.>s" ^•^ O • A o .0 •^-0^ ^ <^ *^^\ ^o ^' o V A * ^ o , ^ «« -^-\<^ ■<>. ^/W: qV ^^,^ -?- .% ^.^ A^ v,^'' /i<^S€4\ / ^'\ ^4^'- , • • * \ »^ -^^.^^ .'^\M/A-o -0>.. 1630- 16 32 Battle of Liitzen 1632 Murder of Wallenstein 1634 Ferdinand III 1637-1657 Peace of Westphalia 1648 Leopold I 1658-1705 Treaty of Welau ■ 1657 Battle of Fehrbellin 1675 Peace of Nimwegen 1679 Strassburg seized by Lewis XIV 1681 The Turks besiege Vienna 1683 Peace of Ryswick J 697 Frederick I., King of Prussia 1701-1713 The War of the Spanish Succession .... 1701-1714 Battle of Blenheim 1 704 Joseph 1 1705-1711 Charles VI 1711-1740 Peace of Rastatt 17 14 Peace of Baden 1714 CHRONOLOGICAL TABJ.E, xiil A.D. Frederick William L of Prussia 17 14- 1740 Maria Theresa , 1740- 1780 Frederick II. of Prussia 1740-1786 The First Silesian War 1740- 1742 Charles VII 1742-1745 The Second Silesian War 1744- 1745 Francis 1 1745-1765 The Seven Years' War. 17 56- 1763 Treaty of Hubertusburg 1763 Joseph I L • . . . 1765-1790 The First Partition of Poland 1773 League formed by Frederick I L 1785 Frederick William I L of Prussia ..... 17 86- 1797 Leopold II 1790-1792 First War of the Revolution ....... 1792 Francis II 1792-1806 The Second Partition of Polaud 1793 The Third Partition of Poland 1795 Peace of Basel 1795 Peace of Campo Formio 1797 Frederick William III, of Prussia 1797-1840 Congress. at Rastatt 1798 War with France 1799 Battle of Hohenlinden . 1800 Peace of Luneville 1801 Buonaparte seizes Hanover 1803 Battle of AusterLitz 1 805 Peace of Pressburg . . . 1805 The Confederation of the Rhine 1806 Francis II. resigns the Imperial Crov/n . . . 1806 Battle of Jena 1806 Peace of Tilsit . • 1807 Battle of Wagram 1809 XIV CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, Peace of Schonbrunn .- . . . Prussia and Russia declare war against France Austria and Sweden join the Allies Battle of the Katzbach Battle of Leipzig First Peace of Paris . • . The Congress of Vienna Battle of Waterloo Second Peace of Paris The German Confederation A Customs Union proposed ....... Death of Francis I. of Austria Ferdinand I. of Austria 1^35- Frederick William IV. of Prussia 1840- Popular risings in Vienna and Berlin . . ' . . The National Assembly in Frankfurt .... War with Denmark 1848- The Imperial title offered to Frederick William IV. Constitutional government set up in Prussia The Frankfurt Diet restored ....... William I. of Prussia ...... v . . War with Denmark . Alliance between Prussia and Italy Battle of Koniggratz Peace of Prague The North Cerman Confederation Customs Parliament meets in Berlin .... France declares war against Prussia .... Battle of Sedan Surrender of Metz William I. of Prussia declared Emperor in Germany Surrender of Paris Peace of Frankfurt •••••••••• HISTORY OF GERMANY. CHAPTER L ANCIENT GERMANY. G('Ogj'ap/iical character of Germany ( i ) — centf-al position ; relations of the Gerjjians to their neighbours (2) — the words *' Deutsch " or ^''DuCch^^'' and ^* German^^ (3) — High and Low Dutch (4)— the country in the time of Tacitus (5) — ancient German Tribes (.6) — the Jngaezvnes, Istaevones^ and Hermiftones ('j)^-char- acter of the people (8) — Nobles, Freemen, Slaves, and Liti (9) — the Wergeld (10) — Marriage ; position of the wife; authority of the father; uncles; quarrels of free77ten adopted by relatives {11) — Villages; the laitd ; Hundreds {12) — Chiefs ; the Comitatus (13) — meetings of the Village, the Hundred, and the Tribe (14)— all freemen armed ; their armour; the Herzog ; mode of attack (15) — the German religion (16). I. Geographical character of Germany. — Germany, or Dciitschlaiid^ occupies a large part of central Europe. Speaking roughly, it now reaches from the Alps to the Baltic and the North Sea^ and from the valleys of the Rhine and the Maes to the Daftube as far as the^ March and the Mtcr, and to the Prosna and the Lower Nieinen, The country is mountainous in the south, hilly in the centre, and flat in the north, where it forms part of the great plain which takes in the whole of north-eastern 2 ANCIENT GERMANY. [chap. Europe. The western part of this plain takes in the country between the Teiitoburg Wood and the North Sea. As it passes eastwards it widens till it reaches from the Erz and Rieseii mountains to the Baltic. A part of South Germany slopes towards the east, and is watered by the Danube J but the general slope of the country is towards the north. Among the rivers flowing northwards are the Rhine^ the Eins^ the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Visttila. 2. Central position of Germany.— Germany has varied very much in extent at different times. This is due partly to the fact that it has no clearly-marked natural boundaries on the east and west, but chiefly to the peculiarity of its position. It is the central country of Europe. Being sur- rounded by most of the leading nations of the Continent, the Germans have been involved, more than any other people, in the general history of Europe. Of all their neighbours, the Scandinavians are most nearly allied to the Germans. Both are branches of the Teutonic race. But the Germans are also connected, although not so closely, with the other surrounding peoples. All, if we except the Magyars or Hungarians, who are Turanians, belong to the great A?yan family. 3. Names of the people. — The Germans call themselves Deutschen. We formerly used the word Dutch in the same wide sense, but now usually confine it to the people of Holland. Deutsch or Dutch is the modern form of Theotisc (Theod, people), which first came into use in the ninth century. The word German is probably of Celtic origin. It is believed to have been first applied to a particular tribe, and then to the race to which the tribe belonged. 4. High and Low Dutch. — The Germans or Dutch are divided into two great [ r mps, the High and the Low. The Low Dutch live by the mouths of the rivers flowing into I.] GERMAN TRIBES.- 3 the North Sea, the High Dutch in the inland and moun- tainous parts of Germany. They are branches of the same people ; but they differ a good deal in character and cus- toms, and, above all, in language. On the Continent the only Low- Dutch language which remains the organ of an important living literature is spoken in Holland, The educated classes of the country, or group of countries, which we now call Germany, speak and write High- Dutch. 5. Ancient Germany. — Our chief authority for the con- dition of ancient Germany is the ''' Ge7'7nama^- of Tacitus^ written in the year 98 A.D. At that time the greater part of the country was covered by forests, in which were bears, wolves, buffaloes, elks, and other wild animals. The climate was damp and foggy ; and in winter the cold seems to have been keener, and to have lasted longer than at present. The soil was in many places marshy ; but much of it was very fertile. There were many flocks and herds, generally of a small breed. 6. German Tribes. — The ancient Germans were divided into many different tribes. These sometimes united among themselves for purposes of attack or defence ; but they were politically independent, each being separated from the others by tolerably well-marked boundaries. On the right bank of the Rhine, beginning with the country now called Hessen and passing northwards, there were, besides various others, the Chatti^ the Tencteri and Usipetes^ the Sicambri., the iMaj'si, and the B7'iicteri. The Frisians., Chaiici^ and Saxons occupied the coasts from the Rhine to the Elbe. The territory of the Chei'nsci^ one of the bravest of German tribes, took in the Hai'z mountains and the country around as far as the A lie}'., the Wese?\ the Won'a^ the Elbe., and the Saal. The country from, the Danube and the Middle Rhine northwards to the Baltic was held by tribes 4 ANCIENT GERMANY. [chap. connected closely enough to be known by the common name of the Suevi, First among the Suevi were the Sein- nones^ stretching from the southern part of what is now* Brandenburg to the Riesen moimtams. The Lons'obardi. or, as they were afterwards called, the Lombards^ Avere settled on the banks of the Lower Elbe. The Marcomanni were neighbours of the Chatti, between the Rhine^ the Main^ and the Danube ; and further to the south-east were the Qiiadi. There were other Suevic tribes ; but it is these with whom histoiy has most to do. It was long believed that the Goths were the original stock from which all Germans had sprung ; but they held to other Germans merely the relation of sister tribes, and their language is more nearly akin to the Low than to the High German. They occupied the banks of the Lower Vistula. The Vandals^ B7i7'gU7idia7is^ dJid Rugii^ all kindred tribes, were scattered to the west of the Vistula, along the shores of the Baltic. The Gothic tribes soon passed altogether out of German history, and had probably begun even in Tacitus' time to separate from their kinsmen. It must not be forgotten that at an early period various German tribes crossed the Rhine in search of new settlements. At the time of C. Julins Ccesar a large part of the left bank was held by Germans, among whom the Ubii w^ere distinguished. The Batavians^ who are said to have sprung from the Chatti, held the island formed by the two branches of the Lower Rhine. 7. Groups of Tribes. — These tribes did not call them- selves by any common name ; but, according to Tacitus, three great groups were recognised — the Ingaevo7ies^ the Istaevo7ies^ and the Hey77ii7io7ies. The first took in all the tribes on the coasts of the North Sea, the second those holding the Rhine country, and the third those in the centre of Germany. These groups were believed to have I.] CLASSES OF men: 5 sprung from the three sons of Manims^ the first man, the son of the god TJutisto. The division had no poHtical importance ; but it had probably some real meaning, for it reappears in another form in later history. 8. Character of the people. — The Germans were gener- ally tall and strong. They could be fierce and cruel ; but they were brave, truthful, simple in their manners, and hospitable. They celebrated in songs the great deeds of their forefathers, and were usually ready to die rather than give up freedom. Although an agricultural people, the occupations they most delighted in were war and hunting. Their chief faults were indolence, drunkenness, and excessive gambling. They left the tilling of the fields and all other peaceful work as much as possible to women and to men incapable of bearing arms. 9. Classes of men. — The ancient Germans, like other Ar}'an peoples, were divided into two great classes, the 7iobles^ and the conunon freemen. The former were the Eo7'ls, the latter the Ceorls of the ancient English. The nobles were usually richer than the freemen, but their position did not altogether depend on their wealth. What their special rights and privileges were, we do not know ; but they were held in high esteem, and took a foremost place in public life. The freem.en formed the great body of the people. Each was an independent member of the community, and enjoyed equal rights with his fellows. Both freemen and nobles had slaves. This class consisted for the most part of prisoners of war and their offspring, and of those condemned to slavery on account of some crime. They were usually well treated ; but they were the absolute pro- perty of their masters, and had no redress against injustice. They were not allowed, under any circumstances, to bear arms. Between the freemen and the slaves was a peculiar class, consisting partly of freedmen, and called Liti, 6 ANCIENT GERMANY, [chaf. The Liti were in no sense any one's, property, and they had certain rights which they could enforce ; but they had no share in the political life of the community. They could not possess land. They could only hold it of some master, with whom they were obliged to share the produce. They were thus neither freemen nor slaves, but a class apart. 10. The Wergeld. — If a noble, a freeman, or one of the Liti was killed, the murderer was not put to death. He had to pay a fine, which was in later times called the Wergeld. The amount of the Wergeld varied amongst different tribes ; but the Wei-geld of a noble was always greater than that of a freeman, as a freeman's was greater than that of one of the Liti. 11. The Familjr. — The ancient Germans did not marry till the'r physical and mental powers were fully developed. The bridegroom did not exactly purchase the bride ; but on the day of their marriage he brought her a valu- able gift, which she kept as her own property. The wife was subject to the husband ; but her position was not a degraded one. She was her husband's companion and friend, and often went with him on distant warlike expeditions. She was expected to know the use of arms, and was usually brave and virtuous. The clan was not, in the time of Tacitus, the foundation of society ; but family relations were of great importance. The father had supreme authority over his children. He had even the power, in extreme cases, of putting them to death. Uncles, especially on the mother's side, were looked up to with deep respect. When a freeman died, his children were protected by their relatives, until they were able to defend themselves. A freeman's quarrels were always taken up by his relatives ; and if he was killed, it was their duty to see that the Wergeld, which was divided amongst the family, was paid. I.] CHIEFS. THE COMITATUS. 7 12. Villages and Hundreds. — There were no cities in ancient Germany. In some parts of the country every freeman lived apart with his family on his own land ; but the great majority lived in villages. These villages were made up of a number of huts, each hut stand- ing apart from the rest, surrounded by a piece of ground The land around a village originally belonged to the community, and much of it remained common property ; but from an early period grants of land had been made to individuals, and the nimiber of those who held land as their private property always tended to increase. An undefined number of villages formed what was called a Hundred. Whether the Gau w^as a name for the entire land of a tribe, or was merely a division taking in several Hundreds, is uncertain. Perhaps the name did not arise till a later period At all events, the Hundred was the really important division, for traces of it are to be found among all German peoples. 13, Chiefs, The Comitatus. — Every village and Hun- dred had its own Chiefs elected by the freemen. Higher than the chiefs of the Hundreds and villages was the chief of the tribe, appointed in the same way. Some tribes had Kings; but even Kings were elected, although always from some particular noble family believed to have sprung from the gods. The chiefs of the Hundreds formed what Tacitus calls the pri^ices of a tribe, and acted as a Council to the King or other supreme chief. By far the most important right of a chief was the power to form a Comitatus or Gefolge — that is, to gather round him a body of men devoted to his service. The princes vied with each other in having large numbers of followers. The men swore to be always faithful to their lord ; and to be untrue to this oath was thought the worst possible crime. In return for their services, the chief provided 8 ANCIENT GERMANY. [chap. his men with war-horses, armour, and food ; and if the tribe was not at war, he often gave them fresh opportunities of distinguishing themselves by taking part in the wars of other tribes. 14. Meetings of the people. — Important as was the position of the chiefs in ancient Germany, their power was comparatively limited. Above all chiefs were the Meetings of the people. Even the village had its Meeting; but the really important Meetings were those of the Hundred and of the tribe. These Meetings were not, like modern Parliaments, representative. All freemen had a right to attend them. The Meetings of the village and of the Hundred did not concern themselves with the affairs of the tribe. These came before the Meeting of the whole people. It was in this general Meeting that the chiefs were elected — not only the King or other chief of the tribe, but the chiefs of the various Hundreds. Here also the young freeman received from his father or some prince the arms which were the symbol that he had attained to a -position of independence in the tribe. All difficult cases of justice were decided by the Meeting of the tribe ; it also declared war and concluded peace, and sanctioned the occasional distant expeditions of the chiefs with their followers. When questions of unusual difficulty were to come before the Meeting, they were discussed beforehand by the King or other chief and the princes of the tribe ; but the ultimate decision lay with the people themselves. The common freeman rarely took a leading part in the deliberations. The chiefs laid their proposals before the people in plain terms, stating the arguments on each side. If the freemen did not agree with their chiefs, they expressed their opinion by cries of dissent ; they signified their approval of a proposal by clashing their armour. r.] THE ARMY, 15. The Army. — The aniiy was not something different from the people \ it was the people themselves. Eveiy freeman bore arms, and might at any moment be called into active service. Spears were the weapons most commonly used. Each warrior had also a shield long enough to cover almost the whole body. The cavalry had no other armour ; but those who fought on foot had missile weapons, which they could hurl to a great distance. They sometimes used battle-axes and clubs ; sv/ords were little known. The cavalr}-- never used saddles. The different companies were not made up of men chosen at random ; the freemen of each Hundred kept together, and the minor divisions were composed of kinsmen and friends. Each prince commanded his own Hundred. The supreme command was undertaken by the king or chief of the tribe, or by a Herzog .elected by the freemen. If several tribes united to carry on a war, the Herzog, or commander-in-chief, was elected by the princes. The line of battle was arranged in the form of a wedge, the bravest and most experienced being put in front. Cavalry and infantry were so placed that they helped to protect each other. When about to make an attack, all joined in a sort of chant, putting their shields to their mouths to make the sound more terrible. To throw away their shields on the field of battle was in the highest degree disgraceful. Those guilty of this crime often killed themselves, being unable to bear the contempt of their kinsmen. 16. Religion. — The Germans, like their Scandinavian kinsmen, inherited the common Aryan religion, and gave it forms adapted to their own modes of thought and feeling. Their chief god was IVodan. Dollar^ or TJior^ the god of thunder, was also very powerful. The gods were not worshipped in temples, but in sacred groves. Sacrifices lo ANCIENT GERMANY. [ch. i.] were offered to them, sometimes even human sacrifices ; and their will was found out by means of lots, the flight of birds, and the neighing of sacred horses. The Gennans believed that the gods took a direct interest in human affairs, , and that in a future life they rewarded brave men and punished cowards.