Pass LB67S Rnnk 114^/4 a MENTAL ILLUMINATION AND MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND; OR, AN INQUIRY INTO THE MEANS BY WHICH A GENERAL DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AND MORAL ^PRINCIPLE MAY BE PROMOTED. miustratetr ^itli ISnsraijinss. _iL> >- BY THOMAS DICK, LL. D. AUTHOR OF "THE CHRISTIAN PHILOSOPHER." "PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION." "PHILOSOPHY OF A FUTURE STATE," "IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY BY THE DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE," &c. Ptilatrelphia : a KEY & BIDDLE, 23 MINOR STREET. 1836. PREFACE. The train of thought which runs through the following Work has been familiar to the Author's mind for upwards of twenty- six years. Nearly twenty years ago, he intended to address the public on this subject ; but he is now convinced that, at that period, the attempt would have been premature, and conse- quently unsuccessful. He took several opportunities, however, of suggesting a variety of hints on the necessity of new-model- ling and improving the system of education — particularly in the London "Monthly Magazine," the "Edinburgh Christian In- structor," the " Christian Recorder," the " Perth Courier," and several other publications, as well as in several parts of his former volumes. — Of late years the attention of the public has been directed to this subject more than at any former period, and even the British Legislature has been constrained to take into consideration the means by which the benefits of edu- cation may be more extensively enjoyed. It is therefore to be hoped, t4iat the subject will now undergo a deliberate and un- biassed consideration, corresponding to its interest and impor- tance. In endeavouring to establish a new system of education — al- though every requisite improvement could not, in the first in- stance, be effected, — yet nothing short of a comprehensive and efficient system should be the model afi:er which we ought to copy, and to which all our arrangements should gradually ap- proximate. To attempt merely to extend the present, in many respects inefficient and limited system, without adopting those improvements which experience and the progress of society have rendered necessary, would be only to postpone to an in- definite period what must ultimately be established, if society is expected to go on in its progress towards perfection. In the following volume the author has exhibited a brief out- line of the whole series of instructions requisite for man, con- sidered as an intelligent and moral agent destined to immor- tality — from the earliest dawn of reason to the period of man- hood. But it is merely an outline ; for the subject, considered 1* VI PREFACE. in all its bearings, is the most extensive and interesting that can occupy the attention of mankind. Should the present volume, however, meet with general approbation, some more specific details in reference to the subjects here discussed, and to other topics connected with the improvement of society, may after- wards be presented to the public. Several excellent works have lately been published on the subject of education, some of them recognising the leading prin- ciples which are here illustrated. But the author has, in every instance, prosecuted his own train of thought, without interfer- ing with the sentiments or language of others, unless where it is acknowledged. Some of the works alluded to he has not had it in his power to peruse ; and the same current of thought will sometimes occur to different writers on the same subject. — The greater part of this work was composed before the author had an opportunity of perusing the excellent treatise of Mr. Simp- son, entitled, " Necessity of Popular Education" — a work which abounds with liberal and enlightened views, and which recog- nises the same general principles which are here illustrated. But the two works do not materially interfere ; and the one may be regarded as a supplement or sequel to the other, both having a bearing on the same grand object. It was originally intended to offer a few remarks on classical learning, and on the system of education which prevails in our colleges and universities ; but the size to which the volume has swelled has rendered it expedient to postpone them to a future opportunity. For the same reason, the " Miscellaneous Hints in reference to the Improvement of Society," and the remarks on " Mechanics' Institutions," have been much abridged, and various topics omitted which were intended to be particularly illustrated. The author intends proceeding with his promised work " On the Scenery of the Heavens," as soon as his present engage- ments will permit. Broughty Ferry, near Dundee, ) November, 1835. \ CONTENTS. Introduction. — Importance of the object proposed in the following work, and its practicability, pages 15 — 21. Reasons why it has never yet been accomplished, 18. Prospects oi future improvement, 18. PART I. ON EDUCATION. Preliminary Remarks. — Importance of education — subject too much overlooked — deficiency in the arrangements made in reference to this object — desirable that a taste for intellectual pursuits be induced — what should be the grand object of edu- cation, 20 — 24. CHAPTER I. Present state of Education in different Countries, 24, Education during the dark ages — erection of colleges — era of the Reformation and the effects produced by it, 24 — 26. Education in the United States of America, 26 — 30, — in Silesia, Wirtemberg, Bavaria, Prussia, &c. 30 — 34, — in France, 34, — Spain, 36, — Russia, 37, — Switzerland, 37. CHAPTER II. Strictures on the mode in which Education has generally been conducted, 38. Different views of the object of education — absurd practices in relation to it — deficiencies in the mode of religious instruction — summary of the usual scholastic process, 38 — 44 — Errors and deficiencies. 1. No communication of ideas, 44. 2. School-books not adapted to the capacities of youth — specimens of their contents, 46 — immorality and absurdity of some of these selections, 47. 3. Injudicious exer- cise of the memory — Shorter Catechism, &c. 50 — 53. 4 Absurd attempts at teach- ing Grammar— Mr. SmelUe's remarks on this subject, 54. — Fastidiousness in regard to the art of Writing, 55. Strictures on the mode of teaching Arithmetic, 56-^ Va- rious circumstances which render education disagreeable to the young, want of ample accommodation — long confinement in school — undue severity — hurrying children from one book to another — attempts to teach several branches at one time, &c. 58 — 63. Glaring deficiencies in the present practice — attributable to the sys- tem more than to the teachers, 63 — 66. — Miscellaneous remarks, 66. CHAPTER III. Hints in reference to a comprehensive and improved system, of Education, 68. General view of what an enlightened education should embrace, 69. Defects in our treatises on this subject, 70 — Man's eternal destiny overlooked, &c. 70. On the Education of the young during the period o/" infancy. — Gradual opening of the infant mind, 71. Manner in which its ideas are increased, 72— rapidity of its progress and acquisitions, 73. — 1. Physical education of infants, importance of, 74. — Food of infants ; remarks on nursing, 75. Propriety of paying attention to the effects of air and light, 76. — Cleanliness — anecdote of a Russian, 78—79. Clothing oi children., simplicity of dress — covering of the feet — directions in regard to shoes, illustrated by figures, 79 — 83. — Sleep and exercise of children, 83. — Atten- tion requisite to direct their pron»inciation, 85.-2. Moral instruction of infants, 85. Means of acquiring an absolute authority over them, 85. Plan recommended by Dr. Witherspoon, 86. Anecdote of Mr. Cecil — rule for securing authority — obsta- cles which prevent mothers from acquiring it — general violation of parental viii CONTENTS. authority illustrated — Abbot's " Mother at Home" recommended — anecdote ex- tracted from that work, 87 — 92. Im{X)rtanr-e of" attending to truth in the education ofcliildren, 92 — trutli and falsehood in pictorial exhibitions, 93. llhislrative anec- dote ii-om Mr. Abl)ot, 94. (iencral rules on tliis subject, 95. Habit of incessantly linding fault with children, 95. — (Children s^hould leel the consequences of their conduct, and be guarded against vnrti/tf juid self-conceit, 96 — 98. Danger off right' eniufr children, illustrated by an appalling fact, 99. Necessity of haimoinj in the conduct of parents towards their children, 99. — 3. Inlcllectual instruction ot infants, 100. Objects, natural and artificial, which should be presented to their view — mode of conveying a knowledge of the qualities of objects, 102 — communication of idea.s by ertgravings, 103. Experiments on this subject, with a boy about two years old, 104 — lOl). Importance of imparting correct ideas to the iniaut mind, 107. Maternal associations, 108. CHAPTER IV. Oil Infant Schools, 108. Objects of infant schools, 109. — Proper situation for such institutions, and the apparatus requisite for conducting them, 109 — 111. — Method of teaching vocal music, the alphabet, arithmetic, and the factsof sacred history — figure of the AriVA- 77Jr'//ro/i, 111 — 114. A(/tw///oi;ps which would flow from the universal establish- ment of infant schools — increase of usefid information — formation of intellectual habits — foundation laid of moral conduct — certainty of success when judicious moral training is attended to, 114 — 118. Moral etTeets of infant teaching, illus- traied by examples, 118 — 119. Infant schools, beneficial to general society and counteractive of juvenile delinquency, 120. Social habits cultivated with safely, 122. Influence of infant schools on Missionary operations — infant schools in Africa, 122 — 124 — such institutions ought to be \miversally established for all ranks, 125. Qualifications of teachers in order to render them eflilcicnt, 126. Origin and pro- gress of infant schools, 127. CHAPTER V. On Schools for Youvg persons from the age of Jive or six to the age of four- teen years, 128. Introductory remarks, 128 — plan, situation, and arrangement of school-room, illus- trated with cuts, 128 — 131. Idea of a seminary on a large scale, 132. School furniture — Apparatus and Museum — systematic sets of engravings,*132 — 134. Ds- scription of a new Optical Diagonal. Machine, with figiires, 135 — 136 — suggestions to engravers on this subject, 136. Beneficial effects of such schools, 137. School- books, and the principles on which they ought to be constnicted, 138. Specimens of subjects for elementary lx)oks, 140 — objections obviated, 141. Outline of a 8chool-br the advanced classes — description of volcanoes, with engravings, 156. Questions nu the less<»n, 158. Manner in which such questions should be formed and arranged, 1('>0. Sets of miscellaneous (piestions, 160. Lessons on objects, 161 — 163. SKcrioN II Writing and Composition. — Mr. Buchanan's plan for teach- ing writing on slates, (with a cut,) 163. Professor Jacotot's plan, 164. Specimens CONTENTS. IX of sentiments and statements of facts for copy lines, 1 65. Mode of training the young in the art of composition, 166— 168.— Section III. Drawing.— Mode of pro- cedure in learning this art, 168. Fancy landscapes, &c. should be discarded ; drawing from the objects of nature and art, 169. Utility of this accomplishment, 170.— Section IV. Arithmetic.— Mode of conveying ideas of numbers; the rela- tive value of moneif ; the measures of length and capacity, of time, and the divis- ions of the circle, "(with figures,) 171—175. Sensible illustration of arithmetical operations, (with cuts,) 176—179. Illustration of the vahie of fractions, 179. Mis- cellaneous hints, 180. Section V. Grammar. — Absurdities in relation to this sub- ject; Lord Kaime's opinion on our mode of teaching grammar, 182. Simple mode of communicating the elements of grammar, 184 — 186. Origin of language, sug- gests the proper method of teaching it, 187. Fundamental rules o{ syntax; com- plexity of some of our " English Grajnmars," 188 — 190. General remarks, 190. Section VI. Geography. — Utility of this science, 191. Deficiencies in the mode of teaching it, 192. Mode of proving the globular form of the earth, illustrated with figures, 192 — 195 Mode of conveying" an impressive idea of its magnitude, 195. Quantity of solid matter it contains ; how many mountains, such as Etna, would be required to form a mass equal to the earth, l96. Diversified scenery on the earth's surface, quantity of water in the rivers and seas, &c. 198. Projections and delineations requisite for illustrating Geography, 199. Maps exhibiting the ranges of mountains ; the proportional length and breadth of rivers; comparative size of countries, lakes, and seas ; Isothermal charts; charts of geographical Zoology; chart of moral and religious geography, &c. ; views of cities, grottos, &c. ; slate globes; delineations of the comparative heights of mountains; vvax models of par- ticular countries, &c. 200 — 203. Mode of describing countries, 203. Geographical class-books, what they should contain, 204. Directions for commencing this study, 205. Characteristics of certain Geographical school-books lately published in America, 205. Section VII. Geology. — Its practical utility, 206. Classification of the rocks and strata of the globe, illustrated with a plate, 207. Specimens for illustrating geological facts ; books on Geology, 208. — Section VIII. Astronomy. — Object and utility of this science, 210. Mode of communicating to the young a knowledge of celestial phenomena, 210. Observations on the motion of the sun, and the pAases of the moon ; the principal stars and constellations; apparent motion of the celestial vault; apparent annual motion of the sun; measures of the celes- tial sphere, 211 — 215. Apparent motion of the planets ; experiment which solves the apparent irregularities, 215. Proofs of the Earth's diurnal rotation, 217; of its annual revolution, 218. Additional proof exhibited by the Equatorial telescope and orrery, 219. Mode of explaining the variety of seasons, 220. Manner of ex- hibiting the phenomena of the planets, and the magnifying powers best adapted to this purpose, 221. Circumstances to be attended to in exhibiting the moon through a telescope, 222. Mode of exhibiting the solar spots, 223. Imperfect conceptions conveyed by orreries and planetariums, 223. Manner of representing the propor- tional magnitudes and distances of the planets, 224. Mode of explaining a parallax, illustrated by figures, 226. Moral lessons deducible from this science, 227. Books on Astronomy; Burrett's "Geography of the Heavens," &c. 228. Section IX. Experimental Philosophy and Chemistry. — Departments of Experi- mental Philosophy, 228. Mechanical powers ; illustrations of the lever, &c. 229. Experiments illustrative of Hydrosfafical principles, (with figures,) 230 — 232. Sim- ple experiments illustrative of Pneumatical subjects; pressure, elasticity, and com,' pressibility of air ; principle of the diving-bell ; syphons; effects of the expansion of air, (fee. (with figures,) 2.32 — 238. Methods of cutting glass tubes and bending them for syphons, 238. Optical experiments, for explaining the principles of tele- scopes and microscopes, 239. Description of a (^«a^o??aZ eye-piece, 241. Camera obscura, on a large scale, 241. Phantasmagoria ; solar microscope : manner of pro- curing animalcula, 242. How a compound microscope may be formed from a com- mon telescopic eye-piece, 243. Experiments with concave mirrors, 243 ; illusions produced by them, 245. General remarks on philosophical apparatus, 246. Che- mical subjects and apparatus ; Books on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry, 246 — 247. — Section X. Mathematics. — General remarks on the plan and order in which a knowledge of this subject should be communicated to young persons, 247 — 250. — Section XI. Phi/siology.— Inconsistency of omitting tliis department in a general X CONTENTS. course of education, 250. Evils which arise from ignorance of this subject, 251. — Distortions of the human frame caused by absurd practices, ilkistrated by cuts, 252. Means by which a general knowledge of the human system might be communica- ted, 253. — Figure exhibiting the thorax and abdomen, 254. — Evidences of desigjiin the human fabric, 255. — Practical purposes to which a knowledge of Physiology might be applied, 255. — Section XII. Logic, or the Art of Reaamiing: Utility of this subject, 256. — Outline of a comprehensive system of Logic, 257. — Popular Lo- gic — examples of reasoning, with remarks, 258 — 262. — Subjects for exercising the reasoning }X)vvcrs, 262. Anecdotes of Gassendi, when a boy, and his mode of rea- soning with his companions, v^itJi an evgravirig, 263. — Analysis of Gassendi's rea- soning, 2()3. — Reasoning to prove that "air exists" — that "all should enjoy a moral and intellectual education" — that " men should love one another," 265. — Sources of Error illustrated, 267. — -Sop/rtsm-s illustrated, 269. — Particular species of false reasoning, 270. — Importance of an early exercise of the rational faculty — evils which have arisen from false reasoning, 271. — Diabolical reasoning — reasoning by physical force — by torture — by fines and imprisonments — reasoning of persecutors, of mobs, &c. Powerful infliience of Gold in producing conviction, 273. — Section XIII. Natural Theology — An appropriate study for the young, 273. Summary of subjects and facts connected with this study, 274. Books on Natural Theology, 275. Olfier departments of knowledge hriejly noticed. Natural Ilistorv', Botany, Po- litical economy. Vocal music. Domestic economy, 276 — 277. Bodily exercises — amusements — and excursions, 278. Female education — illustrious females — energy of the female mind, and its influence in society, 279. — Prevailing misconceptions, 28L Remarks on a hackneyed sentiment of Mr. Pope, 281. — Reasons for univer- sal instruction, 283. _ CHAPTER VIL Moral and Religious Instruction, 284. Instruction in the knowledge of the Deity, 284. Mode of illustrating the Divine perfections, exemplified in reference to the Wisdom and the Immensity of God, 285 — 288. — Instruction in the history of the Divine dispensations — characteristics of sacred history — religion to be taught chiefly from the Scriptures — doctrines and precepts of Christiauitj' — propriety of a specific application of Scriptural precepts to the conduct of the young. 288 — 292. Moral training particularly exemplified, 292 — 296. Manner in which the young should be directed in the study of the Scriptures, 296. Scripture class-book, 497. CHAPTER Vin. Sabbath Schools. Defects which adhere to the present system of Sabbath Schools, 299. — Qualifi- cations of Sabbath School Teachers, and the subjects with which they should be acquainted, 299. — Necessity of their being trained to their oflice, 301. — Depart- ments of knowledge they should study — Sacred Histor>', Ancient Geography, Bib- lical Criticism, ^(\ 302 — 306. General remarks on Sabbath Schools — practices to be avoided, &c. 306. Books on this subject, 307. CHAPTER IX. Schools for Young persons from the age of fourteen to the age of twenty or upwards, 308. Necessity of such institutions, 308. Subjects to which this class of young per- sons should be directed, 309. Pre-rcquisites to their establishment, 311. CHAPTER X. On the Qualifications of Teachers, and Seminaries for their instruc- tion, 311. Deficiency in the Qualifications of Teachers, 311 — honourable nature of the oflice CONTENTS. XI — necessity of training, 312. Precepforal Colleges, and the subjects to be studied, 313. Examination of candidates, 31.5. Importance of training candidates for Teachers 316. Infant School Teachers — Prussian Normal schools, 317 — 318 CHAPTER XI. On the Practicability of establishing seminaries for intellectual educa- tion, 319. Number of schools requisite to be estabHshed in Scotland and England, 319 — 321. — Expense of estabhshing them, 321. Importance of such institutions, and the necessity for philanthropic exertions, 322. Liberality under the Jewish economy, 323. Enormous sums expended in war, 324. Pension list, 325. Contested elec- tions, 326. Savings which might be made in personal expenditure, 327. Sums spent on spirituous liquors, 328. No want of resources — appeal to Christians, 328. Contributions of the Jews, and predictions in relation to the Christian Church, 329. Means requisite for exciting attention to this subject, 330. Limited views of edu- cation taken by statesmen, 331. Voluntary and compulsory education, 332. CHAPTER XII. On the UTILITY of establishing seminaries for universal education, 333. I. They would tend to the prevention of Crime. Number of thieves in London — trials at the Old Bailey — erroneous views of legislation — inefficiency of severe pun- ishments — juvenile delinquency — deficiency of Education in England and Scot- land, 333 — 338. Beneficial results of education — Schools, publications, &c. in Bos- ton and New- York, 339 — 341. Expense of punishing crime, 342. II. Universal education would elevate the general character of man, 343. Contrast between the majority of mankind, and celestial intelligences, 344. Native dignity of man, 345 — security of property dependent on education, 345. III. Universal educa- tion introductory to the Millennium, 346. Manner in which this era will be intro- duced, 347 — when it will commence, 348. Exertions preceding the Millennium, 349. Appeal to Christians, 350. Christian generosity and heroism, 351. Story of St. Pierre, 352. — Contributions for the tabernacle and temple, 352. The Pilgrims of New England, 353. CHAPTER XIIL Principles on which a National system of Education should he estab- lished. Difficulties — Brougham's "Education Bill" of 1821, 354 — Liberal views in the establishment of education, 355 — Parochial system, 357. — Superintendence of edu- cation, 358 — Mode of religions instruction, 359. Efficiency of Scriptural instruc- tion, 360 — Harmony of sectaries in America, 361. Proposed plan of establishing education, 362. CHAPTER XIV. Maxims, or First Principles in Education, 362. Ideas should precede words — tasks — exhiliarating associations — principle of emu- lation — corporal punishments — confinement — fixing the attention, &c. 362 — 367. CHAPTER XV Mechanics^ Institutions, 367. The author's communications on this subject, in 1814, 368. Condensed view of them, 368. Admission of members, 369. Subjects of discussion, and mode of conducting it, 369—371. Funds of the Society, and thei/ appl cation. 372. Publi- xii CONTENTS. lications of the Society, 374. Correspondence with other Societies, 375. Defects in the objects of Mechanics' Institutions, as presently constituted. Suggestions for their improvement, 370 — 379. PART II. MISCELLANEOU.S HINTS IN REFERENCE TO THE DIFFUSION OF KNOW- LEDGE AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY, 380. Introd)ictory remarks, 380. I. Improvements in Preaching, 381. Comprehen- sive range of subjects, 382. Sacred Preachers, Isaiah, Paul, Messiah, &;c. 383. Domestic education, a topic for preaching, 386. Illustration of Divine subjects by sensible objects, 386. Education of candidates for the ministry, 388. Subjects for pubHc worship, and strictures on certain modes of singing, 390. — II. Union of the Christian Church. 392. — III. Scriptures illustrated by engravings — strictures on certain Scripture prints, 393. — IV. Abridgment of the hours of labour necessary to improvement — plan suggested, 395. — V. Knowledge promoted by public exhibi- tions, 397. Large concave mirror, Chinese lights exhibited at Paisley, &c. 398, — Vf. Erection of Observatories, &c. 399. — VII. Improvement of townis and villages, 400. Wretched slate of some of our cities — narrow streets — evils of great cities — hints suggested in relation to improvements in towns and villages, 402 — 404. Plan of a small town, with description, 405. — VIII. Itinerating Libraries — their origin, plan, and effects, 406. — IX. Delineations and inscriptions on articles of furniture, 408. — X. Changes requisite in certain laws, regulations and customs, 409. — Taxes on knowledge — postages — position of the names of ships — perquisites of waiters, postilions, &ic.— hissing in public meetings — Defects of our civil and criminal code, 409 — 412. — XI. Friendly intercourse between nations — Excise restrictions — Anec- dote of Mr. Davidson, 413. — XII. Intellectual and religious improvement of Sea- men — Number of, in the British service, 413. — XIII. Formation of societies for pro- moting improvements, 415. — XIV. Counteraction of Avarice, 415 — Its irrationality and degrading tendency, 416 — Recapitulation and Conclusion, 417. Prospects of improvements in future ages — Preludes of a more auspicious and enlightened era — Means by which its approach may be accelerated, 418 — 422. Appendix, 423. Insanity from excessive study. LIST OF ENGRAVINGS. PAGE Simple dress of a little girl, 80 Figures of the true shape of the foot, and of shoes, 82 Arithmeticon, 112 Plan and accommodations of a village school, 130 Elevation of do., 131 Two figures representing the new optical machine, 136 The peacock 153 Interior of the crater of Vesuvius, 157 Vesuvius and Naples, ib. Mode of teaching writing, 164 Figures illustrating notation, 172 Seven figures illustrative of weights and measures, 174 Nine do. illustrating square measure, 176, 177 Figures illustrative of evolution, 178, 179 Six do. illustrating fractions, 180 Figure illustrative of the earth's rotundity, 193 Do. to illustrate the roundness of the earth from north to south, ib. Plate illustrative of geology, 209 Figure for explaining a parallax, 225 Quadrant of the heavens for illustrating do., 226 Hydrostatical figures: — Fig. 1. For showing the level of water, 231 — 2. Hydrostatical paradox, ib. — 3. Jets and fountains, ib. — 4. Velocities of spouts of water, 232 Figures illustrating Pneumatics : — Fig. 1. Explaining the diving bell, 235 — 2. The pressure of the atmosphere, 236 — 3. Lateral pressure of do ib. — 4. Mode of conveying water over a rising ground, ib. — 5. Do. from one hill to another, 237 — 6. Effects of the expansion of air, 238 Optical figures : — Fig. 1. Principle of the phantasmagoria, &c., 239 — 2. Diagonal eye-piece, 241 — 2. Camera ol«cura, on a large scale, 242 Figures connected with Physiology: — Fig. Land 2. Outline and skeleton of the Venus de Medicis, 252 — 3. and 4. Do. of a modern fashionable lady, ib. — 5. Contents of the Thorax and Abdomen 254 Figures illustrative of reasoning 259 Gassendi demonstrating the motion of the clouds, 264 Concave speculum used as a telescope, 398 plan of a small town, &c., 405 2 ON THE MENTAL ILLUMINATION AND MORAL IMPROVEMENT OF MANKIND. INTRODUCTION. Before we attempt to accomplish any great and extensive en- terprise, it is requisite to ascertain, in the first place, whether the object we propose be attainable, and, in the next place, whether, if attained, it would be productive of beneficent effects. If these points are not ascertained, previous to our engaging in any undertak- ing, we may exert our intellectual faculties, and active powers, and spend our time, our wealth, and our labour, to no purpose, and in the end meet with nothing but disappointed expectations. The history of the world, and even the annals of science, would furnish hundreds of facts to corroborate this position. The object of the Alchemists was to transmute earthy substances and the baser metals into gold, and, by the fortunate labour of some happy day, when the stars were propitious, to realize vast treasures of wealth, to enable them to live in splendour and opulence during the remaining period of their lives. In this visionary pursuit, which, for several centuries, occupied the attention of princes, statesmen, ecclesiastics, physicians, and experimenters of various descriptions, thousands of fortunes were irretrievably wasted, and the dupes of this fallacious science kept in perpetual anxiety, and amused with vain and unfounded expectations. Even although such schemes had been practicable — which experience proves they are not — it would not be difficult to show, that, had they been successful, they would have produced more misery than happiness among man- kind. The study of the heavens, with the view of foretelling future events, and the destinies of men, from the different aspects of the planets and the signs of the Zodiac, was another scheme which, for many ages, absorbed the attention of kings, legislators, popes, cardinals, and even men of science, as well as that of the illiterate vulgar, — and, in numerous instances, no public affair of any importance was undertaken, without first consulting the stars 16 INTRODUCTION. This fallacious art has likewise been proved impracticable, and inconsistent with the peace and happiness of mankind. The researches which were long made after the panacea, or universal remedy for all disorders — the search for an universal menstruum and ferment — the search for a medicine which will confer immor- tality even in this world — the attempts to discover mines by means of divining-rods — and to cure palsies, inflammations, ob- structions, and other disorders, by animal magnetism and metallic tractors — and, above all, the attempt to conduct mankind to hap- piness by discarding the idea of a Divine Being and every species of religion from the plans proposed — with hundreds of similar schemes, — may be regarded nearly in the same light as the fool- ish arts of astrologers and alchemists, and could easily be shown to be equally unprofitable and vain. In endeavouring to promote a general diffusion of knowledge among the various ranks of society, it becomes us likewise to inquire, whether the attempt would be accompanied with such beneficial effects as to warrant the labour and expense which must necessarily attend such an enterprise — and, whether any insurmountable difficulties stand in the way of its accomplishment. There are not wanting, even amidst the light of science which is now shining around us, many individuals in the higher classes of society who are bold enough to insinuate, that an increase of knowledge would be injurious to the lower ranks of the commu- nity — that its accomplishment is both undesirable and impracti- cable — that the moral world will proceed onward as it has hitherto done — that there is no possibility of meliorating the condition of the great mass of mankind, — and that it is altogether Utopian to attempt to direct the moral and intellectual energies of the human race into any other channel than that in which they have hitherto been accustomed to flow. Such insinuations evidently flow from a spirit of misanthropy, and are intended, if possible, to fix the moral world in a quiescent state, as the material world was sup- posed to be in former times, and to damp every exertion that is now making to promote the improvement and the happiness of our species. They are likewise inconsistent with the dictates of Divine Revelation, which plainly declare that " the knowledge of Jehovah shall cover the earth, as the waters cover the channels of the seas," and that " all shall know him, from the least to the greatest." In a work lately published, I have endeavoured to illustrate, at considerable length, some of the advantages which wovld result from a general diffusion of knowledge, which, I presume, will tend to substantiate the position, that an increase of knowledge INTRODUCTION. 17 among all ranks would be productive of an increase of enjoyment. If a more extensive diffusion of knowledge would have a tendency to dissipate those superstitious notions and false alarms which have so long enslaved the minds of men — to prevent numerous diseases and fatal accidents — to accelerate the improvement of the physical sciences — to increase the pleasures and enjoyments of mankind — to promote the progress of the liberal and mechani- cal arts — to administer to the comforts of general society — to pre- pare the way for new inventions and discoveries — to expand our views of the attributes and moral government of the Deity — to advance the interests of morality — to prepare the mind for the pleasures and employments of the future world — to promote a more extensive acquaintance with the evidences, facts, and doc- trines, of Revelation — to prepare the way for the establishment of peace and harmony among the nations, and to promote the union and the extension of the Christian church ; — if such posi- tions can be fairly proved, every philanthropist and every rational and well-directed mind will readily admit, that a more general cultivation of the human intellect, and a more extensive ditlusion of rational information, are highly desirable, and would be pro- ductive of the most auspicious and beneficial results, in reference both to the present interests and the future prospects of mankind. With regard to the practicahilify of this object, no rational doubt can be entertained, if the moral machinery requisite for its accomplishment were once thoroughly set in motion. Whatever Man has hitherto achieved, Man may still accomjylish. If minds, once feeble and benighted, and ignorant as the wild ass's colt, have, by proper training, been raised near the highest pitch of moral and intellectual attainments, other minds, by similar train- ing, may be elevated to the same degree of perfection. If nations, once rude and ignorant, as the Britons formerly were, have been raised to a state of civilization and refinement, and excited to cultivated the arts and sciences, the same means by which this object was accomplished, may still be employed in other cases to produce the same efTect. If several portions, however small, of any civilized community, have been brought to a high state of intellectual improvement, it is evident, that the greater part, if not the whole, may be advanced into a similar state. It only requires that the means of instruction be simplified and extended, and brought within the reach of every one whose faculties are capa- ble of cultivation. That this object has never yet been effected, is not owing to its impracticability, or to any insuperable obstacles which lie in the way of its accomplishment ; but because the at- tejition of mankind has never yet been thoroughly directed to it : 2* 18 INTRODUCTION. and because the means requisite for promoting it have never been employed on a scale proportionate to the extent and magnitude of the enterprise. The influential classes of society, in every coun- try, have been more absorbed in the pursuits of avarice, ambition, war, devastation, and sensual gratifications, than in meliorating the physical and moral condition of their species. The tenth part of the treasures which have been wasted in the prosecution of such mad and immoral pursuits, had it been properly directed, would have been more than sufficient to have brought the means of instruction within the reach of every individual of the human race, and to have transformed the barren wastes of every country into the appearance of a terrestrial paradise. There is no Go- vernment under heaven, so far as we are acquainted, (if Prussia and the United States of America be not excepted,) where the in- struction of the great mass of the people forms a prominent and specific object in its administration. On the contrary, in several instances, even within the limits of Europe, it is well known, that the intellectual instruction of the lower orders is prohibited by a law.* Even in Great Britain, where the light of science shines with peculiar effulgence, the exertions of philantropists have been damped in their attempts to diffuse knowledge among the people ; heavy taxes have been imposed on the means of its diffusion ; men of knowledge have been persecuted and neglected, while men devoted to war and bloodshed have been loaded with wealth, and exalted to the highest stations of dignity and honour ; no na- tional scheme, supported by the state, has ever yet been devised for its universal propagation among all ranks, and no sums set apart for this purpose, while the treasures of the nation have been wasted in extravagance, and, in too many instances, devoted to the support of vice, tyranny, and intolerance. But we trust that the breath of a new spirit is now beginning to animate the councils of the nation and the great body of the people; — and when the means within our power of extending the blessings of knowledge shall be employed with energy and judg- ment, we may expect, ere long, to behold a generation rising up, in intelligence and moral action, superior to all the generations that have gone before it — improving the soil, adorning the land- scape, promoting the progress of the useful arts, enlarging the * For example, — A royal Sardinian Edict, published in 1825, enjoins, " that henceforth no person shall learn to read or write who cannot prove the possession of property above the value of 1500 livres," or about JE62 lOs. sterling. And it is well known, that the greater part of the lower classes in Russia, Austria, and Poland, are, from their situation, debarred from the benefits of instruction. INTRODUCTION. 19 boundaries of science, diffusing the blessings of Christianity over the globe, giving an impulse to every philanthropic movement, counteracting the spirit of war, ambition, and licentiousness, cul- tivating peace and friendly correspondence with surrounding na- tions, and forming an impregnable bulwark around every govern- ment where the throne is established in truth and in righteousness. To state and illustrate the various means by which a more ex- tensive diffusion of knowledge may be effected, and the general improvement of society promoted, is the main object of the fol- lowing pages, in which the state of education in our country, and the principles on which it ought to be conducted, shall occupy our first, and our chief attention. (20) PART I. ON EDUCATION. PRELIMINARY REMARKS. There is, perhaps, nothing of more importance to the human race, and which has a more direct bearing on the happiness of all ranks, than the cultivation of the mental faculties, and the ac- quisition of substantial knowledge. Whether we consider man as a transitory inhabitant of this lower world, or as in a state of progression to another region of existence — it is of the utmost importance, that he be thoroughly acquainted with the Great Author of his existence, with the general structure of the uni- verse in which he is placed, with the relations in which he stands to his fellow-men, and the other beings which surround him, with the duties he ought to discharge to his Creator, and to his own species, with the nature of that eternal world to which he is des- tined, and with that train of action and of contemplation which will prepare him for the enjoyments of a future and eternal state. All the other objects which can employ the attention of the hu- man mind must evidently be viewed as in some degree subordinate to these. For, on the acquisition of the knowledge to which we allude, and the corresponding course of conduct to which it leads, depends the happiness of man, considered both as an indivi- dual, and as a member of the great family to which he belongs — his happiness both in the present life, and in the life to come. Nothing, however, appears to have been more overlooked, in the general arrangements of society, than the selection of the most proper means by which such important ends are to be accom- plished. In those nations and societies which, in their progress from barbarity, have arrived at only a half-civilized state, the acquisition of the means of subsistence, and of those comforts which promote their sensitive enjoyment, forms almost the exclu- sive object of pursuit ; and it is not before they have arrived at a certain stage of civilization, that moral and intellectual improve- ment becomes an object of general attention. And, even in those nations which have advanced farthest in the path of science and of social refinement, the cultivation of the human mind, and the details of education, are not considered in that serious light which PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 21 their importance demands. Almost every thing else is attempted to be accurately adjusted, while the moral and intellectual improve- ment of the mass of the community is left either to the direction of chance, or to the injudicious schemes of weak and ignorant minds. Every one who has acquired a smattering of English grammar and arithmetic, and who can write his own name, con- ceives that he is qualified to conduct the intellectual improvement of the young; the most illiterate and superficial pedants have intruded themselves into the office of teachers ; those who have never had the least experience in the art of teaching, nor have studied its principles, have assumed the prerogative of dictating the arrangements and discipline of a school ; and hence, the office of a teacher of youth, which is one of the most important and respectable in the social system, has frequently been considered as connected with the meanest talents, and with the lowest gra- dations in society. Great Britain has long held a distinguished rank among the nations of Europe in the scale of science and of civilization, and on account of the numerous seminaries of instruction which have been established in every quarter of the island. Excepting Prus- sia, the United States of America, and the mountains and vales of Switzerland, there are few countries in which education is more generally appreciated and more widely diffijsed than in the northern district of Great Britain ; and the effects produced by our literary and scholastic establishments are apparent in the desire for knowledge, and the superior intelligence which charac- terize the different ranks of our population. When we compare ourselves in this respect with the Russian boors, the Laplanders, the Calmucs, the Cossacks, or the Tartars, or even with the inhabitants of Naples, of Spain, or of Portugal, we seem to stand on an eminence to which they can scarcely hope to approach for a lapse of ages. On the other hand, when we compare ourselves with what we ought to be, as beings possessed of rational natures, and destined to immortality, and as surrounded with the light of science and of revelation, — we shall find that we are, as yet, but little more than just emerging from the gloom of moral depravity and mental darkness. When we consider the mass of depravity which is still hovering around us, the deplorable ignorance, the superstitious notions, the false conceptions in regard to many important truths, the evil passions, and the grovelling affections, which so generally prevail, we must acknowledge that much, much indeed, remains to be accomplished, before the great body of the people be thoroughly enlightened in the knowledge of all those subjects in which they are interested, as rational, accounta- 22 PRELIMINARY REMARKS. ble, and immortal beings, and before they can be induced to give a decided preference to moral pursuits and intellectual pleasures. And, if this is the case in a nation designated civilized and en- lightened, how thick must be the darkness which broods over the inhabitants of other regions of the globe, how deep the moral de- basement into which they are sunk, and how many vigorous efforts must be requisite, ere they can be raised to the true dignity of moral and intellectual agents ! If ever this important object is to be ciccomplished — which the predictions of ancient prophecy leave us little room to doubt — it is now high time that we arouse ourselves from our slumbers, and engage with increased activity and zeal in the work of reformation and of rational instruction. Let us not imagine that the preaching of the gospel, in the dull and formal manner by which it is at present characterized, will effectuate this great object, without the use of all the efficient means of juvenile instruction we can devise. While we boast of the privileges of our favoured land, of the blessings of Divine Revelation, and of the enlightened era in which we live ; and while we are endeavouring to impart to distant nations the bless- ings of science and of the Christian religion ; — let us not forget, that there are thousands of the young generation around us, under the show of having obtained a good education, rising up in life, in a state of ignorance and vice, in consequence of the superficial and injudicious modes by which they have been tutored, and which prevent them from profiting by the instructions of the min- isters of religion. While the great body of mankind must necessarily be engaged in manual employments, and while it is essential to their happi- ness, as well as to their bodily subsistence, that a portion of their time be thus employed, — it would be a highly desirable object to induce upon their minds a taste for intellectual pursuits, and for those pure enjoyments which flow from a contemplation of the works and providence of the Creator, and of those moral laws and arrangements which he has ordained for promoting the social order and the eternal happiness of mankind, in which those hours not devoted to worldly business might be occasionally employed. As man is a being compounded of a corporeal organized structure, and a system of intellectual powers, it evidently appears to have been the intention of the Creator that he should be frequently employed both in action and in contemplation. But when his physical powers only are set in motion, and the principal object of his activity is to supply the wants of his animal frame, he can be considered as little superior to the lower orders of animated PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 23 existence, and must, in a great measure, frustrate the end of his Creator in bestowing upon him the faculties of his rational nature. In order to raise mankind from the state of mental darkness and moral degradation into which they have fallen, it is essentially- requisite, that the utmost care be bestowed on the proper direction of the youthful mind, in its first excursions in the physical and moral world ; for when it has proceeded a certain length, amidst the mists of ignorance and the devious ways of vice, it is ex- tremely difficult, if not impossible, to recall it from its wanderings to the path of wisdom and felicity. Instructions, not merely in reference to sounds and accents, and accurate pronunciation, but also in relation to important facts, and the various properties and relations of objects around them, must be communicated at. an early age ; and not merely the names, but the ideas, of the most interesting objects in the physical and intellectual world, must be conveyed by a succession of well-defined mental imagery, and sensible illustrations, so as to arrest and impress the juvenile mind, and excite its energies and affections in the pursuit of know- ledge and virtue. Without an attention to this important object, the business of elementary instruction appears to regard man rather as a mere machine than as a rational and immortal being, and seems to be little short of an insult offered to the human un- derstanding. The ultimate object of all scholastic instruction ought undoubtedly to be, to convey to youthful minds substantial knowledge, to lead them gradually into a view of the nature and qualities of the objects with which they are surrounded, of the general appearances, motions, and machinery of external nature, of the moral relations in which they stand to the Great Author of their existence, and to one another, and of the various duties which flow from these relations, — to direct their affections, tem- pers, and passions, in such a channel as will tend to promote their own comfort, and the harmony of general society, and to prepare them for the nobler employments of an immortal existence. Such moral and intellectual instructions «ought to go hand in hand with the acquisition of the various combinations of sounds and sylla- bles, and with the mechanical exercises of writing and ciphering ; otherwise the beneficial consequences, which should result from instruction in the common branches of education, will be few and unimportant. Whether the prevailing modes of education in this country be calculated to promote the ends now stated, will appear, when we come to investigate the range of our elementary instruc- tion, and the circumstances connected with the manner of its communication. Before proceeding to this investigation, I shall take a rapid view of the present state of education in different civilized nations. 24 HISTORV OP EDUCATION. CHAPTER I. Present state of Education in different Countries, For a long period, even after the introduction of Christianity among the nations of Europe, the education of the young seems to have been in a great measure neglected. The records of his- tory afford us no details of any particular arrangements that were made either by the church or the state for promoting this impor- tant object. During the long reign of Papal superstition and tyranny, which lasted for nearly a thousand years, the instruction of the young appears to have been entirely set aside, or, at least, to have formed no prominent object of attention. The common people grew up, from infancy to manhood, ignorant of the most important subjects, having their understandings darkened by su- perstition, their moral powers perverted, and their rational facul- ties bewildered and degraded, by an implicit submission to the foolish ceremonies and absurdities inculcated by their ecclesiastical dictators ; and even many in the higher ranks of life, distinguished for their wealth and influence in society, were so untutored in the first elements of learning, that they could neither read nor write. Ignorance was one of the foundations on which the splen- dour and tyranny of the Romish hierarchy were built, and there- fore it would have been contrary to its policy, and the schemes it had formed of universal domination, to have concerted any mea- sures for the diffusion of knowledge and the enlightening of man- kind. We read of no nation or community, during the dark ages, that devised plans for the rational and religious instruction of youth, excepting a poor, oppressed, and despised people " of whom the world was not worthy" — the pious and intelligent, but persecuted Waldenses. It appears that a system of instruction prevailed among these inhabitants of the valleys of Piedmont, seven hundred years ago, more rational and efficient than has yet been established in the British Isles. It was not till the era of the Reformation that seminaries for the instruction of the young began to be organized and perma- nently established. Prior to this period, indeed, colleges and universities had been founded in most of the countries of Christen- dom ; but the instructions communicated in those seats of learning were chiefly confined to the priestly order, and to the sons of the nobility who aspired afler the highest and most lucrative offices under the hierarchy of Rome. Their influence was scarcely felt by the mass of the people ; and the origin of the earliest of these seminaries cannot be traced much beyond the beginning of the HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 25 thirteenth century. These new estabh'shments, however, with the academical honours they conferred on proficients in knowledge, gave a powerful impulse to the study of science, and greatly increased the number of those who devoted themselves to the pur- suits of learning. It is said, that, in the year 1262, there were no less than ten thousand students in the university of Bologna, although Law was the only science taught in it at that time ; and that in the year 1340, there were thirty thousand students in the university of Oxford. But the education of the middling and lower classes of society was still miserably neglected. Even in those countries which have since been distinguished for scholastic esta- blishments, a universal apathy seems to have prevailed, in regard to the acquisition of knowledge, and of the first elements of edu- cation. In the year 1494, a few years before Luther began to assail the Romish Church, it was enacted by the Parliament of Scotland, " that all barons and substantial freeholders throughout the realm should send their children to school, from the age of six to nine years, and then to other seminaries, to be instructed in the laws, that the country might be possessed of persons pro- perly qualified to discharge the duties of sheriffs, and other civil offices." Those who neglected to comply with the provisions of this statute, were subjected to a penalty of twenty pounds Scots. This enactment evidently implies, that even the influential classes of society, at that period, paid little attention to the education even of the male branches of their families, and, of course, that those in the lowest ranks must have been generally, if not alto- gether deprived of this inestimable privilege. It was only after the passing of this act, as Dr. Henry remarks, that several indi- viduals began to be distinguished for their classical acquirements, and that learning was much more generally diffiased throughout the country. At the time of the revival of learning, soon after the Reforma- tion, a new impulse was given to the human mind, a bold spirit of inquiry was excited in the laity, when the vices of the Romish clergy were exposed, and their impositions detected ; the absurd- ity of many tenets and practices authorized by the church was discovered ; the futility of the arguments by which illiterate monks attempted to defend them was perceived ; the mystic the- ology of the schools was set aside, as a system equally unedifying and obscure ; the study of ancient literature was revived ; the attention was directed to the siacred Scriptures, as the only stand- ard of religious truth, the legendary tales of monkish superstition were discarded, a taste for useful knowledge was induced, — and from that period, seminaries for the instruction and improvement 3 26 STATE OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA. of the juvenile mind, began to be gradually established in many of the countries of Europe ; — although they are still miserably deficient both in point of number, and in the range of instruction which they profess to communicate. — The following is a brief view of the present state of education in various countries : — United States of America * — Although the system of education has never yet arrived nearly at perfection, in any nation, yet the inhabitants of the United States may be considered, on the whole, as the best educated people in the world. With a degree of libe- rality and intelligence which reflects the highest honour on their character, they have made the most ample provision for the ele- mentary instruction of all classes ; and most of their arrange- ments, in reference to this object, appear to be dictated by disin- terested benevolence, and by liberal and enlarged views of what is requisite to promote the moral improvement of society. In the New States, o?ie square mile in every township, or one thirty- sixth part of all the lands, has been devoted to the support of common schools, besides seven entire townships for the endow- ment of larger seminaries. In the older States, grants of land have frequently been made for the same purposes; but in New England all sorts of property are assessed for the support of the primary schools, which are established in every township. — The following extract from a speech of Mr. Webster, a distinguished member of Congress, in a convention held at Massachusetts in 1821, displays the principles and practical operation of this sys- tem, and the grand design it is intended to accomplish : — " For the purpose of public instruction," said this illustrious senator, " we hold every man subject to taxation in proportion to his pro- perty ; and we look not to the question, whether he himself have or have not children to be benefited by the education for which he pays ; we regard it as a wise and liberal system of police, by which property and life, and the peace of society, are secured. We hope to excite a feeling of respectability, and a sense of cha- racter, by enlarging the capacities and increasing the sphere of intellectual enjoyment. By general instruction, we seek, so far as possible, to purify the moral atmosphere ; to keep good senti- ments uppermost, and to turn the strong current of feeling and opinion, as well as the censures of law, and the denunciations of religion, against immorality and crime. We hope for a security beyond the l^w and above the law, in the prevalence of enlight- ened and well-principled moral sentiment. We hope to continue and to prolong the time, when, in the villages and farm-houses of New England, there may be undisturbed sleep within unbarred doors. We do not indeed expect all men to be philosophers or STATE OF EDUCATION IN AMERICA* 27 statesmen ; but we confidently trust, that by the diffusion of gene- ral knowledge and good and virtuous sentiments, the political fabric may be secure, as well against open violence and over- throw, as against the slow but sure undermining of licentiousness. We rejoice that every man in this community may call all pro- perty his own, so far as he has occasion for it to furnish for him- self and his children the blessings of religious instruction, and the elements of knowledge. This celestial and this earthly light he is entitled to by the fundamental laws. It is every poor man's undoubted birthright — it is the great blessing which this consti- tution has secured to him — it is his solace in life — and it may M'ell be his consolation in death, that his country stands pledged, by the faith which it has plighted to all its citizens, to protect his children from ignorance, barbarity, and vice." These are noble sentiments and views, worthy of being adopted and reduced to practice by every government under heaven; and we trust the period is not far distant when the British senate, and every other legislative assembly in Europe, shall have their attention directed to the arrangement of a system of universal education^ on an expansive and liberal scale, and with such gene- rous and disinterested objects in view. There are no States in the Union, nor perhaps in any country in the world, so amply provided with the means of instruction, as the States of New York and New England. In New York, in 1829, there were no less than 8609 common schools, affording education to 468,205 young persons, which was rather more than a fourth part of the entire population ! and it is probable, that, since that period, the number has considerably increased. In Scotland, which is reckoned one of the best educated countries in Europe, it is found, that only one in eleven, out of the entire population, has the benefit of education. — In New England, free schools have been endowed by benefactions from different indi- viduals, — and the funds thus bequeathed by charit}'-, or public spirit, have not been devoured by the cormorants of a grasping oligarchy, but prudently and carefully administered. — The edu- cation given at these schools, too, is vastly superior to what is obtained at our parish schools. " The general plan of education at the public free schools here," says Mr. Stuart,* " is not con- fined to mere reading, writing, arithmetic and book-keeping, and the ancient and modern languages, but comprehends grammar, mathematics, navigation, geography, history, logic, political eco- nomy, rhetoric, moral and natural philosophy. These schools * " Three Years' Residence in North America^'* 28 STATE OF EDtJCATION IN AMERICA. being, as stated in the printed regulations, intended to occupy the young people from the age of four to seventeen, and to form a system of education, advancing from the lowest to the highest degree of improvement which can be derived from any literary seminaries inferior to colleges and universities, and to afford a practical and theoretical acquaintance with the various branches of useful education. There are at present in Boston, 68 free schools, besides 23 Sabbath schools, in all of which the poorest inhabitant of Boston may have his children educated, according to the system of education now specified, from the age of four to seventeen, without any expense whatever. The children of both sexes are freely admitted. The funds of those schools are derived from funds and bequests from individuals, and grants from the legislature and corporations ; and enable the trustees, consisting of twelve citizens elected by the inhabitants of each of the twelve wards of the city, with the mayor and eight aldermen, to give the teachers salaries, varying from 2500 to 800 dollars a-year. The assistant teachers have 600 dollars. The trustees elect their teachers, and vote their salaries yearly, and no preference is given on any principles but those of merit or skill. No expense whatever is incurred in these schools for the children, except in books. The richer classes in Boston formerly very generally patronized teachers of private schools, who were paid in the usual way ; but they now find that the best teachers are at the head of the public schools, and in most cases prefer them — the children of the highest and lowest rank enjoying the privilege, altogether invaluable in a free state, of being educated together. " In the adjoining State of Connecticut, it has been ascertained by actual reports, that one-third of the population of about 275,000, attend the free schools. The result of the recent in- quiry into the state of education in the State of New York, which adjoins New England, and is almost equal to it in population, is very much, though not entirely the same. — It is proved by actual reports, that 499,434 children, out of a population of 1,900,000, were at the same time attending the schools, that is, a fourth part of the whole population. Although the public funds of New York State are great, these schools are not entirely free ; but free to all who apply for immunity from payment. The amount of the money paid to the teachers, by private persons, does not, however, amount to one-third of the whole annual expense, which is somewhat less than a million of dollars." Besides the seminaries appropriated to the instruction of the mass of the population, the United States contain no less than seventy colleges, in which the ancient and modern languages, the EDUCATION IN SILESIA. 29 mathematical sciences, Natural Piiilosopliy, Clicmistry, Logic, Christian Theology, and other branches, arc regularly taught, as in the European universities ; but with more attention to the moral and religious conduct of the students. About the time of the American Revolution, in 1775, there were 10 colleges ; from 1775 to 1800, 13 were established; from 1800 to 1814, 11 were added; and from 1814 to 1834, no less than 36 colleges have been established. In these colleges, 5500 students are prosecut- ing their education, in the different departments of Literature and Science. — The American Education Society is just now educat- ing 912 young men for the ministry; the Presbyterian Educa- tion Society has 612 students under its charge ; i\\e Northern Baptist Society has 250. The whole num])er at present educated by these Societies, including the Episcopalian, German, Lutheran, &c. is 2000. These are exclusive of a very large number who are paying the expenses of their own education, and who are equally pious and promising. It is to the numerous establishments of education — the extensive range of instruction they embrace — the opportunities of instruc- tion afforded to the lowest classes of the community — the superior degree of comfort they enjoy — and to the elevation of character promoted by their free institutions, that we are to attribute the non-existence, in most parts of the United States, of what is usual- ly termed a mob or rabble, and that depredations are less fre- quent, and property more secure, than in other countries. In the Southern States, indeed, the means of education are not so ex- tensive, nor has society advanced to such a state of moral and mental improvement, as in the Northern. The reason is obvious. These States, with a most glaring inconsistency^ still continue the abettors o^ slavery, in its most disgusting forms. More than one-half of their population consists of slaves, who are deemed unworthy of enjoying the blessings even of a common education. A spirit of haughtiness and domination prevails among the in- fluential classes, barbarous amusements among the lower; and Christian morals, the finer feelings of humanity, and intellectual acquisitions, are too frequently disregarded. Silesia. — This country, in consequence of the exertions of Frederick the Great, is now richly furnished with scholastic establishments. Prior to 1765, Silesia, like the rest of Europe, was but wretchedly provided either with schools or with teachers. In the small towns and villages, the schoolmasters were so poor- ly paid, that they could not subsist without practising some other trade besides their occupation as instructors; and they usually united the character of the yilhige fiddler with that of the village 3 * 30 EDUCATION IN SILESIA. schoolmaster. Frederick issued an ordinance, that a school should be kept in every village, and that a competent subsistence should be provided for the schoolmaster by the joint contribution of the lord of the village and the tenants. Felbiger, an Augustine monk, belonging to a convent at Sagan, travelled to different countries to obtain an acquaintance with the best modes of teach- ing. After spending some years at Berlin, to obtain a perfect knowledge of the best method of instruction in the schools of that city, he returned to Sagan, and made the convent to which he belonged a seminary for candidates as schoolmasters. Pattern schools were established at Breslaw, Glatz, and other places, on the principles he had adopted, and all candidates for the office of teachers, were obliged to attend these seminaries, and to practise the method in which they were there instructed. The clergy, no less than the teachers, were required to go through this process, because the superintendence of the teachers was to be committed to them. After these preparatory matters had been carried into effect, an ordinance was published in the year 1765, prescribing the mode of teaching, and the manner in which the clergy should superintend the system. The teachers were directed to give plain instruction, and upon subjects applicable to the ordinary concerns of life ; not merely to load the memory of their scholars with words, but to make things intelligible to their understanding, to habituate them to the use of their own reason, by explaining every object of their lesson, so that the children themselves may be able to explain it, upon examination. The school tax must be paid by the lord and tenants, without distinction of religions. The boys must all be sent to school from their sixth to their thirteenth year, whether the parents are able to pay the school tax or not. For the poor the school money must be raised by collec- tions. Every parent or guardian who neglects to send his child or pupil to school, without sufficient cause, is obliged to pay a double tax, for which the guardians shall have no allowance. Every curate must examine, weekly, the children of the school of his parish. A general examination must be held annually, by the deans of the districts, of the schools within their respective precincts; and a report of the condition of the schools, the talents and attention of the schoolmasters, the state of the buildings, and the attendance of the children, made to the office of the vicar- general, who is bound to transmit all these reports to the royal domain offices, from which orders are issued to supply the de- ficiencies of the schools, and to correct any abuses that may be found to prevail. If one school suffice for more than one village, neither of them must be more than half a German mile, or two EDUCATION IN WIRTEMBERG. 31 and one-fourth British miles, distant from it in the flat country, nor more than half that distance in the mountainous parts. This system had at first many difficulties to struggle with, from the indolence of the Catholic clergy, and their consequent aver- sion to the new and troublesome duty imposed upon them. Their zeal was alarmed at the danger arising from this diffusion of light to the stability of their church. They considered the spirit of innovation, and the spirit of inquiry, as equally their natural enemies ; and the system still finds a certain degree of resistance from the penurious economy, and the stubborn love of darkness, which still prevail in some parts of this province. But in so far as it has been acted upon, its operation has proved a blessing to multitudes. As a proof of its extensive effects, the number of schools, in 1752, amounted only to 1552 ; but in 1798, their number was more than 3500 ; and many other facts, equally clear, attest the progressive increase of knowledge, and a desire for improvement. Before the seven years' war, there had scarcely ever been more than one periodical journal or gazette published in Silesia at one time; but in 1801, there were no less than seven- teen newspapers and magazines, which appeared by the day, the week, the month, or the quarter ; many of them upon subjects generally useful, and containing valuable information and instruc- tion for the people. At the former period, there were but three booksellers, and all these at Breslaw; but in 1801, there were six in that capital, and seven dispersed in the other cities. The number of printing presses, and of bookbinders, had increased in a similar proportion. Agriculture and manufactures, too, have been vastly improved and extended ; so that Silesia is, at this mo- ment, one of the most flourishing districts of the Continent. The habits of the people have been signally improved ; and they have become among the most intelligent, orderly, and industrious, in Europe.* Wirtemberg, Baden, Bavoria, Sfc» — In Wirtemberg, during the last thirty years, the system of education has been very greatly extended and improved. A public school is established in every parish, and, in some instances, in every hamlet. The master receives, as in Scotland, a fixed salary from the parish, exclusive of a small fee from the pupils, varying according to their age, and the subjects in which they are instructed. The fees are fixed by government, and are everywhere the same. Exclu- sive of the salaries and fees, the masters are furnished with a * See President Adams' Letters on Silesia, Quarterly Journal of Ed' ucatioii, and Glasgo-w Geography, vol. iii. 32 EDUCATION IN BAVARIA. house, a garden, and, in most instances, a few acres of ground, corresponding to the glebes of the Scottish clergy. The law requires thatthe children should be instructed in reading, writing, and arithmetic; and it is specially enacted, that they shall be instructed in the principles of German grammar and composi- tion. The books used in the schools of Wirtemberg and Baden, are very superior to those used in similar establishments in this country. They consist of geographical, biographical, and histori- cal works, and elementary treatises on moral science, natural history, and the principles and practice of the most important and useful arts. In all the large schools, the boys and girls are kept separate. The girls, in addition to reading, writing, and arith- metic, arc taught all sorts of needlework, the knitting of stock- inss, the making of clothes, &c. : receiving- at the same time lessons in the art of cookery, the management of children, and other departments of domestic employment. The supervision of the schools is intrusted, in every parish or commune^ to a com- mittee, consisting of a few of the principal inhabitants ; the clergy of the parish, whether Protestants or Catholics, being always ex officio members of the committee. This body is intrusted with the duty of inspecting the school, and is bound to see that the master performs his duty, and that the children attend. No par- ticular system of religion is allowed to be taught in any of the schools of Wirtemberg, and most of the other Germanic States. The tuition of this important branch is left entirely to the clergy and the parents of the children, so that the sons and daughters of Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Quakers, &c. frequent the schools, and live in the utmost harmony. The greatest desire prevails among the lower classes that their children should enjoy the advantages of the excellent education provided for them ; but the government, not trusting entirely to this feeling, has enacted regulations, by which every individual is compelled to send his children to school^ from the age of six to fourteen years. The public functionaries transmit regularly to government, once every six months, a list of the children in their respective districts, who have attained their sixth year ; and they are bound to sec that they are sent to school. In the event of the parents being unable to pay the school fees, a statement to that effect is prepared by the parochial authorities, and the fees are paid by the public. In Bavaria, the beneficial consequences resulting from the establishment of a system of national education, have been more apparent than in any other European country. Half a century ago, the ]>avarians were the most ignorant, debauched, and slo- EDUCATION IN BAVARIA. 83 venly people, between the Gulf of Genoa and the Baltic ; but, during the last thirty years, no people has ever made a more rapid advancement than they have done, in the career of know- ledge and of civilization. The late and present kings of Bavaria, have not only swept away myriads of abuses, and established a representative system of government, but they have laid the only sure foundations of permanent and real improvement, in the organization of an admirable system of national education. A school has been established in every parish, to which every one is obliged to send his children, from the age of six to fourteen ; Lyceums, Colleges, and Universities have also been instituted, for the use of those who are desirous of prosecuting their studies ; and every facility is afforded for the acquisition of the best in- struction, at the lowest price. The following is a summary view of the principal seminaries in this country : — Three universities, seven lyceums, eighteen gymnasia, twenty-one colleges, thirty- five preparatory schools, sixteen houses of education, seven for higher branches, two boarding-schools for girls, seven normal schools, one school for foreigners, two schools of law, two veteri- nary schools, two schools of midwifery, and two royal schools. The public, or national schools, amount to 5394 ; the inspectors to 286 ; the teachers to 7114; and the pupils of all classes, to about 498,000 ; — and, since the population of Bavaria is about four millions, it follows, that not less than one-eighth of the entire population is at school, which is a higher proportion than what attends the schools in Scotland. Mr. Loudon, the talented editor of the " Gardener's Magazine," who travelled over most parts of Wirtemberg, Bavaria, and Ba- den, in 1828, bears the most unqualified testimony to the excel- lence and efficiency of the system of public instruction adopted in these countries, and the beneficial effects which have resulted from its operation. " From what I have seen," says he, " of Wirtemberg, I am inclined to regard it as one of the most civi- lized countries in Europe. I am convinced that the great 6bject of government is more perfectly attained here, than even in Great Britain ; because, with an almost equal degree of individual liber- ty, there are incomparably fewer crimes, as well as far less pover- ty and misery. Every individual in Wirtemberg reads and thinks ; and to satisfy one's self that this is the case, he has only to enter into conversation with the first peasant he meets ; to observe the number and style of the journals that are everywhere circulated, and the multitude of libraries in the towns and villages. I did not meet with a single beggar in Wirtemberg, and with only one or two in Bavaria and Baden. The dress of the inhabitants of Wir- 34 EDUCATION IN FRANCE. temberg, as well as those of a great part of Bavaria and Baden, appeared to me to indicate a greater degree of comfort, than I had ever observed in any other country, with the exception, per- haps, of Sweden, and the Lowlands of Scotland." The above sketches were written two or three years ago. Since that time, M. Victor Cousin's " Report of the State of Pub- lie Instruction," has been published, and translated into English by Mrs. Austin. This report, which fills nearly 340 pages, con- tains a very full, but rather dry detail, of the whole machinery of education in Prussia. From this document it appears, that, in 1831, there were 22,612 schools, and 27,749 schoolmasters and mistresses — that the total number of children under fourteen years of age was 4,767,072 ; the number between seven and fourteen years, 2,043,030, out of which, the number of children attending school was 2,021,421, or nearly a sixth part of the whole population, which is estimated at about twelve and a half millions. It does not appear, from this report, that infant schools are established in Prussia, or any institutions for the instruction of young persons from the age of fourteen to twenty, or upwards ; nor can we learn, from any thing stated in it, that an intellectval principle is uniformly acted upon in the details of education. The system presents too much of a military spirit and character, throughout all its departments, corresponding to the nature of a despotic government ; and it would require a very considerable modification, before it could, with propriety, be adopted in a re- public or a limited monarchy. Many deficiencies in the system likewise require to be su])plied. Yet, notwithstanding all its de- fects, it has already produced a benign influence on the know- ledge and moral conduct of the inhabitants of that country ; and, in a short time, if Britain does not immediately bestir herself in the cause of education, the Prussian population will be among the most enlightened inhabitants of Europe. France. — Notwithstanding the numerous scientific characters whi6h have appeared in this country, and the discoveries and im- provements they have made in the physical and mathematical sciences — the provision for public instruction, particularly in the southern departments, is very defective. The Revolution of 1789 annihilated almost every existing institution, and those for public instruction among the rest. For a period'^of nearly five years, a whole nation of thirty millions of people remained without any regular education. It was, indeed, enacted by a law of the 13th September, 1791, "That a system of public instruction should be organized; that the public schools should be open to every one ; and that no fees should be charged for the elementary EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 35 branches. But, amidst the commotions and demoralizing scenes of that period, this law, like many others, was never carried into offect ; and, at this moment, France, with the exception of Spain and Portugal, is worse provided with the means of elementary instruction, than any other countries in Europe. In the '■'■Bulletin des Sciences Geographiques,^^ vol. xiv. for 1928, it is stated, that " in France, the number of children of an age to frequent primary schools is nearly 6,000,000. Of this number scarcely a million and a half receive instruction." Thus, without advert- ing to the circumstance of ten millions of adults who can neither read nor write, according to a recent calculation — there are four millions and a half of young Frenchmen, who do not receive even the first rudiments of education. The children at school, in the thirty-.two departments of the north, are reckoned at 740,846 ; and in the fifty-four departments of the south, only 375,931, which is little more than one-thirtieth of the popula- tion. In Paris there are to be distinguished two populations, — the population already enlightened, which comprehends, at most, about 100,000 souls; and the population which still remains to be enlightened, which amounts to nearly 800,000. Societies and individuals at Paris and other populous towns, exerted them- selves to supply so great a want ; but their efforts being openly opposed by the clergy, and secretly by the late government, were not so successful as they might otherwise have been. Schools, upon the Lancasterian plan, were introduced by the government at Paris, and other large towns ; but the benefits of the system were extended only to professed Catholics ; — none but Catholic teachers were employed, and the Protestants were left to educate their children the best way they could. In consequence of this deficiency of instruction, ignorance and superstition, irreligion and immorality, prevail over a large portion of the kingdom, even amidst the light of literature and science with which they are surrounded ; and a considerable period must elapse before the mental darkness can be dispelled, and the moral mischief it has produced be completely eradicated. It is to be hoped, now that the influence of the Catholic priests has been diminished, and liberal measures of policy introduced, that a more extensive sys- tem of elementary instruction will be established ; and we are happy to understand that the attention of the Government of Louis Philip has been directed to this object, and that measures have been brought forward in order to its accomplishment. In the year 1831, M. V. Cousin was sent as a deputation to Prussia from the government of France to acquire a knowledge of the details and regulations connected with the Prussian system of 36 EDUCATION IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. education. Since his return, numerous schools have been estab- lished on the principles of the Prussian system, and there is now a prospect, that, in the course of a few years, an efficient system of education will be established in that country. — According to the latest statistical accounts, the number of children who are learning to read, now amounts to 2,000,000 : the number of pri- mary elementary schools is 35,007 ; of superior primary schools, 370 ; of private schools, 9092 : total, 44,269. The number of boys attending these schools is, 1,175,248; and of girls, 731,773. The total expense of primary instruction is 10,162,706 francs, or about £423,446. Of this expense there is paid by the Com- munes, 7,693,793 fr. ; by the Departments, 2,063,072 fr. ; and by the State, 405,841 fr. ; or about £16,910 — a very paltry sum when compared with the magnitude and importance of the object. Spain. — " In this country there are few establishments for the diffusion of the first rudiments of knowledge. The lower classes seldom learn to read or write ; those above them are as seldom instructed in any thing but those two accomplishments, and the elements of arithmetic. Such as are intended for the learned professions attend a Latin school for three or four years ; and since the expulsion of the Jesuits, these schools are not numer- ous. Some private establishments, for the instruction of the boys in Latin, were rising at the time of the French invasion, and a desire of improvement in the method of teaching was showing itself among the teachers."* When we consider that the educa- tion of youth in this country is committed chiefly to monks, we may rest satisfied, that, in general, its plan and objects are very limited and defective. Nor is the system much improved, when the student proceeds to the university. He is there taught little else but the logic and natural philosophy of Aristotle, and the theology of Thomas Aquinas. If a Spaniard, therefore, attain to any thing like true knowledge, he must either leave his coun- try in the search, or teach himself in the best way his fancy may devise. — The same remarks, with a slight modification, will ap- ply to the neighbouring kingdom of Portugal^ where Papal superstition and tyranny exist in all their fulness and rigour. As the numerous swarms of priests, monks and friars, that infest this country, are almost universally ignorant, and not unfre- quently vicious, — as they are bigoted in the extreme to the es^ tablished religion and its childish ceremonials, — and as the gene- ral diffusion of knowledge would strike at the foundation of their ecclesiastical system, — it cannot be supposed that they will show * Quarterly Journal of Education, vol. i. EDUCATION IN RUSSIA AND SWITZERLAND 37 much zeal either in making their scholars liberal and intelligent, or in enlarging and improving the general system of instruction. Several generations must elapse, and numerous and important changes be effected, before we can expect that the great body of the Spaniards and Portuguese can become enlightened and mo- ralized. Russia. — It is only of late years that the attention of the Russian government has been directed to the promotion of educa- tion throughout that extensive empire ; and several ages will be requisite, before its half-civilized inhabitants be raised from the state of mental debasement in which they have been so long im- mersed. During the reign of the late emperor Alexander, Lan- casterian schools and other seminaries were established in differ- ent parts of European Russia, and Bible societies, for distributing the Scriptures among the lower orders, were patronized by the Emperor, Prince Gallitzin, the archbishops, and other distin- guished characters. It appears that in the beginning of 1830, the emperor Nicholas gave his sanction to certain regulations, providing for the establishment of primary schools in the several villages appertaining to the crown. The object of these semina- ries IS to diffuse useful knowledge among the peasantry, and to furnish the villages with individuals who may act as writers. Gratuitous instruction is to be afforded in these schools to youths of not less than eight years of age, in the catechism, reading books and written documents, writing, and the first four opera- tions of arithmetic. The lessons are to open after their return from labour, and to continue until it be resumed ; with the ex- ception of Sundays and festivals, they are to occupy four hours a-day. Permission is, however, given to the teacher to assemble his pupils for the purpose of repeating their lessons, even whilst they are working in the fields : but this cannot take place with- out the consent of the villagers. The expenses of these schools are to be defrayed out of the territorial income of the villages, and the first essays are intended to be made in the governments of St. Petersburg and Pscov. Switzerland. — This country, remarkable for the sublimity of ■ its mountain scenery, the fertility of its vales, and the beauty of its expansive lakes, — is no less remarkable for the means of edu- cation it possesses, and the consequent intelligence and moral order of its inhabitants. In this respect, it is scarcely inferior to the best educated countries in Europe. The proportion of the in- habitants undergoing the process of instruction is greater than that of either France, England or Scotland. In the Pays de Vaud, this proportion amounts to one-eighth of the population, 4 38 DEFECTIVE MODES OF EDUCATION. which is more than the average of the other countries of Europe, where systems of instruction have been established ; so that the inhabitants of this district of Switzerland, have generally been considered by travellers as the most intelligent and the best edu- cated among the European nations. The celebrated school of Pestalozzi at Yverdun, in the Pays de Vaud, has been visited and celebrated by every traveller. This was among the first seminaries in which the intellectual system was introduced, in which the rationale of every subject taught is explained and illustrated, and the intellectual faculties stimulated and brought into exercise. It embraces also the plan of mutual instruction, as exemplified in the schools of Bell and Lancaster. The establishment of the School of Industry of M. Fellenberg at Hofwyl, in the Canton of Berne, has also been de- servedly celebrated. The object of this seminary is to combine scholastic education with industrious habits, and a knowledge of the best manner of performing mechanical and agricultural opera- tions. Although, at Hofwyl, the principles and practice of Ag7'i- culture are the chief objects of attention, yet the general princi- ples of the institution and the mode of instruction might, in towns, be successfully applied to mechanical operations and manufacturing processes of every description. It has given a great impulse to education throughout the country, and has pro- duced some very eminent scholars. Not only the lower classes, but pupils of the highest rank come to this seminary, from Ger- many, France, England, and other parts of Europe. In most of the cantons, education is a matter of state, persons of the greatest respectability are engaged in the business of instruction, and the arrangements of the system of tuition are under the im- mediate direction and protection of the government. CHAPTER II. Strictures on the mode in which Education has generally been conducted. There are few subjects which have so frequently engaged the attention of the literary public as the instruction of the young ; and yet there is no subject about which so many vague and er- roneous notions generally prevail. No term in our language has been more abused and misapplied than that of edvcation. By the great majority of our countrymen it is considered as consisting merely in the acquisition of pronunciation, spelling, and gram- DEFECTIVE MODES OF EDUCATION. 39 mar — of writing, casting accounts, and the knowledge of lan- guages ; and these acquisitions are considered of value chiefly as they prepare the individual for engaging in certain secular em- ployments, and are instrumental in procuring his subsistence. By others it has been confined to the communication of the elements of thought, and the improvement of the intellect ; and, by a com- paratively small number, it has been regarded chiefly as the for- mation of character, and the cultivation of moral habits. But, to neither of these objects is education to be exclusively confined. It consists of a comprehensive and harmonious combination of them all, including every mean and every mode of improvement by which intelligent beings may be trained to knowledge and virtue — qualified for acting an honourable and respectable part on the theatre of this world, and prepared for that immortal existence to which they are destined. It is deeply to be regretted, that, up to the present hour, with a very few exceptions — in an age deemed liberal and enlightened — the system on which education has generally been conducted is repugnant to the dictates of reason, inefficient for enlightening and meliorating the human mind, and is little short of an insult offer- ed to the understandings of the young. While almost every initia- tory book has for its motto, and every teacher can readily repeat the following lines of Thomson, — " Delightful task ! to rear the tender thought, To teach the young idea how to shoot, And pour the fresh instruction o'er the mind," the great objects which education ought to promote have been miserably neglected. A farrago of words has been substituted in the place of things ; the elements of language have been pre- ferred to the elements of thought; the key of knowledge has been exhibited instead o£ knowledge itself; and the youthful mind, at the termination of the common process of instruction, is almost as destitute of ideas as at its commencement. At that period of life when the minds of the young are beginning to expand — when they ardently thirst after novelty and variety — when they are alive to the beauties and sublimities of nature, and listen with de- light to the descriptions of other countries, and the tales of other times — instead of being gratified with the exhibition of all that is interesting in the scenes of creation and the history of man — they are set down in a corner to plod over unknown characters and strange sounds — no pleasing objects are exhibited to inspire them with delight — their memories are burdened, and even tortured, while their understandings are neglected j and, after many pain- 40 DEFECTS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. ful efforts, intermingled with cries and tears, while the detested lash is hanging over their heads, they are enabled to repeat, like a number of puppets, their medley of grammar rules, their psalms, their hymns, their catechisms, and their speeches from the English and Roman classics, pouring out their words with a velocity like water bursting from a spout, without a single correct idea connected with their exercises, " understanding neither what they say, nor whereof they affirm." — Hence it has too fre- quently happened, that the school-room has been viewed as a prison, their teachers as a species of tyrants, and the scholastic exercises in which they are engaged, as repugnant to their natural vivacity, and subversive of their youthful pleasures. Hence they have frequently been driven to the village school, like sheep to the slaughter, and like criminals to a jail, or carried on the shoulders of their companions, amidst cries, and lamentations, and fore- bodings of punishment. In seminaries of a higher order than those to which I now allude, five or six years are generally spent in learning the de- clension of nouns, the conjugation of verbs, and the rules of syn- tax, and in acquiring a smattering of the Roman classics ; while, at the close of this tedious, and to the pupil, revolting process, he retires from the seminary to the shop, the counting-house, or the university, nearly as ignorant of the common phenomena of nature, of the sublime discoveries of modern times, of the principles of the arts and sciences, and the laws of moral action, as if he had been born in Patagonia, or in the centre of New Holland. If he has acquired any thing at all, which may be denominated know- ledge, it consists chiefly in a jumble of notions about the squab- bles of heathen gods and goddesses, detached fragments of Roman history, the Metamorphoses of Ovid, the fictions of Pagan my- thology, and the revengeful encounters of destroying armies and ambitious despots. While his mind is familiar with the absurdi- ties and impieties of ancient superstition and idolatry, he not un- frequently quits the scene of instruction as ignorant of the char- acter and attributes of the true God, of the doctrines of the Christian religion, and of the tempers which it inculcates, as if he had been tutored in a Pagan land. Even in those seminaries which are devoted to the religions instruction of the young, the same absurd and inefficient system to which I have alluded is too frequently acted upon. Instead of exhibiting to the understandings of the young the character and perfections of the Deity, and the truths of Christianity, by familiar ^nd popular illustrations deduced from the economy of nature, and the facts of revelation, a great proportion of their Sabbath- DEFECTS IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION. 41 school exercises consists in repeating, with a disgusting ffippancy and vociferation, their catechisms, psalms, paraphrases, hymns, and Scripture passages, assigned them as tasks, and in listening to the crude expositions of certain abstract theological dogmas, to which they can attach no precise or well-defined notions, and which do not enter into the essence of the Christian system. In certain schools of this description, I have witnessed the attention of the children almost exclusively directed to the mere repetition of the Shorter Catechism, and other compends of divinity, and that, too, in a most inaccurate, irreverent, and vociferous manner, without a single attempt being made to convey any idea to the understanding of the nature of the truths repeated — while the catechumens seemed to be much gratified and relieved in having got their memories disburdened of the ungracious tasks imposed upon them. In other schools, where the teachers had acquired a smattering of systematic theology — after the memorial tasks were dispatched — I have listened to a series of crude dissertations addressed to the young respecting the covenant of works and of grace, predestination, absolute and conditional decrees, faith, the Trinity, and similar topics, together with long-winded exhorta- tions, occasionally intermingled with boisterous and unhallowed threats and denunciations, because the young did not yield a pro- found attention to such abstract speculations. Yet all this goes by the name of religious instruction ; and, when it is found to produce little influence on the moral conduct of the young, the efl"ect is attributed solely to the corruption of human nature, and to the withholding of the influences of Divine grace, — a sentiment which goes far to attribute to the " Only Wise God" those effects which are produced by the folly and the injudicious schemes of men. — As it is painful to exercise the memory to any extent on words unconnected with ideas, so it frequently happens, that a disrelish for religion and its services is induced, in consequence of the labour and drudgery with which they are thus associated. In these seminaries, too, the duties of Christian morality are too frequently thrown into the shade. Christianity is not a mere theory, but a practical system ; for all its historical details, its doctrines and precepts, its promises and threatenings, have an ultimate reference to the regulation of the temper and affections, the direction of the conduct, and to the general renovation of the moral powers of man, in order to his preparation for a higher state of moral and intellectual excellence. And, therefore, it ought to be one of the grand objects of religious instruction to cultivate the moral powers, to direct the temper and affections, and to show, by familiar illustrations taken from the scenes of 4* 42 DEFECTIVE MODES OF EDUCATION. active life, how the principles of Christianity ought to operate in all the diversified circumstances and relations of society. — But, leaving this topic, in the mean time, let us attend a little more particularly to the range of instruction in our common initiatory schools. After a knowledge of the characters of the alphabet and of the principal elementary sounds is acquired, the scholar is led through a series of dry and uninteresting lessons and spelling exercises, in which his memory and his faculty of pronunciation are solely exercised. The New Testament is next put into his hand, and, after reading a portion of it with great difficulty and awkwardness, and before he is capable of reading one sentence with ease and accuracy, he is introduced to such books as "Barrie's Collection," and "Tyro's Guide," and "Scott's Beauties of Eminent Writers," in which there is scarcely one selection interesting to a youthful mind, or level to its comprehension. But this circumstance seems to be considered by many as a matter of no importance ; for it is seldom or never that an attempt is made to convey to the minds of youth the ideas contained in the lessons they read and commit to memory. During these reading exercises, the Shorter Cate- chism is put into their hands, in order that its vocables may be committed to memory ; and that, too, at so early a period, that they find the greatest difficulty in mastering the pronunciation of the long and technical terms with which it abounds. Through this ungracious task they struggle, with the greatest reluctance, and generally, too, without annexing a single idea to any of the answers they repeat. They are soon after, perhaps before they are seven years of age, introduced to the study of English gram- mar ; and, after feeling much apathy and not a little disgust at this abstract science, and experiencing many days and hours of ungrateful labour, they are able to repeat a few of its rules, defi- nitions, and declensions. Like so many parrots, they can tell us by rote, what is a verb, an adverb, or a preposition, or that " con- junctions which imply contingency require the subjunctive mood," without understanding what they say, or annexing a clear idea to any of the rules or definitions they repeat. By turning over Scott's or Fulton's Dictionary, they learn that virtue is a noun, because n is annexed to it — that, to write is a verh^ because v is annexed to it — and that from is a preposition, because pre is annexed to it ; but, beyond such reasons they seldom attempt to aspire ; and after two or three years' training in such exercises, they know little more of the subject, or of the application of its rules to composition, than when they first commenced. The principal acquisition made, is a facility in finding out words in a DEFECTS IN MORAL EDUCATION. 