the coast, from the border line of Sinaloa to that of Colima is low, and continues thus over the south on the last range formed by the northern declivity of the Nevada and Volcano de Colima, which 134 Guide to Mexico are respectively at 4378 and 3658 meters above sea level. This range of mountains is mineralized throughout its entire extent, and much fine timber abounds. Passing now to the basin of Tlolotlan, we find the tablelands wide and open, and the streams cutting deep channels and forming a series of barrancas of such depths as to fill one with awe as they look upon them. When the Southern Pacific Railroad is completed it will pass through on its way to Guadalajara over one of the most awe inspir- ing routes of the world. These barrancas are bordered with val- leys which produce all the tropical fruits, and give to us some of the finest farming land in the Republic of Mexico. This entire region slopes towards the sea. In the northern part we find the Sierras de Nayarit, which united to the Sierras of Bo- lanos and Huejuquilla, which rise to an alti- tude of 1180 and 1299 meters, where we have a cold climate. In that portion of the state bordering Aguascalientes and Guanajuato on the north- east we have the mountain Comanja, which gives us a cold climate, and the same condi- tions exist in the south around the ranges of which are the Pico and Volcano de Colima Guide to Mexico 135 mountains, which modify the temperature of the tropical valleys lying between them, thus giving us one of the most even and delightful climates of the world. Passing west of Guadalajara, we have the orographic systems which cross the center of Jalisco, and contribute to modify the cli- mate of the Central Valley. The hottest climate is found in the south- western portion of the state, where, owing to the barometrical altitudes of 800 and 900 meters above sea level, with temperatures of from 68 degrees to 69 degrees, we find a hot climate. Guadalajara is 1566 meters, with an an- nual average temperature of 67 degrees, and is situated in the pleasant region of temper- ate climate, where no sudden changes exist, no extremes of heat, no cold, no heavy pro- longed storms, with the extreme temperature of 59 degrees in January, to 75 degrees in June, such having been the record for the past fifteen years. By the examination of the orographic sys- tems and barometrical altitudes, you will readily see why it is true that this state pos- sesses one of the finest climates in the world, and also why it is a paradise for farmers and fruit raisers. As an orange, lemon and lime country it 136 Guide to Mexico is unsurpassed on the great American conti- nent. For livestock of all kinds, on account of climatical conditions, as well as the fact that we have no frosts or disturbing elements to destroy vegetation, the pastures remain green the year round. Guadalajara, with its population of 125,000 and its near-by outlying towns consisting of not less than 35,000 more inhabitatnts, fur- nishes a fine market for much of the produce raised. Guadalajara is the second city in the Republic, and is unsurpassed for beauty of situation, churches, cleanliness, schools, so- cial advantages, in fact, in all that contribute to the welfare and happiness of its inhabi- tants. BOEDA GARDENS, CDEENAVACA STATE OF MEXICO. The state of Mexico is bounded on the north by Hidalgo, on the east by Tlaxcala and Puebla, on the south by Puebla and Guer- rero, on the west by Guerrero, Michoacan and Queretaro. It has a population of 1,168,- 670, and has 8080 square miles, or 144.5 inhabitants per square mile. We have in this state a variety of climatical conditions, as the result of altitude and oro- hydrographic formations. In making our examination of the Federal District we find the District of Otumba on the east to be 2349 above the level of the sea, the land being fertile and rolling. This, with the district of Texcoco, must include the low, mountainous regions of Telapan. The tem- perature is mild and climate delightful. Tex- coco is 2668 meters above sea level, and tem- perature from 60 to 62 degrees Fahr. The next division, the district of Tlalman- alco, on the spur of the northern mountains of Ixtaccitmatl and Popocatepetl, reaches as far as the Bajio, and all the smaller ranges fan-like spread their branches to the valley of Mexico. The altitude is between 2280 and 2500 138 Guide to Mexico meters, and the average temperature is be- tween 51 degrees and 53 degrees Fahr. Now passing to the northern part, includ- ing Lake Texcoco, and the lakes Zumpango and Huehuetoca, we find this region between six and seven meters higher than the city of Mexico, having an altitude of 2275 meters above sea level. The temperature and the climate are excellent, but slightly subject to paludism, and as we pass down southeast of Zumpango in the region of Chalco, the ten- dency towards paludism increases, but the near proximity to the volcanoes gives a cold climate, thus modifying the paludian condi- tions. In passing to the valley of Toluca, the capi- tol of the state, we find the mountain of the same name to be 2625 meters above the sea. This is the center of this climatological dis- trict, and the high peak ^'Nevada de Toluca," just northwest of the city, which is usually covered with snow, gives us a cool climate, the average being from 50 to 55 degrees. This beautiful city, with a population of about 55,000, lies at the foot of the extin- guished volcano, and on the river Xicual- tenco, and is noted for its fine colleges and schools, its manufacturing plants, as well as its places of historical interest. North of this is the district of Xicotepec, Guide to Mexico 139 which has a fine temperature, rich lands, and descends with a regular slope to the states of Hidalgo, Queretaro and Michoacan, and is crossed by the Lerma River. As we pass out to the southwest and the southeast, we encounter the El Valle, Temax- caltepec, Tejupilco, Sultepec and Zacualpan region, which contains high mountain sys- tems, and the plains and valleys reach out to the states of Guerrero and Morelos, and as- sume the character of the hot lands. The average temperature is 25 degrees. Thus we find two different climatological regions, one with temperate climate, mild and healthful, and the other subject to mala- rial influences. The state is divided into temperate, hot, cold, and perpetual snow regions. The moun- tainous regions are generally mineralized, and there are a number of very old and rich mines located here. The farming and grazing lands are unsur- passed, with a fine market for all productions at home. Some of the finest farms in the Republic are located near the capital. The lands of this state are high and some- what subject to frost, but the general cli- matical conditions are very pleasant. MICHOACAN. This state is bounded on the north by- Guanajuato and Jalisco, on the south by the Pacific Ocean and Guerrero, and on the east by Mexico, and on the west by Jalisco. The chain of the Sierra Madre, extending out of the state of Mexico divides it into two distinct parts. This range of mountains is changeable, sometimes verj^ high, sloping towards the north, and then again falling down to rolling hills and mesas, where the beautiful valley of the Lerma commences, which is watered by the sparkling streams as they rush onward from their mountain sources to end in the great waters of the Pacific. Between the chains of mountains we have the beautiful valleys of the Mescalo, which takes its name from the river which crosses the rugged state of Guerrero, and finally empties into the Pacific. This fertile valley is dotted over with highly improved farms. The Michoacan mountains are very much broken, and have many special names, the altitude corresponding to the orographic sys- tem visible