* CHAPTER II. THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS. Arioz'isfiis ; C. yiiliiis CcBsar ; Gernians in the Roman service (i) — Dnisns tries to conquer Germafiy (2) — Tiberius in Germany; Arniinius defeats Varus (3) — Gennanicus atid Arminius (4) — Maroboduus; defeated by Arminius; death of Arminius ; (5) Claudius Civilis rebels against the Romans; encouraged by Vclleda ; is defeated (6) — the Marcomannic War (7). I. Ariovistus. C. Julius Csesar. — The first German name that appears in history is that of Ariovistics^ a Suevic king whose fame had spread beyond the bounds of Germany. The Seqttcini and ^dui^ two GaUic tribes, having fallen out, the former begged this great chief to come to their aid. He did so, but in the end, in 60 B.C., conquered both *' tribes. He thus made himself master of the whole terri- tory between the Upper Rhine and the Loire. The Romans at first treated him as a friend ; but, in the year 58 B.C., y^ C. Julius CcBsar, to whom the Gauls had appealed for help, marched against him, and defeated him. Csesar conquered the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine as completely as the Celtic inhabitants of Gaul. He twice crossed the Rhine; but he did not do much harm either time. He formed a high opinion of German bravery, and got many warriors to enter the Roman service. From this time it became common for Germans to serve as Roman soldiers ; and in the end they formed by far the best part of the Roman army. 12 THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS. [chap. 2. Drusus. — About the beginning of the Christian sera the Romans tried hard to make Germany a Roman pro- vince. The first general who made the attempt was D?^usus^ the step-son of the Emperor Augustus. He cut a canal between the Rhine and the Yssel^ and in the year 12 B.C. sailed along the coasts of the North Sea. He defeated the Bructeri^ who had collected a fleet in the Ems for the pur- pose of opposing him. Drusus afterwards made three different expeditions into the heart of Germany. In the year 9 B.C. he defeated the Chatti with their allies the Marcomanni^ and advanced as far as the Elbe. On his way back he was killed by a fall from his horse. Had Drusus lived, he would probably have conquered a con- siderable part of Germany. He had built no fewer than fifty fortresses along the Rhine, besides others in different parts of the country. 3. Tiberius. Varus. Arminius. — The struggle begun by Drusus was carried on by Tibeidus, In 8 B.C. the latter conquered the Tencteid and Usipetes. The Sica^ibri bravely opposed him ; but having got their chiefs in his power by treacher}^, he easily overcame the people. In order to make them harmless for the future, he sent about 40,000 of them into Gaul, near the mouths of the Rhine, where they remained unwilling subjects of Rome. After this several tribes became allies of the Romans, and it seemed for a time as if Germany were soon, like Gaul, to form part of the Roman Empire. It was the foolish conduct of Qiniictilius Varus^ a Roman general, that kept this from coming about. Varus came to Germany in the year 6 A.D., and, fancying that the people were thoroughly subdued, began to rule as he had formerly done among the eastern subjects of Rome. He even claimed the right to put German freemen to death. The Germans were indignant at this treatment, and longed to throw off the foreign yoke. At last II.] GERMANICUS, " 13 a young Cheruscan chief, called Armimiis, who had served in the Roman army, and Jiad been made a Roman citizen and knight, resolved to win back the freedom of his people. He spoke in secret with the chiefs of his own and other tribes, and found them more than willing to support him. When everything was ready, Vams, w^ho was in the land of the Cherusci, not far from the Weser, was told that a tribe in the north had revolted. At the head of a large army he at once set out to punish the rebels. He was led, with his legions, into the depths of the Teutoburg Wood. Heavy rains had been falling for some time, so that marching was difficult. Suddenly, when no' one dreamed of danger, the Romans looked up, and saw that the wooded heights above and around them were covered by armed men. The Germans fiercely avenged the wrongs they had suffered. Of the whole Roman army scarcely a man escaped. Varus, severely wounded, fell upon his sword and killed himself. 4. Germanicus. — In consequence of this defeat, the Romans did not even enter Germany for some years. But when Tiberitis became Emperor, Gennanicus^ the son of Drusus, tried- to follow in the steps of his father. In the year 14 he suddenly attacked the Marsi, a tribe on the right bank of the Middle Rhine, and defeated them. The neighbouring tribes at once rose against him, and compelled him to withdraw. Next year he returned, and was joined by many Germans, the Chanel being especially useful allies. Arminius, whose wife Thusjielda had been sent by Ger- manicus as a prisoner to Rome, hurried through the land of the Cherusci and allied tribes, and roused the people against the Romans. He attacked the Roman cavalry in the Teutoburg Wood, where Germanicus halted to bury the remains of the warriors v/ho had fallen five years before. The Germans gained no decided victory, but Germanicus 14 . THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS. [chap. was weakened, and felt it necessary to retreat. In the year i6, he put forth all his strength against the Ger- mans, and defeated them in a battle near Mmden, The Romans claimed the victory in a second battle, but their losses were so great that they had to retreat to their ships. These were overtaken by a violent storm, and greater part of the fleet perished. After this the Romans did not again try to conquer Germany. 5. Maroboduus. Death of Arminius. — Meanwhile, a new danger had arisen within Germany itself After being defeated by Drusus, the Marcomanni, headed by their chief Marobodims^ had wandered eastwards and taken possession of the country now called Bohemia, Maroboduus became a very powerful king, and conquered the leading Suevic tribes. He might have brought all Germany under his rule ; but after the withdrawal of Germanicus, Arminius made war on him, and so utterly defeated him that his kingdom was broken up, and he himself had to seek refuge in Rome, Arminius thus probably saved the freedom of the Germans a second time. We know nothing of the last years of Arminius. In the year 21, at the age of thirty- seven, he was murdered. He was a true hero, to whom the whole Teutonic race owes a debt of gratitude. 6. Claudius Civilis. — In the year 69 the Batavians and the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine rebelled against the Romans. The rebellion was headed by Claudius Civilis^ a Batavian who had for many years served in the Roman army, but had been harshly treated by the Emperor Ne7'o. Some Gallic tribes joined him ; and the Bructeri and other Germans on the right bank of the Rhine gladly sent him aid. A Bmcterian maid, Velleda^ who lived in a lonely tower in the forests near the Lippe^ and was looked up to as a prophetess, encouraged him and his followers by high- sounding promises. For a time Civilis was successful ; but 11.] THE MARCOMANNIC WAR, 15 fortune soon turned. The Roman general Cerealis twice defeated him. Civihs still held out for a time ; but in the end the Batavians had to return to their allegiance. They v/ere not asked to pay tribute, but had to send men to ti e Roman army. 7. The Marcomannic Waf.- — In the second century there were new wars between the Romans and the Germans, but now the latter, not the former, were the aggressors. Of these wars the chief was the Marcomannic war^ carried on by Marcus Aurelitis for thirteen years against a va^t body of Germans, headed by the Marcoman7ii and the Quadi, and joined by various non-German tribes. Ths invasion which led to this war may be looked on as the first of those which were afterwards to break up the Empire. CHAPTER III. THE FRANKS, y German tribes leave the mother country (l) — the Alemanni ; the Franks ; the Saxons and Frisians ; the Thiwingians ; the Ba- varians (2) — the Franks the most important group of tribes ; the Ripitarians (3)— //^^ Salian Franks (4) — King Chlodio ; state of Society among the Salians about Chlodio'' s time (5) — Aleroivig; Childe7'ic (6) — Chlodwig; conquers Gaid {"]) — becomes Christian (8) — conquers the Alemanni; unites all Frankish tribes {')) — lands seized by Chlodwig; allodial and fiscal lands (10) — Chlodivig^s successors (11)— power of the Merowi?/gian Kings (12) — Cans and Duchies ; Dukes and Counts (13) — Benefices (14) — Officers of the royal household (15). I. Wanderings of German Tribes. -^Between the third and the sixth centuries great changes took place in Ger- many. Whole tribes and confederations of tribes left the mother country and founded powerful kingdoms else- where. The Goths were the first to set the example. They pushed towards the south-east. In the fourth century their great King Eor?ne7i7'ic ruled over a kingdom reaching from the Baltic to the Black Sea. This kingdom was broken up by the Huns, to whom the East Goths became for a time subject, while the West Goths crossed the Danube and settled within Roman territory. Early in the fifth century the Vandals, the Burgujidians, and various Stievic peoples wandered westwards into Ganl. The Suevi and the Vandals entered Spain^ and conquered it. The Vandals [CH. III.] GROUPS OF TRIBES, 17 afterwards founded a kingdom in Africa^ the capital of A'hich was Carthaj^e. The Burgimdians remained in Gaul, and founded a kingdom which in the end took in the valley of the Rhone and the Saone^ and the western half oi Helvetia. These tribes were followed by the West Goths, who conquered Spain and the southern part of Gaul. The East Goths, under their King Theodoric, established a great kingdom in Italy, Some years after they were driven from Italy, in the sixth century, their place was taken by the Lombards^ whose power proved firmer and more enduring. In the fifth century our own forefathers began to leave their seats on the shores of the North Sea, and to settle in Britain. Many of the lands which these tribes had held fell into the hands of the Sclaves, so that the Elbe and the Saal became the eastern boundary of Germany. ^ 2. Groups of Tribes. — We hear very little, after the third century, of the many tribes formerly scattered over Germany. They still existed, but they were joined together in groups or confederations. How these were formed, w^e do not know. The tie which united the members of a confederation was very loose. Still, the members of each confederation had a certain sense of kinship, and this prepared the way for a closer political connexion. The Alemanni^ who took in a number of Suevic tribes, were one of the most powerful of the confederations. In the third century they held the country between the Danube and the Main, and from thence made many incursions into Roman territory. They gradually advanced southwards and westwards as far as the Upper Rhine^ the Aar^ and the Vosges 7itountams. To the north of the Alemanni, from the Main to the mouths of the Rhine, were the Fy-anks. The land to the east of the Franks was held by the Saxojis and Frisians. The latter held ■ the whole line of coast from the Rhine to the Elbe ; the former, B iS THE FRANKS. [chap. the basins of the Lower Elbe, the Weser, and the Ems. The centre of what is now Germany was in the hands of the Thn7'ingians. They held the wooded mountains w^hich are still called by their name, and some part of the country to the north and south. These various confederations may pro- bably be identified with the groups into which the Germans, in the time of Tacitus, divided themselves. If so, the Saxons and Frisians would represent the ancient Ingaevones ; the Franks the htaevones^ and the Alemanni and Thuringians the He-nninones, Another confederation was gradually formed by the Goths who remained in Germany, the Marcomanni, and others. These were the Bojoarii or Bavarians^ whose country took in greater part of the basin of the Ittn^ and who became subject in turn to Odoacer and to Theodoric the Great. 3. The Franks. The Ripuarians* — Of these groups of tribes, the Fi'anks were by far the most important. The history of the Franks is for several centuries the histoiy of Germany. They conquered the Gauls and their own kinsmen, and laid the foundation of the future kingdoms of Germany and France, From the. third century the Franks on the right bank of the Middle Rhine often broke into Gaul, and attacked the Romans. They several times conquered Kbln^ Mainz, and Trier, and harried the neigh- bouring lands. In the fourth century they were driven back by Constantine and yulian, and in the fifth by the great general Aetius; but in the latter half of the fifth century they were masters of the whole country between the Middle Rhine and the Maes. They held also part of the banks of the Moselle, and had lands as far south as the northern boundaries of the Alemanni and Burgundians. At this time their chief town was Kolnj and they were called (probably from Ripa, a bank) Riparii or Ripuarii. 4. The Salian Franks. — The Franks who held the III.] KING CHLODIO. THE SALIC CODE. 19 banks of the Lower Rhine were called by the Romans Salia7is. The Ripuarians were more numerous than the Salians ; but it was the Salians who founded the great Frankish kingdom. They sprang for the most part from those Sicambri whom Tiberius settled near the mouths of the Rhine, and were probably called Salians from a tribe which wandered westwards from the Yssel or Isala^ and united to form one people with the Sicambri. The Salians were nominally subject to the Romans, and served in the Roman army ; but they kept their native institutions, and always tried, when they had a chance, to become indepen- dent. At the time of Julian they held the country from the Lower Rhine to the west of the Maes. Julian advanced against them, and defeated them ; but he allowed them to keep the land they had seized. About the beginning of the fifth century they still served in the Roman army, but no longer recognised Roman supremacy. They probably then held the whole country between the Lower Rhine and the Schelde. 5. King Chlodio. The Salic code. — The Salians were governed by Kings. Probably their first King — at all events, the first of whom we know anything — was Chlodio. He reigned about the middle of the fifth century. He was defeated by the Romans under Aetius ; but he succeeded in pushing his boundaries as far west as the Soinnie. He became a faithful ally of the Romans, who often afterwards — especially in the great battle fought in 451 against Atiila — received important aid from the Salians. The famous Salic Code was probably drawn up about the time of Chlodio. The state of soc'ety which it represents is in many respects the same as that described by Tacitus. The people, like all their kinsmen who had not left Germany, are still heathens. The tribe is divided into Hundreds, and these again into villages ; and the 20 THE FRANKS. [chap. occupation of the people, when they are not engaged in war, continues mainly agricultural. But the position of the King has changed. He no longer receives his authority from the people ; he inherits it, and exercises it as a right. He appoints the chiefs, who are called Grafs or Counts^ and decides cases of justice which the Meeting of the Hundred — the largest that seems now to be held — cannot settle. There is no trace of the old noble class ; what raises men above their fellows is connexion with the King. Those whom he appoints to an office, and the members of his " Gefolge" or " Com.i- tatus," hold a very high position. The "Wergeld'^ of a Graf and of a follower of the King is three times as large as that of a common freeman. The King has thus already become the central element in the constitu- tion. He exercises supreme authority, and is the fountain of honour. This great increase of the royal power was perhaps partly due to the influence of Roman ideas, for the Salians in the Roman army would naturally learn habits of strict obedience. 6. Merowig". Childeric. — The successor of Chlodio is said to have been Merowig. We know nothing certainly of this King. If he really existed, he must have made a deep impression on the men of his time, for the future Kings of the Franks were called after him Merowingiaiis. Childei'ic^ whose capital was Totcrnay^ was a great Salian King in the latter half of the fifth century. He aided the Romans against the West Goths, and is said also to have opposed the Alernanni, who were threatening Italy. The close con- nexion of the Salians with the Romans at this time prepared the way for the great career on which they were about to enter. 7. Chlodwig. Conquest of Gaul. — Childeric was suc- ceeded, in 481, by his son, Chlodovech or Chlodwig. III.] CAUSES OF CHLOD WIG'S SUCCESS. 21 Chlodwig was a mere boy when he became King, but he was destined to become one of the greatest conquerors in the history of the world. He began his career by attacking Syagriiis^ the governor of the part of Gaul which was still directly subject to Rome. Having defeated Syagrius near Soissons^ Chlodwig took possession of the country as far as the Seine, He afterwards became master of the land between the Seme and the Loii'e^ where the Armorican Republic is said to have been established. He also defeated the Burgundians, and made their King pay him tribute. Crossing the Loire, he defeated the West Goths in a battle near Poitiers. Chlodwig was unable to conquer the southern part of Gaul ; but after the defeat of the West Goths his kingdom reached as far south as the Garonne. Thus, within a short time, he had con- quered nearly the whole of Gaul. 8. Causes of Chlodwig's success. — At first sight it appears strange that a petty King with comparatively few followers should do such great things ; and that, having conquered such vast territories, he should after- wards be able to hold the people in subjection. The chief cause of Chlodwig's success was that he had become a Christian. On Christmas day of 496 he was baptized with great pomp, with 3,000 of his warriors, at Rheiins. The story is that his baptism was the result of a vow made in the heat of a battle with the Alemanni near Ziilpich., that if the God of the Christians gave him the victory he would give up his gods and accept Christianity. The Franks in the old settlements in the neighbourhood of the Schelde were not converted for some time ; but from the time of his baptism Chlodwig's kingdom was at least nominally Christian. This fact did more for him than ail the bravery of his troops. • The Germans already settled in Gaul were Christians ; but they 22 THE FRANKS, [chap. were not members of the Catholic- Church. They were Aria US. The Cathohc clergy, therefore, were their enemies, and longed for some ruler who should uphold the true faith. From the beginning they looked to Chlodwig with hope. When he entered the Church they warmly supported him ; and their friendship meant the good-will of the great body of the people. Another circumstance aided Chlodwig. The Emperor Anastasius^ anxious that the barbarian conqueror should have some formal con- nexion with the Roman Empire, sent him, after his victory over the West Goths, the titles of Consul and Patiidan. This seemed to make Chlodwig the lawful ruler of Gaul, and probably won over some whom even the Church might have failed to influence. 9. Conquest of the Alemanni. Union of all Prankish Tribes. — Chlodwig was far more than the conqueror of Gaul. The Saxons, Thuringians, and Bavarians, did not fall under his power; but he subdued the Alemanni, and seems to have colonized the part of their territory between the Neckar and the Main with a Prankish population. He also united all the Frankish tribes under his rule. When he began his reign there was no political connexion between the Salians and the Ripuarians ; and the Salians themselves had other Kings besides Chlodwig. Chlodwig slew these Kings, and the King of the Ripuarians, together with their heirs. He appears to have taken possession of Salian territory as a right ; the Ripuarians elected him to be their King. The Franks of every tribe thus acknowledged one lord, and began to feel themselves bound together by many common interests. As the centre of a great kingdom, destined to be the most enduring of all the States founded by the Germans in foreign countries, they could not but learn to be proud of the common Frankish name. 10. Lands seized by Chlodwig. — Chlodwig was not III.] CHLODWIG'S SUCCESSORS. 