43 dictionary, without any attention being paid to their meaning — an object which may easily be accomplished in a few days. — The useful art oi' writing is next attempted to be taught ; and, in most instances, a far greater degree of importance is attached to the acquirement of an " elegant text," or a " fine running hand," than to the cultivation of the moral and intellectual powers, and the acquisition of substantial knowledge. — Arithmetic follows in the rear, and the scholar, after hurrying through its four funda- mental rules, without any sensible illustrations of the different operations, is exercised in calculations respecting Tare and Tret, Interest and Annuities, the Square and Cube Root, Exchange, Discount and Equation of Payments, before he has the leavSt knowledge of the nature of these transactions; and, consequently, like one walking in the dark, is unable to perceive the drift and tendency of most of his operations, or the foundation of the rules by which he calculates ; and hence it happens that, when he actually engages in the business of real life, he has almost the whole of his arithmetical processes to study over again, and to ye-investigate the foundations, objects, and principles, of his ope- rations, in their applications to the transactions in which he is engaged. In fine, during the whole of the process now described, the moral powers of the young are in a great measure overlooked, and the business of moral tuition shamefully neglected. To im- prove their tempers and aflfections, and to bend them into that direction which will tend to promote their own happiness and that of others, is considered as a matter of inferior moment, in which teachers are very little, if at all, interested. It forms, at least, no prominent object, in our schools, to meliorate the tempers of the young, to counteract the principles of malice, envy, and revenge — to inspire them with kindness and benevolence — and to train them to moral excellence. On. the contrary, the mode in which they are treated has frequently a tendency to produce ohstinacy, dissimulation, superstition, pride, hatred, and disaffection. The spirit of unchristian emulation, contention, and revenge, is indi- rectly fostered by the books they read, the discipline by which they are trained, the amusements in which they indulge, the false maxims and Pagan sentiments which are interwoven through the whole course of their education, and by the admiration which is attempted to be excited in their breasts for- barbarous heroes and the butchers of mankind. The active powers of the young being thus allowed to take the natural bent of their depraved inclinations, selfishness, pride, malice, and other malignant passions, are al- lowed to spring up and flourish, without feeling the force of those 44 DEFICIENCY OF INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION. salutary checks which might impede their progress, or destroy them in the bud ; and thus perverse habits and dispositions are induced, which " grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength," till at length they display themselves with diabo- lical energy in the scenes of domestic life, and on the theatre of the political world, amidst the contentions of communities and " the tumults of the people." Such is the amount of thfe education which the great mass of our population receive prior to their entrance on the scene of active life. To affirm that it is attended by no beneficial effects, would be to fly in the face of all observation and experience. It prepares the mind, in some measure, for certain avocations in civil society, and for the reception of knowledge in after life, should it ever be exhibited in a more judicious and intelligent manner ; and, in some instances, when combined with judicious domestic instruct lion, it will assist and direct the pupil, in the pursuit of knowledge and of mental enjoyments. But, considered by itself, as a system of culture for rational and immortal beings, in order to the devel- opment of their moral and intellectual powers, and as a prepa- ration for a higher state of existence, it is miserably deficient, both in the means which are employed, in the range of instruction, and in the objects which it is calculated to accomplish. — To illustrate this position is the object of the following remarks. I. In the first place, one glaring defect which runs through the whole system of initiatory instruction (except in very rare in- stances) is that no attempt is made to convey ideas to the youth- ful mind, along ivith the elementary sounds of language and the art of pronunciation. Provided children can mouth the words, and vociferate with alacrity the different sentences contained in their lessons, it appears to be a matter of little importance in the eyes either of teachers or of parents, whether or not they appre- ciate the meaning of any one portion of the sentiments they read. Although the great object of education is " to teach the young idea how to shoot," it is almost the only object which is thrown into the shade ; and those scholastic exercises which are only the means of education, are almost exclusively attended to as if they were the end. The young are thus treated as if they were only so many puppets, placed on a stage to exhibit a series of mecha- nical movements, and as if they were not possessed of the smallest portion of intellect, and were entirely destitute of affections and passions. Yet, it is undeniable, from fact, that children, at a very early age, are capable of receiving a variety of ideas into their minds, and of exercising their reasoning powers respecting them. Present an engraved landscajie to a boy of four or five years of DEFICIENCY OF INTELLECTUAL INSTRUCTION. 45 age, especially as exhibited through the Optical Diagonal Ma- chine, where he will see every object, in its true perspective as it appears in nature — he will at once recognise and describe, in his own way, the houses, the streets, the men, the women, the roads and carriages, and the land and water of which it is composed, and express his opinion respecting them. Present well-executed engravings of a horse, a cow, a lion, an elephant, or a monkey, and he will soon learn to distinguish the one from the other, and will feel delighted with every new exhibition that is made to him of the objects of nature or of art. And, therefore, if sensible ob- jects, level to his capacity and range of thought, and with which he is in some measure acquainted, were uniformly exhibited in his first excursions in the path of learning, his progress in know- ledge would nearly correspond to his advancement in the art of spelling and pronunciation. The absurdity of neglecting the cul- tivation of the understanding, in the dawn of life, and during the progress of scholastic instruction, however common it may be, is so obvious and glaring, that it scarcely requires a process of rea- soning to show its irrationality, if we admit that the acquisition of knowledge ought to be one of the great ends of education. What important purpose can be gained by a number of boys and girls spending a series of years, in pronouncing, like so many parrots, a number of articulate sounds, to which they annex no corresponding ideas or impressions, and which cost them so much pain and anxiety to acquire? What is the use of the art of read- ing, if it be not made the medium by which knowledge and moral improvement may be communicated 1 And, if we neglect to teach youth to apply this mean to its proper end, while they are under regular tuition, how can we reasonably expect, that they will af- terwards apply it, of their own accord, when a sufficient stimulus is wanting? By neglecting to connect the acquisition of useful information with the business of elementary instruction, we place the young nearly in the same predicament as we ourselves should be placed, were we obliged, from day to day, to read and repeat long passages from the writings of Confucius, the Alcoran of Mahomet, or the Shasters of Bramah, in the Chinese, the Turkish and the Hindoo languages, while we understood not the meaning of a single term. And how painful and disgusting should we feel such a revolting exercise ! — The consequence of this absurd prac- tice is, that, instead of exciting desires for further acquisitions in learning, — in a majority of instances, we produce a disgust to every species of mental exertion and improvement ; instruction becomes unpleasant and irksome, both to the teacher and the scholar ; the cliild leaves school without having acquired any real 46 IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. knowledge, and destitute of any relish for it, and seldom after- wards makes any use of the instructions he received for the fur- ther cultivation of his mind in wisdom and virtue. To this cause, perhaps, more than to any other, is to be attributed the deplorable ignorance which still pervades the mass of our population, not- withstanding the formal process of instruction they undergo, — and the little relish they feel for devoting their leisure hours to the improvement of their minds, and to those pursuits which are congenial to rational and immortal natures. II. Another defect which pervades the whole system of scho- lastic instruction in our country, and of which the former is a native consequence, is, that there is scarcely one of our element- ary books adapted to the capacities of youth, an^ calculated to excite their attention and affections^ by its interesting and in- structive details. Not to mention the dry and uninteresting lists and details con- tained in most of our spelling-books, and the vague and sombre moral instructions they exhibit — let us fix our attention, for a moment, on the general train of subjects contained in " Barrie's Collection," and " Tyro's Guide," and in " Scott's Beauties of Eminent Writers," — the books most commonly used in the paro- chial and other schools in this country, — and we shall soon per- ceive that they are every thing but calculated for the purpose in- tended. These works (which, like some others of the same fry, seem to have been constructed by means of the scissors) chiefly contain extracts illustrative of the beauties of sentiment and com- position : — Speeches on political subjects formerly delivered in the Roman, Grecian, and British Senates — characters of Pope, Dryden, Milton, or Shakespeare — descriptions of the battles of Poictiers, Hastings, Agincourt, and Bannockburn — abstract eulo- giums on virtue, oratory, and the art of criticism — prosing disser- tations on the cultivation of taste — on happiness, retirement, and meditation — Speeches and Epilogues of stage-players, political disquisitions, foolish tales, parables and allegories — Falstaff's en- comiums on sack — Hamlet's advice to players — Epilogue of Gar- rick for the benefit of decayed actors — the Drunken Knight and his Brawling Lady appeased — Speeches of Quinctius Capitolinus, of Romulus to his citizens, of Hannibal to Scipio, and of Galga- cus to his army — East India Company's address on the junction of Spain and France — Mr. Walpole and Mr. Pitt's Parliamentary debates — Extracts from the Poems of Akenside, Thomson, Milton and Young — Speech of Sin to Satan — Speech of Satan in his in. fernal palace of Pandemonium — Moloch's speech to Satan — Be- lial's speech in reply — Satan's soliloquy — the combat of the Ho- IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 47 ratii and the Curiatii — -Captain Bobadil's method of defeating an army — Clarence's dream — Nerval and Glenalvon's revengeful encounter — Lord and Lady Randolph, Sir Charles and Lady Racket — Sempronius' speech for war — Description of Queen Mab — Ossian's address to the Sun — Soliloquy of Dick the apotheca- ry's apprentice — Alexander's Feast — Blair's Grave — Young's Life, Death, and Immortality — Queen of the Fairies — the Wolf and the Crane — the Town Mouse and the Country Mouse — the Tailor and the Conjurer — the Old Man and his Ass — with a mul- tifarious medley of pieces of a similar description. These comprehend a fair specimen of the prominent subjects selected, in our common school-books, /or the purpose of training the youthful mind in knowledge and virtue. I have no hesitation in asserting, that more unsuitable subjects, consistent with com- mon decency, could scarcely have been selected, and that they are little short of a direct insult offered to the youthful under- standing. The compilers of such collections, either suppose, that the juvenile mind, at the age of eight or nine years, when such selections are put into their hands, has embraced a range of thought and contemplation far beyond what it is capable of, in ordinary cases, or they wish to insult their imbecile minds, by offering them stones instead of bread, or they rake together their extracts at random, without considering whether they are at all suited to the class of persons to whom they are addressed. For there is not one lesson out of twenty which is level to the range of thought, and to the capacity of the youthful mind, in its first outset in the path of science, even although parents and teachers were to attempt an explanation of the passages which are read ; as they embody descriptions and allusions respecting objects, events, and circumstances, which cannot be duly appreciated without a previous course of study ; and they abound with a mul- titude of abstract speculations which can never convey well-de- fined ideas to the understandings of the young. What ideas can a boy of seven or eight years' old form of the Parliamentary de- bates of Mr. Pulteney, Mr. Pitt, or Sir Robert Walpole ; of the speech of Marcus Valerius on a dispute between the Patricians and Plebeians concerning the form of government ; of dissertations on the art of Criticism ; of Belial's speech to Moloch ; or even of Blair's Grave, or Young's Life, Death, and Immortality ; — or what interest can he be supposed to feel in such themes and dis- cussions ? I appeal to every one of my readers, if, at the age now specified, they ever understood such selections, or felt gratified and improved by perusing them. It is an absurdity, at once perceptible, that the beauties of sentiment and composition 48 IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. which are appreciated and relished by persons of refined taste, at the age of twenty or thirty, will be equally relished and admired by children of eight or ten years of age ; and yet, from an ex- amination of our initiatory school-books, it is undeniable, that, on a false principle of this kind, almost all our elementary works have been constructed. But, it is farther to be regretted, that this is not the only fault that can be charged upon these productions. They exhibit scenes and sentiments which ought not to be familiarized to the minds of children, and which are repugnant to the spirit and practice of genuine Christianity. In almost every page, both of the prosaic artd poetic extracts, the war gong is ever and anon resounding in our ears, and " the confused noise of the warrior, with garments rolled in blood." The Co?sars, the Alexanders, and the Buona- partes, of ancient and modern times, instead of being held up to execration as the ravagers and destroyers of mankind, are set forth to view as glorious conquerors and illustrious heroes, whose characters and exploits demand our admiration and applause. And if, at any time, the minds of the young imbihe the senti- ments which pervade their lessons, it is generally when they breathe a warlilce spirit, and exhibit those desolations and rava- ges which ambition and revenge have produced in the world, — and when they themselves are trained to spont at an examination, and, arrayed in warlike habiliments, with guns, or spears, or darts, to ape the revengeful exploits of a Nerval and a Glenalvon. I have beheld the young, when engaged in such exhibitions, eulogized and applauded by their examinators, and surrounding spectators, more than on account of all the other scholastic improvements they had acquired. To this cause, doubtless, as well as to others, is to be attributed the spirit of warfare and contention which still reigns on the theatre of the political world, and which has deso- lated, and disgraced, and demoralized, every nation under heaven. I have known a teacher who has turned over page after page, in some of the works now referred to, in search of a passage worthy of being committed to memory by his pupils, and who could not in conscience fix upon any one, in a long series of extracts, on account of its being imbued with this antichristian spirit. In addi- tion to this striking characteristic of our school-collections, and in perfect accordance with it — it may also be stated, that Pride, Am- bition, Revenge, and other Pagan virtues, ai'e sometimes held up to view as the characteristics of a noble and heroic mind ; and swearing, lying, brawling, and deceit, are frequently exhibited in so ludicrous a manner, as almost to win the affections, and to excite approbation. IMPERFECTION OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 49 But, in fine, although the selections to which I allude were level to the comprehensions of the young, and untinged with nnti- christian sentiments — what is the amount of all the knowledge and instruction they contain ? They embrace no perspicuous system of interesting and useful information, — scarcely any thing that bears on the cultivation of Christian dispositions, — no exhi- bitions of the scenes of Nature and Art in which the young may afterwards be placed, — little information respecting the works of God, the revelations of his word, or the useful inventions of men. The beauties which adorn the scenery of nature, the wonders of Creating Power, as displayed in the earth, the air, the ocean, and the heavens ; the displays of Divine Wisdom and Goodness, which everywhere surround us ; the mild and pacific virtues of Christianity, which ought equally to adorn the prince and the peasant; the avocations and amusements of domestic life; the scenery of the country, the city, and the village, or the important facts contained in the Sacred history, — are seldom or never detailed, with interesting simplicity, in this class of publications. And, are a few extracts from old plays and novels, romances and fables. Pagan mythology and Parliamentary debates — from the speeches of Roman orators and the epilogues of stage-players, to be considered as the most agreeable and substantial food for the youthful intellect, and as the most judicious process for imbuing it with useful knowledge, and preparing it for the employments of an immortal existence 1 Are the absurd opinions of Roman and Grecian poets and warriors, respecting their gods, their heroes, and their religion, and the polluted streams of heathen morality, to be substituted in the room of the simple and sublime delinea- tions of revelation, the pure principles of the gospel, and the noble discoveries of modern science 1 If so, — then let us not boast of imparting to our children a rational and a Christian edu- cation. I have alluded more particularly to the works above mentioned, because they are most frequently used in our borough and paro- chial schools ; but I know no works of this kind, published in this country, with the exception of two or three volumes, to which the above strictures will not, in a greater or less degree, apply. I do not, however, condemn such l30oks, in so far as they contain sentimental extracts, for the use of advanced students of elocution, — or considered as miscellanies for the amusement of persons advanced in life, (though even in this last point of view they can not be held in high estimation,) — my main objection rests on th- ground of their being unfitted to interest the minds of the young, and to convey to them the outlines of knowledge and virtue, 5 50 INJUDICIOUS EXEltCISE OF THE MEMORY. unmingled with the rubbish of false maxims and antichristian sentiments.* III. Another error which runs through our scholastic instruc- tion is, that, while the cultivation of the judgment is neglected, the memory is injudiciously, and often too severely exercised. The efforts of memory, in most cases, especially when exercised in the retention of mere sounds and terms, are generally attended with painful sensations ; and, when these sensations are long continued, they frequently produce a disgust at the objects and employments of education. Long passages from Homer, Shake- speare, Milton, or Pope, are given out for recitation to the young, while they are still incapable of appreciating the meaning of a single sentiment in the task prescribed ; and the facility with which they can recollect and vociferate a number of jingling sounds is considered by many as the best evidence of their pro- gress in the paths of instruction. The period has not long gone * The above remarks were written in the year 1821, and published in the '* Christian Instructor." Since that period several school-books have appeared, compiled on more rational and Christian principles than most of their predecessors, — particularly, M'Culloch's " Course of Elementary Reading in Science and Literature," " The A^ational School Collection," *' The American Reader," by Merriam, and several others ; but they are chiefly adapted for the higher classes in schools, and for young people who have nearly finished their course of instruction in reading, and they have been introduced into corhparatively few of our schools, and in many parts of the country are altogether unknown. Several useful compilations have likewise of late been published in England and America, but they are more adapted to the use of families and domestic instruction than to public semi- naries. I am acquainted with no book for the Juvenile classes, comprising useful information, and compiled in such a manner as to render knowledge and morality perspicuous,' fascinating, and interesting to the young, and calculated to give full scope to their rational and active powers. About a year after the publication of these remarks in the " Christian Instructor," its Editor, the late Rev. Dr. A. Thomson, compiled a school collection, and sent me a copy of it, for my inspection. My opinion of this compilation having been requested, at the next personal interview I had with the Doc- tor, I told him, that I considered the book free of any antichristian senti- ments, calculated to make a good impression on the minds of the young, and that it contained a considerable number of instructive and entertaining selections ; but that a number of the selections, however good in them- selves, were too didactic and sombre to engage the attention of the juvenile mind. The Doctor admitted the justice of the last remark, and said, that, in another edition, he intended to throw out the pieces alluded to, and sub- stitute, in their place, more entertauiing selections. Dr. Thomson's collec- tion is, on the whole, a good one ; but, like the others mentioned above, is chiefly adapted to the higher classes. The plan of all the school collections hitherto published is susceptible of much improvement ; and I shall after- wards take an opportutiity of adverting to this subject in a subsequent part of this volume. IXJUOICIOTJS EXEBCISE OF THE ME3I0KY. 51 by (if it have yet passed) when the repetition of the first chapter of the first book of Chronicles, of the tenth chapter of Nehemiah, of the hundred-and-nineteenth Psalm, or of half a dozen chapters in the New Testament, by a schoolboy, — with a disgusting voci- feration, and a uniform velocity, like water dashing over a preci- pice, was regarded, both by parents and teachers, as an evidence of extraordinary genius, and as an achievement in education of far greater importance than if he had drawn an outline of univer- sal history, or sketched the geography of the globe. — Of all the exercises of memory to which the young tyro is accustomed, there is none more injudicious and more painful to the pupil, than that by which he is constrained to get by rote the Shorter Catechism, at the early age at which it is generally prescribed. At the age of five or six, before he is capable of understanding a single senti- ment of the system of Divinity, and even before he can read with ease any one of its questions and answers — he is set to the un- gracious task of committing its vocables to memory, as if he were a mere machine, formed solely for mechanical movements and the emission of sounds. The reluctance with which this task is generally engaged in ; the painful sensations which accompany it; the correction which follows its neglect; the ludicrous blunder- ing ; and the complete destitution of ideas with which it is general- ly attended — all conspire to show the absurdity of the practice. I am fully persuaded, that the unpleasant associations connected with this task, have, in many instances, produced a lasting dis- gust, both at the pursuits of learning, and the instructions of religion. Yet, there are ibw school-exercises to which parents in general attach a greater degree of importance. To omit the teaching of this catechism by rote, even although other and more perspicuous instructions were given on divine subjects, would be considered as arguing a certain degree of irreligion on the part of the teacher ; and even respectable clergymen and others con- sider this exercise as a sine qua iron in religious instruction — ^just as if the mere terms and definitions of this excellent summary were to produce a magical effect on the moral and intellectual faculties. The com.mon argument in fiivour, of this practice, *' that it is laying in a store of religious vocables for after reflec- tion, and that the answers will be perfectly understood in riper years," — -when considered in connection with what has been now said, is extremely futile and inconclusive. The blundering man- ner in which persons advanced in life frequently repeat this catechism — mistaking, for example, the answer to " What is Justification?" for that which relates to " sanctification," or what is forbidden for what is required in any of the commandments, 52 INJUDICIOUS EXERCISE OF THE MEMORY. and without being at all conscious of their error — plainly indi- cates, that correct ideas are seldom attached to whatever has been learned by mere rote, and that the rational faculty is seldom exerted in such exercises. In short, I have little hesitation in laying it down as a maxim that will generally hold true, that *' whenever the words of a proposition are committed to memory without being understood, their meaning will afterwards be seldom inquired after or perceived." I am convinced, that a careful perusal of this catechism, or any other similar system, accom- panied with proper explanations, at the age of fourteen or sixteen, will convey more real information than can be acquired by all the painful labour and drudgery endured by committing it to memory at the usual age at which it is prescribed. Let it not, however, be imagined, that I wish to throw the least reflection on the Shorter Catechism, as a summary of Christian doctrine and duty. On the contrary — without admitting every sentiment it contains as perfectly correct, or necessary to be em- bodied in such a synopsis of theology — I consider it, on the whole, as one of the most comprehensive compends of divinity ever published — which, with a very few retrenchments and modifica- tions, might form a basis of union to almost all the religious bodies in this country. But the very thing in which its chief excellence consists, constitutes an argument against its being used as a first catechism. It is so comprehensive, that almost every word includes an important meaning, and has an allusion to those profound views of the Christian system, and to those controverted points in divinity, which are chiefly recognised by professed divines. It is not by endeavouring to convey general and ab- stract views of Christian doctrine, or by cramming the memories of young persons with a multiplicity of theological terms and doctrinal opinions, that instructions in religion will be successful in arresting their attention, and impressing their minds ; but by particular explications, and familiar illustrations borrowed from sensible objects, of a few of the most prominent truths of the Christian system, that impressive and well-defined ideas will be communicated to the youthful mind. And perhaps too little care is exercised in communicating, in a vivid and impressive manner, the fundamental truths of natvral religion, which form the groundwork of the different parts of the Christian superstructure. I conceive, that it is time enough to commence the regular study of the Shorter Catechism, at the age of twelve or thirteen, when its answers should be minutely analyzed, and its terms, doctrines, and moral injunctions, familiarly explained and elucidated by in- structors, who have accurate and enlarged views of the truths it EARLY GRAMMATICAL EXERCISES. 63 conveys; anJ, vvlieii employed in this way, it will fee found a useful synopsis of Christian faith and practice. Prior to the period to which I now refer, some of Dr. Watts' first catechisms might be used ; or, perhaps, it might be possible to construct a catechism more simple and interesting, and containing more striking illustrations of natural and revealed religion, than any that have yet appeared ; or, perhaps, without adopting the form of a catechism, we might directly refer to the positive declarations of Scripture, in reference to its facts, doctrines, and precepts, accompanying the passages we extract with short comments and familiar elucidations. The truths contained in such catechisms might be learned with ease, and even with pleasure, by the young, if they were accompanied with a few hints from the parent or teacher, to elucidate the facts and doctrines exhibited to their view ; and especially, were they compiled on such a plan, as to give occasional exercise to the curiosity and the judgment in finding out the proper answers. In throwing out such remarks as the above, I am aware that I am treading on delicate ground. But far more convincinsr aro-u- ments than any I have yet heard must be brought forward, before I can see reason to alter the opinion now stated. If it be once admitted, that the communication o^ ideas ought to form the great object of all instruction — that the young, at an early age, are capable of being the recipients of knowledge — and that education should be rendered as pleasant and agreeable as the nature of the exercise will admit — I will not fear to face any argument that may be presented on this subject. I am far from wishing to insinuate, that the memory ought not to be exercised in the pro- cess of education ; for it is one of the powers or instruments con- ferred on us, for the purpose of making intellectual acquisitions; but I contend, that its exertions, in the first instance, ought to be gentle, easy, and rational, and employed chiefly in relation to those objects about which the young are capable of forming some distinct and agreeable conceptions, and not merely on sounds and terms, and abstract propositions, to which no precise meaning is attached. IV. In our schools and seminaries, as presently conducted, grammar is attempted to be taught at too early an age. Gram- mar is an abstract branch of the philosophy of mind ; and, there- fore, to enter with intelligence and interest into its spirit, the foun- dation of its rules and their application — requires some degree of knowledge, observation, and maturity of judgment, not generally possessed by juvenile minds ; and, consequently, to attempt to teach it to infants, in a systematic form, seems almost as prepos- 5* 64 EARLY GRAMMATICAL EXERCISES. terous as^it would be to attempt to instruct them in the New- tonian philosophy, or in the Hutchinsonian system of metaphy- sics. The little urchin of six or seven years of age, may, indeed, be taught to repeat the definitions of all the parts of speech, and of all the moods and tenses of verbs — the inflections of nouns and verbs, and even the whole of the rules of syntax ; but such exer- cises are always accompanied with a certain degree of labour and disgust, which tend to sour the mind in its progress through such scholastic instruction. And after all the mental anxiety and toil endured in such mechanical exercises, they acquire not, perhaps, a single correct idea on the subject, especially in the abstract and superficial manner in which it is taught in our common schools, and are unable to appreciate any one useful purpose to which such exercises are subservient. To distinguish a novn, or the quality of a noun, or the nature of a verb, and to correct a simple sentence in which a verb disagrees with its nominative, are exer- cises which children may be taught at an early period, by familiar examples, and which might be rendered both amusing and instructive, without the formality of technical terms, complex rules, or abstract systems ; but to proceed much farther than such easy exercises, before the intellectual powers are somewhat ma- tured, appears to be wasting time and money, and mental anxiety, to no purpose. Even the elements, or the more popular parts, of natural history, geography, astronomy, and experimental phi- losophy, could be taught with much better effect, at such an early period, than the abstract study of verbs and adverbs, conjunctions and declensions, and metaphysical rules, the foundation of which no child can comprehend ; because, in those departments of know- ledge, sensible objects and pictorial representations can be pre- sented to the view of the juvenile mind as elucidations of the facts and principles inculcated. That the opinions now stated may not appear altogether sin- gular, I shall quote a sentence or two from the writings of the learned Mr. Smellie — the well-known translator of " Buffon's Natural History." In his work on " The Philosophy of Natural History," vol. ii. p. 453, he remarks — " Premature studies are uniformly painful, because young minds are incapable of com- prehending the principles, and far less the application of them to arts or sciences. Grammar, the first science obtruded upon, I may say, infantine intellects, is one of the most abstract and intricate. To attain even a tolerable knowledge of grammar, whatever b'" "he language, (for the general principles are, and must be, the same,) presupposes a considerable range of intuitive facts, as well as of acquired ideas." Again, speaking of the ART OP WRITING. 65 absurdity of "journeymen shoemakers, tailors, weavers, bakers, carpenters," &c. sending their children for years to Latin and Grammar schools, he remarks — " During the hours of recess from scholastic discipline, nature resumes her empire, and, by her irresistible power, obliges the children to frisk and romp about, and to enjoy those various and pure pleasures which result from activity and amusement. But these enjoyments are no sooner over, than the abhorred ideas of unnatural confinement, and of a constrained attention to jargon, which to them is completely unin- telligible, instantly recur, and harass and terrify their imagina- tions. The fruitless and painful labours which such prepos- terous conduct in managing the early education of youth produce, are immense, and truly ridiculous." P. 448. V. In regard to the art of writing, which is chiefly a mecha- nical exercise, the quality of which depends somewhat on the taste of the pupil — a great degree of fastidiousness exists, and hy far too mvch importance is attached to the acquisition of an " ele- gant handy To so disgusting a degree has this predilection been carried, on certain occasions, that all the qualities of a good teacher have been considered as concentrated in this one acquire- ment ; and persons have been selected to superintend the instruc- tion of youth, who were destitute of almost every other qualifica- tion, merely because they could write " a fine text," or " an ele- gant running hand." The art of communicating our thoughts by writing, is one of the most useful accomplishments, which every person from the highest to the lowest ranks of society ought to possess. To attain a certain degree of neatness and regularity in writing, is highly desirable ; and where a taste for elegance in this art exists, it should be encouraged, though not at the expense of more substantial acquirements. To write straight, to attend to the proper use of capital letters, and to arrange the subject of writing into distinct sentences and paragraphs, so as to render the writing easily legible, and the sentiments perspicuous to others, should be considered as the great object of this art ; and such qualities of writing are undoubtedly of more importance, in the practical purposes to which it may be applied, than the acquirement of the most elegant " dashes" and " flourishes" of penmanship. I have, indeed, known but few individuals who have prided themselves in such showy accomplishments, who were not extremely superficial in their other attainments. It is a very odd circumstance, and shows to what a ridiculous length a fastidious taste for elegant writing may be carried.! ':that most of the higher ranks, who have been taught by the first writing- masters, now consider it as fashionable to write an illegible 56 ABSTRACT ARITHMETICAL INSTRUCTIONS. scrawl, which is nothing else than a caricature of good plain writing — which is the pest of merchants, printers, editors, and every other class of correspondents — which costs them a world of trouble before it can be read ; and, in many cases, the very names of the writers can scarcely be deciphered. This is ele- gance with a witness ; it is carrying it to its highest pitch of per- fection, by rendering the art of writing almost useless for the purpose for which it was intended. I do not mean, by these remarks, to insinuate that care and attention should not be bestowed, in order to acquire a neat and accurate mode of wri- ting ; but merely to modify that undue degree of importance which is attached to the accomplishment of " fine writing," and to impress upon the mind this sentiment, that a man may be pos- sessed of very slender attainments in this art, in respect to ele- gance, and yet prove a good general teacher ; while another may excel in all the ornamental flourishes of penmanship, and, at the same time, be altogether unqualified for directing the young mind in knowledge and virtue. I have known parents and guardians who seemed to consider the most useful and substantial accom- plishments of youth as of little value, while their children remained in the smallest degree deficient in the flimsy ornaments of wri- ting, and the higher elegancies of penmanship. In a word, — to arrest and record the useful ideas which pass through our minds, to communicate them to others, in such well-defined characters, and with such external neatness and order as may be most per- spicuous and easily legible — to acquire a certain degree of facility and rapidity in forming characters and words — and to state mer- cantile accompts with taste, accuracy, and precision — should be considered as the great objects of the art of writing, beyond whic!h it is of little importance to aspire ; though, at the same time, no individual should be discouraged from indulging a taste for elegance in this department, when it does not absorb the atten- tion from more important pursuits. VI. With regard to our mode of teaching Arithmetic, a va- riety of strictures might be made. This department of scholas- tic instruction, like all the rest, is generally conducted in too ab- stract a manner — too much detached from the objects of sense, and from the pursuits of science and the business of human life, to which it has a reference. As all our notions on any branch of human knowledge are originally derived from sensible objects, so our ideas of numbers and their various relations and combina- tions, must be derived from the same source ; and consequently, without a reference to the original objects and ideas whence the notion of numbers is derived, no accurate impression of their ABSTRACT ARITHMETICAL INSTRUCTIONS. 67 signification and use can be made on the juvenile mind. A boy may be taught to distinguish the character 9 from the rest of the digits, and yet may remain devoid of a distinct conception of the idea for which it stands ; and, in the same manner, he may be taught by rote, that 9 4-8=17 ; that 16 — 9=7 ; that 7 times 8 are 56 ; and that the quotient of 84, divided by 14, is equal to 6, M'ithout attaching any definite conception to such arithmetical processes. — By neglecting to illustrate the fundamental rules of arithmetical computation, in a familiar and amusing manner, by presenting to the eye the precise objects or ideas which numbers represent, we leave the young arithmetician to grope in the dark, and to a vagueness and confusion of conception in all the subse- quent operations of this useful study. In most of our elementary arithmetical works, the questions for exersise in the different rules are not so simple and interesting to young minds as they might be rendered. The practical use of the various operations — the commercial transactions to which they refer, and the extent and capacity of the weights and mea- sures about which their calculations are employed, are seldom appreciated with any degree of precision, for want of the original ideas denoted by the terms employed, and for want of those models and representations of money, weights, and measures, by which they might be illustrated. In many instances, too, there is a studied brevity and obscurity, and a tendency to puzzle and perplex, instead of rendering the operations of arithmetic simple and perspicuous. While a young person may easily be made to perceive the object and meaning of such questions as the follow- ing — " What is the price of 30 lemons at twopence a-piece ?" or, " If one pair of shoes cost 5s. 6d., what will 7 pair of shoes cost ]" — he is quite puzzled to conceive what is the precise mean- ing of scores of questions arranged in columns in the following manner— 497865 a id 7643984 a 3|r, had a right to take away from any of his class any thing that v,as calculated to do them harm ; *and was, it seems, backed in this opinion by maiiy others. On the other hand, it was contended, that no such ri,"-]it existed ; and it was doubt- ful to me, for a considerable time, on which side the strength of the argu- ment lay. At last, one of the children observed to the following eftect : You should have taken it to master, because he would know if it was bad oetter than you.' This was a convincing argument, and to my great de- light the boy replied — ' How nmch did the song cost V The reply was, ' A halfpenny.' ' Here, then, take it,' says the child, ' I had one given me to- day ; so now remember I have paid you for it ; but if you bring any more songs to school, I will tell master.' This seemed to give general satisfaction to the whole party, who immediately dispersed to their several amusements. A struggle like this between the principles of duty and honesty, among chil- dren so very youn^j exemplifies, beyond a doubt, the immense advantage 120 MORAL EFFECTS OF INFANT SCHOOLS. rents, and to prevent most of those crimes which injure the peace and prosperity of society. The immoral principles and vicious habits in which multitudes of children are trained under the do- mestic roof, not only lay the foundation of their own unhappiness and ruin, but are productive of many pests and nuisances to general society. In cities and populous towns, this fact is too frequently realized. Many children are trained up, even by their parents, to habits of pilfering, v/hich they sometimes learn to of early instruction." — Here we have a specimen, in the case of very young children, of nice discrimination in regard to the principles of moral rectitude and of reasoning, which would have done no discredit to an assembly of senators. 3. Infant critics. " Having discoursed one day on the difference be- tween isosceles and scalene triangles, I observed that an acute isosceles tri- angle had all its angles acute ; and proceeded to observe that a right-angled scalene triangle had all its angles acute. The children immediately began to laugh, for which I was at a loss to account, and told them of the impro- priety of laughing at me. One of the children immediately replied, ' Please, sir, do you know what we were laughing at V I replied in the negative. ' Then, sir,' says the boy, ' I will tell you. Please, sir, you have made a blunder.' I, thinking I had not, proceeded to defend myself, vyhcn the chil- dren replied, ' Please, sir, you convict yourself.' I replied, ' How so ]' ' Why,' say the children, ' you said a right-angled triangle had one right angle, and that all its angles are acute. If it has one right angle, how can all its angles be acute ]' I soon perceived that the children were right, and that I was wrong.: — At another time, when lecturing the children on the subject of cruelty to animals, one of the little children observed, ' Please, sir, my big brother catches the poor flies, and then sticks a pin through them, and makes them draw the pin along the table.' This afforded me an excel lent opportunity of appealing to their feelings on the enormity of this of- fence ; and, among other things, I observed, that if a poor fly had been gift- ed with powers of speech like their own, it probably would have exclaimed, ■while dead, as follows ; — ' You naughty child, how can you think of tor- turing me so 1 Is there not room enough in the world for you and me ? Did I ever do you any harm 1 Does it do you any good to put me to such harm 1 How would you like a man to run a piece of wire through your body, and make you draw things about] Would you not cry at the pain]' &c. Having finished, one of the children replied, ' How can any thing speak if it is dead]' 'Why,' said I, 'supposing it could speak.' 'You meant to say, sir, diiing, instead of dead.' — In this case I purposely misused a word, and the children detected it." — Here we have another instance of the nice discrimination of which children are capable, and of the great im- portance of their being taught to thinh — one of the most important parts of education, which has been so long overlooked. In consequence of their having acquired the elements of thought, they were enabled, in the one case, to refute the assertion of their teacher, by a conclusive argument ; and, in the other, to detect the misapplication of a term. A whole community taught to think and reason, would be the means of preventing numerous cvjlri, and of introducing innumerable blessings into iKo social state. MORAL ErrECTS OF INFANT SCHOOLS. 121 practise with the utmost cunning and expertness, without the leasl sense of moral delinquency. It was estimated, that in the year 1819, in the city of London alone, the number of boys who pro- cured the greater part of their subsistence by picking pockets, and thieving in every possible form, amounted to from twelve to fifteen hundred! One man had forty boys in training to steal and pick pockets, who were paid for their exertions with a part of the plunder ; and a woman who had entrapped eight or ten children from their parents, had them trained up and sent out in every direction for the purpose of thieving, till she was happily . detected. Such children, in all probability, were chiefly procured from the families of the ignorant and the vicious ; and when a habit of pilfering is early indulged, it not only leads to the prac- tice of falsehood, cunning and deceit, in all their diversified forms, but entirely blunts the moral sense, and leads to the commission of almost every other crime. It is no uncommon thing to observe in the police reports of London, accounts of boys, and even girls, of six or seven years of age, being apprehe'nded for the offences of pocket-picking, shop-lifting, stripping children of their clothes and ornaments, and simitar depredations committed with all the ex- pertness of an experienced delinquent. And, if such mental ac- tivities are so early displayed in the arts of wickedness, liow im- portant must it be to bend tlie active povvcrs of the young in a contrary direction, and how many useful energies might we soon bring to bear upon the renovation of the moral world ! For, not- withstanding the depravity of human nature, children may be trained to exert their skill and activities in the cause of virtue, as well as in the arts of mischief, if the same care and ingenuity be employed in their instruction. — Now, infant schools are peculiarly calculated to promote in children habits of virtuous activity. They are tai\ght to think and reason, and to apply the rules of Christianity to their actions and social intercourses with each other — are instructed in the evil of lying, swearing, stealing, and other vices; and some of them who had previously been addicted to these vices have been eficctually cured of such evil propensi- ties. Not only so, but the sentiments and habits they have car- ried home to their parents have sometimes been the means of arousing them to consideration, and turning them " from the error of their ways." And, although infant schools were established for no other purpose than prevention of crimes, it would save to the public ten times the expense that might be incurred in their erection and superintendence ; for, in large cities, such young de- linquents as I have now alluded to, regularly supply the place of the hundreds of cid and Oicperienced thieves that are yearly con- 11 122 INFANT SCHOOLS IN HEATHEN COUNTRIES. victed and transported to another country ; and the expense af- tcndin^ the conviction and transportation of one delinquent, is sometimes more than would suffice for the erection of an estab- lishment for the instruction of a hundred children. 5. In infant schools, social habits and feelings may be culti- vated tcith safety afid with pleasure by the young. In most other circumstances the social intercourse of the young is attended with a certain degree of danger, from the influence of malignant pas- sions and vicious propensities which too frequently appear in the language and conduct of their companions. " Evil communica- tions corrupt good manners ;" so that the minds, even of those who are trained with pious care under the domestic roof, are in danger of being tainted with vice, when allowed to indulge in 'promiscuous intercourse with their fellows. But in infant estab- lishments, they are, during the greater part of the day, under the inspection of their teachers, both in school and at play-hours, where nothing immoral is suffered to make its appearance ; and the exercises in which they are employed, the objects exhibited to their view, the mutual conversations in which they engage, and the amusements in which they indulge, form so many delightful associations, equally conducive to mental improvement and sensi- tive enjoyment, which will afterwards be recollected with a high degree of pleasure. 6. The establishment of infant schools in heathen lands, wher- ever it is practicable, will, I conceive, be the most efficient means of undermining the fabric of Pagan superstition and idolatry^ and of converting unenlightened nations to the faith and prac- tice of our holy religion. When we would instruct adults in any thing to which they have been unaccustomed, we find the attempt extremely difficult, and frequently abortive, in consequence of the strong influence of long-established habits. In like manner, when we attempt to expound the truths of Christianity to the heathen, and enforce them on their attention, we encounter innumerable difficulties, arising from preconceived opinions, inveterate habits, long-established customs, ancient traditions, the laws and usages of their forefathers, the opinions of their superiors, and their ignorance of the fundamental principles of legitimate reasoning ; so that comparatively ^e\v of the adult heathen have been tho- roughly converted to the Christian faith, notwithstanding the numerous missionary enterprises which have been carried forward during the last thirty years. But if infant schools were extensively established, in all those regions which are the scene of missionary operations, wc should have thousands of minds prepared for the reception of Divine truth, having actually imbibed a portion of the INFANT SCHOOLS IN AFRICA. 123 spirit of Christianity, and being unfettered by those heathenish prejudices and habits to which I have alluded. Every infant school, and every school of instruction conducted on the same principles, at which they might subsequently attend, would become a seminary for Christianity ; and we might, on good grounds, indulge the *hope that the greater part of the children trained up in such seminaries, when the truths and foundations of religion were more fully exhibited to them, would ultimately make a pro- fession of adherence to its cause and interests, and regulate their conduct by its holy requisitions. In this case, instead of a few insulated individuals occasionally embracing the religion of the Bible, we should frequently hear (to use the language of Scrip- ture) of " nations being born at once, and a people as in one day." For, the young thus instructed, when arrived at youth and man- hood, would exert a most powerful influence on their fathers, mo-^ thers, friends, and relatives, and on all around them — while their own minds have been brought under the most salutary influence, being pre-occupied with those truths and habits which will pre- serve them from the contamination of the heathenish practices which prevail around them. It gives me much pleasure to learn, that in the rudest portion of the pagan world, (namely, in the regions of Southern Africa,) such institutions have been recently established, and been accom- panied with many beneficial eflfects. Mr. Buchanan, superintendent of the infant school at Cape Town, during the year 1832, estab- lished and re-organized a number of these institutions, at Cale- don, Pacaltsdorp, Hankey, Bethelsdorp, Port Elizabeth, Theopolis, Philipston, Buffalo River, and other places ; and, though the returns of scholars are not complete, they amount to about 500 chil- dren. After the school in Theopolis had been established only six months, the number of children in daily attendance amounted to from 110 to 120. Many of the children were capable of giv- ing effect to the monitory system, and their conduct is described as cheerful, gentle, and compliant, although but a few months before they were most of them " in a state of nature." The infant school at Bethelsdorp was re-established, under the care of a native female. About two years ago it was discontinued, after having been carried on for six months. The advantages, however, which the children had derived during that short period, were evinced, not- withstanding the interval which had elapsed, by the superiority of manner and intelligence which the)^ appeared to Mr. Buchanan to possess over the uninstructed children of other stations. They had been accustomed, after the school was discontinued, to as'pom- ble in groups, and repeat for their amusement the lesson? and 124 INFANT SCHOOLS IN AFRICA. hymns they had^learned at the school. Mr. Buchanan, on a former occasion, assisted in opening and organizing a school at Caledoii. On his late visit, he perceived a marked improvement in the dress and personal cleanliness of the children. At the opening of the school, out of thirty pupils, two only had any other covering than sheep-skins, and many were unclothed. When he last took his leave of them, they were all dressed like other children, and many of them with considerable neatness. It was apparent, that the children had acquired some sense of the propriety of dress and personal cleanliness, from their manner during the repetition of the lesson, " To put my clothes on neat and tigktf and see my hands and face are clean ;^^ and it was equally obvious that their parents appreciated the advantages of the institution, from the fact of some of them having voluntarily requested to be allowed gratuitously to clean out the school-room alternately, and of their having continued regularly to perform that service. The inhabitants of many other villages have ex- pressed a desire for the introduction of infant schools among themselves — offered to appropriate for that purpose the best house they had, and promised, when their lands shall be measured out to them, to erect a proper building at their joint expense. In several of the villages they had placed their children under the care and instruction of one of their own number, till a better teacher could be procured. Mr. Buchanan left at Philipston suf- ficient apparatus and lessons for the establishment of twelve schools — arrangements were in progress for their commencement — and six young persons were attending the schools, to qualify themselves for becoming teachers.* Such are the auspicious beginnings of infant education in hea- then lands, and the pleasure with which its introduction is hailed by the adult population. While many of them are unaware of the blessings to be derived from a reception of the doctrines of religion^ they are attracted by the beautiful arrangements and exercises of infant establishments, and at once perceive their beneficial tendency and effects on the objects of their affection ; and as their children advance in the accomplishments they acquire at these seminaries, they will every day become more interesting and delightful in their eyes ; and it is not too much to suppose, that the knowledge and habits acquired by the children v.'ill be the means of enlightening the understandings and polishing the manners of their parents. It ought, therefore, to be one of the first objects of every missionary, to whatever part of the heathen • See Evangcliral Magaziiie for Pccemher, 1833. ERRO^-EOUS VIEWS OF IXFA1\-T SCHOOLS. 125 world he is destined, to establish, as far as practicable, seminaries for the development and instruction of infant minds ; and every facility for this purpose should be afforded him by the Society under whose auspices he goes forth to evangelize the nations. 7. Infant schools ought to be universally established, /or all classes, and in every country of the civilized world. It is an opinion which still too much prevails, that such establishments are chiefly calculated for the instruction of the lower classes of society. But this is a gross misconception of the nature and tendency of infant institutions, and a very dangerous mistake. These schools are adapted no less for the improvement of the higher, than the lower ranks of the community ;• and, unless they be'soon adopted by the superior classes, the lower ranks may soon advance before them, both in point of intelligence and of moral decorum. For, in many of the families of the higher ranks, immoral maxims are inculcated and acted upon, and many foolish and wayward passions indulged, as well as in the families of their inferiors ; and, although the manners of their children receive a superficial polish superior to others, their moral disposi- tions are but little more improved, and they possess nearly as lit- tle of what may be termed useful knoivledge, as the great body of the lower ranks around them. Till the families of all classes feel the influence of the instructions and habits acquired at such institutions, the world will never be thoroughly regenerated. In the meantime, if the higher classes feel averse that their children should associate with those of an inferior grade, they have it in their power to establish infant seminaries exclusively for them- selves. But I am sorry to find, that, in this country, scarcely any schools of this description have yet been established. There ought^ however, to be no objections to children of difTerent ranks associating together for the purpose of instruction ; unless in those cases*where children are accustomed to dirty habits, or where they may be exposed to infectious diseases. In the Northen States of America, perhaps the most enlightened in the world, children of all ranks are taught in the same seminaries, without any artificial distinctions ; — all are nearly equally enlightened and improved, and society, in its several departments, moves on with the greatest harmony. In concluding these remarks, it may not be improper to observe, that teaching the children to read ought not to be considered as one of the main objects of infant schools. Many parents are still so ignorant and foolish, as to estimate the advantages of such schools, merely by the progress they conceive their children have attained in the art of reading. They are unqualified for appre- 11* 126 HI&TORY or INFANT SCHOOLS. dating intellectval instruction and moral habits, and have no higher ideas of the progress of education, than what arise from the circumstance of their children being transferred from one book to another ; and hence, they frequently complain, that their chil- dren are learning nothing, because no tasks are assigned them, and no books put into their hands. But, it ought to be generally understood, that the art of reading is not the main object of atten- tion in such seminaries, and that they would be of incalculable importance, even although the children were unable to recognise a.single letter of the alphabet. At the same time, the knowledge of the letters and elementary sounds, and the art of spelling and reading, are acquired in these schools — almost in the way of an amusement — with more facility and pleasure than on any plans formerly adopted. In throwing out the above remarks, I have all along taken for granted that infant schools are conducted by men of prudence and intelligence. It is not sufficient for insuring the beneficial effects of these institutions, that the individuals who superintend them have been instructed in the mode of conducting their mechanical arrangements. They ought to be persons of good sense, of bene- volent dispositions, having their minds thoroughly imbued with the principles of Christianity, of an easy, communicative turn, and possessed of all that knowledge of history^ art, and science, which they can possibly acquire. For no one can communicate more knowledge to others than what he himself has acquired ; and no teacher can render a subject interesting to the young, un- less he has acquired a comprehensive and familiar acquaintance with it. In order to secure efficient teachers for these establish- ments, normal schools, or other seminaries, would require to be established, in which candidates for the office of infant teachers might be instructed, not only in the mode of conducting such in- stitutions, but in all the popular branches of useful knowledge. For, upon the intelligence, as well as the prudence and moral disposition, of the teachers, the efficiency of infant seminaries will in a great measure depend. The first idea of infant schools appears to have been suggested by the asylums provided by Mr. Owen, of New Lanark, for the infant children of the people who were employed at his spinning- mills. Mr. Buchanan, under whose superintendence they were placed, was soon after invited to London, and a school was opened under his direction and management,' on Brewer's Green, West- minster, which was established and patronized by H. Brougham, Esq. M. P., the Marquis of Lansdowne, Zachary Macauley, Esq., HISTORY OP INFANT SCHOOLS. 127 Benjamin Smith, Esq., Joseph Wilson, Esq., and about eight or nine other philanthropic gentlemen. Mr. Wilson soon afterwards established one at his own expense in Quaker Street, Spitalfields. He built the school-room, and supplied every thing that was ne- cessary; and, on the 24th July, 1820, the school was opened. On the first day, 26 children were admitted, on the next day 21, and, in a very short time, the number of children amounted to 220, all of whom came forward unsolicited. Mr. Wilderspin, who has since distinguished himself by his unwearied zeal in promoting the establishment of such institutions, was appointed teacher. The , Rev. Mr. Wilson, brother to J. Wilson, Esq., above mentioned, next established a similar school at Walthamstbw, of which par- ish he was vicar ; and an excellent lady, Miss Neave, opened one in Palmer's village, Westminster, for 160 children. In Duncan Street, Liverpool, the Society of Friends established, soon after, a very large one, and, in one day, collected among themselves, for this purpose, no less than one thousand pounds. All these schools were attended with complete success. A few years afterwards, namely, on the 1st of June, 1824, the Infant School Society was organized, at a meeting held at Freemason's Hall, London. The meeting was addressed, and powerful speeches -delivered on the occasion, by the Marquis of Lansdownc, Mr. Brougham, late Lord Chancellor, Mr. Smith, M. P., Mr. Wilberforce, Sir J. Mackin- tosh, W. Allen, Esq., Dr. Thorp, Dr. Lushington, the Rev. E. Irving, and others ; and, before the meeting had separated, a sub- scription, amounting to upwards of £700, was collected. Since the above period, infant schools have been established in most of the populous towns, and even in some of the villages, of the British Empire; and, wherever they have been conducted with prudence and intelligence, have uniformly been accompanied with many interesting and beneficial effects. They have also been established in many towns on the continent of Europe, and even in Southern Africa, and in the Peninsula of Ilindostan. The enlightened inhabitants of the Northern States of America, who eagerly seize on every scheme by which moral and intellectual improvement may be promoted, are now rapidly establishing such institutions, along with Maternal Associations, throughout every portion of their increasing and widely-spreading population; and, I trust, they will soon be introduced into every nation under hea- ven. But, before society at large feel the full influence of such seminaries, they will require to be multiplied nearly a hundred- fold beyond the number that presently exists. 128 PLAN AND SITUATION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 9 CHAPTER V. On Schools for Young Persons, from the age of five or six^ to the age of thirteen or fourteen years. During a period of two or three centuries, we have had schools established among us for the instruction of the young, during the period of life to which I now refer. There are few countries in Europe where such institutions, for the instruction of the great mass of society, are more numerous and respectable than in the island in which we reside ; — and had we not unfortunately stopped short at the very porch of the Temple of Science, we might by this time have been as far superior, in point of intelligence, to every other nation, as we now are to the savages of Patagonia and New Zealand. But, what is the amount of all the instruction generally furnished at our common initiatory schools? The ele- ments of spelling and pronunciation — a jargon of abstract gram- mar rules crammed into the memory without being understood — the art of writing — the capacity of repeating the vocables of a catechism, — and a mechanical knowledge of arithmetic, without understanding the foundation of its rules. This is the sum of all that tuition which is generally considered as necessary for en- lightening the human mind, and carrying forward the great body of the community in the path of moral and intellectual improve- ment, — a system of tuition by which the memory has been tor- tured, the understanding neglected, and the benevolent affections left waste and uncultivated. The effects it has produced, are visible to every intelligent mind that looks around and contem- plates the ignorance, servility, and licentiousness, which still abound in every department of society. If we, therefore, desire to behold knowledge and religious prin- ciple more extensively diffused, and society raised to its highest pitch of improvement, we must adopt more rational and efficient plans than those on which we have hitherto acted, and extend the objects of education to all those departments of knowledge in which man is interested, as a rational, social, and immortal being. — The following remarks are intended to embody a few hints in reference to such a system of tuition ; — and, in the first place, I shall attend to the Plan, situation, and arrangement of School-rooms. The efficiency of any system of intellectual education that may be formed, will in some measure depend upon the situation of school-rooms, and the ample accommodation afforded for the PLAN AND ACCOMMODATIONS OF A SCHOOL. 129 scholastic exercises and amusements of the young. Every school- house should be erected in an airy and pleasant situation in the outskirts of a town or village, detached from other buildings, with an ample area around it ; — and, if possible, should have a commanding view of the variegated scenery both of the earth and of the heavens, — to the various objects of which the attention of the young should be occasionally directed, in order to lay a foundation for general knowledge, and for a rational contempla- tion of the works of the Almighty. Both the interior of the school, and the surrounding area, should be arranged and fitted up in such a manner, as to be conducive to the pleasure, the con- venience, and amusement of the young, so that the circum- stances connected with education may not only be associated with agreeable objects, but rendered subservient to the expan- sion of their minds, and to their progress in the path of know- ledge. The following is a rude sketch of what might be the plan and accommodations of a village school. The plot of ground allotted for the establishment, might be about 180 feet long, by 100 in breadth, or more or less according to circumstances. Nearly in the centre of this plot, the school-house might be erected, which should contain, at least, the following conveniences : — 1. A large room, or hall, for general teaching, about 40 feet long, by 30 in breadth, and 12 or 14 feet high. 2. Two rooms, about 18 feet long and 15 broad, into which certain classes may occasionally be sent, to attend to their scholastic exercises, under the inspection either of an assistant or of monitors. 3. Two closets, or presses, S T, off the large hall, about 12 feet, by 4 in breadth, for hold- ing portions of the apparatus, to be afterwards described, for illustrating the instructions communicated to the pupils. 4. At each end of the plot, or play-ground, should be two covered walks, A B, one for boys, and another for girls, in which the children may amuse themselves in the winter season, or during rainy weather; and, during winter, a fire might be kept in them, and a few forms placed for the convenience of those who come from a distance, who may partake of their luncheon, and enjoy themselves in comfort during the dinner hour. 5. The spaces C D E F mi<2,ht be laid out in plots for flowers, shrubs, and ever- greens, and a few forest trees. A portion of these plots, as G H, might be allotted for the classification of certain plants, as illus- trations of some of the principles of botany. They might be arranged into 24 compartments, as in the figure, each exhibiting a different class of plants. The remainder of the plot, particu- larly that portion of it immediately in froiU of the school-house, 130 PLAN AND ACCOMMODATIONS OF A SCHOOL. i — -??. « » «» *i -., ■-■-v •J' / \ / \ > f / \ \ i / ..-- \ "J _^ej~ -1 / / ^\ O PLAN AND ACCOMMODATIONS OF A SCHOOL. 131 might be smoothed and gravelled for a play-ground, and be ac- commodated with a few seats, or forms, and an apparatus for gymnastic exercises. 6. Behind the building, two water-closets, I K, should be erected, one for boys, and another for girls, sepa- rated by a wall or partition. The roof of the building should be flat, and paved with flag-stones, and surrounded with a parapet, three or four feet high. The pavement of the roof should be formed so as to have a slight slope towards one corner, so that the rain which falls upon it may be collected in a large barrel, or .cistern, placed underneath. An outside stair conducting to the roof may be erected at the posterior part of the building. This flat roof is intended as a stage, to which the pupils may be occasionally conducted, for the purpose of surveying the terres- trial landscape, of having their attention directed to the several objects of which it is composed, and of listening to descriptions of their nature, positions, properties, and aspects, — and likewise for the purpose of occasionally surveying the apparent motions of the stars, and of viewing the moon and planets through tele- scopes. Such are some of the external accommodations which every village school ought to possess. The plan here presented, is not intended as a model to be generally copied, but merely as ex- hibiting the requisite conveniences and accommodations — the plan of which may be varied at pleasure, according to the taste of architects, or the superintendents of education. The plot of ground should not, if possible, in any case, be much less than what is here specified ; but where ground can be easily procured, it may be enlarged to an indefinite extent. I do not hesitate to 132 SCHOOL FURNITURE. suggest, that even two or three acres of land might, with pro- priety, be devoted to this object. In this case, it might be laid out in the form of an ornamental pleasure ground, with straight and serpentine walks, seals, bowers, and the various trees and shrubs peculiar to the climate. In these walks, or bowers, busts might be placed of such characters as Bacon, Newton, Boyle, Penn, Washington, Franklin^ Pascal, Howard, Clarkson, Wilber- force, and Venning, and particularly of those who in early life were distinguished for knowledge and virtue. At every short interval, sentences, expressing some important truth, or moral maxim, should be inscribed on posts erected for the purpose ; such as, God is everyichere 'present. — His Wisdom and Good- ness shine in all his loorks. — Thou shall love the Lord thy God with all thy heart. — Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. — Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. — Love your enemies, do good to them that hate you,, and pray for them who despitefully use you. — The Lord is good to all ; lie maketh his sun to arise on the evil and on the good, and. sendeth rain on the just and the unjust. — God resisteth the proud, but bestoweth favour on the humble. — Lying lips are an abomination to the Lord. — The lip of truth shall be established for ever ; but lying lips are only for a moment. — To be virtu- ous, we must strive against many of our inclinations and de- sires. — The remembrance of virtuous actions is the most delight- ful consolation of old age. — An industrious and virtuous educa- tion of children is a better inheritance than a great estate. — The frst step to knowledge is to he sensible of our own ignorance and defects. — Wisdom is better than riches. — Virtue and good behaviour are naturally productive of happiness and good for- tune. — The present life is only an introductory scene to a future and eternal world; and, therefore, the knowledge and habits we now acquire should have a reference to that endless state which succeeds the present, 6fc. ^c. — Such moral truths and maxims, along with brief statements of scientific facts, should meet the eye of the young in every direction, so as to be quite familiar to their minds ; and they might occasionally be referred to, and explained and illustrated, in the discipline enforced, and the instructions communicated in school. Furniture of the Schocl. In fitting up the principal apartment of the school, it may be expedient that the seats be moveable, in order that they may bo occasionally arranged, so that the children may sit in one cam- pact body, with thc-ir faceb towarda their instructor. But every APPARATUS FOR SCHOOLS. 133 seat or form should be furnished with a back, or rail, and a board before, on which the pupil may lean his arm, and feel quite com- fortable and easy ; for children very soon feel cramped and un- easy, when sitting long on bare forms, without such conveniences. Every boy should likewise have a wooden peg, either before or behind him, for hanging his hat and satchel. The seats in the two smaller apartments may be fitted up to accommodate those - who are chiefly employed in writing, arithmetic, or geometry. In these, and various other arrangements, every minute circum- stance should be attended to, which may contribute to the con- venience and comfortable accommodation of the young, and to the maintenance of good order and regularity in all their move- ments. Apparatus and Museum. — The principal furniture of every seminary intended for intellectual instruction should consist of specimens of the various objects connected with Natural History, and an apparatus for illustrating the popular branches of Physical science. These objects may be arranged under the usual divisions of Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy ; or, in other words, Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals. Under the first division may be arranged specimens of such domestic animals as can easily be procured ; such as, the dog, the cat, the hare, the rabbit, the mole, the rat, the mouse, the bat, &c. — the peacock, the turkey, the partridge, the pigeon, the thrush, the linnet, the canary, the lark, the swallow, the goldfinch, the chaffinch, &c. — together with as many specimens of lizards, serpents, fishes, and insects, as can be most easily collected and preserved. Those foreign animals, such as the elephant, the camel, the lion, and the tiger, which cannot be directly exhibited, may be represented by coloured en- gravings. The leaves of different kinds of vegetables might be stuck on large sheets of drawing-paper, and occasionally exhibit- ed for the purpose of distinguishing the different trees or shrubs to which they belong — several rare exotic plants might be kept in flower-pots — and the several vegetable pots around the seminary would furnish various specimens, in their natural state, of which physiological and botanical descriptions might be given. Various fossils and mineral substances, which can easily be procured, may also be collected and arranged in classes, — such as, platina, silver, mercury, copper, iron, lead, bismuth, zinc, nickel, man- ganese, with specimens of their ores — chrysolites, garnets, agates, corundums, jaspers — sulphur, carbon, bitumen, amber, caoutchouc, asphalt, charcoal — quartz, feltspar, hornblend, &c. — To these may be added various specimens of artificial objects and of sub- 12 134 APPARATUS FOR SCHOOLS. stances used in manufactures, as hemp, flax, cotton, silk, wool, and the various fabrics into which they are wrought. The Apparatus may consist of such instruments as the follow- ing ; — an electrical machine, an air-pump, a barometer and ther- mometer, a magnetical apparatus, various glass tubes and phials, for hydrostatical, pneumatical and chemical experiments, a tele- scope, a compound and a solar, or an oxy-hydrogen microscope, a camera-obscura, concave and convex mirrors, a phantasmago- ria, a sundial, a planetarium, a terrestrial and celestial globe, with large planispheres of the heavens, — a burning lens or mir- ror, with various instruments of recreation on philosophical sub- jects, such as the optical paradox and deception, the diagonal opera-glass, the communicative mirror, the sensitive fishes, the sagacious swan, the cup of Tantalus, the fountain at command, &c. Models might also be procured of wind and water mills, steam-engines, diving-bells, common and forcing pumps, gasome- ters, and the different mechanical powers. In addition to the above, it would be requisite to procure sys- tematic sets of well-executed engravings, exhibiting a view of the most striking phenomena of nature and the processes of the arts, — such as, views of rivers, sea-coasts, islands, cities, towns, and villages, streets, squares, aqueducts, columns, arches, public buildings, rural landscapes, ranges of mountains, volcanoes, ice- bergs, basaltic columns, glaciers, caves, grottos, natural bridges — the operations of brewing, baking, spinning, weaving, pin-mak- ing, forging, glass-blowing, ship-building, &c. — in short, of every object, natural and artificial, which can convey to the mind a de- finite idea of the different parts which compose the landscape of the world, and the operations of human art. Coloured maps of the different portions of the globe, on a large scale, should like- wise accompany such exhibitions, in order that the positions of the countries, where the different objects are to be found, may be pointed out. These pictorial representations may be hung around the walls, or on posts fitted up for that purpose, in such numbers as the allotted spaces will conveniently contain. — The specimens of natural history may be arranged around the walls of the school in presses, with wire or glass doors, so that the greater part of them may be exposed to view ; and the apparatus and other arti- cles may be deposited, when not in use, in the two large presses or closets formerly mentioned. Although the various articles now alluded to could not be pro- cured all at once, yet they might gradually be increased, and a considerable variety of them would doubtless be obtained in the way of donations from the private museums of liberal and philan- NEW OPTICAL DIAGONAL MACHINE. 135 throplc individuals in the vicinity around ; and many of the little urchins who attend the school would rejoice in being instrumental in adding whatever they could procure to augment the splendour and variety of the museum. There is one very simple instrument, not hitherto duly appre- ciated, which might be rendered subservient both to the amuse- ment and the instruction of the young ; and that is, the Optical Diagonal Machine^ for viewing perspective engravings. This instrument, as sold by opticians, consists of a pedestal, somewhat resembling a large mahogany candlestick, having a plain mirror and a convex lens moveable at the top. The print to be viewed is placed on a table, before the instrument, in an inverted position. But this form of the instrument generally produces but a very slender effect, owing partly to the small diameter of the lens com- monly used, and partly to the circumstance, that the engraving is generally visible to the eye, at the same time the observer is viewing its magnified image through the machine. To obviate these defects, about seventeen years ago, I fitted up a machine of this kind on another and more simple plan, of which the follow- ing is a brief description. It consists of the following parts : — 1. A box made of thin deal, 2 feet deep, 2 feet long, and 1 foot broad, open in front. 2. In the side opposite to the opening, and near the top, a circular hole, about 6 inches in diameter, is cut, into which a tube containing the lens is put, capable of being moved an inch or two backwards or forwards. The convex lens is 5^ inches diameter, and 20 inches focal distance, and its centre is about 20 inches above the bottom of the box. 3. Ther reflect- ing mirror — which is 12^ inches long and 8 inches broad, and which should be formed of the best English plate glass — the longest dimension being perpendicular to the horizon. This mir- ror is suspended, immediately before the lens, on two pieces of wood connected with a cross bar, which is capable of being moved backwards or forwards to its proper distance from the lens ; and the mirror itself moves on two pivots, like a common dress- ing-glass, so as to stand at any required angle. When the in- strument is properly adjusted, the mirror should stand at half a right angle to the horizon. The top of the box opens by means of a hinge, to afford a facility for adjusting the mirror. The per- spective views are placed on the bottom of the box, parallel with the horizon, and in an inverted position with respect to the eye of the observer. The engravings should be at least 17 inches long and 11 inches broad, exclusive of the margins, and coloured after nature. — This instrument, thus fitted up, is greatly superior to the one commonly in use, as nothing is seen but the magnified image 136 ENGRAVINGS FOR THE OPTICAL MACHINE. of the objects, and no conception can be formed of them to dis- tract the attention, till the observer actually looks through the in- strument. Every person who has looked through this instrument has at once admitted its superiority to those of the common con- struction, and many individuals have got similar machines fitted up after this pattern. It may be fitted up at an expense not ex- ceeding eighteen or twenty shillings ; that is, nine shillings for the lens, seven shillings for the mirror, and two or three shillings for the box. The following figures will convey some idea of ihis construc- tion of the instrument. Fig. 1. represents a profile of the ma- chine, one of the sides of the box being supposed to be removed. A is the mirror, standing at half a right angle to the lens and the C D picture, with its back turned to the eye. B is the lens, fixed either in a tube or in a hole cut out of the side of the box next the eye. C D is the bottom of the box, on which the perspec- tives are placed. E F is the top of the box, from which the mir- ror is suspended. Fig. 2. represents a view of the back of the box, or that part which is next the eye when the observer is view- ing the prints, in which L represents the lens by which the prints are magnified. . There is one glaring defect in the exhibitions made with this instrument, which has never yet been attempted to be remedied ; and that is, that in every landscape the rii{ht side of the view appears where the left should be, which presents a confused and unnatural view, particularly of those objects and scenes with which we are acquainted. This defect may be remedied by cut- ting out or etching the landscape on the copperplate — not reversed^ as is always done, but in its natural position j in which case, the SEMINARIES IN CITIES AND TOWNS. 137 engravings, when thrown off, would be reversed, like tlie picture formed by a common camera-obscura. Such engravings, when used for the Optical Diagonal Machine, would represent objects exactly in their natural positions; and if the true perspective of a street, a large hall, or a landscape, be accurately delineated, the scene will appear almost as natural and interesting as if we were viewing it from the point whence the picture was taken. As there are thousands of perspectives engraven expressly for this machine, I would humbly suggest to engravers and print-sellers the propriety of having such engravings etched on the plan now proposed. The fineness of the engraving is of very little conse- quence in such views, provided the perspective has been accu- rately attended to ; but the colouring should be light and natural, and very different from the glaring and clumsy daubings which appear in most of the perspectives which are sold for the use of this machine. Such are some of the objects and external accomiuuuations which might be procured for every village school. Such a school would form a striking contrast to most of the schools which exist in our country, particularly those which are found in many of our cities and towns, pent up in narrow closes and lanes, in the midst of filth, noise and gloom, destitute of pure air, where the children are packed like hounds in a kennel, cramped in their movements, and can scarcely find a passage from one part of the school-room to another, and where no objects of delight arrest their curiosity and enliven their spirits. Instead of such scanty and wretched accommodations — which may be considered as so many juvenile prison-houses, to which the young are frequently driven by dint of force — we should thus have it in our power to introduce them into a kind of magnificent museum, where every object would excite curiosity and arrest attention. Instead of associating with scholastic exercises the ideas of tasks, stripes and imprisonment, we should thus present to their view a delightful avenue and portal to the Temple of Knowledge, which would excite a spirit of observation, rouse their intellectual energies, and produce a high degree of pleasure and enjoyment. And nothing can be of more importance to the best interests of the young, and to the cause of the universal diffusion of knowledge, than to strew the path of science with flowers of every hue, and to render all the early associations connected with it exhilarating and cheerful. The road which leads to knowledge, moral virtue, happiness, and the higher enjoyments of the life to come, ought undoubtedly to wear a bright and alluring aspect, and to be divested of every object which has the appearance of austerity or gloom. 12* 188 SCHOOL-BOOKS. In towns, a number of these schools might be connected toge- ther in one large square or building, surrounded with as extensive a space as can be procured, forming one grand seminary, where children of all ranks might associate without distinction in their amusements and scholastic exercises. The amusements and the exercises of such numerous groups of the young, both within and without doors, would form a lively and interesting spectacle to every philanthropist ; and public schools, when properly situated, and governed on Christian principles, so far from being a nui- sance to the neighbourhood, as they are generally considered, would constitute one of the best ornaments, and the'most delight- ful scenes, connected with general society. Where large towns diverge into extensive suburbs, a variety of distinct seminaries might be erected at proper distances from each other, to accom- modate the inhabitants of the adjacent district, so that the children would not require to go too great a distance from their homes. School-Books* There are few things of more importance in the arrangements connected with education than the judicious selection and compila- tion of the Books intended to be put into the hands of the young. I have already offered a few strictures on the inefficiency of the school-books which have been most generally in use in our bor- ough and parochial schools ; and although of late years several improved school-collections have been introduced, scarcely any have yet appeared completely adapted to an intellectual system of tuition. The following general principles ought to be recog- nised in the compilation of every class-book for the use of schools : — 1. That the subjects introduced be level to the comprehension of those for whose use the book is intended. 2. That every article it contains be calculated to convey some portion of useful knowledge. 3. That the selections in general have a moral tendency, and that every thing that might foster a spirit of pride, avarice, ambi- tion or warfare, be carefully excluded. 4. That moral and physical facts should form a prominent feature in such books, and mere fictions be entirely discarded. 6. That the lessons be so constructed, that every sentiment and description may produce an accurate and well-defined idea in the minds of the young. These rules proceed on the assumption, that the communication of ideas — the elements of thought — and the formation of moral character, are the great and ultimate objects of education* DEFECTS OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 139 In the first books put into the hands of children, the lessons should be so constructed that the leading ideas they contain^ or the objects they describe^ may be immediately pointed ovt, either by means of the specimens contained in the museum.