all over this region of country. Guide to Mexico 141 They range in height from 2194 meters to 2986 meters above sea level. On account of the variable altitudes the sky-line forms a beautiful sight. We also find that to this system belongs the Sierra de Anganguco, the Ozumatlan, the Sierra Arrio, on the east we find the Sierra Huacana, and on the west the Sierra Patam- ban, and on the southwest that of Coalcoman. To the reader it might appear that there is but little level farming land, but such is not the case, for here are found some of the greatest and best haciendas in the Republic. The orographic system of Michoacan cre- ates a zone from east to west of fertile ranges and tablelands, temperate valleys which are always green. There are two basins, one extending north, and forms tributaries of the Tololotlan and the Lerma rivers, and the other extends to the tributaries of Las Balsas. Morelia, the capitol of the state is beauti- fully situated on the southeast of the Pico de Quince, at an elevation of 1940 meters, and has a temperature of 62 degrees, with a m-aximum of 75 degrees. The state has the characteristics of the warm and hot climates. When we consider the topography of the state we readily understand that we have through the entire center a temperate cli- 142 Guide to Mexico mate, while in the regions which form de- cHvities toward the Rio Balsas we have a hot climate, and on the sloping regions of the Pacific Coast we have a torrid climate. This state is one of the richest, and in many particulars one of the best, in the Re- public. It is well watered, free from mala- rial diseases, and in fact, from all paludian afflictions. As an agricultural and stock raising coun- try, as well as fruit culturing, it is one of the best. It has 23,000 square miles of territory, or 38.8 persons per mile. Morelia, the capitol, has about 40,000 in- habitants, and is l)eautif ul for situation. The city is noted for its excellent schools of higher educations, as well as for its fine churches, pleasure resorts, and excellent class of citizens. MORELOS This beautiful state was named after Gen- eral Jose Maria Morelos, a faithful and patriotic priest, who took up and carried aloft liberty's torch, which Hidalgo (the Wash- ington of this country) first set ablaze, and for the defence of which General Morelos gave up his life as a sacrifice in San Cristobal Escatepec, December 22, 1814. The state is bounded on the north by the Federal District and the state of Mexico, on the south, southeast and southwest by the states of Puebla and Guerrero, and on the west by the states of Mexico and Guerrero. It has 1850 square miles of territory, with a population of 160,355, or 86.1 persons per square mile. Cuernavaca is the capitol, with a popu- lation of ten thousand souls. We here find the Adjusco mountains, a high and beautiful range, which is over 13,000 feet high, and forms the backbone of the descent into the valley of Cuernevaca. Standing upon this great elevation we have unfolded to us one of the most inspiring views to be found anywhere upon the face of the earth. 144 Guide to Mexico Lava mountains, which stand up like petri- fied waves, rolling upon a beach, cane fields, rolling hills, lakes, villages, cities, great fields of Maguey, mingled with the alfalfa, studded here and there with the sparkling waters of the streams, all blending their col- ors with the tropic shades found in this tem- perate zone. From this point we descend rapidly until we reach Santa Maria, which place is at an altitude of 1705 meters, and then on down to Cuernavaca, which is 1525 meters above sea level. Here we have a most wonderful climate, a historical city deeply interesting, of which we cannot here speak. The fine mountain scenery, the beautifully cultivated hills and mountain sides, the rich verdure everywhere seen, lend a charm, the like of which is seldom seen. Standing upon these pine-clad snow-capped mountain tops, from which we overlook the great valleys below, where plantations of sugar cane, rice, coffee, groves of oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, mangoes and mameyes, we behold a tropical clime in a temperate zone. Traveling southward from Cuernavaca we find Tenixco, Slpuyeca, Puente de Ixtla, 992 meters above the sea level, and following the same direction towards the Amacusac Guide to Mexico 145 river and its tributaries, we have presented evidences that the southern region is the lowest in the state. This region extends from Cuernavaca to Santa Maria in the north, and to Amacusac in the south. As we pass to Cuatla Morelos, the climate grows warmer, and the plains of Amilpas open out before us. The northern zone is temperate, due to the fact that it is the highest point of the Adjusco system, and reaches out to the south- west slopes of the Popocatapetle. The southern part of the state is the warm region, and is included between the lines of the states of Puebla and Guerrero, and is rightly called **The hot zone of Cuautla," where we have the rich mining district bear- ing that name. The entire state is very broken, and great ranges of mountains cross in all directions. The valleys are densely populated, and luxu- rious vegetation of all kinds of fruits of the temperate and tropical zones are grown in great abundance. This state is destined to become one of the most productive states in the Republic. NUEVA LEON This state contains 25,000 square miles of territory, with a population of 311,000 in- habitants, or 12.4 persons to the square mile. It is bounded on the north by Coahuila, on the east by Tamaulipas, on the southwest by San Luis Potosi, and on the west by Coahuila. The southern portion of the state is quite level, with a temperate climate of 66 degrees Fahr. In the southeastern portion of the state we find a range of mountains, which is a branch of the Sierra Tamaulipas passing through the entire state from southeast to northwest. This range is quite broken, and there are many wonderful tablelands and fertile val- leys, in the midst of which we find the in- habitants gathered together in the Pueblas and towns, such as Milpillas, Soledad, Itru- bide, Galeana, Rio Blanco, and many other progressive villages. The climate of this region is excellent, it being a cold climate. In the northeast part of the state the topography of the country is such as to give us a large tract of level land, and the climat- Guide to Mexico 147 ical conditions are in a modified form, so that the towns of Linares, Monte Morelos, Salinas, Cerralvo, and all in that region of country have a warm climate, where sugar cane, coffee, cotton, and semi-tropical fruits are largely cultivated. The western portion of the state is not mountainous, and has a most delightful climate, and marks of progress are apparent everywhere. The possibilities of this state are very great, and if a sufficient amount of water can be developed (and the possibiHties are there) this will become one of the garden spots of the Republic. The soil is a rich fertile loam, generally speaking, and all the conditions are most promising, and we believe that the day is not far distant when this will prove to be one of the great cotton bearing districts of the coun- try. Monterey, the capitol, is the metropolis of Northern Mexico, and has about 100,000 inhabitants, and is a commercial manufac- turing city, being a mining and railroad center. It is beautifully located in an extensive valley, between the Mitre and Saddle moun- tains. 