23 followed into the heart of Gaul by the Salians as a people. He was accompanied .only by his *' Gefolge " and an army of freemen. He did not, therefore, like other German con- querors demand any particular proportion of the conquered territory. But he took possession of all public lands and of lands which had no certain owner. These w^ere divided between himself and those who accompanied him. Land allotted to, or seized by, a freeman, was called allodial. Allodial land was the absolute property of the possessor, held by him subject to no condition except that of aiding, when necessary, in the defence of the State. The lands kept for the King must have been very extensive. They were zzSi^d. fiscal lands, and became the chief source of the royal revenue. II. Chlodwi^s success6rs. — Chlodwig died in 511 in Paris. His kingdom was divided among his four sons. This division did not break up the unity of the kingdom. The subjects of the four brothers continued to look on themselves as members of one State. The East or Rhenish Franks, and those Germans to the east of the Rhine whom Chlodwig had conquered, were placed under Chlodwig's eldest son, Theodoric. His was by far the most powerful of the four divisions. He made the bulk of Thuringia tribu- tary ; and his son and successor, Theudebert^ subdued the Bavarians^ and completed the subjection of the Alejnamn. Thus the greater part of Germany was brought under the rule of the Franks. The Saxons and Frisians alone re- mained independent. Theodoric^s brothers, who, after the death of Theodoric the Great in 526, found little hindrance to their schemes of conquest, thoroughly mastered Bur- gundyy and gained possession of the southern part of Gaul. Chlotachar^ or Clothair /., Chlodwig^s youngest son, joined together again the whole Frankish kingdom. Under him the kingdom was almost as extensive as at any 24 THE FRANKS, [chap. time for more than two centuries afterwards. Like his father, he was succeeded by his four sons ; but when one of these died, the kingdom was again divided. After this the different parts of the kingdom were several times brought together under one King ; but more usually there were three kingdoms — AnsU^asia^ the kingdom of the East Franks, Neustria^ the kingdom of the West Franks, and Burgundy, Neustria and Burgundy often went together, but Austrasia always tried to have a King of its own, and became more and more separated from the other kingdoms. 12. The Merowingian King^s. — The Merowingian Kings were usually very bad rulers, but at first they had great power. There was for a time a yearly gathering of Frank- ish freemen, called, from the fact that it met in March, the MarcJifield. This was soon given up in Neustria, because the Franks lived at great distances from one another, and could not easily go to Meetings far away from their homes. In Austrasia the Marchfield was pro- bably only a military assembly. Thus the power which had once belonged to all freemen gradually passed into the hands of the King. The position of the Kings was further raised by their Roman subjects readily. conceding to them some of the powers which had belonged to the Emperors. 13. Dukes and Counts. — The Frankish kingdoms were divided into Gaus or Districts^ each of which was governed by a Count. A number of Gaus made a Duchy^ over which was a Herzog or Duke. Each of the great groups or confederations of tribes in Germany formed a separate Duchy. The Dukes and Counts in Gaul were appointed solely by the King, and were looked on as his officers. The Bavarians elected their own Dukes ; and they always chose them from one noble family, the Agiloljijtgs. The Alemanni and Thurino^ians had also some share in the III.] BENEFICES. ' 25 appointment of their Dukes. The freemen of each German Duchy mxt their Duke once in the year, and consulted with him on affairs of importance. Thus the Gemians to the east of the Rhine kept more of the old freedom than their Frankish conquerors. 14. Benefices. — The Merowingian Kings soon adopted the Roman custom of granting lands on condition of military service. Such grants were called at first -benefices.^ but afterwards ^^''jr. They were made from the royal lands, and wxre usually given to the King's mat or vassals — that is, to the Dukes, Counts, and members of the " Gefolge.'^ Thus the service required by a Merowingian King from the holder of a benefice was not, like that required for lands granted by the Roman Government, service to the State ; it was the service of a vassal to his lord. The relation between the tw^o w^as w^holly personal in its character. Those who did not already hold this personal relation to the King, on receiving a benefice, became his men, and swore to be faithful to him and to give him service in war. From this combination of Roman and Teutonic ideas sprang the system of feudal te7iiires. [See the Gejieral Sketch of European History in this Series.] When benefices became hereditary, the holders usually granted pieces of land to others, who entered into the same relation to them that they held to the King. And in times of con- fusion, freemen very often gave up their lands to some powerful lord, and received them back asyf IX.] LEADING NOBLE HOUSES, 87 Styria had been united to Austria in 1192. Frederick^ Xho, last Austrian Duke of the house of Babenberg, died in 1246. IJis death was followed by a time of great confusion in the Austrian lands? After much fighting with the Hungarians, Ottocar^ King of Bohemia, at last got possession of them for some time. The Counts of Wilrtemberg were among the greatest of the Swabian nobles. The house of Zdh- ringe?t, the founder of which Conrad 11. had placed over Burgundy, had been confined by Frederick I. to the Duchy of Lesser Burgundy^ to the east of the Jura. This house died out in the thirteenth century, and many of its lands fell to the Counts of Baden and the Counts of Habsbiirg. The Cownisoi Ho he ?t20 1 lern^ who held the position of Burgraves pf Nilrnberg^ were also powerful Swabian nobles, and re- ceived about this time certain Bavarian lands which after- wards became the Duchies of A7isbach 2i]\& Baireiilh. The Counts of Nassau may be named^among those who held ancient Franconian lands. The Duchy of Upper Lothar- ingia was held by the Counts of Els ass. The Dukes of Lower Lotharingia preferred to call themselves, after their hereditary possessions, Dukes of Brabant. Among the nobles in this part of Germany who claimed to be immediate were the Counts of Luxemburg^ Jillich^ Geldern^ Cleve, and Holland. 33. Laws of Inheritance. — So long as a Duke or other prince was looked on as an officer of the crown, his lands were inherited by his eldest son ; but now the lands of most princes were divided equally among all the sons. The brothers sometimes lived together and shared the power, but they more commonly divided the lands. It thus often happened that there were a number of independent princi- palities, ruled over by members of one family. At first each brother obtained absolute possession of his share ; but as this greatly weakened the power of princely houses, it 88 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. became common for the heirs of a prince to make arrange- ments which kept any part of the fief from falUng to the crown until the male line had wholly died out. In the end the custom of primogeniture was adopted by several great families — notably by the house which has become in our day the Imperial family of Germany. 34. The institution of knighthood. — The institution of knighthood, which the Crusades had made so important, flourished in Germany in the time of the Hohenstaufen. It was open to the lower as well as to the higher nobles to become knights, so that the institution formed a bond of union between the two orders. The son of a nobleman usually served a knight for some years as page and esquire^ and was afterwards himself knighted, if possible by a nobl^ of high rank. Those who were to be made knights pre- pared themselves for the ceremony by religious exercises, and vowed to obey the King or Emperor, to uphold the right, to defend widows and orphans, and to oppose the infidels. Every knight had the right to confer the honour of knighthood. He could also take part in toitrnaniejtts^ which were often held at the courts of the Emperor and princes. Knights were supposed to hold women in high reverence. They were by no means always so pure as they are sometimes said to have been ; but in Germany, as else- where, they did much to foster a spirit of generosity, courtesy, and honour, at a time when these qualities were peculiarly valuable. 35. The tov/ns. — The towns were now an element of great importance in Germany. Almost every great German town at present existing had been founded by the time of the Hohenstaufen. The Crusades had given a powerful impulse to trade, so that the burgher class generally had become very rich. When the Duchies ceased to exist or lost their old importance, many towns that had before been IX.] LEAGUES OF TOWNS. 89 mediate became immediate. The immediate towns usually tried to get rid of the bailiffs who represented the crown ; and in the thirteenth century many of them succeeded in doing so, and, thus became Free Imperial Towjis^ still recognizing the supremacy of the King or Emperor, but ruling themselves according to their own ideas. When a town became free, a struggle very often arose between the old families or Patricians and the Gilds, and it usually ended by the Patricians having to yield to the Gilds some share in the government. The free imperial towns became far too powerful to be left out of the national council. In the end their deputies formed a third college in the Diet, and had an equal vote with the Electors and princes. 36. Leagues of towns. The Hansa.^ — The free towns rarely quarrelled with the King ; but they were almost always at war with the nobles, both secular and spiritual. This led to their formuig Leagues or Confederations for mutual defence. Several of these Leagues became very powerful. The Rhenish League^ which was formed in the middle of the thirteenth century, took in no fewer than seventy towns. But of all the Leagues of cities, the LLansa v/as by far the strongest. It is thought by some to have arisen from a treaty made \y^\.\\^zxY Lilbeck and Hamburgh \vl i 241, for the protection of their commerce. Other northern towns soon joined them, and a League was formed called the ILanseatic League^ which in the end took in upwards of eighty cities. It was divided into four groups, of which the chief towns were Liibeck^ Koln^ Brunswick^ and Danzig. The Diet of the League met in Liibeck, which was looked on as the head town. When at its height the Hansa carried on the whole trade of the Baltic and had a principal share in that of the North Sea. It had fleets and armies, and often c:ot the better of the Northern Kinors. It even made itself 90 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS, [chap. respected by the more powerful Kings of France and England ; and for a time much of the export English trade was carried on by Hanseatic merchants. In England they were called Easterlings — whence the word Sterling, yj. The freeing of serfs. — About the time of the Hohen- staufen many serfs were made free. They were made so in various ways. Some received their freedom by joining the Crusades ; others obtained it from nobles who were about to set out for the Eloly Land ; while others fled from tyrannical lords, and found refuge in the cities. The cities willingly took them in, and made them citizens — either PfaJilbilrger^ citizens who took up their abode in the suburbs, within the palisades that enclosed the lands of the city, or Aiisbiirger^ citizens who lived outside the city, but could claim its protection. These Pfahlbiirger and Ausbiirger were a source of constant misunderstanding between the nobles and the towns. By and by the bet'er ciiss of nobles began to feel that it was more profitable, as. well as more Christian, to be served by freemen than by serfs ; but serfdom continued in some parts of Germany, especially the north, till quite recent times. 38. The **Sachs8nspiegel" and ** Schwabenspiegel." — There was no one system of law in use all over Germany. The princes administered justice in accordance with local customs and traditions. Early in the thirteenth century a Saxon noble, Eike of Repgow^ brought together in one work the laws in use in Saxony. This work was called the Sachsenspiegel^ and was soon looked on as a code of high authority all over Germany. Later in the century a Swabian priest wrote the Schwabejispiegel^ which iid for the usages of Swabia what the Sachsenspiegel nad done for those of Saxony. Afterwards other collections were made in different parts of the kingdom. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the old Roman lav*^ was eagerly IX.] THE FEMGERICHTE, 91 studied in the Italian Universities ; and at a later time it came into very general use in Germany. 39. The Femgerichte. — There was a peculiar class of courts of justice in Westphalia, called Femgerichte. They sprang from the old courts of Counts which Charles the Great had first appointed in Saxony, and w^hich went on longer in Westphalia than elsewhere, because of the greater number who there continued to hold their lands by a free tenure. Towards the end of the twelfth century the Counts began to call themselves Freigrafe7i or Free Coimts; and the judges who with a Freigraf formed a court were called Freischdffe7i or Free Judges. As feudalism advanced, many Free Counties were brought under secular or spiritual princes. The princes, however, did not gain full power over them. They appointed the Free Counts ; but the latter received their authority from the King or Emperor, and dispensed justice in his name. The Femgerichte did not meet, as has often been said, at night and in caves or other hidden places. They met in open day, generally under some tree ; but the proceedings of the court were kept secret. No case was taken up which was not punish- able by death. If an accused person w^as condemned, he was hanged at once. Any one who did not appear after having been summoned three times was assumed to be guilty ; and sooner or later he was certainly put to death. In those lawless times the oppressed were glad to find a court anywhere which gave them some chance of obtaining justice. Appeals began, therefore, to be made to the Fem- gerichte from all parts of Germany. In the end men of free birth, to whatever part of the country they belonged, were allowed to become Freischoffen, and many thousands of all "classes availed themselves of the privilege. For a consider- able time the Femgerichte did real good, for nobles" who cared nothing for King or Emperor trembled when they 92 THE HOHENSTAUFEN EMPERORS. [chap. received the summons of some F-reigraf to appear at a certain date before a secret tribunal. But as the power of the Femgerichte increased, they were often reckless and unjust ; and many, especially the clergy, cried out loudly against them. They lost nearly all their power in the sixteenth century ; but traces of them long afterwards existed among the Westphalian peasantry. 40. Architecture and Literature. — In spite of the wild lives of many nobles, the age of the Hohenstaufen was in some respects the most brilliant of the Middle Ages. Many churches were built in a new style of architecture called the pomted ox Gothic. Of these, the Cathedral of Koln, which is not even yet finished, was the most splendid. Poetry flourished as it had never before done in Germany. This was due partly to the influence of the Troubadours and Tro^tveres, The Crusades also stirred men's im.aginations by opening to them a new world of wonder and beauty. The poets were called Mimiesdnger or Love Singers. They wrote many romances, the favourite heroes of which, in Germany as well as in France and England, were Charles the Great and King Arthur with the Knights of the Round Table. Many lyrics were also written which are not only finely finished but show a true feeling for everything great and beautiful in nature and human life. Several of the Hohenstaufen Emperors and various princes were themselves poets. Among the most famous of the Minnesanger were Heinrich von Veldeck, who lived towards the end of the twelfth century and was one of the earliest of his class, Wolfra7n von Eschenbach, Gottfried von Strass- bzn^g^ and Walther von der Vogelweide. There were many legends of German heroes in different parts of Germany. These legends were kept alive in the minds of the people by wandering singers^ who long addressed themselves chiefly to the common folk, but were afterwards welcomed IX.] ARCHITECTURE AND LITER A TURK, 93 to the castles of princes and nobles. Of the legends thus handed down from generation to generation some were put together about this time, and made into the great national epics of the Nibelujigeiilied and Gudrun. The age of the Hohenstaufen was thus one of the most remarkable epochs in the history of German literature. A more sordid time followed in which poetry almost altogether vanished. Cl^ AFTER X. SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. Death of William of Holland ; election of Alfonso and Richard; the Inte7'7'egnum (i) — election of Rudolf of Habsburg {2) — wa^ between Rudolf and Otto car, King of Bohe77tia (3) — the House of Habsburg receives Austria (4) — good govern7ne7zt of Rudolf ; his death (5) — Ki7tg Adolf (6) — King Albert I. (7) — King He7i7y VII. ; his S071 foh/i beco77ies King of Bohe77iia (8) — He7i7y VII, crozvned E77iperor ; his death (9) — election of F7'ederick of Aust7'ia a7td Lewis of Bava7ia ; war ; defeat of F7rde7'ick (10) — struggle of Lewis IV. a7id Pope yoh7i XXII. (11) — Lewis IV. beco77ies sole Ki7ig ; is crow7ied E77ipe7'or (12) — Lewis IV. sup- p07'ted by his subjects agai7ist the Popes (13) — election of Chailes IV. ; death of Lewis IV. (14) — the Ki7igs a7id their he7^edita7y lands (i^)—the Eidge7iossen or Confederates ; battle of Mor- ga7'ten Pass (16). I. The Interregnum. — After the death of Conrad IK, William of Holland was the only King in Germany ; but he was quite powerless. He was killed in 1256, while fight- ing against the Frisiars. Tlierc wds now no one who had my particular claim to the crown. The Electors, therefore, resolved to appoint a King under whom they and their fellow princes could confirm their independence. Two foreigners — Alfonso, King of Castile, and Richard, Earl of Cornwall, brother of Henry HI, of England — were very anxious to receive the crown. As both bribed the Electors, one party chose Richard and another Alfonso. The period [CH. X.] RUDOLF OF HABSBURG. 95 which followed this double election is called the Interreg- num. Richard was crowned King at Aachen ; but after his coronation he visited Germany only three times, and he never interested himself much in its affairs. Alfonso never even came to Germany. The Lnterregnum is one of the darkest periods in German history. The princes and immediate nobles ruled their lands exactly as they chose and carried on many wars both among themselves and against the cities. The petty independent barons, whose numbers now so much increased, were almost all robbers, so that no one worth robbing dared to travel unless he was strongly guarded. During this fierce time men thought of Frederick Barbarossa, and dreamed of the day when he should awake from his sleep and bring back peace and order to Germany. 2. Election of Rudolf of Habsburg". — Richard of Cornwall died in 1271. The Electors would have been in no hurry to appoint a successor ; but the Pope found that the confusion caused by the absence of the royal authority in Germany was interfering with the Papal revenue. He therefore let the Electors know that if they did not choose a King he himself would appoint one. At last, in 1273, Rudolf , Count oi Habsburg^ was elected. Habsburg was in Aargaic in the south of Sv/abia. Rudolf was a brave man, and sincerely anxious to put down the disorders which were ruining Germany. He was greatly strengthened by the support of the Church, to which he was always submissive. 