^ by pictorial representations^ or by the objects around them in the scene of nature ; so that every word, or at least every description contained in the lesson, may be associated in the mind of the child with the idea of its objects. Hence the propriety, in the first instance, of restricting the descriptive lessons solely to sensible objects. It is through the medium of the senses that the elements of all our knowledge are derived. We perceive, in the first instance, a va- riety of objects which immediately surround us, and gradually become acquainted with some of their qualities. As we advance in life, and mingle in society, and make excursions from one place to another, the number of our perceptions is indefinitely increased. We have the power of presenting to the view of the mind the images or ideas of these objects at pleasure, even when the objects which first produced them are removed. Those ideas are nothing else than renewed representations of what we have at any time perceived or felt through the medium of the organs of sensation. Flaving received such impressions or ideas, the mind has the faculty of contemplating them at pleasure, whether their objects be present or absent — of combining them together, of compounding and decompounding them, and of modifying, comparing, and examining- them, in an infinite variety of lights ; by which means it is enabled to enlarge the objects of its percep- tion and contemplation, and to acquire an inexhaustible treasure of other ideas, distinct from the former, though necessarily result- ing from them. Such is the origin and progress of all our know- ledge — and thus the human mind pursues its course from simple perceptions and trains of ideas, and from one discovery and chain of reasoning to another, till it rises from the first dawnings of rea- son to the full blaze of intellectual light, and to the height of moral improvement. These considerations evidently point out the mode in which instruction ought to be communicated, and the objects towards which the youthful mind should, in the first instance, be directed — for want of attention to which, many of our school-books are nearly as inefficient for the purpose intended as if they had been, written in a foreign language. I have just now lying before me two initiatory books lately published, entitled, "First" and " Se- cond Books for Children," in which there is not a single sentence conveying the idea of a sentiment or fact, nor even a single word, that will produce an idea in the mind of a child — every page being 140 LESSONS ON OBJECTS. completely occupied with such sounds as these — " gra, ere, dre, dro — gaff", puff, groff, sniff — gyve, gyre, gybe — baffle, socle, struggle," &c. &c. Such books can never be interesting to the young, and must present to their view nothing but a bleak and thorny path to the temple of knowledge. Nor will such vague sentences as the following, with which our primers abound, pro- duce a much better effect:—" My son, walk not in the way of bad men; for bad men ^o on in sin all the day. — Set thy heart on the right way, and mind the law of the Lord. — Do not break the laws of God, and shun the v/ays that lead to death," &e. Such sombre sentiments and exhortations, however sound the mo- rality they inculcate, can never produce a well-defined idea in the mind of a child, or excite to moral action, and consequently cannot have the effect of producing pleasing emotions and a taste for knowledge. — Every sentence of a child's lesson should con- vey to his mind a picture or representation of some object ; and it is quite possible to accomplish this end, by simplifying our de- scriptions, and selecting those sensible objects which are calcu- lated to attract attention, and which may be presented to the view. For example : — " The sun shines. — The sky is blue, when it is not covered with clouds. — The stars shine forth at night. — Snow is white. — Rain comes from the clouds. — Gold is yellow ; silver is white ; copper is red. — Lead is heavy ; cork is light ; coal is black. — Trees grow in the fields ; they have roots, branches and leaves. — Flowers grow in the fields and gardens ; some of them are red, some are white, some are yellow, others are blue. — Corn grows in the fields ; when it is ripe it is cut down, and ground into meal, and then baked into bread. — A dog has a head, two ears, four feet, and a tail. — A bird has a beak, two eyes, two wings, two legs, and a tail ; it is covered with feathers, it chirrups and sings, and flies through the air. — When we strike a small bell with a key, it sends forth a sound. — When we shut our eyes, all appears dark around us, and we can see nothing. — When we open our eyes, we can see the sky, the clouds, the fields, the trees, the houses ; and men, women, and children, walking along the road, or sitting in the school. — The sun rises in the east, and when he rises it is day ; when he sets in the west, it is night, and the stars appear in the sky. — The sun shines upon the trees, the houses, and the water, and every thing looks bright and beautiful when he shines upon it. — He shinps in all countries, over all the earth. — He is so bright, that we cannot look at him, but when he is covered with thin clouds. — If you take a piece of red or green glass, and hold it between your eye and the sun, you may look at him without hurting your eyes. — The sun gives us light and heat, and he is the most bright and glorious work of God that can be seen in the whole world," &c. Such simple lessons may be made to produce a well-defined idea in the mind of every child, by exhibiting to his view, at the moment he is reading, the very object which his lesson describes ; SUBJECTS OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 141 and if the object is not present, it may be represented by an en- graving. Wiien his lesson states that " lead is heavy, and cork is light," a piece of cork and a piece of lead of the same size may be put into his hands, which will not only convince him of the fact, but will enable him afterwards to recognise these circum- stances. When he reads that " a bell, when struck by a piece of iron, produces a sound," the experiment may be exhibited be- fore him — which circumstances will have a powerful tendency to arrest his attention, and keep alive his interest in the subject of his lessons. The first class-books for schools should, therefore, be confined chiefly to descriptions of the appearances and qualities of such objects as may be exhibited to the senses of children, and instantly associated with the vocables of which their lessons consist. De- scriptions of the form and habits of animals, such as the dog, the cow, the ass, the mole, the elephant, the rein-deer, the cam- elopard, &c. — of vegetables, the parts of which they consist, the places where they grow, the manner in which they are pro- duced and cultivated, their fruits and flowers, and numberless varieties — of minerals, their various qualities, colours, and appear- ances, the places whence they are procured, the processes through which they pass, and the uses to which they are subservient in human life — might form one department of an initiatory class- book. Descriptions of the more obvious phenomena of nature, such as the apparent motions of the heavens, the rising and setting of the sun, the phases of the moon, the movements and aspect of the clouds, the phenomena of thunder and lightning, winds, rain, hail and snow ; the most striking objects which appear in towns, villages, and throughout the fields, on hills, mountains, valleys, rivers, and sea-coasts — might form another department of a school-book ; care being taken that the descriptions be suf- ficiently simple and vivid, and that long and hard words be as much as possible avoided. Descriptions of some of the innocent games and amusements of the young, accompanied with delinea- tions of some of them, might likewise be introduced. As a sup- plement or companion to a book of this kind, descriptions might be given of the particular objects connected with the locality in which the school is situated. In the first place, the school itself, with the various objects it contains ; the trees, flowers, and shrubs bery which surround it ; the roads, streets, lanes and walks, and the most remarkable public buildings it contains — might be par- ticularly described, and the descriptions accompanied with a plan or map of the place and its vicinity, and views of the most inte= resting objects, rural and architectural, which -are connected with 142 MODE OF TEACHING MORALITY. it. Such descriptions would always be read with interest by the young, and would excite them to habits of observation and reflec- tion, besides affording them materials for, conversation in their social walks and intercourses. Children are always extremely fond of having their ideas of sensible objects enlarged, and view, with a great degree of interest and pleasure, the representations of them in well-executed engravings. Yet, strange to tell, when I attended school, it would have been considered as a crime to have looked into a book which contained engravings. I recollect of a boy having brought to school a copy of " The Three Hun- dred Animals," but it was carefully concealed from the teacher, and from most of the scholars, through fear of punishment. We were so anxious, however, to see the novel figures it contained — the magnified picture of the louse and the flea, the bee-hive, the peacock, the elephant, and the whale — that we gave pins, mar- bles, cherry-stones, gooseberries, and even sometimes a whole halfpenny, to the proprietor, for half an hour's perusal of it. Some persons will perhaps be disposed to object, that such les- sons as I now allude to are either trifling, or, at least, not so important as the moral lessons generally introduced into our ini- tiatory books. In reply to such an insinuation, it may be suffi- cient to say, that it can never be unimportant to convey a well- defined idea of any object worthy of being known, to the mind of a child, if it is admitted that the great object of education is to communicate the elements of thought. And as to producing moral impressions, every pious and intelligent teacher has an opportunity afforded of impressing the minds of his pupils with a sense of the Goodness, Omnipresence, and Agency of God, every time he is teaching a lesson which is descriptive of the works of nature. Morality can never be effectually taught to the young by vague exhortations, and general rules and maxims, — more especially when such instructions are not thoroughly understood. If we wish to impress the youthful mind with the odiousness of vice, and the excellence of virtue, we must fix upon particular actions, ^Pply to them moral rules or precepts, and illustrate, by familiar examples, their nature and tendency. Every teacher has daily an opportunity of directing the attention of his pupils to cer- tain actions, both good and bad, which appear in their general conduct ; and the judicious remarks he makes on the temper and dispositions manifested by particular individuals, will make a more definite and lasting impression upon the minds of the young than can be produced by the mere reading or repetition of moral maxims or general rules. And every child Avho has been regu- larly taught to understand every sentence he reads, and to exer- SUBJECTS OF A CLASS-BOOK. 143 else his judgment Upon it, will undoubtedly be better prepared than others for forming a judgment of the propriety or impro- priety of certain moral actions, when they are explained to him with simplicity and clearness. In a more advanced stage of edu- cation, however, moral lessons, accompanied with examples of virtues and vices, may with great propriety be introduced. Some may likewise be disposed to inquire whether I intend to set aside exercises on the powers of the letters and the elementary sounds. Although I do not attach so mucli importance to such exercises as has generally been done, yet I would not altogether set them aside. Lists of monosyllables, exemplifying the long and short sounds of the vowels, and the pronunciation peculiar to certain combinations of the consonants, might be pasted upon cards, and hung up in view of the different classes ; on which they might be occasionally exercised, rather as a kind of inter- lude or amusement than as a serious task. But it appears quite preposterous to confine a child for four or five months to the pro- nunciation of mere sounds, to which no ideas are attached. And, from a good deal of experience, I am convinced that the true ppo- nunciation of words is to be acquired more from reading interest- ing lessons, and from the occasional remarks of the teacher on particular sounds as they occur, than by long and tedious exer- cises on the orthography of the language. In a more advanced stage of education, after the pupil has read two or three small volumes consisting of such easy descriptive pieces as those alluded to above, a volume consisting of selections of a higher order may be put into his hands. So early as the year 1809, I had formed, and partly executed, the plan of a volume of this description, calculated to excite the attention of the young, to convey real knowledge to their minds, and to render the exercise of reading pleasant and profitable. In some papers connected with this projected work, I find the following " General outline of Contents :" — 1. Short and familiar lessons. 2. JVarratives of real occurrences and facts. 3. Juvenile Biography — comprising anecdotes and lives of young persons who had made early progress in knowledge : early life of Sir I. Newton, of Ferguson the astronomer, of Pascal, Gassendi, Grotius, Crich- ton, Horrox, Baratiere, &c. &c. 4. Selectiojis from Sacred History : His- tory of the creation and fall of man — of the deluge — of the destruction of Sodom — of the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, and Samuel — of the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt, and the leading events which befel them in the wilderness and in Canaan — of the life and transla- tion of Elijah — of the deliverances of Jonah, Daniel, Shadrach, Meshech, and Abednego ; Paul, Peter, &c. — of the circumstances which attended the birth, transfiguration, crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ, and the preaching of the Apostles — with illustrative remarks and observa- 144 SUBJECTS OF A CLASS-BOOK. tions, a map of the land of Judca, plans of the tabernacle and temple, and figures of the sacred utensils and vestments used in the Jewish worship. 5. Descriptions of objects connected xvith JVatural History and JSTatural Philosophy : Forms, habits, and instincts of animals, with anecdotes ; JVa- tural curiosities — such as basaltic columns, boiling springs, icebergs, gla- ciers, volcanoes, whirlpools, natural bridges, subterraneous caverns, Banian tree, &c. ; Brief description of the parts and functions of the human body — the organs of sense, and the different kinds of knowledge they communicate. Phenomena of JVature in the atinosphere and the heavens : Properties of air — weight and pressure of the atmosphere, with descriptions of a few sim- ple illustrative experiments; Descriptions of thunder-storms, luminous and fiery meteors, the aurora-borealis, the clouds the rainbow, the ignis-fatuus, rain, hail, dew, waterspouts, hurricanes, sounds, and echoes ; Descriptions of the mechanical powers — of electrical, magnetical, and optical instruments — of the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies — of the more interesting phenomena connected with the earth, and the other bodies which compose the solar system, &c. 6. Illustrations and descriptions of certain arts and trades : Pin-making, weaving, printing, paper-making, glass-blowing, &c. 7. Useful hints on various subjects : On taking care of books — cau- tions respecting the preservation of health — the dangers arising from fire, confined air, noxious gases — the prevention of accidents and infectious dis- eases — rules for the promotion of order, cleanliness, and activity ; for cook- ing victuals, eradicating stains, nursing children, washing, dressing, laying out garden plots, and for promoting domestic economy — characteristics of poisonous plants, cautions in relation to unripe fruits, &c. &c. 8. Short moral maxims, pithy sayings, and rules for the general regulation of con- duct. 9. Dialogues : " The little Philosopher," " The King and the Mil- ler," &c. 10. Customs and manners of nations. Sketch of Geography, — descriptions of cities, towns, and remarkable places. 11. Entertaining experiments magnetical, electrical, pneumatical, galvanic, mechanical, chemical, &c. 12. Juvenile amusements : flying the kite, fives, peg-top, swinging, bathing, &c. with cautionary maxims. 13. Select Poetry, con- sisting only of pieces interesting to the young, and level to their capacity. 14. Lessons in ivritten characters, for habituating children to read manu- scripts and epistolary correspondence. 15. List of natyxes and qualities of natural and artificial objects, as exercises in spelling; during which, short descriptions might be given of the nature and properties of the dif- ferent objects whose names are proposed as spelling-exercises. 1 6. lAst of Greek and Latin primitives and prepositions, with examples of their meaning, and the effect of their composition in English words. 17. Defini- tions of scientific terms, and of the more difficult words which occur in the lessons. 18. Tables of money, -weights, and measures, \\'\ih. illustrations of the value of coins, the capacity of measures, linear dimensions, &c. 19. A general set of queries, referring to some of the principal subjects described in the lessons. * Such was the outline of a class-book which was intended to be published six-and-twenty years ago. One peculiarity by which it was intended to be distinguished, was — that a set of questions without answers, bearing on every particular object and circvm- stance detailed, was to be appended to each lesson, for exercis- QUALITIES OF SCHOOL-BOOKS. 145 ing the attention and Judgment of the pvpil, previous to his being examined on the subject. The various subjects introduced were intended to be partly original composition, partly compila- tions, and partly selections, abridged, modified, or altered, to suit the object in view. Fables and fictitious stories were to be en- tirely discarded, and the leading facts to be illustrated by engrav- ings. After composing a preface or introduction, showing the utility of such a work, and obviating objections that might be made to its plan, and having proceeded a certain length in its compilation, I was induced to lay aside the design, in consequence of the apathy and indifference of most of the teachers I conversed with on the subject. Some of them who stood high on the ranks of city and parochial schoolmasters told me plainly, that they considered it as no part of their duty to teach their pupils any thing but reading or pronunciation, and that if their parents wished them to understand what they read, they might teach them at home. Such a school-book is still a desideratum, notwithstrndmg some improvements which have lately been made in school-collections. AVhether it would be expedient to publish such a work at the present time, the public must determine. If properly executed, it would require a considerable degree of labour and research, a discriminating judgment, a fiimiliar acquaintance with the tastes and dispositions of the young, and a talent for simplifying de- scriptions, and rendering them perspicuous to a youthful under- standing. Such a book could not be constructed either by the scissors, or by merely copying or abridging pieces from various authors ; but by entering thoroughly into the spirit of every sijb- ject, and modifying it in such a manner as to interest the affec- tions, and to convey well-defined ideas to the minds of those for whose improvement it is intended. The formation of the ques- tions on each lesson would require a considerable share of judg- ment and discrimination, so as to render them perspicuous and specific. Most of the questions of this kind which have been at- tempted in certain school-books, are so general and vague, that they serve no useful purpose either to teacher or scholar, and are frequently so worded and arranged, that a pupil might find out the answers without understanding them or exercising his own judgment. It is, unquestionably, an eligible plan, in every de- partment of learning, to have sets of questions without answers, bearing on every branch of study. Such questions tend to excite the curiosity of the pupil, to exercise his judgment, and to arrest his attention to the subject ; and the finding out of the proper answers affords him a certain degree of pleasure. They are also 13 146 INTELLECTUAL CArAClTY OF CHILDREN. of Utility to the teacher, and may suggest to him numerous other subordinate questions connected with the subject. The old plan of constructing books by way of " Question and Ansiver,''^ and causing the vocables of the different answers to be committed to memory without being understood, is too absurd to require a mo- ment's consideration. It will be admitted, I presume, by every intelligent person, that a class-book, judiciously arranged and executed, and comprising such subjects as above stated, would be far more interesting to the young, and calculated*to convey to their minds a much greater portion of useful information, than all the " Beauties of eminent Writers," "Speeches in the Roman Senate," "English Readers," " Tyro's Guides," and " Oratorical Class-books," which have been so Ions: in use in our English schools. Such a book should contain hints and sketches of every thing that has a tendency to expand the intellectual views, and which may be applied to use- ful practical purposes in the several departments of human life, and be completely purified from every thing that might produce national prejudice and partiality, the spirit of contention and war- fare, and the indulgence of selfish and malignant afTections — in short, a book which might be read with pleasure by the youncr, who understood its language, in every nation of the world. In the hands of a judicious teacher, every idea it contained might be communicated to the understandings of the pupils; and, as early impressions are the most lasting', the sentiments conveyed, and the impressions thus made upon the mind, could not fail to be of incalculable service to them throughout the whole course of their lives. The foundation of useful knowledge would be laid, and a taste for intellectual pleasures induced, which v. juld stimulate them to still higher pursuits and investigations as they advanced in life. — Nor need we have the least fear that children, at an early age, would be incapable of acquiring such knowledge as that to which I allude. If they have not hitherto acquired it, it is because such knowledge as they were capable of acquiring has seldom been judiciously presented before them. We have compelled them to "feed upon ashes" — we have offered them " scorpions" instead of " eggs," and " stones" instead of " bread ;" and because they were unable to masticate and digest such substances, we have deprived them of wholesome and nutritious food, and wondered why they have not been strengthened and invigorated. When truth is simplified by familiar illustrations taken from objects with which they are acquainted, and confirmed by appeals to their senses, they imbibe it with avidity, and frequently retain the im- pressions thus made to the latest period of their existence. The SCIETTTIFIC CLASS-BOOKS. 147 celebrated Fenolon lias observed, that "Before they are thought capable of recei/ing any instruction, or the least pains taken with them, they learn a language. Many children at four years of age can speak their mother tongue, though not with the same accuracy or grammatical precision, yet with greater readiness and fulness than most scholars do a foreign language after the study of a whole life." This circumstance certainly indicates no small degree of intellectual energy and acumen. And to this I may add, that they discover their intellectual powers by connecting the idea with the sign of it, and acquire many notions of good and evil, right and wrong, in that early period of life. Such are their powers of discrimination, that they can distinguish the characters and dispositions of those with whom they associate, and frequent- ly know the tempers and weaknesses of their parents much better than the parents know theirs, and are dextrous enough to avail themselves of that knowledge in order to obtain their desires and gratify their humours. A third series of school-books might consist of popular sys- tems of the sciences, and descriptions in relation to the mechani- cal and liberal arts. The fundamental principles and the most interesting facts connected with botany, mineralogy, zoology, geo- graphy, geology, geometry, astronomy, experimental philosophy, and chemistry — and likewise those connected with the arts of weaving, book-binding, printing, clock and watch making, brass- founding, carpentry, &c. — might be familiarly detailed, and illus- trated with as many plans and engravings as the different sub- jects might require. The general knowledge of the sciences, which the pupil would acquire from such compilations, would pre- pare him for afterwards entering on the study of particular sciences, when their principles and applications would be illustrated in more minute detail. The sketches of the different arts and trades would unfold to him some of the leading processes and operations peculiar to the several mechanical employments, and lead him to determine which of these would be most congenial to his own taste and genius. — In compiling such sketches of the sciences and arts, a considerable degree of knowledge, taste, and discrimina- tion, would be requisite. Every thing that is intricate or abstruse, or not level to the comprehension of young people from the age of ten to the age of fourteen years, should be omitted. Vivid and familiar descriptions of facts and scenery, details of interesting experiments, and engravings of natural and artificial objects, should accompa' y the explanations of the fundamental pi'inciples of the dilTerent sciences. In short, every thing should be intro- duced which can be illustrated by sensible objects, and every 148 OBJECTS or III6T0KY. thing discarded which ihc gonscs cannot easily appreciate. Merc skeletons of the sciences would be quite uninteresting, and would produce no good eflcct. If any particular science could not be comprehensively illustrated in the space allotted for its details, a selection of its more prominent and popular departments might be substituted, which would be quite sufficient for communicating a general view of the subject, and inducing a taste for its further prosecution at a future period — which is all that is requisite to be aimed at in the first exhibitions of science to the youthful mind. Another class of school-books might be chiefly Historical. These should comprise a lucid and comprehensive view of the leading events which have happened from the creation to the present time, omitting those details which would either be impro- per to be exhibited, or which might prove uninteresting to the young. As a supplement to such a work, a more detailed history might be given of the particular nation or country in which the school is situated. — In compiling such historical works, great caution is requisite that no scenes be exhibited, and no sentiments inculcated, that would pollute the minds of the young, or foster malignant affections. Many of our historians detail the convul- sions of nations, and the horrid scenes of devastation and carnage, with a revolting degree of apathy, without interweaving any re- flections tending to show the folly and wickedness of war, and to denounce those malignant passions from which it springs. Nay, we frequently find the writings of historians abounding with panegyrics on pul>lic robbers and desperadoes, encomiums on war and on warriors, and designating the worst enemies of the human race as patj'iots and illustrious heroes. Hence it has hap- pened, that the study of history, instead of leading the mind to contemplate the character of the Moral Governor of the world, and the retributions of his providence, and to mourn over the malevolent passions and the depravity of man — lias not unfrc- quenlly tended to excite desires after the acquisition of false glory, and ,to cherish a spirit of contention and warfare, — the eflects of which are visible, even at the present moment, in the ambitious projects which are carrying forward by haughty des- pots and their obsequious ministers, and in the devastations which are committing, and the contests which are taking place, in almost every region of the globe. If we wish to counteract the efiects of pngan maxims and morality, and to imbue the minds of our youth with Christum principles and feelings, we must carefully guard against the influence of such antichristian sentiments. The history of all nations ought to be considered, not merely as the exploits of kings and heroes, but as the History of the providcn- OMJJ-JCTS OF IlISTORr. 149 Hal dispensations of the Almighty towards tlio human race, and the history of the moral character of mankind. We should study it, not merely, or chiefly, for the purpose of admiring and imitating the exploits of those who have been extolled as illustri- ous characters, (for there are few of them whose deeds deserve our imitation) — but for expanding our views of the character and moral government of the Ruler of the Universe — for confirming the representations given in the Scriptures of the depravity of man — and for exciting an abhorrence of those lawless passions and deeds of injustice, which have covered the earth with carnage and desolation, and entailed misery upon the race of man. If we wish to study patterns of moral virtue worthy of imitation, we have the example of Jesus Christ set before us, as the pattern of every excellence, /' who was holy, harmless, and undefiled," — " who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth ; who, when he was reviled, reviled not again ; when he suffered he threatened not, but committed his cause to him who judgeth righteously." We have likewise the examples of his holy pro- phets and apostles, men as far superior in their moral principles and conduct to the most distinguished sages of Greece and Rome, as the Christian religion is superior to all the systems of theology in the pagan world. — In compiling histories for the young, the historian ought, therefore, to pause at certain periods and events, and direct the attention of his readers to what is moral or immoral in the actions detailed, to what is worthy of being approved or condemned in the scenes described, as determined by the princi- ples and rules of Christianity. He should direct the attention of the young to the scenes of horror which a spirit of ambition and revenge has created, to the malignant passions it has engendered, and to its contrariety to the spirit of true religion and the best in- terests of man. He should lead them to remark the justice and long-suffering of the Governor of the world — the retributions of his providence in the case of nations and individuals — the accom- plishment of Divine predictions — and the evidences which the records of history afford, that man is no longer in a paradisiacal condition, but has fallen from his high estate. In short, he should direct their views to the means by which the spirit of warfare may be counteracted and destroyed, — to the happy scenes which would be realized were a spirit of philantrophy to reign triumphant, — and to that glorious era, foretold by ancient prophets, when the nations " shall beat their swords into ploughshares, and their spears into pru-ning-hooks, and learn the art of war no more." Were history studied in connection with such views and instruc- tions, — instead of fostering malignant passions — it might becom? 13* 150 ILLUSTRATIVE ENGRAVINGS. a handmaid to science and rdioion, and be rendered subservient for directing the mind to the Great Ruler of the nations, and the plans of his moral government, and for stimulating the exercise of those benevolent affections by which the tribes of mankind may- be united in harmony, and the world restored to tranquillity and repose. All the class-books now described should be embellished with engravings, wherever they appear requisite for illustrating the descriptions contained in the text. The subjects of such engra- vings should not only be accurately delineated, but delicately coloured after nature, so as to convey, as nearly as possible, a correct and vivid impression of the objects intended to be repre- sented. Nothing is more pleasing and gratifying to the young, than accurate engravings of the subjects about which they read, and nothing has a greater tendency to convey well-defined ideas of those objects v/hich are not present to the senses, and to impress them indelibly upon the imagination. But we have hitherto had no school-books embellished with such engravings Jts those to which I allude. The expense of such books might probably be objected to, as an argument against their introduction. But if the great end of education be carefully kept in view, and the import- ance of conveying clear and comprehensive ideas to the rising generation be duly weighed, no considerations of expense ought to deter us from the execution of any plan by which instruction in the elements of thought may be rendered delightful and effi- cient. Society, if once aroused to consider the importance of an enlightened education, would find no difficulty in defraying every expense connected with its arrangements. If such books w ere in universal request, and, consequently, many thousands of them thrown off at one impression, they might be afforded at a price very little higher than that of the paltry and inefficient class-books which have been so long in use in our scholastic establishments. The series of books now described should be accompanied with dictionaries, and other books of reference, for obtaining definitions of words and descriptions of the objects of nature and the terms of science and art. These dictionaries, along with clear defini- tions of English words and synonymes, should contain short defi- nitions of Latin, Greek, and French primitives and phrases, par- ticularly those which have been adopted into our language, and which, in composition, modify the meaning of many of our own words. The Latin and Greek prepositions should be explained, and their force in the composition of English words, and in the terms of art and science, particularly illustrated. Portable cyclo- pedias or technological dictionaries, with numerous illustrative KXGLISII READING. 151 cuts, such as Crabi)'s " Dictionary of General Knowledge," would likewise be highly requisite for the occasional use of the higher or primary classes, in all our schools. CHAPTER VI. Method of Teaching, and the Departments of Knowledge which should be taught in every Seminary, The teacher being understood to have a school furnished with the accommodations, museum, and apparatus formerly described, and with a series of books adapted to intellectual instruction — I shall now offer a few hints on the mode in which the several de- partments of instruction might be conducted. Section I. — English Reading. In throwing out a few hints on this department, I shall take it for granted that the pupils have acquired a knowledge of the alphabet, in the manner in which it is generally taught in infant schools, and that they are qualified to read, with a certain degree of ease, a few short lessons, consisting of words of one or two syllables. Let us suppose, for example, such a lesson as the following, on the general nature and qualities of certain objects, to be the subject of attention. 1. A bell gives a brisk sound when we strike it with a key, or with a stone, or with a large nail. If we strike an egg-cup made of wood, or if we strike a board or the table with a key, none of these things will give such a sound. A wine-glass will also pi-oduce a pretty brisk sound ; but if we strike it hard with a nail or a stone, it will break. We hear every sound by means of our ears, which God had formed and placed on each side of our heads, that we might listen to our teachers, and be able to talk with one another. — 2. The light which flows from the sun consists of seven colours ; red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The earth is spread over with most of these colours ; the fields appear spread over with green, some parts with a light green, and some parts with a dark green colour. Fir trees and some poplar trees are dark green, corn and grass are of a light green colour. A rose is red ; some roses are white. The crow- foot, the cowslip, the crocus, and the wall-flower, are yellow. Furze and broom have also pretty yellow flowers. The blue-bottle flower, and some hyacynths, are of a blue colour. Some daisies are red, some are white, and some have two or three colours. The corn in the fields, the grass in the meadows, and the leaves of trees, are green. — 3. Iron is heavy, copper iis heavier, lead is heaviest. Lead will sink, if you throw it into a bason of water, but a cork will swim on the top of the water. A stone will sink in water, but a piece of light wood will swim ; and if you push the wood down with your hand to the bottom of the bason, it will quickly rise again 152 LESSORS FOK JUVENILE CLASSES. to the top. — 4. The sun shines from the heavens, and gives us light all the day. He is so bright that we can scarcely look up to him. If we were to look straight towards the sun, it would dazzle our eyes. But if we take a piece of glass that is red or dark green, or a glass that is covered all over with the smoke of a candle, we may look through this glass to the sun without dazzling our eyes. The sun sometimes shines very bright, and sometimes he is covered with clouds. The sun is giving us light at this moment, but we cannot see him. Can any of you tell the reason why the sun is not seen jusTnow when he is giving us light'? What hides him from our sight ? The sky sometimes appears clear, like a large blue dome or half-globe, and sometimes it is all over covered with dark clouds. When the sun rises in the east, that part of the sky is often covered with bright red and yellow clouds ; and when he sets in the evening in the west, the same kind of clouds are sometimes seen. God made the sun, the moon, and the stars ; he also made the fields, the trees, and the corn ; he formed our bodies and our souls ; he gave us eyes to see with, ears, that we might hear, hands to handle with, feet to walk with, and he preserves us every moment. He is present with us in this place, and sees all that we do, though we cannot see him. Let us give thanks to God, for he is good, and let us do what he commands. None, I presume, will be disposed to deny, that children of five years of age, who have been previously accustonned to observe the facts around them, may easily be made, under the guidance of an intelligent teacher, to understand every idea contained in such lessons as the above. The lesson should first be distinctly and deliberately read over by the class two or three times, and then illustrated by objects and experiments. Lesson 1 , may be illustrated by a small hand-bell, a key, a wine-glass, and a piece of wood ; and some of the children might be permitted to try the experiments, which would gratify their natural curiosity, and excite an interest in the subject of their lesson — it being always understood that the teacher accompanies such experiments with familiar explanations and remarks. — For illustrating Lesson 2, it would be requisite to have a large white pasteboard painted with the seven primary colours of light, so that the pupils might be exercised upon it, in naming and distinguishing the different colours. The objects whose colours are stated might be shown them ; or if any of these objects are not at hand, they may be exhibited by coloured engravings. — To illustrate Lesson 3, a pair of scales, a bason of water, a piece of cork, and three pieces of iron, copper, and lead, of equal size, will be required, and then the experiment of weighing the pieces, and plunging them into the water, may be exhibited to the class. When explaining Les- son 4, a piece of stained or smoked glass may be put into the hands of the pupils, when the sun is visible, that each of them may try the experiment. The questions proposed in this lesson, which are not answered, may serve to exercise the judgment of LESSONS FOR JUVENILE CLASSES. 153 the pupils. They are understood to refer to the circumstance of a cloudy day. Various simple questions of this description should be embodied in the lessons, to give scope to youthful judgment and ingenuity. The latter part of this lesson might afford an opportunity to the teacher of impressing the minds of the class with a sense of the presence, goodness, and universal agency, of the ci'eator. It will scarcely be denied, that in this way instruc- tion may be blended with amusement, and that a considerable variety of useful knowledge might be gradually imparted to the juvenile mind. Descriptions of animals would form another interesting class of lessons for the young, as in the following example : — The Peacock. The Peacock is the most beautiful bird in the world. Its beauty excels that of all other animals. Its bill is about two inches long, and is of a brown colour. Its head and neck, and part of its breast, are of a dark blue colour. On the top of its head there is a tuft of pretty green feathers, which adds to its beauty. Its neck is long and slender, and its back of a whitish grey colour, spotted with black. But the plumage and tail of this splendid bird are the most beautiful parts of its body. They are adorned with colours so rich and various, that no human art can make any thing like them. When this bird walks in the sunshine, every moment produces a thousand shades of colouring, which are beautiful and ever varying. These fine colours exceed the lustre of the finest flowers of the fields and gardens. But, like the flowers, they fade every j^ear, and the feathers drop from their bodies, and are again renewed every spring. The length of the peacock, from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, is about three feet eight inciu's. Some of its longest feathers are four feet long. This bird appears huughtj arul prou-l. and. loves to display its iine colours to those 154 EXPEEIMENTAL LESSORS. who are looking on, like those little boys and girls who are prouJ of their line clothes. The peacock perches upon high places, and lives upon barley and other kinds of grain. Its beautiful plumage does not appear before it is nearly three years old. When it drops its fine feathers in the time of harvest, it does not like to be seen, but seeks to hide itself in some gloomy place. Though the peacock is very beautiful, it utters a very harsh and disgusting cry. For whole hours it will repeat the cry of Eko, eko, eko, with the most hideous noise. It cannot sing a pleasant song, like the linnet and the blackbird. It is so wicked that it will scarcely live with any other bird, except the pigeon ; and it tears and spoils every thing it gets a hold of with its bill. This bird was first brought from a far distant country, from the East Indies, and it lives to the age of twenty-five years. Little boys and girls, be not like the peacock, proud and vain, on account of your beauty and your fine clothes ; for humility and goodness are always to be preferred to beauty. In teaching this and similar lessons, a stuffed specimen of the animal described should be placed on a table opposite the class, and its different parts and colours pointed out ; but if a specimen is not at hand, a coloured engraving should be exhibited, either in the class-book, or on a large sheet pasted on a pasteboard. The terms, tuft, plumage hill, perching, &c. should be explained by a reference to the figure or specimen, and the length of a yard, foot and inch, or any number of these combined, should be dis- tinctly explained and exhibited, by means of rods of different lengths. — There is another class of lessons for the juvenile classes, which might consist chiefly of descriptions and exhU hilions of entertaining experiments. For example — The Sagacious Stoan. There is a nice little amusing toy which is sold in some toy-shops, called the Sagacious Swan. This swan is made of very thin tin-plate, or other light substance, and is hollow within. Near its mouth, in the inside, is fixed a small magnet, or load-stone. The swan is placed in a large bason full of water, in which it swims. A small rod of metal about five or six inches loni^, with a piece of bread fastened to one end of it, is held out to the swan, at the. distance of an inch or two from its mouth. The swan then moves forward after the rod, as if it wished to take hold of the piece of bread. If you move the rod gently from the swan, it will swim after it all round the bason, and from one side of it to another, as if it were a living swan swimming after its foo„mW_ //>c-,.. Then, taking all tj^-ie cubes ^^^om the table, and throwing down four, lnv. .|uc&uon Is put, How many cubes are on the table 1 which the children, after having been for some time. familiarized to this mode of notation, will be able to answer. ?6ne4ike manner, other numbers may be succes- sively placed on tne table, and similar questions put. This pro- cess may be varied as follows : Placing a parallelopiped or oblong figure before the children, the teacher may say, " Once one" — placing another at a little distance from the first, " Twice one" — adding another, " Three times one ;" and so on, making the chil. dren repeat the numbers as the pieces are laid down. When the 172 EXERCISES IN NUMBERS. ten oblongs are thus arranged at equal distances and in a straight line, such questions as the following may be put. How many oblongs are there on the table ? Do they lie close together ? Is the first oblong placed nearer to the second than the second is to the third ? Do their long sides lie in the direction of the window or of the door, &c. ? Could they be placed differently without changing either their number or distance ? When these questions are answered, they may then be desired either to shut their eyes or to turn their backs to the table, when three oblongs may be taken away, and the second moved nearer the first, and the ques- tion put, How many oblongs are there now? The children, having counted them, will say, " There are seueyi." How many were there before ? " Ten." How many have I taken away ? "Three." Did these oblongs undergo any other change ? "You have moved that (pointing to it) nearer to the other." In order to vary these processes as much as possible, the children should be desired to count the number of fingers on one or both hands, the number of buttons on their jackets or waistcoats, the number of chairs or forms in the room, the number of books placed on a table or book-shelf, or any other object that may be near or around them. By such exercises, the idea of number and the relative positions of objects would soon be indelibly impressed on their minds, and their attention fixed on the subject of instruction. These exercises may be still farther varied, by drawing, on a large slate or board with chalk, lines, triangles, squares, circles, or other figures as under. D A O D DQ AA OO DD DDQ AAA OOO 000 n\DD AAAA OOOO, nnDD Having chaiK6aSffv:\i figures as the above, the children may a., taui^ht to say, " One line, one triangle, one circle, one square- two lines, two triangles, two circles, two squares— three hnes, three triangles, three circles, three squares," &c. which may be continued to twelve or twenty, or any other moderate number They may be likewise taucrht to repeat the numbers either back, wards or forwards, thus : " One triangle, two triangles, three tri angles, four triangles"— « Four circles, three circles, two circles one circle." The nature of the four fundamental rules of arith metic may be explained in a similar manner. Drawing five squares MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 173 or lines on the board, and afterwards adding three, it would be seen that the sum of 5 and 3 is eight. Drawing twelve circles, and then rubbing out or crossing three of them, it will be seen that if 3 be taken from 12, nine will remain. In like manner the operations of multiplication and division might be illustrated. But it would be needless to dwell on such processes, as every intelligent parent and teacher can vary them to an indefinite extent, and render them subservient both to the amusement and the instruction of the young. From the want of such sensible representations of number, many young people have been left to the utmost confusion of thought in their first arithmetical pro- cesses, and even many expert calculators have remained through life ignorant of the rationale of the operations they were in the habit of performing. When the arithmetical pupil proceeds to the compound rules, as they are termed, care should be taken to convey to his mind a well-defined idea of the relative value of money — the different measures of length, and their proportion to one another — the relative bulks or sizes of the measures of solidity and capacity — angular measures, or the divisions of the circle — square measure — and the measure of time. The value of money may be easily represented, by placing six penny pieces or twelve halfpennies in a row, and placing a sixpence opposite to them as the value in silver; by laying five shillings in a similar row, with a crown piece opposite; and twenty shillings, or four crowns, with a sovereign opposite as the value in gold ; and so on, with regard to other species of money. To convey a clear idea of measures of length, in every school there should be accurate models or standards of an inch, a foot, a yard, and a pole. The relative proportions which these measures bear to each other should be familiarly illustrated, and certain objects fixed upon, either in the school or the adjacent premises, such as the length of a table, the breadth of a walk, the extent of a bed of flowers, &c. by which the lengths and proportions of such measures may be indelibly imprinted on the mind. The number of yards or poles in a fur- long or in a mile, and the exact extent of such lineal dimensions, may be ascertained by actual measurement, and then posts may be fixed at the extremities of the distance, to serve as a standard of such measures. The measures of surface may be represented by square boards, an inch, a foot, and a yard square. The extent of a perch or rod may be shown by marking a plot of that dimension in the school area or garden ; and the superficies of an acre may be exhibited by setting off a square plot in an adja- cent field, which shall contain the exact number of yards or links 15* 174 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. in that dimension, and marking its boundaries with posts, trenches, furrows, hedges, or other contrivances. Measures of capacity and solidity should be represented by models or standard mea- sures. The gill, the pint, the quart, and the gallon, the peck and the bushel, should form a part of the furniture of every school, in order that their relative dimensions may be clearly perceived. The idea of a solid foot may be represented by a box made exactly of that dimension ; and the weights used in commerce may be exhibited both to the eye and the sense of feel- ing, by having an ounce, a pound, a stone, and a hundred-weight, made of cast-iron, presented to view in their relative sizes, and by causing the pupil occasionally to lift them, and feel their rela- tive weights. Where these weights and measures cannot be con- veniently obtained, a general idea of their relative size may be imparted by means of figures, as under. STONE. POUND. OUNCE. Angular measure, or the divisions of the circle, might be repre- sented by means of a very large circle, divided into degrees and minutes, formed on a thin deal board or pasteboard ; and two in- dexes might be made to revolve on its centre, for the purpose of exhibiting angles of different degrees of magnitude, and showing what is meant by the measurement of an angle by degrees and CIRCLE OF WEEKS AND MONTHS. 175 minutes. It might also be divided into twelve parts, to mark the signs or great divisions of the zodiac. From the want of exhi- bitions of this kind, and the necessary explanations, young persons generally entertain very confused conceptions on such subjects, and have no distinct ideas of the difference between minutes of time, and minutes of space. In attempting to convey an idea of the relative proportions of duration, we should begin by present- ing a specific illustration of the unit of time, namely, the duration of a second. This may be done by causing a pendulum of 39^ inches in length to vibrate, and desiring the pupils to mark the time which intervenes between its passing from one side of the curve to the other, or by reminding them that the time in which we deliberately pronounce the word twenty-one, nearly corre- sponds to a second. The duration of a minute may be shown by causing the pendulum to vibrate 60 times, or by counting delibe- rately from twenty to eighty. The hours, half hours, and quar- ters, may be illustrated by means of a common clock ; and the pupils might occasionally be required to note the interval that elapses during the performance of any scholastic exercise. The idea of weeks, months, and years, nfi, ^ht be conveyed by means of a large circle or long stripe of pasteboard, which might be made either to run along one side of the school, or to go quite round it. This stripe or circle might be divided into 365 or 366 equal parts, and into 12 great divisions corresponding to the months, and 52 divisions corresponding to the number of weeks in a year. The months might be distinguished by being painted with different colours, and the termination of each week by a black perpendicular line. This apparatus might be rendered of use for familiarizing the young to the regular succession of the months and seasons ; and for this purpose they might be requested, at least every week, to point out on the circle the particular month, week, or day, corresponding to the time when such exercises are given. Such minute illustrations may, perhaps, appear to some as almost superfluous. But, in the instruction of the young, it may be laid down as a maxim, that we can never be too minute and specific in our explanations. We generally err on the opposite extreme, in being too vague and general in our instructions, taking for granted that the young have a clearer knowledge of first prin- ciples and fundamental facts than what they really possess. I have known schoolboys who had been long accustomed to calculations connected with the compound rules of arithmetic, who could not tell whether a pound, a stone, or a ton, was the heaviest weight — whether a gallon or a hogshead was the largest measure, or whether they were toeights or measures of capacity — whether a 176 SUPERFICIAL MEASURE. square pole or a square acre was the larger dimension, or whether a pole or a furlong was the greater measure of length. Con- fining their attention merely to the numbers contained in their ta- bles of weights and measures, they multiply and divide according to the order of the numbers in these tables, without annexing to them any definite ideas ; and hence it happens that they can form no estimate whether an arithmetical operation be nearly right or wrong, till they are told the answer which they ought to bring out. Hence, likewise, it happens that, in the process of reduction, they so frequently invert the order of procedure, and treat tons as if they were ounces, and ounces as if they were tons. Such errors and misconceptions would generally be avoided were accu- rate ideas previously conveyed of the relative values, proportions, and capacities of the money, weights, and measures used in com- merce. Again, in many cases, arithmetical processes might be illus- trated by diagrams, figures, and pictorial representations. The following question is stated in " Hamilton's Arithmetic,' as an exercise in simple multiplication — " How many square feet in the floor, roof, and walls of a room, 25 feet long, 18 broad, and 15 high? It is impossible to convey a clear idea to an arithmetical tyro, of the object of such a question, or of the process by which the true result may be obtained, without figures and accompany- ing explanations. Yet no previous explanation is given in the book, of what is meant by the square of any dimension, or of the method by which it may be obtained. Figures, such as the following, should accompany questions of this description. Floor and roof. Length, 25. Side xmlls. End walls. Length, 25. Breadth, 18. EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 177 The idea of superficial measure, and the reason why we mul- tiply two sides of a quadrangular figure in order to obtain the su- perficial content, may be illustrated as follows. Suppose a square table whose sides are 6 feet feet long, and another of the form of a parallelogram, 9 feet long, and 4 feet broad, the superficial feet contained in these dimensions may be represented as under — 6x6 = 36, and 9x4=36. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 '--^ 28 29 30 31 32 1— i34 35 36 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 By such a representation it is at once seen what is meant by a square foot, and that the product of the length by the breadth of any dimension, or of the side of a square by itself, must neces- sarily give the number of square feet, yards, inches, &c. in the surface. It will also show that surfaces of very different shapes, or extent as to length or breadth, may contain the same super- ficial dimensions. In the same way we may illustrate the truth of such positions as the following: — That there are 144 inches in a square foot — 9 square feet in a square yard — 160 square poles in an acre — 640 square acres in a square mile — 27 cubical feet in a cubical yard, &c. For example, the number of square feet in a square yard, or in two square yards, &c. may be re- presented in either of the following modes. 178 1 Square Yard. EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 1 Square Yard. 2 Square Yards. 1 — i — * J When the dimensions of the mason work of a house are re- quired, the different parts of the building, which require separate calculations, as the side- walls, j^e end- walls, the gables, the chimney-stalks, &c. should be sf jj^^jtely delineated ; and if such delineations are not found in the -uj-oks where the questions are stated, the pupil, before proceeding to his calculations, should be desired to sketch a plan of the several dimensions which require his attention, in order that he may have a clear conception of the operations before him. Such questions as the following should likewise be illustrated by diagrams. " Glasgow is 44 miles west from Edinburgh ; Peebles is exactly south fi'om Edinburgh, and 49 miles in a straight line from Glasgow. What is the distance between Edinburgh and Peebles?" This question is taken from " Hamilton's Arithmetic," and is inserted as one of the exercises connected with the extraction of the Square Root; but no figure or explanation is given, excepting the following foot-note. " The square of the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle, is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides." It should be re- presented as under. 44 Miles. GLASGOW EDINBURGH PEEBLES EXTRACTION OF ROOTS. 179 In a similar manner should many other examples connected ^yith the extraction of roots be illustrated. The following ques- tion can scarcely be understood or performed, without an iilus- trative figure, and yet there is no figure given, nor hint suggested on the subject, in the book from which it is taken. " A ladder, 40 feet long, may be so placed as to reach a window 33 feet from the ground on one side of the street ; and by only turning it over, without moving the foot out of its place, it will do the same by a window 21 feet high on the other side. Required the breadth of the street]" The following is the representation that should be given, which, with a knowledge of the geometrical proposition mentioned above, will enable an arithmetical tyro to perform the operation, and to perceive the reason of it. 22± ■_sm>^^mmm^>- By this- figure, the pupil will see that his calculations must have a respect to two right-angled triangles, of which he has two sides of each given to find the other sides, the sum of which will be the breadth of the street. The nature o^ fractions may be illustrated in a similar manner. As fractions are parts of a unit, the denominator of any fraction may be considered as the number of parts into which the unit is supposed to be divided. The follow- ing fractions, f , i, /_, may therefore be represented by a deline- ation, as follows : 180 FRACTIONS. 9 parts. 2 parts 12 jmrts. 7 parts _7_ 1 2 5 ^ar s. 4 parfs By such delineations, the nature of a fraction, and the valve of it, may be rendered obvious to the eye of a pupil. — A great many other questions and processes in arithmetic might, in this way, be rendered clear and interesting to the young practitioner in numbers ; and where such sensible representations have a ten- dency to elucidate any process, they ought never to be omitted. In elementary books on arithmetic, such delineations and illustra- tions should frequently be given; and, where they are omitted, the pupil should be induced to exert his own judgment and ima- gination, in order to delineate whatever process is susceptible of such tangible representations. I shall only remark further, on this head, that the questions given as exercises in the several rules of arithmetic, should be all of a practical nature, or such as will generally occur in the ac- tual business of life — that the suppositions stated in any question should all be consistent with real facts and occurrences — that facts in relation to commerce, geography, astronomy, natural philoso- phy, statistics, and other sciences, should be selected as exercises in the different rules, so that the pupil, while engaged in numeri- GRAMMAR. 181 cal calculations, may at the same time be increasing his stock of general knowledge — and that questions of a trivial nature, which are only intended to puzzle and perplex, without having any practical tendency, be altogether discarded. In many of our arith- metical books for the use of schools, questions and exercises, in- stead of being expressed in clear and definite terms, are frequently stated in such vague and indefinite language, that their object and meaning can scarcely be appreciated by the teacher, and far less by his pupils : and exercises are given which have a tendency only to puzzle and confound the learner, without being capable of being applied to any one useful object or operation. Such questions as the following may be reckoned among this class. " Suppose £2 and f of i of a pound sterling will buy three yards and f of | of a yard of cloth, how much will y^^ off of a yard cost?" "The number of scholars in a school was 80; there were one-half more in the second form than in the first ; the number in the third was f of that in the second ; and in the fourth, f of the third. How many were there in each form ?" In some late publication, such as "Butler's Arithmetical Exer- cises," and " Chalmers' Introduction to Arithmetic," a considera- ble variety of biographical, historical, scientific, and miscellaneous information is interspersed and connected with the different ques- tions and exercises. If the facts and processes alluded to in such publications, were sometimes represented by accurate pictures and delineations, it would tend to give the young an interest in the subject of their calculations, and to convey to their minds clear ideas of objects and operations, which cannot be so easily imparted by mere verbal descriptions ; and consequently, would be adding to their store of genial information. The expense of books constructed on this plan, ought to be no obstacle in the way of their publication, when we consider the vast importance of conveying well-defined conceptions to juvenile minds, and of rendering every scholastic exercise in which they engage interest- ing and delightful. Section V. — Grammar. Grammar, considered in its most extensive sense, being a branch of the philosophy of mind, the study of it requires a con- siderable degree of mental exertion ; and is, therefore, in its more abstract and minute details, beyond the comprehension of mere children. Few things are more absurd and preposterous than the practice, so generally prevalent, of attempting to teach gram- mar to children of five or six years of age, by making them com- mit to memory its definitions and technical rules, which to them 16 1 82 GRAMMAR. are nothing else than a collection of unmeaning sounds. In most instances they might as well be employed in repeating the names of the Greek characters, the jingles of the nursery, or a portion of the Turkish Alcoran. The following is the opinion of Lord Kaimes on this point : — " In teaching a language, it is the univer- sal practice to begin with grammar, and to do every thing by rules. I affirm this to be a most preposterous method. Grammar is contrived for men, not for children. Its natural place is be- tween language and logic ; it ought to close lectures on the for- mer, and to be the first lectures on the latter. It is a gross deception that a language cannot be taught without rules. A boy who is flogged into grammar rules, makes a shift to apply them ; but he applies them by rote like a parrot. Boys, for the know- ledge they acquire of a language, are not indebted to dry rules, but to practice and observation. To this day, I never think with- out shuddering, of Disputer's Grammar, which was my daily persecution during the most important period of my life. Deplo- rable it is that young creatures should be so punished, without being guilty of any fault, more than sufficient to produce a disgust at learning, instead of promoting it. Whence then this absurdity of persecuting boys with grammar rules?" In most of our plans of education, instead of smoothing the path to knowledge, we have been careful to throw numerous diffi- culties and obstacles in the way. Not many years ago, we had two characters for the letter s, one of them so like the letter f, that, in many cases, the difference could not be perceived. Wc had likewise compound letters^ such as c1, fl, fh, &c. joined to- gether in such an awkward manner, that the young could not dis- tinguish them as the same letters they had previously recognised in their separate state ; so that, in addition to the ungracious task of learning the letters of the alphabet in their insulated state, under the terror of the lash, they had to acquire the names and figures of a new set of characters, before they could peruse the simplest lessons in their primers. Such characters, it is to be hoped, are now for ever discarded. We have still, however, an absurd prac- tice in our dictionaries and books of reference, which tends to perplex not only our tyros, but even our advanced students, when turning up such works — I mean the practice of confounding the letters I and J, and the letters U and V, which are as distinct from each other as a vowel is from a consonant ; so that all the words beginning with J must be sought for under the letter I, and the words beginning with V, under the letter U, causing to every one a certain degree of trouble and perplexity, when searching for words beginning with any of these letters. Most of our school ABSURD METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 183 Dictionaries and Encyclopedias are still arranged on this absurd principle, which should now be universally discarded. In the construction of our books of Grammar for the use of children, — instead of facilitating this study, we have done every thing to render it as dry and intricate as possible. We have de- finitions, general rules, exceptions to these rules, declensions and conjugations, profusely scattered throughout every part of these scholastic manuals, and a cart-load of syntactical rules and ex- amples, all of which must of course be crammed, like a mass of rubbish, into the memories of the little urchins, although they should not attach a single correct idea to any portion of such scholastic exercises. Nothing can be more simple than the English verb, which, unlike the Greek and Latin verb, has only two or three varieties in its termination ; yet, we perplex the learner with no less than six different tenses — the present, the imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the future perfect, — while nature and common sense point out only three distinctions of time in which an action may be performed ; namely, the past, the present, and the future, which of course are subject to a few modifications. On the same principle on which we admit six tenses, we might introduce nearly double that number. Hence a celebrated grammarian, Mr. Harris, in a dissertation on this subject, enumerates no fewer than twelve tenses. It is quite easy to make a child understand that a man is now striking a piece of iron with a hammer, that he did the same thing yesterday, and will perform the same action to-mor- row, — in other words, that an action was performed at some past time, is performing now, or will be performed at some future period ; but it is almost impossible to convey to his mind a clear idea o^ twelve, or even o^ six, tenses, although a hundred distinc- tions and definitions should be crammed into his memory. A disposition to introduce quibbling and useless metaphysical dis- tinctions has been the bane o^ theology, and one of the causes of the divisions of the Christian church. A similar disposition has rendered grammar perplexing and uninteresting to young minds, and prevented them from understanding or appreciating :+s na- ture and general principles. By attempting too much, in the first instance — by gorging their memories with all the distinc- tions, modifications, and rules, which grammarians have thought proper to inculcate, — we have produced a disgust at the study, when, by attempting nothing more than they were able clearly to comprehend, we might have rendered it both delightful and instructive. There are, properly speaking, no oblique cases in English nouns, excepting the possessive case, and yet, in sonie 184 METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. grammars, we have six cases specified, similar to those of Latin nouns; and in almost every book on grammar, three cases at least are considered as belonging to English nouns. On the same principle, we might affirm that there are as many cases as there are prepositions in the language ; for every combination of a pre- position with a noun forms a distinct relation, and consequently may be said to constitute a distinct case. Were it expedient in this place, many such remarks might be offered in reference to the absurdities and intricacies of our grammatical systems, and the perplexing and inefficient modes by which a knowledge of this subject is attempted to be communicated. In communicating to the young a knowledge of grammar, or of any other subject, that plan which is the easiest and the most interesting should of course be adopted. All intricate and abstruse definitions and discussions ought to be avoided, and nothing at- tempted but what is level to their comprehensions, and M'hich may be illustrated and explained by sensible images and repre- sentations. In endeavouring to impart a general idea of the ele- ments of grammar, I would, in the first instance, lead the pupils to a position where they would have a distinct view of an exten- sive landscape, where they might see either ships sailing, birds flying, windmills in motion, men digging the ground, or working with saws and hammers, carriages moving, or reapers cutting down the corn. I would then inform them (if they are acquaint- ed with numbers,) that there are about fifty thousand words in the English language, but that they may be reduced to about eight different classes* or kinds ; or, in other words, that all the words they see in the different books that come into their hands, however numerous they may appear, may be arranged into these classes. I would next tell them that one of these kinds of words is called nouns., or terms which express the names of all kinds of objects, and desire them to point out, in the landscape before them, some of those objects designated nouns. They would find * The words in the English language have generally been arranged into nine classp«, cr ' parts of speech ;" but it appears almost unnecessary to consider the article and the interjection as distinct parts of speech, particu- larly the interjection, which is not necessary to the construction of a sen- tence, being only thrown in to express the emotion of the speaker. It is proper, however, that the nature and use of these words be explained to the young. Perhaps all the words essential to language might be arranged into the four following classes; JVouns, Attributives, (or adjectives,) Af- firmatives, and Connectives. Such arrangements, however, are of little importance, provided we convey a clear idea to those whom we instruct of the leading parts of speech which are essential to language, and be careful not to perplex their attention with too minute or unnecessary divisions. METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. 185 no difficulty in complying with such a requisition, and instantly, " a house, a tree, a ship, a church, a flower, a man, a horse," and similar names, would be cheerfully vociferated. They would next be told that certain qualities or properties belong to every object ; that a house may be high or low^ large or S7nall, white, gray, or red — a tree, tall, thick, or slender — that a feather is light — gold, heavy — butter, soft, &c. ; and that the words, high, (ow, light, heavy, soft, &c. belong to that class termed adjectives, or words expressive of qualities. Some particular objects might then be mentioned, and the pupils requested to point out some of the qualities which they may possess. For example. Boy. After two or three qualities that a boy may possess are stated, they would soon apply the adjectives, good, bad, lazy, diligent, tall, handsome, mischievous, beaiitifid, and other qualities. A Table, round, oval, square, oblong, high, low, long, short, &c., adding the word table to each of these qualities. To diversify this exer- cise a little, a quality might be mentioned, and the pupils desired to name any objects to which it will apply. For instance, the quality Round, — when such answers as the following might be given, " A hat is round, a wafer is round, a saucer is round, a shilling is round, the sun and moon are round." In like manner, High, which applies to towers, mountains, trees, the clouds; and Soft, which applies to butter, dough, jelly, slime, pudding, snow, &c. I would next direct their attention to that class of words which express actions, and request them to look around upon the land- scape, and tell me if they perceive any thing in motion, or shift- ing its position from one place to another; (for motion, either mental or corporeal, is implied in every action.) Should they hesitate in answering this request, an instance or two may be pointed out ; but they will seldom be at a loss, and will at once reply — " Ships are moving — birds are flying — the horse is trot- ting — men are walking — the mason is breaking stones — the trees are waving — the labourer is digging the earth." They may also be told to stretch out their hands, to walk a few steps, to strike the ground with a rod, to look up to the sky, or to perform any other action that may be judged expedient, and then informed, that the words expressive of such actions, as walking, striking, breaking, flying, &c. are denominated verbs. Having engaged them several times in such exercises, till a clear idea of the nature of a verb is communicated, it will be easy to explain the differ- ence between active and neuter verbs, and the three tenses, the past, the present, and ihe future. They may be told, for exam- pie, that masons broke stones yesterday, and will break stones 16* 186 METHOD OF TEACHING GRAMMAR. to-morrow — that James wrote a letter to his cousin a ^eyv days ago, and will probably ^crite another in a kw days hence — and that birds^e?o through the air last year, and willf.y in the same manner in the year to come. The quality of an action, and the manner in which it may be performed, or any circumstance that happens to be connected with it, may also be explained and illus- trated. Thus, they may be asked, In what manner the clouds move, and the birds fly — sloicly or swiftly ? In what manner the labourer performs his work — slovenly or neatly^ cheerfully or heavily 1 In what manner the river runs — smoothly or rapidly ? How James behaves during the time of instruction — attejitively or foolishly ? How the house to which I point is situated — plea- santly, awkwardly, or disagreeably ? They may then be told, that such terms as slowly, swiftly, smoothly, pleasantly, &lc. which express certain qualities of actions, constitute another class of words, denominated adverbs. Words which express the relations in which objects stand to each other, may be next pointed out. They may be directed to observe that a certain house (pointing to it) stands near a tower, a river, or a large tree — that a house on the right hand is distant from another on the left — that the clouds are placed above the earth — that the grass is under our feet, and that a certain man- sion is situated upon the declivity of a hill. Such relations might also be illustrated by desiring one of the pupils to walk to a cer- tain point, suppose a tree, and then to return from that point to his former position ; — or, to place himself in a position before the rest of the pupils, and afterwards in a position behi?id them — when the relative positions of objects denoted by the terms near, above, to, and from, before, and behind, may be familiarly explained, and designated by the word prepositions. An idea may be given of another class of words, which stand instead of names, by asking such questions as these : — How does that house look among the trees, on the opposite bank of the river ? The answer might be, " It looks beautifully." How does that lady walk ? She walks gracefully. What kind of a scholar is John ? He is a good scholar. What did two wicked boys do to Arthur a few days ago? They struck him with their fists. By such examples, it will be easy to show that the words it, she, he, stand in the place of house, lady, and John ; that they and their refer to the wicked boys, and that him stands instead of Arthur. They may be then informed, that such words are distinguished by the name pronouns ; and, by a few more familiar instructions, they may be made acquainted with the nature and use of the nomina- tive, possessive, and objective cases, both singular and plural, by ORIGIN OF GRAMMAR. 187 which they are varied. In a similar way the nature and use of the article and of conjunctions may be pointed out and illustrated. The plan now described may be varied, by directing the atten- tion of the young to the objects contained in a parlour or a school-room — or, a large engraved landscape, accurdtely coloured, containing a considerable variety of objects, and representing va- rious artificers a.t work, and objects in motion, might be placed before them, and used for the same purpose as a real landscape — or, they may be desired to form an imaginary picture, every one being called upon to specify the objects they wish to be put into the picture, along with their qualities, and the actions and move- ments they wish to have exhibited. This picture may either be merely imaginary, or it may be rudely sketched with a pencil on a sheet of paper. One may desire that an elegant mansion may be placed in it ; another, a church with a spire, and near it a small cottage ; another may wish to see exhibited, a smith ham- mering his iron, or a few persons fishing in a river ; and another, a school and play-ground, a cotton-manufactory, or a steam-vessel sweeping along the river. — The exhibitions at a market or fair, a public procession, boys and girls at play, a festive entertainment, with all its accompaniments, the scenes of a sea-port, or any other scene connected with nature or human society, might be conceived or delineated for this purpose, and grammatical exercises connected with it in the manner now illustrated. I should, how- ever, prefer a real landscape, as it appears on a fine day of sum- mer or autumn, to any other exhibition ; as real objects make a more lively impression on the mind than any picture can produce, and the view of a beautiful landscape, in the open air, is attended with the idea of liberty, freedom from formal tasks, and various exhilarating circumstances. And it ought never to be forgotten, that, by connecting the process of education with varied and pleasant associations, we gradually enlarge the sphere of juvenile knowledge, and impress more deeply on the youthful mind the instructions we intended to impart. By a few occasional lessons, in the way of amusement, on the plan now stated, which may be varied in every possible mode, more correct ideas of the parts of speech may be communicated, than what is generally done in a year or two by the dry and abstract modes in which this branch of instruction has usually been conducted. Such a plan of instruction appears to be suggested by the mode in which we may conceive language to have been originally formed. Were we to suppose man just now created, and placed for the first time on the surface of this globe, his attention would, in the first place, be directed to the various objects which he be- 188 RULES OF SYNTAX. held existing around him. These he would endeavour, by some means, lo distinguish one from another; and, if it were his design to invent a language by which he might hold a communication with other rational beings, his first effort would undoubtedly be, to give them names by which the ideas of them might be at any time recalled, when the objects themselves were absent from his view. These form a copious source of words, which must be common to every language formed for the communication of thought among intelligent beings, wherever existing, throughout the immensity of the universe. He would likewise soon discover that every one of the objects around him was endowed with certain attributes or qualities, to express which another class of words or signs would be requisite. In the course of his further survey, he would perceive certain changes, motions, and events, such as -the ebbing and flowing of the sea, the rising and setting of the sun, the flight of birds, the movements of quadrupeds, &c. the expres- sion of which would require a class of words distinct from the former. These classes comprehend all the words which can be deemed essential to language, or to a mutual interchange of sen- timents between rational beings. In the progress of the forma- tion of language, however, other words would be found highly expedient, for the purpose of ease or ornament, for connecting the different parts of a discourse, or to avoid circumlocutions or disa- greeable repetitions ; and hence the invention of pronouns, pre- positions, and conjunctions. If this appears to have been the process by which language was originally formed, it likewise sug- gests the proper mode by which a general knowledge of the object, use, and component parts of language may be communicated to the young. With regard to Syntax, in many of our initiatory grammars, -> are between thirty and forty syntactical rules, many of XheK 'ong and complex, and accompanied with numerous expla- fthem 1. distinctions, and exceptions, all of which are intended to ! nations, u ^ verbatim into the memory of the grammatical tyro, be crammea lerstand them or not, and however ungracious and whether he unu assigned him. Is such a task necessary to be irksome the task instance? and, if imposed, will it tend to in- imposed, in the first greater relish for grammatical studies, or spire the pupil with a ^ ^" the art of composition? I have no render him more accurate questions in the negative. Although hesitation in answerino- such dmitted to be useful, it would be all the rules alluded to were u '' P^H^^^^^' ^ young person with highly inexpedient to burden an^ " *^^ ^^'^^ elements of gram- such exercises, when communicating ^^ cannot be supposed to matical arrangement, especially when FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. 189 have a clear conception of the meaning and application of the greater part of such rules. What idea, for example, can a child of six or seven years have of such a sentence as the following, which forms only the one-fourth part of the 30th rule of syntax, in Blair's Grammar — "The same adjectives, adverbs, and prepo- sitions, are always understood to apply to their respective parts of speech, when connected by conjunctions; so that, if either of them be changed in the next clause of the sentence, or the mood or tense of the verb be changed, the nominative or its pronoun must be repeated," — or of the tbllowing, which forms another part of the same rule — " All the parts of a sentence should correspond with each other, and a regular and similar construction be care- fully preserved throughout; and this corresponding analogy in the construction of sentences constitutes the principal charm of elegant composition."* I am fully convinced that, in the first instance, it is quite unne- cessary to advert to more than three or four fundamental rules in syntax, in order to direct the young in the general construction of sentences. There is one principal rule, which, if punctually observed, would prevent any egregious blunder from being com- mitted either in speaking or writing — and that is, "A verb should agree with its nominative in number and person.''^ This might be called, with some propriety, the Rule of syntax — a rule which is short and simple, which can be easily explained and compre- hended, on the observation of which the meaning of a sentence frequently depends, and a rule, in short, which is most frequently violated, even by good writers, especially when their sentences are long and complex. To this rule I would add the following — ^'^ Active verbs and prepositions govern the objective case of pro- nouns ;" and, in order to prevent such inaccurate expressions as " more better,^'' " more dearer,^'' &c. the rule, " Double compara- tives and superlatives are improper," may be added. Exercises might also be given to illustrate the two following rules — " The * Mr. Blair, in his Preface to the Grammar alluded to, says, " A grammar for the use of schools should not contain any thing su/jerjijiotis," and "every thing should be expressed iji the smallest nuinber ofivords" — which are certainly good maxims, and yet some of his syntactical rules occupy nearly a page. He immediately adds, " Whatever it is desirable young peo- ple should know they imtst learn by rote — the memory is the oidy faculty of children of which teachers can properly avail themselves, and it is a vain attempt to address their immature powers of reason and reflection." Such sentiments are rather too antiquated for the nineteenth century. This gen- tleman, whether his name be real or fictitious, has succeeded much better in the execution of his " Class-Book," and his " Grammar of Natural Phi- losophy," than in his " Practical Grammar of the English Language." 190 FUNDAMENTAL RULES OF SYNTAX. past participle should be used after the verbs have and be y" and " The verb to be, should have the same case after it as before it." It ought never to be forgotten, that the habit of accurate compo- sition depends more on practice, and the study of good writers, than on a multitude o^ rules ; and I appeal to every one who is in the habit of composing, whether, in the moment of committing his thoughts to writing, he ever thinks of the rules of syntax, except, perhaps, some of those now specified. I have known an indivi- dual, in the lower walks of life, who had never been taught gram- mar, nor perused any book on the subject — who wrote essays on physical subjects, which might have been inserted with propriety (and some of them were actually inserted) in respectable scientific Journals. The only inaccuracy which appeared was an occasional violation of the first rule of syntax above stated. A more correct idea of the construction of sentences will be conveyed to the young by the occasional remarks of a judicious teacher, during their reading lessons — by exercising them frequently on the rules above stated, particularly the first — in causing them to correct ungram- matical sentences — and by pointing out the inaccuracies which occur in their written compositions, — than by all the formal rules that can be packed into their memories. ■ All the instructions alluded to above may be imparted without the assistance of any book or manual of grammar, and that, too, almost in the way of amusement. When the pupil has arrived at the age of 13 or 14 years, such books as " Murray's English Grammar," and " Irvine's Elements of English Composition," may be put into his hands for private perusal, where he will meet with a number of minute remarks and observations on the subject, which may be worthy of his attention. But, at the same time, he may be given to understand, that the careful study of good authors, a clear conception of the subject to which his atten- tion is directed, and the exercise of judgment, taste, and common sense, on every piece of composition, will be of more avail than any system of abstract rules ; and that a breach of some of the rules laid down by grammarians may sometimes be as proper as a strict observance of them. In short, in training children to accuracy, both in grammar and orthoepy, it might have a good effect were care uniformly taken, both in the school and the par- lour, to correct every expression in their ordinary conversation that is ungrammatical, or incorrect in their pronunciation — to explain the reasons of the corrections, and to endeavour, on all occasions, to induce them to express their thoughts with propriety and precision. In the schools in Scotland every child should be taught to pronounce the English language with accuracy, even GEOGRAPHY. 191 in his common conversation, so that the Scottish language may be extirpated as soon as possible, since it will never again be the language of literature or science. Section VI. — Geography. Geography is a branch of knowledge with which every indi- vidual of the human race ought to be, in some measure, acquainted. It is scarcely consistent with the character of a rational being, surrounded by the immensity of the works of God, to feci no desire to become acquainted with these works, and, particular!}', to remain in ignorance of the form, magnitude, component parts, and general arrangements of the terrestrial habitation allotted for his abode. It is equally inconsistent with a principle of benevo- lence, and with the relations in which he stands to beings of the same nature and destination, to remain altogether unacquainted with the physical and moral condition of other tribes of his fellow- men, and to feel no interest in alleviating their miseries or pro- moting their improvement. It is even inconsistent with the spirit of religion and the duties of a Christian, to remain in indifference with regard to geographical knowledge, for "the field" of Chris- tian labour and benevolence is " the world" with its numerous tribes of inhabitants, which it is the great object of this science to investigate and describe. As the depositories of Revelation, of " the good things of great joy," which are intended to be commu- nicated " to all people,^'' we are bound to study this subject in all its bearings and relations, and to teach it to our children, and our children's children, that they may feel an interest in the moral condition of the inhabitants of distant lands, and employ their energies in diffusing Divine knowledge, in counteracting moral evils, in abolishing the system of warfare, and preparing the way for a harmonious intercourse among all the families of the earth. This science, therefore, ought to form a subject of study in every seminary devoted to the instruction of the young. Yet it is a fact, that, in the present state of society, we find thousands of our fellow-men almost as ignorant as the horse or the mule, of the arrangements of the world in which they dwell, and of the various tribes of human beings with which it is peopled — as if they had no connection with their brethren of the same family, nor any common relation to the Universal Parent who gave them existence. This study, like many other scholastic exercises, has too fre- quently been conducted in a dry and uninteresting manner, and very inadequate ideas communicated of its grand features and leading objects. Lists of the names of towns, cities, countries 192 FIGURE OF THE EARTH. rivers, bays, and gulfs, have been imposed as tasks to the memory, without any corresponding ideas ; and the mechanical exercises of copying maps, and twirling an artificial globe, have not unfroqucntly been substituted for clear and comprehensive views of the leading facts and principles of the science. Physical geography has been almost entirely omitted in the initiatory books on this subject ; and most of them are constructed on this prin- ciple, that the meagre descriptions and details they contain shall be committed to memory by rote. In this way, months and even years have been spent, and as little real knowledge of geography- acquired, as there is of theology by the common routine of com- mitting to memory the vocables of the " Church Catechism," or the Westminster Assembly's synopsis of Divinity. In communicating a knowledge of geography, it is requisite, in the first place, to give the young a clear and impressive idea of the size^ form, component parts, and general arrangements of the earth, considered simply as an object of contemplation, and a part of the creation of God. In stating to a class of pupils that " the earth is round like a ball," the reasons or arguments which prove this position should be clearly and familiarly illus- trated. If they are near the sea-coast, they should be conducted to the margin of the sea, to observe how the hull of a ship, leaving the shore, disappears, near the horizon, before the sails, and the sails before the topmast ; and a telescope should be pro- vided, that the observation may be made with perfect distinctness. They may be informed, at the same time, that a ship disappears from the view, in the same manner, in all parts of the ocean; and if so, the ocean must form a part of the surface of a sphere; and if the ocean, with its numerous ramifications of seas, straits, and gulfs, be of a spherical form, the surface of the land must be nearly of the same figure, since it is nearly on the same level as the sea, no part of it rising more than a mile or two above this level, except the peaks of a few lofty mountains. Where there is no convenient access to the sea-coast, or the margin of a lake or river, the same fact may be illustrated by the appearance of a person going over the top of a conical hill, — or any waving tract of ground may be selected, and a little boy directed to walk from the one extremity to the other, over the highest point of it ; when it will be perceived, after having passed this point, that the lower parts of his body will first disappear, and that the top of his head will be the last part of him that will be visible, as represented in the following figure. PROOFS OF Tin: EAKTII'S ROTUNDITY. 193 The pupils may next be made to perceive, that if the earth be round like a globe, we might travel directly east or west, and, holding on in the same direction, without turning back, might arrive at the same point from which we set out ; and then be in- formed, that the experiment has actually been made — that ships, at different periods, have sailed quite round the world, the course of which may afterwards be pointed out on the artificial globe. But, as these voyages have been made only in an easterly or westerly direction, they may be led to understand that, had we no other proofs of the earth's rotundity, this experiment would only prove that the earth is round in one direction, like a cylinder or a drum. The roundness of the earth, from north to sovth, might, at the same time, be explained from the fact, that when we travel a considerable distance from N. to S. or from S. to N., a number 17 194 MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. of new stars successively appear in the heavens, in the quarter to which we are advancing, while many of those in the opposite quarter gradually disappear ; which could not happen if the earth were a plane in that direction, like the longitudinal surface of a cylinder: for, in this case, we should see all the stars of the hea- vens, from the North pole to the South, on whatever portion of the cylindrical surface we. were supposed to he placed. This might be illustrated by surrounding a terrestrial globe, or any other ball, with a large hoop or circle, about twice or thrice the diameter of the globe, on which some of the stars might be repre- sented. This circle might be made either of wood or pasteboard, and the globe within it connected with a moveable plane to repre- sent the horizon, as exhibited in the following figure. In this figure, the inner circle represents the earth ; A, the North pole, and B, the South ; and the larger circle, E C F D, a portion of the celestial sphere. It is evident, that if a person be placed at the equator at G, he will see all the stars above the horizon C D, in the hemisphere D F C. If he move to the point H, 45 degrees nearer to the North pole, the moveable plane C D, may be moved in the direction E F, to represent the horizon of that place, when it will evidently appear that he has now lost sight of all the stars situated between F and D, and that the pole- star C, which, in his former position, was in his horizon, is now elevated 45 decrees above it. In a similar manner it micrht be shown that no such diflerence in the aspect of the starry heavens could take place, in travelling from South to North, or from North to South, were the earth of the form of a cylinder ; and consequently, that the fact above stated proves the rotundity of the earth in that direction. That the earth, considered as a whole, notwithstanding the irregularities caused by its mountains and vales, is of the figure of a sphere, may be illustrated from the phenomenon exhibited during the progress of an eclipse of the moon. An explanation of a lunar eclipse, accompanied with familiar illustrations, will be requisite to be given, before the proof of the globular figure of the earth be deduced from this phenomenon. Let the flame of a candle or gas-lamp represent the sun, and a wooden ball, supported by a wire, rejircsent the earth ; and let a circle, some- what less than the diameter of the ball, be drawn on a piece of pasteboard, and coloured, to represent the moon. Let them be placed at a moderate distance from each other, and nearly in a straight line, and let the pupils mark the curve of the shadow of the ball on the circle representing the moon, and that there is no body but one of the figure of a globe that can project a circular MAG^"ITUDE OF THE EARTH. 