148 Guide to Mexico The average temperature is about 59 de- grees Fahr. It is considered as being the most impor- tant manufacturing city in the Republic. The great iron and steel works are located there. The capitol has about 75,000 inhabitants, and in the banking houses they report about 20,000,000 pesos, in addition there are large flouring and sugar mills. In and about the city are many places of great interest for the tourists. OAXACA This state is bounded on the north by the state of Puebla and Veracruz, on the east by Chiapas, on the west by Guerrero, and on the south by the Pacific ocean. It has 28,400 square miles of territory, with a population of 884,909, or a little more than 31.5 persons to the square mile. The state is crossed by a very high range of the Sierra Madre mountains, which ex- tend from southeast to northwest through the Republic of Mexico, and reach very high elevations near the center of this state. The mountains decline towards the north, thus giving a current which explains why the tem- perature is much cooler than the states which surround it. The high mountain of Zempoaltepec, which is 3391 meters above sea level, determines the orographic system of the Pacific regions. Reaching out from this mountain we have three separate divisions: One extending to the central portion of the state, reaching an altitude of 2890 meters above sea level, while between these extended arms we have wide valleys, with large extensions of rich farm- ing lands, sheltered and protected from winds 150 Guide to Mexico and frosts, making veritable paradises for farmers and fruit raisers. In one of these valleys we have the capitol city of Oaxaca, which is 228 miles from Puebla, and sixteen hours by rail from Mex- ico City, and lies 5000 feet above the level of the sea. This city has a population of about 40,000, having a temperature of 69 degrees Fahr. This district, for favorable climatical condi- tions, is one of the most delightful found in the Republic. The second division in the northwest in- cludes Nochistlan, Coixtlahuaca and Hua- huapan, and all that region of country. Here we also find a number of beautiful valleys, where the products of the country are grown in great abundance, and with much profit] At this point we will depart from our usual custom and give a clipping from the Technical World Magazine concerning the great tree at Tula. ''OLDEST LIVING THING'' ''(Technical World Magazine^ ''On the firing line of the Zapata uprising in Southern Mexico, in peril from cannon fire and musketry, stood — and still stands — the oldest living thing in the world — ^the fa- mous cypress in the churchyard of the vil- lage of Santa Maria del Tule. This tree is situated in the intendancy of Oaxaca, two and one-half leagues east of that city. The disturbances attending the insurrec- tion against Madero postponed temporarily the attainment of the supreme ambition held by Dr. Herman von Schrenk of St. Louis, which is to determine scientifically the ap- proximate age of this patriarch of the vege- table kingdom. Experts, judging by the gigantic bole of the Santa Maria del Tule cypress and by the slow growth of this spe- cies, have estimated the age of the monster to be between 5000 and 6000 years. These figures are staggering to the imagi- nation. Taking the lowest computation, when the seed from which the tree sprang fell upon the earth. King Menes was reign- ing in Egypt — 3000 B. C. When Cheops drove his subjects with the lash to the labor 152 Guide to Mexico of building the great pyramid, it was a slen- der stripling of 200 years. And it had reached a lusty growth of 1500 years when the Hebrews made their exodus from the land of the Nile. The discovery of America and the conquest of Mexico by Cortez would seem, in its life, things of only a few months ago. The last scientific measurement of the Santa Maria del Tule cypress was made by Dr. von Schrenk in 1903, a century after Humboldt discovered it, while on his famous tour of equatorial America Dr. von Schrenk found that its trunk, four feet from the ground, had the astounding girth of 126 feet. Dr. von Schrenk, now an arboricultural ex- pert with a laboratory at the Missouri bo- tanical garden in St. Louis, was, in 1903, connected with the United States forest serv- ice. While traveling through Southern Mex- ico he determined to inspect the Santa Maria del Tule cypress. In vain Dr. von Schrenk urged that the experiment had been made hundreds of times without damage to trees and that by counting the rings shown on the plug he could learn the tree's average growth and thus solve one of the great scientfic problems of the world." This is known as the region of Mixteca Alta. Guide to Mexico 153 The third division, beginning with Coixtla- huaca, slopes towards the state of Puebla, and determines the hydrographic and barom- etrical conditions there. Many of the points are very high and broken, and between which we find many streams of water, which give life and beauty to the valleys. The spurs decline gradually, and end in low rolling hills, which taper off towards the Pacific with altitudes varying from 1500 to 1422 meters above sea level. This district has a mild, even climate, and possesses much rich farming land, well wa- tered by mountain streams. The northeastern portion of the state, in the region of Choapan, Teotitlan, we have a torrid condition, and on account of its oro- graphic system, is very hot, but we have here fine haciendas, and pasture lands, the like of which are seldom seen. This entire region of country slopes gradually towards the Pacific. We have here three distinct climates: Cold in the orographic system, in which are found Mixteca Alta, and its valleys and plains at an altitude of 2600 meters. Tem- perate in all the valleys at an altitude of be- tween 2259 and 1599 meters above sea level. Torrid in all the sloping country towards the coast and plains of the Pacific. This is 154 Guide to Mexico a great mineralized state, and is, perhaps, the richest gold-bearing section of the Re- public of Mexico. In the past the matter of transportation has been the most serious drawback, but this is being gradually overcome by the buildings of the railroad. The great mineral wealth of the state will doubtless call in the needed capital, and it will rank among the best. PUEBLA We now come to the study of one of the most interesting states in the Republic of Mexico. It contains 12,600 square miles of territory, and has a population of 985,000 inhabitants, or a little more than 78.1 persons per square mile. The state is quite broken in its orographic system, and has various altitudes, being high in the north, medium in the center. It has at least five distinct orographic valley systems, owing to the peculiar conformation of its mountains. On the west we have the Popocateptl, and Ixtaccihuatl, and on the northwest the Ma- linche, and here we have all the various climates of the world. The state is bounded on the northwest by the state of Hidalgo, on the north and east by the state of Veracruz, and on the west by the state of Tlaxcala, Mexico and Morelos, and on the south by the states of Oaxca and Guerrero. The beautiful city of Puebla is the capitol, and has a population of about 90,000, and is the third city in the Republic, and is at sin elevation of 2155 meters above sea level. 