3. Otto car, King- of Bohemia. — By far the most power- ful prince of the Empire at this time was Qttocar^ King of Bohemia. Besides his native kingdom, he now held Austria^ Styria^ Carinthia^ and Carniola. He ruled these lands very harshly, and was generally disliked. As he had hpped to have been made King of the Romans himself, he refused to acknowledge Rudolf During the years 1274 and 1275 96 SO VEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. [cHAr. he was three times summoned to do Homage for his lands, but he would not yield. In 1276, therefore, Rudolf marched against him. Rudolf had a large army, for the princes ^vere jealous of Ottocar, and anxious to see him humbled. Seeing this, Ottocar became afraid, and not only did homage for the kingdom of Bohemia, but resigned Austria and the neighbouring lands. Mbst of the princes, thinking the war was at an end, returned to their territories. When they had done so, Ottocar began the war again, hoping to find Rudolf unprepared. In 1278 a fierce battle was fought at the Marchfield^ on the right bank of the Danube. Both sides fought bravely, but at last the Bohemians were defeated, and Ottocar himself was killed. 4. The House of Habsburg receives Austria. — Some time after his victory ovei Ottocar, Rudolf, with the consent of the princes, gave Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola in fief to his sons, Albert and Rudolf. Afterwards Carinthia was given to Count Memhard of Tyrol^ whose daughter was Albert's wife ; and the othe lands were left in the hands of Albert alone. By thes arra ^gements King Rudolf laid the foundations Of the future gr .atness of the house of Habsburg. 5. Rudolf's government. His death. — The crown lands of Germany had at one time been very extensive ; but by the time Rudolf became King, they had nearly all passed into the hands of great nobles. Some of them had been sold by different Emperors to provide money for the wars carried on in Italy ; others had been seized by the Pals- graves who administered them, and by neighbouring princes. Nearly all the royal dues had also been seized or granted away. Rudolf strove hard to win back the royal lands and dues which had been unjustly taken during the Interregnum; and in spite of the difficulties in his way he was to some extent successful. But he probably did most for Germany X.J KING ADOLF. r^^ as an administrator of justice. He revived the system of judicial procedure and police set up by Frederick II., and rode through nearly every part of the kingdom, trying to put a stop 'to private war, and ridding the country of robbers. In Thuringia alone he caused twenty-nine robber nobles to be executed, and destroyed sixty-nine strongholds. In 1 29 1 he tried to get his son Albert elected King ; but the Electors refused to appoint a successor during his lifetime, nominally on the ground that the revenues of the crown, which could ill support one King, could much less support two. In September of the same year Rudolf died, in the seventy-fourth year of his age. His good government had made him a great favourite with the common folk. If the royal power had not been thoroughly undermined before he became King, he would have done much more to make Germany great and prosperous. 6. King Adolf. — Rudolf's successor was Adolf ^ Count ol Nassau. Adolf was very poor, and had no great personal qualities. He was elected chiefly through the influence of Gerhard^ Archbishop of Mainz, his cousin, who hoped to use the new King as a tool for the attainment of his own ends. Like Rudolf, Adolf tried to win back some of the royal lands and dues ; but he could do very little against powerful nobles. He formed an alliance With Edward I. of England, who sent him a large sum of money on con- dition that he should declare war with France. At this time Thuringia was ruled by a very worthless Landgrave, Albert the Degenerate. With the money received from' Edward I. (for which no return v/as ever made) Adolf bought Thuringia from Albert. This gave rise to war, for Albert's two sons refused to give up their inheritance, and they were supported by some princes and by their own vassals. Meanwhile Adolf had been by no means so sub- missive to Gerhard as the latter had hoped. Taking G q8 sovereigns of different houses, [chap. advantage, therefore, of the discontent aroused by Adolf's doings in Thuringia, Gerhard persuaded the Electors to dethrone him, and to elect Albert^ Duke of Aiistria, King Rudolfs son. Adolf resisted, but in 1 298 he was killed in a battle near Worms. Albert was then re-elected and crowned at Aachen. 7* King Albert I. — Albert had none of his father Rudolfs winning qualities. He had been a severe ruler in his own lands, and was anxious to make his house rich and great. He tried to get possession of Bohemia — his son Rudolf ^2iS King of Bohemia for a few months — and the county of Holland ; and he entered Thuringia for the purpose of driving out Frederick^ one of the two brothers who had resisted Adolf, and now Landgrave. Frederick bravely de- fended himself, and was at last allowed to keep his lands in peace, Albert's schemes for enriching his family were cut short by a violent death. His nephew, John^ whom he kept from his inheritance, formed a conspiracy with four other nobles; and on May i, 1308, when the King had just crossed the Reuss^ and was within sight of the castle of Habsburg, they fell upon him and killed him. A convent was after- wards built on the spot where the murder had been com- mitted. Albert had declared Vie7ina the capital of the realm in Austria. 8. Henry VH. — The Electors, being jealous of the house of Austria, chose as King, not one of Albert's sons, but Henry ^ Count of Liltzelburg or Luxemburg. Henry did not hve to do much for Germany ; but he appears to have been one of the wisest of her Kings. His son John., with the consent of the Bohemian States, married Elizabeth^ grand- daughter of King Ottocar^ and thus became King of Bohemia. Bohemia long remained in the possesssion of the house of Luxemburg, so that Henr}^, like King Rudolf, was the means of making his own family very powerful. X.] LEWIS IV. 99 9. Henry VII. becomes Emperor. His death. — No German King, since Frederick II., had been crowned Emperor. King Rudolf had said, " Rome is Hke the hon's den in the fable — one may see the footsteps of many who have gone there, but of none who have come back. ^' The connexion between Germany and Italy was now practically at an end ; and for an Emperor to have claimed authority over any other of the leading European countries would have been ridiculous. But the Germans had long been accustomed to think of themselves as the Imperial race. For centuries their Kings had, at least in name, been rulers of the world. Although all life had gone out of the Empire, they were unwilling to lose the distinction which its con- nexion with their crown gave them. King Henry himself was. anxious to become Emperor. In 1310, therefore, he went to Italy, and received both the Italian and the Imperial crowns. He would probably have restored the Empire to some of its old greatness, but he died suddenly at Bicoiicon- ve7ito in 13 1 3. 10. Election of Frederick of Austria and Lev/is of Bavaria — In choosing a successor to Henry VII., the Electors were divided into two parties. One chose Lewis^ Duke of Bavaria; another, Frederick, Duke of Austria, eldest son of King Albert. Frederick was so handsome that he was known as Frederick the Fair. Both candidates were crowned, Lewis at Aachen, and Frederick at Bonn. The result of this double election and coronation was a terrible war, which lasted for ten years, and did great harm to Germany. The towns for the most part sided with Lewis ; the nobles with Frederick. At last, in 1322, a great battle was fought near Milhldorf. The Austrians. were defeated, and Frederick was taken prisoner, and confined in the Castle of Traus7iitz in the Upper Palatinate. i:. Lewis IV. and Pope John XXII. — Frederick's lOO SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. [CKAP. brother, Duke Leopold, and other princes, would not accept the battle of Miihldorf as decisive. Their cause was greatly strengthened by a quarrel in which Lewis became involved with Pope John XXII. The latter was angry with Lewis for acting as King of the Romans without having received the Papal sanction. Lewis maintained that he received his dignity, not from the Pope, but from the Electors. As he held by this opinion, the Pope not only excommunicated him, but placed under the interdict those parts of Germany which supported him. Thus the old quarrel between the spiritual and the secular powers once more broke out. 12. Lewis IV. becomes sole King-; is crowned Emperor. • — Anxious to obtain peace, Lewis set Frederick free in 1325, on securing a promise from him that he would give up all claims to the crown. The Pope and Duke Leopold, Frede- rick's brother,, refused to be bound by this agreement ; but Frederick remained true to his word. At last, in September, 1325, Lewis and Frederick agreed to share the power be- tween them. This agreement was carried out ; but Frederick took little interest in public affairs, and died in 1330. Lewis then became sole King. The years between 1327 and 1330 he had spent in Italy, where he had been crowned Emperor, first by two heretical Bishops, and afterwards by a Pope of his own creation, called Nicholas V, 13. Lewis IV. supported by his subjects against the Popes. — Although Lewis had appointed an anti-Pope, he tried hard to be reconciled, first to Pope John, and afterwards to Bejtedict XII, John's successor. His efforts failed, partly because they were opposed by France, on which the Popes were at this time practically dependant, and which wished to keep the Empire weak. But the Papacy no longer held tne position with respect to Germany which it had held in the days of Henry IV. and Frederick 11. The cities and X.J LEWIS IV. loi many of the princes, seeing that Papal interference had always brought strife into the kingdom, had become more and more jealous of the Popes. The Popes therefore found, in their quarrel with Lewis, that they had no longer the support of public opinion, which had made former Popes ail-powerful. When Lewis had failed to conciliate Benedict, the States met at Frankfurt in 1338, and openly sided with the Emperor. The Electors, with the exception of King John of Bohemia, w^ho was jealous of the house of Bavaria, and one of Lewis's most persistent enemies, met at Reuse, on the Rhine, and made a solemn declaration that the Emperor .or King of the Romans derived his rank and power, not from the Pope, but from the choice of the Electoral princes. This meeting of the Electors was the first Electoral League. Their decision w^as accepted by the States, proclaimed by the Emperor, and became part of the law of the land. It w^as a decision of great importance, as it legally established the independence of the Empire. 14. Election of Charles IV. Death of Lewis IV. — A wise sovereign would have known how to use the popular feeling in his favour so as to strengthen his own power; but Lewis was very imprudent. In 1323 he had given the Mark of Brandenburg in fief to his son Lewis. He was anxious that this same son should receive Tyrol ; but Margaret Maidtasch, the heiress of Tyrol, was already married to a son of King John of Bohemia. Lewis dis- solved Margaret's marriage, and gave her a dispensation to marry his own son. In taking this step he attacked a Papal right which all acknowledged. Lie therefore not only made reconciliation with the Pope impossible, but turned against him many who had hitherto, supported him. He also roused the jealousy of the princes by greatly enriching his family. He had made his son Lewis a wealtby prince ; and on the deach of William IV. of I02 SOVEREIGNS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES, [chap. Holland, the brother of his second wife, he gave the counties of Holland^ Seeland^ and Heiinegaii in fief to his son William. The ill-will roused by Lewis found expres- sion in 1344 at a second assembly of the Electors, where the princes brought many accusations against him. Two years afterwards Pope Cle7ne7it VI. declared him deposed. This time the Electors were at one with the Pope, and chose to the vacant throne Charles^ Margrave of Moravia, and son of King John of Bohemia. Lewis still claimed to be King and Emperor ; but he died suddenly during a boar hunt in 1347. 1 5. The Kings and their hereditary lands. — Lewis had not, like most of the Kings before him, given up his hereditary lands ; and after his time no German King did so. The reason was that the public revenues had become too small to support the royal and Imperial dignity. The change was not altogether good for the country. The King was now tempted to neglect the general interests of Germany for those of his own immediate subjects, and to look on the crown as little more than a means of enriching himself and his family. 16. The Eidgenossen or Confederates. — It was during the reign of Lewis IV. that the famous battle of Morgarten Pass was fought. The people of Schwyz, Uri, and U7iter- walden^ three districts lying round what is now called the Lake of Lttzer7t^ had always been free, doing allegiance to none save the King or Emperor. When the Counts of Habsburg became Dukes of Austria, they began to covet these districts, within which they already had estates, and to wish to add them to their hereditary possessions. The three districts had already, like other districts and cities of Germany, formed a League for mutual defence ; but they now drew closer together, and prepared to tight, it* necessary, for their freedom. In 13 15, soon after the oui- X.] . THE EIDGENOSSEN. 103 break of war betn^een Frederick and Lewis IV., Leopold, Duke of Austria, marched against the League, for the pur- pose of breaking it up and subduing the people. But his fine army wa"s utterly routed in Morgarieii Pass, and he himself escaped with difficulty. After this the League was favoured by Lewis IV. During his time it was joined by the city of Liizeni; and soon after his death the cities of Zurich^ Ziig^ Giants^ and Bern also joined it, one after the other. The League thus became very strong, and its various members added to their power by seizing or buying, when- ever they had a chance, the lands of neighbouring nobles. The members of the League were called Eidgenossen or Co7ife derates J the League itself was the Old League of High Germany. It was not till long afterwards that the whole Confederation received the name which properly belonged to the one canton oi Schwyz. CHAPTER XI. THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. Charles IV, ; crowned Emperor^ and King of Burgundy (i) — tke plague in Germany ; persecution of the yews (2) — Charles IV, grants the Golden Bull (3) — Charles IV. adds to his hereditary lands; his good government of them ; his death (4) — the House of Austria receives Carinthia and Tyrol (^) — bad goveimiJient of King Wenceslaus ; the Swabian league (6) — the battles op Seinpach and Ndfels (7) — Wenceslaus deposed ; Kijig Rupert (8) election of yobst and Sigmund ; death ofyobst; Sigmund re- elected (9) — the Council of Co7isianz (10) — increased power of the Eidgenossen (ii) — the doctrines of Wy cliff e in Bohemia ; yohn Huss summoned before th/" Council of Constanz ; he is burned as a heretic ; yerome of Prague also burned (12) — the Hussite War; yohn Zisca (13) — the Calixtines a7id the Taborites ; the Calix- tines accept the terms of the Council of Basel ; the Taborites defeated; Sigmtmd becomes King of Bohemia ; his death (14) — Frederick of Hohenzollern receives Brandeiibiug ; Frederick of Meisse7Z receives Sachsen- Wittenberg (i5)« I. Charles IV. — The house of Bavaria refused at first to acknowledge Charles IV. ; and, with the help of the Arch- bishop of Mainz, got Edzvard III of England, and after- wards Frederick^ Margrave oi Meissen., elected. Neit?her of these would accept the crown. Gilnther^ Count of Schwarz- burg., was elected in 1 349, and might have proved a for- midable rival to Charles ; but he suddenly died, perhaps by poison, soon after his election. Charles was then crowned [CH. XT.) THE GOLDEN BULL. ic^- again at Aachen, and reigned without opposition. In 1355 he was crowned Emperor at Ronie^ and in 1365 King of Burgundy at Aries. 2. The plague in Germany ; persecution of the Jews. — In 1349 Germany suffered, Hke the rest of Europe, from a fearful plague, known in England as the Black Death, which had been brought to Italy by ships from the East, and quickly spread to other countries. Hundreds of thousands died within a short time. Everywhere men were anxious and disturbed, and submitted to all kinds of penances to appease what was believed to be the Divine .wrath. A belief arose that the Jews had brought on the plague by poisoning springs and rivers. This led to a persecution so dreadful that many Jews set fire to their houses and perished in the flames rather than fall into the hands of their enemies. It was only when the princes, and especially the spiritual princes, interfered that the persecu- tion gradually died out. 3. The Golden Bull. — Charles IV. almost wholly neglected Germany. Instead of trying to win back the crown lands, he sold what still remained of them. He also enriched himself by selling honours and privileges, raising many, in return for money, to noble and even princely rank. In 1356 he granted a charter called the Goldeii Biill^ which finally settled everything connected with the election of the King. The number of the Electors was fixed at seven. The King of Bohemia was not only confirmed in his right of voting, but was declared the first secular Elector. The Archbishop of Mainz was made convener of the Electoral College. All cases were to be decided by a majority of votes. The elections were always to take place at Frank- ^urt^ and the coronations at Aachen. The Electors had already acquired a great position ; but the Golden Bull added to tneir importance. They received full sovereign rights £o6 THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. [char within their territories ; there was to be no appeal from their courts unless they refused to dispense justice ; and their persons were declared sacred. These privileges raised them still further above other princes, and made them, taken together, of more importance than the King or Emperon 4. Charles IV. and his hereditary lands. — Charles greatly increased his hereditary lands. By his second wife he obtained the Upper Palatinate; and he united the whole of Silesia and Lower Lusatia to Bohemia. He also gained the Mark of Brandenburg from the house of Bavaria. While he was a bad German King and Emperor, he ruled all the lands directly subject to him in a very enlightened spirit. Bohemia flourished under him as it had done under no former King. He greatly improved Prague^ the Bohemian capital, and founded there a University which soon became a famous centre of thought and learning^ Charles died at Prague in 1378, Two years before the Electors had chosen his son Wenceslaus to be King of the Romans. 5. Growing power of the House of Austria. — The house of Austria, like that of Luxemburg, added greatly to its power about this time. In 1335 it received Carinthia, after the death of LLenry^ the last descendant, in the male line, of Meinhard^ to whom King Rudolf had given the Duchy. When Margaret Maultasck, Henry's daughter, died in 1366, Tyrol was claimed by the house of Bavaria ; but in 1369 it was finally given up to the house of Austria, to which Margaret had bequeathed it. From this iix^^-Carin- thia and Tyrol always belonged to the Dukes of Austria. 6. King Wenceslaus. The Swabian League. — Wenceslaus was neither a good Bohemian nor a good German King. He was a man of coarse nature, fond of low pleasures, and sometimes savagely cruel The result of his and his xr.l THE BATTLES OF SEMPACH AND NAFETS. 