195 shadow in every direction; for, although a counter or a shilling will cast a circular shadow in one diro^ction, yet in every other direction it is either an oval or a straight line. Hence the conclu- sion is easily deduced, that, if the shadow of the earth falling on the moon is the cause of an eclipse of that orb, and if this shadow, so far as it is seen, is always a portion of a circle, the earth, as a whole, must be nearly of a globular figure. In order to render such explanations clear and impressive — when a visible eclipse of the moon takes place, young persons should be direct- ed to observe such a phenomenon with attention — to mark the figure of the earth's shadow when it first enters on the eastern margin of the moon — before it leaves its western edge — and during the whole of its progress along the disk, if it happen to be a partial eclipse of the moon; and, although they be not directly engaged in geographical studies at the time, yet such observations will afterwards prepare them for understanding such explanations as now sussested. Such minute illustrations, so far from beinfj superfluous or unnecessary, are esentially requisite for producing in the minds of the young a rational conviction of the rotundity of the earth. I have known young ladies, and gentlemen too, who had passed through a scholastic course of geography, and yet could assign no other reason for their believing that the earth is globular, than this, "That their teacher told them so, and showed them a representation of it by the artificial globe.'* Besides, such specific explanations and illustrations tend to exer- cise the reasoning powers of the young, and to bring to their view a variety of incidental facts and circumstances connected with the subject, and thus their store of general information is gradually increased. Having, by such methods as the above, produced a clear con- viction of the spherical form of the earth, the next step might be to convey an impressive idea of its magnitude. For this purpose, let a class of young persons be conducted to an eminence, where they might have a distinct view of a landscape stretching about eight miles in every direction. Let their attention be particularly directed to the various objects which compose the scene before them ; let them be directed to consider the vast mass of materials contained in the hills or mountains which form a portion of the view-— the millions of labourers, and the number of years which it would be requisite to reduce the whole landscape to a perfect level, — 'the number of trees and shrubs of every kind contained within the range of their view — the almost innumerable millions of flowers of every hue, stalks of corn, blades of grass, mosses almost invisible to the naked eye, and vegetables of every descrip- 196 MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. tion, which cover every portion of the landscape — the cattle, sheep, horses, dogs, and other quadrupeds, and the multitudes of birds, worms, flying and creeping insects, and microscopic animalculcB, which no man can number, comprehended within the limits of their view — the number of houses and human beings in the towns, villages, and hamlets, which are scattered around, and the labours in which they are employed — the mass of waters in the rivers, and in that portion of the ocean which lies before them, (if such objects be in view,) and the numerous tribes of fishes which glide through the watery element. Let them be directed to consider the time and exertions which would be requisite to travel to the most distant part of the landscape, to go quite round it, and to cross it in forty or fifty directions, so as to attain a more intimate inspec- tion of the multifarious scenes and objects of which it is composed. Let certain general calculations be made of the ni/mher and mag- nitvde of such objects, of the motion of the inanimate parts of nature, of the activities of animated beings, and of the quantity of matter which appears on every hand. Having impressed upon their minds, as clearly as possible, such ideas of the magnitude and variety of the scene l3efore them, let them be informed that the landscape they are contemplating is about 50 miles in circumfer- ence, and that its surface contains 200 square miles; but, that the whole surface of the earth contains more than 196 millions of square miles, and, consequently, is nine hundred and eighty thoU' sand times larger than all the objects they behold around them ; so that they must conceive 980,000 landscapes as large as the one before them, before they can form an adequate idea of the magnitude of the earth. To impress this idea more deeply, they may likewise be told, that, were they to remain in the station they now occupy, ten hours every day, (the time usually allotted for daily labour,) and were a landscape of similar extent to that which they behold, to pass before their view every hovr, till the whole extent and scenery of the terraqueous globe were brought under their observation, it would require more than two hvndred and, sixty -eight years before they could survey, even in this rapid and imperfect manner, the whole superficial dimensions and varie- gated scenery of the globe on which we dwell. Their attention should likewise be directed to the solidity of the earth — that it is not a mere superficies, but contains within its bowels an immense and indescribable mass of matter, extending nearly 7900 or 8000 miles in every direction between the oppo- site portions of its circumference, amounting to more than 263 thousand millions of cubical miles. An idea of this enormous mass of materials mav be communicated bv such illustrations as MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 197 the following : — Suppose Mount Etna, — which ranks among the largest insulated mountains on the globe, and which contains around its sides 77 cities, towns, and villages, and 115,000 inha- bitants, — to be 120 miles in circumference around the base, about 10 miles in circumference near the top, and 2 miles in perpendicu- lar altitude, and considering its figure to be nearly that of the frustrum of a cone, it will contain about 833 cubical miles, which is only the _^-g.^i-_ ___ part of the solidity of the globe, reckon- ing it to contain 263,858,149,120 cubical miles ; so that it would require more than th?'e€ hundred millions of mountains, such ns Etna, to form a mass equal to that of the terraqueous globe: and were these mountains placed side by side in a straight line, they would extend 12,100,097,574, or more than twelve thousand mil- lions of miles ; that is, more than six times the distance of Her- schel, the remotest planet of our system. And were we to travel without intermission, till we reached the extremity of such a line of mountains, at the rate of 25 miles every hour, (the utmost speed which our steam-carriages have yet attained,) it would ve- c\\me jifty-jice thousand, two hundred and ffty -one years, before the journey could be accomplished. And, were they arranged in circles, equal to the perimeter of the sun, they would go 4376 times round the circumference of that stupendous globe, and cover a great portion of its surface. Again, suppose that all the inhabitants of the earth were to be employed in removing a mass of materials equal to that of our globe ; suppose all that are ca- pable of labouring to be 200 millions, and that each person re- moves ten cubical yards in a day, it would require more than 1,970,956,164, or, one thousand nine hundred and seventy mil- lions, nine hundred and fifty-six thousand, one hundred and sixty- four years, before such an operation could be completed ; which is more than 337,550 times the number of years which have elapsed since the Mosaic creation. It is of some importance, that, by such illustrations, we endea- vour to convey to the minds of the young a luminous and im- pressive idea of the magnitude of the globe on which we dwell. For it is the only standard, or scale cf magnitude, by which we are enabled to form a conception of the bulk of the sun, and some of the more magnificent globes of the solar system, and of the immensity of the universe. If we entertain imperfect and contracted conceptions of the size of our globe, we shall be led to entertain similar contracted views of the celestial orbs, and of the amplitudes of creation. No adequate conception of the mag- nitude of our world can be conveyed to the young, by merely telling them that it is 8000 miles in diameter, and 25,000 in cir- 17* 198 NATURAL FEATURES OF THE GLOBE. cumference, and showing them its figure and the divisions on its surface by an artificial globe. For, in the first place, few of them have an accurate conception of the extent of one thousand miles, much less of twenty -Jive thousand ; and, in the next place, they are apt to fix their attention merely on the length of a line or a circle, without considering the extent of surface contained in a globe of the above dimensions ; and therefore, the number of square miles comprised in the superficies of the earth, amounting to nearly 200 millions, should always be specified, as that which conveys the most correct idea of the amplitude of our globe — and, in the last place, unless an ample prospect be presented to their view, and their attention fixed upon its multifarious objects, while such instructions are imparting, the illustrations of the mag- nitude of the earth will neither be clear nor impressive. In a private apartment, where the view is confined to the walls of the room, such instructions would lose a considerable part of their effect. Having thus impressed on the understandings of the pupils clear conceptions of the figure and magnitude of the earth, its leading divisions and grand natural outlines should next be presented to view. An eighteen-inch terrestrial globe should be placed before them, on which they should be directed to mark the great divisions of^ land and water — that the regions inhabited by man, and other terrestrial animals, lie between two expansive masses of water more than ten thousand miles in length, and one of them nearly the same in breadth, which cover about three-fourths of the surface of the globe — that the northern and southern portions of this watery mass are, for the most part, compacted into a body of solid ice ; that the other portions move backwards and for- wards in different directions by a kind of libratory motion, every 12^ hours, producing the flux and reflux of the sea ; that currents, such as the gulf stream^ are found in different parts of the ocean, flowing unitbrmly in the same direction — that the land is divided into three principal portions or masses, the Eastern and Western continents, and the territory of New Holland, besides thousands of islands of every form and size, which diversify the surface of the ocean — that lofty ranges of mountains, some of them three or four miles in perpendicular height, run in different directions through these continents, some of them hundreds and even thou- sands of miles in extent — that hundreds of rivers, many of them above 2000 miles in length, have their rise in these elevated re- gions, and carry an immense body of waters into the ocean — that the ocean has been sounded with lines nearly a mile in length, when no bottom was found ; that it is probable, it is several miles GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. 199 m depth, and that its bottom is diversified with mountains and vales like the surface of the dry land ; that it contains a mass of water sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of more than a mile and a half; and that, were its caverns drained, it would require more than 20,000 years before they could be filled by all the rivers running into it at their present rate, although they pour into its abyss 13,600 cubical miles of water every year — that the atmosphere surrounds the whole of this terraque- ous mass ; that by means of this atmosphere and the solar heat, a portion of the waters of the ocean is carried up to the region of the clouds in the form of vapour, and condensed into rain to supply the sources of the rivers, and to water and fertilize the earth — and that by these, and similar arrangements of Infinite Wisdom, the lives and comforts of myriads of animated beings throughout the regions of the earth, air, and ocean, are preserved and perpetuated. Such general views of the grand features of the globe, when occasionally enlivened with particular details of what is curious and novel to the young, cannot but arrest their attention, and ex cite their curiosity to acquire more minute information on the sub- ject ; while, at the same time, they have a tendency to inspire them with sublime and reverential ideas of that Almighty ^Being who, " laid the foundations of the earth, who causeth the vapours to ascend, who measureth the ocean in the hollow of his hand, who weigheth the mountains in scales, and taketh up the isles as a very little thing." After describing such general views, the attention may be directed to various other objects connected with the physical constitution of the globe, such as rocks and insulated mountains, promontories, isthmuses, caverns, icebergs, forests, mines, and deserts — volcanic mountains, and islands that have been raised from the bottom of the ocean by the force of subter- raneous agents — lakes, mediterranean seas, fountains, springs, whirlpools, gulfs, and water-spouts — the peculiarities of the dif- ferent zones — the climates, and the distribution of plants and animals in the different regions of the earth — the atmospherical phenomena in different countries, thunder, lightning, aurora-bore- alis, the monsoons, trade-winds, sea and land breezes, hurricanes, and tornadoes — the distribution of teniperatvre in different parts of the earth — the variety of seasons in the different zones, and the reasons why all the four seasons prevail at the same moment in different countries — the changes which have been produced on the surface of the globe by earthquakes, volcanoes, the action of water, the influence of the atmosphere, and the agency of man — the varieties of the human race, the population of the 200 GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. globe, and the number of individuals that are dally ushered into existence, and of those who daily retire from the living world. To these views of natural scenery may next be added explana- tions of maps, and of the different circles on the artificial globe, of the nature of longitude and latitude, the division of the circle into degrees and minutes, the variety of days and nights, the reasons why the zones are hounded at particvlar degrees of latitvde by the tropics and polar circles, and the mode by which the circumference of the earth and its other dim.ensions have been determined. The explanations of astronomical geography, such as the causes of the different seasons, the annual and diurnal motions of the earth, and the niethod of finding the latitudes and longitudes of places, may be postponed till the pupil proceeds to the study of astronomy. In describing such objects as the above, and other departments of geography, illustrative maps and delineations, such as the fol- lowing, are requisite: — 1. A stereographic projection of the globe on the plane of the meridian, w^hich divides it into the eastern and v/estern hemispheres ; and another projection on the plane of the equator, having the poles in the centre, dividing the earth into the northern and southern hemispheres. Without this last projection, which is seldom exhibited in books of geography, the relative positions of countries in Asia, North America, and other regions, cannot be distinctly traced. On both these maps, the ranges of mountains which diversify the globe, and all the rivers which flow from them, should be particularly delineated, without any other objects or distinctions, except the names of the countries, seas, oceans, rivers, and mountain-chains, in order to present to the young mind, at one view, this grand and distinguishing fea- ture of our globe. For want of such maps on a large scale, ac- curately delineated, with the mountains and rivers represented in their proportional magnitudes, no accurate nor comprehensive ideas are generally entertained of this noble and interesting fea- ture of the terrestrial surface. Three or four extensive chains of mountains may be distinguished, from which flow numerous ramifications, and which, with some interruptions from the sea, extend nearly round the globe. One of these chains runs through Lapland, Finland, and Northern Russia, including the Ural mountains, sending forth branches in different directions. Another runs along the southern parts of Europe, including the Alps and Pyrenees — Hungary, Persia, Tibet, including the Hi- malaya, and, stretching in different directions, pass through China, Japan, and the Kurile islands towards Kamtschatka, from which another chain diverges, and establishes a connection with the GEOGRArHICAL DELINEATIONS. 201 grand chain of the American continent. Another ridge runs along the southern hemisphere, through Africa, Paraguay, the islands of the Pacific, and New Holland ; and another extensive chain runs from north to south, along the whole length of Ame- rica, including the Andes, the Rocky and the Blue mountains. The pupils should be directed to trace these ranges, with all their different branches, not only along the continents, but across the oceans, where the tops of the higher ridges appear in the form of islands, their averasfe elevations remainino- below the level of the sea. — 2. Another delineation should consist of an elementary map, showing the various objects connected with geography : such as continents, islands, peninsulas, isthmuses, promontories, mountains and plains, woods and forests — rivers, lakes, seas, gulfs, friths, straits, and channels — and the manner in which cities, towns, forts, roads, shoals, sand-banks, soundings, sunken rocks, and the direction of the winds, are represented in maps. — 3. Delineations showing the proportional length and breadth of the principal rivers on the globe. This might, perhaps, be more distinctly exhibited by a number of rods of different lengths, gra- dually tapering to a point as the respective rivers diminish in breadth, from their mouths to their sources. Other delineations might represent their lengths, not in straight lines, but with all their curves and windings. — 4. A chart or delineation of the comparative size of countries, lakes, and islands ; so that the pro- portional spaces on the globe, occupied by such countries as Rus- sia, China, Great Britain, the United States, &c. may be perceiv- ed at a glance. These spaces may be represented either by squares, parallelograms, or circles. — 5. An Isothermal chart, showing the climates and vegetable productions of the earth ; in which the mean temperature of its different regions, the plants which flourish in them, the length of the longest days and nights, the divisions of the zones, and other particulars, may be distinct- ly noted. — 6. A chart of geographical zoology, showing the various tribes and species of animals with which the earth is peopled, and the several regions where the different species abound. The names of the animals mijj;ht be engraved instead of the names of towns, and if the chart was on a large scale, the figures of the most remarkable animals might likewise be en- graved. — 7. A map of Africa and America, and the Atlantic ocean lying between them, on the same sheet, for the purpose of exhibiting, at one vie^v, the whole Atlantic, with its islands, and the relative positions of the coasts of Africa and South America. Also, another map, on the same scale, representing the eastern parts of Asia and New Holland on the one hand, and on the 202 GEOGRAPHICAL DELINEATIONS. Other, the western coast of America, M'ith the Pacific ocean, and its numerous groups of islands which intervene, for the purpose of showino- the nearest approach which the old and new continents make to each other, and the relative positions of the islands and countries connected with the Pacific. — 8. A map or chart of Moral geography, exhibiting the prevailing religion of the several countries, and the moral state of their inhabitants, which might be distinguished, either by different colours or by diflfercnt shades in the engraving. In this map the countries enlightened by Christianity, and those which are still shrouded in Pagan dark- ness, might be exhibited at one view ; for the purpose of showing to the young what an immense portion of the world is still im- mersed in heathen ignorance and idolatry, and what exertions are still requisite for enlightening the benighted notions ; and for the purpose of stimulating them to bear a part in those philan- thropic movements which are now going forward for the enlight- ening and renovation of the world. — 9. Views of cities, public buildings, mountains, caves, grottos, volcanoes, interesting land- scapes, and whatever scenes or objects are most striking on the surface of the globe. Some of these views might be exhibited by the optical diagonal machine formerly described. — 10. Sets of coloured maps of the quarters of the globe, and its different countries, delineated in the usual way. — 11. A projection of the globe on the horizon of the particular country where the pupils reside, for the purpose of showing the bearings and distances of places from the country in which they are placed. — 12. Slate globes, on which the pupil may trace with a pencil the circles of the sphere, the ranges of mountains, the course of rivers, the out- lines of continents and islands, and whatever else may tend to familiarize his mind to the general arrangements of the earth. On such globes mistakes may be remedied and inaccuracies cor- rected by the application of the sponge ; and, after the pijpil has been for some time accustomed to such delineations, he will soon acquire a clear and comprehensive view of the outlines of the globe, and become familiar with the relative positions of its con- tinents, seas, and islands. — 13. Delineations of the comparative heights of the principal mountains on the globe — the mountains in the eastern and western hemispheres being arranged in two separate groups. On the same sheet might likewise be delineat- ed, comparative views of the heights of different ranges, arrang- ing them into six or seven classes, beginning with views of such mountains as those of Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, which do not much exceed 4000 feet, and gradually proceeding to such as the Cordilleras and the Himalaya, whose summits reach an elcva- MORAL GEOGRAPHY. 203 tion of above 20,000 feet. — 14. Models of particular countries might occasionally be made of wax or other materials, particular- ly of mountainous regions, for the purpose of exhibiting an idea of the scenery of a country, the windings of its rivers, and the comparative height of its mountains above the general level of its surface. No map can convey an idea of such particulars, or of the general appearance and prominent features of any country, similar to that of a well-executed model. I have seen in the Museum of the University of Edinburgh, several models of the kind to which I allude, of the vales and mountainous regions of Switzerland, in which the position of the towns, the course of the rivers, the lakes, the lines of roads, the vales, the rocks, the forests, and the comparative elevation of the mountains, are ex- hibited, as if one were looking down upon the country from the clouds. The only objection to such models would be the difficulty of getting them executed, and the consequent expense which would be incurred. But, if one model were accurately executed, others could easily be taken from it, on the same principle as phreno- logists take casts of the human skull. By the assistance of such maps and delineations, and with the aid of a judicious text-book, comprising a comprehensive view of the outlines of physical, mathematical, civil, statistical, and historical geography, an enlightened teacher will be enabled gradually to lead his pupils forward to luminous views of this interesting subject. In describing the different countries, he should give a comprehensive outline of whatever is peculiar to each country, and select, for particular description, whatever in- teresting objects of nature or art may have a tendency to excite the attention and gratify the curiosity of his pupils, referring them to their larger systems of geography for more minute details. In such descriptions, the details of moral, statistical, and religious geography should occupy a more prominent place than they generally do in our systems of geography and scholastic courses on this subject. The statistics of our own country, of the various states of Europe, and particularly of the United States of America, which are very imperfectly known, and respecting which there exist numerous misconceptions and unreasonable prejudices on this side of the Atlantic, should be particularly detailed. The moral and mental degradation of the heathen world ; the mission- ary stations which have been fixed in different parts of it for counteracting the influence of barbarism and idolatry, and dif- fusing the light of divine knowledge ; the various success which has accompanied such undertakings ; and the philanthropic en- terprises which are now going forward in different countries for 204 GEOGRAPHICAL BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. the moral renovation of mankind, should be depicted to the view of the young with all the vividness and energy which the import- ance of such subjects demands, in order to allure them to the consideration of such objects, and to secure their endeavours in promoting them. It is a striking and melancholy feature in the records of our race, that almost the whole of history and historical geography is occupied with details of the miseries of mankind, produced by ambition, avarice, and injustice, the tyranny of despots, and the desolations of war ; and that scarcely a bright spot can be perceived on the surface of the globe, and amidst the gloomy records of past generations, on which the eye of benevo- lence can rest with unmingled delicrht. Hence it has happened, that we have scarcely a history of the operations of pure philan- thropy, except in the instance of our Saviour and his apostles. And now, when philanthropic plans have been formed, and benevolent enterprises are carrying on, our geographers and men of science, so long accustomed to blaze abroad the exploits of am- bition and malignity, will scarcely condescend to notice or record the operations by which the moral world is beginning to be en- lightened and regenerated. This is not what it ought to be, or what we ought to expect from those who are engaged in the dif- fusion of knowledge. All knowledo;e should be directed so as to have a moral bearing, and to stimulate the mental activities of the young to those benevolent exertions by which the best interests of their fellow-men, in every land, may be promoted. Geographical compendiums for the use of schools should be clear and comprehensive in their details, and enlivened with occa- sional picturesque descriptions of human scenery and of natural and artificial objects, which may be illustrated with neat en- gravings. They should also abound with questions and exercises of every description connected with the subject, to afford scope for the industry of the pupil, and for the exercise of his judgment and reasoning powers. But, however excellent the plan and de- tails of any school-book may be, it ought by no means to be con- sidered as superseding the more familiar illustrations of the teacher, and the conversational lectures alluded to above. No man can be a successful teacher of this science, but he who has a familiar and comprehensive knowledge of all the subjects con- nected with it, and who can, at any time, illustrate its principles and facts by viva voce descriptions and elucidations, which al- ways make a deeper impression on the young mind than can be produced by the mere perusal of the best treatises. In working the usual problems on the terrestrial globe, (some of which are of little practical importance,) due care should be taken, that the GEOGRAPHICAL HOOKS FOR SCHOOLS. 205 pupils be not guided merely by the rules given for the respective problems, bftt that they understand the reasons why they turn the globe in this or that direction — elevate the pole to a certain degree above the horizon — or set the horary circle to a given hour. In problems which have a reference to the difference of time at different places, they may be taught to perform the operations by a mental calculation, and to ascertain, in the course of a few se- conds, what nations have noon, midnight, morning or evening, at a given hour, or summer or wintei*, spring or autumn, on a given day or month. In commencing the study of geography, a plan or map of the town or village in which the pupils are taught, along with the adjacent country, and some of its prominent objects, might be laid before them, as introductory to the study and expla- nation of maps. On this map, they might be directed to attend to the cardinal points of the compass, the boundaries of the town, the streamlets or rivers, ponds or hills, and the bearings of the different streets, lanes, public buildings, and other objects, from each other ; and various questions and exercises in reference to such objects might be proposed, which would excite a spirit of observation, and prepare them for understanding maps of coun- tries on a larger scale. A map of the county, and then a map of the state or kingdom, might next form the subject of attention, which would prepare them for the study of the particular quarter of the globe in which they reside, and of all the other countries, seas, and oceans, dispersed over the surface of the earth. This plan is evidently in conformity to the order of nature, although directly opposite to the order generally pursued.* * Since writing the preceding parts of this work, I have been favoured, through the liberality of a respected literary correspondent in the State of Connecticut, North America, with a variety of school-books on geography and other subjects, which have an extensive circulation in the New-England States. Among these are the following: — 1. Woodbridge's "System of Universal Geography, on the principles of comparison and classification. 5th edition, 1833." This work, comprised in a thick 12nio. volume of 500 very closely printed pages, comprehends an immense mass of inform- ation on physical, civil, and statistical geography, including descriptions of a great variety of facts in relation to the geological structure of the earth. It is illustrated by nearly a hundred engravings of natural and arti- ficial objects ; such as sections of rivers, canals, comparative elevation of mountains, cataracts, races of man, geological sections, cities and public buildings, which both enliven and elucidate the descriptions. Appended to this work, is a lucid and judicious compend of " Ancient Geography, as connected with Chronology," including sketches of sacred history, mytho- logy, and the early history of mankind, by Mrs. Vv''i!Iard — a lady who ap- pears to have made considerable researches into the different departments of geographical science, and to have promoted the cause of general educa* 18 206 GEOLOGY. Section VII. — Geology. Geology is a science which, of late years, has excited the atten- tion of philosophers, naturalists, and theologians; and, in conse- tion. Both these works are admirably calculated for the higher classes in schools, and abound with a great number of questions and exercises, for stimulating the attention and ingenuity of the young. Had this volume been sparsely printed, according'to the fashion that prevailed 20 or 30 years ago, like *' Playfair's Geography," and other works, it would have occupied two or three quarto volumes of 1500 pages, — 2. Woodbridge's " Rudiments of Geography, on a new plan," 18mo. containing 203 closely printed pages, and about 170 cuts, and comprising a very considerable portion of informa- tion on the different departments of geography. It may be considered as partly an abridgment of the larger work noticed above, and partly an intro- duction to it. I'he cuts, though small, are sufficiently vivid and distinct to convey an accurate idea of the objects they are intended to represent. It has passed through seventeen editions, comprising more than 200,000 copies. Mr. Woodbridge is a corresponding member of the Geographical Society of Paris, and Editor of the American " Annals of Education ;" and a gentle- man who appears to be quite familiar with all the departments of geogi'a- phical, physical, and mathematical science. His geographical works are rich in information in respect to ever}' topic connected with his general sub- ject, and have received the approbation of the Geographical Society of Paris, and of many scientific characters on the continent of Europe, particularly Humboldt and Fellenberg. — 3. " A Practical System of Modern Geography," by J. Olney, A. M. — an 18mo. of 288 pages, closely printed on a plan some- what similar to Woodbridge's Rudiments, illustrated wiih nearly a hundred engravings, and containing a very considerable portion of useful informa- tion. This work has passed through lifteen editions. — 4. " The Malte-Brun School Geography," by Mr. Goodrich, a large ISmo. volume of nearly 300 pages, and containing about 133 engravings. This work contains a larger quantity of letter-press than the two former, and a great variety of facts in relation to civil and descriptive geography, but is not so full as "Woodbridge's volumes in its details of pli'f'n'cal and statistical geography. Fifteen thou- sand copies of this w^ork were sold in the space of eighteen months from the date of its first publication. The .Atlases belonging to these works are beautifully executed, and contain several of the projections i have suggested above, besides sets of maps as usuall}^ delineated, along with a variety of useful descriptions and statistical tables. In the Atlas which accompanies Olney's " Practical System," the population of the respective towns and cities can be ascertained at a glance, by means of certain characters and figures connected with their names. Hall's "Child's Book of Geography," and Peter Parley's " Geography for Children, " each of them containing about a hundred pages, in a square 18mo. size, and embellished with a variety of maps and cuts, appear well calculated to interest the minds of youth, and to convey a general idea of the leading features of the world. Some of the above works, with a few alterations, might be published with advantage in Great Britain. They contain more i)articular maps and descriptions of the United States than are to be found in geographical works published on this side of the Atlantic. A com])rchensive and useful compend of geography, for the use of schools, might be compiled from the volumes now mentioned, GEOLOGY. 207 quence of the researches of its votaries, many striking and important facts in relation to the structure of the earth and the changes it has undergone, have been brought to light. Many of the facts which this science discloses have a tendency to convey to the mind impressions of the wisdom, and particularly of the powe?' of the Creator, in those stupendous forces which produced the convulsions and changes which have taken place both on the surface and in the interior strata of the globe. They are likewise applicable to various practical purposes. A minute and circum- stantial knowledge of the various facts which have been ascer- tained by geologists in different countries, may be of extensive use to those employed in mining operations, when searching for coal, fossil salt, or metallic veins, and might prevent many ruin- ous speculations to which ignorant projectors are frequently sub- jected. In excavations for the purpose of forming canals, tunnels, and rail- roads — operations which are now going forward in almost every part of the civilized world — a knowledge of this subject could not fail to be highly beneficial to all parties engaged in such projects. Besides, the study of this science is intimately connected with Scripture history and theology, and its facts, when viewed in a proper light, have a tendency to elucidate certain portions of the Sacred writings, and to illustrate the harmony and the connec- tion which subsist between the visible operations of the Creator and the revelations of his word. For these reasons, it might be expedient to communicate to the young a general idea of some of the leading facts connected with geology, without perplexing them with any of the speculations of philosophers, or the theories which have been formed to account for geological phenomena ; leaving them to deduce their own conclusions at a future period, when their "knowledge of such subjects shall be increased, and their judgment matured. A brief description might be given, in the first place, of the solid parts of the earth, of the various strata of which they are composed, and of the classifications which geologists have made of the different kinds o^ rocks. These rocks are usually arranged under the following classes: — 1. Primary rocks, which compose the grand framework of the globe, which form the most lofty mountains, and extend to the greatest depths yet penetrated by man, and below all the other formations. The substances of which such rocks are composed, are granite, gneiss, mica-slate, horn- blend, granular quartz, &c. but never contain salt, coal, petrifac- by selecting the descriptions, exercises, and more interesting portions of each, and combining them into a volume calculated for the meridian of our own country. 208 GEOLOGY. tions, or any remains whatever of organized substances ; and therefore arc supposed to have been formed before the creation of animals or vegetables. — 2. Transition rocks, which include those rocks that lie over the primitive, and are composed of the larger fragments of the primitive rocks. They contain graywacke, transition limestone, slate, sandstone, &c. Shells are sometimes found in them, but no remains of land animals or vegetables. It is supposed they were formed next after the primitive rocks, and after the creation of some kinds of organized beings. — 3. Second- ary rocks, which lie upon the transition rocks, and appear like deposites, composed of grains which once belonged to primitive rocks. The principal secondary formations are coal, chalk, sec- ondary limestone, oolite, millstone, grit, &c. which contain pet- rifactions of animal and vegetable substances. — 4. Tertiary strata, which consist of beds of clay, sand, marl, and the newer limestone deposites. These formations are considered as newer than the secondary, and contain abundance of fossil shells and plants, along with the bones of quadrupeds and fishes. — 5. Vol- canic and basaltic rocks, which owe their origin to volcanic fire, and are sometimes forced up to the surface of the earth in a melt- ed state, by the action of subterraneous heat. The principal vol- canic rocks are basalt, lava, and greenstone. — 6. Alluvial strata, which include deposites that are made of broken strata, consisting of sand, mud, clay, pebbles, &c. which are formed by the cur- rents of rivers, and other causes now in operation. These classifications of rocks and formations mis:ht be illus- trated by such figures as in the annexed cut, which is taken from AVoodbridge's "System of Universal Geography," where Fig. 1. represents the strata of the earth, P the primary strata, T tran- sition, S secondary, A Alluvial, B basaltic, V vein, b bed. Fig. 2, represents a section of the earth between latitude 40° and 45° north. In conjunction with such pictorial representations, a cabi- net of materials should be procured, containing at least the fol- lowing : quartz, mica, talc, feldspar, limestone, argillite, or slate, hornblend, gypsum and chlorite, which form what has been termed the alphabet of geology. Besides these, specimens should be procured of basalt, gneiss, greenstone, lava, porphyry, gray- wacke, and other substances mentioned above. About thirty specimens in all are sufficient for illustrating the classes of geology. Without an exhibition of these, in connection with geological de- scriptions, no definite ideas can be conveyed to the mind of the student on this subject.* * Books on geology have, of late years, increased both in number and in the interesting nature of the discussions they contain. The names of 209 210 ASTRONOMY. Section VIII. — Astronomy. Astronomy is a science which has for its object to explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, their various aspects, and the facts which have been ascertained in the planetary system, and throuo-hout the region of the fixed stars. This is a subject of considerable interest and utility. It is intimately connected with geography, navigation, agriculture, commerce, chronology, and other arts and sciences, and has lent its aid to promote tlieir im- provement. The study of it is likewise attended with many pleasures and advantages in a moral, intellectual, and religious point of view. It expands the range of the human intellect, and unfolds to our view the most striking displays of the perfections of the Deity, particularly the grandeur of his Omnipotetice. It sets before us objects of overpowering magnitude and sublimity, and demonstrates the unlimited extent and magnificence of the universal empire of the Almighty. It has a tendency to raise the soul above grovelling pursuits and affections, to inspire hope, reverence, and humility, and to excite to the contemplation of objects far surpassing every thing we behold in this terrestrial scene, and worthy of the dignity of immortal minds. In short, it prepares the mind for the employments of the future world, and demonstrates, that the Creator has it in his power to dis- tribute endlessly diversified streams of felicity, among every order of his intelligent offspring, throughout all the revolutions of eternity. It is a subject, therefore, on which a certain portion of information should be communicated to the young, and to every human being. In communicating to the young instructions on this subject — instead of commencing with definitions of astronomical terms, and a vague description of the solar system, as is frequently done, — the pupils should be gradually prepared for acquiring a general knowledge of the principles of the science, by being taught to Bakewell, Macculloch, Delabeche, Buckland, Ure, Lyell, &c. are well known as cultivators of this department of natural science. The new edition of Mr. Lyell's " Principles of Geology," in 4 vols. 12ino. lately published, is perhaps one of the most luminous and attractive works which has hitherto been published on this subject — though perhaps somewhat deficient in what relates to the primary and secondary rocks, and embodying certain state- ments which some will be apt to consider as scarcely consistent with tlie records of sacred history. Dr. Comstock, of Hartford, State of Connecticut, has lately published, in a duodecimo vol. of about 340 pages, an interesting work, entitled, " Outlines of Geology," which contains a pofmlar and com- prehensive view of this subject, and is peculiarly adapted to the instruction of general readers. MOTIONS OF TIIi: SUN AND MOON. 211 ohserve, witJi their own eyes^ the motions and general phenomena of the heavens. The first object to which their attention might be directed, is the apparent motion of the smi. On some clear evening, in the month of June, (in our northern latitude,) they may be placed in a situation where they may behold the setting sun, and be desired to take particular notice of such objects as mark the place of his going down. Next morning, or the first clear morning afterwards, they may be placed in the same situa- tion, and, having first requested them to point to the place where the sun disappeared the evening before, their attention should next be directed to the point of his rising, and to mark the terrestrial objects in the direction of which he appeared to rise. The dif- ference between the points of his setting and of his rising should be particularly impressed upon their minds. On this day, too, about twelve o'clock, they should be directed to attend to the sun's meridian altitude. These observations may either be accompanied with certain appropriate remarks, or the pupils may be left, in the meantim.e, to ruminate upon them, to consider them simply as facts, which may be afterwards adverted to, and to form their own conclusions. Similar observations may be made from the same spot about the 23d September, and particularly about the middle of December, when the direction of the rising and setting sun, his meridian altitude, and the apparent diurnal arc he de- scribes, will appear very different, when compared with the ob- servations made in the month of June. Their attention might next be directed to the phases and motions of the moon. About three days after new moon, when the lunar crescent first makes its appearance, they may be directed to mark the form of the crescent, the most conspicuous stars in its vicinity, and its appa- rent distance from the place where the sun went down. Every clear evening afterwards, the gradual increase of the crescent, its motion among the stars, and the apparent distance it has moved during everj'^ successive period, should be particularly marked, till it arrive at the eastern part of the horizon after the sun has set in the west, when it will appear a full enlightened hemisphere. During the months of August, September, and October, when the effect of the harvest-moon is apparent, they may be directed to trace the gradual diminution of the full moon, through its differ- ent stages of decrease, till it assume the form of a half moon or a large crescent. During the months of March or April, their at- tention may be directed to the difference in the time of its rising on each successive day after full moon, from what takes place during the months of harvest, — in the one case, namely, in har- vest, there being only 20 minutes of difference after full moon, in 212 THE CONSTELLATIONS. its rising on each sLiccessivo day ; while in spring, the difference is nearly an hour and a half, which prevents her, at that season, from being seen in the form of a half-moon, during her decrease, till early in the morning ; — whereas, in harvest, she may be seen rising in the north-east, in the form of a half-moon, about 8 or 9 in the evening. They may next be directed to attend to some of the principal stars, and the more conspicuous constellations, and particularly to the apparent diurnal motion of the whole celestial vault. The month of January is perhaps the most eligible season for such observations. About the middle of that month, at eight o'clock in the evening, the most striking and brilliant constellations visible in the northern hemisphere are then above the horizon. The Pleiades or Seven stars, and other portions of the constellation Taurus, are nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of above 60 degrees. The splendid constellation Orion, to the south of Tay- rus, is a little to the east of the meridian ; Canis Minor to the east, and Canis Major to the south-east of Orion. Nearly due east, and near the horizon, is the zodiacal constellation Leo. To the west of the meridian are the constellations Aries, Pisces, Cetus, Aandromeda, Pegasus, and Cassiopeia, which is not far from the zenith. To the north-east is Ursa Major, or the Great Bear, sometimes distinguished by the name of the Plough, or Charleses Wain. — The star Aldeharan, or the Bull's eye, is nearly on the meridian, at an elevation of 54°, supposing the place of observation to be in 52° north latitude. It is distinguished by its ruddy appearance. The brilliant star Capella is nearly 32° north by east from Aldeharan, not far from the zenith ; and Rigel, in the left foot of Orion, is about 27° south by east of Al- deharan, and a little east of the meridian. Betelgeux is north- east from Rigel, and forms a right-angled triangle with it and Aldeharan. The stars Castor and Pollux are east by north from Aldeharan, at a considerable distance from it, (45°,) and nearly halfway between the zenith and the eastern horizon. Nearly straight south from Pollux and east from Betelgeux, is Procyon. These three stars form a right-angled triangle, the star Procyon being at the right angle. Near the south-eastern part of the hori- zon, and a little elevated above it, is Sirius, or the Dog-star, which is generally reckoned the most brilliant fixed star in the heavens. West from Rigel, at a considerable distance, (46°,) and at nearly the same elevation above the horizon, is 3Iira, or the Wonderful star, which changes from a star of the second magnitude, so as to become invisible once in a period of 334 days. The brilliant star Lyra is north-north-west, very near the horizon. DIURNAL MOTION OF THE HEAVENS. 213 The two stars in the Great Bear, called the Pointers, are in a direction nearly north-cast from Castor and Pollux, but at a con- siderable distance ; they direct the eye to a star of the second magnitude, in Ursa Minor, at a considerable distance towards the west, called Ahritccahah , or the Polestar. Having pointed out these leading stars and constellations, to serve as so many known points in the heavens, the attention might be directed, on a subsequent evening, about six o'clock, to the apparent motions of these bodies, and of the whole celestial sphere. On the evening of January 16th, at six o'clock, the star Procyon will be seen nearly due east, a very little above the hori- zon ; Aldebaran, in an easterly direction, nearly halfway between the meridian and the eastern horizon : Rigel, towards the south- east, a little above the horizon ; and Lyra, in the north-west, about 15 degrees above the horizon. Having marked the terres- trial objects which appear in the direction of these stars, they may be viewed, from the same station, about two hours afterwards, when Procyon will be found to have risen a considerable way above the horizon ; Rigel, to have moved nearly 30 degrees to the westward ; and Aldebaran, to have arrived near the meridian ; while Lyra has descended within two or three degrees of the hori- zon ; and Sirius, which was before under the horizon, is elevated about ten degrees above it. At ten o'clock, the same evening, Rigel and Aldebaran will be seen at a considerable distance west- ward of the meridian ; Sirius, within 6 or 7 degrees of it ; the star Lyra, near the northern horizon ; and the constellation Orion, which in the first observation appeared in the direction south-east by east, will be found to have moved to the loestward of the me- ridian. By such observations, it may be shown that the whole starry firmament has an apparent diurnal motion from east to west. While pointing out these apparent motions to the young, it will be proper to direct their attention to the pole-star, which, to a common observer, never appears to shift its position. They may likewise be directed to notice that the stars near the pole appear to move slov/er, and to describe smaller circles than those at a greater distance from it — that those which rise near the south describe smaller arcs than those which rise farther to the north — that the stars which rise due east, set due west, after an interval of twelve hours — that the stars which rise in the north-east, after describing a large arc of the heavens, set in the north-west, after an interval of about seventeen hours — that all the stars within a certain distance of the pole never appear to rise or set, but describe complete circles above the horizon — that the stars near the pole, such as those in the Great Bear, appear in one part of their course 214 ANNUAL MOTION OF THE SUN. to move from west to east, and in another part of it from east to west — and that the revolutions of the whole, however different the circles they apparently describe, are completed in exactly the same period of time. These positions may afterwards be more particularly illustrated by means of a large celestfal globe, by which it will be seen that all these appearances are the result of one general apparent motion, which, at first view, will a[)pear to exist in the celestial sphere.' An idea of the general motion of the stars may be acquired by a simpler process than what we have now described. Let any observer bring a star, in any posi- tion between the zenith and southern horizon, into an apparent contact with a tree, spire, or chimney-top, and, in the course of fifteen or twenty minutes, he will perceive that that star and others adjacent to it have moved a little space from east to west. But the observations alluded to above are calculated to give a more satisfactory idea of this motion, and to make a deeper im- pression on the minds of the young. The next series of observations might be those which demon- strate the apparent annual motion of the svn. For the purpose of exhibiting this motion, the Pleiades, or seven stars, along with Aldebaran, might be selected as fixed points in the heavens to indicate the progressive motion of the solar orb towards the east. About the middle of January, at eight o'clock in the evening, the Pleiades will be seen on the meridian ; which observation should be noted down, for the purpose of being compared with a future observation. On the 1st March, at the same hour, these stars will be seen nearly halfway between the meridian and the western horizon, while all the other stars, at the same declination, will be found to have made a similar progress. About the 15th April, they will be seen, at the same hour, very near the western hori- zon ; and every day after this, they will appear to make a nearer approach to that part of the heavens in which the sun appears, till, being overpowered by the splendour of his rays, they cease to be visible. From these and similar observations, it will be easy to make the young perceive, that the sun has an apparent motion from west to east, through the circle of the heavens, and that the revolution is completed in the course of a year. They may next be taught to acquire a definite idea of the mea- sures by which the apparent distances of objects in the heavens are expressed. To talk to the young, as some are in the practice of doing, of two stars being a foot, a 3'^ard, or two yards asunder, is altogether vague and indefinite, unless we are told, at the same time, at what distance the j^ard or foot is supposed to be placed from our eye. As astronomers divide the circumference of the MEASU^Sa^THf CELESTIAL SPHERE. 215 celestial sphere into 360 parts or degreSh, Kbey niay be told, that from any point of the horizon to the zenith are 90 ut.^,--^.,, g^^j^j consequently, that from the eastern to the western, or from l\.~ northern to the southern points of the horizon, are 180 degrees. And, in order that they may have a definite idea, or something approximating to it, of the extent of a degree, they may be told that the breadtli of the moon is about half a degree — that the space occupied by the three stars in a straight line in the belt of Orion — sometimes distinguished by the name of the Three Kings, or the Ell and Yard — is exactly 3 degrees in length, and, con- sequently, the distance between any two of them is a degree and a half — that the distance between Castor and Pollux is nearly 5 degrees — between Dubbe and Merah^ the two Pointers, in the Great Bear, is 5^ degrees — and that the space between Dubbe, or the northermost pointer, and the polestar, is about 29 degrees. By familiarizing the mind with such measures, the young will soon acquire a tolerable idea of the distance of any two objects in the heavens, when the number of degrees is mentioned. All the observations above stated may be made, in the way of an amusement, previous to the time when the pupils are expected to enter on the regular study of astronomy. They may be com- pleted in the course often or twelve observations, made at different times, within the space of seven or eight months. They are in- tended for the purpose of stimulating the young to habits of ob- servation and attention to the appearances of nature around them ; so that, in every clear sky, they may learn to make similar ob- servations by themselves, for confirming and amplifying their former views of the motions and aspects of the heavens. Such observations form the groundwork of astronomy, and of all the instructions they may afterwards receive in relation to this science, although they are generally neglected. When problems on the celestial globe are prescribed, and vague descriptions of the plane- tary system given, previous to having made these observations, the subject is seldom understood, and no clear nor expansive con- ceptions formed by the young, of the motions, phenomena, and relations of the great bodies of the universe. — It may not be necessary, in the first instance, while making these observations, to attempt any explanation of the phenomena, but merely to im- press upon the mind a clear conception of the appai'ent motions, and relative aspects, of the celestial orbs, as they present them- selves to an attentive spectator; leaving the pupil to ruminate upon them till it shall be judged proper to direct his attention to the investigation of the true causes of celestial phenomena. The pupil's attention might next be directed to the motions of 216 APPARENT MOTIONS 0F^,;Ef^jE-5^NETS. the planets, anH/lr.lo general phenomena of the solar system. When '^any of the planets are visible in the heavens, their positions 'ill' relation to the neighbouring stars should be particularly noted, so that their apparent motions, whether direct or retrograde^ may be clearly perceived, which, in most cases, will be quite per- ceptible in the course of a few weeks or months. The direct, stationary, and retrograde movements of Mars and Venus should be particularly attended to, for the purpose of afterwards demon- strating that the annual motion of the earth accounts for the ap- parently irregular and complicated motions of the planetary orbs. Large diagrams, representing the apparent motions of Mars, Mer- cury, and Venus, as seen from the earth during the course of several revolutions, with all the apparently irregular loops and curves they appear to describe* — should be laid before the pupil for his particular inspection, in order that he may perceive the improbability that such motions are real, or that an Infinitely Wise Being, who is the Perfection of Order, would introduce such inextricable confusion into the motions of the most splendid of his works — A common planetarium, which shows by wheel- work, the relative motions of Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars, may be easily made to illustrate these motions, and to solve all their phenomena. Let a circle, two or three inches broad, and of such a diameter as to surround the planets, with a few stars marked on its inside to represent the Zodiac, be suspended on three pillars, so as to enclose the Earth, Mercury, and Venus. Let a wire be fixed by a socket, on the top of the pillar which supports the ball representing the Earth, and let this wire rest on a slit or fork fixed to the top of the pillar which supports the ball representing Mercury. When the machine is set in motion, the wire will point out on the Zodiac the apparent motions of Mercury as seen from the earth. When he passes from his greatest elongation westward to the superior conjunction and to his greatest elongation eastward, the wire will move eastward, according to the order of the signs. About its greatest elongation, it will appear stationary, and immediately afterwards will move westivard, or contrary to the order of the signs, till it arrive at the western elongation, when it will again appear stationary ; — so that the pupil will plainly perceive that the direct and retro- grade motions of the planets, as seen from the earth, are in per- fect accordance with a regular circular motion around the sun as a centre ; and that such apparently irregular movements arise from * Specimens of such diagrams may be seen in " Long's Astronomy," vol. i. and in plate 3 of " Ferguson's Astronomy," Brewster's edition. PROOFS OF THE EARTh's DIURNAL MOTION. 217 the motion of the earth, and the different velocities of the planets, when compared with it, — just as the objects around us appear to move in different directions, and with different velocities, when we are sailing along a serpentine river in a steam-boat. The arguments or considerations which prove that the Earth is a moving hody^ should next be presented to the attention, and illustrated in the most simple and familiar manner of which the subject will admit. The pupil will easily be made to perceive, that, if the earth is at rest, the whole frame of the material uni- verse must move round it every twenty-four hours ; — not only the fixed stars, but the sun and moon, the planets and their satellites, and every comet which traverses the firmament, must participate in this motion, while, at the same time, they are moving in an- other and an opposite course peculiar to themselves. He will perceive, that, in proportion as these bodies are distant from the earth, in a similar proportion will be the velocity vf[\h. which they perform their diurnal revolutions — that the sun behoved to move Jive hundred and ninety-seven millions of miles every day, the nearest fixed star 125,000,000,000,000 of miles in the same time, or at the rate of fourteen hundred millions of miles every second, and the most distant stars with a velocity which neither words can express, nor imagination conceive, — and that such motions, if they actually existed, would, in all probability, shatter the whole material frame of the universe to atoms. He may be directed to consider, that such rapid velocities (if they could be supposed to exist) are not the motions of mere points or small luminous balls, but the motions of immense globes, many thousands of times larger than the earth — that a hundred millions of such globes are visible from our abode, besides the myriads that may be hid from human view in the unexplored regions of space — and that it is impossible to conceive how all these innumerable globes, of dif- ferent magnitudes, at different distances, and moving with differ- ent velocities, could be so adjusted as to finish their diurnal revolutions at the same moment, while many of them are at the same time impelled by other forces in a contrary direction. He may be reminded that the Creator, who formed the universe, is possessed of Infinite Wisdom — that wisdom consists in propor- tionating means to ends^ or in selecting the most appropriate ar- rangements in order to accomplish an important purpose — that to make the whole frame of Universal Nature move round the earth every day, merely to produce the alternate succession of day and night, is repugnant to every idea we ought to entertain of the Wisdom and Intelligence of the Divine Mind, since the same effect ;an be produced by a simple rotation of the earth in twenty-four 19 219 ANNUAL REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH. hours ; and since we find that Jupiter and Saturn, and other globes much larger than ours, move round their axes in a shorter period — that in all the other works of Omnipotence, means apparently the most simple are selected to accomplish the most grand and mag- nificent designs — and that there is no example known to us, throughout the universe, of a larger body revolving around a smaller. When such considerations are fully and familiarly illus- trated, the pupil will soon be made clearly to perceive, that the rotation of the earth must necessarily be admitted, and that it will fully account for all the diversity of diurnal motion which appears in the sun and moon, the planets and the stars. The annual revolution of the earth, and its position in the solar system, might be proved and illustrated by such considerations as the following : — that if this motion did not exist, the motions of all the planets would present a scene of inextricable confusion, consisting of direct and retrograde motions, and looped curves, so anomalous and irregular, as to be inconsistent with every thing like harmony, order, or intelligence — that Mercury and Venus are observed to have two conjunctions with the sun, but no oppo- sition ; which could not happen unless the orbits of these planets lay within the orbit of the earth — that Mars, Jupiter, and the other superior planets, have each their conjunctions with and op- positions to the sun, which could not be unless they were exterior to the orbit of the earth — that the greatest elongation of Mercury from the sun is only about 20 degrees, and that of Venus 47 ; but if the earth were the centre of their motions, as the Ptolemaic system supposes, they might sometimes be seen 180 degrees from the sun, which never happens — that some of the planets appear much larger and brighter at one time than at another, on account of their different distances from the earth ; but, on the other hy- pothesis, their brilliancy should be always the same — that Mer- cury and Venus, in their superior conjunctions with the sun, are sometimes hid behind his body, and in their inferior conjunctions sometimes appear to pass across the sun's disk, like round black spots which would be impossible according to the Ptolemaic sys- tem ; — and, in short, that the times in which the conjunctions, op- positions, stations, and retrogi'adations happen, are not such as they would be if the earth were at rest, but precisely such as Avould happen, if the earth move along with all the other planets, in the stations and periods assigned them in the system which has the sun for its centre. From such considerations, when properly explained, the annual motion of the earth, and its relative position in the system, may be clearly demonstrated, and the pupil made to perceive the beauty and harmony of the celestial motions, and ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE EARTll's MOTIONS. 219 the necessity of having the great source of ligkt and heat placed in the centre of the system. For as the sun is intended to cheer and irradiate surrounding worlds, it is from the centre alone that these agencies can be communicated, in a uniform and equable man- ner, to the planets in every part of their orbits. Were the earth the centre, and the sun and planets revolving around it, the planets when nearest the sun, would be scorched with excessive heat, and when farthest distant, frozen Avith excessive cold. There is another consideration by which the earth's annual re- volution and its position in the system are demonstrated; — and that is, that the planets Mercury and Venus, when viewed through good telescopes, are found to assume different phases, in different parts of their orbits ; sometimes appearing gibbous, sometimes like a half-moon, and at other times like a crescent, and a full en- lightened hemisphere, which could never happen if they revolved round the earth as their centre, and if the earth was not placed in an orbit exterior to that of Venus. I have sometimes illustrated this argument, with peculiar effect, by means of an equatorial telescope, and a common planetarium. By the equatorial tele- scope, with a power of 60 or 80 times, most of the stars of the first magnitude, and some of those of the second, may be seen even at noonday. Venus may be seen by this instrument, in the day-time, during the space of nineteen months, with the in- terruption of only about thirteen days at the time of her superior conjunction, and three days at the time of her inferior, so that the phase she exhibits may be seen almost every clear day. Hav- ing placed the Earth and Venus in their true positions on the planetarium, by means of an Ephemeris or the Nautical Alma- nac, I desire the pupil to place his eye in a line with the balls re- presenting these planets, and to mai'h the phase of Venus as seen from the earth — whether a crescent, a half-moon, or a gibbous phase. I then adjust the equatorial telescope for Venus, if she is within the range of our view, and show him the planet with the same phase in the heavens. This exhibition never fails to gratify every observer, and to produce conviction. But it can seldom be made, if we must wait till the planet be visible to the naked eye, and capable of being viewed by a common telescope ; for it is sometimes invisible to the naked eye, for nearly one half of its course from one conjunction to another. Besides, the phases of this planet are more distinctly marked in the day-time, when near the meridian, than either in the morning or evening, when at a low altitude, in which case it appears glaring and undefined, on account of the brilliancy of its light, and the undulating vapours pear the horizon, through which it is seen. As actual observa. 220 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE SEASONS. tions on the planets in the heavens make a deeper and more con- vincing impression on the mind of a young person, than mere diagrams or verbal explanations, I consider an equatorial tele- scope, in conjunction with a celestial globe and an orrery, as es- sentially necessary to every teacher of astronomy ; as, indepen- dently of its use, now hinted at, it is the best and most compre- hensive instrument for conveying an idea of the practical ope- rations of this science. It may be made to serve the general purposes of a transit instrument, a quadrant, an equal altitude instrument, a theodolite, an azimuth instrument, a level, and an accurate universal sundial. It serves for taking the right ascen- sions and declinations of the heavenly bodies, and for conveying a clear idea of these operations. It may be made to point to any phenomena in the heavens whose declination and right ascension are known ; and, in this way, the planets Mercury, Flerschel, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, a small comet, or any other body not easily distinguished by the naked eye, may be readily point- ed out.* The cause of the variety of seasons may next be explained and illustrated. It is difficult, if not impossible, by mere diagrams and verbal explanations, to convey a clear idea on this subject ; and therefore, some appropriate machinery must be resorted to, in order to assist the mind in forming its conceptions on this point. The difficulty is, to conceive how the sun can enlighten the North Pole without intermission, during one half of the year, and the South Pole during the other, while the poles of the earth never shift their position, but are directed invariably to the same points of the heavens. This is frequently attempted to be illustrated by means of a brass hoop with a candle placed in its centre, and a small terrestrial globe carried round it, having its axis inclined to the brass circle, which is intended to represent the orbit of the earth. But this exhibition requires some dexterity to conduct it aright, and after all is not quite satisfactory. An orrery, having all the requisite movements by wheel-work, and where the Earth moves with its axis parallel to itself and inclined to the plane of the ecliptic, is the best instrument for illustrating all the variety of the seasons. When such a machine cannot be procured for this purpose, its place may be supplied by a neat little instrument, called a Tellurium^ which has been manufactured for many years * A small Equatorial, having the Horizontal, Declination, and Equatorial circles about six inches diameter, surmounted with a twenty-inch achromatic telescope, with magnifying powers of from 30 to 80 times, may be procured for about fifteen or sixteen guineas, which will serve every general purpose in teaching astronomy. PHENOMENA or THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 221 past by Messrs. Jones, Holburn, London, and may be purchased for about thirty shillings. This instrument consists of a brass ball representing the sun — which may be occasionally screwed oft^, and a lamp substituted in its place — an ivory ball representing the earth, having the circles of the sphere drawn upon it, a small ball representing the moon, and about eight wheels, pinions, and circles. It exhibits the annual motion of the earth, and the moon revolving around it, with its different phases, the cause of eclipses, the retrograde motion of the moon's nodes, and the inclination of its orbit to the plane of the ecliptic. The earth is moveable on an axis inclined 23^ degrees to the ecliptic, and its axis preserves its parallelism during its course round the sun. The seasons are exhibited on this instrument as follows: — the index, which points out the sun's place and the day of the month, is placed at the 21st March, the time of the vernal equinox, and the north and south poles of the earth are placed exactly under the terminator, or boundary between light and darkness. When the machinery is moved by the hand till the index points to the 21st June, the time of the summer solstice, then the North Polar regions appear within the boundary of light, and the South Polar within the boundary of darkness. Turning the machine till the index points to September 23d, both poles again appear on the boundary of lio'ht and darkness. Moving it on to December 21st, the Arctic circle appears in darkness, and the Antarctic in the light. During these motions, the earth's axis keeps parallel to itself, pointing uniformly in the same direction. This exhibition is quite satisfac- tory and convincing ; the only objection to the instrument is, that it is small, — about eight or nine inches diameter — and, conse- quently, will admit only four or five individuals at a lime to inspect its movements with distinctness. A full and specific description should next be given of all the facts connected with the solar system — the distances and magni- tudes of the sun and planets — their annual and diurnal revolu- tions — the solar spots — the belts and satellites of Jupiter — the rings of Saturn — the phases of Venus — the spots of Mars, and the mountains and ca-vities of the Moon. After which some details might be given of the facts which have been ascertained respect- ing comets, variable stars, double and treble stars, new stars, stars once visible which have disappeared, and the numerous nebuliB which are dispersed through different regions of the hea- vens. The pupils should now be gratified with a view of some of these objects through good telescopes. A telescope, magnifying about 30 times, will show the satellites of Jupiter, the crescent of Venus, the solar spots, and the rugged appearance of the Moon. 19* 222 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOON AND PLANETS. With a magnifying power of 60 or 70, the ring of Saturn, the belts of Jupiter, the shadows of the Umar mountains and cavities, and all the phases of Venus, may be distinguished. But the views of these objects obtained by such magnifying powers are unsatis- factory. No telescope should be selected for this purpose less than a 3 2- feet Achromatic, with powers varying from 40 to 180 or 200 times.* A power of 150 is a very' good medium for in- specting all the more interesting phenomena of the heavens. With this power, distinct and satisfactory views may be obtained of the solar spots, the phases of Mercury, Venus, and Mars, the belts, and sometimes the spots of Jupiter, and the shadows of his satel- lites, the ring and some of the moons and belts of Saturn, the spots of Mars, the minute hills and cavities of the moon, several of the double stars, and many of the most remarkable nehnla;. To perceive distinctly the division of Saturn's ring, requires a posvcr of at least 200 times. In exhibiting such objects to the young, especially when the lower powers are used, some attention is requisite to adjust the instrument to distinct vision, as their eyes are generally more convex than the eyes of persons ad- vanced in life, and those who are short-sighted will require an adjustment different from that of others. Unless this circumstance be attended to, their views of celestial phenomena will frequently be unsatisfactory and obscure. In exhibiting the surface of the moon, the period of half-moon, or a day or two before or after it, should generally be selected; as it is only at such periods that the shadows of the mountains and vales, and the circular ridges, can be most distinctly perceived. At the time of full moon, its hemi- sphere presents only a variegated appearance of darker and brighter streaks, and no shadows are discernible ; so that, from the telescopic appearance of the full moon, we could scarcely de- termine whether or not its surface were diversified with mountains and vales. Previous to exhibiting the moon through a telescope, it may be proper to give the observers an idea of some partivlalar objects they will see, on which their attention should be fixed, and from which they should deduce certain conclusions. For, a view of the moon, for the first time, through a powerful telescope, is apt to overpower the eye, and to produce a confused and indistinct perception. As one of the peculiarities of the lunar surface con- sists in the numerous cavities, and plains surrounded with circu- * An Achromatic telescope of this description, with an object-glass, 45 inches focal distance, and about three inches diameter, with 4 or 5 magnify- ing powers, with a brass tube mounted on a brass tripod, may be purchased in London, for 25 guineas. REPRESENTATIONS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. 223 lar ridges of mountains, and insulated mountains rising from a level surface — an idea of the shadows and circumstances by which these objects are indicated should be previously communi- cated. This may be done by means of a saucer, the top of a small circular box, or any other object which may represent a plain surrounded by a circular ridge. In the middle of any of these objects may be placed a small peg to represent a mountain. Then placing a candle at the distance of a foot or two, so as to shine obliquely upon the objects, the inside of the circular dish farthest from the candle will be seen enlightened, while a con- siderable portion of the bottom will be covered by the shadow thrown upon it by the side next the candle, and the shadow of the peg will be seen verging towards the enlightened side. This previous exhibition will give them an idea of the form of some of the mountains and vales on the lunar surface, and enable them to appreciate the nature of those striking inequalities which ap- pear near the boundary between the dark and enlightened parts of the moon. Other objects which diversify the moon's surface may be represented and illustrated in a similar manner, and suf- ficient time should be allowed to every observer for taking a minute inspection of all the varieties on the lunar disk. The solar spots may be viewed with ease, by interposing a coloured glass between the eye and the image of the sun ; but, in looking through the telescope in the ordinary way, they can be perceived by only one individual at a time. In order to exhibit them to a company of 30 or 40 persons at once, the image of the sun may be thrown on a white wall or screen. I have generally exhibited them in the following manner. To a 3| feet Achromatic tele- scope, I apply a diagonal eye-piece, which has a plain metallic speculum placed at half a right angle to the axis of the telescope. By this eye-piece, after the room has been darkened as much as possible, the image of the sun and his spots is thrown upon the roof of the apartment, which forms a beautiful circle of light, and exhibits all 'he spots which then happen to diversify his surface. His apparent diurnal motion is also represented, along with the motions of any thin fleeces of clouds which may happen to cross his disk. In this way, too, the proportional magnitudes of the spots may be measured, and compared with the diameter of the sun, and, of course, their real magnitudes ascertained. In illustrating the phenomena of the planetary system by means of orreries, planetariums, and lunariums, great care should be taken to guard the young against the false and imperfect concep- tions of the magnitudes and distances of the planets, which such instruments have a tendency to convey. No orrery, of a portable 224 REPRESENTATIONS OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. size, can represent, at the same time, both the proportional dis- tances and relative magnitudes of the different planets. Even those large machines designated Eidouraniums and Transparent Orreries afford no correct views of these particulars ; and some of them convey very erroneous and distorted conceptions of the relations of the solar system, where it is the chief design to dazzle the eye with a splendid show. In some of these exhibitions 1 have seen the stars represented as if they had been scattered through different parts of the planetary system. — An orrery representing the proportional distances and magnitudes of the sun and planets would require to be more than three miles in diameter ; and, even on this scale, Jupiter would be less than 3 inches diameter, the Earth a quarter of an inch, or about the size of a small pea, and Mercury only about the dimensions of the head of a small pin, while the sun would require to be represented by a ball 30 inches in diameter — in which case all the planets would be invisible from the centre of the system. To correct, in some measure, the er- roneous ideas which a common orrery is apt to convey, the mag- nitudes and distances should be separately represented. Suppose a celestial globe, 18 inches in diameter, to represent the Sun, Jupiter will be represented by a ball about 1| inch diameter, Sa- turn by one of 1| inch, Herschel by one of about f inch, the Earth by a ball of i inch, or somewhat less than a small pea, Venus by a ball of nearly the same size. Mars by a globule of about y^2 inch. Mercury by a globule of y^j, and the Moon by a still smaller globule of J^ inch in diameter. These three last might be represented by three different sizes of pin-heads. When balls of these sizes are placed adjacent to an 18-inch globe, and compared with it, an impressive idea is conveyed of the astonish- insc magnitude of the sun, which is 500 times (];reater than all the planets, satellites, and comets, taken together. The proportional distances may be represented as follows. At one end of a table 9 feet in length, fix a ball upon a pillar to represent the sun ; at 2 inches from the sun's ball, place another to represent Mercury ; at 3| inches, Venus ; at 5 inches, the Earth ; at 7| inches. Mars; at 25 inches, Jupiter ; at 47^ inches, or about 4 feet, Saturn ; and, at 95 inches, or about 8 feet from the sun's ball, place one to represent Herschel. This will convey a pretty correct idea of the proportional distances from the sun of the principal primary planets. The distances of Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and Vesta, might likewise be represented, if judged expedient ; but as their orbits are more eccentric than those of the other planets, and some of them cross each other, they cannot be accurately represented. When orreries or telescopes cannot be procured for exhibiting the PARALLAXES EXPLAINED. 225 celestial motions and phenomena to which I have alluded, some of these objects, such as the rings of Saturn, the belts and moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the Moon, and some of the con- stellations, may be represented in a dark room by means of the ■phantasmagoria. But the representations made by this instru- ment form but a rude and paltry substitute for the exhibitions pre- sented by the orrery and the telescope, and need never be resort- ed to, except for amusement, where these instruments can be ob- tained. It might next be expedient to communicate to the pupil an idea of the nature of a parallax, to prepare him for understandino- the mode by which the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies are ascertained. This might be done by fixing a pole or staff, with a pointed top, in a garden or large area, opposite a wall or hedge, F G, Fig. 1, and, desiring one of the pupils to take his station at A, and another at B, and to direct their eyes to the points on the wall which appear in a line with the top of the pole, when the one stationed at A will perceive it to coincide with the Fig. 1. point C, and the other stationed at B will perceive it at D. They may be told that C D is the parallax, or the difference of the apparent place of the pole P, when viewed from the positions A and B, which is measured by the angle C P D ; and that, if the distance between A and B were measured, and the number of degrees or minutes in the angle C P D or A P B ascertained, the distance between the pole and any of the stations can be easily determined. This may be easily applied to the case of the hea- venly bodies by means of such a diagram as Fig. 2, where H I K represents the Earth, M the Moon,^P a planet^ and S T a quad- rant of the starry heavens. It is evident, that, if the moon be viewed from the surface of the earth at H, she will appear in the 226 PARALLAXES EXPLAINED. heavens at the point a ; but if she be viewed from the centre C, she will be seen at the point 6, the angle a M 6 being the angle of parallax. This angle being found, which is the same as the angle H M C, and the base line H C, or the earth's semidiameter being known, which is nearly 4000 miles — the length of the line H M, or the distance of the moon, can be easily determined. It may be proper also to state that the farther any heavenly body is distant from the earth, the less is its parallax. Hence the paral- laxes of the sun and planets are all much less than that of the moon, which is the nearest celestial body to the earth. Thus, the parallax c d o^ the planet P is less than that of the Moon, M, and the same principle likewise holds true with respect to all ter- restrial objects. This subject may soon be rendered quite plain to the pupil, by familiar illustrations, in connection with a few in- structions on the nature and properties of triangles, and the first principles of trigonometry. I have been somewhat particular in some of the hints thrown out above, because it is of some importance that the young should have clear and impressive conceptions of every object presented to their view, in every step of their progress on this subject, and MORAL REFLECTIONS. 227 iiol depend mc/ely on the assertions or the positions announced by their teachers ; and because such a train of observations and experimental iUustrations has seldom been attended to, in attempt- ing to convey to the juvenile mind a popular view of the leading facts of astronomy. After the pupil has acquired a knowledge of the subjects to which I have adverted, an intelligent teacher will find little difficulty in gradually unfolding to him the doc- trines and facts in relation to solar and lunar eclipses — the tides — the form of the planetary orbits — the nature of refraction — the divisions of time — the mensuration of the earth — centrifugal and centripetal forces — the circles of the celestial sphere — and various other particulars connected with astronomical science. In illustrating the principles and exhibiting the objects of astro- nomy, the pious and intelligent teacher will have frequent oppor- tunities of impressing upon the minds of his pupils the most sublime ideas of the Perfections of the Creator, and of the Extent and Grandeur of his Empire, and of inspiring them with Love, Admiration, and Reverence ; and such opportunities ought never to be neglected. When descanting on the number and mag- nificence of the celestial worlds, he may very appropriately take occasion to impress them with the idea of the littleness of this earth, and its comparative insignificance, when placed in compe- tition with the numerous and more resplendent worlds and sys- tems which compose the universe; and, consequently, with the folly and madness of ambition, and of all those warlike schemes and ferocious contentions, of which our world has been the mel- ancholy theatre. He may occasionally expatiate a little or the folly of pride, and its inconsistency with the character and cir- cumstances of man, when we consider his comparative igno- rance, and the low station which he holds in the scale of creation —and the reasonableness of cultivating a spirit of hvmility in the presence of that Almighty Being whose " glory is above the heavens," and " whose kingdom ruleth over all," when we con- sider, that, when compared with the myriads of more exalted intelligences that people the universe, we are only like a few atoms in the immensity of space. He may direct their attention to the infinitely diversified scenes of grandeur and felicity which the uni- verse must contain, since its range is so extensive and its objects so magnificent ; and to the evidence which these facts afford, that the Creator has it in his power to gratify his rational offspring with new objects, and new sources of enjoyment, during every period of infinite duration. — In short, he may excite them, from such considerations, to aspire after that more glorious state of ex- istence where the works of Omnipotence will be more fully un- 228 EXPERIMENTAL PHILOSOrHY. folded, and to cultivate those holy principles and dispositions which will qualify them for mingling in the society and engaging in the employments of the heavenly world. Such instructions, when amalgamated with Christian views and motives, could not fail of producing a beneficial impression on the susceptible hearts of the young, which might, in some measure, influence their con- duct and train of thought through all the remaining periods of their lives.* Section IX. — Experimental Philosophy and Chemistry. The object of Natural and Experimental Philosophy is to investigate the phenomena of the material world, in order to dis- cover their causes, and the laws by which the Almighty directs the movements of the universe ; and to apply the observations and discoveries we make to useful purposes in human life, and to expand our views of the perfections and operations of the Cre- * The most celebrated writers on Astronomy are Long, Ferguson, La Caille, Martin, O. Gregory, Vince, Herschel, Robison, La Lande, La Place, Biot, and various others. Popular works on this subject, which may be put into the hands of young persons, are such as the following : — Ferguson's " Gentleman and Lady's Astronomy" — Martin's " Gentleman and Lady's Philosophy," Vol. 1. — Bonnycastle's "Introduction to Astronomy" — Mrs. Brian's " Astronomy" — " The Wonders of the Heavens" — Gregory's "Astronomical Lessons," &c. But none of these works are adapted to the piirpose of teaching. The best treatise of this kind I have seen, calculated to be a text-book for an intelligent teacher, is a work entitled " The Geogra- phy of the Heavens," by Elijah H. Buvvit, A. M., lately published at Hartford, State of Comiecticiit. This volume comprises 343 closely print- ed pages, large 18mo., and several appropriate wood-cuts. It contains a very full and lucid description of all the particulars respecting the different constellations and principal stars, the general principles of astronomy, the facts connected with the solar system, problems, asti'onomical tables, and al- most every thing that can be deemed interesting to the general student: Every page contains Questions, as exercises for the judgment of the pupil. It is accompanied by a large and beautiful Atlas, 16 inches by 14, contain- ing 7 Planispheres, or Maps of the Heavens: 1. The visible heavens in October, November, and December. 2. Do. in January, February, and March. 3. Do. in April, May, and June. 4. Do. in July, August, and September. 5. The visible heavens in the North Polar Regions for each month of the year. 6. Do. in the South Polar Regions. 7. Planisphere of the whole heavens on Mercator's projection. " The first four maps are so constructed, that the pupil in using them must suppose himself to face the south, and to hold them directly over head, in such a manner that the top of the map should be towards the north, and the bottom towards the south." In the construction of these maps, and in the composition of the work, the latest discoveries have been carefully inserted. This work, since its first publication in 1833, has had an extensive sale in the United States, and been introduced into many respectable seminaries. MECHANICS. 229 ator. This department of study has generally been divided into the following subordinate branches, Mechanics^ Hydrostatics., Hyrh^aulics^ Pneumatics^ Meteorology, Acoustics, Optics, Elec- tricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism. This is a subject, the popu- lar and experimental parts of which may be rendered highly entertaining and instructive to the minds of the young. But, however important the subject in all its branches may be to the regular scientific student, it would be inexpedient to attempt con- veying more than a general view of the more popular parts of it to young persons from the age of ten to the age of fourteen, although many of the experiments connected with it may, with propriety, be exhibited even to children of an earlier age, in order to excite a taste for the study of natural science. Experimental illustrations of the subjects of Natural Philosophy sometimes require an extensive apparatus, which cannot be procured but at a considerable expense ; but there are many interesting experi- ments, illustrative of scientific principles and facts, which can be performed with very simple apparatus, and at little expense ; and all that I propose, under this article, is to suggest a few of those experiments which almost every teacher may have it in his power to perform. In the department of Mechanics, — illustrations might be given of the mechanical potcers, which are generally arranged under the heads of the lever, the pulley, the wheel and axis, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the screjc. A simple apparatus for illus- trating these powers could easily be constructed by an ino-enious mechanic, at a trifling expense, and might be rendered conducive both to the entertainment and instruction of the young. In par- ticular, the nature and power of the lever, and the principle on which it acts, should be minutely explained, by experimental illustrations, and by showing its effects in the common operations of life. A long bar of iron or hard wood might be erected on a steady fulcrum, and placed in the area adjacent to the school, which might serve both for amusement and for illustrating the power of the lever. This bar might be divided into feet or^'half feet, or any convenient number of equal parts, and so constructed that any of those parts might be placed upon the fulcrum. By such a lever the different powers to be applied at different dis- tances from the fulcrum, when a weight is to be raised, mioht be familiarly illustrated. A seat or swing might be fixed at one end of the beam, on which a boy might sit, while some of his com- panions, towards the other end, applied different powers or weights at different distances from the fulcrum, as a counterpoise ; which would suggest various calculations respecting the powers requisite 20 230 HYDROSTATICS. to be applied in any given case, according to the distance from the point of support. It will tend to excite their interest in this subject, when they are informed that scissors, pincers, snuffers, oars, the balance, the see-saw, doors turning on hinges, the rud- ders of ships, cutting knives fixed at one end, and the bones of the arm, are all so many different kinds of levers ; and that the operations of quarrying stones, raising great weights, poking the fire, rowing a boat, digging the ground, and such like, are all performed on the principle of this mechanical power. Similar contrivances might be adopted for illustrating the wheel and axle and other powers. A knowledge of the mechanical powers may be useful to every individual, whatever may be his trade or pro- fession in future life, but particularly to those who may afterwards engage in the arts of carpentry, architecture, mining, engineering, and other operations where a knowledge of the mechanical powers is essentially requisite ; and the impressions made upon their minds in early life by familiar illustrations of these powers, would tend to facilitate their study of such objects when they became the more particular objects of their attention. The fundamental principles of Hydrostatics and Hydraulics might be familiarly illustrated by a variety of simple experiments, some of which might be rendered extremely amusing. That fluids press in all directions — that their pressure is in proportion to their perpendicular height — that a small quantity of a fluid may be made to counterpoise any quantity, however great — that a fluid specifically lighter than another will float upon its sur- face — that the surface of all fluids which communicate with each other will be on the same level — that the velocity with which water spouts from holes in the side of a vessel, is in proportion to the square root of the distance of the holes below the surface of the water: — These, and similar positions, along with the principles on which syphons, jets, and artificial fountains act, can be illustrated with an apparatus which every intelligent teacher, if he has the least share of mechanical ingenuity, can easily con- struct for himself, with the assistance of glass vessels, which are to be found in almost every family. To show that water will find its level, and rise to the same height in tubes which have a com- munication, an instrument similar to the following. Fig. 1. may be constructed : — A B and E D are two tubes which have a com- munication with each other by means of the tube B D ; if water is poured into the tube A B, it will run through the tube B D, and stand at the same elevation in the tube E D. To save expense, the tube B D may be made of wood, and plugged up at b5th ends; and the glass tubes A B, E D, fixed into it at each end with ce- HYDROSTATICS. Fig.1. 