156 Guide to Mexico The center of the state is on the Mesa Central, which has a temperate climate. The mountains here are practically covered with snow. As we travel northward among the moun- tains we find a cold climate, due to the alti- tude of the mountains. South of Puebla are the celebrated springs of Tehuacan, noted far and near for their medicinal properties, and as we pass south- ward we find two valleys, the one getting lower, the course of the Atoyac, into which flow many branches, forming Ihe Rio Poblano. These streams are bordered with fine farming land, rich in all of those ele- ments, which go to make up first class farm- ing and fruit lands. The hills and steep rolling plains furnish fine grazing land for live stock of all kinds. The Rio Publano, near the border of the state, is united to the Mixteco, which is the principal river of Oaxaca. The other valleys of the state follow the course of the Rio Tehuacan. The average altitude is from 920 to 985 meters above the sea level, with a tempera- ture of 80 to 84 degrees Fahr. The entire Poblano basin becomes more and more de- pressed as you proceed, so that at altitude of 1220 meters, the temperature is the same as Guide to Mexico 157 that of an altitude of 878 meters above sea level, as we find at San Juan del Rio. Thus we see that these two zones belong to the torrid lands, and are divided into hot and warm climates, where all kinds of tropical fruits abound. In the state of Puebla may be found all kinds of conditions of climate, torrid and warm, temperate, cold and per- petual snows. We know of no other region so changeable as this on the American continent. The state is rich in mines, and farming and fruit lands, and is one of the most promis- ing of the states of the Republic. The state is rich in onyx, marble, fine building stone, and is highly mineralized. As an agricultural state it is very promis- ing. The climatical conditions, notwithstanding the many changes of temperature, are good, rendered thus by the distinct and even condi- tions prevailing. QUERETARO This is one of the smallest states of the Republic, and has only 3800 square miles of territory, with a population of 228,551 in- habitants, or 60.2 persons per square mile. The capitol of the state is Queretaro, with a population of 40,000. The state is located in what is known as Mesa Central of the Anuhac, and is very much broken by a range of mountains, ex- tending from north to south. It is bounded on the north by San Luis Potosi, on the east by Hidalgo, on the west and south by Guanajuato, and on the south- east by the state of Mexico. The whole state partakes largely of the orographic systems of the surrounding states. The center of the state is very broken, indeed. The most southerly districts have a mild climate, which averages 59 to 60 degrees Fahr. and the extreme heat ranges from 71 to 73 degrees. The orographic system ranges from 1850 to 1970 meters above the sea level. Between the ranges of mountains we find many beautiful and fertile valleys, rich in Guide to Mexico 159 all those elements which contribute to pro- ductiveness and profit. In the region of San Juan del Rio, which is at an altitude of 1970 meters we find a large open country, capable of wonderful cultivation. Queretero is situated in a beautiful valley, which is most liberally watered, and in which are found many grand haciendas, and large stock ranches. As we pass northward we find the districts of Tollman and Cadereyta, which are crossed by high and sinuous ranges. There we find great haciendas at an altitude of 2307 meters above sea level, while a few are as high as 2871 meters,, and these highland farms are among the best in the Republic. The temper- ature ranges from 53 degrees to 57 degrees Fahr. The orographic system gives to us a very cold, yet pleasant temperature. As we pass northward the country dips down rapidly, and springing from the mountains we have the rivers of Tollman, Santa Maria, Jalpan, which joins the Moctuma river, which, in the state of Tamaulipas, forms the Panuco ; this river constitutes the boundary line between this state and Hidalgo, on the east. The orographic system slopes gradually, and forms the northwest valley, in which 160 Guide to Mexico are located many fine farms. The mountains range in height from 1420 meters down to 980 meters above sea level, with an average temperature of 67 degrees Fahr. In the city of Queretaro there are several large cotton and flour mills, which employ over two thousand hands, and just south of the city are found the great gardens, from which there are marketed every year not less than 100,000 pesos of products. We find that the state possesses three zones, and three different climates. It is rich in minerals, marble, fine building stone, and the most extensive Opal quarries known to exist on the American continent. The state is also very rich in fine woods. Capital is very much needed to develop and organize the possible industries, and when this is done it will become wonderfully productive. SAN LUIS POTOSI This state has an extension of 260,100 square miles, with a population of 568,449, or 21.8 persons to the square mile. The state is bounded on the north by Coahuila, Nueve Leon, Tamaulipas, and Zacatecas, on the east by Veracruz and Hidalgo, on the south by Queretaro Guana- juato and Zacatecas, on the west by Za- catecas. The boundary lines of this state are very irregular. The general topography of the state is lower than the surrounding states, and slopes eastward toward Tamaulipas, and again on the northeast it slopes towards Nuevo Leon. The orology of the state presents a condition differing from the states surrounding it. In many respects it is unlike any of them. The altitude is about 1877 meters above the sea, and the topography gives a gradual up- lift towards Salinas, and then slopes gently downward. The entire state is crossed by highly mineralized mountains, at the tops of which it is quite cold. The city of San Luis Potosi is the capitol of the state, with a population of about 162 Guide to Mexico 65,000, and lies 1878 meters above sea level. The principal cities of the state range in altitude from 1735 meters to 1877 meters. The average temperature is from 61 to 62 degrees. The latitude is 24 degrees 37 seconds, which brings it near the tropic of Cancer. We are thus led to discover that the state has two distinct climates, a temperate and frigid zone. The wide extended valleys of the state are very productive, and rich farming land very abundant, while the mountains furnish vast forests of hard woods and commercial lumber. The stock ranges make it very desirable for stock men, while the miner finds it to be a field rich in metals, and most desirable as a mining country. There are vast stretches of land, rich and productive, that are entirely virgin to the agriculturist, and are waiting the introduc- tion of modern machinery, and modern methods. The inhabitants of this state are gener- ally industrious, quiet and peaceful, and ex- tend open arms to those who are willing to enter in and open up industries. The capitol is a very attractive city, and has some very beautiful buildings, among Guide to Mexico 163 which may be named the theater, which is said to be the second best in the Republic. Three miles west of the city, high upon a hill, is one of the largest smelters in the Republic. The southeastern portion of the state is abundantly watered, but the state, as a whole, is not well watered. The state, upon a whole, is very productive, yielding annually about $29,630,000, of this amount more than $18,000,000 must be ac- credited to the mining industry. QUINTANA ROD TERRITORY This territory is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Mexico and Yucatan, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by Brit- ish Honduras and Central America, and on west by Campeche and Yucatan. The territory is in the extreme southeast- ern portion of the Republic of Mexico, and is the last of the territories to be organized. The organization is not unlike that of Tepic, and has about 27,640 square miles of terri- tory. The capitol is Santa Cruz de Bravo, which is located in the northeastern part of the ter- ritory, on the Bay Ascension, and is noted for its fisheries. The general topography is quite like that of its neighbor, Yucatan. The northern half consists largely of extensive plains, heavily wooded and somewhat broken. The chain of mountains and low hills, passing out of Yucatan, reach out over the northern portion of the territory. These vast plains or steeps, like those of