107 fp.thers neglect of Germany was that something hke the confusion of the Inte?'rcgnum returned. There were never more robber barons, and there were petty wars everywhere throughout the kingdom. The towns had to maintain their freedom by constant fighting. Those of Swabia, following the example of the Eidgenosse^i and of the Rhenish and Hansa towns, formed at this time a great League, which took in at first thirty-four, and afterwards forty-one towns, together with some nobles. If there had been a King in Germany wise enough to ally himself with this and the other Confederations, much of the royal power might have been won back ; but Wenceslaus v\'as too indolent to do more than give a feeble encouragement to the various Lea:^ues. In opposition to the Leagues of towms, the princes and nobles also formed Confederations, to which they gave such names as the Society of St. George^ St. William^ the Lion^ or the Panther. 7. The Battles of Sempach and Nafels. — During the reign of Wenceslaus, Duke Leopold of Austria, nephew of tlie Leopold who had fought at Morgarten Pass, made a great effort to conquer the Eidge7iossen, who had received into their League some towns owing allegiance to Austria. Leopold was joined by many princes and nobles, who were jealous of the growing power of the League. A great battle was fought at Sevipach in 1386. The Austrians and their allies were utterly defeated ; and Leopold himself was killed. Two years afterwards an important victory was gained by Glariis at Nafels. In consequence of these victories, the Eidgenossen were allowed to keep the lands they had conquered and the towns which had voluntarily Joined them. 8. 'Wenceslaus deposed. King Rupert. — Wenceslausr was so bad a King that in 1400 the Electors met and dethroned him, on the ground that he wholly failed in his duties. They lo8 THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. [chap. v/ere stirred up to do this by Boniface IX., one of the two Popes who at this time divided the Western Church, and Doth of whom Wenceslaus had wished to depose. By a majority of votes the Electors chose Rupert of the Palatinate as Wenceslaus^ successor. Rupert was in every way worthy of his position ; but a party still supported Wenceslaus, and even those who were in favour of the new King were not inclined to give him more than a nominal obedience. Con- sequently nothing of any importance was done during his reign. He tried to go to Rome, but was defeated at Brescia, In 1410 he died. 9. King Sigmund. — Two Kings were now elected, Jobst^ Margrave oi Moravia, and Sigmund, brother of Wenceslaus. Sigmund was Margrave of Brandenburg, and had been made King of Hungary. Jobst very soon died, so that a new election took place. This time the votes of all the Electors were for Sigmund. Great hopes were raised by his election, for he had some good qualities ; but in the end he often showed himself rash and narrow-minded. He lacked firmness, and was thus led sometimes to do things probably condemned by his own better judgment. 10. The Council of Constanz. — There were at this time three Popes, and in Germany, as elsewhere, many abuses had crept into the Church. Benefices were often sold to the highest bidder, and the moral condition of the clergy v\^as in many cases very bad. A Ge7ieral Council had met at Pisa in 1409, but Sigmund induced Pope John XXIII. to join him in summoning another, which assem- bled at Constanz in 14 14, and sat till 141 8. Sigmund took a leading part in the proceedings of the Council of Constanz, and even went to Spain to try to induce Benedict XIII to carry out its wishes by resigning. Whiie he was away from Germany at this time, Sigmund visited Paris and London. XL] JOHN IIUSS, 109 11. Increased power of the Eidgenossen. — The assembling of the Council was indirectly the means of adding greatly to the importance of the Eidgeiiosseit. After having promised to resign, Vo^€Johu XXIII. fled from Constanz to Schaff- haicse7i^ where he found refuge in the castle of Duke Frederid: of Austria. Sigmund put Frederick to the ban of the Empire, and stirred up the Eidgenossen to make war on him. Bern at once did so ; and it was soon joined by the other cantons. When Frederick made peace with Sigmund he received back many of his possessions ; but the Eidgenossen refused to give up what they had con- quered. They thus kept Aargau^ in which was the castle of Habsbitrg^ and other lands and towns. 12. The doctrines of Wycliffe in Bohemia. John Huss. — At this time a movement was going on in Bohemia which led to very important results. The University of Prague, which Charles IV. had founded, was divided into four nations — the Bohemia7t^ the Saxon^ the Bavarian^ and the Polish — each possessing one vote. A strong party had grown up among the Bohemians, which held in the main the doctrines of the Englishman, Wycliffe. The leader of this party" was John Hicss^ a professor of philosophy. As the other nations were opposed to the Wycliffite doctrine, there were constant disputes between them and the Bohemians. In 1409, Wenceslaus, who was still King of Bohemia, changed the constitution of the University, giving three votes to the Bohemian nation and only one to the others. The German students and professors felt insulted by this, and at once left Prague, going for the most part to the University recently founded at Leipzig. The reforming party was now all-powerful, and Huss, who was made Rector of the University, began to speak very strongly against the abuses of the Church. He thus roused the hatred of the clergy, and at last the Pope excommunicated no THE LUXEMBURG EMPERORS. [chap. him, and placed Prague under the interdict so long as it should shelter him. When the Council of Constanz met, Huss was summoned to appear before it. The Council thought his doctrines dangerous both to Church and Stat'^, and soon after he reached Constanz caused him to be seized and thrown into prison. On July 6, 141 5, he was burned. He had received a safe-conduct from the King ; but Sigmund was weak or base enough to let the Council persuade him that he ought not to keep his word with a heretic. The movement in Bohemia displeased Sigmund, not only because he thought it heretical, but because it was arousing among the Bohemians a national life which must, sooner or later, tend to separate them from the Empire. In 141 6, Jeroine of Prague^ who had first brought Wycliffe's writings to Prague, was also burned in Constanz. 13. The liussite War. — The burning of Huss and Jerome of Prague caused a very bitter feeling in Bohemia, and this was increased by further attempts made by the Council of Constanz and by Pope Martin V. to put down the heretics. When Wenceslaus died in 14 19, Signtund claimed to be King of Bohemia. If he had tried to conciliate the more moderate Hussites he might have gained the crown at once ; but, instead of doing so, he caused a crusade to be preached against all PIuss^s followers, and thus united them against him. The war which followed was a very fierce one, and lasted fifteen years. The Hussites were at first led by John Zisca^ one of the greatest generals that ever lived. He became blind ; but his followers had unbounded trust in him, and he led them from one victory to another. He died in 1424. After his death, his spirit seemed still to live among the Hussites, for they not only defeated army after army sent against them, but invaded and laid waste the lands lying around Bohemia. 14. Sigmund receives the crown of Bohemia. His XI.] SIGMUND AND THE UTRAOUISTS. in death. — The Council of Basel met in 143 1, and soon began to negotiate with the Hussites. The latter were divided into two parties — the Calixtines and the Taborites. The chief doctrine of the~ Calixtines (Kalyx^ a cup) was that laymen as well as the clergy ought to receive the cup in the com- munion. The Taborites w^ent much further than this, and wished to remain for ever separate from the Church. They received their name from a hill which Zisca had made his headquarters and had strongly fortified, and which had been called Mount Tabor, In 1433 the Calixtines, also called Utraquists, cam^ to an agreement with the Basel Council, which permitted the use of the cup ; and returned to the Church. The Taborites looked on this as treachery, and turned against their old friends ; but in 1434 they were utterly defeated near Prague. Sigmund then confirmed the agreement made between the Council and the Utraquists, and was acknowledged King of Bohemia. He did not, however, act fairly, for when he came to Prague he tried to put down the Utraquists, and to bring back the Catholic worship. He died in 1437. In 1433 he had been crowned Emperor. 15. Brandenburg and Sachsen-Wittenberg. — In 141 5, in return for 400,000 Hungarian gulden, Sigmund gave the Mark of Brandenburg in fief to Frederick^ Count of Hohen- zollern: From this time the house of Hohenzollern always held Brandenburg. Sachse?t- Wittenberg \\2ihg\wQnm 1423, also in return for money, to Frederick, Margrave of Meissen and Landgrave of TJiuringia, Both princes received the Electoral dignity along with their new lands. CHAPTER XIL EIIPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. Albert of Austria elected; his firin government ; his death (i) — Frederick of Styria becomes King ; supports the Pope against the princes (2) — -Frederick III. crowned Fjnperor ; confirms to the House of Austria the title of Archduke {^f) — the Turks threaten Christendom (4) — Ladislaus, Albert IL^s son^ dies ; Frederick III. receives Lower Austria ; George Podiebrad becomes King of Bohemia^ and Matthias Corvinus King of Htingary (5) — wars in Germajty [6)—distm'bances in Austria (7) — Charles the Bola' defeated by the Fidgenossen (8) — Maximilian^ Frederick IIL^s son, marries Mary of Burgtiitdy (9) — wars of Frederick III. and Matthias Corvinus [lo)— the Swabian Coitfederation ; death of Frederick III. (11) — the Teutonic Order has to give up the westei^n part of Prussia to the King of Poland, and to do homage for the rest (12) — character and power of Maximilian I. {13) — Marriage of Philip, son of Maximilian /., with the Infanta Joanna (14) — a perpetual peace proclaimed; the ImpeiHai Chamber ; the common pe7t7iy [i^)— foreign wars of Maximilian I. (16) — the Turks {iy)—war of Maxi7nilian I. with the Swiss League (18) — zvar of the Bavarian succession (19) — Mdxijjiilian L takes the titles of ^^ Fmpei'or Elect ^^ and ^^King of Ger- many^'' (20) — Germany divided into Ciixles (21) — the Aulic Council (22) — death of Maxi7?iilian I. (23) — the end of the Middle Ages (24) — positio?i of the Gernian Kings (25) — the pidnces ; the Provincial States (26) — the free Lnperial cities (27) the Diet (28) — the Rojnan Law in Ge^'many (29) — Universities [CH. XII.] ALBERT IL 113 of Ger}7iany ; the Revival of learnmg (30) — the Literature of the people (31). 1. Albert I!: — After Sigmund died, his son-in-law, Albert^ Duke of Austria, was made King of Bohemia and of Hun- gary ; and in 1438 he was chosen King of the Romans. From this time the Imperial crown was held without inter- ruption by the house of Austria till the male line died out. At this time the affairs of the Church were the chief subject of interest to Germany as well as to the rest of Europe. The Council of Basel had quarrelled with Pope Euge7iiiis JV.^ who was supported by all who opposed the reformation of the Church. At first Germany took neither side in this quarrel ; but in 1439 Albert, with the approval of the Diet, accepted the reforming decrees of the Council, and thus recognized its authority. If these decrees had been carried out, the Church might have been spared much future humiliation. Albert acted as wisely in civil as in ecclesiastical matters, so that his reign promised to be a very prosperous one ; but he suddenly died, after a campaign against the Turks, in 1439. 2. Frederick III. — Albert II. was succeeded on the Ger- man throne by Frederick^ Duke of Styria, Frederick reigned longer than any German King either before or after his time, but did nothing great. He was a grave and thoughtful man, but he lacked energy, and was too poor to do much without the help of the States, which were now almost always unwilling to interfere in matters not directly affecting themselves. Germany still supported the Council of Basel ; but Frederick sided with the Pope. In 1445 Eugenius IV. deposed the Archbishops of K'obi and Trier. The Electors felt themselves wronged by this insult to two of their number, and, meeting at Frankfurt^ made various de- mands on the Pope, requiring, among other things, that he H 1 14 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A USTRIA, [chap. should recognize the decrees of Constanz and Basel. Frederick III., with the help of his secretary, j^iieas Sylviics, who afterwards became Pope, not only got the Electors to moderate their demands, but in the end reconciled them to Eugenius. He afterw^ards concluded with Nicolas V. the Concordat of Vicjuta, by which the Pope received back almost all the rights which the Basel Council had taken fi'om him. To this Concordat the assent of the princes, one after the other^ was afterwards obtained. By his friendship with the Pope Frederick hoped to gain back some of the lost rights of the German Kings. He thus turned against the princes the very weapon with which they had in former times attacked the royal and Imperial authority. But it, was now too late to take this com'se. An alliance between the Pope and the German King would once have done great things for both ; but they had quarrelled so long, and weakened each other so thoroughly, tha.t their friendship was now of very little use to either. 3. Frederick HI. and the House of Austria. — Frederick was crowned Emperor at Rome in 1452. He was the last Emperor crov/ned at Rome,, and the last but one who received the Imperial crown from a Pope. When he became Emperor he confirmed to the House of Austria the title of Archduke, which had been first taken by Duke Rjcdolf in the time of the Emperor Charles IV. He also granted privileges to his family which raised it above all other princely houses except those of the Electors. 4. The Turks. — A great danger at this time threatened Germany. This was the advance of the Turks, who took Constantinople in 1453, and destroyed the Eastern Empire. Frederick wished to join the Pope in keeping back this powerful enemy; but the States would not support him, partly from indifference to what affected the general weal, and partly because they feared that if they should contribute XII. ] fVAJ^S IN GERMANY. 1 1 5 men and money the Pope and the Emperor would use these for their private ends. The defence of Christendom by land was thus left chiefly to the Poles and the Hungarians. In 1456 the Turks besieged Belgrade; but they were driven back with great loss by the Hungarians, who were led by their regent, JoJui Huniades. 5. Death of Ladislaus, son of Albert II. — Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert II., had succeeded his father as Duke of Austria and as King of Hungary and Bohemia. He died in 1457. The Emperor then claimed, as head of his house, the whole of Austria ; but he had to give up Upper Austria to his brother Albert^ and to content himself with Lower Austria. He next tried to obtain the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns. The Bohemians, hov/ever, elected George Podiebrad^ a Utraquist nobleman, who had already acted as regent ; and Matthias Corvinus^ son of John Huniades^ was made King of Hungary. In the end Frederick had to recognise both of these Kings. 6. Wars in Germany. — The reign of Frederick was a time of great confusion in Germany, for when he interfered in its affairs he had no power to enforce his decrees. A war, called the Margraves' War, went on for seven years, from 1449, between Albert^ Margrave of Brandenburg^ and the city of Niiriiberg, Many princes joined Albert ; and NUrnberg was supported by the Eidgenossen and more than seventy cities. At last, in 1456, the war was ended by the defeat of Albert ; but in the end the city had to pay to him a large sum. Another war was carried on against Frederick of the Rhenish Palatinate. He took the Arch- bishop of Mains^ when deposed by the Pope, under his protection. As usual, the Emperor sided with the Pope, and put Frederick to the ban of the Empire. Albert of Brandenburg., and Ulrich., Count of WUrtemberg., under, took to execute the Imperial sentence; but, in 1462, both 1 1 6 EMPERORS OF THE HO USE OF A USTRIA, [chap. were defeated, Ulrich by Frederick himself, and Albert by Frederick's ally, Lewis ^ Duke of Bavaria, Other wars were carried on which did much harm to all classes, but especially to the peasantry. 7. Disturbances in Austria. — Even in Lower Austria the Emperor was treated with very little respect. In 1462 the people of Vienna rebelled against him, and besieged him in the citadel, in which he had taken refuge with the Empress and their young son Maximilian, Frederick's brother Albert took part with Vienna. The Emperor in vain appealed to the States to help him ; but at last George Podiebrad, King of Bohemia, sent an army to his relief. In 1462 he was compelled to give up Lower Austria, with Vienna, for eight years to his brother. Albert, however, made himself as unpopular as the Emperor had done ; and he died in 1463. Flis death made Frederick master of all the Austrian lands except Tyrol. 8. Charles the Bold and the Eidgenossen. — The wealthiest prince of this time was Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy . Besides the DtccJiy of Burgundy, he held the Free County of Burgundy and greater part of the Lozv Coitntries. He wished to restore the old Lotharingia by founding a great border kingdom, reaching from the Mediterranean to the North Sea, between France and Germany. In 1476 he made war on the Eidgenossen, whom Lewis XL of France had stirred up against him. The Eidgenossen never fought more bravely than in this war, for they defeated Charles in two great battles, first at Granson and afterwards at Moral. In 1477 they helped Re7ie\ Duke of Lorraine, to win the battle of Nancy, in which Charles was killed. These great victories did much to draw the Eidgenossen, who now began to be called Szuiss, closer together, and to give tham a feeling of national life. But they still remained part of the Empire. xn.] FREDERICK in. AND MATTHIAS CORVINUS. 117 9. Marriag-e cf Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy. — There had been negotiations between the Emperor Frederick and Charles the Bold for the marriage of Mary., Charles's daughter, wilh Maxiinilian^ Frederick's son ; but some mis- understanding had arisen, and the negotiations were broken off. When Charles died, Mary gave her hand of her own will to Maximihan. Through this marriage the house of Austria received the Low Cotmtries and the Free Cotniiy of Burgundy. The DucJiy of Burgundy had been seized by the French King when Charles the Bold died ; and it was not again given up. Mary died in 1482, leaving a son and daughter, Philip and Margaret. 10. Frederick III. and Matthias Corvinus. — Georo-e Podie- brad died in 147 1. The Emperor again tried to gain the crown of Bohemia ; but the Bohemian States elected Wladislaics^ son of Casijnir IV., King of Poland. Frederick had been won over by Pope Paid II. against Podiebrad, and had stirred up Matthias Corviiiits., King of Hungary, to make war on Bohemia. But Frederick w^as jealous of the great power of Matthias, and now not only left him, but supported Wladislaus against him, and excited rebellion in Hungary, hoping in the end to gain the Hungarian crown for himself and his house. Matthias twice made war on Austria, and the second time (1485) not only overran the Archduchy, but took Vienna. At this time the Emperor, nominally the greatest of earthly rulers, had to fly for his life, and was glad to find shelter in the monasteries and tow^ns he passed. Matthias kept possession of Austria till his death in 1490. Frederick then recovered his lands, and tried to get either himself or his son Maximilian elected King of Hungary. The Hungarian States, however, were jealous of the house of Austria, and chose as their King Wladislaus., King of Bohemia. 