231 ji i:d ment ; and if B D be made flat on its under part, it will stand on a table without requiring any support. An instrument to show that a small portion of water will counterbalance a large quantity, may be made as follows : — A B, Fig. 2. is a vessel which may Fig. 2. Fig. 3. be either square or round, and which may be made either of wood or tin-plate ; C D is a glass tube of a narrow bore, cemented into the short tube E, which communicates with the large vessel ; if water be poured into either of these, it will stand at the same height in both, which proves, that the small quantity of water in the tube C D, balances the large quantity in the vessel A B, and illustrates what has been termed the hydrostatical paradox. Jets and fountains may be represented and illustrated by such an in- strument as Fig. 3. where A B is the reservoir, and C D E a tube connected with it, bent at right angles at D ; when these are fill- 232 HYDROSTATICS. ed with water — the finger having previously been pressed upon the opening F — as soon as the finger is removed, the water rises in a jet, nearly to the height of the fountain, A B. A jet may likewise be produced by the instrument represented, Fig. 1. by plugging up the tube E D, and opening a hole at C, when a jet will arise after the tubes are filled with water. To show the dif- ferent quantities and velocities of water spouting at different dis- tances from the surface of a reservoir, such a vessel as that re- presented, Fig. 4. may be used. The water will issue from the Fig. 4. orifice at C with greater velocity, and consequently in greater quantity than at B or A ; if the orifice C be four times as deep be- low the surface as the orifice A, it will discharge twice as much water in a given time as A, because 2 is the square root of 4 ; if the orifice B be in the centre of the column of water, it will pro- ject the water to the greatest horizontal distance. The vessel here represented may be made either of wood or of tin-plate, and if a bent tube be inserted at D, and the holes ABC shut up, it may serve to exhibit a jet d'eaii. The cup of Tantalus^ the fountain at command, the hydraulic dancers and divers, and other entertaining devices might also be exhibited, and accom- panied with explanations of the principles on which they act. By such means, several of the leading principles of hydrostatics might be easily impressed upon the youthful mind, and would doubtless be found of practical utility in future life, provided the teacher is careful to show, by familiar examples, how they explain many of the phenomena of nature and operations of art. The science of Pneumatics affords scope for many curious discussions and experiments respecting the air and atmospherical Ml phenomena, which may be rendered interesting to the young. In *' illustrating the pressure, elasticity, and other properties of the atmosphere, the assistance of the air-pump, with its usual appa- PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 233 ratus, is highly desirable ; as, without it, some of the most inter- esting experiments on this subject cannot be performed. But where this instrument, on account of its expense, cannot be pro- cured, various useful and entertaining experiments may be ex- hibited by means of a simple apparatus which almost every one can procure. For example^he pressure of the atmosphere may be proved to the conviction of every one by such simple experi- ments as the following : — The common experiment of filling a wine-glass with water, covering its mouth with a piece of paper, and then inverting it, is quite decisive of the atmospheric pres- sure ; for the paper underneath, instead of being convex by the pressure of the water within, is concave, by the pressure of the atmosphere from without ; and no other cause can be assigned why the water is supported in the glass. Another simple experi- ment, where no paper is employed, proves the same fact : Take a glass tube, two or three feet long, with a narrow bore ; put one end of it into a vessel of water, put your mouth to the other end, and make a deep inspiration till the air is drawn out of the tube, when the water will rush to the top of the tube ; then place your thumb on the top to prevent the access of air from above, and when the other end of the tube is taken out of the water, the column of water will be suspended in the tube by the atmospheric pressure, although the lower end of it is open. When the air is sucked out of the tube, a vacuum is produced, and the external air, pressing upon the surface of the water in the vessel, forces it to the top of the tube ; the thumb being applied prevents the air pressing the water down, and the atmospheric pressure on the bottom prevents the water from running out. The same fact is proved by the following experiment : Let a piece of burning paper be put into a wine-glass, so as to rarify or exhaust the air, and while it is still burning, press the palm of the hand against the mouth of the glass, when it will adhere with a considerable degree of force, by the pressure of the atmosphere on the bottom and sides of the glass. This experiment may be varied as follows : Pour a certain quantity of water into a saucer ; invert a wine-glass over a piece of burning paper or burning brandy, and, after holdipg it a short time in the flame, place it in the saucer, when the water will rush up into the glass in consequence of the atmospheric pressure, as it did in the glass tube when it was exhausted of its air by suction. These and similar experiments, which every one may perform, are as decisive proofs of the atmospheric pressure as those which are performed by means of the air-pump. Such experiments, when conducted by intelligent teachers, may easily be applied to the explanation of the causes of certain natural 3^4 20 * 234 TNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. artificial processes, such as the firm adherence of two polished surfaces — the action of a boy's sucker in lifting large stones — the operation of cvpping — the process of a child's sucking its mother's breast — the effects produced by cements — the rise of water in pumps — the firm adhesion of snails and shell-fish to rocks and stones — the action of syphons — what is termed suction, as when we take a draught of water from a running stream — the fact, that a cask will not run, in certain cases, unless an opening is made in its top — and many similar processes, some of which will be found of considerable practical utility. The elasticity of the air may be proved by such experiments as these : — Take a bladder, and fill it with air by blowing into it, and then apply a force to the sides of it, so as to compress it into a smaller space ; when the force is removed, it immediately ex- pands and fills the same space as before. This experiment proves, not only the elasticity of air, but that, though invisible, it is as much a material substance as wood or iron ; for no force can bring the sides together, without breaking the bladder, although the parts of an empty bladder may be squeezed into any shape. The same thing is proved by the following experiment : Open a pair of common bellows, and then stop the nozle, so that no air can rush out — and no force whatever can bring the parts together, without bursting the leather, or unstopping the nozle. That heat increases the elasticity of air, may be shown, by placing before a strong fire a bladder with a small quantity of air, when the small portion of air will expand, till the bladder appear quite full and ready to burst. These experiments may be applied to the expla- nation of such phenomena as the following ; — Why the compress- ed air between the liquid and the cork, in a bottle of beer or ale, bursts forth in the form of froth when the cork is drawn — why fishes, in consequence of their air-bladders^ are enabled to rise and sink in the water — and why the carcase of a man that has been drowned, in a few days rises and floats on the surface for a short time, and then sinks to rise no more. The compressibility of air may be shown, by taking a glass tube which is open only at one end, and of course full of air, and plunging the open end into a vessel of water, when the water will be seen to have risen to a small height, near the bottom of the tube ; which proves that the air which filled the whole length of the tube is compressed by the water, into a smaller space. In a similar way the principle of the diving-bell may be illustrated. Let A B, Fig. 1, repre- sent a large tumbler or drinking-glass, which may be nearly filled with water. Place a piece of cork on the surface of the water, and over the cork an ale-glass, C D, with its mouth downwards ; PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 235 then push the glass perpendicularly down towards the bottom of the tumbler, and the cork will appear swimming a little above the bottom ; plainly indicating that there is no water above it in the ale-glass, which is prevented from entering by the resistance of the air within. The water in the tumbler may represent the water of a river or of the sea ; the ale-glass may represent the diving- bell, in which a person may sit with safety in the depths of the sea without touching the water, provided fresh air be supplied. A small quantity of water will be found to have entered the ale- glass, and the deeper it is plunged in any vessel the higher will the water rise within it. At the depth of 33 feet, where the pressure of the atmosphere is doubled, a diving-bell will be half filled with water — at the depth of 66 feet, it will be two-thirds filled — at the depth of 99 feet, it will be three-fourths filled, and so on in proportion to the depth ; which shows the propriety of having this vessel in the form of a feeZZ, that the perpendicular height of the water may be as little as possible. The following simple experiment illustrates the pressure of the atmosphere in a mode somewhat different from those already stated. Procure a tin vessel about six or seven inches long, and three in diameter, having its mouth about a quarter of an inch wide, as E F, Fig. 2. In its bottom make a number of small holes, about the diameter of a common sewing-needle. Plunge this vessel in water, and when full cork it up, so that no air can enter at the top. So long as it remains corked, no water will run out — the pressure of the atmosphere at the bottom preventing it ; but as soon as it is uncorked, the water will issue from the small holes in the bot- 236 PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. torn, by the pressure of the air from above. The same experi- ment may be made by means of a tube, seven or eight inches Fig. 2. Fig. 3. long, and about three-fourths of an inch diameter, having two or three small holes in its bottom ; and another tube, G H, Fig. 3, of the same dimensions, having a small hole in each side, I K, will illustrate the lateral pressure of the atmosphere — the water being retained when it is corked, and running out when the cork is removed. It will likewise illustrate the lateral pressure of water and other liquids. Several amusing experiments may also be performed by means of syphons, when concealed in drinking-cups and other vessels ; and the utility of the principle on which they act may be illus- trated in certain practical operations. For example, their use may be shown in conveying water over a rising ground. In Fig. 4, let M represent a pond or pool of water, in a quarry or Fig. 4.j>f Other situation, which is wished to be drained, and where there is no declivity or lower ground adjacent to which the water can be conveyed — it may be carried over the rising ground M N, by means of the syphon M N L ; provided the perpendicular elevation N P, PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. 237 above the level of the pool M, does not exceed thirty-two feet, for to that height only will the water rise in the syphon by the pressure of the atmosphere ; and provided that the end of the syphon at L descends a little way beyond the level of the pool at M, — in which case, when the syphon is filled, the water will rush out at L, so long as any remains in the pond. In the same way may be shown how a cask of liquor may be decanted by a syphon placed in a hole made in its upper side. The use of the syphon might likewise be shown when placed in a reverse position, as in Fig. 5, when it may be applied to the purpose of conveying water Tig. 5. from a fountain at R, along a hollow or valley to a house, S, at the same height on the other side of the valley ; and however deep or broad the valley may be, the water may in this manner be conveyed, provided the syphon is sufficiently strong near its lower parts to sustain the perpendicular pressure of the water. The following simple and interesting experiment might be ex- hibited to show the effects of the expansion of air. Procure a common Florence flask, F G, Fig. 6, and pour into it a large wine-glassfull of water; then take a tube, I H, bent at the top, H, like a small syphon, and fasten it air-tight into the mouth of the flask, I, so that its bottom may be immersed in the water at K, but not touching the bottom of the flask. Then immerse the flask into a vessel of very hot water, when, in consequence of the expansion of the air in the flask, the water at K will be forced up into the tube I H, where it is received into a wine-glass at H. Holding the wine-glass, into which the water is now received, at the end of the tube, as represented in the figure, take the flask out of the hot water, and plunge it into another vessel full of cold 238 PNEUMATICAL EXPERIMENTS. water, and the water in the wine-glass will be thrown back into the bottom of the flask, by the pressure of the atmosphere on its surface at H. The flask may then be again Immersed in the hot water, when the water at its bottom will be thrown up into the wine-glass as before, and the operations may be repeated as often as judged expedient. This experiment, when dexterously per- formed, seldom fails to produce a pleasing effect upon the specta- tors, especially when the water is tinged with a red colour, by means of the sulphuric or any other acid dropped into an infusion of red cabbage.* * In arranging and performing such simple experiments as those above stated, it is expedient that the teacher or operator should know how to cut phials and glass tubes, and to form syphons. The neck of a common phial may be cut off, so as to form a tube, by slightly indenting a portion of the circumference with the sharp edge of a common file, and then, with the point of a hot iron, beginning at the indention, go round the circumference of the phial, and the head will at once be separated from the body. Other- wise, tie a thread which has been steeped in turpentine or spirits of wine, firmly round the mouth of the phial, then set fire to it, and the operation is performed. In the same manner, long glass tubes may be cut into any lengths. If the tubes be of a small diameter, it is only requisite to indent them with a file at the point where they are intended to be cut, and then, holding one end of the tube in the left hand, give a blow with the right on the other end, and the tube will snap asunder. — To bend a glass tube into the form of a syphon : Put the tube through the bars of a common grate, when the fire is burning clear ; let the part of the tube which is to be bent be in the centre or hottest part of the fire ; take hold of the tube at botli OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 239 The science of Optics affords scope for many delightful and interesting experiments ; but some of its instruments are very expensive. I shall therefore state only a few simple exhibitions and experiments which can be made at a trifling expense. Be- fore the teacher can illustrate any of the principles of this science by experiment, it will be requisite that he provide himself with a few convex lenses, some of short and others of pretty long focal distances. For example, double or plano-convex glasses, 5 inch, 1 inch, 3 and 4 inches, focal distance, which may be made to illustrate the construction of a compound microscope, as I have elsewhere shown m my work, " On the Improvement of Society." Also lenses, from 3 to 6 or 8 feet focus, to illustrate the construc- tion of a telescope, and the nature of a camera obscura; and two or three concave mirrors for illustrating some of the phenomena o£ ref,ection. The principle on which a compound microscope, a solar microscope, and a magic lantern or phantasmagoria, are constructed, may be shown by one easy experiment. Let A, Fig. 1, represent a convex glass, suppose six inches focal dis- tance, and B the flame of a candle. Hold the glass, A, at a little more than six inches from the candle, and on an opposite wall will Fig. 1. be formed a large magnified image of the candle, C E D. This image will be inverted, and larger than the flame of the candle in proportion as the distance A E, from the glass to the wall, ex- ends, and when it begins to melt near the middle, gently bend it with both hands, in the form which is wanted, and then remove it from the fire. A little experience will render such operations quite easy and efficient for the purpose intended. If a small bend only at one end of the tube is required, that end may be put into the fire till it begin to melt, then take hold of it gently with a pair of tongs, and bend it in the form required with the right hand. 240 OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. ceeds the distance A B, from the glass to the candle. Suppose the distance A B to be exactly 6 inches, and the distance A E to be 7 feet or 84 inches, then the image of the candle will be mag- nified in the proportion of 6 to 84, or 14 times. In this experi- ment the candle represents the object to be magnified in a com- pound microscope, A the object-glass, and C D the image formed by the lens, which is magnified a second time by the eye-glass of the microscope. In reference to the solar microscope, the candle represents the small object to be magnified, and C D its magnified image on a white wall or screen ; and in reference to the magic lantern^ or phantasmagoria, the candle represents the figures painted on the sliders, A the convex lens which throws the image of the figures on a screen, and C D the magnified image of the painted figures. In all these instruments, the prin- ciple on which the objects are magnified is precisely the same ; the size of the image is always in proportion to its distance from the lens by which it is formed ; but as the image is enlarged it becomes less brilliant and distinct, and therefore there is a pro- per medium which must be fixed upon as to the distance between the lens and the screen on which the image is thrown ; but a skil- ful teacher will always know how to modify such circumstances. The nature of a telescope and of the camera ohscura may be illustrated as follows : — Fix a lens of 4, 5, or 6 feet focus, in a hole made in a window-shutter ; darken the room, so that no light can enter but through the lens.* If its focal distance be 5 feet, or 60 inches, a white screen placed at that distance will receive the image of the objects without, opposite the glass, where they will be beautifully depicted in all their forms, colours, and motions, in an inverted position, forming a kind of living picture. This exhibition never fails to excite the admiration of the young. If now, a lens, about 2 inches focus be placed 2 inches beyond the image thus formed, and the screen removed — in looking through this lens, the objects will appear magnified in the proportion of 2 inches to 60, that is, 30 times ; and as the image was inverted, so the object, as seen through the glass, will appear as if turned upside down. This is perhaps one of the best modes of explain- ing the principle of a refracting telescope, and the reason why the object appears inverted, when viewed with a single eye-glass. The same thing may be partly shown by a common telescope. * A lens is a round piece of glass, ground either concave or convex. All lenses that magnify objects, arc convex, or thicker in the middle than at the edge, such as common magnifiers, reading-glasses, and the glasses used in microscopes and telescopes, except the Galilean perspective, in which the eye-glass is concave. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 241 Having taken out all the eye-glasses, except the one next the eye, adjust the telescope to distinct vision, and all the objects seen through it will appear as if turned upside down. The man- ner in which the image is reversed by the other eye-glasses, and the object made to appear upright, might then be explained. Objects might likewise be exhibited through a telescope, as ap- pearing in different positions and directions. This is effected by means of a diagonal eye-piece^ which is constructed in the following manner : Let A B, Fig. 2, represent a convex glass about 2 inches focal distance ; C D a plain metallic speculum, of Fig. 2. B C an oval form, well polished, and placed at half a right angle to the axis of the tube ; and E F, another convex lens, 2 inches focus. The centre of the speculum may be about 1 \ inch from A B, and about ^ inch from E F. The rays proceeding from the lens A B, and falling upon the speculum, are reflected in a per- pendicular direction to the lens E F, where they enter the eye, which looks down upon the object through the side of the tube. When this eye-piece is applied to a telescope, with the lens E F on the upper part of it, we look down upon the object as if it were under our feet. If we turn the eye-piece round in its socket a quarter of a circle towards the left, an object directly before us in the south will appear as if it were in the west^ and turned upside down. If from this position, it is turned round a semicircle towards the right, and the eye applied, the same object will appear as if it were situated in the east ; and if it be turned round another quadrant, till it be directly opposite to its first position, and the eye applied from below, the object or landscape will appear as if suspended in the atmosphere above us. Such experiments, when accompanied with proper diagrams, and an explanation of optical principles, may easily be rendered both en- tertaining and instructive. A camera obscura, on a larger scale, and on a different plan from that alluded to above, might be erected on the top of every school-house, which is constructed with a flat roof, as formerly 21 242 OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. suggested. Fig. 3 contains a representation of a wooden build- ing, on the top of which is a large convex lens H I, about 10 or 12 feet focal distance. At half a right angle to this lens is a plain speculum, by which the rays of light from the objects O are re- flected downwards through the lens, which forms a picture of all the objects before the speculum, on a round white table, T, in all their colours, motions, and proportions. If the speculum be made to revolve, the whole of the surrounding landscape may be suc- cessively depicted on the table. When the lens is of a long focal distance, as from 10 to 15 or 20 feet, it produces a pretty power- ful telescopical effect, so that objects may be distinctly perceived at a considerable distance, and individuals recognised on the pic- ture at the distance of a mile or more. Wherever there are ob- jects in motion, such as ships sailing, birds flying, smoke ascend- ing, crowds of people moving to and fro, or boys and girls engaged in their amusements ; this exhibition always affords a high degree of satisfaction. It might occasionally be used, not only as an illustration of optical principles, but also as a reward for diligence and good behaviour. In connection with the above, representations might be given of natural and artificial objects as exhibited by the phantasmal goria. Discarding the ridiculous and childish figures which were formerly used in the common magic lanterns, opticians have now constructed sliders which exhibit representations of the telescopic I OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. 243 appearances of the heavenly bodies, the different constellations, the motions of the earth and moon, and various objects connected with botany, mineralogy, and zoology ; and such objects, when exhibited in this manner, are calculated to produce both instruc- tion and amusement. The solar microscope in particular, (or the oxy-hydrogcn, if it can be procured,) should be occasionally ex- hibited to the young, to convey to them some ideas of the won- derful minuteness of the atoms of matter, and the admirable mechanism displayed in the structure of vegetables and the bodies of animals, particularly in those myriads of animalculae which are invisible to the unassisted eye. Such animalculoe may be procured almost at any season, but particularly during the sum- mer months, by infusing in separate open vessels, small bits of grass or hay, leaves of flowers, or other vegetable substances, when, after a week or ten days, animalcula? of different kinds, according to the nature of the substances infused, will be per- ceived in vast numbers, by the aid of the microscope, in every drop of the infusion. A compound microscope is perhaps as good an instrument as any other for giving a steady and satisfactory view of such objects ; and the only objection to its use for a school is, that only one individual can see the object at a time. When a teacher is not furnished with an instrument of this kind fitted up in the usual way, he may, with little trouble, construct a com- pound microscope, by means of the eye-piece of a common pocket achromatic telescope, which may be purchased for one guinea, or less. The eye- pieces of such telescopes contain four glasses ar- ranged on a principle somewhat similar to that of the glasses of a compound microscope. If we screw off one of these eye-pieces, and look through it in the usual way, holding the object end about a quarter of an inch distant from any small object, such as the letters of a printed book, it will appear magnified about ten or twelve times in length and breadth ; remove from the tube the third glass from the eye, which is the second from the object, and look through it in the same manner, holding it more than an inch distant from the object, and it will appear magnified more than twenty times in diameter, or above 400 times in surface. If, by means of small pasteboard tubes, or any other contrivance, we attach the glass that was taken out of the outside of the object- glass of the eye-piece, so as to be nearly close to it, we shall have a magnifying power of nearly forty times ; or, if we sub- stitute for these two object-glasses a single glass of about a half- inch focal distance, we shall form a pretty good compound micro- scope, magnifying above forty times in diameter, and 1 600 times in surface, which will afford very pleasing views of various ob- 244 OPTICAL EXPERIMENTS. jects in the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The magnifying powers now stated will differ somewhat in different eye-pieces, according to their lengths and the focal distances of the glasses of which they are composed. The tube of the eye-piece thus arranged, may be occasionally fitted into a pasteboard tube sup- ported by three pillars, in which it may be moved up or down for adjusting it to distinct vision, and the object placed underneath and properly illuminated. These hints are suggested on the score of economy, for those who have no regular microscopic apparatus. Various amusing experiments besides the above might be exhib- ited to the young, such as the optical paradox, an instrument through which objects may be seen, although a board or other opaque body be interposed between the eye and the objects — the prism, which, in a dark room, separates the primary colours of the solar rays — the multiplying glass, which makes one object appear as if there were ten, twenty, or thirty — the burning glass, which, by means of the sun's rays, sets on fire dark coloured paper, wood, and other inflammable substances — and optical illu- sions produced by the various refractions and reflections of light in water, combinations of plane mirrors, and by concave specu- lums. A concave mirror, about 5 or 6 inches diameter, and 10 or 12 inches focus, which maybe procured for about half-a-guinea or 15 shillings, is of great utility for a variety of exhibitions. 1. When held at nearly its focal distance from one's face, it re- presents it as magnified to a monstrous size. 2. When held in the solar rays, directly opposite the sun, it collects the rays into a focus before it, so as to act as a powerful burning-glass, and in this way a hole may be burned in a thin board. 3. When hung at an elevation of about 5 feet, and a person placed opposite to it, at 6 or 7 feet distant, he will see his image hanging in the air in an inverted position, between him and the mirror, and if he ap- proach a little nearer the mirror, and hold out his hand towards it, the image will appear to do the same, as if about to shake hands, and if he stretch his hand still nearer the mirror, the hand of his image will appear to pass by his hand, and approach nearer his body. 4. Such a mirror is of use in explaining the construc- tion of a refecting telescope. When it is held opposite to a win- dow, the image of the sash and of the objects without the window will be seen depicted in its focus on a piece of white paper held between it and the window, which represents the manner in which the first image is formed by the great mirror of a reflecting tele- scope; — and the manner in which the small speculum of a Gre- gorian reflector forms the second image, may be shown by hold- OPTICAL DECEPTIONS. 245 ing the mirror at a little more than its focal distance behind a candle, and throwing its magnified image upon an opposite wall, in the same way as the lens, fig. 1, p. 239, by refraction, pro- duced the enlarged image C D. 5. If a bright fire be made in a large room, and a very smooth, well-polished mahogany table be placed at a considerable distance near the wall, and the concave mirror so placed that the light of the fire may be reflected from the mirror to its focus on the table — a person standing at a dis- tance toward the fire, but not directly in the line between the mir- ror and the fire, will see an image of the fire upon the table, large and erect, as if the table had been set on fire. Various illusions and deceptions have been produced by means of concave mirrors. Pagan priests are supposed to have rekindled the Vestal fire by this instrument ; and with the same instrument, on a large scale, Archimedes is reported to have burned the Ro- man fleet. When the mirror is concealed from the view of a spectator by certain contrivances, he may be easily deceived and tantalized with a shadow instead of a substance. He may be made to see a vessel half full of water inverted in the air without losing a drop of its contents. He may be desired to grasp what appears a beautiful flower, and, when he attempts to touch it, it vanishes into air, or a death's-head appears to snap at his fingers. He may be made to behold a terrific spectre suddenly starting up before him, or a person with a drawn sword, as if about to run him through. An exhibition of this kind was some time ago brought before the public, which was effected by a concave mir- ror. A man being placed with his head downwards, in the focus of the mirror, an erect image of him was exhibited, while his real person was concealed, and the place of the mirror darkened ; the spectators were then directed to take a plate of fruit from his hand, which, in an instant, was dexterously changed for a dagger or some other deadly weapon. — It may not be improper occasionally to exhibit such deceptions to the young, and leave them for some time to ruminate upon them till the proper explanations be given, in order to induce them to use their rational powers in reflecting on the subject, and particularly to teach them to investigate the causes of every appearance that may seem mysterious or inex- plicable, and not to ascribe to occult or supernatural causes what may be explained by an investigation of the established laws of nature ; and to guard them against drawing rash or unfounded conclusions from any subject or phenomenon which they have not thoroughly explored, or do not fully comprehend. Having enlarged much farther than I originally intended on the preceding departments of Natural Philosophy, I have no space 21* 246 CHEMISTRY. left for suggesting any hints in relation to electricity, galvanism, and magnetism. If the teacher is possessed of an electrical ma- chine and a galvanic apparatus, and is acquainted with his sub- ject, he has it in his power to exhibit a great variety of very striking experiments which can never fail to arrest the attention of the juvenile mind, and prepare it for entering on explanations of some of the sublimest phenomena of nature. But without these instruments very few experiments of any degree of interest can be performed in relation to these subjects. The illustration of the phenomena of magnetism requires no expensive apparatus. Two or three small, and as many large bar magnets — a large horse-shoe magnet, a magnetic compass, and a few needles, pieces of iron, and steel filings, may be sufficient for illustrating the prominent facts in relation to this department of philosophy. But as I have already thrown out a few hints on this subject in the lesson on the Sagacious Swan* it would be needless to enlarge. — My only reason for suggesting the above hints and experiments is, to show that any teacher, at a very small expense, may have it in his power to illustrate, in a pleasing manner, many of the most interesting and practical truths connected with natural philosophy. Most of the apparatus alluded to above could be procured for two or three pounds, provided the experimenter apply his hands and construct a portion of it himself, which he can easily do when the materials are provided. In regard to philosophical apparatus of every description, were there a general demand for it from all classes of the community, it might be afforded for less than one half the price now charged for it, as certain portions of it might be constructed of cheaper materials than are now used ; as elegance in such instruments is not always necessary for vse ; as competition would reduce their price to the lowest rate, and as there would be no necessity for great profits when the manufacturers were certain of a quick and extensive sale. Chemistry. — Chemistry, in it present improved state, is a sci- ence so interesting and useful, so intimately connected with the knowledge of nature, the improvement of the useful arts, and with every branch of physical and practical science, that an ovt- linCj at least, of its leading principles and facts should be com- municated to all classes of the young. The distinguishing pro- perties of the simple substances, such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, chlorine, iodine, sulphur, and phosphorus — particularly oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and carburetted hydrogen, should be * See page 154. n * MATHEMATICS. 247 minutely described, and illustrated by experiments, and their ex- tensive influence in the system of nature particularly detailed. The laws of chemical affinity — the nature and properties o^ heat, its radiation and expansive power, and the effects it produces on all bodies — the composition and decomposition of water, the na- ture of crystallization, the properties of earths, metals, acids, and alkalies, the nature of combustion, chemical action and combina- tions, the component principles of animal and vegetable sub- stances, and various other particulars, may be impressed upon the minds of the young, and rendered familiar by a variety of simple experiments which can be easily performed. Many of the most important and luminous facts of this science may be exhibited by the aid of a few Florence flasks, glass tubes, common phials, tumblers, wine and ale glasses — of which I intended exhibiting some specimens, had my limits permitted. In the meantime I refer the reader to Accum's volume entitled " Chemical Amuse- ments," which contains a perspicuous description of nearly 200 interesting experiments on this subject, with an explanation of the rationale of each experiment. Griffin's Recreations in Chemis- try ; Thomson's, Turner's, Parkes', Graham's and Donovan's treatises, or any other modern system of chemistry, may also be consulted.* Section X. — Mathematics. A knowledge of certain departments of the mathematical sci- ences is essentially requisite for understanding many of the dis- cussions and investigations connected with natural philosophy, astronomy, geography, and navigation, and for various practical purposes in the mechanical arts ; and, consequently, ought to form * Notwithstanding the numerous excellent treatises on natural philosophy and chemistry which have been published of late years, we have scarcely any books on these subjects exactly adapted for the use of schools. Blair's "Grammar of Natural Philosophy," and "Conversations" on the same sub- ject, by Mrs. Marcet, contain a comprehensive view of the leading subjects of natural philosophy, which may be recommended to the perusal of young persons ; but they are scarcely adapted to the purpose of teaching. Dr. Comstock of America, formerly mentioned, (page 210,) lately published a " System of Natural Philosphy," for the use of students and preceptors, which has already passed through nine editions. This volume contains about 300 closely printed pages, and above 200 wood-cuts, and comprises a popular and scientific illustration of the "Properties of Bodies, Mechanics, Hydrostatics, Hydraulics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, Optics, Astronomy, Elec- tricity, and Magnetism," with questions in the margin of every page for exercising the judgment of the student. It is calculated for being an ex- cellent text-book in colleges and academies ; but would require to be some- what reduced and simplified, to adapt it to the use of common schools. 248 MATHEMATICS. a portion of every course of general education. During the first stages of elementary instruction, a knowledge of the names and some of the properties of angles, triangles, squares, parallelograms, trapezoids, trapeziums, circles, ellipses, parallels, perpendiculars, and other geometrical lines and figures, may be imparted, on differ- ent occasions, by way of amusement, as is generally done in infant schools, which would prepare the way for entering on the regular study of mathematical science. The usual method of teaching mathematics is to commence with the "Elements of Euclid," pro- ceeding through the first six, and the eleventh and twelfth books, and afterwards directing the attention to the elements of plane and spherical trigonometry, conic sections, fluxions and the higher algebraic equations, in which the attention of the student is chiefly directed to the demonstration of mathematical propositions, with- out being much exercised in practical calculations. This is the scientific method of instruction generally pursued in colleges and academies, and if youths of the age of fourteen or fifteen were capable of the attention and abstraction of angelic beings, it would likewise be the natural method. But a different method, I pre- sume, ought to be pursued in schools chiefly devoted to popular instruction. After the pupil has acquired a competent knowledge of arithmetic, let him be conducted through the different branches o^ practical geometry^ including the mensuration of surfaces and solids, artificers' work and land-surveying, exhibiting occasionally a demonstration of some of the rules, in so far as he is able to comprehend it. After which, a selection should be made from Euclid, (chiefly from the first book,) of those propositions which have a practical bearing, and which form the foundation of prac- tical geometry and the operations of plane trigonometry. These, which might be comprehended within the limits of thirty or forty propositions, should be arranged into a kind of system, which might be divided into propositions relating to quadrilateral figures, triangles, circles, and conic sections. The demonstrations of these should be clear and explicit, and as simple as the nature of the subject will admit, and the steps of the demonstration of each proposition should be thoroughly understood before proceeding to another. At the same time, the bearing of the truths demonstrated upon the several practical operations of geometry, and their gene* ral utility, should be distinctly pointed out as the teacher proceeds in his demonstrations ; and the pupil, having previously been oc- cupied in calculations relating to geometrical figures, will be en- abled to appreciate such demonstrations, and will feel a greater interest in such exercises than he would otherwise do, were he to consider them as relating merely to abstract truths which have I! MATHEMATICS. 249 no useful tendency. He might next proceed to the statements and calculations connected with the diflerent cases of plane trigonome- try, applying them to the mensuration of all the cases of terres- trial heights and distances, and to the determining of the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies and the altitude of the lunar mountains. This is the whole course of mathematical instruction I would deem it necessary to communicate in the first instance ; — and, with a knowledge of the practical operations of geometry and trigonometry, and of the principles on which they are founded, the pupil would be enabled to understand all the prominent parts of useful science to which mathematical principles are applicable, and to apply them to the practical purposes of life. If he feel a peculiar relish for mathematical investigations, or if his situation or profession in future life require an extensive knowledge of the higher departments of this study, he can easily prosecute, at his leisure, such studies to any extent, on the foundation of what he had previously acquired. When a young person, of the age of twelve or fourteen, commences the study of" Euclid's Elements," or any similar work, he is at a loss to conceive what useful pur- pose can be served by fixing his mind on squares, parallelograms and triangles, and pestering himself in demonstrating their rela- tions and proportions. After encountering some difficulties, he perhaps acquires a pretty clear conception of the demonstrations of the first and most simple propositions ; but as he proceeds in his course, the propositions become more complex and difficult to be conceived, and the steps of the demonstration more tedious and complicated ; he forgets the conclusions formerly deduced, his mind becomes bewildered, and, in too many instances, he follows his preceptor in the dark, relying more on his authorita- tive assertions than on a clear perception of the force of his de- monstrations ; his ideas become confused, and he loses all relish for the study, because he cannot perceive the practical purposes to which such abstract speculations can be applied. This, it may be affirmed, is the case with more than one- half of those who attempt the study of pure mathematics at an early age, without having previously been exercised in the practical operations of the science. It is for this reason I would recommend a short course, or outline of practical geometry and trigonometry before proceed- ing to the demonstration of theorems, or the more abstract parts of mathematical science. So far as my experience goes, I have uniformly found, that those who had been well exercised in the different branches of mensuration, and the practical parts of trigonometry, previous to their entering on a course of pure 260 PHYSIOLOGY. mathematics, have acquired a relish for such studies, and become eminent proficients in them ; while their fellow-students, who had no previous experience in practical calculations, lagged far behind them, and seldom entered into the spirit of such subjects. I could point to several individuals of this description, who ultimately at- tained the highest mathematical prizes bestowed at the colleges and academies at which they attended. Section XL — Physiology, This is a department of knowledge which has never yet been introduced into any seminary, as a branch of general education. It is somewhat unaccountable, and not a little inconsistent, that, while we direct the young to look abroad over the surface of the earth and survey its mountains, rivers, seas, and continents, and guide their views to the regions of the firmament, where they may contemplate the moons of Jupiter, the rings of Saturn, and thousands of luminaries placed at immeasurable distances, — that, while we direct their attention to the structure and habits of quad- rupeds, birds, fishes, and insects, and even to the microscopic animalculse in a drop of water — we should never teach them to look into themselves, to consider their own corporeal structures, the numerous parts of which they are composed, the admirable functions they perform, the wisdom and goodness displayed in their mechanism, and the lessons of practical instruction which may be derived from such contemplations. An intelligent writer in the " American Annals of Education," has justly remarked — " The person who should occupy a dwelling seventy, eighty, or a hundred years, and yet be unable to tell the number of its apart- ments, or the nature and properties of any of its materials, per- haps even the number of stories of which it consisted — would be thought inexcusably ignorant. Yet, with the exception of medi- cal men, and here and there an individual belonging to the other professions, is there one person in a thousand who knows any thing about the elementary materials — the structure or even the number of apartments in the present habitation of his mind?" It is not because this study is either uninteresting or unaccompanied with mental gratification, that it is so generally neglected ; for to " know ourselves,^'' both physically and intellectually, is one of the first duties of man, and such knowledge has an extensive practical tendency, and is calculated to gratify the principle of curiosity, and to produce emotions of admiration and pleasure. "Does it afford no pleasure," says the writer I have now quoted, *' to study the functions of the stomach and liver, and other organs concerned in changing a mass of beaten food, perhaps some of PHYSIOLOGY. 251 the coarser vegetables, into blood? — -of the heart, and arteries, and veins, which convey this fluid, to the amount of three gallons, through all parts of the body once in four minutes ? — of the lungs, which restore the half-spoiled blood to its wonted purity, as fast as it is sent into them, and enable it once more to pursue a health- ful course through its ten thousand channels? — of the brain, and especially the nerves, which by their innumerable branches spread themselves over every soft part of the human system (and some of the harder parts) which they can possibly penetrate, in such numbers that we can nowhere insert the point of the finest needle without piercing them ? — of the skin, every square inch of which contains the mouths or extremities of a million of minute vessels? Is all this, I say, uninteresting? Is there no wisdom displayed in the construction of so complicated, and yet so wonderful a ma- chine, and endowing it with the power of retaining an average heat of 96 or 98 degrees, whether the surrounding atmosphere be heated to 100 degrees or cooled to 32, or even to a much lower point ? Is there, moreover, no mental discipline involved in the study of physiology ?"* The evils arising from ignorance of the corporeal functions, and of the circumstances by which they are impaired, are numer- ous and much to be deplored. From ignorance of the structure and functions of the digestive organs, parents, in many instances, allow their children to eat and drink every thing they desire, and to gorge their stomachs, till diseased action of the organs con- nected with digestion necessarily ensues, accompanied with the other disorders which generally follow in its train. To the same cause is owing the practice of administering to infants, cordials, elixirs, laudanum, and spirituovs liquors — a practice in which no person will indulge who is acquainted with the laws which regulate the functions of the corporeal frame, and which has a tendency not only to injure the individual, but to perpetuate a degenerated race through successive generations. From ignorance of the na- ture of perspiration, and the functions of the skin, children are permitted to wallow in dirtiness and filth, to remain moist, cold, and benumbed, and to pass days and even weeks without being washed or receiving a change of linens ; by which they are, soon- er or later, subjected to cutaneous and inflammatory disorders. Ignorance of this subject has likewise led to those awkward at- * Mr. Alcott, " American Annals of Education," for September, 1833, — a journal which is conducted with admirable spirit by Mr. Woodbridge, and which contains a variety of valuable communications, and much important statistical information, respecting the improvements going forward in Eu- rope and America, in connection with the subject of education. 252 PHYSIOLOGY. tempts, particularly on the part of the female sex, to remodel the human frame, as if they could improve the mechanism and sym- metry devised by Infinite Wisdom. Hence the derangement of the physical system produced by laced stays, strait jackets, corsets, and other absurd articles of dress, by which the ribs are compressed, the spine bent out of its place, and the free expan- sion of the lungs prevented.; the consequences of which are, — diseases of the breast, shortness of breath, external callosities, defective digestion, tubercles of the lungs, and a tendency to pul- monary consumption. The following figures show how such un- natural practices tend to distort even the very bones, as well as Fig. 1. Fig. 2. the muscular part of the body. They are taken from No. 58. of the " Penny Magazine." Fig. 1 . is an outline of the cele- brated statue of the Venus de Medicis, which is considered as the most beautiful and symmetrical model of a fine female figure. Fig. 2. is the skeleton of a similar figure, with the bones ia Fig. 3. Fig. 4. PHYSIOLOGY. 253 their natural position. Fig. 3. is an outline of the figure of a modern fashionable lady, after it has been permanently remodelled by stays. Fig. 4. is a skeleton belonging to such a figure as No. 3. From these figures it appears that the size of the chest be- longing to figures 3 and 4, is obviously much less than that of figures 1 and 2, and consequently, the parts which it embraces must be unnaturally compressed, to the injury of symmetry and beauty, as well as to the impeding of the vital functions. But it will naturally be asked, How shall we find means to communicate a knowledge of physiology in common schools? A thorough knowledge of this subject, such as a regular medical practitioner requires, cannot be communicated in such seminaries, nor would it be necessary, or even expedient, to make the attempt. Human subjects could not be dissected before the eyes of the young, nor would it be proper to accustom them to witness such operations. A general knowledge of the parts of the human frame, of their relative positions, and of the functions they per- form in the animal system, is all that is requisite to be imparted ; and there are several modes by which such a view of the mech- anism of the human body may be exhibited. 1. It is well known that the skill of the anatomist, combined with that of the modeller, has enabled him to construct a model or representation of the human system. This model, which has been sometimes called a mannikin, or artificial man, is formed with so much skill and ingenuity as to exhibit the principal veins and arteries, the nerves, the muscles, the lungs, liver, stomach, kidneys, and most other parts, nearly as distinctly as they appear in the real human sub- ject. Such a model, could it be procured, would answer all the purposes of general instruction. The only valid objection that could be made to its introduction would be, the expense with which it would be necessarily attended. 2. An idea of the form and position of those parts connected with the vital functions, which are contained within the thorax and abdomen^ may be obtained by dissecting some of our domestic quadrupeds. Although the mechanism of these animals is somewhat different from that of man, yet the organs contained in the cavity of the breast and ab- domen are essentially the same, though diflibring in some minute particulars — are placed nearly in the same relative positions, and perform the same or similar functions as in the human system. As hares, rabbits, and other quadrupeds are frequently slaughtered for food, and as dogs and cats sometimes require to be killed, opportunities might be taken of dissecting such animals, and showing the forms and positions of those parts which most nearly resemble those of the human subject. I recollect, when young, 2-2 254 PHYSIOLOGY. having received my first clear ideas of the form and position of the lungs, heart, liver, kidneys, stomach, &c. from the dissection of a cat^ of which the anatomical figures I had in my power to inspect, could afford no accurate or satisfactory conception. 3. Dried preparations of certain parts of the human body — por- tions of'the muscular parts, such as the heart, liver, &c. preserved in spirits — skulls, and detached portions of the skeleton — might be occasionally procured, which might serve for the illustration of particular functions. 4. Where such objects as the above can- not be procured, some general and useful ideas on this subject may be communicated by means of large coloured anatomical plates. These are found necessary to accompany every course of anatomical dissection ; and, although they cannot convey the same accurate ideas which may be obtained by a direct inspection of the human subject, yet none will deny that a very considerable degree of useful information may in this way be obtained, espe- cially with the assistance of a teacher who can explain, with sim- plicity and clearness, the several organs and functions of the ani- mal system. Supposing a person knew nothing of the internal parts of the human body, it is evident, that, from such a figure as PHYSIOLOGY. 255 the preceding, an idea might be obtained of the relative sftuations of the lungs, the heart, the diaphragm, the liver, the gall-bladder, the pancreas, the stomach, the kidneys, and various other parts, and much more so from a variety of separate figures delineated on a large scale, and coloured after nature. There would be no necessity for exhibiting or describing any other parts or organs but those which are common to both sexes, so that there would be no room for objections on the score of indelicacy. The female sex, however, as well as the male, ought to be instructed in this science ; for, as females have the physical education of children more immediately under their control, it is of vast importance to the human race at large, that they should be endowed with that knowledge of the functions of the human frame, which will en- able them to conduct such education with intelligence and discre- tion. There is no department of science, moreover, in which a pious and intelligent teacher has a better opportunity of directing the minds of his pupils to the evidences of design, and of descant- ing on the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator, than when describing the mechanism of the human frame. In the various articulations of the bones, in the construction of the^ venous and arterial system, in the process of respiration, in the circulation of the blood, in the muscular and nervous systems, in the motion of the heart, in the mechanism of the eye and the ear, in the con- struction of the spine, the hand, the skull, and other parts of this admirable machine, the Divine Wisdom and benevolence shine conspicuous ; and, when clearly exhibited to the young, must im- press their minds with the truth that they are, indeed, ^^ fearfully and wonderfully made,'''' and that they ought to consecrate the temple of their bodies for " a habitation of God through the Spirit." One great practical end which should always be kept in view in the study of physiology is the invigoration and improvement of the corporeal powers and functions, the preservation of health, and the prevention of disease. For this purpose frequent instruc- tion, illustrated by examples, should be imparted in relation to diet and regimen. The young should be instructed in the laws of the animal economy, and the sources of diseases ; the practices which induce certain disorders, and the means of counteracting them ; the functions of the skin, lungs, stomach, and bowels ; the nature and importance of insensible perspiration, the means of regulating it, and the evils which flow from its obstruction ; the rules which should be observed in bathing and swimming; the importance of pure atmospheric air to the health and vigour of the animal system, the circumstances by which it is deteriorated, and the means by which its purity may be preserved ; the neces- 256 LOGIC. sity o£ cleanliness, in respect to the hands, face, neck, and other parts of the body, and to the clothes, linens, blankets, sheets, and household furniture, and the rules which should be attended to for preserving the person and dwelling from filth and noxious efflu- via ; the articles most proper for dress, and the mode of con- structing it so as not to impede the vital functions ; the proper use o[food and drink, and especially the moral and physical evils which flow from intemperance, and the frequent use of ardent spirits; the exercise and rest requisite for body and mind, the means by which they may be duly proportioned, and the evils which arise from immoderate exertion either of the menial or cor- poreal powers ;* the improvement of the organs of sensation, par- ticularly the organs of vision, and the treatment requisite for pre- serving them in health and vigour. Instructions on these and similar topics, when occasionally illustrated by striking facts and examples, could scarcely fail to exert a powerful and beneficial influence on the minds of the young, on the families with which they are connected, on society at large, and even on succeeding generations. That such information has never yet been regu- larly communicated in our schools and seminaries, reflects dis- grace on our scholastic arrangements, which are frequently directed to objects of far inferior importance. Till such instruc- tions be generally communicated, in connection with other por- tions of useful knowledge, man will never rise to the highest dig- nity of his physical and intellectual nature, nor enjoy the happi- ness of which he is susceptible even in the present state. Section XII. — Logic, or the Art of Reasoning. Logic may be defined to be " that art or branch of knowledge which has for its object the investigation of truth, and the best method of communicating it to others ;" or, in other words, the art of employing our rational faculties in the best manner in searching after truth and duty on any subject. Although all men have essentially the same mental faculties, yet there is a great difl^erence in respect to the vigour of these faculties in different individuals, according to the improvement they have received, and the objects to which they have been directed. The improvement of the reasoning powers, and the manner in which they have been exercised by the wise and learned in Europe, America, and other parts of the civilized world, have raised them almost as high in the scale of intelligence above the Hottentots, the African negroes, or the inhabitants of New Holland or Nootka Sound, as * See Appendix. SUMMARY VIEW OF LOGIC. 267 those savages are superior to the beasts of the forest or the fowls of heaven. The acquisition of truth, in relation to all those sub- jects which are connected with the present and future happiness of man, is obviously a matter of the highest importance. By the proper application of our reasoning faculty we become ac- quainted with the properties and relations of the objects around us in this lower world, and the distances, magnitudes, and real motions of the celestial bodies, and the purposes for which they appear to have been created. By the same means we acquire a knowledge of the perfections of God, the principles of Natural Religion, the evidences of Divine Revelation, the improvements of art, and the discoveries of science. By the cultivation of reason we discover our duty to God and to our fellow -creatures, either from the light of nature or from the study of Revelation, and learn to distinguish truth from falsehood, and good from evil ; and to apply the truths we thus acquire to the direction of our moral conduct, to the promotion of human happiness, and to the invigorating of our hopes of eternal felicity. It is therefore a matter of considerable importance, that, at an early period, the reasoning powers of the young be directed, both by precepts and examples, in their inquiries after truth, and guard- ed from the influence of false principles and fallacious reasonings, by which errors have been propagated, prejudices promoted, truth obscured, and the improvement of the human race prevented. — Were this subject to be illustrated in all its extent, it would be requisite, in the first place, to give a description and analysis of the intellectual powers, which are the means or instruments by which we are to pursue our discovery after truth. In the second place, to exhibit an arrangement and classification of the objects in nature to which these powers are applied. In the third place, to illustrate the most successful method of applying our natural powers in the investigation of truth ; and lastly, to explain the best method of communicating the truth to others, when discover- ed. Under the first head, it would be requisite to enter into the discussion of the faculties of sensation and perception, attention, consciousness, memory, conception, abstraction, imagination, judg- ment, taste, the moral faculty, and other powers ; or, according to the phrenological system, the knoicing and ref,ecting faculties, the moral sentiments, and the animal propensities — which may be considered as so many different modes of the operation of mind. Under the second, a brief view might be given of the peculiar characteristics of mijid and matter, and a more particular survey of the sciences, or the knowledge which men have acquired re- specting the objects of human thought, which might be arranged 22* 258 SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH LOGIC. under the three following heads : — 1. History, comprehending sacred, prophetic, and ecclesiastical history ; literary history, in- cluding the history of philosophy and the arts ; civil history, in- cluding particular history, general history, memoirs, antiquities, and biography ; also, geography and chronology, which have been denominated the Eyes of history ; natural history, including mineralogy, botany, and general zoology, meteorology, geology, and the facts which relate to the heavenly bodies. — 2. Philosophy, including ontology, the mathematical sciences, pure and mixed; natural and revealed theology ; esthetics, or the science of our feelings and emotions; ethics, logic, political economy and legis- lation; natural philosophy, chemistry, physical astronomy, medi- cine, the physiology of plants, human and comparative anatomy, &c. — 3. Art, including {he fine arts, as poetry, oratory, painting, architecture, gardening, &c. ; the liberal arts, as practical logic, practical geometry, practical chemistry, surgery, &c. and the mechanical arts, as dyeing, weaving, clock and watch making, &c. Under the third head might be illustrated the different kinds of evidence, as the evidence of intellection, of sense, of testimony, of analogy, &c. and the means by which evidence on any sub- ject may be most successfully obtained ; which would include a discussion of the modes of reasoning by syllogism, induction, analysis, and synthesis — of the sources of error, and of the dispo- sitions and circumstances among mankind from which errors and fallacious reasonings arise — a subject which would require to be illustrated with considerable minuteness from the facts of history, and the circumstances which exist in the present state of the human race. Under the fourth head might be included — 1. A general view of the different means which men have employed for communicating their thoughts to each other. — 2. An explana- tion of the nature of arbitrary signs, and the principles of universal grammar. — 3. An enumeration and description of the different qualities of style, and the best method of constructing a discourse on any subject. To a class of young persons, about the age of fifteen or sixteen, a popular illustration of some of the above topics might be at- tended with many beneficial effects, particularly in inducing upon them habits of reasoning and reflection, and guarding them against the influence of prejudices, and sophistical arguments and reason- ings. Although it would evidently be injudicious and premature to attempt such discussions in primary schools, yet a judicious teacher, well acquainted with the science of mind and the nature of evidence, might occasionally illustrate certain parts of this sub- ject, particularly in teaching the young to reason with propriety POPtlLAR ILLUSTRATIONS OF RF.ASONING. 259 on any familiar objects or incidents with which they are acquaint- ed. It may be laid down as an axiom, that from the earliest dawn of reason children should he accvstomed to exercise their reasoning faculty on every object to tvhich their attention is directed, and taught to assign a reason for every opinion they adopt, and every action they perform. Without troubling them with explanations of the various forms and moods of syllogisms, they may be taught the nature of reasoning, and the force of arguments, by fftmiliar examples taken from sensible objects with which they are in some measure acquainted. Logicians define reasoning to be that power which enables us, by the intervention of intermediate ideas, to perceive the relation of two ideas, or their agreement or disagreement. This might be illustrated to the young by such examples as the following : — Suppose there are two tables, A and B, which cannot be applied to each other, and we wish to know whether A be longer or shorter than B ; we endeavour to find an " intermediate idea," or measure, name- ly, a three-feet rule, and apply it, first to table A, and then to table B. We find that A measures thirty-six inches, coinciding exactly with the three-feet rule, and that B measures only thirty-four inches; therefore, the inference or conclusion, at which we wish- ed to arrive, is evident, that table A is longer than table B. Again, suppose we would know whether the space contained in the triangle C, be equal to, or greater or less than that contained in the circle E ; we cannot apply these figures to each other in order to determine this point ; we must therefore search for an intermediate idea which will apply to both. We fix on a square — a square foot for example, and from the length of the base, E F, and the perpendicular F G, in the triangle C, we find the 260 POPULAR LOGIC. number of square feet to be 160. Having tbe length of the dia- meter of the circle, H I, we find that there are likewise 160 square feet contained within its circumference ; and therefore the con- clusion is evident, that the space contained within the triangle C is equal to that contained in the circle E. This example, reduced to the form of a syllogism, would stand thus : Any two figures which contain the same number of square feet are equal to one another ; but the triangle C contains the same number of square feet as the circle E ; therefore the space contained in the triangle C is equal to the space contained within the circle E. Again, the sun appears to be only a few inches in diameter, and as flat as the face of a clock or a plate of silver. .Suppose it were inquired how we may determine that the sun is much larger than he appears to be, and whether his surface be flat or convex, or of any other figure, — the pupil may be requested to search for intermediate ideas, by which these points may be de- termined. One idea or principle, which experience proves, requires to be recognized, that all objects appear less in size^ in proportion to their distance from the observer. A large building, at the distance of twenty miles, appears to the naked eye only like a visible point ; and a dog, a horse, or a man, are, at such a distance, altogether invisible. We find, by experience, that when the sun has just risen above the horizon in the morning, he appears as large as he does, when on our meridian at noon- day ; but it can be proved, that he is then nearly 4000 miles (or the half diameter of the earth) nearer to us than when he arose in the morning ; therefore, the sun must be at a great distance from us, at least several thousands of miles, otherwise he would appear much larger in the one case than in the other, just as a house or a town appears much larger than when we approach within a mile of it than it does at the distance of eight or ten miles. It is known that the inhabitants of Great Britain, and those who live about the Cape of Good Hope, can see the sun at the same mo- ment ; and that he appears no larger to the one than to the other, though they are distant in a straight line more than 5000 miles from each other. We also know, from experience, that when we remove 50 or a hundred miles to the west of our usual place of residence, the sun appears, at his rising, just as large as he did before ; and though we are removed from our friends several hundreds or even thousands of miles, they will tell us that the sun uniformly appears of the same size, at the same moment as he does to us. From these and similar considerations, it appears, that the sun must be at a very considerable distance from the earth, and consequently his real magnitude must be much greater ILLUSTRATIONS OF REASONING. 261 than his apparent, since all bodies appear less in size in propor- tion to their distance. If the distance of the sun were only 4000 miles from the earth, he would appear tirice as large when he came to the meridian, as he did at his rising in tlie east; if his distance were only 100,000 miles, he would appear gV part broader when on the meridian than at his rising — but this is not found to be the case; consequently, the sun is more than 100,000 miles distant, and therefore must be of a very large size. Sup- posing him no farther distant than 100,000 miU^s, he behoved to be nearly a thousand miles in diameter, or about the size of Arabia or the United States of America. To determine whether the sun be Jfat or convex, we must call in to our assistance the following ideas. Every round body which revolves around an axis, perpendicular to the line of vision, without altering its figure or apparent dimensions, is of a convex or globular shape ; — and, Every object which appears of a circular shape near the centre of such a body, will assume an oval or elliptical form when it approaches near its margin. This might be illustrated by fixing a circular patch on a terrestrial globe, and turning it round till it appear near the margin. By means of the telescope, it is found that there are occasionally spots upon the sun, which appear first at the eastern limb, and, in the course of about 13 days, approach the western limb, where they disappear, and, in the course of another 13 days, reappear on the eastern limb ; which shows that the sun revolves round an axis without altering his shape. It is also observed that a spot, which appears nearly circular at his centre, presents an oval figure when near his margin. Consequently, the sun is not a flat surface, as he appears at first sight, but a globular body. — Again, suppose it was required to determine whether the sun or the moon be nearest the earth. The intermediate idea which requires to be recognised in this case is the following. Every body which throws a shadow on another is nearer the body on ivhich the shadow falls than the luminous body which is the cause of the shadow. In an eclipse of the sun, the body of the moon projects a shadow upon the earth, by which either the whole or a portion of the sun's body is hid from our view. Consequently, the moon is interposed between us and the sun, and therefore is nearer to the earth than that luminary. This might be illustrated to the young by a candle, and two balls, the one representing the moon and the other the earth, placed in a direct line from the candle. — In like manner, were it required, when the moon is eclipsed, to ascertain whether at that time the earth or the moon be nearest to the sun, it might be determined by the same process of reason- 262 POPULAR LOGIC. ing; and, on the same principle, it is determined that the planets Mercury and Venus, when they transit the sun's disk, are, in that part of their orbits, nearer the earth than the sun is. Such reasonings as the above might be familiarly explained, and, in some cases, illustrated by experiments ; and the pupil oc- casionally requested to put the arguments into the form of a syl- logism. The reasoning respecting the bulk of the sun may be put into the following syllogistic form : — All objects appear diminished in size in proportion to their dis- tances. The sun is proved to be many thousands of miles distant, and consequently, diminished in apparent size. Therefore the sun is much larger in reality than what he ap- pears. The two first propositions are generally denominated the pre- mises. The first is called the major proposition, the second the minor proposition. If the major proposition be doubtful, it requires to be proved by separate arguments or considerations. In the above example, it may be proved, or rather illustrated, to the young, by experiment — such as placing a 12-inch globe, or any similar body, at the distance of half a mile, when it will appear reduced almost to a point. If the minor, or second proposition be doubtful, it must likewise be proved, by such considerations as suggested above ; or by a strictly mathematical demonstration, if the pupils are capable of understanding it. But, in the present case, the arguments above stated are quite sufficient to prove the point intended. When the premises are clearly proved, the con- clusion follows as a matter of course. Similar examples of reasoning may be multiplied to an almost indefinite extent, and, in the exercise of instructing the young, they should always be taken from sensible objects with which they are acquainted. As it would be quite preposterous to attempt instructing young persons, under the age of twelve or thirteen, in the abstract systems of logic generally taught in our universities — it is quite sufficient for all the practical purposes of human life and of science, that they be daily accustomed to employ their reasoning powers on the various physical, intellectual, and moral objects and circumstances which may be presented before them ; and an enlightened and judicious teacher will seldom be at a loss to direct their attention to exercises of this kind. The objects of nature around them, the processes of art, the circumstances and exercises connected with their scholastic instruction, their games and amusements, the manner in which they conduct themselves towards each other, their practices in the streets or on the highways, and the general POPULAR LOGIC. 263 tenor of their moral conduct, will never fail to supply topics for the exercise of their rational faculties, and for the improvement of their moral powers. In particular, they should be accustomed, on all occasions, to assign a reason for et^ery fact they admit, and every truth they profess to believe. If, for example, they assert, on the ground of what they read in books, or on the au- thority of their teachers, that " the earth is round like an artificial globe," they should be required to bring forward the proofs by which this position is supported, so that their knowledge may be the result, not of authority, but of conviction. In like manner, when they profess to believe that the earth moves round its axis and round the sun — that the atmosphere presses with a weight of fifteen pounds on every square inch of the earth's surface — that a magnet will stand in a direction nearly north and south — that water presses upwards as well as downwards — that it is our duty and interest to obey the laws of God — that we ought to exercise justice between man and man — and that children should obey their parents and teachers, — they should be taught to bring for- ward, when required, those experiments, arguments, and reason- ings, by which such truths are proved and supported. As an illustration of some of the modes of reasoning to which I allude, the following story respecting the celebrated French philosopher, Gassendi, may be here introduced. From his earliest years he was particularly attentive to all that he heard in conversation, and was fond of contemplating the scenes of nature, particularly the magnificence of a starry sky. When only seven years old, he felt a secret charm in the contemplation of the stars, and, without the knowledge of his parents, he sacrificed his sleep to this pleasure. One evening a dispute arose between him and his young companions, about the motion of the moon, and that of the clouds when they happened to be impelled by a brisk wind. His friends insisted that the clouds were still, and that it was the moon which moved. He maintained, on the contrary, that the moon had no sensible motion, such as they imagined, and that it was the clouds which appeared to pass so swiftly. His reasons produced no effect on the minds of the children, who trusted to their own eyes rather than to anything that could be said on the subject. It was, therefore, necessary to undeceive them by means of their eyes. For this purpose Gassendi took them under a tree, and made them observe that the moon still appeared between the same leaves and branches, while the clouds sailed far away out of sight. This exhibition, of course, was convincing, and at once settled the dispute. The principle, or "intermediate idea," which Gassendi rccog- 264 POPULAR LOGIC. nized, in this case, for proving his position, was the following, although he could not at that time express it in words : — Whe7i Gassendi deinonslral'mg the motion of the clouds. motion appears in the case of two bodies, we ascertain which is the moving body, by causing one of them to appear in a straight line with an object which is knoivn to be fixed. This principle is of considerable practical utility. By means of it we ascertain, when we see a number of ships in a river, or narrow arm of the sea, which of them are in motion or at rest, by comparing their positions or motions with a fixed point on the opposite shore. When looking at the wheels, pinions, and other parts of a piece of machinery, we can, on the same principle, perceive which parts are in motion and which are at rest, which the eye at first view cannot determine ; and, in the same way, the real and ap- parent motions of the planets in the heaven? are ascertained, by POPULAR LOGIC. 265 comparing them with the position of the stars, M'hich may be re- garded as so many fixed points for directing the astronomer in his investigations. The principle above stated, therefore, was the major proposition in Gassendi's reasoning, and the minor propo- sition was the following : — " When we bring a tree, which is a fixed object, in a direct line between our eye and the moon, she appears for a kw seconds to have no sensible motion, while the clouds have passed away." Therefore the conclusion follows, that " the motion which was the subject of dispute was not in the moon, but in the clouds." Subjects might occasionally be prescribed in schools, for the purpose of exercising the reasoning powers of the young, and proving the truth of certain positions. Suppose it were proposed as an exercise, to prove that air exists, although it cannot he seen, — a certain time might be allowed for every one to think and to converse on the subject, when some one or other of the follow- ing proofs, though in different words, would probably be stated. 1. Take a rod, and make it pass rapidly through what appears empty space, and you will hear a sound and feel a slight resist- ance. 2. Take a large fan or umbrella, and push it forcibly from you, and you will feel a considerable resistance, and hear a sound, and a person opposite will feel a certain impression made on his face. 3. Take a very large umbrella, and stand on the top of a stair or building 15 or 20 feet high, and you may jump from such a position while holding it stretched, and gradually descend to the ground without injury. 4. Plunge a glass jar into a vessel of water, with its mouth downwards, and only a very small quantity of water will enter the glass, which shows that there is something in the glass which excludes the water ; and this is the reason why we cannot fill a vessel with water by plunging its orifice downwards. 5. Take a smooth cylindrical tube, shut at one end, and fit a plug exactly to its open end, and no force whatever can push it to the bottom of the tube, which shows that there is some invisible substance that prevents it. 6. Open a pair of common bellows, and shut up the nozle and valve-hole, and it will be impossible to bring the boards together, in consequence of the resistance of an invisible substance within. 7. Take a telescope, of a high magnifying power, and look through it to distant objects, in the forenoon of a hot summer-day, and you will see the air undulating about the objects like the waves of the sea. All which circumstances show that there is a material, though invisible substance around us, which resists a force, pro- duces a sound, excludes other bodies from occupying the same 23 266 POPULAR LOGIC. Space, and whose undulations^ in certain circumstances, may be rendered visible. Again, suppose it were required to prove the following position, that " it is highly expedient that the whole community should en- joy the benefits of an intellectual and religious education," such arguments as the following might be brought forward. 1. Such an education invigorates the faculties and enlarges the capacity of the mind. 2. It presents to the view objects of de- lightful contemplation, which exercise the rational powers, and contribute to the happiness of the individual. 3. It prepares the young for acting an honourable and upright part in society. 4. It qualifies them for the several professions in which they may afterwards be employed. 5. It tends to undermine foolish and superstitious notions, and to prevent diseases and fatal accidents. 6. It prepares the mind for a rational contemplation of the works of God, and of his perfections as therein displayed. 7. It fits them for taking a part in the elective franchise of their country. 8. It prepares them for understanding the Scriptures, and for re- ceiving profit by their attendance on the ordinances of religion. 9. It qualifies them for advancing the cause of useful knowledge, and for promoting the reformation and improvement of their species. 10. It tends to the prevention of intemperance, tumults, crimes, and all those vices and evils which result from ignorance; and lead to the practice of the Christian virtues. 11. It prepares the soul for the employments and the felicity of the heavenly world, &c. — Again, suppose the question, " Is it the duty and in- terest of all men to love one another?" to be given as an exercise of thought and reasoning. Independently of the positive com- mand of God in relation to this duty, such considerations and arguments as the following might be brought forward. Men ought to love one another — 1. Because they are all brethren of the same family, descended from the same original pair, and formed by the same Almighty Parent. 2. They are possessed of the same bodily organization, and the same moral and intel- lectual powers. 3. They are subject to the same wants and afflictions, and susceptible of the same pleasures and enjoyments. 4. They inhabit the same world, and breathe the same atmo- sphere. 5. They are dependent upon each other for their com- forts, and connected by numerous ties and relations. 6. To all of them God distributes his bounty, without respect of persons, causing his sun to cheer and enlighten them, and his rains to descend and fructify their fields. 7. They are all animated with immortal spirits, and destined to an eternal existence. 8. The exercise of kindness and afibction would unite, in one harmonious I SOURCES OF ERROR IN REASONING. 267 society, men of all nations, and diffuse happiness through the heart of every human being. 9. It would promote the universal practice of equity and justice between man and man, and pre- vent all those litigations, contentions, and animosities, which have so long disturbed and demoralized the world. 10. It would *' turn wars into peace to the ends of the earth," and promote a delightful intercourse between all the kindreds and tribes of human beings, wherever dispersed over the surface of the globe, &e. In prescribing such exercises as the above, the teacher would require, in the first instance, to suggest some of the leading argu- ments, in order that the pupils may perceive the nature of the mental process in which they are called to engage ; and when they had leisure to think on the subject, some of them would doubtless bring forward some proofs or considerations of their own, though perhaps expressed in homely language. At any rate, an exercise of this kind, prescribed once or twice every week, could scarcely fail to sharpen the faculties of the young, to induce habits of rational thinking, and to promote both their moral and intellectual improvement. It would likewise be of considerable utility to set before them the springs of false judgment, or the sources of error — the false conclusions which arise from prejudices, or preconceived opinions — the nature of sophistical reasonings, and the means of guard- ing against their influence. The following are specimens of the prejudices to which I allude: — 1. We are apt to judge of per- sons or things merely from their external appearance. A pic- ture of no value, daubed with bright and glaring colours, is fre- quently admired by the vulgar eye ; and a worthless book, splen- didly printed and adorned with flashy engravings and elegant binding, is prized and extolled by a superficial thinker. From such a prejudice we are apt to conclude that a man is happy who is encircled with wealth and splendour, and that he who is covered with coarse or ragged garments has neither knowledge nor com- fort, and is unworthy of our regard. Hence the Jews rejected the Saviour of the world, and the Corinthians despised the Apostle Paul. — 2. Another prejudice arises from not viewing an object on all sides — not considering all the circumstances connected iciih it, and not comparing all the aspects in which it may be con- templated. Thus, when we view a cone placed at a great dis- tance from the eye, we are apt to imagine it a plain triangle ; and if its base were placed at right angles to the line of vision, we should conclude that it was nothing else but a plain circle. Thus, a roqnd plate, when placed obliquely at a considerable dis- 268 SOURCES OF ERROR IN REASONING. tance from the eye, appears as an oval; and with its edge turned towards us, as a line. Thus, the sun and moon, though globu- lar bodies, appear Jl.at to the naked eye. Thus, the rings of Saturn appear sometimes like narrow, and sometimes like broad ellipses, sometimes like straight lines, and sometimes like a nar- row shade ; so that a comparison of all these different aspects was necessary before it could be inferred that these singular phe- nomena were in reality rings. Hence, at their first discovery by the telescope, they were considered as two small globes attached to the planet. — 3. Another source of error arises from the impres- sions made on the mind in infancy, and from not comparing the intimations given by one sense with those of another. Children are apt to imagine that books are unpleasant things, and that learning and religion are drudgeries, when they have been driven to such tasks by the force of the scourge. They imagine the sky touches the distant hills, and that the stars are not risen till the sun be set. From this source we are apt to conclude that the air has no weight, because we do not feel its pressure ; that the earth is at rest, because we do not feel its motion ; that the planets and stars are only a i^ew miles distant ; and that a vessel at anchor is in motion when we pass her swiftly, when sailing in a steam- boat. — 4. Our disposition to account for every thing on one or two principles. To this cause may be ascribed the disposition of some late philosophers to account for almost every phenome- non on the principle of electricity. Having traced its agency in producing thunder and lightning, they went so far as to attribute to its sole operation the phenomena of earthquakes, volcanoes, winds, rain, and even the various fluctuations of the animal spirits. To form a world, Epicurus required only a mass of hooked atoms moving in a certain manner ; and Des Cartes, from observing that light bodies were moved round in a whirlwind, formed the idea of an immense vortex, or whirlpool in the heavens, to account for the motion of the planets round the sun. 5. The passions and affections lead to numerous sources of error. Love induces a mother to think her own child the fairest and the best. Intense hope and desire make a few days as long as so many weeks. The fear of the torture, of the galleys, or of a painful death, has induced multitudes to believe the grossest absurdities of the Romish church. Envy misrepresents the con- dition and character of our neighbour, and makes us believe that he is much worse than he really is. Above all, self-interest induces many to swallow almost any opinion, and to vindicate every practice, however corrupt and absurd. Hence the most glaring abuses in church and state have been vindicated, in the FALSE REASONING. 269 most barefaced manner, by tbose who derive their emoluments from a system of corruption. It is from a spirit of selfishness, too, that we set up our own opinions in religion and philosophy as the tests of orthodoxy and truth ; and from the same principle has arisen the antichristian practice of persecution — a practice as unreasonable as that of the tyrant, who, having a bed exactly fitted to his own size, stretched men of low stature on the rack till they were drawn out to the length of his bed, and cut a por- tion of the legs off any one whom he found too long for it. Who ever had recourse to violence and torture to prove the truths of geometry ? — 6. Our disposition to rely on the authority of others. We are apt, without sufficient inquiry, to rely on every thing we have been taught by our parents and teachers. An author of great respectability frequently drags thousands into mistakes and erroneous theories, merely by the splendour and authority of his name. For more than a thousand years the philosophers and divines of Europe were led into many egregious errors by a reli- ance on the authority of Aristotle ; a quotation from his writings was considered as a proof of any position, and useful discoveries were long rejected because they did not quadrate with the opi- nions of the Grecian philosopher. Luther, Calvin, and Knox were pious men and eminent reformers, and their pecuhar opinions are not unfrequently imbibed by their followers, merely on the authority of their names. This is an error into which those are apt to fall who never apply their powers to rational investigations, and who are too indolent to think for themselves. The above and similar sources of error might be illustrated to the young by numerous examples and circumstances ; and rules and cautions given by which they might be enabled to guard against their pernicious influence in the sciences, in religion, in politics, and in the ordinary affairs of life. A brief view might likewise be given of the doctrine of Sophisms, and the means by which they may be detected ; of which the following are specie mens : — 1. Accounting for a phenomenon or fact by assigning a false cause, or taking an accidental conjunction of things for a necessary connection. We fall into this error, when from an accident we infer a property, when from an example we infer a rule, when from a single act we infer a habit. Astrologers commit this error when they deduce the cause of the various events in the lives of men from the different aspects of the stars and planets. We reason on this sophism when we construe the appearance of a comet or an eclipse of the sun as predicting the fate of princes, the revolution of nations, or the infliction of pestilence or famine j or when it rains at the new or full moon, and we infer that tjie 23* 270 IMPORTANCE OP JUST REASONING. moon is the cause of it ; or when a person is in misery or dis- tress, and we conclude that he must needs be a heinous sinner. — 2. When we draw a conclusion from a premise which is only true by accident. We fall into this error when we reason against any thing because of the wrong use which has been made of it ; as when we reason against printing, because it has sometimes bf'^n employed for raising sedition and promoting immorality ; against reading the Bible because it has sometimes led to heresy ; against Christianity, because it has been the accidental occasion of contentions and persecutions, which do not flow from the Gos- pel, but are mere accidental circumstances^ with which it has been sometimes attended. Other sophisms are such as the fol- lowing : Mistaking the question or point to be proved — ^the Peti- tio Principii, or begging the question — imperfect enumeration — reasoning in a circle — concluding from what is true of a thing in its divided state, as if it were true in its compound state — ambigu- ity of words, and using them in different senses — with several others. Of all the species of false reasonings, there is none more com- mon than that of introducing into an argument propositions that are either false or doubtful, or taking for granted facts which have never been satisfactorily ascertained. In this way a false conclu- sion may be legitimately deduced, after such facts or propositions are admitted. Against this fallacious mode of reasoning the young should be carefully guarded, both in their own reasonings, and when listening to those of others ; and habituated to scan every proposition or assertion, and ascertain its truth before admitting it into any chain of argument. In the speeches that were lately de- livered in parliament in opposition to the Reform Bill, this species of reasoning was one distinguishing characteristic, when those orations had any show of argument. Fictions were brought for- ward as facts, vague and unfounded assertions were uttei-ed with all the pomp of confidence and authority, and the idea of revolu- tion, in its most horrid aspects, was substituted in place of salu- tary reformation, so that the haranguer would have required to have been stopped at almost every other sentence, till he had sub- stantiated the truth of his premises. Such, however, is not unfre- quently the way in which our representatives in parliament, the members of our corporations, and vast assemblages of our citizens at public meetings, are hurried along by a bold and impudent de- claimer, and induced to cheer the sophister who is leading them on to the admission of a falsehood, and to the approbation of mea- sures subversive of human improvement. it is therefore of vast importance to society, that the young be ARGUMENTS OF WARRIORS AND PERSECUTORS. 