Yucatan, are dry and arrid, except for the fogs rising from the gulf littoral. The temperature averages about 82 de- Guide to Mexico 165 grees, and a torrid condition prevails. The southern half of the territory contains great plains, table lands, in which are many small lakes, inlets and bays, giving the entire coast line a very broken appearance. The Bay of Chetumal will, no doubt, in time prove to be a fine land-locked harbor, for shipping purposes. The whole territory is quite virgin, and greatly needs the uplift which comes from an advancing civilization. SINALOA This state is bounded on the north by Sonora, on the south by Tepic, on the east by Chihuahua and Durango, and on the west by the Pacific ocean. It has 36,100 square miles of territory, with a population of 258,865, or less than eight persons to the square mile, thus show- ing that there is a vast extent of country practically unoccupied in the state. The state is about 350 miles in length, with an average width of 80 miles. On account of its geographical position, as well as its surroundings, the high ranges of mountains on three sides, and the Pacific ocean and Gulf waters upon the other, it has been isolated, and only until recent years its richness in minerals and fertility of soil have been practically unknown, except to the native Indians. We here have two well defined zones : The first is in the east, and consists of a high and broken range of mountains, rich in mineral lodes, and largely as yet unexploited. The topography of this range gradually slopes towards the Gulf and Pacific, and the Sierras crossing the state of Durango and Guide to Mexico 167 Chihuahua, known as the Sierra Urique, Guadalupe Calvo, Temasula and San Dimas, are divided into several systems, and extend by declivities over the states of Sinaloa, and extend out great arms towards the Pacific ocean. The general hydrographic system of these mountain chains is very interesting. The altitude decreases from Durango from 1925 meters down to 75 meters above sea level. Drawing a line between Durango and Ma- zatlan, passing through Chavarria, there is a progressive and regular descent. So well determined is the altitude of the mountains in relation to the declivity, that no other explanation is required to find the difference between the low land and the mountain region. That we may reach the object of our study, we will need to examine the hydrographic basins of the rivers which pass across the territory. Returning again to the northern part of the state we find the beautiful little town of Fuerte, situated on the river of the same name, and near the Urique system. The town is 250 meters above the sea, and is on the banks of the Fuerte river, which extends 168 Guide to Mexico northeast and southwest, following the slopes towards the coast. On either side of this river are large fertile tracts of land, the climate of which is deter- mined by the altitude. Next we have the Sinaloa river, which is composed of a number of small streams, aris- ing in the mountains of Guadalupe and Calvo, in the state of Chihuahua, this stream also passes near the city of the same name at an altitude of 596 meters. The river flows northeast and southwest, and finally empties into the Pacific. Next we have the rivers of San Lorenzo, Elota, Pizatla, Presidio, Chametla, all of which wind their way to the Pacific. Thus we learn that, as a whole, the state is well watered. The state in time will no doubt prove to be one of the best in the Republic of Mexico. Its rich soil, seacoast line, with its railroads, and many attractive features, will cause it to forge to the front. The vast extent of fine agricultural land, the network of living streams of sparkling water, the vast mineral deposits, will cause capitalists to invest and exploit to the world its storehouses of wealth. We have here two distinct climatical con- Guide to Mexico 169 ditions. Cold in the mountains, and hot in the valleys. During the rainy seasons they have their hottest weather. The rains are always warm, hence have no cold frosts and destructive winds. During the rainy season the temperature is from 70 to 90 degrees. Taking into consideration the proximity of this state to the waters of the great ocean, and remembering that the possibilities for several good ports of landing, as well as the fact that a great railroad system, the South- ern Pacific, now extends through the entire length of the state, that it is crossed by the Orient, from east to west, in connection with the fertility of the soil, leads us to believe that this is destined to be one of the richest states in the Republic. The Capitol of the state is Culiacan, a beautiful city of 20,000 inhabitants, located on the south bank of the Culiacan river, and is noted for its cleanliness, its beautiful homes, and was at one time called the Sara- toga of the West Coast, on account of its many beautiful women. The Occidental rail- road, owned by Mr. George R. Douglas, con- nects it with the Gulf of California at the Port of Altata. Mazatlan, with its excellent harbor, upon which the Government of Mexico has recent- 170 Guide to Mexico ly voted the expenditure of twelve million dollars for the improvement of its harbor, is also noted for its factories and wealth, its Paseo de Olas Altas, its lighthouse, said to be the second in height in the world, is a place of great interest. SONORA This is one of the most northermost states of Mexico, and is bounded on the north by the United States, on the east by Chihuahua, on the south by Sinaloa, and on the west by the Gulf of Cahfornia. In extent, it is the next largest in the Re- public, having 77,000 square miles of terri- tory, with a population of 191,281, or 2.4 in- habitants per square mile. The eastern portion of the state is very mountainous, and broken with many ravines or canons, with high and almost perpendicu- lar sides, all sloping down towards the coast of the Gulf. The highest being in close prox- imity to the Tarahuara, in the state of Chi- huahua. The Tarahuara, in the state of Chihuahua, with the Arizona, Primera, Guadalupe, and many smaller mountains have their center in the Sierra of Chihuahua, and have an eleva- tion, averaging 2985 meters above the sea level. This portion of the hydrographic sys- tem has been but little visited, and conse- quently little understood. There are many evidences that this por- tion of country was at one time thickly set- 172 Guide to Mexico tied, and the many old Aztec ruins, and mines indicate that vast quantities of ore have been taken out, and that the population was at one time very large. The whole country indicates a heavily min- eralized condition, but for three centuries or more the land and mines have been prac- tically idle. The orographic system extending from north to south presents a cold climate, quite severe in the winter. As we pass in our ex- aminations we discover a great ampitheater formed by the mountains of the central part of the state. The mountains are cut by deep canyons and ravines, extending in different directions, and through them pass the rivers Altar, So- nora, San Jose, Yaqui, Mayo, Alamos and other small streams. These streams generally have their origin in the lower slopes, and irrigate the valleys Magdalene, Ures, Arispe, Vayareoe and Alamos, and wherever they pass through the table lands most luxuriant vegetation is found, and the lands are wonderfully pro- ductive. All the climatical conditions are most favorable, and where an abundance of water can be had it is a paradise for farmers and horticulturists. Guide to Mexico 173 The average temperature being from 66 to 68 degrees Fahr., with an average altitude of 1789 meters above sea level. Passing on dov^n to the lov^er regions of the state towards the Gulf we find the low lands, where