11. The Swabian Confederation. Death of Frederick III. 1 18 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OB A USTRIA. [chap. ■ — There had been so many private wars 'in Frederick's time that the nation was longing for peace. At a Diet held in i486, therefore, a public peace was proclaimed for ten years. Two years afterwards, partly through the efforts of Frederick, a great new Confederation was formed in Swabia. It took in many princes, nobles, and cities. About this time the Duke of Bavaria had seized Regensbtirg^ and was threatening other free towns. The Confederation soon compelled him to submit ; and it gradually became so powerful that it did more than could have been done by either the Emperor or the Diet to keep the peace in South Germany. Frederick died in 1493, having reigned upwards of fifty-three years. For some time he had given up the government, both of Austria and Germany, to his son, Maximiliafi^ who had been elected King of the Romans in i486. 12. Prussia and the Teutonic Order. — For a long time Prussia flourished under the Teutonic knights. But the Order gradually got corrupted by prosperity, and began to rule badly. In the beginning of the fifteenth century it was defeated and humbled by the Polish* king, Jagello7i. In 1454, the towns and nobles rebelled against the" Order, and called in Casimir IV., King of Poland, to their help. A war followed which did not end till 1466. The Order had then, in the Peace of Thorn, to give up the western part of Prussia to Casimir, and to do homage for the eastern^ which it was allowed to keep. 13. Maximilian I. — Maximilian I. was a very different man from his father. He was eager and restless, fond of war and adventure, and always forming some scheme or other for adding to his own power. Even if he had not been King of the Romans, he would have been a powerful prince. He was, in his own right, Archduke of Austria^ Duke of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and Count of XIT.] THE D1E7' OF WORAIS, 14^^. 119 Tyrol ; and he had lands in Swabia and Elsass. As guardian to his son Philips he also ruled the Low Countries and the County of Burgundy, 14. Marriage of Philip with the Infanta Joanna. — The year after he succeeded to the throne, Maximilian gave up the government of the Low Countries to his son Philip. Philip afterwards married Joanna^ daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, who had united by their marriage the king- doms of Aragon and Castile. This marriage led to very important results. Philip and Joanna had two sons, Charles and Ferdinand, These sons afterwards became Emperors, . one after the other ; and from them sprang the Austrian and Spanish branches of the House of Habsburg, 15. The Diet of Worms, 1495. — In 1494, Charles VIIL of France made his famous expedition into Italy. Maxi- milian was eager to oppose him, and to assert the old Im- perial rights over the southern kingdom. As he could do very little without the help of the States, he summoned a Diet at Worms in 1495. This was one of the most famous of all the Diets, All good men in Germany now were sincerely anxious that the custom of private warfare should be put -down. At this Diet, a perpetual p7iblic peace was proclaimed, and the right of private feuds declared at an end. The States then urged Maximilian to set up some court by which disputes might be finally settled, so that there should be no excuse for carrying on private war. Maximilian was veiy unwilling to give up any of his royal rights ; but at last, in the hope that by yielding he might gain the support of the States against the French, he agreed to set up a court of appeal called the Imperial Chamber. This court was to be made up of 2i judge., or presidejtt, and sixteen assessors. The judge was to be appointed by the King ; but the assessors were to be named by the States, and only to be confirmed by the King. If any one should I20 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A U STRIA, [chap. refuse to submit to a decision of the court, it was to have the power of putting him to the ban of the Empire. A tax called the co7nmo7i pe7iny^ to be raised in all the States of Germany, was to be partly devoted to the support of the tribunal. Maximilian never liked the court, and did every- thing he could to make it fail ; but it went on after his time until the Empire was broken up. It had usually, however, too little power, and was too slow and formal in its pro- ceedings to be very useful. 1 6. Foreign Wars of Maximilian I. — Maximilian took part in many wars in which Germany was not directly mixed up. They had almost all to do with Italy, which several French kings, one after the other, and Ferdinand of Spain, tried hard at this time to conquer. In 1508 Maxi- milian joined the League of Cainbray^ formed for the purpose of breaking up the Venetian Republic. He after- wards helped the so-called Holy League against Lewis XII. of France. In almost all his foreign wars Maximihan was very unsuccessful. The chief cause of this was his want of money. He often tried to get the States to help him ; but they usually insisted that what Germany really needed was peace and order, not war. He had therefore to trust chiefly to his hereditary possessions. Although these were very great, they did not enable him to fight on equal terms with Kings like Lewis XII., or Ferdinand, especially as he was lavish in his habits, and often wasted great sums of money in foolish display. His poverty led him sometimes to act in a way that was unworthy of his great position. At the siege of Terottenne he served under Henry VIII of England for the pay of 100 crowns a-day. 17. The Turks. — In the latter part of Frederick III.'s reign, the Turks had, over and over again, entered Car- inthia, Carniola, and Styria, and had done much harm. Maximilian always professed to be anxious to lead a crusade XII.] JVA/^ OF THE BAVARIAN SUCCESSION. I2i against them, in order to drive them altogether from Europe ; but the Sta^esf '"distrusting both him and the Pope, who supported him, refused to help him, so that his schemes came'to nothing. During his reign, however, the Turks did not invade any of the lands held by the House of Austria. 1 8. Maximilian I. and the Swiss Leag-ue. — In 1499, Maximilian made war on the Swiss League^ as we may now call the League of the Eidgenosse7i^ partly because it would not acknowledge the Imperial Chamber, but chiefly because it helped the French in their attempt to conquer .Italy. In this, as in his other wars, the States supported Maximilian very unwillingly ; and his own troops were defeated at Dornach. He was therefore obliged to con- clude a peace, by which the members of the Confederation were declared free from Imperial taxation and the juris- diction of the Imperial Chamber. The League was still nominally part of the Em.pire for about a century and a half ; but from this time it was practically independent. 19. War of the Bavarian succession. — The house of Bavaria was still divided into two lines, the Palatine and the Bavarian; and the latter took in the two branches of Landshiit and Munich. When George^ Duke of Bavaria- Landshut, died, in 1503, the Dukes of Bavaria-Munich claimed to be his lawful heirs ; but he had left his lands to his daughter, Elizabeth^ and her husband, Rupert^ and they were supported by the Rhenish Palsgrave, Rupert's father. The matter came before the Imperial Chamber, but Rupert and his father would not accept its decision. Maximilian made war on them ; and he was joined by the Swabiar. League and some powerful princes. This was the most successful of all Maximilian's wars. He defeated the forces of the enemy, and in the end not only got the dispute settled according to his wish, but added 122 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA, [chap. various Bavarian towns and lands to- his hereditary pos- sessions. 20. Maximilian I. takes the titles of ** Emperor Elect" and *'King" of Germany," — In 1508, Maximilian v^as about to march to Rom.e to be crowned Emperor ; but the Vene- tians refused to let him pass through their territory. With the sanction of Pope JitliiLS IL^ therefore, he took the title of " Emperor Elect " without being crowned Emperor at all. He also added to his other titles that of " King of or in Germany" — a title that does not occur before his time. 21. Germany divided into Circles. — Albert II. had tried to divide Germany into Circles^ that he might be the better a,ble to put down private war ; but he had not lived long enough to carry out his plan. In Maximilian's time it was again taken up; and, in 1501, the Circles of Bavaria^ Swabia, Franconia^ the Upper Rhine^ Westphalia^ and Lower Saxony^ were formed. In 1512, at a Diet in Koln^ it was agreed that the hereditary dominions of Maximilian and the Electoral princes, which had hitherto been left out, should also be divided into Circles. Thus the four new Circles of Austria^ Bicrgimdy^ the Lower Rhine, and Upper Saxony, w^ere added to those already existing. Each of these ten Circles had its own States, presided over by one or more Directors. The duty of the Government of a Circle was to carry out the decisions of the Imperial Chamber, and generally to maintain order. It was some years before the Circles were thoroughly formed. They never did so much as many hoped they might do ; but they were a great advance on the disorder of the time of PYederick III. 22. The Aulic Council. — Maximilian ruled his hereditary lands with great vigour. Amongst other things he set up a tribunal which was to receive appeals from lower courts. This tribunal was afterwards called the Aulic Council, and became a court of appeal for the whole of Germany. It XII.] 7 HE END OF THE MIDDLE AGES, 123 lasted, like the Imperial Chamber, till the Empire broke up ; but, as its judges were appointed by the Emperor, it never thoroughly gained the confidence of the country. 23. Death of -Maximilian I. — Maximilian went on almost till his death forming great schemxes, which he was never able to fulfil. He seems at one time even to have had the idea of getting himself elected Pope. At his very last Diet held \Vi Aicgsburg 'm. 1518, he did everything he could to rouse the States to join him in a cmsade against the Turks. He also tried, but in vain, to get his grandson, Charles^ elected King of the Romans. While on his way home from the Diet of Augsburg, Maximilian died in 1519, at Wels^ in Upper Austria. 24. The end of the Middle A^es. — The Middle Ages may now be said to have nearly come to an end in Germany. The Empire v/as no longer looked on as a universal mon- archy ; and, as we shall see, the Church was soon to be broken up by the great movement of the Reformation. Some of the chief features oi feiidalism had also begun to disappear. The forms of feudalism were still, to some extent, kept up ; but feudal lords no longer received direct service in war from their vassals in return for their lands. Princes now for the most part m.ade war by means of hired troops. This change was brought about by the discovery of giin- pozi'der, which made a body of common men on foot more than a match for an equal number of even the bravest knights on horseback armed in the old way. The demand for fighting men led many to give themselves up to a life of war. Those who did so were called " La7idskfiechte^^ a word first applied to mercenaries from the lowlands of Austria as opposed to those of Switzerland.. The Lands- hiechte served under those princes who paid them best, no matter what might be the cause for which they had to fight. They made good soldiers, but were usually men of wild 124 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A USTRIA, [cHAr. lives, and when not in active service were a cause of great annoyance to honest people both in the towns and in the country. 25. Position of the German Kingfs. — The German King had now no certain revenue as King, and he exercised very little real power in Germany. Since the Interreg?i2i7ji the princes had greatly strengthened the independence whose foundation they had laid at that time and in the troubled reigns that had gone before it from the days of Henry IV. Many Im- perial cities had also become //r^. Nevertheless the German Kings took a far higher place in Europe after the time of Maximilian I. then they had done for a very long time before. This was not because they were German Kings or Emperors, but because they were great princes altogether apart from their royal and Imperial position. It was not always good for Germany that the crown was held by princes so powerful in their own right, for the Austrian Emperors as a rule tried to use their position as a means of adding to the greatness of their house. Above all, they tried to drag Germany into wars waged by Austria against other countries, but with which the kingdom of Germany had really little or nothing to do. 26. The princes. The provincial States. — Although the princes owed only a nominal allegiance to the King, they were not usually altogether absolute rulers, for in almost every principality there were now States holding the same relation to the prince that the Diet held to the King. The States of a principality were made up of the vassals of the prince, and of representatives from its free cities. The prince had to get the approval of his States before he could lay on taxes ; and in some cases he had even to give an account of the way in which he spent public money. The nobles for the most part refused to pay taxes, on the plea that it was service in war, not money, they owed their lord for xiL] THE FREE IMPERIAL CITIES, 125 their lands. The burden thus fell chiefly on those who held allodial lands, on the citizens of towns, and on the peasantry. The latter class had no part in the provincial Diets, and were usually treated with great harshness. The tyranny of their lords roused deep discontent in the minds of the peasants ; and more than once during Maximilian^s reign they formed secret Leagues in different parts of the country, w^hich had to be put down by force. 27. The Free Imperial Cities. — The free Imperial cities now held a very high place in Germany. They had become rich and powerful, and could hold their own against the greatest princes. The Haiisa was about this time at the height of its fame. Within the cities themselves contests had long been going on between the old families, who formed a sort of civil aristocracy, and were called Patricians^ and the Gilds, The Gilds had not only won for themselves a share in the government in almost all cities, but had in very many got the upper hand, and made the government thoroughly democratic. 28. The Diet. — The Diet was now made up of three Colleges — the Electors, the princes, and the representatives of free Imperial cities. It w^as still nominally a national council ; but in reality it did very little. The princes and free Imperial cities were now at all times too jealous of each other and of the Emperor to do much for the common good. 29. The Roman law in Germany. — A great change had taken place in Germany in the administration of justice. During the greater part of the Middle Ages, as in earlier times, justice was administered in accordance with old usages. If the sovereign had remained a King and nothing more, these usages would gradually have given rise to a body of German law ; but, as he was Roman Emperor as well as King, his subjects came to believe that they were 126 EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF A USTRIA. [chap. bound by Roman law. Thus the Roman law gradually came into use, first in the free Imperial cities, and afterwards in the tribunals of princes. From 1495 the Imperial Chamber was to judge according to the law of the Empire and written {i.e, Roman) law. The Emperors did everything they could to encourage its use, for it gave them great power. Without doing away with the feudal law of the land, it was now appealed to in the greater part of Germany. 30. Universities of Germany. The Revival of Learning". — The example of Charles IV., in founding the University of Prague, had soon been followed by a number of princes in Germany, Universities were founded in the fourteenth century in Vienna, Heidelberg, Koht, and Erfttrtj and, in the fifteenth, in Rostock, Greifswald, Tilbi7ige7i, Leipzig, and other towns. For a long time the chief studies at the universities were Theology and the Scholastic Philosophy ; but towards the end of the fifteenth century a great move- ment began, called the Revival of Learning. The leading Latin authors had always been more or less studied ; but men now began to read eagerly, in addition to these, the Greek classics, and to think more freely on almost all subjects. Those who did so were called Htcmanists. The movement had begun in Italy, and had been greatly helped by the invention of printing, made by John GtUtenbe?'g of Mainz in the middle of the fifteenth century. Among the greatest of the Hinnanisis were John Reicchlin^ Desiderius Erasmus, and Ulrich von Hutten, 31. Literature of the people. — It was not only at the universities that a new spirit of inquiry was awakened about this time ; the people also began to think and read for themselves. Their favourite books Avere Tyll Eulenspiegel, Reineke Fuchs, and the Narrenschiff of Sebastian Brant. The two first were written originally in XII.] LITERATURE OF THE PEOPLE. 