271 early trained to the proper use of their rational faculties — that they be accustomed to entertain clear and well-defined ideas on every subject — that they be enabled to appreciate the strength or weakness of arguments — that they feel the importance of prose- cuting truth and duty in every department of learning — and that frequent exercises on important subjects be prescribed for stimu- lating their reasoning powers. It is lamentable to reflect on tiie deficiency and weakness of the great mass of mankind in this respect. On the most trifling grounds they will yield their asseni to hundreds of propositions, most of which they do not understand. They will obstinately adhere to their preconceived opinions in the face of the strongest and most convincing arguments. They will swallow, without the least hesitation, the most absurd and extrava- gant notions ; while all the reasonings we can bring forward will not convince them of the reality of truths and facts which have been clearly demonstrated. So wedded are they to the opinions they had first imbibed, that we might almost as soon attempt to teach a snail or a tortoise the truths of geometry as convince them that the earth turns round its axis, and that it is possible to deter- mine the exact distance of the moon ; while, at the same time, they will talk, with the utmost assurance, of the most abstruse mysteries which lie beyond the reach of the human understand- ing. This representation does not apply merely to the lower, but even to many in the higher ranks of society ; and such a state of things has been productive of many injurious effects, in relation to the best interests of mankind. It has been the cause of most of the wars and commotions which have desolated the earth, and of the prevalence of those systems of tyranny, slavery, and injus- tice, which still so generally prevail. It has led to all the perse- cutions that have ever disgraced the church or the world. It has produced hundreds of foolish controversies in the visible church, either with respect to comparatively trifling opinions, or to those subjects which lie beyond the grasp of the faculties of man ; and has dissevered Christian society into a number of discordant sec- taries. It has prevented the improvement and happiness of the human race, and is the cause of all the ignorance, prejudices, intemperance, and vice, which appear among all ranks of society ; for if men were to cultivate their intellectual powers aright, and apply them to rational purposes, few or none of these evils would abound in the world. But it is deeply to be regretted, that in all ages, and even in the present age, legitimate reasoning has been for the most part thrown aside, and diabolical arguments substituted in its stead. When men have been unable to confute their antagonists by the 272 ARGUMENTS OF WARRIORS AND PERSECUTORS. jSBki force of arguments, they have had recourse to " club law," ana have knocked down their opponents and all their reasonings, by the appHcation of guns and bayonets, and every species of jp/iJ/si^^a^ force. Louis XIV. of France, like most of his compeers, was so convinced of the strength of this mode of reasoning, that he engraved upon his great guns the following inscription : " Ratio ultima Regum,^^ that is, the. Logic of princes — or, the last ar- gument of kings. In this mode of arguing, tifty thousand disputers are frequently arranged on each side of a question, and that party which can handle their swords and muskets with most dexterity, and blow the skulls and limbs of their antagonists to atoms, and slash their bodies to pieces, are always reckoned, by their leaders, the most expert logicians. There is another mode of reasoning which has been frequently used with disputants, and that is, argu- ing by torture, in which the argument is sometimes screwed up to such a pitch as to make the refractory disputant confess his belief in any proposition, however wild and extravagant. A mode of arguing nearly akin to this is the application of whips, sabres, gibbets, dungeons, musket-balls, fire and fagots. In this way the Romish Church reasoned with the Hussites and the Walden- ses; and with the same weapons confuted every Protestant who dared to call in question the infallibility and the supreme authority of the Roman Pontiff. In this way Queen Mary and her bishops aro-ucd with 277 clergymen, gen'ilcmen, tradesmen, and women, when, for adhering to Protestant doctrines, they were delivered over to be devoured by the fires of Smithficld. It was in the same way that Clavcrhouse and his "bloody bands" reasoned with the Scottish Covenanters, when he hunted them across moors and mosses, and massacred them in cold blood ; and that the Star Chamber reasoned with the Non-conformists of England, when all their arguments were confuted by fines, racks, and imprison- ment. It is in this way that Nicholas of Russia has argued with the brave Poles, when vindicating their liberties — when he sent them chained, like wild boasts, to wander along frightful deserts, and to perish in the forests of Siberia ; and in the same way do all mobs reason, when they furiously demolish the houses, the manufactories, or the churches of their opponents. On the same principles do those men reason, who deprive their fcllow-citlzons of the right of being eligible to certain civil offices, and attempt to degrade them in the eyes of the public, because they nobly assume the right to think for themselves, and to wor.'^hip God ac- cording to their consciences. — But, of all the arguments which have been tried, to produce conviction, there is none more power- ful than the induencc of gold. This is an argument of so much NATURAL THEOLOGY. 273 force and efficacy, that none but a few stubborn minds have been capable of resisting it. It is possessed of the most wonderful properties — in a moment it enlightens the understanding, wins tlie affections, removes every doubt, silences every objection, clears up every difficulty, banishes every scruple, and generally causes the most sturdy logician to give up his point, and bend to its power. In short, it is an intermediate idea, or major proposition, which will lead to almost any conclusion. By this argument the wisdom of the wise, and the understanding of the prudent, have been more quickly and effectually refuted than by all the wisdom of Solomon, or by all the reasonings of philosophy ; and its power- ful effects are to be seen in our own land, and in every nation under heaven. Such have been the modes of reasoning which* have most generally prevailed in the world. O ! foolish and infatuated rea- soners ! Is it not high time to undermine your logical principles and systems, to build on a new foundation, and to train the rising generation in such a manner, that they may employ their mental powers in accordance with the dictates of reason and the word of God? Section XIII. — Natural Theology. Natural Theology is that branch of knowledge which proves and illustrates the attributes of the Deity from the works of na- ture — a study which is open to all the inhabitants of the earth, and from which they .may derive impressive views of the exist- ence, the perfections, and the incessant agency of that Great Being who made and who governs the universe. " For, the in- visible things of God, even His eternal Power and Divinity, are, when duly attended to, clearly seen by the things that are made," and have been so in all ages, " from the creation of the world ;" so that, " even the heathen nations are without excuse," if they neglect to trace in those works the being and attributes of their Creator, and refuse that tribute of reverence and obedience which is due to His perfections. This is a study in which the young should be early initiated. It lies at the foundation of the religion of the Bible ; for the inspired writers take for granted that we know the evidences of the existence of the Divine Being, and of some of the attributes with which he is invested, and direct us to the contemplation of the works of his hands, as proofs and illus- 'trations of the truths they unfold. " Lift up thine eyes on high, and behold Him who hath created these orbs: stand still, and consider the wondrous works of God. Great is the Lord, and of great power ; His understanding is infinite. His works are 274 SUBJECTS OF NATURAL THEOLOGY. manifold, and in wisdom He hath made them all." In exhibiting the works of God to the young, in performing experiments to illustrate their properties, and in describing the laws and mechan- ism of the material world, every opportunity should be taken of directing them to the displays of power, benevolence, wisdom, and intelligence, which these works exhibit. It should be deeply impressed upon their minds, that it is tl>e highest and noblest end of science, to mark the evidences of wise and benevolent design, and to trace the incessant agency of our Creator in all our sur- veys and investigations of the works of creation — without an at- tention to which, the mere knowledge of natural facts is an acqui- sition of a comparatively trivial nature. An intelligent teacher can seldom be at a loss to direct the at- tention of his pupils to this subject ; for there is no part of the scenery of nature in which a discerning eye will not perceive the most evident traces of benevolent design and infinite intelligence, not only in the exquisite mechanism of animated beings, but in the structure of vegetables and minerals, and the general arrange- ment of the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere. The adapta- tion of the solid parts of the globe for the habitation of man and other terrestrial animals — the adaptation of the waters of the ocean and of the rivers to the purposes of commerce, and for the abode of countless multitudes of organized beings — the colouring thrown over the canopy of heaven, and over the landscape of the earth — the process of evaporation, and the innumerable benefits it confers — the agency of the atmosphere, the wonderful proper- ties of its component parts, and its extensive influence in the ani- mal and vegetable kingdoms — the solar light, and the infinity of beautiful effects it produces — the thousands of diversified objects which delight the eve in the natural embellishments of creation — the harmony and order, the grandeur and sublimity, of the celes- tial motions — the arrangements of the planetary system, and the provision made for securing its perpetuity — the relation of man to the agencies of external nature, as the action of water, air, light, heat, electricity, &c. — the proportion between the body of man, and the objects and living beings around him — the mutual rela- tions which subsist between animals and vegetables, and their co-operation in promoting the same design — the adaptation of almost every vegetable to the support of some species of animals — the power of vegetables to reproduce and continue their species, and the variety of admirable means by which it is etfected — the* various methods employed to disperse the seeds of plants over the surface of the globe, and to adorn it with vegetable beauties — the adaptation of plants to the different climates, and to the necessities of BOOKS ON NATURAL THEOLOGY. 275 their respective inhabitants — the adnriirable structure of their seeds, roots, leaves, and sap-vessels, particularly as discovered by the microscope in transverse sections of plants, &c — their important uses in the system of nature, and the numerous beauties and va- rieties which they spread over the face of our terrestrial crea- tion ; particularly, the curious and admirable mechanism displayed in the construction of animated beings, from the microscopic ani- malcula, ten hundred thousand times less than a visible point, to the elephant and the whale — the organs of mastication, degluti- tion, digestion, and secretion, all ditterently contrived, according to the structure of the animal and the aliments on which it feeds — the eyes of insects, and the thousands of transparent globules of which they consist — the metamorphoses of caterpillars and other insects, and the peculiar organization adapted to each state of their existence — the numerous beauties and minute adaptations in the wings, feet, probosces, and feathers, of gnats and other in- sects — the respiratory apparatus of fishes, and the nice adaptation of their bodies to the watery fluid in which they pass their exist- ence — the construction of birds, their pointed bills to penetrate the air, their flexible tails serving as rudders, the lightness, strength, and tenacity of their feathers, and the whole structure of their bodies adapted to the air in which they fly, and the food by which they are sustained — above all, the wonders of the hu- man frame, the numerous parts of which it is composed, the hun- dreds of bones and muscles, the thousands of veins, arteries, glands, nerves, and lymphatics, the millions of scales and pores in the skin, the heart with its ventricles and auricles, the brain with its infinity of fibres, the lungs with their millions of vesicles, the organs of sense, with their multifarious adaptations and con- nections, and the harmonious movements, adjustments, and adap- tations of all these parts to the system of external nature and to the promotion of the happiness of man, — these, and thousands of similar objects, adaptations, and contrivances, will afford am- ple scope for expatiating on the Power, Wisdom, and Intelligence, of the Almighty Creator, and on the Benevolent contrivances which appear throughout every part of the universal system ; and were specimens of some of the objects now alluded to exhibited to the young, it could not fail of arresting their attention, and in- spiring them with admiration of the wonderful works of God. We have comparatively few books on this subject. Derham's " Physico-Theology," Ray's " Wisdom of God in the Creation," Nieuwentyt's " Religious Philosopher," Paley's " Natural Theo- logy," Lessor's " Insecto-Theology," and several other works, contain a number of valuable fragments illustrative of the being 276 VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OP INSTRUCTION. and perfections of God from the works of Nature. But we have no complete or comprehensive system of Natural Theology ; and the works now alluded to, however valuable and worthy of being perused, are not adapted to the capacities of the young. We require a comprehensive compend on this subject, for the use of schools, in which the descriptions and reflections should be as much as possible divested of the technicalities of science, and which should be illustrated with numerous engravino;s. The best treatise of this kind I have yet seen, is " The Youth's Book of Natural Theology," by the Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, lately publish- ed at Hartford, Connecticut. This work is clear and explicit in its descriptions, and, for the most part, level to the comprehen- sion of the juvenile mind. But its illustrations are chiefly con- fined to the human body and the parts and functions of animals. It is thrown into the form of Dialogues, which has a tendency to render it interesting for the private perusal of the young ; but a work on this plan is not so well adapted to serve the purpose of a text-book for public seminaries.* By means of instructions on this subject, the young would be prepared for the study of Christian Theology, and would be qualified to appreciate the beauty and sublimity of those descriptions, given by the inspired writers, of the agency of God in the economy of nature. Having enlarged to a greater extent than I originally intended on the preceding departments of knowledge, I shall do little more than barely mention several other branches v>'hich should occa- sionally form the subject of instruction in all our schools. These are such as the following : — Natural History, including not only a description of animals, but likewise of the most interesting facts connected with the earth, the waters, and the atmosphere ; such as earthquakes, volcanoes, ice-islands, caverns, cataracts, natural bridges, glaciers, boiling springs, the phenomena of thunder, lightning, aurora-borealis, parhelia, luminous arches, fiery me- teors, whirlwinds, water-spouts, &c. The objects connected with natural history should be among the first that are presented to the view of the young, and they should be introduced as subjects of attention throughout every period of their subsequent education, as they form the groundwork of our physical knowledge and in- vestigations. — Botany is another pleasing subject on which sketches might be occasionally given, and which might bo illus- * The reader is respectfully referred, for some illustrations of this subject, to " The Christian Philosopher," particularly to Chapters i, ii, and iv, and to the author's volume " On the Improvement of Society," &c. Section vi, " On the Influence of Knowledge in promoting Enlarged Conceptions of the Attributes of the Deity." VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS OF INSTRUCTION. 277 trated by the shrubs and flowers connected with the garden be- longing to the seminary, formerly described. Microscopic views of the seeds and farina of flowers, the vessels and ramifications of the small leaves of minute plants and flowers, the prickles on the leaves of nettles and other shrubs, transverse sections of plants, displaying the beautiful arrangement of the sap-vessels, and similar objects, should be exhibited, and the attention directed to the fine polishmgs, the numerous minute vessels compressed into the smallest space, and tl;' other exquisite pieces of Divine workmanship connected with tne process of vegetation. — Mine- ralogy is another department of nature, on which a few instruc- tions might be giv^en, wherever there are specimens to illustrate the descriptions. But descriptions of metals or minerals, without presenting to view the metallic substances described, will be of little avail. — Sketches of Political Economy, illustrating the principles of commerce and manufactures, and other topics con- nected v/ith this subject, might be given to the advanced pupils, as soon as they are able to enter into the spirit of such disquisi- tions. In such sketches, noble and liberal views should be incul- cated ; the selfishness and antipathies of nations, and the incon- veniences and absurdities of those restrictions which one nation imposes upon another, should be strongly reprobated ; and a spirit of good-will and generosity enforced towards other nations and communities, considered as members of the same great family to which we all belong. In connection with this subject, they should be taught something of the civil and criminal laws of their coun- try, of the duties of magistrates, and of their own duties as sub- jects ; of the form of government under which they live, and of their social rights and privileges. Of no less importance to all classes, particularly to the lower, are instructions on Domestic Economy — including directions and rules respecting orderliness and cleanliness in dwellings — the best modes of cooking victuals — the proper nursing and management of children — the rearing and treatment of domestic animals — the economy of bees — the cultivation of gardens, and the best mode of rearing culinary vegetables — the decoration of their houses, areas, and flower- plots, and whatever else has a tendency to promote health and comfort, especially among the working classes of society. In shortj instructions in Vocal Music should be occasionally inter- spersed with the other scholastic exercises, and church tunes and airs, adapted to some beautiful or sublime pieces of poetry, might be sung, at convenient seasons, in unison, by all the pupils. The words adapted to the different airs should be calculated to convey instruction, and to raise the soul to some interestinsj or sublime 24 278 BODILY EXERCISES. *" objects. All such vulgar and debasing ideas as are generally inter- woven in our popular songs, and which are little else than a com- pound of sensuality and selfishness, should be carefully discarded. A good organ or other musical instrument might be used for leading the vocal strains. Music, both vocal and instrumental, has long been too frequently prostituted to the most worthless purposes ; it is now high time that it should be consecrated to moral objects, and to the celebration of the perfections and the works of the Most High. In addition to the mental exercises now alluded to, pupils of every description should be daily employed in bodily exercises, for invigorating their health and corporeal powers. Every school should have a play-ground for this purpose, as extensive as pos- sible, and furnished with gymnastic apparatus for exercising the muscular activities of the young of both sexes. Swings, poles, hoops, see-saws, pulleys, balls, and similar articles, should be furnished for enabling them to engage with spirit and vigour in their amusements. In walking, running, skipping, leaping in height, length, or depth, swinging, lifting, carrying, jumping with a hoop or a pole, they will not only find sources of enjoy- ment — when these exercises are properly regulated to prevent danger and contention, — but will also strengthen and develop their corporeal energies, and invigorate their mental powers. All imitations, however, of war and military manoeuvres should be generally prohibited ; as it is now more than time that a martial spirit should be counteracted, and checked in the very bud, — and those who encourage it in the young need not wonder if they shall, ere long, behold many of them rising up to be curses in- stead of benefactors to mankind. — They might, likewise, be oc- casionally employed in making excursions, in company with their teacher, either along the sea-shore, the banks of a river, or to the top of a hill, for the purpose of surveying the scenes of nature or art, and searching for minerals, plants, flowers, or insects, toil! augment the school museum, and to serve as subjects for instruc- tion. If every school had a piece of ground attached to it for a garden, and for the cultivation of fruit-trees, potatoes, cabbages, and other culinary vegetables, children of both sexes, at certain hours, might be set to dig, to hoe, to prune, to plant, to sow, to arrange the beds of flowers, and to keep every portion of the plot in neatness and order. Such exercises would not only be health- ful and exhilarating, but might be of great utility to them in after life, when they come to have the sole management of their do- mestic affairs. They might also be encouraged to employ some of their leisure hours in the construction of such mechaincal con- FEMALE EDUCATION. 279 trivances and devices as are most congenial to their taste. If, instead of six or seven hours' confinement in school, only five hours at most were devoted to books, and the remaining hours to such exercises as above mentioned, their progress in practical knowledge, so far from being impeded, might be promoted to a much greater extent. Such exercises might be turned, not only to their physical and intellectual advantage, but to their moral improvement. When young people are engaged in their diver- sions, or in excursions along with their teacher, their peculiar tastes, tempers, and conduct towards each other are openly de- veloped ; they act without restraint, they appear in their true colours, and a teacher has the best opportunity of marking the dispositions they display. He can therefore apply, at the moment, those encouragements and admonitions, and those Christian rules and maxims, by which their characters and conduct may be moulded into the image of Him " who hath set us an example, that we should walk in his steps." The incidents and the at- mospherical phenomena which may occur on such occasions, will also supply materials for rational observations and reflections, and for directing the train of their affections, and the exercise of their moral powers ; and no opportunity of this kind, for pro- ducing useful impressions upon the young, should be lost by a pious and intelligent instructor. Thus I have endeavoured, in the preceding pages, to exhibit an outline of some of those branches of knowledge, in which every individual of the human race — the female sex as well as the male — should receive a certain portion of instruction. Hitherto the female sex have been sadly neglected ; their education, where they have not been altogether overlooked, has been more showy than substantial ; and they have been generally treated as if they were not possessed of the mental powers requisite for acquiring all the useful branches of science. Without entering into the question. Whether the female character possesses the same deo-ree of intellectual energy as that of the other sex ? it may be affirmed, without the least hesitation, that, when their education is properly directed, they are capable of acquiring every branch of know- ledge which can improve or adorn the human mind. We have numerous examples to corroborate this position. It is sufficient to mention the names of Mrs. Barbauld, Miss Aitken, Miss Edge- worth, Mrs. Wakefield, Mrs. Hemans, Mrs. More, Mrs. Marcet, Miss Taylor, Miss Landon, Mrs. Somerville, Mrs. Willard, Mrs. Phelps, &c. which are only specimens of many others, most of whom are still alive and actively employed, both in Britain and America, in instructing their own sex and society at large, and 280 FEMALE EDUCATION. in promoting the interests of general knowledge. The female sex possess essentially the same intellectual faculties as the male, whatever may be said as to the degrees of vigour in which the primitive powers exist. But even in respect to the degree of acuteness and energy of the female intellect, we have examples of individuals who, without the advantage of an academical edu- cation, have explored the system of the universe, composed com- mentaries on the Newtonian philosophy, and prosecuted the most abstruse mathematical investigations ; and I have no hesitation in asserting, that academical honours should be conferred on such accomplished females, no less than on the other sex who have enjoyed more opportunities of improvement.* Females have more in their power than the other sex in forming the tastes and dispositions of the j^oung, and in giving them those impressions in early life which may be either beneficial or injurious to society. They are the more immediate guar/dians and instructors of the rising generation during the first stage of their existence, and upon the discretion and intelligence they display in superintend- ing the evolution of the youthful mind, will, in a great measure, depend the intelligence and the moral order of the social state to which they belong. Their influence is powerful, not only on the tastes and manners of society, but on the moral principles and characters of mankind. Besides, they are beings destined for immortalit}^ and equally interested as the other sex in all that is awful or glorious in the revelations of Heaven ; and therefore ought to have their minds enlightened in every branch of know- ledge which may have a beneficial influence on their present con- duct and their future destiny. Till inore attention is paid to the cultivation of the female mind, among all ranks, society cannot be expected to make an accelerated progress in the course of moral and intellectual improvement. In specifying the preceding branches of knowledge as subjects in which all classes of the young should be instructed, I do not mean to insinuate, that, in the first stage of their education, such subjects are to be studied in regular courses, as in academies and universities, though at a future period this plan may be adopted. * Mrs. Somerviile has lately been elected member of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Geneva, the first time an honour of the kind v^'as ever conferred a female. An American paper states, whether truly or not I cannot determine, that "The Legislature of Indiana have chartered a college, to be called The Christian College, in w^hich degrees are to be con- ferred on both males and females. There are to be degrees of Bo dress of Natural Science, of English Ijiterature, or Belles Lettres, of Fine Arts, and of Arts and Sciences." However ludicrous this may appear to some, I can see no impropriety in following out such an idea. PREVAILING' ERRORS AND MISCONCEPTIONS. 281 While they are learning English reading, connposition, writing, arithmetic, and other branches, illustrations may be given of the more interesting and popular parts of the physical sciences, — which will tend to give them a i-elish for such subjects, and to prepare them for entering on the more particular study of such branches of knowledge, at a period when their faculties are more matured. Nor ought it to be objected, that, in this way, young persons would only receive a smattering of learning, which would pufF them up with vanity, and do them more harm than good. If every portion of knowledge communicated to them, however detached and insulated, be clearly explained and illustrated, and thoroughly understood, it must necessarily be useful, either in expanding their views, or in its practical applications. For ex- ample, if, by certain pneumatical and hydrostatical experiments, they are made to perceive clear proofs of the atmospheric pres- sure, and its operation in the case of syphons — if they are made to see, by similar experiments, that, on this principle, water may be conveyed either over a rising ground, or along a valley to an opposite hill, — this single fact, clearly understood, might be of considerable use to them on many occasions, even although they were unacquainted with all the other principles and facts con- nected with pneumatical science. The great object to be attended to is, to convey, on every subject, a clear and well-defined idea to the young, and to guide them to the practical application of knowledge. There is a line of Mr. Pope which has been hackneyed about for a century past, which is in every body's mouth, and which is generally misapplied, when an allusion is made to this sub- ject— "A little learninff is a danfferous thiLc^." — ore; ,j^ 1 ^ How such a sentiment came to be almost universally quoted anot' admired, I am at a loss to divine. It is a proposition which can- not be supported by any mode of reasoning with which I am ac- quainted, and is itself " a dangerous thing," if by learning is un- derstood the acquisition of any portion of useful knowledge. Every one must acquire " a little " portion of knowledge, or learning, before he can acquire a larger share. A child must acquire the knowledge of the letters and elementary sounds, be- fore he can read any language with fluency — and must form some idea of the objects immediately around him, before he can acquire an accurate conception of the subjects and scenes con- nected with geography. If the proposition be true, that " a little learning is dangerous," then it should follow, that a very great 24* 282 REASONS FOR UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTION. portion of learning, or knowledge, must be much more danger- ous. If it be dangerous for a boy to know that the earth is 25,000 miles in circumference, and to be able to prove that it is round like a globe, then Newton and Bacon must have been ex- tremely dangerous individuals, whose knowledge extended to an almost unHmited range. If a little learning is dangerous, then ab- solute ignorance and destitution of all ideas must be the safest and the happiest slate of human beings. But how can even " a little " knowledge be dangerous? Suppose a young person to have read only the Gospel of Luke, and to have acquired a knowledge of all the facts it records — would he be less happy in himself, or more dangerous to society, on this account, because he had little ac- quaintance with the other portions of Scripture? or, would he have been better to have read nothing at all ? Or, suppose he had been instructed in the fact, that foul air of a deadly nature, is fre- quently to be found at the bottom of old wells, and that it is re- quisite to send down a lighted candle to determine this point be- fore a person attempts to descend into such places, — would the knowledge of such circumstances be dangerous to him, because he is not acquainted with the properties of all the other gases, or with the whole system of chemistry ? Would an acquaintance with a portion of geography, suppose the States of Europe, be dangerous to any one, because he had not minutely studied all the other quarters of the globe? or would a knowledge of hydro- statics be useless, because he was unacquainted with several other branches of natural philosophy? Such conclusions are obviously absurd, and therefore the proposition under consideration is abso- lutely untenable. The persons who most frequently reiterate this sentiment are those who nre opposed to the universal educa- tion of the lower '^-^iYfeC'and to the general diffusion of know- ledge. J- ^Xio\v no class of men to which such a sentiment will ^j/i^^'exccpt, perhaps, to a few 'pedants who have got a smatter- ing of Greek and Latin at a grammar school or a college, with- out any other substantial acquirement, and who pique themselves on this account, as if they were elevated in point of knowledge far above the vuli^ar throno:. But althouoh I have admitted, that, during; the first stage of instruction, only a few fragments of knowledge would be commu- nicated, yet before the course is finished, a very considerable por- tion of all that is really useful in the sciences might be imparted, to the young. Suppose that, on an average, every child is able to read with tolerable fluency by the time he is arrived at the age of seven or eight, and that the course of instruction for every REASONS FOR UNIVERSAL INSTRUCTION. 283 member of the community shall be prolonged till he arrive at the period of fourteen years — in the course of six or seven years, a summary view of all the more interesting principles and facts con- nected with the sciences above specified, might be communicated, even supposing that half a year were exclusively devoted to each. But there would be no necessity for restricting the pupil to one branch of knowledge at a time. While, at one hour, he was re- ceiving instructions and witnessing experiments in natural philo- sophy or chemistry, during other hours of the day he might be prosecuting arithmetic, algebra, geometry, or composition. Thus, during little more than the time usually spent in acquiring a knowledge of Latin and Greek, a very considerable portion of useful knowledge might be acquired, which would expand the range of the juvenile mind, increase its sources of enjoyment, and lay a broad foundation for future usefulness and improvement. And I trust there are few, in modern times, who will hesitate to admit, that the knowledge thus acquired would be infinitely pre- ferable, in point of utility, to all the scraps of classical literature usually picked up, during the same period, at our grammar schools. — But why, it may be asked, s-hould such an extent of knowledge be communicated to the loicer oi^ders of mankind 1 I answer, in a few words. Because they are rational beings, fur- nished by their Creator with faculties capable of acquiring it; be- cause it will increase their enjoyments and render them more useful in society; because it will tend to prevent vices and crimes, and to raise their souls above the degrading pleasures of intem- perance and sensuality ; because it will render them more expert in their mechanical professions; because it will fit them for be- coming improvers of the arts an& "^v^#3.^gq...and for taking a part in all those movements by which society mViy-^v.i'-'^/i^iLr'v^l.jind the world regenerated; and because they are beings destm^u'^-^c immortality, and therefore ought to be instructed in every depart- ment of knowledire which has a bearinir on the future world to which they are advancing, and which is calculated to prepare them for its pleasures and its employments. But, as I have already written a volume chiefly in relation to this point, it would be unnecessary, on the present occasion, to enlarge. 284 MORAL AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. CHAPTER VII. Moral and Religious Instruction* In the preceding sketches I have taken for granted, tliat during the whole process of education, the attention of the young should be directed to the manifestations . of the Divine attributes in the works of nature — the fundamental principles of Christianity — the rules of moral action — and the eternal world to which they are destined.' These are subjects which should never be lost sight of for a single day, and which should be interwoven with every department of literary and scientific instruction. In a particular manner it should be deeply impressed upon the minds of the young, that the instructions they receive, and the studies in which they noiD engage, are intended, not merely to qualify them for the business of the present life, but likewise to prepare them for the felicities and the employments of the life to come. This is one of the ends of education which has been glaringly overlooked in most of our initiatory schools, and particularly in the arrangements connected with a fashionable education — a circumstance which seems to indicate, that the superintendents of such an education either do not believe the doctrine of a future state, or view it as a matter of little importance, or consider that no specific training is requisite to qualify a depraved human being for engaging in the sublime contemplations and exercises of the heavenly world. — Having occasionally adverted to this subject in the preceding dis- cussions, I^hall, at present, offer only a few general remarks. On all occasions, the young should be frequently reminded, that they are denpr^^^^'v^S/^edtures, who derived their existence ,.r— . ^jx/'A\mighty Being who is without beginning and without end — that their daily comforts and all their powers and faculties are bestowed by Him, and are the effects of his unbounded Good- ness — that, though invisible to mortal eyes, he is present in all places, and that they are every moment surrounded by his im- mensity — that his presence and agency are seen in the solar light, the majestic movements of the heavenly orbs, the succession of day and night, the ebbing and flowing of the sea, the falling rain, the winds, the lightnings, the rolling thunders, and in every movement within us and around us — that though we could climb the heights of heaven, or descend to the centre of the earth, we should still be within the range of his omniscient eye — that his eye penetrates through the dark night as well as through the clear day — that he knows every thought and purpose that is formed in our hearts — that he beholds, at the same moment, KNOWLEDGE OF THE DEITY. 285 whatever is taking place, in every part of the world, and through- out all the regions of the universe, among all the tribes of man- kind, and among all the hosts of angels — that his dominion extends over thousands of worlds, and that his universal govern- ment shall endure for ever — that he is good to all, and that his kindness extends to the birds of the air, the fishes of the sea, and even to the smallest insect that crawls on the ground — that he is " righteous in all his ways and holy in all his works," unchange- able in his purposes and faithful to his word — that to this Great Being we are all accountable for every thought, word, and action — and that there is a day approaching when " he will judge the world in righteousness, and render to every one according to his works." — Such characteristics of the Divine Being should be illustrated, in so far as is practicable, from sensible objects, — His sroodness, from the numerous creatures He has brought into exis- tence, and the ample provision He has made for all their necessi- ties, — His wisdom, from the numerous adaptations which are found in our own bodies, and in the elements around us, — His power, from the vast bulk of this world, and of the planetary orbs, and the amazing rapidity of their motions, — \{\s justice, from the judgments inflicted on wicked nations, — His faithfulness, from the accomplishment of promises and prophecies, as recorded in the history of the world, — and His love and mercy, in " sending His Son into the world to be the propitiation for our sins." In attempting to explain the attributes of the Deity, and to im- press the minds of the young with a deep sense of his universal presence and agency, it is not necessary that they should commit to memory complex and technical definitions and descriptions of the Divine perfections. Such exercises, unaccompanied with specific and familiar illustrations, can produce no clear and well- defined conceptions of the objects to which they refer ; and when mere words are crammed into the memory unconnected with ideas, they must produce a hurtful effect, and lead the young to rest in the form of knowledge without the substance. Besides, every memorial task in which the ideas connected with the words are not clearly perceived is always accompanied with a painful effort. As all our ideas on every subject are originally derived from the objects of sense, so it is by sensible illustrations alone that we can convey to any mind whatever, distinct conceptions of the character and attributes of the Almighty. Although a definition of any of the Divine perfections may be stated to the young, yet it is chiefly by examples illustrative of the subject, that a clear and comprehensive idea of it can be convej-ed. For example, suppose it were intended to explain what is meant by 286 ATTRIBUTES OP THE DEITY. the wisdom of God, we might tell them In the words of one author, that "Wisdom is that whereby the soul is directed in the skilful management of things, or in ordering them for the best," — or, in the language of another, that " The wisdom of God is that per- fection by which he selects and adopts the most proper means for accomplishing good or important ends :" but such definitions, simply announced, would convey no definite conception of the thing intended. We must produce objects, or examples, in which wisdom is displayed, and describe them in the most minute and familiar manner. We must illustrate, in the first place, what is meant by the wisdom of men, by producing a clock, a watch, a planetarium, a microscope, a ship, or similar machine — pointing out the object intended to be accomplished by such instruments or machines, and directing the attention to the means employed, and the harmonious co-operation of every part in accomplishing the end intended. In a watch, for instance, the object is, to point out the hour of the day. The means employed to effectuate this purpose are — a coiled elastic spring, communicating its action to the fusee, thence to a series of wheels and pinions, the teeth of which apply to each other, conducting the motion to the balance, and thence to the indexes which point out the hour and minute. The proper position and arrangement of all these parts, the size and shape of the whole, the number of teeth they respectively contain, the materials of which they are constructed, the connec- tion of one part with another, and the harmonious co-operation of the whole to produce the respective motions of the hands, indi- cate wisdom and design in the contriver of such a machine, in his selecting the proper means to accomplish the purpose intended. In a similar manner, the wisdom of the Creator must be illustrated by selecting, out of the many thousands of instances within and around us, a few examples, which should be particularly described and elucidated. For example, the admirable structure of the eye^ the different humours of which it is composed, for the purpose of forming an accurate picture of every object on the retina — the apparatus for the contraction and dilatation of the pupil, to adapt it to different degrees of light — the muscles by which the ball of the eye may be easily moved in every direction, and preserved in perfect steadiness — the bony socket in which it is lodged to secure it against accidents — the lid which likewise defends it ao-ainst injuries, wipes off the superfluous moisture, and covers it during the hours of^ sleep — with many other curious contrivances, .all adapted to the nature of light, and to the purpose of producing vision in the most easy and delightful manner, showing the most admirable selection of means to bring into full effect the end pro- INSTRUCTIONS IN THE DIVINE ATTRIBUTES. 287 posed. In like manner, the curious structure of the ear, and the adaptation of all its parts for receiving impressions from the undu- lations of the atmosphere — the different articulations of the bones, according to the movements they are intended to produce — the adaptation of the air to the lungs, and the vesicles of the lungs to the nature and properties of the atmosphere — the proportioning of the size of man to that of the plants and animals which exist around him — the structure of the various animated beings, and the diversity of organization which exists among them, exactly adapted to their various wants and modes of existence — the gra- dual approaches of light and darkness — the harmony and order of the celestial motions — and similar examples, when particularly explained and illustrated, will convey clear ideas of what is meant by the wisdom of God, and the manner in which it is displayed in the scenes of creation ; and in no other way can we impart clear and well-defined conceptions on such a subject. And, when once a clear conception of this attribute of the Deity is impressed upon the mind by such examples, it may be applied to moral subjects, and illustrated from the moral dispensations of God towards our race, as recorded in the Sacred History, and in the general history of the world. Again, suppose we wish to explain the Infinity or Immensity of the Divine Being, it is not enough to say that " God is without all bounds or limits ;" — we must endeavour to illustrate the idea by sensible representations, in so far as they are capable of assisting our conceptions on the subject. It may be laid down as a princi- ple, that " Wherever God acts, there he is, and that there is no part of the universe in which we do not perceive the exertion of an agency which, either mediately or immediately, proceeds from the Deity." The motions of the moon and the planets, the ebb- ing and flowing of the sea, the gentle breeze, the impetuous whirlwind, the process of vegetation, the movements of animals, the motions of our fingers and eyelids, the pulsation of our hearts, and every other agency within and around us, are sensible evi- dences of the presence and incessant operation of the Almighty. And although we were to wing our flight beyond the limits of this sublunary sphere, there is no part of space with which we are acquainted, in which we should not find ourselves surrounded with the emanations of light, the action of gravitation, and the influence of caloric, and other agencies with which we are at present unacquainted. — With regard to the idea of infinity, in so far as a partial conception of it can be conveyed, we must likewise have recourse to sensible objects and illustrations. We must en- deavour, in the first place, to communicate an ample and impres- 288 HISTORY OF THE DIVINE DISPENSATIONS. sive idea of the extent of the globe on which we dwell, by such methods as stated under the article Geography. We may next endeavour to give the pupil an idea of the distance of the moon ; then of the distance of the sun, which is placed 400 times farther from the earth ; then of the distance of the nearest star, which is two hundred thousand times farther from us than the sun ; then to the remotest stars visible through the best telescopes, whose distance is immensely greater; and then to the boundless regions of space, which extend in every direction, beyond all that is visible to the eye of mortals. Time must be allowed for the mind to pause and dwell with particularity on each of these di- mensions, and on the immense magnitude of the numerous objects contained within them, till it is lost and overpowered in the im- mensity of the prospect; and then be informed, that all this mag- nificent scene is but a small portion — only like a drop to the ocean — of the infinity of space, which is filled with the Divine presence, and in which the Deity continually operates. Without such illustrations, all the definitions or metaphysical descriptions that may be given, will convey no impressive conceptions of the immensity of God — they will be only words without meaning, and the semblance of knowledge without the substance. It is on a principle of this kind that the Psalmist conducts his description of the Omnipresence of the Deity in the 139th Psalm — " Whith- er shall I go from thy Spirit 1 or whither shall I flee from thy presence ? If I ascend into heaven, thou art there ; if I descend into hades,'''' or the invisible regions of the earth, " behold thou art there. If I take the wings of the morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea ; even there shall thy hand lead me, and thy right hand shall hold me." When the inspired writers display the character and attributes of the Deity, they do not per- plex us with definitions and abstract descriptions, but direct us to his visible operations in Nature and Providence, as descriptive of his character and perfections ; and this circumstance must be con- sidered as suggesting the proper mode of illustrating his attributes, either to the young, or to any other class of individuals. In connection with such instructions as the above, the juvenile mind should be directed to the History of the Divine dispensa- tionSy as recorded in the Old and New Testaments. It is a strik- ing fact, that the greater part of the Revelations of Heaven is communicated in a historical form. Had the limited views of- man been adopted, as to the mode of a communication from hea- ven, it would have been thrown into the form of an artificial sys- tem of propositions or doctrines, similar to some of our metaphysi- cal compends of theology. But " He who knoweth our frame," HISTORY OF THE DIVINE DISPENSATIONS. 2S9 and who is the Source of intelligence, has selected the historical form as the most proper mode of conveying instruction on those subjects which have a reference to our present and everlasting happiness. This mode of instruction is evidently attended witli many and peculiar advantages. It is calculated to arrest the at- tention, to influence the affections, to awaken the power of imagi- nation, to carry conviction to the mind, to render truth and duty more level to the understanding than abstract doctrines or pre- cepts, and to make a deeper impression upon the memory than any other mode of instruction. Besides, the Sacred history, in a par- ticular manner, is remarkable for its beauty and simplicity, the dignity of its style, and the fidelity and impartiality with which its narrations are conducted. It delineates, with an unerring pen- cil, the true characters of men, traces the invisible springs of hu- man actions and events, relates with uniform fidelity the faults of the most eminent and illustrious saints, and exhibits examples of vicious characters to be shunned, and of virtuous characters, blended with certain imperfections, as models for our general imitation. Above all, it embodies virtue in its most amiable and sublime form, in the account which it gives of the life, transactions, and sufferings of Jesus Christ, who is set before us di perfect pat- tern of universal holiness. The young should, therefore, be early directed in the study of all those portions of Sacred history which are most congenial to their feelings and level to their comprehension ; — particularly the history of the creation and the fall of man — the circumstances which attended the universal deluge — the destruction of Sodom — the lives of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, and Samuel — the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt, and the leading events which befel them in the wilderness, and in the land of Ca- naan — the life and transactions of Elijah and Elisha — the de- liverances of Jonah, Daniel, Shadrach, Meshech, Abednego, Peter, and Paul — the circumstances which attended the birth, the trans- figuration, the crucifixion, the resurrection, and ascension of Jesus Christ — the preaching of the gospel by the Apostles, and the va- rious persecutions and success which attended their labours — to- gether with every similar detail in the history of the Bible, that may be calculated to arrest the attention of the juvenile mind. — In connection with ihe facts which these histories record, all the essential doctrines of religion are clearly stated, and lis precepts, or the true principles of human action, are powerfully, though in some cases silently, inculcated. Thus religion is exhibited, not merely as a creed or a series of abstract propositions to be be- lieved, but in an embodied foriUy in which the doctrines and duties 25 290 BIBLE INSTRUCTIONS. of Christianity are connected with a train of events, incidents, and sensible objects, and with the delineation of t;haracters and moral actions, which form so many links of association between doctrine and practice which cannot be dissevered. It is evident, then, that the mode in which Revelation has been communicated to man is intended as a model to direct us in imparting religious instructions to the young, or to any other class of society. And, when we substitute, in the room of the Scriptures, catechisms, or any other abstract compends of divinity, however orthodox, we virtually declare, that the wisdom of man is superior to the wis- dom of God, and that the plans devised by erring mortals are to be set in competition with the plan of inspired men, who derived their instructions immediately from the Divine Spirit. Besides, the instructions on religion derived from such compilations, even when understood, (which they seldom are,) are received by the young merely on the authority of the authors or compilers, and can never produce such a thorough and rational conviction of their truth and obligation, as if they were delivered in the lan- guage of men who derived their instructions and commission im- mediately from Heaven. In deviating from the plan of Divine Revelation, numerous disputes and dissensions have arisen in Christian society. Almost all the controversies and dissensions which have taken place as to the manner of conducting Sabbath schools, have arisen from such a circumstance as this — Shall the words of a certain Catechism, whether understood or not, be crammed into the memories of all the pupils? With one party it is of little consequence although the same leading truths be communicated in scriptural or other language, unless the precise vocables of the formulary they approve of be strictly adhered to and committed to memory, as if they were the immediate dictates of inspiration. Hence a sectarian spirit has been engendered, contentions and wranglings have been introduced, the advantages which might have been derived from the study of the pure ora- cles of heaven prevented, and the religious improvement of the yoang sacrificed to party rancour and hostility. It appears to me unnecessary, in the first instance, to perplex the minds of young persons with a great variety of doctrinal opinions, such as are generally inculcated in most of our Con- fessions and Catechisms. It is only requisite that a few of the fundamental and leading doctrines of Christianity be exhibited, such as the moral attributes of the Deity — the fall of man, and his consequent depravity — the necessity of a Saviour — the love of God in sending his Son into the world to be a propitiation for our sins — repentance towards God, and faith towards our Lord PRECEPTS INCULCATED IN THE SCRIPTURES. 291 Jesus Christ, the necessity of being renewed in the spirit of our minds, and of prosecuting the path of universal holiness — the connection of the present state with the future, and the important realities of the eternal world. These, and similar truths inti- mately connected with them, should be specifically illustrated, and deeply impressed upon the mind as the first principles or axioms of the Christian system. In conjunction with these, some of the leading moral precepts of the Bible should be par- ticularly inculcated, and illustrated by appropriate examples, such as — " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart — Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself — Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them — Love your ene- mies, do good to them that hate you — Bless them who curse you — If thine enemy hunger, feed him, if he thirst give him drink — Let love be without dissimulation — Live peaceably with all men — Be not desirous of vain glory — Recompense to no one evil for evil — Put on humbleness of mind, meekness and long-suffering — Forbear one another, and forgive one another, if any man have a quarrel against any : as Christ forgave you, so also do ye — Put away lying, and speak every man truth with his neighbour — Children, obey your parents — Be followers of Christ who did no sin, neither was guile found in his mouth, and who hath left us an example that we should walk in his steps." Such Christian precepts, frequently brought to the view of the mind, and famili- arly illustrated by examples derived from Scripture, and from common life, could not but make an impression on the young, far more beneficial than if it were possible to cram into their memories all the definitions, distinctions, and dogmas of metaphysical the- ology. Such heavenly injunctions, when clearly explained, come home to the understanding and the feelings ; they are recognised as the pure dictates of the Spirit of God ; and although there were no other precepts presented to view but those I have now stated, a full recognition of such heavenly principles, in all their practical bearings, would, ere long, completely regenerate the world, and cause righteousness and praise to spring forth before all nations. In endeavouring to teach young persons the morality of the Bible, and to imbue their minds with its holy principles, it is not enough that its precepts be announced, and that they be accus- tomexl to recite them. They should be pointedly applied to every moral incident that may occur, and to whatever tempers or dis- positions may be displayed in their conduct. Every time a vicious disposition manifests itself a Christian precept should he ap. plied to counteract it. Is a boy, for instance, taking revenge on 292 MORAL TRAINING. his companion for an injury either real or supposed, such precepts as these should be pointedly addressed to him : — " Recompense to no man evil for evil. — Avenge not yourselves, but give place to wrath. — Bless them that curse you, and pray for them that despitefully use you." Does he manifest a proud and overbear- ing disposition? Apply such divine maxims as these: — "God resisteth the proud, but he giveth grace to the humble. — A proud heart is an abomination to the Lord. — Though God is high, he hath respect to the lowly ; but the proud he knoweth afar off. — Put on humbleness of mind, meekness and long suffering ; and let each esteem another better than himself." Does a principle of envy, hatred, or malice, manifest itself? Those passages of Scripture which condemn such dispositions should be brought forward and illustrated : — " Let all bitterness, and wrath, and clamour, and evil-speaking, be put away from you, with all malice. — The works of the flesh are hatred, strife, envies, mur- ders, &c. — He that hateth his brother is a murderer. — If a man say, I love God, and hateth his brother, he is a liar. — Where envy and strife is, there is confusion and every evil work." The tendency of such dispositions, and the dreadful consequences which frequently result from them, should be illustrated by such examples as these : — The brothers of Joseph envied and hated him, and under the influence of these diabolical affections, would have murdered him, if the providence of God had not prevented. — Ahab envied Naboth, and caused him to be put to death. — Haman hated Mordecai, and caused a gallows be prepared for his destruction, on which he himself was hanged. — The Jews, from hatred and " envy," delivered up Jesus to the Roman gover- nor to be crucified. In like manner it may be shown, that all the wars, contentions, and persecutions, which have convulsed and desolated the world, are the natural results of envy and hatred, and that the indulgence of such principles unfits the soul for the enjoyment of eternal life. There can scarcely be a doubt, that the best mode of impress- ing the minds of the young with the moral principles of Christi- anity is, to exhibit the operation of these principles in real life, and to point out specifically those dispositions and modes of con- duct which are directly opposed to the precepts laid down by our Saviour, and to the example he has set before us. For this pur- pose, a watchful eye should be kept on their conduct, and on the temper it displays. Even the most minute ramifications of their conduct should be strictly inspected ; and those looks and gestures, words and actions, which may at first sight appear trivial or in- different, should not be altogether overlooked ; for, in many in- MORAL TRAINING. 293 Stances, they manifest the existence of an evil principle ready to burst forth into action, and which should be carefully counter- acted. There are a great many dispositions of this kind which are daily manifested in families, and at public seminaries, which are either altogether overlooked, or considered as the mere ebulli- tions of youthful frolic or amusement, which, nevertheless, involve principles altogether inconsistent with the dictates of inspiration, and with the harmony and order of the intelligent universe. And if such evil principles be not destroyed in the bud, they will " grow with their growth, and strengthen with their strength," till they appear in all their noxious luxuriance in the active scenes of social life. The following are some of the practices to which I allude : — Tossing away hats and caps, calling nicknames, tear- ing books, acting deceitfully in making bargains, pinching and scratching, boxing and fighting, taking delight in teazing and vexing one another, mocking at natural defects and infirmities, valuing themselves on account of the finery of their dress, taking revenge of injuries, envying their companions on account of their acquirements and the approbation bestowed upon them, mani- festing a spirit of pride and domination, mocking the aged, the lame, or the blind, wanton cruelty towards the inferior animals, or encouraging them to fight with each other, injuring trees, shrubs, or flowers, cutting or hacking walls, tables, or any useful piece of furniture, equivocating when giving evidence in relation to any fact, — and many similar practices, which are too seldom counteracted by the proper application of Christian principles. In particular, the practice of boxing and fighting, and every other revengeful action, should be reprobated and condemned with the utmost firmness and decision, as subversive of every principle that pervades the Christian system. That such practices have abounded at our public schools, and still too much abound, is a disgrace to our character as a professing Christian people, and to those who have the superintendence of the morals of the young. The practice of pilfering should likewise be promptly checked, and a strict regard to honesty and uprightness encouraged and enforced. However trifling the value of the article — although it should be only a pin, a gooseberry, a pea, a marble, or a cherry- stone, no one should be allowed to interfere with it, if it is claimed as the property of another ; for it is not the value of the article, but the principle of the action, which demands our consideration. Above all, lying should be represented in such a light as to be held in universal abhorrence; and the importance of truth — which is the bond of society, and the basis of the intelligent uni- 25* 294 MORAL TRAINING. verse — should be illustrated and enforced by every scriptural and rational consideration. For the purpose of illustrating the principles of moral action, and of applying the precepts of Christianity to particular cases of delinquency, it might be proper to set apart a portion of one day in the week for inquiring into moral conduct, whether blameable or praiseworthy. Cases of this description would be known to the teacher, and others would be brought forward by the young people themselves. A particular case should be stated in all its circumstances, and the attention of the whole school directed to it. Suppose a boy has been convicted o^ falsehood — having sauntered about the fields in company with some idle companions, when he should have been at school, and having afterwards informed his parents that he was then regularly attending on his instructions. The precepts of the Word of God which bear against falsehood, should, in the first place, be brought forward, — such as, " Thou shalt not bear false witness. — The Lord hateth a lying tongue. — Lie not one to another. — Putting away lying, let every man speak truth with his neighbour. — All liars shall have their part in the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone." The dismal con- sequences which would follow, if truth were universally violated, might next be stated. All confidence among intelligent beings would be completely destroyed ; there could be no friendship nor affectionate social intercourse — no improvement in knowledge — no seminaries of learning, no villages or towns could be reared, nor fields cultivated — every one would shun the society of his neighbour, and we could become acquainted with nothing but what we ourselves had seen or experienced. The happy effects which would result from a universal adherence to truth might then be illustrated; and a narrative or two might be read, exemplifying the importance of truth, and the mischievous effects of falsehood. Abundance of such narratives will be found, both in civil and in sacred history, and they should always be at hand for illustrating and enforcing instructions of this kind. The delinquent should then be reasoned with on his conduct, and admonished with such seriousness and mildness as may tend to convince him that you have his best interests at heart. In like manner should all other kinds of delinquencies be publicly investigated, and the opposite virtues explained and inculcated. When a youth has been found frequently guilty of committing the same fault, after repeated admonition, it may be proper that punishment of some kind or other be inflicted upon him. Corporeal punishment, however, will seldom have any good eflect. Few cases, I presume, will be found, where either young or old have been whipped into the MORAL TRAINING. 295 paths of wisdom and holiness. The punishment selected should be such as has a tendency to excite reflection on the evil of the ofTence, and to lead to penitence. Till repentance and amendment be clearly-manifested, the delinquent should be banished from the play-ground, and from all the usual sports and associations of his companions, that he may feel ashamed of his conduct ; and when he has given full satisfaction to his teacher and his school-fellows, let him be cordially received into favour, and reinstated in his for- mer privileges. This is the principle which the Apostle Paul lays down with respect to the members of Christian Churches : — " Withdraw yourselves from every brother that walketh disor- derly." And I see no reason why the same principle may not be applied to accomplish the same end in the case of the juvenile members of public seminaries. It is to be understood, however, that it is only those faults which are publicly known that should be publicly investigated, — those which are known only to the teacher and the delinquent should be discussed in private, in the manner now suggested, or in any other way that circumstances may dictate. Actions which are praiseworthy should likewise be publicly noticed, and mentioned with due commendation. If any young person has rescued a little girl from the hands of wicked boys who had been maltreating her, and conducted her safely home — if he has shared a morsel of his bread with a hungry fellow-crea- ture — if he has found a toy, a book, a pocket-handkerchief, or a piece of money, and restored it to the owner — if he has showed kindness to the blind or lame — if he is attentive to his learning, and obedient to his parents and instructors, — such examples of virtuous conduct should receive their due meed of praise, and be exhibited as patterns for imitation, and those Christian precepts which enjoin them brought Ibrward and inculcated. Commenda- tion animates and encourages the minds of children, and when it is merited should never be withheld. At the same time, they should be reminded, that when they have done all that they were commanded, they have done nothing more than what was their duty to do ; and, that no services of ours, however praiseworthy, can be meritorious in the sight of God ; that such actions, how- ever, are essentially necessary as evidences of a renewed nature and of our subjection to the authority of God — that they promote our own comfort and the happiness of others — and that they pre- pare us for the employments and the society of heaven, where al the Christian virtues will be displayed in perfection without any mixture of evil. — Were such instructions and illustrations cf moral principle, as now suggested, regularly attended to, ai d 296 STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES. every disposition and action of the young submitted to the test of Christian principle, there can scarcely be a doubt that the most , beneficial results would soon appear, and the moral state of soci- ety be improved far beyond what we have ever yet experienced. But, if we are remiss in our attention to the best interests of the young, and refuse to bring into full operation a rational system of moral and religious instruction, we have no right to complain of the vicious dispositions of the rising generation, or the licen- tiousness and depravity of general society. In recommending to the young the study of the Scriptures, every requisite direction and assistance should be afforded to guide them in their researches into the oracles of God. When reading the historical parts either of the Old or the New Testa- ment, maps of Palestine, and of the adjacent countries, should be put into their hands, that they may be enabled to trace the journeyings of the Israelites in the wilderness, the relative posi- tions of the twelve tribes in the land of Canaan, the travels of Jesus Christ and his apostles, and the situations of the principal cities, towns, mountains, rivers, lakes, and seas, mentioned in the Bible. To assist their conceptions of the Jewish tabernacle and temple, plans of these buildings should be presented, along with figures of the altar of burnt-offering and of incense, the ark of the covenant, the table of show-bread, the golden candlesticks, the brazen laver, and other sacred utensils. To illustrate the an- tiquities of the Jews and other eastern nations, their customs, buildings, &c. sketches should be given of their manners and customs, arts, sciences, vegetable productions, and peculiarities of climate, which are frequently alluded to by the sacred writers, and which should be illustrated by engravings in so far as they tend to convey ideas on the subject. They should be taught to acquire clear conceptions about every thing they read, and, when they meet with difficulties or obscurities, never to rest satisfied till they receive the requisite explanations. When they read a description of any scene or transaction, such as the Israelites passing through the Red Sea, or assembled around Mount Sinai — our Saviour teaching the multitudes from a ship on the Lake of Gennesaret — or Paul standing on Mars hill, addressing the people of Athens — they should be instructed to represent in their imagi- nation the various objects which compose the scene as delineated by the historian, whether mountains, rivers, seas, corn-fields, buildings, or assembled multitudes, which would tend to connect with sensible objects the moral instructions to be derived from such narratives. In forming such pictures of imagination they might be assisted by the teacher selecting parts of those scenes SCRIPTURE TEXT-BOOK. 297 in their own country with which they are acquainted, and leading them to imagine the objects and transactions recorded in the Bible as passing immediately before them amidst the scenery with which they are familiar; or by presenting before them accurate en- gravings of the natural and artificial objects connected with Judea and other eastern countries, in so far as they can be procured. In this point of view, it is much to be regretted, that almost all the pictorial illustrations of our " Family Bibles" are absolutely worth- less and worse than useless, omitting almost every thing that is instructive and consistent with fact, and introducing silly and fic- titious scenes, full of anachronisms, inconsistencies, and violations of costume, which have no other tendency than to convey a de- grading and distorted conception of the scenes recorded in sacred history. Above all things, the young should be directed to con- sider, that every transaction recorded in Scripture is intended to produce an intellectual and a moral effect, either to display the perfections of God, the character of his moral government, the safety and happiness of those who put their trust in him, the evil tendency of disobedience to his laws, or the path of duty in which we ought to walk in the various circumstances in which we may be placed. " All Scripture is profitable for doctrine, for correction, for reproof, and for instruction in righteousness ;" and therefore the study of no portion of sacred history should be dis- continued, till its moral instructions be clearly perceived and ap- plied. Questions and exercises of various kinds, in relation to scriptural facts, doctrines, and duties, should be prescribed, to excite the attention, and direct the judgment of the young in their investigation of divine subjects; but as we have now various little books calculated to direct the juvenile mind in such exercises, it is needless to dwell on the subject. It might not be improper to have a text-book or two, selected from Scripture, and interspersed with occasional remarks, tending to elucidate certain passages and events. We have class-books for schools, the greater part of which is selected from plays, novels, farces, and Pagan historians and moralists. And why should we not have a text-book selected from the oracles of inspi- ration, which contain a greater variety of sublime and important matter than is to be found in any other source of information 1 Such a text-book might comprise selections on such topics as the following : — Subjects which tend to expand our intellectual views of the Deity, and of the universe he has created — comprisino- descriptions of the Majesty and Supremacy of Jehovah, the eternity of his existence, his universal presence and agency, his love, faithfulness, and immutability, his unbounded goodness, the 298 SABBATH SCHOOLS. wisdom and rectitude of his moral government, and the care he exercises over every order of his creatures — the existence of an- gels, and the offices they perform under the Divine administra- tion — the immortal destiny of man, and the prospects opened to the righteous of eternal felicity in the future world. Selections in reference to the affections and the duties incumbent upon per- sons in the different relations of life. In this department those duties and affections which ^ve peculiarly christian, should stand prominent, such as humility, lowliness of mind, love to enemies, doing good to those who hate us, striving against sin, loving our neighbour as ourselves, cultivating heavenly desires and affections, &c. Selections addressed to the taste and imagination — em- bodying the beauties of history, poetry, and eloquence, which are profusedly scattered throughout the sacred writings. Selec- tions of biography, including the lives of Jacob, Joseph, Moses, Elijah, Hezekiah, Daniel, John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul, &c. These, along with selections on various other subjects, might be illustrated with critical remarks, extracts from works on Eastern manners and customs, descriptions of modern Palestine, and the adjacent countries, the accomplishments of Scripture prophecies, as recorded in history, anecdotes of young persons, the lives of true Christians, the judgments which have befallen persecutors and apostates, the progress of Christianity through the world, and the benign effects it has produced on the state of society. Such a work, if judiciously arranged and executed, and studied with care, could not but produce a beneficial influence on the taste and affections of the young, and lead them to admire and venerate the oracles of heaven. It is, doubtless, one cause of the low state of Christianity, and of the influence of Pagan maxims in general society, that such text-books have never yet been introduced into our seminaries of education. CHAPTER VIII. Sabbath Schools. Of late years these institutions have rapidly increased, both in Great Britain and in the United States of America, and, if pro- perly conducted, are calculated to produce a highly beneficial ef- fect on the religious improvement of the rising generation. In a preceding part of this volume I offered a (ew strictures on the mode in which some of these institutions were formerly con- ducted ; and, although the evils there complained of still exist to SABBATH SCHOOLS. 299 a certain extent, I am happy to say, that in many of these schools a more rational and efficient system is now beginning to be adopted. The teachers, many of whom are men of piety and intelligence, are now convinced of the futility of mere memorial exercises, and are beginning to address the understanding and the affections of their pupils, so that they may be enabled to en- ter into the spirit and meaning of the truths inculcated. Still, however, I am decidedly of opinion, from all that I have ever witnessed in these institutions, that the system of religious in- struction is far from having reached its highest pitch of improve- ment, and that it is susceptible of being carried to a degree of perfection which it has never yet attained. The evils and de- fects which adhere to the system as it exists in most of our Sab- bath school institutions, are such as the following: — 1. The memory is still too much exercised and burdened with the reten- tion of words, while a corresponding degree of attention is not paid to the exercise of the rational faculty. 2. Religiovs instruc- lion is too much confined as to the range of its objects and illus- trations. Instead of confining it chiefly to a few propositions in regard to what are termed the fundamental doctrines of the gos- pel, it should extend to the whole range of objects comprised within the compass of Divine Revelation, and to all the illustra- tions of those objects which can be derived from history, geogra- phy, the sciences, and the works of nature. 3. Discussions on systematic theology too frequently usurp the place of pointed moral instructions addressed to the affections and the conscience. 4. Catechisms and other human formularies are too frequently set in competition with the instructions to be derived directly from the Scriptures. 5. Many of the teachers, however pious and well intentioned, are deficient in that degree of biblical and gene- ral knowledge which all religious instructors ought to possess. This last circumstance I consider as one of the greatest deficien- cies in our Sabbath school arrangements, and therefore shall offer a few remarks on the subject. It is generally admitted, that a professor of any science, such as chemistry, ought to be acquainted not only with all its prin- ciples and facts, but with those subjects, such as natural history, experimental philosophy, and physiology, with which it stands connected. It is also admitted, that the religious instruction of the adult population, in order to be respectable and efficient, re- quires that the ministers of religion be trained to all those branches of knowledge which tend to prepare them for their office, and that they be men not only of piety, but of talent and intelligence, and found qualified by their superiors for the duties they undertake. 300 SABBATH SCHOOL TEACHERS. And can we suppose, that either the literary or the religious tuition of the young, can be intelligently or efficiently conducted by men who are comparatively ignorant, and who have undergone no j>revious training for such an office? On the contrary, I have no hesitation in asserting, that instructors of youth ought to have as much information on every subject as is usually judged necessary for a respectable minister of the gospel, and even more than many of this class actually possess. Besides, they ought to pos- sess not only clear coticeptions of every portion of knowledge they wish to impart, but also of the best modes in which it may be communicated with effect to the juvenile mind. It requires even more information and greater powers of mind to simplify knowledge, and render it perspicuous to the opening intellect, than to convey it to the understandings of those who are advanced in years. The man who wishes to act as an intellectual and reli- gious instructor, should, if possible, acquire a comprehensive view of the whole of the revelations of Heaven, and of the collateral subjects with which they are connected — of the leading facts of ancient and modern history — of the scenery of nature in all its varied aspects— of the operations of the Creator which are dis- played in the " firmament of his power," and of human nature as exhibited in all the scenes and relations of social life. For it is from these, and similar sources, that he is to derive his illus- tratiojis of divine subjects ; and unless such subjects be illustrated by sensible scenes and objects, no clear and distinct ideas can be communicated to the young, nor any deep impressions made upon their hearts. The instructor of the young must have the faculty of ascertaining the range of thought possessed by his pupils — of adapting his instructions to that range of thought — and of ren- dering the ideas they have already acquired subservient for in- creasing their number, and for opening a wider field of intellectual vision. For this purpose, his imagination must roam over the whole circle of his own knowledge, to select objects, events, scenes, circumstances, and similes, adapted to the comprehension of his pupils, and calculated to expand their views, and to illus- trate the particular subject to which their attention is directed. He must sometimes extend his views to the histories of ancient times, both sacred and profane, to the circumstances which attended the accomplishment of ancient prophecies, and to the doctrines, maxims, and precepts of the Bible — sometimes to the knowledge he has acquired of the earth, the ocean, or the atmosphere, the animal and vegetable creation, or the glories of the heavens — and sometimes to the state of barbarous nations, the persecutions of the church, the lives of good men, the progress of the gospel SABBATH SCHOOL TEACHERS. 801 among unenlightened tribes, the scenes of domestic life, or the wars and revolutions of nations. Circumstances, incidents, anec- dotes, descriptions, and similes, derived from such sources, he will find expedient, and in some cases necessary, to be brought for- ward for explaining and illustrating many portions of Divine Re- velation. And therefore, were it possible for a teacher to be a man of vjiiversal knoivledge, so much the more qualified would he be for imparting religious instruction, provided he had the art of simplifying his knowledge, and rendering it subservient to moral improvement. If religious instruction, indeed, consisted in nothing more than prescribing tasks, and hearing children re- cite catechisms, psalms, hymns, and passages of Scripture, any man, however ignorant, who had been instructed in the art of reading, might be considered as qualified for such an office ; — and hence, I have seen men, pious and well-meaning perhaps, but ignorant of almost every branch of knowledge, and without any clear ideas on the subject of religion, appointed as Sabbath school teachers, who did nothing more than take the Psalm-book or Catechism into their bands, and put on their spectacles to see that the youngsters repeated their prescribed tasks with tolerable correctness. But if the great object of religious instruction is, or ought to be, the communication of clear ideas respecting the at- tributes of God, the principles of his moral government, the va- riety and immensity of his works, the history of his providential dispensations, the plan of his redemption, and the way in which its blessings are to be obtained, the principles of moral action, and the rules of duty he has prescribed, and whatever tends to dis- play the riches of his grace and the glories of his universal king- dom — in so far as such subjects can be imparted to the youthful mind — then it is evident, that a religious instructor ought to be a person endowed with as much general and Biblical knowledge as he can possibly acquire. In throwing out the above remarks it is by no means intended to insinuate, that no gO(^d has been effected in Sabbath schools where the teachers were comparatively ignorant ; as I believe many good impressions have been made upon the youthful mind by pious and well-meaning men whose range of information was ex- tremely limited. But it is evident, at the same time, that were such instructors more enlightened than they have generally been, a much greater degree of important instruction would be com- municated, and a more powerful moral impression made upon the heart. It is consistent with the dictates of reason and the general practice of mankind, that every man should be trained for the 26 302 DEPARTMENTS OF SACRED KNOWLEDGE. profession ho adopts, and be found qualified for any office before he enter on the performance of its duties. And is the reIierce, the degrading views of the sons of avarice, and the pursuit of earthly honours and distinctions, and acting in con- formity to the noble character by which they wish to be distin- guished. Let them come forward in the face of the world, and INFLUENCE OF CHRISTIAN HEROISM. 351 declare by their conduct, and their noble generosity, that while they enjoy and relish the bounties of the Creator, they despise the vaiii pageantry of fashionable life, with all its baubles, and are deter- mined to consecrate to rational and religious objects all the super- fluities of wealth which have been hitherto devoted to luxury and pride. Every Christian hero should be distinguished in society (whether he be sneered at or applauded by the men of the world) by his detei?i|jined opposition to worldly principles and maxims — by his abhorrence of avarice — by his active exertions in the cause of philanthropy — and by the liberal portion of his substance which he devotes to the cause of education and religion ; and the Church ought to exclude from her pale all who refuse, in this way, to approve themselves the disciples of Jesus. Better have a Church composed of a select band of a hundred " right-hearted men," ardent, generous, and persevering, than a thousand luke- warm professors, who are scarcely distinguishable from the world, and who attempt to serve both God and Mammon. Such a select band of Christian heroes, in different parts of the Uni- versal Church, " shining as lights in the world, in the midst of a perverse generation," and exerting all their influence and power in counteracting ignorance and depravity, and promoting the dif- fusion of every branch of useful knowledge, would do more to prepare the way for the approach of the Millennium, than ten times the number of a mixed multitude of professing Christians who are sunk into a state of apathy, and have little more of re- ligion than the name. Their influence would be powerful in every circle in which they moved — they would make the rich professors of religion ashamed of their parsimony and their indo- lence — they would induce the lukewarm Christian either to come cheerfully forward with his wealth and influence, or give up the profession of religion altogether, and take his stand at once among the men of the world ; and they would stimulate the young generation around them to consecrate the vigour of their lives to such holy activities. They would doubtless be sneered at by the licentious, the avaricious, and the gay ; and even by the proud and wealthy ecclesiastic, who has never imbibed the spirit of a Neff or an Oberlin ; but every one who is conscious that " his witness is in heaven, and his record on high," will look down with a be- coming indifference on the scorn of such men, and " hold on his way rejoicing." — " Who, then, is a wise man among us, and en- dowed with knowledge," — " to whom God hath given riches, and the power to use them ?" — let him come forward with his stores of knowledge and his treasures of wealth, and dedicate them to the service of the Most High ; and bring along with him a few 852 CONTRIBUTIONS FOR REARING THE TEMPLE. more congenial minds to embark in the same undertaking, and great shall be his reward. " For they that be wise shall shine as the brightness of the firmament, and they that turn many to righteousness as the stars for ever and ever." It is said, that when the town of Calais, after a siege of twelve months, wished to surrender to Edward III. he demanded that six of the most considerable citizens should be sent to him, car- rying the keys of the city in their hands, bareheaded and bare- footed, with ropes about their necks, to be sacrificed to his ven- geance. This cruel demand threw the inhabitants into a state of unutterable consternation, and they found themselves incapable of coming to any resolution in so distressing a situation. At last, one of the principal inhabitants, Eustace de St. Pierre, stepped forth, and declared himself willing to encounter death for the safety of his friends and companions ; another, animated by his example, made a like. generous offer; a third and a fourth pre- sented themselves to the same fate, and the vs^hole number was soon completed. Shall such a sacrifice as this, extending even to life itself, be cheerfully made ; and shall we not find as many Christians in every town willing to sacrifice the third, or fourth, or at least the tenth part of their property for the good of man- kind, and the regeneration of society ? The offerings, in ancient times, for the service of God, far exceeded any thing that has yet been attempted under the Christian economy. The gold and silver alone, offered for the rearing of the tabernacle, amounted to upwards of £300,000 of the present value of British money, besides the brass, the shittim wood, the linen, the embroidered curtains, the oynx stones and jewels, and the regular tithe which every Israelite annually paid of all that he possessed. When the temple was about to be erected, David, along with his princes and captains, contributed no less than 108,000 talents of gold, and 1,017,000 talents of silver, which amounted to more than 900 millions of pounds sterling; and the expense of the sacrifices ofiered on this occasion amounted to several hundred thousand pounds. — 1 Chron. xxii. 14. — xxix. 3 — 9. These offerings were a tribute of gratitude to God, the original bestower of every en- joyment ; and hence, David, when he blessed the Lord before all the congregation, declared, " All things come of thee, and of thine own have we given thee. All this store we have prepared to build an house for thy holy name cometh of thee, and is all thine own.''^ The tithes^ or tenth of their income, were designed as an acknowledgment that they had received their estates from his free gift, and held them by no other tenure but his bounty. They were a kind of quit-rent annually paid to the Great Pro- THE PILGRIMS OP NEW ENGLAND. 