disappear the Altar and Sonora rivers, and where we also find the mouth of the Alamoa, Mayo, Yaqui and San Jose emptying themselves into the Gulf near Guaymas. Here we find the temperature at from 67 degrees to 80 degrees, with a barometrical condition sufficiently warm to accommodate the desires of the cold blooded. The soil of this entire region of country is very fertile, and its proximity to the United States, makes a most desirable por- tion of country for the American farmer and stock raiser. Taking the state as a whole, we have three different climates. Cold in the moun- tainous regions. Temperate in the lower ranges. Torrid in the plains, that extend to the Gulf. When the water question is settled, as it will be in the near future, this portion of the country, like all that lying along the West Coast, will prove to be one of the greatest agricultural fields on the American continent. The beautiful city of Hermosillo is the 174 Guide to Mexico capitol of the state. It has a population of 20,000, and is surrounded by a large number of fine farms, and is regarded as the gate- way of the upper Sonora Valley, as well as the Delta country, in which are located many fine haciendas, and which country during the past few years has made a wonderful change. American energy and capital has greatly transformed this part of the state. The state of Sonora is also noted for its great mining industries, for many millions of American gold have been invested in this industry alone. Cananea, with a population of 20,000, forms the center of what is the greatest cop- per section in the Republic. At Guaymas, a city of 15,000, we have the beautiful land-locked harbor on the Gulf of California. This place is noted for its indus- trial factories, as well as being the location of the Traffic Department of the Southern Pacific lines of Mexico. TABASCO This state is bordered on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by Chiapas, on the east by Campeche and Guatamala, and on the west by Veracruz. It has 10,000 square miles of territory, with a population of 134.839, or 13.4 in- habitants per square mile. San Juan Bautista is the capital, with a population of 12,000 inhabitants. This state is largely level and low, and its climatical conditions are much like those of the near by Gulf. Its orographic system de- pends upon the Gulf. San Cristobal de Chiapas extends its arm out into the state of Campeche and Tabasco, and on South into Guatemala. The entire coast shore or lit- toral is composed of lakes, lagunas, and low lands, and form the basin Jarilva River, on the West and Umacinta on the East. These rivers have their origin in Guatemala, and pass through the states of Tabasco, which has an altitude of only eighty meters above the sea. The waters descend slowly and wind their course insinuously until they reach the Gulf. The streams have many tributaries, the prin- 176 Guide to Mexico cipal being Iztacomestan, which has its origin in the Mascuscpana, at an altitude of 350 meters. While this great network of streams and lakes modify to a measure the climatical condition the climate is very hot and damp, and palludian diseases militate very much against the well being of its in- habitants. The soil is exceedingly rich and vegetation very rank, so that insect life is quite trouble- some in places. The natives, however, do not seem to mind this condition, and are gener- ally prosperous. The fertility of the soil is wonderful, and two, and even three crops are grown per year. There are a number of American compa- nies organized there for the raising of cane, tropical fruits and vegetable. San Juan Bautista is the capital, and prin- cipal market place of that entire country. It has about 12,000 inhabitants. The soil is principally of a humas, or fibrous nature, and very deep. The rains fall from September to February, and the tem- perature during the summer months varies from 80 to 82 degrees, while in the winter months it is from 60 to 64 degrees. Scattered over the state we find large quan- tities of fine woods. Guide to Mexico 177 The introduction of capital and modern methods will doubtless develop this state in the near future into one of the very best farming and stock countries on iiie East Coast. TAMAULIPAS This is one of the largest states in territo- rial extent, covering 29,000 square miles, with a population of 206,502, or a fraction more than 7 persons per square mile. It has for its capitol Victoria, which has a population of about 12,000. It is bounded on the north by the Rio Grande, which separates it from the United States, on the south by Veracruz and San Luis Potosi, on the east by the Gulf of Mex- ico, and on the west by the states of Nueva Leon, San Luis Potosi and Coahuila. The general topography of the state pre- sents a gradual slope towards the east, and while this may not so appear, yet upon close examination the hydrographic basins, which have their origin in the mountain re- gions of the West, clearly demonstrate this statement. Passing from the Littoral the level tract of the country presents but few low hills, and gradually slopes towards the Gulf. On the Rio Grande we have the towns of Bagdad, at the mouth of the river at an alti- tude of four meters, and Matamoras at 25 meters, Reinorsa at 150 meters, Carmargo Guide to Mexico 179 at 300 meters, with an average temperature of 80 to 84 degrees Fahr. The lands of this region are very productive. Passing on to the Conchos river, we have another basin, which has its origin in Nueva Leon, and passes on down to Laguna Madre, then as we pass Southward the Basin Rio Soto la Marina, which descends towards the Gulf. This river is formed by the branches of the Sierra Madre, and is known by the name of Sierra de Taumalipas, upon a spur of which is located the beautiful city of Victoria, the capitol of the state. The above mentioned region in its hydro- graphic arrangement presents a number of elevations as Martinez, San Carlos, Pano- ramas, etc., with an annual average temper- ature of 86 to 84 degrees Fahr., and yet the altitudes are very changeable, ranging from 5 meters to 1000 meters above sea level. It is because of the flora and fauna of the state, which are tropical, we must classify this as belonging to the torrid zone. Passing from the Conchos river Southward we find an inclined region as far down as the Panuco, which passes south of Tampico. This city is fifty meters above sea level, and has a torrid climate. The whole zone from north to south, from 180 Guide to Mexico the territory of the Rio Grande to the Panuco, is intensely hot, with vegetation extremely rank and tropical. This entire region is proving very valuable, on account of the great deposits of oil, which are just now being exploited to the world. The mountains present a system ranging in height from 1980 to 2000 meters high, and are heavily mineralized in silver, gold, lead, copper, bismuth and iron. We have also lying between the spurs of these mountains the beautiful valleys as Santa Barbara, Tula de Taumalipas, Gamuvaue, Palmillas, and others, where we find a more modern tem- perature, ranging from 64 to 66 degrees Fahr. This state is rich in pasture lands, as well as in agricultural possibilities, and when the solution of the water question is settled it will prove to be a great farming country. We find here two different climates, tem- perate and torrid. This portion of the country has been great- ly afflicted on the plains with palludian dis- eases, but the mastery over all endemic dis- eases has become so complete that year by year the number of victims is growing less, and the prospects are good for blotting the disease out entirely. TEPIC TERRITORY The territory of Tepic has a population of 150,157, and has 538 square miles of terri- tory, or 283.3 persons