127 Low Dutch dialects. All of them were more or less satirical, and attacked with especial delight the vices of the clergy. They thus gave expression to, and deepened, a popular feeling which had long been preparing the way for the Reform.ationa CHAPTER XIII. CHARLES V. — THE REFORMATION. Election of Charles K ( I ) — Martin Luther protests against indul- gences ; beginning of the Reformation (2) — Luther is exco77i- niunicated ; burns the Pope^s Bull (3) — Charles V. sides with the Catholic Chmxh (4). — Luther before the Diet of Worms (5) — fori?iation of an Administrative Council ; a Matricula (6) — wars of Charles V, and Francis /. (7) — Luther'' s doctrines accepted by princes and cities ; 7nar7 iage of Luther ; the Diet of Speyer^ 1^26 ; changes in the Church in various States (8) — Franz von Sickingen (9) — the war of the peasantry (10) — Albert of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia (ii) — the Archduke ■ Ferdinand becomes King of Bohemia and Hungary (12) — the Lutherans receive the name of Protestants (13) — the Reformation in Switzerland (14) — the Diet of Augsburg, ijjo ; the Augsburg Confession ;- decree condemning Luthei'' s dod^nnes (15) — the Arch- duke Ferdinand is elected King of the Romans {16)— the Schinal- kaldic League (i"]) — t/te Tui^ks threaten Gennany ; the Religious Peace ofNiirnberg {\%)— foreign wars of Charles V. (i())—fui'ther progress of the Refor7nation {20)— Charles V, and the Protestants prepare for war (21) — death of Luther (22) — the Schmalkaldic war ; triumph of the Empe7''or {2^^ — the Tnteri7n (24) — 7^ebellio7z of Maurice of Saxony ; Hen7y LL, of Fra7ice seizes Ger77ia7i lands ; flight of Chaj'les V. (25) — the T7xaty of Passau {26) — Cha7des V, tries to take the te7'ritory seized by Henry LI., but fails (27) — tJie Religious Peace of Augsbuig (28) — abdication and death of Cha7'les V, (2())-^political effects of the Refo7'77iatio7i (30) — Lite7'atu7x a7id A7't {31). I. Election of Charles V. — After Maximilian's death, [CH. xiii.] MARTIN LUTHER, 129 three sovereigns tried to obtain the crown — Henry VIII. of England, Francis I, of France, and Charles^ Maximilian's grandson. Henry soon withdrew ; but Francis used every means in his power to win over the Electors. In 15 19 Charles was elected, and next year he was crowned at Aachen. Charles was already King of Spain and of the Two Sicilies; and he held the Low Countries and the County of Burgundy. He also shared with his brother Ferdinand the Archduchy of Austria and the sister Duchies. When, therefore, he was made King of the Romans, he became by far the greatest sovereign who had reigned in Europe since Charles the Great. Fearing his great power, the Electors made him sign a formal deed before his elec- tion, in which he confirmed the States in all their rights and privileges. This was ' done by every one who became King of the Romans, or Emperor, after his time. 2. Beginnings of the Reformation. Martin Luther. — By this time the great movement called the Reforinatioii may be said to have begun in Germany. Pope Leo X. had sent messengers into Germany to raise money by selling indul- gences. By these indulgences men were said to obtain remission. of the purgatorial punishment due to sins, even sins they intended to commit as well as those already committed. John Tetzel^ a Dominican friar, distinguished himself in this traffic. Many good men in all parts of Germany were shocked at such an abuse of Papal power. Amongst these was Marti7t Luther, an Augustinian^monk, and professor at the University of Wittenberg, a man of firm and upright character, and already well known as a preacher. When Tetzel came to Saxony, Luther not only preached against him, but, on October 31, 1517, affixed to the door of the Castle Church at Wittenberg a thesis, made up of ninety-five propositions, in which, among other thingv, he denied that the Pope had the power to forgive sins. At this I I30 CHARLES V. TFIE REFORMATION. [chap. time Germany was full of discontent at the state of the Church. Since the great struggle between the Empire and the Papacy, there had always been a party in Germany opposed to the power of the Popes. This party had been greatly strengthened by the fact that several very bad men had been Popes since the Council of Basel. In Germany itself the lives of many of the clergy caused great scandal. The prelates were usually in no way different from ordinary secular princes ; and very many of the lower clergy were idle, ignorant, and men of loose morals. Besides all this, the general stir of thought brought about by the revival of learning and other causes had made men begin to doubt some of the leading doctrines of the Church. The mini- strations of the clergy seemed cold and formal to those who had come under the influence* of the Mystics; and the minds of the people had long been agitated by the discus- sions of contending sects. Thus at the very time when Luther protested against indulgences, many were ready to join heartily in an attack on the Church. His thesis caused great excitement ; and a party began almost at once to form itself, which demanded a thorough reformation both in doctrine and discipline. This party grew quickly-, especially in the cities. The opinions of Luther became more and more decided, and he spoke them out clearly and fully, and thus helped on the movement he had ip a sense begun. The Humanists also helped on the Reformation, for they, and above ^ all UlHch vo7i Hutte7t^ warred constantly against the Pope, and turned against the clergy — especially the regular clergy — the whole force of their wit and satire. 3. Luther is excommunicated, and burns the Pope's Bull. — At first Pope Leo paid very little attention to what was going on in Germany ; but in 1 5 1 8 Luther had to appear at Augsburg before Cardinal Cajetamis^ the Papal legate at the Augsburg Diet. The Cardinal demanded XIII.] CHARLES V. AND THE REFORMATIOH, 131 that Luther should retract his errors ; but the latter refused to retract anything till his opinions had been proved from Scripture to be untrue. This boldness of spirit made Luther still more popular, and added to the numbers of those who were calling for reform. At last, in 1520, Pope Leo issued a Bull in which forty-one propositions from Luther's writings were declai-ed heretical ; and he himself was excommunicated in case he refused to retract his errors within sixty days. Luther replied by a work which he called "Against the Bull of Antichrist," and publicly burned the Bull in Wittenberg. . 4. Charles V. and the Reformation. — Meanwhile, Charles V. had been elected King of the Romans. Luthei-'s party waited anxiously to see on which side he would declare himself. Luther even sent him a letter, urging him to see to the reformation of the Church. Had Charles joined the reforming party, the whole future history of Germany would have been different ; but it was hardly possible that he should do so. He had no love for the Papacy as a i.-ecular power, as he repeatedly proved during his long reign. But he was a sincere Catholic. Besides, he had more of the old Imperial feeling than had been displayed by any Emperor or King of the Romans for a long time. He looked on himself as raised far above all other earthly rulers, and wished to bring back the Empire to its old grandeur. But if he were to be an Emperor in the sense that Charles the Great, Otto L, and Henry IIL were Emperors, he was bound to support the Church, for the Church and the Empire rested on the same foundations, and it was the highest duty and privilege of the secular ruler of. the world to defend the spiritual ruler against alibis enemies. Charles, therefore, did not hesitate as to which side he should take in the great struggle which had. now begun, and which threatened to divide Germany into two 132 CHARLES V. THE REFORMATION, [chap. parties far more widely separated from each other than Welfs and Wtiiblings in the old days. He would uphold the Church, and make it great and^ strong as he intended to make the Empire. 5. Luther before the Diet of Worms. — Charles held his first Diet at Wo7^ms, in 1521. The Papal legate wished him to take measures against Luther at once ; but the Saxon Elector and others urged that it would be unfair to condemn any one unheard. Luther was therefore sum- moned to appear before the Diet, and received a safe- conduct from Charles. On his way to Worms he was received everywhere with welcome. Some of his friends, remembering the fate of Huss, urged him to turn back ; but he replied, " Were there as m_any devils in Worms as there are tiles on the houses, I should still go on." When he appeared before the Diet, he was asked to retract his heresies ; but he answered as he had before done to Cardinal Cajetanus. " Here I stand," he said, concluding his state- ment, " I cannot do otherwise : God help me. Amen." Charles would not break his word, and therefore allowed Luther to go away in safety ; but he afterwards issued the Edict of Worms, condemning Luther as a heretic, and putting to the ban of the Empire all who should support him. 6. The Diet of Worms and civil affairs. — Charles's first Diet is memorable for other things besides the appearance of Luther before it. The States had often urged Maximilian to form an administrative coimcil^ which should aid him in the government, and carry it on in his absence. The plan had even been tried, but had come to nothing through the jealousy of Maximilian. Charles was as unwilling as his grandfather to give up any of his power ; but in the end he had to yield, and a council was formed, appointed partly by himself and partly by the States, which was to act while he XIII.] PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION, 133 was away fi-om Germany. The Diet of Worms also drew up a Matricicla^ which settled the number of troops, at a certain rate of pay, that were to be raised by the States of the realm. This Matricula continued in force till the fall of the Empire. Before the Diet broke up Charles divided the hereditary Austrian lands between himself and his brother Ferdinand. Soon afterwards Ferdinand received all these lands, and thus became the founder of the Atistrian branch of the house of Habsburg, while Charles became the founder of the Spanish branch. 7. Charles V. and Francis I. — Immediately after the Diet of Worms, Charles left Germany, and he did not come back for about eight years. During this time his thoughts were chieHy taken up by his great struggle with Francis I of France, who had seized the Y)\xQ}iiy oi Milan, In 1525 Francis was made prisoner at the battle of Pavia. He w^as taken to Madrid^ and was not set free till he had agreed to very hard terms ; but he did not keep the treaty he had signed. At last, after repeated defeats, he had to give up for a time all hope of gaining a footing in Italy ; and in 1529 the Peace of Cambray was concluded. In 1530 Charles was crowned Emperor and King of Italy at ^ of Bohemia and Hungary. Lewis LL.^ the son and successor of Wladislaus, was killed at the battle of Mohacs in 1526. Ferdinand v/as then elected and crowned King oi Bohemia. He was after- wards chosen, by a party of Hungarian nobles. King of LLu7tgary. Another party had already raised John^ Waiwode of Trans silvania^ to the Hungarian throne. This double election gave rise to war, in the course of which John craved help from the Sultan Suleyvian^ and consented to hold the crown as his vassal. Suleyman came to Hungary in 1529, at the head of a great army, and not only overran the country, but entered Austria, and besieged Vie7tna, which, however, he was unable to take. Even after Suleyman left Austria and Hungary, Ferdinand was not acknowledged by the whole Hungarian nation ; but XIII.] THE REFORM A TION IN SWITZERLAND. 137 his party continued to support him. From this time the crown of Hungary was ahvays held by an Archduke of Austria. It was still for some time nominally elective ; but in the end it was made hereditary. The house of Austria also always held Bohemia after Ferdinand's time. Thus the German branch of the Austrian family became very great, and took its place, apart from the Imperial crown, as one of the leading powers of Europe. 13. The Lutherans receive the name of ^* Protestants." — The Reformation had made so much progress, and the refonning party had given up so many old beliefs and ceremonies, that the Catholics w^ere now thoroughly alarmed, and Charles was more than ever resolved to do everything he could to uphold the Church. In 1529 the Diet again mxt at Speyer under the presidency of the Archduke Ferdinand. As there were more Catholics than Lutherans present, a decree was passed forbidding further changes in religion, and requiring that Mass should be said in all churches. The Lutheran princes and cities entered a formal protest against this decree, whence they were called Protestants — a name w^hich was afterwards given to all who had left the Church of Rome. 14. The Reformation in Svvitzerland. — Meanwhile a Reformation had been going on in some Swiss Cantons which was not guided by Luther. It was begun in Zurich in 1 5 19 by Ulrich Zwingli^ who differed in some points from Luther, especially as to the nature of the Lord's Supper. A controversy arose between the two theologians and their followers, and a very bitter feeling sprang up. In 1529 Luther and Zwingli met at Marburg; but no understanding was arrived at. In the end two churches were formed, the Lut?i,era7i and the Reforjned^ each of which disliked the other for a long time almost as much as both disliked the Catholics. 138 CHARLES V, THE REFORMATION. [chap. 15. The Diet of Aug-sburg, 1530. — When Charles had driven the French from Italy, and received the Imperial crown, he at last turned his thoughts seriously to Germany. In 1530 he crossed the Alps, and opened a great Diet at Aiigsburg. He hoped to gain over the chief Lutheran states without much difficulty, but he soon found that he had mistaken the strength of the new movement. The Lutherans laid before the Diet a statement of their belief? which had been drawn up by Melanchthon, and approved by Luther. This statement was afterwards called the Augsburg Confession, and became the chief standard of faith among the Lutheran churches. A great deal of dis- cussion went on between the two parties ; but neither side would give way. At last the Elector John and Landgrave Philip left Augsburg, Soon afterv/ards Charles issued a decree in which he condemned the Lutheran heresy, and commanded all who had accepted it to return to their allegiance to the Church. All Church property that had been seized was to be given back, and suppressed convents were again to be set up. Those who recused to obey this decree were to be put to the ban of the Empire. 16. The Archduke Ferdinand is elected King of tha Romans.— As the administrative council had been friendly to the Lutherans, the Catholics wished that a King of the Romans might be appointed, and urged Charles to get one elected. He proposed his brother Fe7^di7iand to the Electors. John of Saxony opposed the election ; but the other Electors voted for Ferdinand, and he was crowned at Aachen in 1531. 17. The Schmalkaldic League. — While the negotiations for Ferdinand's election were going on, the Lutheran princes met at Schmalkalden, and formed a League for mutual defence. After the election they met again, and confirmed their League, which was joined also by the Lutheran cities. XIII.] THE RELIGIOUS PEACE OF NURNBERG. 139 This League was called the Sch7nalkaldic League, Some of its members would at once have appealed to arms ; but the more moderate opposed this, so that war was for a time avoided. 18. The Religious Peace of Niirnberg. The Turks. — Although Suleyman went back to Constantinople in 1529, he did not intend to leave Hungary and Germany in peace. In 1532 he returned at the head of a much greater arm.y than before. His approach caused great alarm ; but the Lutheran princes refused to help Charles unless he withdrew the decree of Augsburg. Charles v\^as very un- willing to yield ; but it was necessary that he should raise a force strong enough to drive back the Turks. In 1532, therefore, he granted the Religious Peace of Nilriiberg^ by which full freedom of worship was given to the Lutherans until a General Council or the next Diet should have met. The Lutheran States then hastened to join the Emperor against the Turks. Suleym^an, finding all parties united against him, hastily marched back to his. own dominions. Afterwards, however, the Turks returned to Hungary, sup- ported the party opposed to Ferdinand, and conquered a large part of the country. 19. Foreign Wars of Charles V. — During his second absence from Germany, Charles made two famous expedi- tions against Hayraddiji Ba?'barossa, a pirate who had made himself master of Algiei^s and TM7tis, and held many thousands of Christians as prisoners. During part of the interval between these expeditions, Charles had to carry on another war with Francis I., who again laid claim to the Duchy of Milan. A truce was concluded for ten years at Nice in 1538 ; but in 1542 war broke out again. In 1544 the Peace of Crespy was concluded, and after this there was no more open war between the two sovereigns. 20. Further progress of the Reformation. — The Reforma- I40 CHARLES V. THE REFORMATION. [chap. tion continued to make progress, especially in the north of Germany. Joachim IL, Elector of Brande7ibu7'g^ who succeeded his father, a bigoted Catholic, in 1534, became a Lutheran. Frederick IL, Elector Palatine, and Duke George of Saxojiy, also brought the Lutheran doctrine into their dominions. Even Archbishop Herman7i of K'dhi had sympathy with the Reformation, and did nothing to put it down among his subjects. Thus nearly all the northern part of Germany became Lutheran. In the south Wiirtem- berg was Protestant. Duke Ulrich of Wiirtemberg had been driven from his dominions in 1520 by the Swabian League, but was restored in 1534 by the intervention of Landgrave Philip of Hessen. 21. Charles V. and the Lutherans prepare for war. — So long as Charles was at war with Francis L or the Turks, and needed the help of all the German States, he did nothing to offend the Lutherans. He even confirmed more than once the Peace of Niirnberg. But he never really gave up his purpose of crushing out heresy in Germany. At last, when the peace of Crespy had been signed, in 1 544, he felt he was strong enough to undertake the- task in earnest. He had got Pope Paul II. to summon a General Council ; and it met at Trent in 1 545. The Lutherans refused to recognise it, on the ground that the Pope was a party to the dispute, and had already condemned them as heretics. Charles therefore began secretly to prepare for war, and made a treaty with the Pope, by which the latter undertook to help him with men and money. He succeeded in getting the Elector of Brandenburg, the Elector Palatine, and other Lutheran princes to remain neutral ; and with Maurice^ Duke of Saxony, Duke George's successor, he made a separate treaty. The Schmalkaldic League^ however, remained true to its principles ; and its leading members began, like the xili.] THE SCHMALKALDIC WAR. 14? Emperor, to collect^ troops. Charles tried hard to make the Lutheran cities behleve that he did not intend to war against their religion, but only against certain rebellious princes. But they, distrusting him, raised an army, and placed it under Sebastian Schdrtlin^ one of the greatest generals of the day. 22. Death of Luther. — Before war actually broke out, Luther died in 1 546 at Eisleben^ whither he had gone to settle a dispute between the Counts of Ma7isfeld. He had striven to preserve peace ; but the movement he had started had long passed to some extent beyond his control. 23. The Schmalkaldic War. — The v/ar began in the summer of 1 546. Charles was then at Rege7tsbzcrg, where he had for some time been holding a Diet. If the Lutheran leaders had acted vigorously, they might have gained an advantage at once, for at first the Emperor had a much smaller body of troops than they. But they were dis- united, and wavered so much in their plans that the Papal troops and an army from the Low Countries both managed to join Charles. The latter acted with much energy. In a few months he had conquered all the free Imperial cities connected with the Schmalkaldic League. Meanwhile the Lutheran princes had separated, and gone with their troops to their own territories. In 1547 Charles defeated the Saxon army in the battle of Milhlbefg^ and took the Elector John Frederick prisoner. Philip of Hessen, seeing that he had then no chance of success, yielded, and was also kept as a prisoner by Charles. The Schmalkaldic War thus ended in the complete triumph of the Emperor. 24. The Interim. — In 1548 Charles held a Diet at Augsburg^ before which he laid a plan for uniting the Lutherans to the Church, known as the Interim. Some few points were yielded to the Lutherans ; but on the whole matters were to return very much to the position in 142 CHARLES K THE REFORM A TION. [chap. which they had been before the Reformation be;jan. No one in the Diet formally opposed this plan. Charles there- fore acted as if it had become law, and insisted on its beins: introduced into all the Lutheran States. Most of the Lutheran princes nominally accepted the Interim. The Lutheran cities resisted for a time ; but in the end they also were compelled to yield. 25. Charles V. and the Elector Maurice. — The position of Charles now seemed very splendid. He had broken up the Schmalkaldic League, and had forced on the Lutherans a scheme which was meant to undo everything they had done towards the reformation of the Church. In reality he was by no means so safe as he seemed. He had made Duke Maurice the successor of John Frederick in the Electorate of Saxony. For a time this young prince, whose motives it is not always easy to understand, seemed to be the Ernperor's best friend. Gradually his feelings changed, and he resolved to turn against Charles, and to become the upholder of the Lutheran faith. He got some other princes to join him, but, what was more important, he made a secret treaty with Henry II. of France, whereby the latter undertook to help him against the Emperor. Suddenly? in 1552, when Charles was at Innsbruck., Maurice began to march southwards with a large army, part of which he had been put at the head of for the purpose of compelling Magdeburg to accept the Interim. At the same time Henry n. entered Lorraine as "'Protector of the Liberties of Ger7na7ty^^ and seized the three bishopricks of Metz^ Tout, and Verdun. Charles was wholly unprepared to ineet this sudden movement. He had raised the fears of even the. Catholic States by the greatness of his power, and had offended them by trying to get his son Philip elected King of the Romans in place of his brother Ferdinand. Thus not a single Catholic prince or city offered to help him in xiii.] THE TREATY OF PASSAU. 