353 prietor of the soil, for the maintenance of his worship, and the instruction of the people. And why should not the estates of Christians be viewed in the same light, and a similar portion of them be devoted to the same purpose? The tenth of the incomes of the inhabitants of Britain would annually amount to many millions ; yet all that has been collected by the British and For- eign Bible Society, the most popular of all our religious institu- tions, during thirty years of its operation, is only about two mil- lions of pounds. Notwithstanding, however, the general apathy which exists on this subject, I am disposed to indulge the hope, that, ere long, thousands of Christians in different parts of the Church, will come cheerfully forward and consecrate, not merely^ a tenth, but in many instances, one-AaZ/* of their substance, for carrying forward the designs of Providence for the reformation of the world. Such offerings are nothing more than what is re- quisite for accomplishing this grand object ; and when such a spirit of liberality becomes general in the Christian Church, we may confidently expect that the happy era is fast approaching, when the light of divine truth shall shed its radiance on every land — when " The glory of Jehovah shall be revealed, and all flesh shall see it together — when the wilderness and the solitary place shall be made glad, and when righteousness and praise shall spring forth before all nations." The inhabitants of New England, I am confident, will be among the first to set such a noble example to every other na- tion. From small beginnings, they have advanced more rapidly in religious and intellectual improvement than any other people under heaven ; but they have not yet attained the acme of im- provement, "neither are they already perfect ;" but " must press forward to the mark," without " looking back" with self-compla- cency on the advancement they have hitherto made, and " stretch forwards towards those things which are before." There are, per- haps, few circumstances in the history of mankind more remarkable than the landing of the persecuted pilgrims of New England on the rock at Plymouth, and the important consequences which have been the result of the settlement of that small and dis- tressed colony. About a hundred individuals, driven from their native land by the demon of persecution, landed at that point, near the middle of winter in 1620, with prospects the most dismal and discouraging — fatigued by a long and boisterous voyage — forced on a dangerous and unknown shore on the approach of the most rigorous season of the year — surrounded with hostile barba- rians, without the least hope of human aid — worn out with toil and suffering, and without shelter from the rigour of the climate ; so 30* 354 EDUCATIONAL ESTABLISHMENT PRINCIPLES. that, in the course of three or four months, forty-six of their number were carried off by mortal sickness. Yet this small band of Christian heroes laid the foundation of all the improvements in knowledge, religion, liberty, agriculture, and the arts, that dis- tinguish the New England States ; which now contain a population of nearly two millions of souls. Through their instrumentality, and that of their successors, '< the wilderness has been turned into fruitful fields," hundreds of cities and towns have been founded, colleges and splendid temples have been reared, civil and religious liberty established on a solid basis, the education of the young, and mental and moral improvement, promoted to an extent be- yond that of any other nation upon earth. These circumstances, furnish a proof of what a small body of persevering and well- principled men can achieve in the midst of difficulties and discou- ragements, and a powerful motive to excite us to engage in every holy activity. And I trust, the descendants of these pilgrims, animated by their noble example, will rise to still greater heights of intelligence and virtue, till knowledge become universal — till moral evil be completely undermined — till " righteousness run down their streets like a river," and till the influence of such moral movements be felt among all the families of the earth. CHAPTER XIII. Principles on which a National System of Education should be established* In attempting to establish any new system, however excellent, many obstacles and impediments present themselves, arising from the feelings, interests, and preconceived opinions of mankind. In establishing such a system of education as we have described, one great obstacle would arise in this country from the interests and conflicting opinions of religious sectaries. Religion, which was intended by its Author to introduce harmony, and to promote affection among mankind, would, in all probability, be brought for- ward to interrupt the noblest efforts of benevolence in the cause of of universal instruction. Every sectary would be apt to insist on its perculiar dogmas being recognised, and especially those which are more directly patronised by the State would prefer a double claim for the superintendence and control of all the arrangements connected with the education of the young. Such conflicting elements and party interests have already prevented the establish- ment of institutions which might have proved beneficial to the brougham's education bill. 355 rising generation, and would, doubtless, mingle themselves with any fuU-ire discussions or deliberations that might take place on this subject. t i r> u \ In the year 1820-21, Mr. Brougham (now Lord Brougham) introduced" a Bill into the House of Commons, entitled, "A Bill for better providing the means of education for his Majesty's sub- jects," which was imbued with a spirit of il liberality and mtoler- ance which would have disgraced the darkest ages of the Chris- tian era. The following were some of its leading provisions. " 1st, No person is capable of being elected as Schoolmaster by the Parish, who does not produce a certificate that he is a mem- ber of the Church of England, as by laiD established:' In this sweeping regulation, it is roundly declared, that, among all the six or seven millions of respectable Dissenters ; that, among all that class of men who have descended from the congregations formed by Baxter, Owen, Watts, Doddridge, and a host of other illustrious Divines, renowned for their sterling piety and learnmg ; that, among the whole of that class of men who, for the last forty years, have shown more disinterested zeal and activity for the instruction of the poor than any other class in the British empire ! there is not a single individual that deserves to be entrusted with the education of youth ! and for no other reason than because they have dared to think for themselves, and refused to submit to ceremonies and ordinances which are not appointed in the word of God. In another regulation, power is given to the clergynian of the parish " to call before him the person chosen by the parish, and to examine him touching his fitness for the office, and if he shall not approve of the person chosen, he may reject his appoint- ment" as often as he pleases, without assigning any reason, save his own will and pleasure, and/rom this decision there loas to be no appeal! which rendered nugatory, and little short of a mere farce, the previous election made by the qualified householders of the parish. After the teacher was supposed to be approved of and fixed in his situation, a set of arbitrary regulations and restraints were imposed upon him by " the rector, curate, or other minister of the parish." " He may at all times enter the school, examine the scholars, question the master touching his govern- ment of the school : may direct, from time to time, ichat portions of Scripture shall be read, either for lessons or for writing in the school, which direction the master is hereby required to fol- low." The teacher was also enjoined " to use select passages [of the Bible] for lessons, whereby to teach reading and writing, and shall teach no other book of religion without consent of the resident minister of the parish where such school is held, a7id 356 LIBERAL VIEWS REGARDING EDUCATION. shall use 710 form of prayer or worship in the said school except the Lord's Prayer^ or other select passages of the Scriptvres aforesaid. ^^ Such regulations and injunctions reduced the teacher to something very little superior to a mere machine, or to a slave in the hands of a clerical despot. He was every day liable to be degraded and insulted in the presence of his scholars, whenever a haughty clergyman took it into his head to enter the school, and to display his magisterial and consequential airs. By the regu- lations enacted in this Bill, the children of Dissenters were like- wise degraded. For, although they were to be permitted to attend the schools to be established, yet they were to be distin- guished, in many respects, as speckled birds, different from those of the immaculate churchman, and compelled " to learn the liturgy and catechism of the Church, and to attend the Divine service of the Church of England," unless their parents '^^ proved themselves to be Dissenters from the Established Church, and notified the same to the master." Such is only a specimen of the spirit and enactments which pervaded " Brougham's Education Bill ;" enact- ments repugnant to the views of every liberal mind, and pregnant with bigotry and intolerance. It was a fortunate circumstance that the bill never passed the House of Commons; otherwise, it might have prevented the establishment of a liberal and efficient system of education for a century to come.* It is to be hoped, that, in any future deliberations on this sub- ject, a more noble and liberal spirit will be displayed in the ar- rangements connected with education. Indeed, no efficient system of national instruction can be established on an exclusive or sect- arian principle. Persons of all religious denominations ought to be eligible as teachers, visitors, superintendents, and members of school-committees, on the sole ground of their intelligence, piety, and moral conduct — and of the knowledge they have acquired of the true principles of education, and the mode in which they should be applied. As, in every country, numerous classes are to be found differing in sentiment respecting subordinate points in * Lord Brougham has displayed more enlightened views on the subject of education, in his speech delivered in the House of Lords, on the 21st of May, 1835, and the resolutions founded upon it, than he did in his " Edu- cation Bill" of 1821, or even in 1833, vi^hen he declared, that there are sufficient means of education in England, and that " he had become a con- vert to the opinions of those who thought it would be unwise to disturb a state of things which produced such admirable results." It is to be hoped, for the good of the nation, that his lordship's suggestions will soon be car- ried into effect ; and that the principles on which a national system of edu- cation is established, viill be such as to meet the approbation of an enlight- ened and religious public. PAROCIIIA.L SYSTEM. 357 religion, it could not be expected that they would come forward either with voluntary subscriptions, or submit, without reluctance, to be taxed lor such establishments, if any particular sectary were to be invested with the sole superintendence, and all others ex'- cluded from a share in the deliberations and arrangements con- nected with their operation. Such an arrangement \^ould be an act of glaring injustice to the parties excluded, since they have an equal right of management on the ground of their subscriptions, or of the taxation to which they would be subjected ; it would fos- ter invidious distinctions between the different parts of the same community ; it would tend to prevent independence of thinking on religious subjects, and to promote a spirit of hypocrisy and syco- phancy in inducing persons to sacrifice the dictates of conscience to the emoluments of office ; it would throw into a state of un- merited degradation a large portion of the most respectable char- acters in Christian society — for eminent piety, intelligence, and benevolence, are not confined to any section of the Christian church ; — it would nourish a spirit of alienation among the differ- ent portions of religious society, which has too long rankled in the human breast; it would prevent some of the most worthy and en- lightened characters from coming forward as candidates for the office of instructors ; it would interpose a barrier to that harmony and affection which should subsist among all ranks and denomi- nations of society; and would ultimately frustrate, to a very great extent, the grand objects which an enlightened education is intended to accomplish. Nothing but a spirit of selfishness and ambition, of bigotry and intolerance, inconsistent with the harmony of so- ciety and the principles of our holy religion, will again attempt to establish education on such illiberal and exclusive principles. In this point of view, we cannot avoid reprobating an attempt which is now making by certain individuals to extend the system of pa- rochial schools, so that there shall be no occasion for teachers of any other description. We object to this object on the following grounds : 1. Because it is assumed that the education generally imparted in parochial schools, and the plan on which instruction has usually been communicated, are to be considered as patterns of excellence, and, consequently, require only to be more gene- rally extended. In the preceding pages, we have endeavoured to show, that, in common with most other schools in this country, the parochial system is miserably defective and inefficient as to the great objects which an enlightened education ought to em- brace ; and, in proof of this, we need only appeal to the ignorance and vice which have hitherto prevailed, and still prevail, among the great mass of the population. That parochial schools have 858 SUPERINTENDENCE OP EDUCATION. been, on the whole, of considerable advantage to Scotland, none will deny. But they have not produced the one-tenth part of the moral and intellectual effects they might have done, had they been established on a more liberal and enlightened basis ; and, conse- quently, were the system to be extended, it would tend to prevent, for an indefinite period, the establishment of a more enlightened, comprehensive, and efficient system of moral and intellectual instruction. Besides, there is not one out of a hundred of the pa- rochial school-houses furnished with the apartments, apparatus, and other accommodations, requisite for carrying forward a plan of intellectual instruction. 2. We object, on the ground of the exclusive principles on which parochial schools are conducted. They are considered as so intimately connected with the estab- lished church, that no one -but a member of that church is eligi- ble as a parish teacher. Consequently, in attempting to extend the parochial system till it is supposed capable of affording instruc- tion to the whole population, it is virtually declared, that, among all the dissenters in this country, amounting to more than one- third of the population, and whose moral and intellectual charac- ter stands as high as that of the other two-thirds, there is not one who ought to be entrusted with the education of youth, however respectable the qualifications he may possess. Those who coun- tenance a principle of this kind have, surely, never studied the principles of religious liberty or of natural justice, nor opened their eyes to " discern the signs of the times." In so far as the individuals alluded to have it for their object to improve the plan of public instruction, and to raise the qualifications of the teachers, we wish them every success ; but the community will certainly pause before it gives its sanction to a principle which would de- prive nearly one-half of the nation of all interest and superintend- ence in regard to an object in which they are all equally con- cerned. Hitherto, the superintendence of education, both in Scotland and England, has been chiefly entrusted to the clergy ; and, at the time when our parochial and other scholastic institutions were established, there was perhaps a propriety in this arrangement ; since, at that period, clergymen were almost the only educated persons, and literature was chiefly concentrated in their order. But the case is quite different in the present day, when a liberal education is not confined to any one rank of society, and when classical learning is not considered as the most important ac- complishment. There is not, therefore, the same reason why the superintendence of education should be exclusively entrusted to clergymen, or to any other class of community. We would de- MODE OF RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION. 359 precate the idea of the education of the general mass of the po- pulation being entrusted exclusively either to the established church, or to dissenters of any denomination. Clergymen of all denominations should be considered as eligible, in common with other intelligent individuals, as superintendents and members of Educational Committees ; but experience proves that it is danger- ous to the general interests of the community to entrust its affairs, especially those which relate to education, to any priviledged class of society ; for in such a case the general good of the public has frequently been sacrificed to the interests or ambition of a party. One of the chief pretences generally set up for exclusive clerical superintendence, is the promotion of the interests of religion. It is much to be deplored that religion, which was intended to pro- mote " peace on earth, and good-will among men," should so frequently have been used as a pretence for sowing dissensions in society, and violating the principles of natural justice. Whether " pure religion and undefiled" is promoted by attempting to raise one portion of the community and to crush another, and to throw a large body of respectable characters into a state of unmerited degradation, on account of their adherence to the dictates of con- science — is a question which may be safely left to every unbiassed inquirer to decide. — With regard to the religious instruction of the young, no difficulty could arise from the circumstance of persons belonging to different religious parties having the super- intendence of it ; since almost every denomination of Christians recognises the essential facts, doctrines, and duties of Christiani- ty, which are the only religious topics which ought to be exhibited to the young either in public or in private. The man who, over- looking such subjects, would attempt to expatiate before the young on sectarian points of controversy, ought to be considered as des- titute of that prudence and discretion which are requisite for a public instructor. If religion were taught, as it ought to be, directly from its Original Records, instead of being inculcated from human formularies, there would soon be little difference of opinion respecting its main and leading objects. The religion of Heaven has been communicated to us chiefly in the form of his- torical narrations, unfolding to us the Divine dispensations, in relation to the fall, the recovery, and the renovation of mankind, and embodying certain leading truths and moral precepts, to direct our affections and conduct — the great end of which is, not to engender strife and a spirit of metaphysical speculation, but to counteract moral evil, and to promote union, harmony, and love, among all who acknowledge its authority. There is no believer in revelation that calls in question the facts of Scripture, the per- 360 HARMONY OP SECTARIES IN AMERICA. fections of the Deity it unfolds— ^the death, resurrection, and as- cension of Christ — the immortality of the soul — a future state of punishments and rewards — or the propriety of the moral princi- ples it inculcates. These are the leading topics of revelation ; and to insinuate that such subjects cannot be taught directly from the Scriptures themselves, without the aid of human formularies, is nothing short of throwing a reflection on the wisdom of God, on account of the manner in which he has communicated his will, and of affixing a libel on the character of the inspired writers, as if their writings were not sufficiently plain and perspicuous. The efficiency of religious instruction deduced from the Scrip- tures alone, is clearly proved from the mode of tuition in infant schools. In these schools, religion is taught by familiar descrip- tions and details of scriptural facts — by illustrations, taken from Scripture and the scenes of nature, of the perfections of God — and by enforcing the moral precepts of the Bible on the young, and showing how they ought to be exemplified in all their inter- courses with each other. Now, I appeal to every one Avho has witnessed the religious knowledge of the children in these schools, and its influence upon their conduct, if this mode of tuition is not infinitely preferable, as to its practical effects, to the usual method of instruction by catechism, or any other formulary. Let us take a number of children at random from any common school, who have learned the "Shorter," or any other catechism, from be- ginning to end, and compare their knowledge and feelings in reo-ard to religion with those of the children of a well-conducted infant school, and the superiority of the infant school children will be strikingly apparent, even although they are much younger than the former. — Should parents, however, wish to inculcate upon their children the peculiar tenets of the sect to which they belong, they have an opportunity of doing so at home, or by means of the pastors belonging to that denomination to which they are attached ; but, in public schools, to attempt the inculca- tion of sectarian opinions, would be equally injurious to the inter- ests of religion and the cause of universal education. This was attempted by the Church of England, in the enactments contained in Brougham's "Education Bill," and the same principle led the dignitaries of that church to oppose the Lancaslerian system of education, and to patronise that of Dr. Bell, in which the peculiar tenets of the Episcopal church were to be exclusively inculcated. That Christians of different denominations may cordially co- operate in the arrangements of education, appears from various existing facts. In the Northern States of America, as already noticed, education is far more general than in this country, and HARMONY OF SECTARIES IN AMERICA. 361 conducted on more rational and enlightened plans ; and persons of all denominations in religion co-operate in its superintendence. In the 24th " Annual Report of the Trustees of the Public School Society of New York, for 1829," it is stated, among many other interesting facts, that " The Board of Education consists of members of eight or ten religious denominations, all acting with entire harmony'''' — that " they discharge the important duties of their trust, with a single eye to the public good" — and that they received the sanction of " an independent set of examiners, who have repeatedly inspected the schools, and are acquainted with the operations of the Board" — who express in their Report " their full confidence that the literary, moral, and religious instruction, calculated to fit the young for the duties of life, and to prepare them for the happiness of futurity, is properly attended to, and the school monies strictly and most beneficially applied to their legitimate purposes." This board has the superintendence of "21 schools, with 21 principal and 24 assistant teachers, and 6007 children," the expense of which amounted to 62,000 dol- lars : besides which there were above 450 private, charity, and other schools in the city of New York. — We know, too, that the " British and Foreign School Society" is conducted on similar principles — its Directors consisting of persons belonging to the established church and the various denominations of dissenters ; and the same is the case with the institutions for infant education which have been lately established in many of our populous towns. The hand-bill, announcing the objects of the Model In- fant School, Glasgow, which was framed by the Rev. Dr. Welsh, then of St. David's church, states, as one of the objects of this institution, that it is " for the reception of children from the age of two to that of six years, with the view of imbuing their minds with the knowledge of religious truths," — and that " the plan of communicating religious truths is by the narratives, the precepts, and the plainest announcements of Scripture." In short, the liberal plan now suggested has been adopted in all its extent in the kingdom of Prussia, where a national system of education has been established in which all classes of religionists, whether Protestants or Catholics, have an equal interest, and which, for more than half a century, has been conducted with the greatest regularity and harmony. So that there is no impossibility in persons belonging to different religious persuasions co-operating in the business of education, where there is a sincere desire to promote the improvement of the young, and the best interests of general society. But should it be found impossible to induce the dominant sect 31 362 MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. in any country to co-operate with dissenters in the arrangements of education, perhaps the following might be the most eligible plan of procedure ; — Let the government allot a sum adequate to the erection and endowment of all the schools requisite for an enlightened and efficient system of education — let this sum be divided between churchmen and dissenters, in a fair proportion, according to their respective numbers — and let the application of this sum, and the details respecting the patronage of the schools, the qualifications of teachers, and the mode of instruc- tion, be left to the respective part^ps, to be arranged as their /judgment and circumstances may direct — specifying, however, some of the grand and leading principles on which the schools must be established. A plan of this kind would, indeed, still pre- serve the invidious distinction between churchmen and dissenters; but it would be infinitely preferable to bestowing the whole patronage and superintendence of education on any one sectary or class of men whatever. — Should government refuse to grant any pecuniary assistance to such an object, dissenters and all others have it in their power, by coming forward, in one grand combination, with voluntary contributions, to accomplish this noble design, independently of aid from any power under heaven ; provided they are willing to make some of those small sacrifices formerly suggested. (See page 350.) And if they will not stand forward as bold champions, with their purses in their hands, ready to be delivered up for the support of this good cause, they will declare themselves to be unworthy of the name of Christians, or of lovers of their species, and will deservedly be deprived of all the advantages, in time and eternity, which might re- sult from the accomplishment of this object, to themselves and to their offspring, both in the present and future generations. CHAPTER XIV. Maxims, or First Principles in Education. I. The idea should go before the word which expresses it — or, in other words, A clear and distinct conception of an object should be impressed upon the mind, before the name or terms which express it be committed to memory. This may be considered as the first and fundamental principle of intellectual instruction ; and, if admitted, the following rule should be strictly adhered to in the business of education; — Let no passages of any book be committed to memory before the MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 363 leading ideas they contain be clearly understood. If this prin- ciple were universally introduced into education, it would overturn almost every system of instruction which has hitherto prevailed both in secular and religious tuition. An opposite principle has almost uniformly been acted upon ; and hence, catechisms, psalms, hymns, grammar rules, chapters of the Bible, and speeches in the Roman senate, have been prescribed as memorial tasks, before any of the ideas contained in them could be appre- ciated. We may ask, in the name of all that is wise and rational, Of what use is it to stock and overburden the memories of chil- dren with a medley of words to which no correct ideas are at- tached? Although a child could commit twenty catechisms to memory, or could even repeat the whole of the Old and New Testaments, what purpose would it serve, if he did not enter into the spirit and meaning of the truths therein recorded? I have conversed with an individual who could repeat the whole Bible from beginning to end, and yet was entirely ignorant of the meaning of almost every proposition it contained, and its most interesting truths appeared to have made no impression upon his heart. As in the original formation of language, the objects of nature must Jlrst have been observed and known before words or signs were fixed upon to distinguish them ; so, in communicating the elements of thought, the objects of thought must first be recognized and described before the terms and epithets which ex- press their natures and qualities be committed to memory. In- stead of obtruding a medley of words before they are understood,, upon the memories of the young, they should be made to feel a desire for terms to express their ideas ; and, in this case, the ideas and the words which express them wil^afterwards be inseparably connected. II. In the process of instruction. Nothing (if possible) should be assigned to the young merely as tasks. Every thing prescribed for the exercise of the faculties, should be represented both as a duty and as a pleasure ; and if the young understand the nature and objects of their scholastic exercises, and the manner in which they should be prosecuted, they will find a pleasure in endeavouring to surmount every apparent difficulty. I once knew a gentleman, the Rector of a grammar school, who, on his admission to his office, boasted that he would conduct his school without inflicting any corporal punishment — instead of which he prescribed from twenty to sixty or eighty lines of Vir- gil or Horace, as memorial tasks — and, when not accurately re- peated, increased their number. But this practice had no other 304 MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. tendency than to excite revengeful feelings, and to produce disgust at the process of learning. III. Every thing that is cheerful and exhilarating to the young should be associated with the business of education. Hence, school-rooms should be spacious, light, and airy — com- fortably heated during winter, and erected in delightful and com- manding situations. The school-books should be neatly printed, and enlivened with pictures and engravings coloured from nature — amusing and instructive experiments should frequently be ex- hibited — and the pupils should be occasionally gratified with ex- cursions into interesting parts of the country, to view the beauties of nature and enjoy the bounties of Providence; so that all their scholastic exercises may be connected with delightful associations. IV. In the practice of teaching, the principle of Emulation should be discarded. By a principle of emulation I mean, the exciting of the young to exertion from the hope of reward when they excel their com- panions in intellectual excellence, or from the fear of punishment or degradation when they fall beneath them in industry and ac- quirements. Many teachers have asserted that they could not conduct education with any effect without the aid of this princi- ple. But, whatever effect it may have in an intellectual point of view, it almost uniformly produces an injurious effect on the moral temperament of the young, on their companions whom they excel, and on their parents and guardians, who are led to form false es- timates of their progress and acquirements by the prizes they re- ceive and the places they occupy in their respective classes. One grand end of instruction, which has been too much overlooked, is to cultivate and regulate the moral powers — to produce love, af- fection, concord, humility, self-denial, and other Christian graces. But the principle of emulation has a tendency to produce jealousy, envy, ambition, hatred, and other malignant passions, and to ex- hibit intellectual acquisitions as of far greater importance than moral excellence. Besides, it is on\y a very feiv in every class that can be stimulated to exertion by this principle, and these few are generally of such a temperament as to require their ambitious dispositions to be restrained rather than excited. In the " Ame- rican Annals of Education," for January, 1833, there is an ex- cellent paper on this subject by Miss C. E. Beecher, of Newport, Rhode Island, a lady well known as an efficient teacher. After enumerating the evils which uniformly flow from the principle of emulation, she states the following motives, as those which she has found " not only equal, but much more efficient, in reference to all the objects to be gained in education :" — 1. Personal influ- MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. 365 eticc — endeavouring to gain the esteem, the affection, and the confidence of the pupils," &c. In this connection she justly re- marks, " that commendation for improvement needs to be prac- tised much more frequently than reproof for deficiency. 2. By habitual appeals to the Bihle as the rule of rectitude, and to con- science as the judge. 3. By cultivating a love of knowledge for its own sake, that is, for the pleasure it imparts ; and also for the sake of the increased good it will enable us to do for our fellow- beings. 4. By efforts to form a correct public sentiment in school, so that it shall be unpopular to do wrong. 5. By appeals to pa- rental influence, and that of other friends. This is accomplished by transmitting frequent accounts both of deficiency and improve- ment to the friends of the pupils. 6. By cultivating in the pupils a sense of obligation to God, of his constant inspection, and of his interest in all their concerns." These principles, (which are more particularly explained and amplified in the paper referred to,) she adds, " I have chiefly depended upon during the last three or four years of my experience as a teacher. Every year has added to my conviction of their efficacy, and every year has in- creased my satisfaction that the principle of emulation has been banished with no consequent evil, and much increase of good. Mr. Morgan, in his late " Address to the Proprietors of the Uni- versity of London," expresses sentiments in accordance with the above. Speaking on the subject of prizes, he says, " A prize is the least effectual mode of accomplishing the desired object ; it is founded on injustice, inasmuch as it heaps honours and emolu- ments on those to whom nature has already been most bountiful, and whose enjoyments are multiplied and increasing in a greater ratio than others by the more easy acquisition of knowledge." ** Praise, and invidious comparisons, are only other forms of the same principle, alike fruitfiil in envy, pride, scorn, and bitter neg- lect. In the curiosity of children, there is a sufficient and a natu- ral stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and we live in a world abounding in the means of useful and pleasurable gratifications. All that is required of preceptors is to aid the development of the faculties with affection and judgment." A certificate of diligence and good conduct seems to be all that is necessary to distinguish from the vicious, the idle, and slothful, those who have employed their time and talents in a proper manner. V. Corporal punishments should he seldom or never injJicted — and, when they are determined upon as the last resort, they should be inflicted with calmness and affection. There is something revolting and degrading in corporal pun- ishments, and the necessity of resorting to them generally indi- 31* 366 MAXIMS IN EDUCATION. cates, that there had been a want of proper training in the earlier stages of life. It is vain to imagine, that children can be whipped either into learning or religion ; and, if an enlightened and judi- cious mode of tuition were universally adopted, there would sel- dom be any necessity for resorting to such a stimulus. But in the modes of teaching which have most generally prevailed, cor- poral punishments are almost indispensable. In the German "Pedagogic Magazine," for 1833, we are told that "there died lately in Swabia, a schoolmaster, who, for 51 years, had super- intended an institution with old-fashioned severity. From an average inferred from recorded observations, one of the ushers calculated, that, in the course of his exertions, he had given 911,500 canings, 124,000 floggings, 209,000 custodes, 136,000 tips with the ruler, 10,200 boxes on the ear, and 22,700 tasks to get by heart. It was farther calculated, that he had made 700 boys stand on peas, 600 kneel on a sharp edge of wood, 5000 wear the fool's cap, and 1708 hold the rod," — amounting in all to 1,421,208 punishments, which, allowing five days for every week, would average above a hundred punishments every day. There is something extremely revolting in the idea of such a series of pun- ishments being connected with learning ; and we may justly infer, that, however much classical learning may have been advanced, very little useful knowledge or moral principle was communicated in that seminary. For, a system of moral and intellectual instruction, calculated to allure the minds of the young, is alto- gether incompatible with such Gothic rudeness and severity.* VI. Children should not be long confined in school — and never longer than they are actively employed in it. — A school ought never to serve the purpose of a prison. If the junior classes are incapable of preparing their lessons by themselves, they should either be provided with some amusing toys or picture books, or be turned out to romp about in the open air, or under a covered shed in rainy weather, and called in when their lessons are to be explained. VII. Young people should always be treated as rational crea- tures., and their opinions occasionally solicited as to certain points and scholastic arrangements. The reasons of the treat- ment they receive, and of the exercises prescribed, in so far as * Corporal punishments have generally a hardening effect on the minds both of young and old. A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was, nevertheless, an audacious dog. One day the old vulcan was attempting to harden a cold chisel which he had made of foreign steel, but could not succeed. " Horseivhip it, father," exclaimed the youth, -'ii that will not harden it, nothing will." MECrtANtCs' INSTITUTIONS. 367 they are able to appreciate them, should occasionally be stated, and explained and illustrated. VIII. Reproofs should always be tendered with the utmost calmness and mildness. — When they are uttered in passion, and with looks of fury, they seldom produce any good effect, and not unfrequehtly excite a spirit of revenge against the reprover. IX. One great object of education should be to jix the atten- tion on the subjects we wish to explain and elucidate, — On the proper exercise of the faculty of attention depends almost all our improvement in knowledge and virtue. Even the senses are im- proved by the exercise of this faculty. Hence the peculiar deli- cacy of touch observable in the blind, and the quick-sightedness of the deaf; hence the distinct perception of distant objects ac- quired by sailors, and of delicate and minute objects by watch- makers and jewellers, — in all which cases the attention has been specially directed to particular objects. It was by fixing his atten- tion on the subject, or " continually thinking about it," that Newton, as he himself declared, discovered the laws of the planetary mo- tions, and was enabled to unfold the true system of the world. Hence the propriety of presenting sensible objects to the view of children — of exhibiting before them interesting experiments, and of having their books adorned with lively and accurate engravings. Hence, too, the propriety of teaching them to notice every object within the reach of their vision, and to mark every minute change that takes place in the form, colour, and situation, of the objects around them, and to give an account of what they may have seen or heard in any of their excursions : all which circum- stances have a tendency to induce a habit of attention^ without which there can be no solid improvement in any department of instruction. CHAPTER XV. Mechanics' Institutions* On these institutions I intended to offer a few particular re- marks, and to suggest some arrangements by which they might be rendered more extensively useful than they have hitherto been, both in a moral and intellectual point of view, but as this volume has already swelled to a considerable size, I shall confine myself to a very few general observations. It is now more than twenty years since I had an opportunity of suggesting the establishment of such institutions, under the designation of " Literary and Philosophical Societies^ adapted 368 mechanics' institutions. to the middling and lower ranks of the community" The de tails in relation to this subject, consisting of a series of five sue cessive papers, were published in the London " Monthly Maga- zine''^ for the year 1814 — more than eight years before any mechanics' institutions were organized in this country.* Although these papers have seldom been referred to, in the history of me- chanics' institutions, yet the author is aware that they were the means of suggesting, to certain individuals, the idea of establishing such societies ; and, not above a year or two after their publication, a society was organized in the vicinity of London, on the plan and principles suggested in these papers, of which the author wag elected an honorary member. Instead of inserting, in this place, the substance of these papers, as was originally intended, I shall merely give a short sketch of their contents. In the first communication, after a few introductory observations in reference to existing associations, and other particulars con- nected with the dissemination of knowledge, the following, among many other advantages, were pointed out as likely to flow from the extensive establishment of such institutions: — 1. They would serve to unite and concentrate the scattered rays of genius, which might otherwise be dissipated, and enable them to act with com^ bined vigour and energy in the discovery and the propagation of useful knowledge. 2. They would tend to promote the rapid advancement of general science ; for if the labours of those so- cieties which already exist have produced a powerful effect on the progress of science, much more might be expected were their number increased to eighty or a hundred fold. 3. They would have a tendency to produce an extensive diffusion of rational information among the general mass of society, particularly among those in the inferior walks of life, by which the narrow conceptions, superstitutious notions, and vain fears, which so gene- rally prevail, might be gradually removed, and a variety of useful hints and rational views suggested, which would tend to elevate and ennoble the mind, and promote domestic convenience and comfort. 4. They would induce a taste for intellectual pleasures and rational enjoyment, in which those hours generally spent in Jistlessness, foolish amusements, and the pursuits of dissipation, might be profitably emploj'^ed, and, consequently, the sum of * See " Monthly Magazine," vol. xxxvii. for April and July, 1814, pp. 219, 507, and vol. xxxviiL for August and September, 1814, pp. 23, 121, and for January, 1815, p. 503. These communications occupy more than 22 closely printed columns, and contain several minute details in relation to what should he the leading' objects of such institutions, ajid the means hy which they might be established. LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES. 369 general happiness augmented. 5. If properly conducted, they could not fail of producing a benign influence on the state of morals and of general society. As vice is the natural offspring of ignorance, so true virtue can only flow from elevated and en- lightened principles; and, where such principles exist, their opera- tion, in a greater or less degree, will always appear. The habits of order, punctuality, and politeness, which would prevail in such associations, would naturally be carried into the other departments of life, and produce their corresponding effects. The frequent intercourse of men of different parties and professions, associated for the purpose of promoting one common object, would gradually vanquish those mutual prejudices and jealousies which too fre- quently exist even in cultivated minds, and a liberal, candid, and humane spirit, would be cherished and promoted. Society would thus acquire a new polish, and wear a different aspect from what it now exhibits in the inferior ranks of life ; more especially, if the means now suggested be combined with the operation of Christian principles* The other communications illustrated the arrangements and regulations requisite in the operation of such institutions, particu- larly in relation to the following circumstances. I. The Admission of Members. — In regard to this circumstance, the two following extremes should be guarded against — the indis- criminate admission of all who may wish to become members, whatever may be their literary or moral characters — and the giv- ing an undue preference to certain individuals, on account of their rank, who have not a corresponding share of common sense and literary acquirements. In a literary society, the distinctions of rank ought to be, in a great measure, if not altogether, overlook- ed ; while, at the same time, the utmost decorum and politeness ought always to prevail. It is now high time that human char- acters were estimated according to their real and intrinsic worth, independent of those external and adventitious circumstances with which they may be accompanied ; and it will be highly be- coming in rational associations to set an example of estimating the characters of men on principles purely of a moral and intel- lectual nature. Although money is a useful article in all societies, yet it would be inexpedient to solicit any individuals, not otherwise qualified to become members, chiefly with a view of their con- tributing to the pecuniary interests of the association. Such per- sons would not only be a dead weight upon the society, but, by the undue influence they would have, might tend to impede its progress, and prevent its chief design from being accomplished.* Besides their literary acquirements, the moral qualifications of 370 DISCUSSIONS IN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES. those who desire admission ought not to be altogether overlooked. Knowledge is chiefly desirable in proportion as it is useful. If it does not lead its possessor to propriety of moral conduct, its utility, at least to him, may be much questioned. In all rational institu- tions, the melioration of the moral characters and dispositions of mankind ought to form as prominent an object as the illumination of their understandings. II. The Subjects of Discussion, and the mode of conducting it. — Every subject which has a tendency to induce a habit of rational thinking, to elevate and ennoble the mind, and to present sublime and interesting objects of contemplation — every subject which tends to unfold the wise arrangements of nature, and the laws by which the economy of the universe is regulated, which displays the attributes of the Divinity, and leads the mind up- wards " from Nature to Nature's God ;" — every subject which tends to promote the progress of science, the advancement of the liberal and mechanical arts, and the moral improvement of mankind, might occasionally become topics of discussion in a society constituted on the principles to which I have alluded. These subjects would embrace the prominent parts of natural history, geography, astronomy, experimental philosophy, chem- istry, natural theology, ethics, education, arts and manufactures, physiology, domestic economy, and similar branches of know- ledo^e. Although party-politics, and sectarian views of religion, should be excluded, yet there are certain general topics connect- ed with these subjects, which might form legitimate subjects of discussion : such as the general principles of legislation, the causes of the wealth of nations, the effects of different modes of taxation, and other branches of political economy — the character and attributes of the Deity, the principles of moral action, the immortality of the soul, \.hQ facts of sacred history, and the evi- dences by which they are supported — the harmony of nature and revelation, and the means by which the character of the hu- man race may be elevated and improved, and the moral world regenerated. in the discussion of such subjects, there are four different modes which might be occasionally adopted. — 1. The first mode is that o^ public lectures. A lecture might be delivered once a week, or fortnight, or oftener, according to circumstances, on some in- teresting subject of natural history, chemistry, or experimental philosophy, accompanied with experiments. In order to raise a sum for remunerating an intelligent lecturer, persons not mem- bers of the society might be invited to attend, on the condition of paying a small contribution, the members at the same time, con- DISCUSSIONS IN nilLOSOnilCAL SOCIETIES. 371 tributing a little, though in a smaller proportion. In order to ex- cite attention, and to stimulate the exercise of the rational faculty, an examination of such of the auditors as chose to submit to it, on the different particulars detailed in the lecture, might take place either at the conclusion of the lecture, or at some future hour; and, at the same time, an opportunity offered of putting questions to the lecturer, and stating any difficulties or objections which may have occurred to them, in order to their solution. — 2. By the more intelligent members composing essays on particular sub- jects,, and reading them to the society. For the benefit of young writers, it might be proper, in a candid and friendly manner,, to point out the grammatical blunders, improper phrases, erroneous statements, or other improprieties which may be found in the essay ; and the writer ought to consider such hints as so much new and useful information, by the help of which he may be enabled to render his future compositions more correct. In order to make a respectable figure as writers of essays, particular at- tention should be given to the arts of grammar and composition ; and exercises and instructions on these subjects might occasionally form a part of the business of the society. As some essays may occasionally be read of which the society may wish to have copies for future inspection, in order to save the trouble of the secretary transcribing them, it might be proper to recommend that every es- say be written on paper of the same size, so that they might after- wards be bound in regular volumes, to be preserved as part of the records of the society. In this way, the literary communications made to the society would be recorded in the hand-writings of their respective authors, free of those errors which might be occasioned in their transcription by another hand. — 3. Another method of discussion might be by Forensic disputations. In this case, a ques- tion is proposed and stated, and opposite sides of the question are supported by different speakers. This method has its advantages and its disadvantages. Its disadvantages are, that persons, in their eagerness to support the side they have taken, are sometimes apt to contend more for victory than for truth ; and, unless they watch over their tempers, are ready to fall into a spirit of altercation and ill-humour, and to throw out unhandsome epithets against their opponents. Many persons, too, from their having ably sup- ported the erroneous side of a question, have been insensibly led to adopt that opinion, though, in the first instance, they defended it merely for the sake of argument. Its advantages are, that it excites interest and attention, exercises the reasoning faculty, and aflbrds an opportunity to every member of taking a part in the discussion. It may, when properly and calmly conducted, sug- 372 DISCUSSIONS IN rHILOSOnilCAL SOCIETIES. gest useful information, and throw light on many obscure and interesting subjects. It has a tendency to teach persons not to be too rash in adopting opinions till they have weighed the objec- tions that may be brought against them. As the discovery of truth ought to be the chief object in all literary debates — in order to insure this object, an intelligent person, who has taken no direct share in the debate, might be appointed to sum up the arguments on both sides, and endeavour to balance them, in order to ascer- tain on which side the truth seems to lie. In certain cases, it will be found, that the truth does not lie directly on either side, but in a middle position between the two extremes. This mode of dis- cussion, when adopted, should be used with extreme caution, with an equable temper, and with a sincere desire to discover truth, wherever it may be found ; otherwise, it may be attended with hurtful consequences. — 4. Another mode of discussion is, the de- termining of a question by an induction of facts or reasons, in order to illustrate a particular subject ; or, in other words, by an inquiry into causes and effects. For example, suppose such ques- tions proposed as the following: — What are the different causes which operate in the production of rain ? Ou what princij)les are we to account for the various phenomena attendant on thunder- storms'? By what means may the stroke of lightning be averted? What are the various useful purposes to which the late discoveries respecting the gases may be applied ? By what means, and on what principles, may human beings be transported from one place to another with a more rapid motion than has hitherto been effect- ed ? What are the best means for undermining the principles of avarice, and counteracting its effects? What are the most efficient methods for diffusing knowledge, and improving the moral and intellectual powers of man ? On such questions, every member might be called upon to suggest whatever occurs to him that has a tendency to elucidate the subject, and to determine the inquiry ; and the remarks of all the members who deliver their sentiments, when combined, could not fail to throw some light on an interest- ing question, or, at least, they would tend to excite to further inquiry at a future period. ill. The Funds of the Society, and the purposes to which they might he applied. — Money is a necessary article in every association, and is indispensable in the vigorous prosecution of scientific objects. Little of it, however, is required for rational and literary purposes, compared with what is spent in the pursuits of folly and dissipation. Although it is not usual in most societies to make any difference in the sums to be paid by every member, yet it appears somewhat unreasonable, that a person whose income FUNDS OF PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETIES. 373 is known to be very limited should contribute as much as one whose income is five or six times greater. A minimum, however, ought to be fixed, below which the poorest member should not be permitted to go, except in very singular cases. Those whose in- comes are known to be considerable should be requested to give separate subscriptions, besides the regular quarterly or annual fees, for the purpose of more speedily accomplishing the objects of the institution. Two or three different rates of annual fees or subscriptions might be fixed upon, a maximum, a middle, and a minimum, and every member left at liberty to choose that rate which suits his circumstances. Nor ought those who are unable to pay the maximum rate, or to give separate subscriptions, to be, on this account, considered as inferior to their fellows; for it is no disgrace for a man to be poor, if he is honest, prudent, and indus- trious, and has not wasted his substance in folly or dissipation ; as it is no honour to a fool to possess wealth which he was not instrumental in acquiring. — The purposes to which the funds of a literary institution may be applied are such as the following : — 1. The purchase of hooks. — These are the grand depositories of human knowledge, and, therefore, it should be the first object of every literary establishment to procure a judicious selection of the best books, in every department of science. In regard to the general subjects of the books to be purchased, it may be proper that every member have it in his power to give his vote and opinion ; but the selection of the individual books on any particu- lar science, should perhaps be intrusted to a committee composed of such members as are best acquainted with the present state of literature. — 2. The purchase of philosophical instruments. It may perhaps be a considerable time before the funds shall permit the purchase of an extensive apparatus of this kind, yet if a cer- tain portion of the funds be appropriated to this object, in the course of 20 years 500 guineas might be devoted to it, supposino- the society to consist of 100 members, every one contributing annually half a guinea, and that only one half of the funds are appropriated to this purpose. Nor should it be considered as an object too grand and extensive, to have ultimately in view the erection of an observatory for astronomical observations, and a complete apparatus for illustrating the doctrines of chemistry, na- tural philosophy, and all the other departments of natural science. Specimens of interesting objects in botany, zoology, mineralogy, and geology, might also be procured, along with models of use- ful machines for illustrating mechanical powers and operations. Where there is an ardent love of science, and an animated per- severance in prosecuting its objects, all the ends now stated 32 374 ruBLiCATioNs of litkrary societies. might, from small beginnings, be in due time accomplished. — 3. Another purpose to which the funds may be applied might be, the distribution of premiums to those who solve any difficult and useful problem, or who produce the best essay on a given subject. If the propriety of bestowing premiums in such cases be admitted, the following principle might be adopted as to the nature of the premium ; namely, that it be such as can be procured at a mode- rate expense, and, at the same time, be of some utility to the per- son to whom it is adjudged. Instead of a gold or a silver medal, — a pocket compass, a sun-dial, a pocket telescope, a small mi- croscope, a quadrant, a case of mathematical instruments, a ter- restrial or celestial globe, a tellurian, or any useful article which may best suit the taste of the successful candidate, might be given as a premium ; and along with it a medal of copper, pew- ter, or brass, or an engraved card, with an appropriate inscription. IV. The Publications of the Society. — A considerable time would probably elapse before such a society would have it in its power to communicate any new discoveries worthy of the atten- tion of the scientific world. Yet this consideration ought not, perhaps, to deter the society from exhibiting some of its transac- tions to public view. In the progress of the institution, after the lapse of a few years, a selection might be^made of the best essays that had previously been communicated, and published in a neat duodecimo volume, with an historical account of the progress of the institution since its commencement, and the manner in which its operations are conducted, together with an abstract of the general progress of science during the same period, which might be collected from certain scientific journals. It would also be useful to give a brief statement of what has hitherto been dis- covered in relation to the different sciences, with hints respecting the desiderata, or things which still remain to be discovered — which would tend to direct the attention of the rational inquirer to those particular investigations by which science might be ad- vanced, and carried forvv'ard to perfection. Such a volume, though it might not embody any new deductions, or discoveries, might, notwithstanding, be of considerable utility in different re- spects. It might convey new and useful information to those who are just commencing the study of science, and who have no ac- cess to the more learned transactions of other societies ; it might become a depository for inserting accounts of interesting facts, Hnd of researches that may be made in that part of the country where the society is situated ; it might tend to excite the rational ])art of mankind in other cities and towns to form similar estab- ii;;ihments, and to cultivate a mutual correspondence ; and, as it CORRESPONDENCE OF SOCIETIES* 375 would probably obtain a considerable circulation in the surround- ing districts, (being printed in a cheap and economical form,) it might diffuse new information in different quarters where more expensive volumes would never have found admittance. V. Correspondence and intercourse of the members of the different societies. — It might be of considerable use for promoting the object of these institutions, that the societies, in their corporate capacity, and individual members, should correspond with each other, both personally and by literary communications — and that the members of one society, when occasionally residing in the locality of another, should be admitted gratis to all the privileges of that other society ; such as, the use of the library, the inspec- tion of the museum, and attendance on lectures. In order to designate the members of all such societies, and to prevent the necessity of a circumstantial proof of their belonging to similar institutions, every member might be furnished by his own society with an engraved card or ticket, or rather with a medal of brass or pewter, having the society's name and motto engraved on it, and to which the name of the person, at his admission, might also be appended. The advantages which would result from the pos- session of such a document are sufficiently obvious. It would form, as it were, a bond of union among all the lovers of science in different parts of the empire, and enable them with facility to recognise each other. Travellers, whether on business or for pleasure, when visiting the different towns in the line of their route, would thus obtain an easy access to the society of persons of congenial minds ; useful hints would be reciprocally commu- nicated, and an interesting correspondence occasionally formed, which might be productive of many pleasing and important con- sequences, both to the indtviduals and to the respective societies. They would thus feel themselves more at home, devoid of that ennvi which one so frequently feels in strange places, and have an opportunity of improving those hours which might otherwise be dissipated in listlessness, to rational and scientific purposes. In short, by this means, the idea suggested by the celebrated Lord Verulam, of uniting the learned world into one great republic, might be in some measure realised ; every person of intelligence carrying along with him his badge of distinction, and thus indi- cating- to all consfenial minds, the grand association to which he belongs. The present is an age in which scientific associations have rapidly increased. The principle of the division of labour seems now to be judiciously acted upon in scientific investigations, by the formation of societies which have chiefly one great object to 376 SCIENCE AND RELIGION CONNECTED. promote, or one particular science which they propose to cultivate ; and therefore we have reason to indulge the hope, that the differ- ent sciences will now make more rapid advances to perfection than in former times. Still, however, much remains to be accom- plished in regard to the establishment of literary and rational associations. The discoveries hitherto made in the various departments of human knowledge are entirely unknown to by far the greatest proportion even of the civilized part of mankind. Institutions, therefore, still require to be formed, on an extensive scale, for communicating to the great mass of society at least the results of those researches which have hitherto been made, for eradicating those erroneous notions which so generally prevail, and for directing their attention to moral and intellectual pursuits. And should such societies be formed, we might indulge the hope that, ere long, they would be enabled to co-operate with those respectable societies which now exist, in making researches into those regions of science which are yet unexplored, and of pro- moting the moral improvement of all classes of the community. They would likewise have a tendency to advance the interests of genuine religion. For, true science and the doctrines of revela- tion, so far from being at variance, perfectly harmonize, and reflect a mutual lustre upon each other. Of course, the more general information persons require in relation to the system of nature and the economy of the material world, the more will they be qualified for studying the Scriptures in a rational manner; the light of sound philosophy will have a tendency to guard them from scepticism on the one hand, and from superstition and enthu- siasm on the other, and to prevent them from imbibing those fool- ish and erroneous interpretations of Scripture, which have tended to bring discredit on the oracles of Heaven. If, therefore, the moral improvement and the intellectual illumination of mankind be an object at all desirable, it is to be hoped the intelligent public will duly appreciate its importance, and encourage every scheme which has a tendency to raise our species to that dignity which they ought to hold in the scale of existence, as rational and im- mortal beings. Such is an abridged view of the communications on this sub- ject, which were offered to the public above twenty years ago, long before any such society actually existed. Such institutions have now been established in most of the large towns of the Bri- tish empire, and in various parts of the United States of America ; but none of them with which I am acquainted comprehend in their plan all the objects above stated. In their present state they appear defective in the following respects : — 1. In these institutions DEFECTS IN MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. S77 being regarded as chiefly adapted to the instruction of artists and mechanics, for rendering them more intelligent and expert in their respective trades and professions ; and hence the instructions communicated have been ahnost exclusively confined to mathe- matics and mechanical philosophy. It is highly requisite that mechanics should be instructed in the physical and mathematical sciences connected with their professions ; but this, instead of being considered as an ultimate object, should be viewed as only one of the subordinate objects of such institutions. Their grand and ultimate objects ought to be, to induce a taste, among the great mass of society, for moral and intellectual improvement — and to diffuse, throughout all ranks, useful knowledge of every description, in order to raise the human mind from that state of degradation in which it has been so Ions; immersed, and to direct its contemplations to objects worthy of the dignity of rational and immortal natures. In order to accomplish such objects, it is essentially requisite that knowledge be presented to the understanding in its most in- teresting and alluring forms. In the first instance, all abstract disquisitions, and abstruse mathematical investigations, should be studiously avoided, or postponed to a future period ; and those scenes and objects presented to view, which have a tendency to allure the imagination, to excite inquiry, and to produce rational delight. Such are the subjects of Natural History, which, con^ sidered in its most comprehensive sense, has for its object, to ar- range and describe all the known facts in the material universe. Facts constitute the foundation of all the sciences-^they are most easily acquired when properly described — "their acquisition re- quires the least exertion of intellect— and, when presented to the view in sufficient number and variety, they will always produce pleasurable emotions, and a thirst for intellectual enjoyment. And, therefore, in the natural order of instruction, they ought to constitute the first portions of knowledge to be presented to the untutored mind in all colleges, academies, and mechanics' insti- tutions. After the student has acquired a knowledge of such facts, the elements of the mathematical sciences might next occu- py his attention, for enabling him to enter on the discussions of natural philosophy, astronomy, and the investigation of the causes of the phenomena of nature. A profound knowledge of the ab- struse parts of mathematics, however, is not absolutely necessary for the acquisition of the more useful branches of general know- ledge. An acquaintance with the demonstrations of the first book of Euclid, and of a few propositions in some of the other books— the elements of plane trigonometry and conic sections, along with 32* 378 IMPROVEMENT OP MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. practical geometry — is almost all that is requisite for understand- ing the more interesting departments of science, and may be ac- quired in a very short time, by a moderate application of the mental powers. The order I have now stated has, however, in most instances, been inverted. The abstractions of mathematical science have been presented to young and untutored minds before they had any conceptions of their utility, or the investigations to which they are applied, and before they had acquired a relish for substantial knowledge ; and the consequence has been, that many have abandoned the pursuit of knowledge, on account of the dry and uninteresting form in which it was presented to the mind. In conformity with this practice, the directors of some mechanics' institutions have selected lecturers chiefly on the ground of their being expert mathematicians without any knowledge of their accomplishments as popular teachers of natural science ; and the consequence has been, that both the superintendents and the mem- bers of the institution have been disappointed, and the society has fallen into disrepute. For, a profound mathematician is not gene- rally the person best calculated to convey a knowledge of the facts of natural history and philosophy, in the most simple and alluring manner, to the untutored mind. 2. Another defect in these institutions, as presently conducted, is; that they are not rendered so subservient as they might be to the moral improvement of society. Knowledge of every descrip- tion ought to be rendered subservient to the illustration of Divine truth — of the attributes and moral government of the Almighty — of the facts and evidences of revelation — and for counteracting evil passions, and promoting the advancement of the human race in true morality — ^and thus preparing them for the employments of that future and eternal world to which they are destined. Un- iess this object be kept in view, the advantages which society will derive from such institutions will be comparatively few and unim- portant. For the mere acquisition of scientific knowledge will not of itself counteract the depravity and moral evils which exist in the world, nor raise mankind in the scale of moral excellence, unless it be blended with that celestial light which proceeds direct- ly from the great Source of intelligence. Discussions on some of the leading subjects to which I allude can easily be conducted, without in the least interfering with sectarian views of religion ; and 1 cannot account for the almost universal practice of setting aside such topics in philosophical discussions, without being in- clined to suppose that there is a certain degree of antipathy enter- tained towards such subjects, notwithstanding their important IMPROVEMENT OP MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. 379 bearings on the present comfort and the future happiness of mankind. I shall only add farther, that, besides the communication of knowledge by public lectures in mechanics' institutions, the mem- bers of such societies might have occasional meetings for mutual instruction. At such meetings, a portion of some standard, scien- tific, or other work, might be read, and a conversation entered into respecting the subject it discusses. Every member should have an opportunity of proposing questions in reference to that subject, and of stating any objections or difficulties that may occur to his mind — not for the purpose of cavilling or of formal disputa- tion, but to increase his information, and to draw forth the re- marks of his associates. In this way the leading branches of any particular system of science might be explained and elucidat- ed in the course of a session. ( 380 ) PART II. MISCELLANEOUS HINTS IN REFERENCE TO THE DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF SOCIETY. On the following subjects I originally intended to enter into some specific details and particular illustrations. But as this volume has already swelled to a considerable size, I can offer, in the meantime, only a few general hints. — If we would carry for- ward the social state of man to that "consummation" which is so " devoutly to be wished," we would require, in the first place, to enter into every department of society, and detect the absurdi- ties, abuses, and immoral principles connected with it, and expose them to view in all their naked deformities and unchristian ten- dencies. For there is scarcely a department of the social state, in Europe or Asia, v/hether civil, political, or ecclesiastical, but IS based on selfishness, ambition, avarice, tyranny, or other anti- social and malignant principles. In the next place, it would be necessary, not only to investigate the remedies to be applied to such evils, but to introduce practices which have never yet pre- vailed, and to lay the foundation of institutions which have never yet been established. For, if ever we expect to behold a period when knowledge shall be universal, when " Righteousness shall run down our streets as a river," and when " Holiness to the Lord" shall be inscribed on all the employments of human life — our existing institutions require to be new modelled, and many of them altogether overturned, and a new foundation laid for the advancement of society, and the future progress of the human mind. Notwithstanding the vague and violent declamations of certain politicans and divines about the necessity of " preserving unimpaired our national institutions," it is evident that some of them are rotten to the very core, and stand as obstructions to the rights of mankind — to the progress of knowledge, and to moral improvement. There is a continual outcry among certain classes against every thing which has the appearance of '■Hnn ovation y"* and which implies a want of confidence in " the wisdom of our ancestors ;" as if laws and institutions, framed in an age com- paratively barbarous and unenlightened, were so absolutely per- fect that they required no farther correction or improvement. Without innovation there can be no thorough reformation. Many existing institutions, laws, and usages, have been tried for cen- IMPROVEMENTS IN PREACHING. 381 turies, and have been found of little avail to the renovation of the world ; and he who insists that they shall be still supported in every iota, as they have hitherto been, virtually declares, that the moral tvorld ought to stand still, and that no such period as the Scripture-Millennium will ever arrive to bless mankind. There is an utter inconsistency in maintaining that every practice and institution should continue in its present state, and at the same time admitting that the world is to be regenerated, and that " the knowledge of Jehovah shall cover the earth." The one position appears incompatible with the other, and he who tenaciously ad- heres to the former must give up the latter ; and hence we have sometimes found, that those who are strenuous supporters of " things as they are," do not hesitate to affirm, that " the world will never be much better than it has hitherto been, and that wars, and ignorance, and misery, will continue to the end of time." But such a sentiment, as we have already shown, is in- consistent with the plainest declarations of the oracles of Heaven, and tends to throw a dismal gloom over all the future prospects of society ; and I trust there is scarcely one enlightened Christian that would dare to vindicate an opinion so inconsistent with the future improvement of our species, and with the benevolent pur- poses and arrangements of the Governor of the world. — But to enter particularly into the subjects to which I allude would re- quire a separate volume of no inconsiderable size. I shall there- fore, in the meantime, offer only a few very general hints, leaving every one to prosecute the subject more particularly by his own reflections. I. On Improvements in regard to Preaching. In the few remarks which I intend to make on this topic, it is taken for granted that the fundamental facts and doctrines of Christianity are to be frequently illustrated, and always recog- nised in every discussion that has a reference to religion. But it is preposterous to dwell almost perpetually, as some preachers do, on what may be termed the alphabet, the rudiments, or first principles of Christianity, as if Christians were always to remain " babes in Christ." " Leaving the first principles of the doctrine of Christ," but neither forgetting them, nor dwelling exclusively upon them, they ought " to go on to perfection," carrying for- ward and tracing these principles through all their important bearings and consequences in the Christian life, and expanding their minds with all the views of the Divine operations which the aids of Revelation, art and science, can furnish. This progress towards perfection, however, can never be attained, if Christians 382 TOPICS OF rREACIIING. are always employed in " laying again the foundation," and never attempting to rear the superstructure ; and if Christian in- structors are always exercised in attempting to prove and explain a few of the fundamental articles of the Christian system, and neglect to carry forward their readers and hearers through all the different departments of Christian action and contemplation. What should we think of the teacher of geometry who, after ex- plaining the terms, axioms, and first principles of the science, stopped short, and left the student either to prosecute his path through the leading propositions and higher branches, or not, as he deemed proper? What should we think of the philosopher who spent his time merely in explaining the rules of philoso- phizing, and the general laws of motion, without ever applying them to the investigation and explanation of the phenomena of the visible world ; and who is always defining first principles, without tracing them to their consequences, or pointing out the manner of their application? We could expect but poor geome- ters and philosophers from such meagre instructions. And can we expect that the Christian instructor who seldom goes bc3'^ond the axioms of Christianity shall render his hearers enlightened and practical Christians, and bold heroes in promoting the cause of reformation and religion ? If~such a plan of instruction be wise, then the apostles and prophets were fools in directing us so par- ticularly in all the practical bearings of religion, and taking^such expansive views of the works and the moral Government of God. But, waiving such general observations, I proceed to offer two or three particular remarks. The preacher should take in a more comprehensive range of subjects, in his instructions, than that to which he is usually con- fined. The Scriptures contain references to a greater variety of jobjects than any other book — all of which must be considered as legitimate subjects for discussion in the pulpit. The works of creation, as displaying the Power, Wisdom, Benevolence, Gran- deur, and superintending care of the Creator — the events recorded in sacred and civil history, as manifestations of the character and principles of his moral government — the history of nations and the revolutions to which they have been subjected, as illustrative of his faithfulness and retributive justice, and of the fulfilment of ancient predictions — the harmony which subsists between the system of nature and the system of Revelation, and the mutual light they reflect upon each other — the depravity of man, and the proofs and illustrations of it which arc to be found in the con- stitution and operations of nature, and in the wars, and devasta- tions, and malignant principles which have prevailed in the world TOPICS OF PREACHING. 383 — the truth of Revelation, as displayed in its powerful and benefi- cent effects in the case of nations, families, and individuals, and in its transforming influence on the state of society and on the phy- sical aspect of the world — the various active means by which so- ciety may be improved and regenerated, and the blessings of the gospel diffused among all nations — the multifarious ways in which benevolence and general philanthropy may be made to operate in diffusing knowledge, counteracting misery, alleviating distress, and promoting happiness among all ranks — the rational grounds of those moral laws which God has promulgated in his word, which form the basis, of the order and happiness of the moral universe, — these, and other topics connected with them, in conjunction with the leading doctrines of Christianity, and the views which the Scriptures unfold of the glories of the Millennial era, the resurrec- tion of the dead, the new heavens and earth, and the employments and felicities of the future world — should be exhibited in a lumin- ous and energetic manner, and illustrated with all the facts and scenes which the physical and moral world can supply. In par- ticular, the duties of practical Christianity, the government of the temper, the dispositions and principles which should be dis- played amidst the scenes and departments of human life, the duties incumbent on masters, servants, parents, children, teachers, scho- lars, merchants, judges, authors, publishers, neighbours, and other relations in society, should be specifically explained and illus- trated. Graphical descriptions might be given of the scenes of human life and the practices which abound in society, delineating the selfish and malignant principles which pervade them, drawing them forth from their hiding place, and portraying them before every eye, in all their contrariety to the principles of the gospel, and in all their repulsive features and abominations — at the same time showing how the spirit of Christianity ought to operate in every scene and department in the commercial, political, and re- ligious world, and what delightful and harmonious effects would be produced, were the principles of our holy religion to be uni- versally recognised in all the transa.ctions of mankind. Had we a preacher endowed with the graphical powers of a Sir Walter Scott, with a mind imbued with Christian principles, and ardently desirous to consecrate his^ faculties to the advance- ment of practical Christianity — he might, by his lively and pic- turesque descriptions of the scenes of sin and holiness, and their respective effects on the moral world, excite attention to such sub- jects almost to as high a pitch as that celebrated novelist did to his tales of warlike encounters, and of knights and ferocious chieftains whose names ought now to descend into oblivion. Such 384 PRACTICAL PREACHING. were some of the inspired preachers, whose orations are recorded in the book of God. Such was the prophet Isaiah when he pro- claimed to the tribes of Israel the counsels of the Most High. Let us conceive him standing in an elevated position in the court of the temple, at one of the solemn feasts, surrounded with thou- sands of worshippers, — describing the majesty of Him " who measureth the waters in the hollow of his hand, meteth out hea- ven with the span, and weigheth the mountains in scales and the hills in a balance"— contrasting the grandeur of Jehovah with the vanities of the heathen and the pitiful images of the idolater — portraying the destruction of Babylon, and its hideous and per- petual desolations — depicting the riches and splendour of Tyre, and the doom which awaited her proud inhabitants — fortelling the downfall of Egypt and the utter confusion and despair which would seize upon all ranks — denouncing the wickedness and abominations of the people of Judah — displaying the Messiah, in his character, humiliation, sufferings, and triumphs, and unfold- ing the future glories of his triumphant reign, when " the Gen- tiles shall come to his light, and kings to the brightness of his rising," and " all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of God," — and we have a representation of a sacred orator, ani- mated with the most sublime conceptions, and delivering his message in language calculated to arrest the attention of every hearer.* — The apostle Paul at Athens is another example.f Standing on the summit of Mars hill, under the open canopy of heaven, with the lofty Acropolis towering behind him, with islands, seas, mountains, and the peerless city of Athens, with the Porch, the Lyceum, and the Grove, stietched out before him, and point- ing to the splendid temples of idolatry, and to the altar erected " To THE UNKNOWN God" — he describes that incomprehensible Being " who dwelleth not in temples made with hands," who Is the Source of life to all beings, and who has " appointed the tiines of their existence and the boundaries of their habitations" — demonstrates the absurdity of idol-worship — proclaims the com- mencement of a new era, and the command of the Most High to "all men every where to repent" — and declares the cv'^rtainty of a future state, a resurrection from the dead, and a day when " God will iudge the world in rii^rhteousness" by the man Christ Jesus. There is no doubt that in this discourse, of which we have only a brief summary, the apostle would select all the sur- rounding objects, the facts of history, and the scenes of nature, * See Isaiah, chapters xl. xliv. xiii. xxiii. xix. liii. Ix. Ixv , &c. + Acts, xvii. DOMESTIC EDUCATION. 385 which could be made to bear on the point of discussion, in order to illustrate the sublime topics of his address, and to produce an indelible impression on the minds of his audience. We have another representation of what a Christian preacher ought to be, in the example of Messiah, the great " Teacher sent from God." Seated on a mountain, with the vault of heaven above him for his sounding board, he expatiates on the happiness of the humble, the meek, the merciful, the pure in heart, the peace-makers, and they who are persecuted for the sake of righteousness, "in opposition to all the false maxims which had pre- vailed in the world ; and, in a long discourse, exposes the hypo- critical and corrupt principles of the age, and enforces the true laws of moral action on every class of his hearers — a discourse which, if it were not recorded in the Bible as having been delivered by the highest authority, would be considered by some as a specimen of legal preaching. On other occasions he collected multitudes on the sea shore, and addressed them from a ship, illustrating his heavenly doctrines from the sowing of seed, the tares among the wheat, the gradual progress of vegetation, the mustard tree, the pearl of great price, and the net which gathered fishes of every kind. The objects both of the living and inanimate creation were presented to his hearers as conveying sentiments of instruction and piety. He inculcated upon them confidence in the care of Providence, from the birds of the air and the flowers of the field. *' Behold the fowls of the air," which are now flying around you, *' they sow not, neither do they reap nor gather into barns, yet your heavenly father feedeth them ;" " Consider the lilies of the field" growing on yonder meadow, " they toil not, neither do they spin, yet Solomon, in all his glory, was not arrayed like one of these." Such was the subjects illustrated, and the npLode of in- struction adopted by those who were commissioned from heaven to make known the will of God to man. How very different, both in matter and manner, were those simple and sublime in- structions, from some of the meagre metaphysical discourses wliich are frequently read in, our churches, in a dull monotonous tone, and .. liich present scarcely one well-defined or animating idea to the majority of the hearers ! And let the reason of every man, who acknowledges the Scriptures as a Divine Revelation, deter- mine which of these modes of preaching is to be preferred — whether we ought to imitate the example of inspired teachers, or that of fallible and erring men ! Again, the subject of the education of children, and the pro- per means to be employed for training them in knowledge and christian morality, vshould occasionally form the subject of preach- 33 386 SENSIBLE REPRESENTATIONS. ing. Lectures might be delivered on this subject on Sabbath evenings, or on week days, and the general principles and rules laid down, particularly illustrating hy examples taken from the existing scenes and practices of society. With regard to private or family education, I know no book that would serve for a bet- ter model, as to the manner in which such instructions should be conveyed, than Mr. Abbot's " Mother at home," with all its ap- propriate facts and examples. Even the mere reading of such a book to a public audience, with occasional pauses, remarks, and familiar illustrations, might produce a more powerful practical effect than many elaborate sermons, whose object is merely to prove a doctrine which a single text of Scripture is sufficient to establish. This is a subject of paramount importance, and which has been too much overlooked in the business of christian instruc- tion. Most of the evils which abound in society may be traced to the want of proper tuition in early life, under the domestic roof, and to the ignorance of parents and servants, as to the ra- tional and moral principles on which instruction and family go- vernment ought to proceed. Discourses should likewise be oc- casionally preached on the duty of Christians devoting a con- siderable portion of their wealth for the promotion of education and universal improvement in society. This is a duty which, in the present age, is scarcely understood or appreciated ; and yet, upon the universal attention that is paid to it will depend the fu- ture progress of knowlege and religion, and all the bright scenes to which we look forward in the days of the Millennium. But it is needless to enlarge on this topic after what has been stated in the preceding pages. (See p. 348, &c.) 2. The effect of preaching might be increased, hy illustrating the facts and reasonings connected with religion — in so far as they are susceptible of it — ivith sensible representations. In de- scribing, for example, the Jewish tabernacle and its utensils, models or pictorial representations of such objects, on a large scale, might be exhibited. I have known persons who were con- sidered as intelligent Christians and mighty in the Scriptures, who appeared to have no accurate conceptions of such objects, and who, when the relative positions of the altar of burnt offering, the sanctuary, and the Holy of Holies, were represented on paper, along with the furniture and vessels in the respective apartments, acquired ideas on the subject which they never before entertained. When we consider the frequent allusions made to such objects in the writings of the prophets, in the Evangelical history, and par- ticularly in the Epistle to the Hebrews, it cannot be a matter of mere indifference, that Christians should be altogether destitute SENSIBLE REPRESENTATIONS. 387 of clear conceptions of the scenes and objects connected with the tabernacle in the wilderness, or the temple at Jerusalem ; and there are comparatively few individuals who are able to form a distinct picture in their minds of such objects merely from reading the descriptions in the books of Moses. I have heard a preacher attempt to convey an idea to his hearers of the Ark of the Cove- nant, by telling them it was about the size of a tent-hed, and somewhat similar to it in form. But it would certainly have con- veyed a more precise and accurate idea, had a large drawing or engraving of it been exhibited to their view, and the different parts of it pointed out and explained. Maps, on a large scale, of Palestine, Asia Minor, and the countries around Judea, where the Apostles travelled to propagate the gospel, might likewise be ex- hibited, when the preacher is lecturing on the journeyings of Is- rael from Egypt, on the Evangelists, or the Acts of the Apostles, for the purpose of elucidating the narrations of the sacred his- torians, and showing the relations of the several towns and coun- tries to which a reference or allusion is made ; for the interest ex- cited by these narratives, and some of the instructions to be derived from them, partly depend on our knowledge of the geographical positions and relations of the persons and places to which the history refers. Similar exhibitions might likewise occasionally be made of various objects alluded to in Scripture, connected with the agriculture, antiquities, arts and sciences of the Eastern na- tions, — on a knowledge of which a clear perception of the meaning and references of many passages in the prophetical and historical writings in a great measure depends. The only point to be settled is, whether it be proper, in any case, to introduce such subjects into the pulpit. If this point be admitted, then the question is, whether we ought to convey a clear and distinct idea of the object, or an obscure and distorted conception, or no idea at all. For mere verbal descriptions can convey no distinct conceptions of the objects to which I allude. Some worthy Christians, I am aware, would be apt to imagine, that such illustrations are altogether foreign to the business of religion, and that they would draw aside the mind from God and spiritual objects. But, I would ask, what do we know of relio-jon except the notions we have acquired through the medium of the senses ? What ideas have we of God but what we have derived from the history of his dispensations recorded in his word, and the contemplation of his visible works ? Every fact contained in the Bible embodies in it a description and exhibition of sensible objects, without the intervention of which we could have no ideas of reli- gion at all ; and the material creation around us is an adumbration 388 EDUCATION OF STUDENTS OF DIVINITY. or sensible exhibition of the attributes of the invisible Divinity. — His Omnipresence and agency is manifested in every object we behold. Every plant and flower, as it springs upward to matu- rity, indicates the presence and incessant operation of Him who formed it by his wisdom. Every ray of light descending from the solar orb, is an indication of the presence and glory of Him who is represented as dwelling "in light unapproachable." Were we, in reality, " spiritually minded," were our thoughts and afl^ec- tions properly directed, we would see God in every object and in every event — in the instruments of agriculture, by which the earth is cultivated — in the microscope, which discloses to our view the invisible worlds of life — in the Jewish tabernacle, with all its fur- niture and utensils — in the history of nations, and the revolutions through which they have passed — in the whirlwind, the tempest, and the refreshing breeze — in the verdure of summer, the storms of winter, the fruits of harvest, and in all the beauties and sublimi- ties of earth and heaven ; — and therefore, whatever artificial rep- resentations can assist our minds in forming distinct conceptions of such objects must have a tendency to convey instruction, and to inspire us with sentiments of piety and devotion. 3. In order to diversity the topics of preaching, and to render it more interesting and instructive, the edvcation of candidates for jthe ministry ought to embrace a more appropriate and extensive range of subjects than that to which it has been usually confined. It is somewhat strange, that, in reference to preaching, the simile has been introduced into our language, " as dull as a sermon.'*'' There is no class of orators that has such a multiplicity of sublime and interesting objects and motives at his command, and so exten- sive a range of illustration, as the Christian preacher. He has the boundless field of the universe, in all its diversified relations, in which to expatiate — all the scenes of Providence which have been displayed in every age since time began — eternity, past gnd to come, with all its awful and glorious realities — the ruin and the recovery of a fallen world — the virtues, miracles, death, resur- rection, ascension, and glory, of Him who is " the image of the invisible God" — the operations of the Divine government in refer- ence both to man and to angels — the powers and agencies of superior intelligences — the perfections of the Deity, and the gran- deur of his empire — the moral principles of the Christian system, and the virtues which, if practised, would reunite all the tribes and families of mankind — the hopes and fears of human beings both in regard to this world and to the life to come — the felicity and glory of the millennial church — the scenes of the conflagra- tion, the general resurrection, the last judgment, and the happi- EDUCATION FOR THE 3IINISTRY. 389 ness and employments of men and angels throughout an endless duration, — these, with all the endlessly diversified objects con- nected with them, form so many legitimate topics and sources of illustration to every Christian preacher. And yet, a sermon is generally characterized as a dull and somniferous composition. If this characteristic be true, the fault lies, not in the subject, and the narrow range of topics, but in the preacher himself. It is not a little unaccountable, that the series of instruction through which students for the ministry usually pass, is every thing but adapted to produce intelligent and eloquent preachers of the gospel.. Almost the one-half of the time devoted to what are called philosophical studies is employed in the study of Latin and mere classical literature, while they are never introduced to the knowledge of those more interesting and luminous subjects which have a far more direct bearing on theology and the objects of the Christian ministry. Even the subjects of natural history, natural theology, geography, popular philosophy, and pulpit ora- tory, are seldom discussed or illustrated in the seminaries where they are taught; and hence may be traced the limited views which are entertained respecting the range of illustration on sub- jects of divinity, and the little effort which has been made to excel in sacred eloquence. A preacher, in so far as is practicable, should be a man of almost wmi^ersai knowledge. Without exten-^ sive information on all the subjects to which I have alluded, he cannot be supposed to enter with spirit and energy on the illustra- tion of such topics, or to exhibit those graphical descriptions, and delineations of physical and moral scenery to which I lately adverted. The time employed in the study of Latin, and classical learning, might be sufficient for laying the foundation of knowledge in all those useful departments of science and religion, which, when thoroughly studied in after life, would "make the man of God complete, and thoroughly fitted for every good work." It is little short of criminality to waste so much time in such studies, while subjects of infinitely greater importance are either overlooked, or altogether neglected." And therefore, if we would render the Christian ministry fully efficient for all the great purposes it is intended to accomplish, we must introduce new arrangements into the plan of our academical instruction. In connection with Bibli- cal criticism, and the study of Greek and Hebrew, in so for as necessary for reading the Scriptures in the original languages, all the branches of natural history, geology, geography, experi- mental philosophy, chemistry, physiology, natural theology; an- cient and modern history, sacred, ecclesiastical, and civil ; the progress of the arts ; the physical, moral, and political state of 33* 390 SUBJECTS FOR PUBLIC WORSHIP. the nations — in short, all the facts which can be ascertained in reference to the operations of the Creator in the physical and moral universe, oug"ht to be studied, in so far as is practicable; and no one should be sent forth as a preacher (unless in extraor- dinary cases.)