per square mile. This territory is bounded on the north by Sinaloa and Durango, on the east by Jalisco, on the south by Jalisco, and on the west by the Pacific ocean and Sinaloa. The general orographic condition of this territory is quite broken, and the general dip is from north to southwest. The mountainous districts are very sinu- ous, broken with strong spurs of the Sierra Madre range extending out in all directions. This entire territory is highly mineralized, and has waited until the present for trans- portation facilities that it might deliver up to the commercial world the great riches found there, for it is rich in minerals, also in timber and in fertile soil. The Sierra Madre range of mountains is highest on the eastern slope which separates the northern part of the state of Jalisco, with the general slant of the mountains south and westward. Coming out of the north country we have a series of barrancas, extending in different 182 Guide to Mexico directions such as are seldom met with, and perhaps their equal cannot be found on the entire American continent. The rivers San Pedro, Santiago, Grand, Acaponeta, in connection with many smaller streams, give to us one of the best watered sections of country in the Republic of Mex- ico. The general topography of the terri- tory is such as to make it one of the best stock countries in Mexico. It has more hogs than any state in the Re- public, thus showing that it is a great corn country. The stock of the territory general- ly speaking, is of a much better class than is usually found in Mexico. The general climatical conditions of the country are exceptionally fine. The many deep basins cut perpendicularly in the moun- tains of the orographic region receive the current from the north and south, as well as from the west which gives to us a forma- tion that contributes largely to the mild and even climate of this region of country. The highest ranges of the Sierra Madre have an average altitude of 1229 meters above the sea level, where we have a cold region, while on the western slope we have a mild temperate climate. The temperature of this entire territory on account of the orographic systems being Guide to Mexico 183 quite similar, is much like that of the State of Jalisco. Tepic is the capitol, and has a population of 21,000, and for situation is not surpassed anywhere on the west coast, and on account of its geographical position, surrounded as it is with great bodies of farming land, as well as a richly mineralized country, it is des- tined to become one of the leading cities of the west coast of Mexico. The Southern Pacific passes through the entire length of the territory, and thus gives abundant transportation facilities for the many mines, timber tracts, and great haciendas. We do not believe that there can be found more fertile sub-irrigated soil on the Ameri- can continent than is found here. Its tobacco, corn and cotton are world- famed. There is an abundance of rainfall to pro- duce without irrigation two excellent crops per year, and with irrigation three may be had. TLAXCALA This small state has 1500 square miles of territory, with a population of 162,780, and is situated in the highest part of the Cen- tral Tablelands of the Anahuac. It is thickly inhabited for it has 108.5 per- sons per square mile. It is bounded on the north and south by the state of Hidalgo and Puebla, and on the west by the state of Mexico. That we may gain a fair idea of the topog- raphy of the state we will here give the alti- tudes, which we find to be as follows : on the border of the state of Hidalgo we have 2496 meters, and passing on southeast until we reach Santa Ana, we have an average alti- tude of 2421 meters above sea level. The southwestern portion of the state has much higher altitudes lying near the great volcanoes. The state as a whole is a broken uneven region of country. The mountain of Malinche, southeast of the southern border line with the state of Puebla reaches an altitude of 3086 meters above sea level. The Mexican line of railway passing from Guide to Mexico 185 Mexico City to Veracruz runs through the entire length of the state. The term "Tlaxcala" signifies "Land of bread/' and just why this name was given to this particular state we know not, for strictly speaking there is in the entire state but little agricultural land, except you call the hill- sides and rough mesas farming land. There is a great abundance of the Meguey plant raised from which they extract the pulque so universally used in Mexico. Owing to the altitudes we find three dif- ferent climates in the state, viz., in the plain of Pie Grande, we have a temperate climate, in all other parts, the Malinche and Tlaxco mountains we have perpetual snow, and along the borders of the state of Puebla, we find a most delightful climate such as is seldom found in any country. The land is generally covered with feld- spar, and rock of lava formation, however, in the plain of Pie Grande, and southeast of that point we find some agricultural land, much of which is given over to the cultivation of the maguey plant. The average annual temperature is from 59 to 62 degrees Fahr. Tlaxcala, the capitol of the state, is rich in history, it having been the headquarters of Cortez and his band of adventures for a con- 186 Guide to Mexico siderable length of time, and here stands the church of San Francisco, perhaps the oldest church on the American continent. The historian finds much here to interest him. COFFEE TREE VERACRUZ This state lying along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico has a population of 866,355, and has 23,840 square miles, or 36.3 persons per square mile. The beautiful city of Jalapa is its capitol with a population of 24,000. The state is bounded on the north by Taumalipas, on the south by Oaxaca and Chiapas, and on the east by Tabasco and the Gulf of Mexico, on the west by San Luis Potosi, Hidalgo and Puebla. The hydrographic system of the entire western border is very broken and the gen- eral dip is towards Veracruz. In the region of country about Orizaba, the mountains are very high and sinuous, the El Cobra de Perote, and El Pico de Orizaba, have elevation respectively of 4089 and 5295 meters above sea level, and form the systems of the mountain ranges of this state. The study of the orographic system here is deeply interesting, for we find here the be- ginning of the great Central Tablelands of the Anahuac. These high peaks determine largely the climatical conditions of all this portion of the 188 Guide to Mexico state, for they are always snow-capped. Reaching from these mountains are spurs which extend towards the Gulf with altitudes from 3000 to 1800 meters above sea level. The decline being quite gradual towards the gulf. Passing on towards Orizaba which is 1227 meters above sea level, and then on to Jalapa, which is 1329 meters above sea level. Here we find a very hot climate with an average temperature of 72 degrees Fahr. Passing on down the state we find Veracruz, which is only 7 meters above sea level, with an annual average of 87 degrees Fahr. In all this region we find a torrid climate, with a depressed temperature. Here also is the Panuco river which is of considerable commercial importance, and with its tribu- taries Tamuin and Tamasin irrigate a very large portion of fertile land in which the sugar industry is extensively carried on. This country in time will no doubt prove to be a great cotton region. The tempera- ture will average about 82 degrees Fahr. Passing south of Tantoyuca we find an- other hydrographic basin called the Mesa de los Coroneles, which with its branches forms the hydrographic system of Tuxpan. Here we have a torrid zone. These basins contain within them much Guide to Mexico 189 agricultural land, especially suited