* Such knowledge would furnish inexhaustible sources o[ illustration on divine subjects, which would both arrest the attention, and increase the general knowledge of the hearers of the gospel. I have always considered it as a characteristic of a good sermon, which the hearers would appreciate, when an outline of the leading ideas contained in it could be sketched on paper or canvass. We can paint the outlines of our Saviour's instructions, Paul's sermon at Athens, Moses' farewell address to the Israelites, the speech of the Almighty addressed to Job, and most of the orations of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, and the other prophets. But this can never be done, unless there be interwoven with the texture of the discourse tangible illustrations, borrowed from the subjects to which I have alluded. I may just add, that every candidate for the ministry should pay particular attention to the improvement of his voice and manner of delivery, so that he may be enabled to express his sentiments with a distinct ar- ticulation, and with becoming energy and pathos, suitable to the nature and solemnity of his subject, — and not, as is frequently the case, like a school-boy reading his lesson with a disgusting monotony. Where there is any natural or acquired defect in the organs of speech, the individual ought to be considered as unfit for the office of a Christian preacher. 4. Divine worship should be so conducted that praise offered to our Creator and Redeemer should be appropriate, and accord- ant with the dictates of inspiration. In order to this, all the subjects of praise should be taken directly from the sacred oracles, and the poetical version into which we throw them should embady, as nearly as possible, the very language of the inspired writers, and, in every instance, the exact sentiments. The Scottish version of the Psalms of David — though containing many doggrel rhymes, and susceptible of considerable improve- ment — is, perhaps, the most accordant of any with the language and sentiments of the inspired penman. It is strictly coincident with the common version of the Bible, and where that version is incorrect, the poetical version is likewise deficient in precision * There appears no necessity for courses of moral philosophy in Chris- tian colleges and academies ; as every one who takes Revelation for his guide, finds the purest and most comprehensive system of moral science explained and illustrated by the sacred writers. MODE OP CONDUCTING DIVINE WORSHIP. 891 and accuracy. But it does not appear to be incumbent upon us either to use the whole of the book of Psalrns in our praises, or to confine ourselves to that selection of sacred poetry. The books of Moses, the book of Job, the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Daniel, and Habakkuk, the Evangelists, the Epistles, and par- ticularly the book of Revelation, can supply many appropriate passages to direct our meditations in the exercise of praise. But I would lay it down as a principle, that, in translating them into English verse, we should strictly adhere to the sentiments of the inspired writers, without interweaving our own paraphrases and comments. I hold it as an axiom, that the inspired writers are the best judges of what is proper to be addressed to God in praise, and that our praises ought to contain nothing but the pure sentiments of inspiration. In opposition to this maxim, we find Independents, Methodists, Baptists, and others, using collections of what are termed hymns in public worship, and almost discard- ing the book of Psalms, as if it were too antiquated a composition for directing Christian worship. Many of the compositions I allude to are vague, enthusiastic, too familiar in their language when ad- dressing the Creator and Redeemer — in many instances exhibit confused and distorted images of divine things, particularly when descanting on the joys of heaven ; and their style and manner as well as some of their sentiments, altogether different from those of the prophets and apostles. To prefer such compositions in our ad- dresses to God, to those of inspired men, is little else than to *' forsake the fountain of living waters, and to hew out broken cisterns that can hold no water." I know not a more glaring piece of contradiction than in the pertinacious use of such hymns by the denominations alluded to, since they acknowledge no creed but the Scriptures ; and when, in fact, there is a creed — in some instances not very consistent— embodied in the hymn book. The only question to be determined is. Are inspired writers the best judges of what we ought to address to God, and ought we to be directed by them in our devotions, or by the flimsy and erring compositions of fallible man? Private families and individuals may be left to their own feelings and discretion in this respect, but it is scarcely fair to impose such compositions on a public assembly. There is another circumstance, in the exercise of praise, which deserves censure, and that is, foolish and unmeaning repetitions. Some tunes used in public worship require the last line of the verse or stanza to be two or three times repeated, whether it con- tains a complete sense or not ; other tunes require half a line to be repeated three times, although the pause should happen to be 392 UNION OF THE CHRISTIAN CHUliCH. in the middle of a word ; so that a worshipping assembly, chiming in with such an absurd practice, appears " like children babbling nonsense in their sports." Such a practice is highly indecorous ; it is little short of mocking the Great Object of worship ; and were an infidel entering an assembly when thus engaged, he might have some show of reason for declaiming on the absurdi- ties of Christian worship. Those who abet such a practice would do well to consider the import of the Apostle's resolution, " 1 will sing with the spirit, and I will sing with the understanding also." II. The Union of the Christian Church would have a tendency to 'promote universal improvement. The jealousies and mutual recriminations of contending sec- taries constitute one of the many causes which have prevented the advancement of society. They have prevented the harmonious co-operation of all ranks and parties in establishing seminaries for the instruction of the young, and for promoting the knowledge of religion in our own country and in other lands ; so that society, instead of moving forward as one great harmonious body in the path of improvement, has been shattered into a hundred different parties, each moving in its own direction, sometimes crossing the path of the others, sometimes advancing in an opposite direction, and sometimes clashing and engaging in mutual warfare. This is a state of Christian society which is much to be deplored, and which requires the most serious and solemn consideration of all denominations of the religious world, as to the means which ought to be employed, and the concessions which ought to be made, in order to produce a cordial union of all who appear to be imbued with the spirit of Christianity. Were this desirable object nearly effected, numerous obstructions to the general difflision of know- ledge would be removed, and a new impulse given to the cause of universal improvement. A broad and solid foundation might be laid for the universal instruction of all ranks in the leading truths of religion, and in every department of useful science, without interruption from those sectarian interests and contentions which have hitherto obstructed the rearing of the temple of know- ledge and of Christianity. Liberality of views, and a spirit for introducing improvements into the social state, would be more extensively cherished. National reformation would be carried forward with more vigour and effect. Political parties in the vState — which are frequently based on sectarian interests and opinions — would be gradually undermined, and all who are " right- hearted men" disposed to co-operate in every measure that has a tendency to promote the general good. The influence of such a state of society would be powerful in procuring the enactment of DISTORTIONS OF SACRED HISTORY. 893 laws congenial to the spirit of philanthropy, and the dictates of revelation. Missionary enterprises to heathen countries would be carried forward on a much more extensive scale, and with far greater energy and effect, than can now be produced by the sepa- rate and insulated operations of sectarian missions. Unity of plan and operation would be introduced into all such expeditions, and a saving in the pecuniary means by which they are carried for- ward. Money, for all the purposes now stated, would be collect- ed with less trouble and to a much greater amount ; perhaps not only double or treble the amount now furnished, but even tenfold such sums might be collected, were the spirit of Christian union, and the liberal views which would iaccompany it, to pervade the whole range of the religious world. III. The knowledge of the Scriptures might he promoted hy illustrating various po?'tions of them with appropriate engravings. We have, indeed, Bibles and Commentaries of all sizes, from a 24mo to a folio, hawked through the country, "embellished" with engravings of different kinds, some of them not a little ex- pensive. But these embellishments are, for the most part, only fit for the amusement of children, and, instead of elucidating the facts recorded in Sacred history, only tend to distort them. They consist almost wholly of pictures taken from fancy, in which the manners, costume, architecture, and rural scenery of the Eastern nations, are grossly misrepresented. Among these, we find views, connected with Jerusalem, and other cities in Judea, in which the houses are represented with sloping roofs and large arched win- dows in the modern style, and the streets crowded with horses, and horsemen, richly caparisoned, like knights-errant or modern dragoons, and holding halberts in their hands. The inhabitants of these countries are represented as wearing neither shoes, stock- ings, nor sandals, but quite bare from the soles of the feet to the knees. In a picture of the baptism of Christ, he is represent- ed as standing quite naked beside a small rivulet, while John the Baptist is standing on the other side of it, holding a long cross in the one hand, and pouring water from a basin on the head of Christ with the other. In a picture of the Temptation, Christ is represented as sitting in something like an elbow-chair, with bare feet, a long robe like a surplice, and a glory round his head, while Satan appears addressing him in the attire of a modern fe- male, standing upon cloven feet, and having wings attached to his shoulders. Such representations, which may be considered as specimens of most of our Scripture prints, instead of convey- ing ideas of the facts they are intended to represent, tend only to degrade and caricature them. Nothing can be more foolish and 394 SCRIPTURE ILLUSTRATED BY ENGRAVINGS. preposterous than most of the pictures representing the scenes of Scripture history, particularly in reference to the anachronisms they display. Burgoyne, in his Travels, notices a painting in Spain, where Abraham is preparing to shoot Isaac with a pistol, and an angel employed in providing that it shall miss fire ! There is a painting, at Windsor, of Antonio Verrio, in which he has intro- duced himself, Sir Godfrey Kneller, and Captain May, surveyor of the works, as spectators of Christ's healing the sick. There was in the Houghton Hall collection. Velvet Brughels' " Adoration of the Magi," in which were a multitude of figures, all finished with the greatest Dutch exactness. The Ethiopian king is dressed in a surplice, with boots and spvrs, and brings for a present, a gold model of a modern ship. Poussion's painting of Rebecca at the well, has the whole back-ground decorated with Grecian architecture. The same artist, in the picture of the Deluge, has painted boats, not then invented. Some of the Saxon painters put our Saviour, Noah, Abraham, and king Edgar, all in the same habit. Many useful ideas respecting Scriptural facts may be com- municated by means of engravings ; but such representations as those to which I allude, should be for ever discarded from our Commentaries and family Bibles. Instead of such absurd exhibi- tions, delineations of real objects should be introduced, as illustra- tive of some of the facts and descriptions of Sacred history. For example, the plan of the Jewish tabernacle and temple, the altar of incense and of burnt-offering, the ark of the covenant, the tables of showbread, the golden candlesticks, the brazen laver, and other utensils, as described by the sacred historians — the instruments of agriculture and of music, in so far as they are known, the manner of grinding corn, the plan and form of the Eastern build- ings, the war-chariots and battering-rams of the ancients — views of modern Jerusalem, with plans of the relative positions of Mount Zion, Mount Calvary, Mount of Olives, the brook Kidron, &;c. — views of Bethlehem, Nazareth, Joppa, the ruins of Tyre, Zidon, Babylon, and other cities mentioned in Scripture, as illustrative of the fulfilment of prophecy, which may be collected from the embellishments contained in the works of modern travellers — delineations illustrating the manners and customs of the Eastern nations — maps of Palestine, Egypt, Arabia, Assyria, Idumea, Babylonia, Persia, Greece, the islands of the Mediterranean, and the Roman empire, for illustrating the journeyings of Jesus Christ,, the travels of the Apostles, the route of the Israelites through the wilderness, and the descriptions of the ancient prophets. En- gravings might also be given of the more remarkable animals, ABRIDGMENT OF LABOUR. 395 trees, and flowers, to which allusions are frequently made in the Sacred writings. Such views and delineations might be given at an expense much less than what is generally incurred in en- graving the paltry and fictitious representations to which we have alludecT; and they would certainly be much more congenial to the taste of intelligent readers of the Bible, and much more con- ducive to the illustration of the scenes described by the Sacred prophets and historians. IV. Knowledge and moral improvement might he promoted hy ahridging the hours of labour. One great objection to the prosecution of knowledge and gene- ral improvement is founded on the fact, that the bulk of mankind have not sufficient leisure from their daily avocations for such purposes. This is partly true in regard to merchants' clerks, haberdashers, grocers, apothecaries, and their apprentices and shopmen, and those employed in spinning-mills and several other manufactories. In these cases, shops are kept open, and persons employed from six in the morning till eight, and even till ten or eleven o'clock in the evening. But there is no necessity, in order to carry on the business of life, that such long hours of labour and attendance on shops should be imposed either on masters or servants. All the business usually carried on in shops and manu- factories could be transacted, without inconvenience to any party, between the hours of seven or eight in the morning, and six in the evening, if proper arrangements were made for that purpose. When once the public is aware that certain shops are shut up at a particular hour, every one would endeavour to supply himself with the articles he required from such shops before that hour arrived ; and though they were to be kept open till twelve at midnight, or one in the morning, we know, from experience, that certain individuals would postpone their purchases, till these hours had nearly arrived. In order to prevent any inconvenience to society, by the shops of bakers, grocers, apothecaries, or others, being closed at an early hour, an arrangement might be made to have one shop of every class kept open to a later hour, in every street or district of a town, so that, on any unforeseen emergency, articles of provisions, groceries, medicines, &c. might be procured. Every shopkeeper of this description would, of course, have his turn, in succession, of keeping open his shop during these extra hours, and of reaping, in rotation, the additional profits that might accrue, so that, in the course of a year or less, all would find themselves on an equal footing in regard to the quantity of busi- ness transacted, and the advantages gained, by keeping open in rotation their shops till later hours. 396 IMPROVEMENT OF THE WORKING CLASSES. There is nothing to hinder the immediate adoption of such ar- rangements, but that spirit of jealousy which too much prevails among persons of the same profession, and which prevents a friendly intercourse among them for concerting measures for the good of the whole. A few obstinate and selfish characters, in the spirit of contradiction, would, doubtless, set themselves in opposi- tion to such regulations ; but as their sordid and avaricious views would be apparent to every one, they would soon be despised and deserted by the respectable portion of the community, and would suffer the natural consequences which almost invariably flow from selfishness and avarice. There is no man who, in such a case, sets himself in opposition to the general good of a community, that ought to be regarded as a Christian ; as such conduct is di- rectly opposed to the precept which enjoins us "to love our neigh- hour as ourselves," and " to look not merely on our own things, but also on the things of others." Such an arrangement, while it could be injurious to none, would be highly beneficial to all. It would afford leisure for public, private, and domestic inter- course — for attending philanthropic associations, or lectures on any branch of useful knowledge — for improving their minds in wisdom and virtue — for instructing their children, and enjoying the sweets of domestic intercourse — and for taking an active part in all those schemes which tend to promote the best interests of society. In particular, it would afford an opportunity to merchants' clerks, shopmen, apprentices, and others, of attending societies, lectures, schools, or other seminaries of instruction, for improving both their intellectual and moral powers — for want of which op- portunities many young persons of this description rise up to man- hood in comparative ignorance, and easily slide into the paths of folly and intemperance. But, before such an arrangement is effected, it would be previously requisite that seminaries, such as those formerly suggested, be established, for promoting the instruc- tion of the classes to which I allude, so that their evening hours may not be spent in sloth or licentiousness. In regard to weavers, masons, tailors, carpenters, mill-spinners, and common labourers, eight hours a day employed in labour, instead of ten or eleven, might be suflicient for all the purposes of society. Since the in- vention of modern machinery, a much greater quantity of labour than formerly can be effected in the same time. It appears to me, that the Governor of the world, in permitting such inventions for facilitating the process of manufactures, evidently intends thereby that the period of human labour should be abridged, in order to alTord scope to all classes of society for mental, moral, and religious improvement, and in order to prepare the way for DIRECTION OF PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. 397 that period when " the knowledge of the Lord shall cover the earth." It ought, therefore, to be considered as a misapplication of machinery when it is employed chiefly for the purpose of en- riching and aggrandizing a few individuals, while the mechanic and labourer are deprived both of the physical and moral advan- tages which it was intended to produce. V. Knowledge might be promoted hy a proper direction of public amusements. There can be no impropriety, at certain intervals, of gratifying the mass of society with an exhibition of public amusements. But such amusements should always be blended, if possible, with moral and intellectual instruction — be congenial to the dignity and • the high destination of man — and ought never to interfere with the purity of Christian morals. We have public amusements of various descriptions, such as stage-plays, balls, masquerades, horse-racing, cock-fighting, bull-baiting, equestrian feats and exhibitions, tricks of legerdemain, rope-dancing, &c. &c. ; but most, if not all, of these, have an immoral tendency, and some of them are inconsistent with humanity, and degrading to the cha- racter of man. Instead of such trifling and demoralizing amuse- ments, such exhibitions as the following might be adopted: — 1. Air balloons, of a pretty large size, which might be sent up into the atmosphere either with or without living beings, and might be rendered subservient for investigating atmospherical pheno- mena, the different currents and electrical states of the air, and other particulars. At the same time, descriptions and explana- tions might be given to the assembled multitude, of the nature of balloons, the principle on which they ascend, the mode of inflating them, the facts which have been ascertained by means of them in regard to the upper regions of the atmosphere, the nature and use of the parachute, and various details in relation to aerial naviga- tion. — 2. Panoramas, or perspective exhibitions, on a large scale, of ancient and modern buildings, cities, towns, ranges of moun- tains, sea-ports, volcanoes, grottos, romantic rural scenery, and whatever is grand, beautiful, and interesting, in the scenes of Na- ture and Art. Such panoramic scenes, while they could not fail to gratify every spectator, would convey to the mind ideas which could not be derived from any other source, except the actual view of the objects represented. — 3. Camera obscuras, on a large scale, constructed in the manner formerly described, (p. 242.) If these were constructed with large lenses of twenty or thirty feet focal distance, their magnifying power, on distant objects, would be equal to that of a telescope magnifying from thirty to about fifty times, which would show the distant scenery of a coun- 0-4 398 DIRECTION OF PUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. try with great minuteness, and people, sheep, and other animals, at the distance of many miles, while more than a score of persons at one time might contemplate such a scene. — 4. Telescopes, con- structed of a single convex lens, or a concave speculum of a long focal distance, for example, from twenty-five to forty feet, might be fixed in certain positions, so that several individuals at the same time might perceive their effect on distant objects. Sir W. Herschel informs us that, by looking with his naked eye on the speculum of his forty feet telescope, without the interposition of any lens or mirror, he perceived distinctly one of the satellites of Saturn ; so that such an instrument would present a brilliant view either of the moon or of terrestrial objects. The manner of look- ing at objects with such an instrument is represented below, where A B represents a concave mirror or speculum of a long C focal distance, C the focal point, a little^ within which several spec- tators might stand with their faces to the speculum, and view the distant objects behind them. Were A B a large convex lens of a similar focus, the spectators could stand in a similar position and view the objects before them. — 5. Philosophical and chemical experiments, of various descriptions, on a large scale, might be exhibited — such as the explosion of a bladder full of oxygen and hydrogen gas, by means of an electric spark, which produces a tremendous sound — the breaking of a piece of glass or bladder, or a large square bottle, by the pressure of the atmosphere — the burning of charcoal or phosphorus in oxygen gas, which produces a most brilliant illumination — the ascent of turpentine, when DIRECTION OF TUBLIC AMUSEMENTS. 399 tinged of a red colour, through water in long glass tubes, which produces a beautiful effect — the burning of spirits of wine, after having been boiled, which produces an extensive and beautiful jet or spout of fire — the Chinese lights,* and an indefinite variety of similar striking experiments, all of which might, at the same time, be familiarly explained. Such exhibitions might be made either in large halls, in squares, or in open areas in the neighbourhood of towns, according to the nature of the exhibition ; and the best instrumental music might accompany them, and might occasionally be enlivened by the surrounding multitudes joining in unison with their voices. The expense of such exhibitions would be far less than the sums ge- nerally wasted in the encouragement of horse-racing, theatrical diversions, and similar amusements ; and, while they tended to increase rational information, and to gratify the principle of cu- riosity, would be much more congenial to the taste of intelligent minds. There are certain towns in this country whose magis-* trates give, from the public funds, more than a hundred guineas annually for the encouragement of horse-races, besides the ex- penses connected with the various preparations and erections deemed necessary on such occasions. Such sums, along with a small contribution from each individual, (for example, an English penny or twopence^) would, in general, be adequate to defray the expenses of such exhibitions. VI. Knowledge and rational enjoyment might be increased hy erecting observatories in every town and populous village. These observatories migjit be furnished, not only ^vith some * The Chinese lights are produced by the following composition ; — Take twelve parts of nitre, five and a half of sulphur, one-half of orpiment, one- half of indigo, one-half of gunpowder, all finely pounded and intimately mixed. When this composition is set fire to by a burning match, it pro- duces a most splendid illumination. In the year 1814, when peace with France was proclaimed, a friend of mine, at the request of the magistrates of Paisley, got a large quantity of this composition prepared, which was ignited on the parapet which surrounded the spire of the High Church of that town, and which burned for more than half-an-hour, producing the most bril- liant illumination over all the town, and was an object of curiosity at Glas- gow, about eight miles distant. It would be visible from elevated situations, more than thirty miles distant. Such was the splendour of the light, that the birds rose from their nests, and flew around it, as if it had been the rising sun. At the same time, a balloon, made of the allantois of a calf, was sent up into the atmosphere, and a number of large bladders, filled with oxygen, and hydrogen gas, were exploded, by being held in the Chinese lights, which produced sounds that were heard over all the town. The composition ex- pended on this occasion cost about ten pounds ; but a quantity sufficient for a common experiment may be procured for two or three shillings. 400 IMPROVEMENT IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES, of the best achromatic telescopes for viewing terrestrial and celestial objects, but likewise with several articles of philosophical appa- ratus, and specimens of natural history. In studying the science of the heavens, there is nothing more gratifying to those who have acquired a relish for this subject, than to view the telescopic objects described by astronomers, such as the moons and belts of Jupiter, the ring of Saturn, the crescent of Venus, the moun- tains and vales of the moon, the nebulae, the double stars, and other interesting celestial phenomena. Such views tend to pro- duce a higher reUsh for astronomical studies and rational investi- gations ; and no pictorial representations can serve as a substitute, or convey the same ideas as actual observations by good instru- ments. ' But the majority of rational inquirers and of the com- munity at large are deprived of such vie^ws, on account of the expense of such instruments. An establishment of . this kind might be set on foot, either by a grant of money from a public fund, or by subscription. All the instruments requisite, in the first instance, would be, a large achromatic telescope for viewing celestial phenomena, and an equatorial telescope, for illustrating practical astronomy, and viewing the stars and planets in the daytime. These might be purchased for about forty guineas, (see article Astronomy, pp. 320, 322,) and if an hundred and twenty individuals were to co-operate in such an undertaking, the subscription would be only seven shillings to each, and, if an ad- ditional subscription of about two ^hillings a-year were paid, in the course of a few years the apparatus might be considerably increased. One special advantage arising from the universal es- tablishment of observatories would be, that the true time might always be accurately ascertained, and the public clocks regulated accordingly — on which circumstance depends, in certain cases, the determining of the altitude of certain atmospherical pheno- mena, such as a fiery meteor, or a luminous arch, when seen by different observers in places distant from each other. VII. The improvement of towns, villages, and roads, is inti- mately connected with the advancement of society. There are few circumstances in the state of society which ex- hibit the folly and depravity of man in a more striking point of view, than the state of most of the cities and towns of Europe and other parts of the world — not even excepting the British em- pire. In some of our cities we have palaces, churches, colleges, and public buildings, of the most magnificent description, while the great mass of the population around are living in miserable habitations in narrow dirty lanes, which are seldom or never vis- ited by the rays of the sun, or the refreshing breeze. In the High WRETCHED HUMAN HABITATIONS. 401 Street of Edinburgh and its environs, which contain a greater number of human habitations then any other spot of the same ex- tent on the surface of the globe, the inhabitants appear to be hud- dled together like so many rabbits in their cells. The houses are from five to eight and ten stories high, with numerous narrow lanes or closes, from four to six feet wide, branching from the street, and running down a great extent towards a hollow on each side. In these closes there is neither light nor pure air, but a continual gloom and noisome exhalations ; and the physical filth and darkness which abound are generally emblems of the moral pollution and scenes of depravity which are too frequently exhib- ited in such habitations. Such abodes are incompatible, not only with physical comfort, but with any attempts at improvement in knowledge ; and it is a kind of degradation to the nature of man, that any human beings should be doomed to spend their lives in such wretched habitations. It tends, not only to debase the moral character, but to prevent the expansion of the human intellect. Instead of an extensive landscape, adorned with flowers and ver- dure, and the view of the expansive canopy of heaven — the in- mates of such dwellings, for months and years, have nothing presented to the eye but a dead murky wall bespattered with filth, which confines the range of their vision within the compass of a few feet, and prevents them from becoming acquainted even with the common scenes of nature. What has been now stated will apply in a greater or less degree to almost all our cities and large towns, and even to some of our villages. Were we to inquire into the circumstances which led men thus to immure themselves in gloomy holes and corners, like bats and owls, we should doubt- less find that the abominable system of warfare has been one of the chief causes of the evil of which we complain. Man, living at enmity with his fellow-man, judged it expedient to surround his habitations with a huge wall for protection against the inroads of his hostile neighbours ; — and the problem to be solved, in this case, seems to have been, ' In how small a space can we compress the greatest number of inhabitants, so that our wall and fortifica- tionfi shall cost us the least trouble and expense?' Small towns and villages which were afterwards built, and which required no fortifications, copied the plan and dimensions of their streets from the fortified towns, and thus the whole of our cities, towns, and villages have been bungled and deranged. Great cities, especially when ill-planned, may be considered as great evils. The Creator evidently intended that the population of the globe should be more equably distributed than it is at present. We are told that " He created it not in vain, hut for?ned 34* 402 IMPROVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES. it to he inhabited.'' But, how monstrous a disproportion is there in the distribution of its population, when we find a mass of hu- man beings, as in London, compressed into a space of little more than 20 square miles, and a similar mass, in another part of the same island, spread over an extent of 20,000 square miles ! There appears to be no reason, except in a very few cases, why any city should extend beyond a, population of a hundred thousand inhabitants ; and a city containing such a population should oc- cupy five times the area that it does at present. Towns distribut- ed at nearly equal distances over the face of a country, would be of far more importance for the general improvement of society than a few crowded cities with an overgrown population, and more conducive to the health and morals of the inhabitants. — There is one circumstance that characterizes almost all our cities, towns, and villages, except in some recent instances ; and that is, the extreme narrowness of the streets, some of which do not ex- ceed 15 or 20 feet in width. Even in the United States of Ame- rica, where the towns have been more recently built, and formed on more expansive plans than in Europe, this evil is found to exist. The street Broadway, in New-York, which is so much celebrated, and which is 3 miles in length, is only 80 feet broad, and most of the other streets are considerably narrower. Most of the streets in Philadelphia are little more than 50 feet broad, except Broad street and Market street, the latter being 100, and the former 113 feet in breadth. Most of the small towns, how- ever, in the Northern States, such as New-Haven, Northampton, and others, are described by travellers as having broad streets and spacious squares, and remarkable for their cleanliness and beauty. In Great Britain, most of the streets, especially in sea- port towns, are wretchedly narrow and dirty. In North-Shields, county of Northumberland, the main street is nearly a mile long, but so narrow that in many places two carriages cannot pass each other. The New Town of Edinburgh, which contains the most spacious and elegant streets of any city in Europe, is dis- graced with two or three long narrow streets, not above one-fourth the breadth of the others, intended for the residence of the lower classes; as if they had no right to enjoy a free light, pure air, and a cheerful prospect, as well as their superiors. — The follow- ing hints are suggested in relation to the improvement of towns and villages ; though I have no hope of living to see them realized in my native country. 1. Most of our crowded towns should be demolished, or at least their streets ought to be widened, at an average three times their present breadth. Extravagant as this proposal may appear, there IMPROVEMENTS IN TOWNS AND VILLAGES. 403 is nothing that stands in the way of its accomplishment but selfish- ness and avarice. If the promotion of the comfcrt and happiness of our species were the great object of our ambition, all difficulties would soon evanish, and all obstructions would speedily be re- moved; and why call ourselves Christians^ if this object is not kept in view 1 — 2. No street in any town or village should be less than 80 feet wide. In large towns, where the houses are above two or three stories in height, the streets should not be less than 100 or 120 feet in breadth. — 3. Narrow lanes and closes, of all descriptions, ought to be for ever banished from all our^ towns and cities. — 4. The practice of sinking stories below the level of a street, unless for cellars, should be laid aside. It has become an almost universal practice in Edinburgh, and other towns, especially in genteel houses, to have a sunk story for the kitchen and servants' rooms, as if they were unworthy of enjoying free light and pure air, and their health in no danger from the damp- ness of such apartments. There is something absurd and pre- posterous in being at the expense of digging a hole for the under story of a house, when a kitchen and laundry could be built be- hind the house, on the level of the street, which would be more convenient and salubrious. — 5. Houses might be built with fat roofs, with a parapet surrounding them, breast high, which would form a promenade for tamilies in towns, where they would enjoy an airing and a prospect of surrounding objects, without remov- ing from their own dwellings. It would also serve for drying clothes, contemplating the heavens, and various other purposes. In Eastern countries, where the houses are constructed with flat roofs, they form the sleeping places of the family during the summer months. The rain that falls upon them might be so conducted as to supply every family with water for washing, and cooking victuals. — 6. Squares, crescents, or octagonal spaces, should be appropriated in different parts of a town, for bazaars, or shops where all kinds of merchandise should be sold ; each shop having an apartment or two connected with it, for the tem- porary accommodation of a family. — 7. The streets more parti- cularly appropriated for dwelling-houses, should have verandas or garden-plots in front of the houses on each side, diversified with shrubs, flowers, and evergreens, and, at certain regular dis- tances, a few forest trees, so that the styeet, although 80 feet bvoad, would require only about 40 feet of pavement. — 8. In every large city, open spaces, within the city, should be set apart for pleasure walks for the citizens, and diversified with trees, evergreen, shrubs, seats, and bowers for shelter from the heat or rain. In small towns, such rural walks should be formed to go 404 PLAN OF A TOWN. quite round them. — 9. A square plot of meadow ground, at each end of a town, might be set apart for public meetings, amuse- ments, or exhibitions, which might also serve for grazing, bleach- ing, promenading, and other purposes. — 10. Certain streets might be allotted for houses of one or two stories, for the accommoda- tion of those who have it not in their power to occupy more state- ly mansions, so as to preserve uniformity in every street ; but such streets should be equally broad, and adorned in the same manner as the other streets. — 11. Between the different streets should be garden-plots for every family, and accommodation for washing and bleaching, as also for erecting workshops for smiths, carpenters, weavers, &c. wherever they are required. — 12. En- couragement should be given in the neighbourhood of large towns, and throughout the country at large, for building towns on such plans, and for transforming our present hamlets and villages into more convenient and pleasant places of residence. If mankind were united by the bonds of Christian affection, and if all were as anxious to promote the happiness of their fellow-men, as the greater part are to hoard up wealth and riches which they can never enjoy, all the improvements now suggested could easily be accomplished within the course of a few years, or, at farthest, within the limits of the next generation. But so long as avarice sways its sceptre over the human breast, no extensive improvement, either in knowledge, religion, or physical comfort can be effected. The following engraving exhibits a plan of a town of a mode- rate size, which, with a few modifications, according to circum- stances, might be copied, in the formation of new. towns and vil- lages. In this plan all the streets cross one another in right an- gles, and are supposed to be at least 80 feet broad. In the cen- tre there is a circular space about 240 feet diameter, from which four streets diverge to each quarter of the town. The central part of this circle might be formed into a bowling green, diversi- fied with shrubs and flowers ; or a circular tower might be erected in the midst of it to overtop the surrounding buildings, on the top of which a large camera obscura and some telescopes might he placed, for the purpose of surveying the heavenly bodies, or the surrounding country. The four openings into this circular space might be about forty feet wide, or half the breath of the streets, which would afford the houses at each end of the four crescents a commanding view, not only of the interior of the circle, but of the whole street in' both directions. Instead of a circle, an octa- gon, if judged more convenient, might be adopted. Directly op- posite this central circle, on the north and south extremities of this town., are two squares, each of whose sides is about 170 ihet PLAN or A SMALL TOWN. Public Walk. 405 1 ^ l^^l ^^ 1 » ^^ » ^M l», » ..;;;: N J PLAN OF A STREET. .Garden trShnMery Hots . jBft gfA«k._ /arrcaxie, luati t^e, way $ m ^ ~± ""# y^///////////////////////^^^^^^ 406 ITINERATING LIBRARIES. long, and at the east and west extremities two crescents, about 360 feet diameter. Iif each of the squares, and in the middle part of the crescents, a church or other public building might be erected ; and the entrance to these squares, &;c. from the coun- try, might be by a broad arch-way under one of the buildings. The principal shops might be placed, and the principal business of the town transacted, in the squares, crescents, and central circle. The spaces between the backs of the houses in the different streets might be set apart either for gardens, washing-houses, or workshops for the different mechanical professions. These spaces should be from 120 to 150 feet wide. A walk should be made to go round the whole town, decorated with trees, shrubs, and bowers ; and on each side of the town should be a large common or bleaching green. The extent of such a town would be about a mile and a quarter in circumference, but might be indefinitely extended according to circumstances. Such a town would un- doubtedly be much more commodious, pleasant, and salubrious than most of the small towns and villages that now exist. VIII. Knoivledge might he diffused at a cheap rate by means of itinerating libraries. — Of late years small libraries have been established in most of our populous villages, and in connection with christian churches; but the want of sufficient funds prevents the purchase of such a variety of books, as is sufficient to keep alive the attention for any number of years. In the year 1817, the plan of itinerating libraries was suggested by Mr. Samuel Brown of Haddington, and, under his auspices, was commenced in East Lothian and the neighbouring districts. The object is, " to furnish all the towns and villages of the country with libraries of useful books, and to plant them at such distances that no in- dividual, may be more remote from one than a mile and a half." " The books are formed into divisions of fifty volumes each. One of these divisions is stationed in a place for two years, and the books are issued to all persons above twelve years of age who will take proper care of them. After that period it is removed to another town or village, and a new division is sent in its room, which after other two years is again exchanged for another." By this means a perpetual succession of new books is introduced into each town and village, the principle of novelty is gratified, and the interest of the readers kept alive. The books are kept for a few years for the use of annual subscribers of five shillings. They are afterwards formed into divisions of fifty volunies, and are lent the first year for one penny a volume, (provided it is not kept longer than one month) and gratis the second. One of the principal features of these libraries is their cheapness. A single ITINERATING LIBRARIES. 407 library of fifty volumes, with book-case, catalogue, labels, adver- tisements, and issuing books may be procured for about £10 at an average, as they are purchased on the most economical plan. Were a British and Foreign Itinerating Library Society establish- ed in London, that could raise £10,000 annually, it is calculated that, in conjunction with the small sums furnished by the readers, there could be established, in the course of twenty years, a library for every 524 persons in Great Britain and Ireland, taking the population at twenty millions ; and in twenty-five years, for every 294 persons, which would be a complete supply for the wants of the whole population. And what would such a sum be to the British Government, which is extravagant enough to waste twenty times that sum every year in bestowing pensions on those who neither deserve them nor stand in need of them 1 The great object of these libraries is to promote the interests of religion, in con- nection with the study of history, biography, voyages and travels, and all the popular and useful branches of science. They have been supported and patronized by the most respectable persons in the country, and have met with almost unprecedented success. They have been introduced into several other counties in Scotland and Ireland, and in some of the West India islands, and even in South Africa. The number of volumes connected with the East Lothian itinerating libraries now amounts to nearly thitee thou- sand. In some of the divisions every volume has been issued about 120 times, and many of them much oftener. Mr. Brown, who has directed and superintended these libraries for eighteen years, deserves the thanks of his country for his benevolent and unremitting exertions.* In several cities and towns in America, such as Philadelphia and Albany, libraries have been established for the use of apprentices, both male and female. The appren- tices' library in Philadelphia contains above 8000 volumes. Al- though well-selected libraries are of immense importance for the diffusion of knowledge, yet no person, who has it in his power to purchase a few good books occasionally, ought to confine his read- ing to the books of a public library ; but in conjunction with the use of such books, should endeavour to furnish himself with selections of some of the best standard books in the language, which he may study at leisure, and to which he may immediately * Mr. S. Brown is a son of the Rev. John Brown, of Haddington, well known as the author of the " Self-Interpreting Bible," ", Dictionary of the Bible," " System of Divinity," and many other works. His exertions, and the beneficial effects which have flowed from them, show how much even n individual engrossed in an extensive business has it in his power to per- form, when his aims are directed to promote the good of mankind. 408 INSCRIPTIONS ON FURNITURE, ETC. refer for any particular information of which he is desirous. Every general reader should, if possible, be furnished with an English Dictionary, a portable Encyclopedia, a summary of universal history, and some of the best systems of popular science. IX. Knowledge might be promoted hy delineations and inscrip- tions on various articles of furniture. We have, for example, many kinds of bowls, drinking vessels, &c. made of porcelain or earthen ware, on which many foolish inscriptions and devices are engraved. We have likewise car- pets, bed-curtains, handkerchiefs, &c. on which groups of fan- tastic figures, and various distorted representations of natural and artificial objects, are depicted, which serve no purpose but that of exhibiting a gaudy show. — Now, if, instead of such paltry de- vices, moral sentiments and maxims, pithy sayings, and sentences descriptive of certain historical and scientific facts, such as those formerly specified, (pp. 132 — 406.) were inscribed on the arti- cles to which I allude, useful nints might be communicated and rendered familiar wherever we turned our eyes, and might occa- sionally suggest topics for useful conversation. In like manner, were real objects in nature and art depicted on china-ware, drink- ing vessels, printed cotton handkerchiefs, window-curtains, car- pets, and similar articles, in place of the fantastical figures usu- ally delineated, which have no prototypes in nature, a considera- ble fund of information might in this way be imparted. For pictures, when true to nature and correctly delineated, convey useful knowledge as well as books, and sometimes in a more pleasant and rapid manner ; and there is no more difficulty in engraving real objects than in depicting the distorted and fantastic objects which are usually represented ; and in course of time, every ra- tional person would be induced to consider every thing as beauti- ful which is really useful* In following out these suggestions, we might have paper hangings and carpets diversified with maps of the world and of particular countries — bed and window cur- tains adorned with public buildings, landscapes, views of caverns, grottos, volcanic mountains, cataracts, steam-carriages, air-pumps, telescopes, foreign trees, shrubs, and animals — our plates, tea- cups and saucers decorated with miniature pictures of similar ob- jects, accompanied with wise sayings, immutable truths and short statements of important facts. In this way a fund of sententious wisdom, in connection with views of interesting scenery, might be introduced into every family ; which would tend to excite in- quiry, to lead to improving conversation, and to deter from the m pursuit of vicious and criminal courses. A king was said to ■ have been saved from being poisoned by his cup-bearer, by the IMPROVEMENT IN SOCIAL REGULATIONS. 409 followin«T motto engraved on the cup which contained the Ppison, " Newev begin any action of which thou hast not well considered the e«rf."— It is evident, that the above hints might be reduced to practice with as much ease and cheapness as silly and licentious inscriptions and clumsy castles in the air; and that almost every article of dress and furniture, every garden bower, and evej-y rural and architectural decoration, might in this way be rendered subservient to human knowledge and improvement ; provided so- ciety would give encouragement to such devices. But, hitherto, the foolish and depraved character of man has displayed itself in this as well as in almost every othel- department of his actions. X. The improvement of society requires that changes and alterations be made in many of our established laws, regulations, and customs. The laws and practices to which I allude are so numerous, that I shall mention only two or three as a specimen. 1. All taxes connected ivith the diffusion of knotvledge should be wholhj and for ever abolished. These include taxes on the materials and the manufacture of paper, which, besides directly adding to the price of this article, are found to be extremely vexatious to the manufacturer, and prevent him from getting his articles rapidly conveyed to the market— taxes on newspapers, engravings, pam- phlets, periodical works, and advertisements of books and other' articles of trade— and taxes, too, in the shape of entering books in " Stationers' Hall," depriving the author or publisher of thir- teen copies of his work, however valuable and expensive, which in certain cases will amount to the sum of £200 or £300. Were these and all other taxes connected with literature abolished, and an economical mode of printing adopted, books might be pur- chased at little more than one-half of their present price. In this connection, too, it may be stated, that the charges demanded for the insertion of advertisements of books in newspapers, magazines, and other periodicals, are extravagantly high, and add, in no inconsiderable degree, to the price of literature. In consequence of the tax on newspapers there are only 30 millions of them cir- culated in Great Britain and Ireland, which is but the one twenty- fifth part of the number circulated in the United States of Ame- rica, which contain little more than half the population of the British empire. In England there is only one newspaper to 46,000 inhabitants.— 2. The postage of letters should be greatly reduced. The conveyance of letters is scarcely a fair subject of taxation, if we wish to facilitate the interchange of sentiment and friendship among mankind. It tends to prevent the poor man from corre- spondTntT with his friends and relatives at a distance— to prevent 35 410 ABOLITION ^OF TAXES. communications being sent to periodicals — and to abridge the cor- respondence of men of literature and science, some of whom have very little money to spare. 1 have known persons of this descrip- tion taxed in this way, to the amount of three or four shillings, and even of half-a-guinea in one day, when such sums were imperatively required for procuring the necessaries of life. — It is likewise unfair, and absolutely unjust, that the inhabitants of vil- lages, who are generally poorer than those in towns, should pay more for letters and newspapers than others. While a person in a large town receives a daily newspaper from London gratis, the villager, only four miles farther distant, pays for the conveyance of the same paper, twenty-six shillings a year, besides paying an additional penny for all his letters.* The postage of letters should be so regulated that all may enjoy an equal benefit — that every facility may be afforded for transmitting them to foreign countries, whether belonging to the British dominions or not, — and the charge for letters and packages should be no more than what is sufficient to defray all the expenses of the Post-office establish- ment ; as is the case in the United States of America. Under certain regulations all proof sheets of any work sent to the author for corrections should be free of postage. In these and many other respects our Post-office regulations require a thorough investigation and amendment. "j" — 3. The names of ships and steam-vessels should be painted in large characters on the most conspicuous parts of these vehicles. If the names of ships are intended to distinguish them from each other, it appears prepos- terous and truly ridiculous, to have the name depicted on the lower part of the stern, which always stands in an oblique posi- tion, and which is seldom or never seen, when approaching an- other vessel or towards the shore. If the name of a vessel were painted in large characters on each side of the bow, it might be distinguished by a good telescope at the distance of four or five nviles, whereas it is sometimes difficult to read the name of a ves- sel on the stern at the distance of a few yards. As it is interest- ing in many cases, not only to the owners of ships, but to those who have friends and relatives on board, to be able^o distinguish any particular vessel, when it first makes its appearance, the hint now given cannot be deemed altogether unimportant. — 4. The practice of paying waiters, chambermaids, boot-boys, and ostlers * Here I allude to the Penny posts lately established in most of our villages. t In America the postage for 30 miles is 6 cents, equal to 3d. English ; 80 miles, 10 cents; 120 miles, 12i cents; 400 miles, 18 cents, &c. TRACTICES WHICH SHOULD BE DISCARDED. 411 at inns, servant-maids, &c. at private houses, and guards and postilions in stage-coaches, should be universally discarded — as creating unnecessary trouble and expense to travellers, and fos- tering a spirit of meanness, impudence, and avarice, in the per- sons occupying such situations. It would be conducive both to the moral and pecuniary interests of all parties concerned, Mere such customs abolished. Mr. Stuart informs us, that no such custom prevails in the Northern States of America, and that it would be convsidered in almost every instance as an insult, to offer such persons a gratuity for performing their duty. This absurd and degrading practice has been handed down to us by the aris- tocracy, the servants of whom are always on the watch for gra- tuities from strangers and visitors. A literary gentleman, Dr. , who had frequently been invited to dine with Lord , was one day accosted by his lordship, and asked why he had not for a long time past complied with his invitation to dinner] " Why," replied the doctor, " because I cannot afford it; I can dine at my own apartments for less than two shillings, but when I dine with your lordship it costs me at least ^ve shillings — every one of your servants, at my departure, holding out his hand, and expecting a half-crown or a shilling at least to be given him." — 5. Another abominable custom which prevails at public meetings, and which should be discarded, is, hissing and groaning at cer- tain speakers, or at the sentiments they express. A hiss or a groan may display the malignity of those who utter it, and their antipathy to the opinions expressed, but it never embodies a rea- son or an argument to confute the speaker, or convince the audi- ence of the futility of his sentiments. ■ In all deliberative assem- blies, every speaker who conducts himself with decorum should be listened to without interruption, and facts and argvments brought forward to confute his positions, if they be untenable. To attempt to put down a speaker by hisses or groans is incon- sistent with the dignity of an assembly of rational beings — is cha- racteristic of a rabble, or a company of boors, ratl^cr than an assemblage of men of intelligence — and generally indicates the 2veakness of the cavse which such conduct is intended to support. — 6. Our civil and criminal codes require to he simplijled and re-modelled, and formed on the principles of equity and natural justice. Many of their enactments are repugnant to reason and religion, and inconsistent with the dictates of philanthropy and common sense, and with the spirit of an enlightened age. The expense of law processes, as presently conducted, amounts to a prohibition of a poor man's obtaining justice in any case where he has suffered an injury; and the multiplicity of statutes and 412 INTERCOURSE OF NATIONS. precedents, the vagueness of their language, and the unintelligible jargon of terms and phrases connected with them, frequently lead to almost interminable litigations, till the whole value of the sub- ject in dispute is more than expended, and the litigants reduced to poverty. Our civil code requires to be cancelled, and recon- structed, de novo, on principles similar to the " Code Napoleon" — and our penal statutes require to bo remodelled in such a man- ner, that punishments may be proportioned to crimes, and that they be of such a nature as to promote the reformation of the criminal. The above are merely specimens of customs, laws, and usages, which require to be either modified or abolished, in order to pro- mote the advancement of society. XI. The diffusion of knowledge, and the improvement of man- kind, are, in some measure, dependent on a friendly intercourse being established among all civilized nations. Hitherto, nations, even those that are adjacent to each other, have acted towards other nations with a. spirit of selfishness and jealousy, as if they were beings of a different species, and had no common relation as brethren, or as children of the same Benevo- lent and Almighty Parent. Harassing restrictions, duties, excise regulations, and every other impediment, are thrown in the way of travellers, when passing from one country to another, as if the interests of one class of human beings were set in opposition to those of another. When a traveller passes from England to France he must pay for a passport, and should he happen to lose it he is treated as a rogue or a spy. When he passes from Hol- land to Britain, and carries an old Dutch Bible along with him, before he can convey it from the shore he must pay a duty to the amount of far more than its value. When he is about to embark at Liverpool for America, his trunks and packages are searched, duties demanded, and a host of petty tyrants under the excise vex and harass him in all his arrangements ; when he lands on the other side of the Atlantic, he is subjected to a similar ordeal ; and when he returns to England with a few volumes of American literature, his luggage is again subjected to a strict scrutiny, and he must pay a shilling for every pound weight of knowledge he has imported.* Besides the spirit of warfare, which has so fre- ^ The following instance, among many others, shows the harassing nature of custom-house restrictions : — A. Davidson, A. M., a celebrated lecturer on experimental philosophy and chemistry, after having returned from Ire- land to Liverpool, had his packages, containing an extensive apparatus, thrown into the custom-house, which were not permitted to be removed till they should be minutely inspected. Tliey consisted chiefly of glass cylin- INSTRUCTION? OF SEAMEN, 413 quently interrupted the correspondence of nations, — such harass- ing and vexatious restrictions have a tendency to foster a princi- ple of antipathy, and to impede the progress of knowledge. They are founded on a principle of selfishness and malignity, and, like all such principles, they frustrate even the pecuniary object they were intended to promote ; for, in point of fact, so lar from in- creasing the wealth of a nation, they tend in many ways to dimin- ish its resources. Were all such restrictions and exactions abol- ished, philanthropic travellers might make a tour through the nations without being annoyed — the manufactures and natural productions of every country could be afforded at a much cheaper rate than at present — and the hundred thousands of pounds and dollars annually expended in keeping up a numerous retinue of excise ofiicers and underlings, would be saved for the purposes of national improvement. The most enlightened political economists now agree that Free Trade should be universally encouraged, and that extraordinary restrictions upon the importation of goods are injurious to the wealth and prosperity of nations. Xlf. The improvement of society requires that particular atten- tion be paid to the intellectual and religious instruction of seamen. The British navy includes about 30,000 men ; the British mer- chant service about 220,000, of whom about 100,000 are en- gaged in the coasting trade, and 120,000 in the foreign trade. The coast-guard service includes 21,000 individuals; and there are of fishermen, watermen, and boatmen, probably not less than 50,000 persons, beside their families, amounting in all to above ders, globes, receivers, &c. of all descriptions, which required several days and much exertion to get packed ; and they could not be unpacked, in such a situation, without considerable expense and great loss of time, and the risk of having a great part of the ajjparatus broken and destroyed. He of- fered to unpack them in the presence of excise officers, in the apartments he had procured for the purpose ; but this was refused. He called day after day at the custom-house about the matter, but to no purpose. One under- Hng gave him a sealed card, containing about two lines of writing, to carry to another underling, for which he charged half-a-crown ; this last gave him a similar card to a third person, for which the same charge was made ; this third person gave another half-cvoivii card, to be handed to a fourth person, who could give him the requisite information, but this fourth person could never be found ; and thus he was bandied about from one harpy to another, and filched out of four or five half-crowns. In this way, three weeks were wasted to no purpose, till by accident he met with a gentleman connected with the custom-house, with whom he was formerly acquainted, who got his packages released, after he had been subjected to much trouble, expense, and anxiety, and lost nearly a month, during which his lectures might have been nearly finished. Regulations which lead to such impositions and per- plexities, require to be speedily abolished. 35* 414 INSTRUCTION OP SEAMEN. 320,000 individuals, exclusive of their wives and children. An immense number of this class of men is likewise connected with the United States of America, but I have no data on which to form an estimate of their amount. A great proportion of these persons have been brought up in debasing ignorance, both of general knowledge and of the truths of religion, and they are too frequently addicted to habits of profaneness and intemperance. They form, however, a most important and interesting class of our fellow-men — they are frequently distinguished for heroism, humanity, and a noble generosity ; and, were they generally in- structed in useful knowledge and Christian morals, they might be rendered useful agents in promoting the good of mankind both at home and abroad. The '' British and Foreign Sailors' Society" was formed sometime ago, " for promoting the moral and religious improvement of seamen." Of this society, Lord Mountsandford is president ; Alderman Pirie, and G. F. Angas Esq., treasurers ; the Rev. Dr. Cox, and the Rev. T. Timpson, secretaries — gentle- men distinguished for their activity in every department of phi- lanthropic labour. The principal scene of their labour is the port of London, where the gospel is preached, and prayer meet- ings held on board ships, every evening, by agents of the society, who distribute Bibles, religious books and tracts, and enter into conversation with the seamen on moral and religious subjects. They have already spent upwards of £2000 in fitting up a chapel and other buildings, and have provided 140 " Loan Ship Libra- ries," comprising 4000 volumes, now abroad in many vessels ; and 50 small libraries for the fishing smacks sailing from the Thames ; besides the " Vestry Library," which contains upwards of 3000 volumes, daily open to sailors in the depot of the chapel ; — but the want of adequate funds prevents them from enlarging the sphere of their operations. To complete such benevolent ar- rangements, it would be requisite, could funds be procured, to establish schools on a moral and intellectual principle, some of them adapted to the children of sailors, and others for the rational instruction of adults. Lectures on popular Science, accompanied with experiments, might likewise be occasionally delivered ; and the religious books contained in the libraries blended with popular and interesting publications on geography, astronomy, history, voyages, travels, and other departments of knowledge. Were sailors well instructed and moralized, they might improve their own minds by reading and conversation, during long voyages, and feel a superior degree of enjoyment to what they now experience ; they might be the means of promoting both know- ledge and religion in foreign lands — they might soon be accus- COUNTERACTION OF AVARICE. 415 tomed to contemplate with intelligence the various scenes of na- ture which pass under their observation, and record them for the information of others — and thus become contributors to science, and benefactors to their species, instead of " increasing," as they often do, " the transgressors among men." XIII. In order to carry into effect the hints suggested in the preceding pages, societies might be formed for the promotion of education, and the general improvement of the social state. From the operations of Bible and Missionary Associations, it is evident how much may be achieved by the formation of socie- ties for the accomplishment of a specific object. The societies to which I allude, including the Church Missionary, Scottish, Lon- don, Wesleyan, and several others, now raise nearly £300,000 annually. The general object I would propose to accomplish by a new association, is as important as any other which has yet engaged the public attention ; for it lies at the foundation of all other philanthropic plans, and they can never be brought into extensive operation till it be accomplished. If all ranks were thoroughly instructed in knowledge and religion, and, conse- quently, led to appreciate the importance of Christianity, and the necessity of its universal propagation, the funds of our mission- ary institutions, and the energies with which they would be con- ducted, would be increased tenfold more than they now are, and few individuals would be found altogether indifferent to such no- ble enterprises. Such an association might be instrumental in calling the attention of the public to the subject — in diffusing in- formation respecting it — in detailing plans for accomplishing the grand object intended — in illustrating the noble and beneficial ef- fects which would flow from its accomplishment — and in exciting the more wealthy members of the community to contribute a portion of their substance for carrying forward the requisite ar- rangements. By such a society, with all the auxiliaries that might be formed throughout a nation, it would scarcely be too much to expect that a million of pounds might annually be pro- cured, which would render society nearly independent of the caprices and partialities of civil rulers, or of the grants of money which governments might either withhold or bestow. XIV. Before any plan for the improvement of mankind can be brought extensively into effect, the principle of avarice, as it now operates in society, must be counteracted and subdued. The great object of the majority of mankind appears to be, to acquire as much wealth as possible, not for the purpose of "Apply- ing it to the service of God and the good of society, but to gratify a selfish principle and an avaricious propensity — to make a 416 COUNTERACTION OF AVARICE. splendid figure in life, to lay up portions for children, or merely to glory in the idea of having hundreds or thousands of guineas or bank-notes deposited in a chest, in the stocks, or other place of security. Every one seems to think that he may use his money just as he pleases, without being responsible to a higher Power; and even many of those who call themselves Christians, are glaringly guilty of that ^' covetousness which is idolatry," although they are pointedly admonished that "the love of money is the root of all evil," and, consequently, the prevention of much good ; and that " it leads into many snares and temptations, and foolish and hurtful lusts, which drown men in destruction and perdition." Nothing can be more irrational and degrading than for an immortal being to hoard up treasures which he never ap- plies to any useful purpose, and who only feasts his imagination with the idea that he has them, to a certain amount, in his posses- sion. Yet thousands of such characters exist even in the Christian world. What should we think of the man who took it into his head to lay up, in a large shed or garret, which was carefully locked up from public fiew, 5000 pair of boots, 10,000 tea-cups, 20,000 coffee-pots, or 30,000 cork-screws, with no other view than to please his fancy, and to tell the world that he had such a number of articles in his possession? We should, doubtless, con- sider him as an arrant fool, or even as a downright madman. And what is the- difference between hoarding thousands of guineas, dollars, or bank-notes, which are never brought forth for the benefit of mankind, and accumulating fifty or a hundred thousand pair of boots, spurs, or knee-buckles ? How ridiculous would it appear if all that could be said of a man when he died was, that the great object of his life was to lay up in store 25,000 tea- kettles, which were never intended for cooking, and .30,000 great- coats, which were never intended to be worn ? Equally foolish and contemptible is it, to lay up thousands of pounds or dollars that are never consecrated to the glory of God or the good of man. I know individuals who are worth £1000 a year, and whose annual expenditure does not amount to above £l50; and I know others who are worth ten times that sum, who do not . spend above two or three hundreds a year ; — yet it is sometimes difficult to obtain from them a guinea, or even a few shillings, for a religious or philanthropic object ; and, were you to call in ques- tion their Christianity, it would be considered as little short of an insult.* ' * The late distinguished philanthropist, J. B. Wilson, Esq. of Clapham Common, was once heard to say of one who had been looked up to as a good man and Christian, " He died wickedly rich," — evidently implying, that he thought such a man's Christianity was extremely doubtful. RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. 417 It becomes Christian churches and ministers seriously to con- sider this subject, if they wish to see the principles of pure Chris- tianity reduced to practice, and worldly maxims undermined, and if they would be instrumental in preparing the way for the uni- versal propagation of the gospel, and the arrival of the predicted Millennium. Were it not for the prevalence of the debasing prin- ciple of avarice, we should, ere long, have seminaries of all de- scriptions established among us, for training both the young and the old in knowledge and virtue, and " to glory and immortality" — we should have our towns and cities cleared of every nuisance — our roads and footpaths improved — our deserts turned into fruitful fields — new towns and villages erected on spacious plans — intelligence speedily and cheaply conveyed — the physical aspect of the country beautified and adorned — and the whole frame of society transformed and remodelled, in conformity with the prin- ciples of reason and religion. Were I to enter into minute cal- culations on this subject, it might easily be shown, that the wealth presently possessed by civilized nations, were it properly distrib- uted and applied, would be more than sufficient to introduce every improvement in society, physical, moral, and intellectual, of which the terrestrial state of man is susceptible — to raise the degraded mass of this world's population to intelligence and virtue — to bring into a state of cultivation almost every waste on the face of the globe — to intersect every country with canals and rail-roads — and to transform the whole earth into a paradise, scarcely inferior in beauty to that which appeared at the first creation. And those who expended their superfluous wealth in such noble achieve- ments, so far from having any of their sensitive enjoyments dimin- ished, would enjoy a happiness, both physical and mental, far surpassing any thing which they formerly experienced. Recapitulation and Conclusion. In the preceding pages I have endeavoured to illustrate a vari- ety of topics in reference to the education and general improve- ment of all classes of society — particularly the physical, moral, and intellectual instruction of infants — the advant^^ges which would result from the universal establishment of iiiVant schools the seminaries which require to be erected for the instruction of youth from the age of six to the age of fifteen years — the plan and ar- rangement of school-rooms, and the objects and apparatus with which they should be furnished — the principles on which school- books should be constructed — the modes of teaching, by which substantial knowledge and moral principle may be communi- cated — the branches of knowledge which should be taught to all 418 RECAPITULATION AND CONCLUSION. classes of the community — the rational and intellectual processes by which a knowledge of them is to be conveyed — the moral and religious instruction of the .young — the manner in which Sabbath schools should be conducted, and the qualifications requisite for every teacher in such institutions — the seminaries which require to be established for young persons of both sexes from the age of fifteen to the age of twenty years or upwards — the qualifications requisite for teachers of all descriptions, and the seminaries which ought to be established for their instruction — the practicabilify of establishing all such institutions — the utility of such improve- ments in education, in counteracting crime, raising the moral and intellectual character of man, and preparing the way for the ap- proach of the millennial era — the principles on which national systems of education should be established — mechanics' institu- tions, and the improvements of which they are susceptible — with a variety of miscellaneous hints in reference to the diffusion of knowledge and the improvement of general society. Were such institutions once established throughout every part of our country and of the world at large, thoroughly imbued with the spirit of Christianity, and conducted with activity and zeal — there can be little doubt that they would, ere long, be ac- companied with the most interesting and beneficial results. We should soon behold ignorance, foolish prejudices, superstition, en- thusiasm, bigotry, and intolerance, with all their accompanying evils, gradually evanishing from the world, as the shades of night before the rising sun. We should behold the human mind aroused from the slumber of ages, exerting its energies on objects worthy of its high dignity and destination, and conducive to the improve- ment and the happiness of the social state. We should behold science enlarging its boundaries, the useful and ornamental arts carried to perfection, and the universe more fully explored through- out all its departments. For we should then have a thousand experimenters, and a thousand intelligent observers of the phe- nomena of nature, for one that exists in the present state of in- tellectual debasement. New and interesting experiments would be instituted, new facts explored, new regions of the universe laid open to view, and a nobleness, a vigour, and a lofty spirit of in- dependence, on every subject of thought, displayed by the human mind. We should behold avarice, pride, ambition, revenge, and other malignant passions, in a great measure extirpated ; and a spirit of love, affection, liberality, and harmony, pervading every department of the moral world. We should behold the Christian world approaching to a harmonious union — the spirit of jealousy and dissension laid to rest — the demon of persecution chased out PROSPECTS OF FUTURE AGES. 419 of the world — the truths of religion and its holy principles recog- nised in every department and arrangement in society — the great realities of the eternal world contemplated in their true light, and men of all ranks walking hand-in-hand, as brethen of the same family, to the same glorious and incorruptible inheritance. In the progress of such institutions— when they shall have been brought into full operation — I behold, in the prospect of future ages, the most important transformations, and the most glorious results, in the improvement both of the intellectual and of the physical world. I behold the surface of the earth, at no distant period, adorned with vegetable and architectural beauties and em- bellishments — our deserts transformed into fruitful fields — our marshes drained — our moors and heath-clad mountains adorned with fruitful trees — our gardens producing the fruits of every clime — our highways broad and spacious, accompanied with cleanly footpaths, and at the distance of every half-mile furnished with seats and bowers for the shelter and refreshment of the passing traveller, and every bower furnished with Penny Maga- zines and other works for the instruction and amusement of every one who has leisure to peruse them — our abominable lanes and- closes, the seats of physical and moral pollution, completely de- molished and laid open to the light of heaven — our narrow streets expanding ihto spacious squares, cheered with the solar beams, and with rural prospects, and ventilated with the refreshing breeze — our densely crowded cities almost completely demolished, and new cities arising from their ruins, on noble and expansive plans, corresponding to the expansive state of the human mind. 1 behold the climates of the earth meliorated by the hand of genius and industry — by the cutting down of forests, the draining of marshes, the improvement of sandy and rocky wastes, and the universal cultivation of the soil — the thunderbolts of heaven, wielded by the philosophic sage, and the forked lightnings, di- rected by the hand of art, to play in harmless coruscations in the regions of the clouds. — I behold locomotive engines, steam car- riages, and air balloons, brought to perfection, transporting mul- titudes of human beings from one city to another, from one nation to another, and from one continent to another, with a degree of velocity which has never yet been attempted. — I behold the sa- vage restored to.the dignity of his moral and intellectual nature, no longer roaming the desert wild and uncultivated like the beasts of prey, throwing aside his warlike bows and his battle-axes, direct- ing his faculties to the improvement of his species, and to the most sublime investigations. — I behold men of all nations and kindreds cultivating a harmonious and friendly intercourse ; — the 420 FUTURE PROSPECT. tribes of New Holland, Borneo, Sumatra, and Madagascar, visit- ing the British Isles with the productions of their respective cli- mates, and holding literary and religious correspondence with the directors of our philosophical and missionary associations, on all the subjects of Christian and scientific investigation. I behold the scenery of the heavens more fully explored, and new prospects opened into the distant regions of the universe — the geography of the moon "brought to perfection, its mountains and vales thoroughly explored, and traces of the existence and operations of its inhabitants exhibited to view — the nature of comets ascertained — the causes of the various phenomena which appear on the planets explained — the construction of the sun and the nature of his spots determined — the sublime scenes connected with the new and variable stars, double and treble stars, and the many thousands of nebulcB dispersed through the regions of boundless space, more fully displayed — and the Divine character and perfections appearing with still greater lustre and magnifi- cence throughout the amplitudes of creation. I behold the ministers of religion expatiating, amidst thousands of intelligent worshippers, on higher themes and more diversified topics than those to which they are now necessarily restric*' ^ — not confining their attention merely to first principles, and iH a few fragments of the Christian system, but taking the whole of Divine Revelation as their text-book, and deriving their illustra- tions of it from the records of Providence, and from all the diver- sified scenes of the universe. — In fine, I behold the human soul, thus elevated and refined, and endowed with multifarious know- ledge, dropping its earthly tabernacle in the dust, and, in another and a higher region of existence, contemplating the economy of other worlds, exploring the wonders of Divine Wisdom and Om- nipotence throughout the immensity of creation, prying into the mysteries of human redemption, rising nearer and nearer to the Divinity, expatiating amidst objects of beauty and beneficence, and beholding new scenes of grandeur and felicity rising to view, in boundless perspective, while ages, numerous as the drops of the ocean, are rolling on. Let none imagine that such views are either romantic or Uto- pian — they are the necessary results of what will undoubtedly take place, when knowledge and Christian principles are univer- sally diffused. It is owing chiefly to ignorance and the preva- lence of malignant principles, that science has been so slow in its progress, that contention and warfare have wasted and demo- ralized the nations, that the earth has been left barren and un- cultivated, that savages have been permitted for ages to roam S;^ FUTURE PROSPECT. 421 without arts and instruction, that religion has been neglected, and that so many evils, physical and moral, have been introduced into the social state. Remove the cause of existing evils, and opposite effects will be produced — effects surpassing, in benignity and grandeur, every thing which has occurred since time began. In the present age, distinguished from all the periods of time which have hitherto elapsed, these effects are beginning to ap- pear. All the movements now going forward in the moral, po- litical, scientific, and religious world, have an evident bearing on the approach of a more auspicious and enlightened era. The rapid progress of scientific discoveries, and of improvements in the arts — the numerous and cheap publications, on all subjects of useful knowledge, now issuing from the press, in hundreds of thousands at a time, and read by all classes of the community — the erection of public seminaries on new and improved plans, throughout different countries both of Europe and America — the establishment of philosophical institutions, missionary associa- tions, and reading societies, in every town, and almost in every parish — the extensive circulation of newspapers, magazines, and lit'^rary and religious journals, of all descriptions — the steam-boats - carriages which have been constructed, and the numerous canals and rail-roads which have been formed, for the speedy conveyance of passengers from one place to another, in order to facilitate the intercourse of human beings — the application of machinery to the different arts and manufactures, ff^v )n^j^„,^]j^^ the productions of human labour — the desire excited among an ranks, even the lowest, for rational information, and for inves- tigating every subject connected with the happiness of the social state — the abolition of slavery ^ with all its degrading accompani- ments — the reformations going forward both in Church and State — the spirit of liberty bursting forth among the nations in both hemispheres of the globe — the conversion of savage tribes to Christianity, and their advancement in knowledge and civiliza- tion, — these, and many similar movements, viewed in connection with the Divine declarations, that " Wars shall cease to the ends of the world," and that " the earth shall he filled with the know- ledge of Jehovah'''' — plainly point to a period which is on the wing, when the light of truth shall irradiate the inhabitants of every region, and when improvements of every description shall be introduced into every department of the physical and moral world. It only remains, that, as agents under the Moral Gover- nor of the world, we arouse ourselves from our present lethargy, and devote all our powers, and wealth, and energies, to the accomplishment of such glorious designs, resting assured, that 36 422 PRELUDES OF THE MILLENNIAL ERAS. " our labour," if conducted with wisdom and perseverance, "shall not be in vain in the Lord." In fine, if the world is ever to be enlightened and regenerated — if the predictions of ancient prophets are to be fulfilled — if the be- nevolent purposes of the Almighty, in relation to our world, are to be accomplished — if war is to cease its desolating ravages, and its instruments to be transformed into ploughshares and pruning- hooks — if selfishness, avarice, injustice, oppression, slavery, and revenge, are to be extirpated from the earth — if the tribes of man- kind are to be united in the bonds of affection, and righteousness, and praise spring forth before all nations — if the various ranks of society are to be brought into harmonious association, and united in the bond of universal love — if the heathen world is to be en- lightened, and the Christian world cemented in one grand and harmonious union — if the landscape of the earth is to be adorned with new beauties, and the wilderness made to bud and blossom as the rose — if " the kingdoms of this world are to become the kingdoms of our Lord and his Messiah," " the whole earth filled with his glory," and his sceptre swayed over the nations through- out all succeeding ages — these long-expected events will, undoubt- edly, be introduced by the universal instruction of all ranks, in every thing that has a bearing on their present happiness, and their immortal destiny. If we, therefore, refuse to lend our help- ing hand to the accomplishment of this great object, we virtually attfilPnt to frustrate the purposes of the Eternal, and to prevent cne present and future happiness of mankind. And while we pray to the " Great Lord of all," that he would " appear in his glory to men," and hasten the time when '^ his name shall be great from the rising to the setting sun," we only offer an insult to the Majesty of Heaven, while we refuse to consecrate our wealth and influence to his service, and to engage in holy activity as " work- ers together with God." We may legislate as we have hitherto done, for ages to come — we may make, unmake, and modify our civil laws, enforce hundreds of regulations and enactments for the punishment and prevention of crime — we may build thousands of churches and colleges, and academies without number — we may engage in profound discussions and investigations, and compass sea and land to make proselytes to our opinions ; but unless the foundations of society be laid in the rational and religious educa- tion of all classes of the young, our most specious plans will prove abortive, and our superstructures gradually crumble into dust, and, " like the baseless fabric of a vision, leave scarce a wreck behind." APPENDIX. Page. — Insanity from Excessive Study, The following instance of the effects of excessive study, and the danger of neglecting the animal functions, is extracted from the " American Annals of Education" for September, 1833. Mr. Joseph Frothingham, from Salem, State of Massachusets, was a stu dent of the Oneida Institute. In April, 1833, he was suddenly missed, and strong suspicions were entertained of his having been murdered. Nothing was heard of him, however, until a letter was recently received by his pi- rents, dated "Atlantic Ocean, 12th May, 1833, — 500 miles east "of Nevf- foundland Banks." The following extract from his letter will show to what account his abduction is to be charged : — " "While at the Institute, having nothing else to do, and wishing to get ahead, I applied myself very closely to study, (particularly the Latin grammar,) leaving oif only when absolute- ly necessary. You recollect I arrived during vacation, before the regular course of labour had commenced, and thinking I should have plenty of it in a few days, contented myself with taking very little exercise. The effects of this close application from sunrise till nine in the evening I soon per- ceived, and several times was sensible that my thoughts for a moment or two were rather wandering. Yet I did not feel at all anxious or discour- aged, reasoning with myself, that so sudden a change of pursuit must ne- cessarily cause me at first to feel rather unwell, and that after a few days my mind would recover its wonted tone. After the 5th or 6th of April, the little momentary aberrations became more frequent, and how I spent much of the time intervening between that date and the 8th, I am wholly unable to say. Some things which I did I recollect distinctly, and others only a? we recall the vagaries of a dream. But after the 8th, every thing is wrapt in confusion, — ' shadows, clouds, and darkness rest upon it.' I have a vague dim recollection of feehng something as if standing near a mountain, when a volcano bursts from the side. To escape the fiery deluge I travelled by sea and land, but ouAvard it still seemed to move, and ever to rear itself a wall of living fire. One only thing I can recollect clearly. Finding my- self in a strange street, near a large stone building, I inquired of a soldier the name of the place, and he answered, ' Montreal.' For a moment I wondered what could have brought me there, but then came confusion over my mind again, and not mi idea or incident can I recollect, until yesterday, about 10 a. m. when I found myself in the steerage of a ship bound from Quebec to Liverpool. I immediately communicated every thing to my fel- low-passengers, (a young man and wife,) and from them learned the follow- ing particulars." It appears that he met them accidentally, and embarked with them after making most of the necessary preparations ; and, after passing through va- rious difticulties in his way down the river, reached the ship. In conse- quence of the small sum of money which Mr. F. had, he was consigned to the steerage, but kindly supplied with necessaries by the captain. It was not until a week's confinement with sea-sickness (which perhaps was the very remedy which a kind Providence saw necessary) that he recovered his 424 APPENDIX. recollection ; and then, he observes, his " mind, in an instant, was as clear and as rational as ever." The conclusion of his own letter will be more interesting than any abridgment. " The captain remarked, that he had sometimes suspected me to be a little deranged, and my fellow-passengers thought my appearance very odd at Quebec ; but as I was frequently en- gaged, while on board, in reading their books, they concluded it was owing to * absence of mind, and a naturally eccentric character.' They could hard- ly believe me, when I first made known to them my utter ignorance of every transaction since the time I met with them on the St. Lawrence. They told me I had been uniformly courteous and cheerful ; and that, when we Kvalked from the shore to a house during the storm, I carried her in my arms about half the way, she being too cold and wearied to walk. They were v/ell wrapped up in blankets, but I had nothing but my cloak, and got two of my fingers frozen. You can better conceive than I can express, how strangely I felt when reason first told me I was in the cabin of a vessel ; , and when I knew, from the pitching and tossing, that that vessel was on the ocean. I am in hopes of meeting with some vessel bound homeward ; and, if I cannot return in her, to send this letter. If we speak no vessel in which I can return, I shall probably take passage immediately after arriv- ing in Liverpool. Till then, I leave all other incidents connected with this almost incredible loss of reason. I do not doubt that study was the cause, and thus are all my hopes of going through college blasted — for I should not dare to make a second attempt. But I think nothing of that. / nm lost in -vonder that such a journey should have been performed in safety in such a singular absence of mind; and to think too that I even went through all, without ever losing my money, is most strange. My preserva- tion appears indeed miraculous — but I know not what to say. How thank- ful should I be to the Great Being who has guided and directed my wander- ings — thankful ! 'tis too tame a word. Words cannot express my feelings, --•Mind I leave all, for the contemplation almost overwhelms me." to I Mr. Frothingham has since returned, and confirms the whole account, to ' Would that his well-meant but mistaken zeal in study (says the editor) fj,Q]Tiight be the means of saving many now in danger from a result not less n| .'atal to future plans, and of preserving others from that partial mania — that . predominance of the body over mind, which we believe gives rise to not a ^'^"few of the follies, and errors, and faults, of sedentary men. We will only crs add, as an example of a result more deadly, from a similar imprudence, that do one of the most diligent and promising students of an institution, returned Q] to his room after a long tour on foot, in perfect health, and, as he imagined, ^. with a stock laid up on which he might draw. He sat down closely to study. The blood thus accumulated, which rushed to Mr. Frothingham's brain, in this case burst forth in a profuse discharge from the lungs ; and, after years spent in struggling, by the aid of a fine constitution, against the diseases and the elFects of study, he fell in the midst of the brightest prospects of usefulness, a victim to his hasty efforts to be a scholar. Would not a thorough knowledge of physiology preserve both sexes from incalculable evil 1" The very singular case of Mr. Frothingham, described above, suggests, both to the philosopher and the divine, a variety of interesting reflections in reference to the action of mind on the corporeal functions, and to the good- ness and care of a superintending Providence. He must have travelled more than two hundred miles by land and water, before he found himself APPENDIX. 425 in Montreal ; and, as he could not be supposed to have taken the nearest road to that city, perhaps he may have travelled more than double that dis- tance, and crossed several lakes and rivers which abound in the territory through which he passed. He must have inquired for lodgings, paid for victuals, found out the different ferries where he behoved to cross, and all without being conscious where he was, or what was his object. With re- gard to the effect of study on the functions of the body and mind, I have every reason to believe, that those studies which are most abstruse, such as the ancient languages, metaphysics, and the higher branches of pure ma- thematics, when closely pursued, have the greatest tendency to injure the organic functions, and the mental powers ; while natural and civil history, geography, astronomy, and the other physical sciences, being conversant about sensible objects, will seldom produce such effects, when prosecuted with judgment and moderation ; so that those studies which are in reality most useful, will be found in few instances injurious either to the animal or mental powers. Mr. Frothingham was deeply absorbed in the study of Latin grammar when his mental aberration was induced. Were he to re- frain from such abstract studies, and apply himself with moderation to the more interesting departments of natural science, I should have no fear of the return of his former insanity. THE END. L6D 78