to the raising of cane, cotton, henequin, and tropical fruits. In the presentation of all these hydro- graphic basins we wish to show that the state generally slopes toward the gulf, which idea has not heretofore been generally accepted. In taking the altitudes we find that the descent is regular commencing at 1399 meters above sea level, and passes on down to 4 meters. Thus we can understand that this change of altitudes will give to us a torrid climate. The many lagunas, such as Puebla the Viego, Tamiahua, Tampamachoco, Mandinga Camaronera and Tequipia indicate very plainly that through the months of March, April, May and June when the greatest re- pression of water is found paludism must prevail. The specific of the waters is such that they do not mix readily with the sea water, and the evaporation contributes towards the germination of the microbes which produce the black vomit. The changes in the coun- try of late years have contributed greatly in relieving this tendency. In our examination of this state we find perpetual snows upon the summit of two vol- canoes, with cold climates on the slopes of the 190 Guide to Mexico mountains, on the ranges temperate climates, while in Orizaba and Jalapa we have the hot climate, and in the remaining parts of the state a torrid climate. All that portion of country bordering on the Panuco and its tributaries seem to be un- derlaid with vast deposits of oil which is now being rapidly exploited, and we believe that this region of country will in time prove to be one of the greatest oil fields in the world. Space forbids our dwelling longer on this important depot of riches in this state. The city of Veracruz has a population of 30,000 inhabitants, and has one of the finest harbors on the gulf, the improvements of which recently cost more than $25,000,- 000.00. The Interocianica branch of the Na- tional Railways unite Veracruz with Mexico City, and in doing so furnish to the traveller one of the grandest views of the great vol- canoes that can be had. This state with its many natural physical resources, its coffee, pineapples, cotton, corn, many sugar planta- tions, its large acreage of tobacco, vanilla, as well as all the tropical fruits growing so prolifically is destined to become one of the richest in the Republic. YUCATAN This peninsula state has within its terri- tory 28,400 square miles with a population of 298,850, or 10.5 persons per square mile. Merida with a population of about 45,000 is its capitol. This state is bounded on the north by the Gulf of Mexico, on the east by the sea of Antilles, on the south by the Republic of Guatemala, and on the west by the state of Campeche. The topography of the state is quite dif- ferent from those heretofore studied. In the center of the state is a great tableland cov- ered with wood, and increases in height as it extends towards, the northern coast, where the hydrographic system is broken with hills and rolling plains of 200 meters above sea level, which we find covered with volcanic rock, which forms a backbone which de- clines towards Campeche and then dips away towards the coast. In the northern part we find large tracts of level land where are also found some small streams which proceed from the Sierras de Yucatan. Where water for domestic purposes and irrigation can be found the land is fertile, 192 Guide to Mexico but on account of the absence of water, this portion of the country is very backward. The temperature averages about 82 de- grees, hence we have a very torrid condition, and much malaria exists in connection with black vomit, and other endemic diseases. This state during the past few years has produced large quantities of Henequin, or as it is known there ''Sisal" which thrives best on aried lands, when the climatical conditions are favorable. However, generally speaking, the sisal plant thrives well upon fertile lands. The nearness of these lands to the gulf, their level condition, the great scarcity of water for domestic purposes, combined with the miasmatical climate have made this state somewhat undesirable for habitation, for all save those who are natives of the country. The climatology of the gulf states is torrid for reasons that are peculiar to the depressed conditions of the gulf stream which circu- lates not far distant from the Littoral of that region. The hot sea current of the gulf stream contributes largely to the torrid temperature. It is not our purpose in this brief state- ment to enter fully into the causes which pro- duce the torrid condition of this state. Nor is it our purpose to enter into an analysis of Guide to Mexico 193 the topographical conditions which modify and help to bring into existence those ele- ments and forces, which have heretofore militated against a rapid upbuilding of this peninsula country. ZACATECAS This state has a population of 516,672, and has 25,300 square miles or 20.4 inhabitants per square mile. It is bounded on the north by Coahuila, on the northwest by Durango and on the west and south by Jalisco and Aguascalientes. Almost the entire state is known as the Central Tablelands. The highest portion of the state is in the center in which is located the City of Zaca- tecas, the capitol, with a population of 35,- 163. This city is located on one branch of the Sierra Madre range at an altitude of 22,496 meters above the level of the sea, with a tem- perature of 59 to 62 degrees Fahr., the maxi- mum temperature from 73 to 77 degrees Fahr. The general topography of the country is quite broken and heavily mineralized. There are several places in the state where the tem- perature is elevated owing to the depressed condition of the land, this being most marked at the town of Sain el Alto. The altitude of the zone varies between 2260 meters and 2590 meters above the sea. Guide to Mexico 195 We have several elevations, as Vete Grande and La Bufa which attain an elevation of 2800 and 2618 meters above the sea level. The northern portion of the state is more broken, and we find here the characteristics of cold climates, due to the altitude as well as temperature. We have in this immediate section of the country great stock ranges consisting of large bodies of land well adapted to the raising of all kinds of live stock. As we pass southward towards the state of Jalisco, we find the canyon of Juchipila, and here we find a temperature avering 66 de- grees, with an altitude of 1086 meters, and here it is that we find the basins of the rivers of Zacatecas, Calvillo and Aguascalientes, which are tributaries of Tololotlan. This sec- tion of the state is most remarkable for its fertility and on account of its topography presents all the conditions of the hot climates, and this fact with the absence of strong winds gives us a torrid zone. Thus we see that we have three zones, temperate, in the north cold, in the south torrid. Owing to the geographical location we would naturally suppose that there would be an absence of torrid conditions, but such is not the case. 196 Guide to Mexico This state is largely mineralized, and vast sums of silver especially, have been taken in the earlier history of the country to enrich the treasury of the Spanish Kings. On account of the large grants in former years, the state has not advanced in line with many of its surrounding neighbors. Mining has been the principal industry carried on, and it is estimated that there have been taken out of its mines more than $700,000,000 pesos, and the present annual output is about $3,000,000 annually '«'**« .f ^ ■^oeALEs jAWtei \CLPMP C ^^^ :s^ < I r\ 'm. r o f# "^ : UAyMAS ^ X \r?^ > NS^ %, -^ \ -z^ \ "7 SCHIHUAHUA \ i / \ SANTAf^OSAUA 1 > {urny^/i-fu/L. \ fi \ \ auT' .^ v^^ \C'\** t^AzATLAl^ Wif .f" ?u' c^^^ i^- 0"' eacateC >% \ \j3aua / J^^ i; j^^ tft' ^/^i rAhHXf"^ .os^r^^, HI n* \