143 his hour of need, and he who had just seemed so great had to fly, as Maurice approached, in order to escape being made prisoner. He did not feel himself safe even in Trent^ but pressed forward over wild mountain paths, accompanied by only a few follow^ers, till he reached the village of Villach^ in Carinthia. 26. The Treaty of Passau. — Although he was brought so low, Charles was very unwilling to yield to the demands of Maurice. At length he was persuaded to do so, and signed the Treaty of Passaic. By this treaty he lost all he had gained in the Schmalkaldic War, for he had to •promise that a Diet should be summoned wdthin six months for the settlement of religious disputes, that mean- w^iile those who held the An-gsbtcrg Confessio?i should be ailovred full freedom of worship, that Lutherans should be admitted with Catholics as members of the Imperial Chamber, and that if the forthcoming Diet should fail to reconcile Lutherans and Catholics the stipulations in favour of the former should continue in force for ever. 27. Charles V. and Henry H. of France. — When peace had been restored in Gemiany, Charles at once gathered an army for the purpose of winning back the district in Lor- raine seized by Henr>^ II. Metz w^as besieged for some months, but could not be taken. In the end the three bishopricks were allowed to remain in the hands of the French King. Thus France, w^hich had already got pos- session of the greater part of the kingdom of Burgundy, began to increase its territory at the expense of Germany. 28. The Religious Peace of Augsburg. — The Diet which the Emperor had promised to summon met in Augsburg in 1555. After much discussion, it concluded the Religious Peace of Aicgsbtirg. This Peace freed the Protestants from the jurisdiction of the prelates, allowed them to keep the ecclesiastical property that had been seized. 144 CHARLES V. THE REFORMA TION. [chap. and gave- to the government of eacli State the right to set up either the Cathohc or Protestant rehgion. A State might tolerate both religions if it chose ; but each prince received the right to drive out those who did not agree with him in religion. The treaty also provided that if a spiritual prince became a Protestant he should at once have to give up his ofiice and its revenues. This was called the Ecclesiastical Reservation^ and was not allowed by Protestants to be binding upon them. 29. Abdication and death of Charles V. — Charles had for some time failed in almost all his schemes, and his health was quite broken. He resolved, therefore, to give up his various crowns, and to spend his last years in private life. In 1555 he made over the Low Countries, and in 1556 Spain and the Two Sicilies, to his son Philip. He still hoped to get Philip elected King of the Romans ; but in the end he saw that all parties were opposed to this, and in the autumn of 1556 gave up the government of Germany to King Ferdinand. After this Charles had no more to do with Germany. He died in 1558, in a small building near the monastery of Sail Yuste^ in Estremaduray whither he had retired after his abdication. 30. Political effects of the Reformation. — There were now two parties strongly opposed to each other in Germany, the Catholics and the Protestants. A sort of peace had been patched up between them ; but they were as far as possible from being reconciled. The Catholics continued to look on the Church property which Protestants had seized as rightfully theirs ; and each party believed the other to hold deadly error. The Emperor did not hold the position of an impartial judge between the two parties. He was not only a Catholic, but in virtue of his office the Protector of the Catholic Church. The Protestants there- fore came to look on him as an enemy to be watched and XIII.] LITERATURE AND ART. 145 opposed. The Protestant princes had thus a new motive for trying to weaken the Imperial authority ; and in this the Cathohc princes were not unwilhng to join them. From the time of Charles, therefore, the Imperial government became weaker and weaker, while the States became more and more independent. Even the Diet lost most of its power. Any proposal laid before it was sure to be opposed by one party or the other, so that it could do very little. The courts of justice were also weakened by the difficulty of appointing judges and assessors trusted by both parties. 31. Literature and Art. — The writings of Luther are by far the most important literary works of the time of the Reformation. They — and especially the translation of the Bible— were so much read that the High- Dutch dialect in which they were written became the literary dialect of Germany for all future time. The writer whose works were most read next to those of Luther was the poet Hans Sachs ^ a shoemaker of Niirnberg. He wrote many pieces, and did good service to the Reformation by his wit and humour. There were several great painters in Germany about this time. Of these the chief wq^vq Albert Diirer^ Hans Ho Idem, and Lucas Kranach. Music was also a good deal culti- vated ; and some fine buildings were erected in the so- called Renaissance stvle. CHAPTER XIV. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. Ferdinand I. tries to conciliate the Protestants ; the Protestants divided among themselves ; death of Ferdinand I, ( i ) — progress of Protestantism during the reign of Maximilian II. ; his death (2) — Rudolf II. a violent Catholic ; power of the Jesuits; weak govern?nent of Rudolf II, ; his brothers recognize Matthias as head of the House (3) — the P7^otestant Union and the Catholic League; the Elector of Brandenburg bee 07nes Duke of Prussia (4) — Rudolf II concedes religious freedom to Boheinia : his death (5) — Matthias crowned; Ferdinand of Styria made his coadjutor (6) ■ — disturbances in Bohemia; death of Alatthias (7) — Frederick v.. Elector Palatine, chosen King of Bohemia; Ferdinand crowned E77tperor ; war with Bohemia; the Bohefnians de- feated; punishment of Bohemia (8) — progress of the war ; apparejit trittfnph of the Emperor (9) — renewal of the war ; Albert von Wallenstein raises an army ; his victories ; he is unable to take Stralsu7id (10) — the edict of Restitutio 7t (ll) — dis7nissal of Wallenstei7i ; Gustavus Adolphus comes to the help of the Protesta7its ; defeat of Tilly (12) — Gustavus defeats Tilly a seco7td ti7?ie, a7id takes possessio7i of Munich (13) — Wallenstein 7'aises a seco7id a7'7ny ; battle of Liitzen ; death of Gicstavus Adolphus (14) — 77turder of Walle7istein (15) — treaty of Axel Oxe7istie7'7t with Ca7'dinal Richelieu (16) — death of Fe7'di7iand II ; progress of the war (17) — the Peace of Westphalia ; te7'rible results of the war; no party satisfied with the peace ; gai7is of Fra7ice and Sweden; independence of Switee7'land and the U7iited Provinces recognized; clianges withitt Germany (18) — indepen- [CH. XIV.] FERDINAND /. 147 dence of the princes ; power of the Diet ; it becomes a permanent body (19) — International Law (20) — Literatu7'e and Science (21) — Superstitious (22). 1. Ferdinand I. — Ferdinand was crowned in 1558. He did not receive the Imperial crown from the Pope ; but he took the title of Emperor immediately after he ascended the throne of Germany. In this his example was followed by all German Kings who came after him. He was acknow- ledged by the Pope on condition that he should not observe the Treaty of Augsburg ; but Ferdinand knew the strength of Protestantism, and he was too much taken up with the affairs of Hungary to raise up enemies needlessly. He tried to make the Protestants as friendly towards him as possible, and would have been glad if the Coimcil of Trent had given way to them on some points. The Protestants were now broken up into parties. The Lutheran and Reformed Churches were very jealous of each other ; and the former was divided into a moderate and an extreme party. These divisions did much harm ; but in spite of them Protest- antism made great progress. After doing his utmost to keep the Empire in peace, Ferdinand died in 1 564. 2. Maximilan II. — Ferdinand had broken up the Habs" burg possessions into three unequal parts, giving one to each of his sons. The eldest, Maximilian^ who received Austria proper and became King of Bohemia and Hungaiy, suc- ceeded Ferdinand as King of Germany and as Emperor. During his reign the Jesuits — an order recently instituted — worked hard to keep Protestantism from spreading ; but Maximilian was a man of very enlightened opinions, and had no wish to favour the Catholics any more than his other subjects. He was even suspected of being a Lutheran. The result of his mild government was that even in Austria Protestantism became very powerful, and that it increased 148 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. its strength in all other parts of Germany. The larger number of Germans were now probably members of one or other of the Protestant Churches. So many adopted arms as a profession at this time that Maximilian wished to prevent foreign States from enlisting troops in Germany ; but the Diet would not consent to this, and the country suffered a great deal from large numbers of " Landsknechte'^ who were too idle to live by honest industry. Maximilian died in 1 576, having got his son Rudolf some time before elected King of the Romans. 3. Rudolf II. — Rudolf was very different from his fathei and grandfather. He had been brought up in the Spanish Court, and was of a gloomy disposition. He was a bigoted Catholic, and most anxious to root out the new faith from his hereditary lands. The Jesuits became very powerful, and redoubled their efforts against Protestantism. Rudolf, however, was a man of weak will, and although he issued many decrees against the- Lutherans, they never came to anything. His weakness was such that Imperial govern- ment, and government in his hereditary possessions, were at last almost at an end. His kinsmien became' seriously alarmed for the power of their House, and wished to appoint a colleague or successor to the Emperor. Roused by these proposals, Rudolf tried to prove that he could still rule, by taking strong measures against the Protestants in Bohemia and Hungary. The Hungarians were so oppressed that they appealed for help to the Turks, vvho were always only too glad to find an opportunity to injure the Plouse of Habs- burg. The Archdukes met in 1606, and formally acknow- ledged Matthias^ the Emperor's brother, as head of the House. Spain assented to this arrangement. Rudolf was still Emperor ; but he was forced to resign all his dominions except Bohemia to Matthias. 4. The Protestant Union and the Catholic League. The XIV.] PROTESTANT UNIONS CA TIIOLICLE. CUE. 149 Elector of Brandenburg becomes Duke of Prussia. — Many Protestants were alarmed by the attempts Rudolf had made to put them down, and especially by his allowing the Duke of Bavaria to seize the free city of Doiiatrjuorth^ formerly a Bavarian town, and make it Catholic. In 1608 a number of Protestants joined together and formed, for ten years, a league called TJie Ujuoji. Its formation was due chiefly to the exertions of Prince CJiristiaii of Anhalt, who had busily intrigued with Henry IV. of France ; but its head was the Elector Palatine. As the latter belonged to the Reformed Church, the Lu- .therans for the most part treated the Union coldly ; and the Elector of Saxony would have nothing to do with it. It soon had an opportunity of acting. Duke William of Jiilich^ who held Jiilich, Cleve, and other lands, died in 1609. John Sigmund, Elector of Brandenburg, and the Palsgrave of Neuburg, both members of the Union, claimed to be his heirs, and took possession of his lands. The Emperor Rudolf sent his brother, the Archduke Leopold^ Bishop of Passau^ to drive out these princes. The Union thereupon formed an alliance v»dth He?try IV. of France, and, coming to the aid of its members, scattered the forces of the Archduke in 1610. The Catholics now took fright, and hastened to form a League which should hold the Union in checlc It was formed for nine years, and the supreme command was given to Maximiliaii^ Duke of Bavaria. The death of Henry IV. took away from the Union its chief source of strength, so that it shrank from a general war. The two princes, however, who had given rise to the quarrel, kept for a time the Jiilich-Cleve territory. In 161 1 the power of the Elector of Brandenburg was further increased by his succeeding to the Duchy of Prussia. From this time East Prussia was always joined to the Mark or Electorate of Brandenburg. It was now, therefore, that the I50 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. house of Brandenburg laid the foundations of its future greatness. 5. The Letter of Majesty. Death of Rudolf II.— Matthias, in order to pacify the Austrian States, granted them full religious liberty. In 1609 the Bohemian States also obtained from Rudolf a Royal Charter, called The Letter of Majesty^ conceding to nobility, knights and towns perfect freedom in religious matters, and the right to build Protestant churches and schools on their own and on the royal lands. Bohemia showed no gratitude for this favour. Suspecting his designs, the Bohemians even shut Rudolf up in his castle at Prague in 161 1, and asked Matthias to come to their aid. He did so, and seized the supreme power. Next year Rudolf died. 6. Matthias. — Matthias was crowned at Frankfurt with great pomp, but he was no better fitted for the throne than his brother. He was compelled to yield much to the Protestants, yet favoured the Jesuits in their continued efforts to convert Germany. His government was so feeble that his brothers at length made him accept Ferdinand^ Duke of Styria, as his coadjutor. In 161 7 Ferdinand was elected as Rudolfs successor to the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary ; and from this time all real power in the Habsburg possessions was wielded by him. Ferdinand was a young man, but had already given proof of great energy of character. He was most anxious to become Emperor after the death of Matthias, and hoped to bring back the Empire to something like its old power and great- ness. The Protestants looked forward with dread to his reign if he should receive the Imperial crown. Styria had become almost wholly Lutheran. When Ferdinand suc- ceeded his father, he had driven out the Protestant families, and made the land altogether Catholic. No Catholic prince had ever shown himself more reckless as to the XIV.] DISTURBANCES IN BOHEMIA, 151 means by which he served his Church. The Protestants, therefore, had good reason to fear that if he became Emperor he would renev/ the pohcy of Charles V., and try to bring back the old state of things, in which there was but one Church as there was but one Empire. Events proved that these fears were well founded. 7. Disturbances in Bohemia. Death of Matthias. — The last days of Matthias were very troubled. Two Protestant churches were built in Bohemia, one in the territory of the Archbishop of Prague, the other in that of the Abbot of Braunau. These princes, with permission of -the Emperor, pulled down one of the churches, and shut up the other. The Protestants complained; but their appeal was met by the reply that the Letter of Majesty did not permit them to build churches on the lands of ecclesiastics. This answer excited great indignation in Bohemia ; and a rumour was got up that it had not come from the Emperor, but had been written in Prague. On May 23, 161 8, a num^ber of Protestants, headed by Count Thitrii^ marched to the Council Hall of the Royal Castle, and demanded to be told the real facts. When the councillors hesitated, two of them, with the private secretary, were seized, and thrown out of the window. The Protestants then took possession of the Royal Castle, drove the Jesuits out of Bohem^ia, and appointed a council of thirty nobles to carry on the government. Matthias would have made peace ; but Ferdinand refused to do so, and began at once to gather troops. The Union sent Count Ma7isfeld^ a distinguished soldier, with 3,000 men to aid the Bohemians. They themselves, led by Count Thurn, actively prepared to defend their rights. In the midst of these disturbances, Matthias died in 15 19. 8. Ferdinand II. War with Bohemia. — The Boheniians refused to accept Ferdinand as King, and chose F7'ede7^ick V, 152 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. [chap. of the Palatinate. They did so, partly because the young prince was believed to be bold and generous, partly because they hoped his father-in-law, James I, of England, would help them in the approaching struggle. Meanwhile Ferdinand went to Frankfurt, and there had his wish gratified by being elected and crowned Emperor. He resolved utterly to crush Protestantism in Bohemia, and afterwards to attack it in all parts of the Empire. On his way to Frankfurt he had visited Maximilian^ Duke of Bavaria, and come to an understanding with him that, if the Union should support Bohemia, the Catholic League would take arms on the side of the Emperor. He also obtained promises of help from Spain. The young King of Bohemia, instead of putting forth every effort to meet his great enemy, wasted his time and energies in frivolous amusements, and wantonly offended the religious scruples of many of his subjects. The Protestant States of Germany acted with shameful indifference. The Elector of Saxony was easily bought over by the Emperor ; and the Union, seeing that the war was likely to be a fierce one, agreed to disarm before the struggle began. Thus the Bohemians had to trust to themselves. In 1620 they were defeated in a great battle on the Weisseii- berg^ near Prague, by Count Tilly^ Duke Maximilian's general, an able soldier troubled with few scruples as to the means by which he gained his ends. Frederick, who was called the Wi7iter King^ fled with his family. He was put to the ban of the Empire, and his lands were held by Spanish troops. Ferdinand dealt with Bohemia as hardly any land has been treated in modern times. Many of the Protestant leaders were put to death ; lands were confiscated ; the Protestant clergy were banished ; and in the end every form of worship except the Catholic was forbidden. Bohemia quite changed its character. It ceased XIV.] ALBERT VO.V WALLENSTEIN. 153 to be a seat of learning, and its commerce was ruined. An attempt was made to treat Upper Austria with the same severity. In 1626 a Peasants' Insurrection took place there, and was put- down with difficulty by the Austrian and Bavarian troops. 9. Progress of the war. — The war was continued, on the part of the Protestants, by Count Maiisfeld^ Christiait of Anhalt^ and other nobles, with bands of troops made up of men who often cared less for the objects of the war than for the opportunities of plunder which it afforded. Tilly was defeated in 1622, but he afterwards overthrew both Mans- feld and Christian, and obliged them for a time to disband their forces. In 1622 the Union was broken up ; and in the following year the Emperor attached Duke Maximilian more closely to himself by raising him to the electoral dignity which the Elector Palatine was supposed to have forfeited. Surrounded by powerful friends, and with his enemies crushed, the Emperor appeared to have overcome all obstacles ; but in reality the Thirty Year^ War had begun, and it was to prove one of the most fearful struggles in history. 10. Albert von Wallenstein. — Other Protestants besides those of Germany now began to watch Ferdinand with alarm. Christian IV. of Denmark tried to unite the northern powers against him ; but the scheme failed, mainly through the indecision of James I. of England. Count Mansfeld, Christian of Anhalt, and others,, were, however, sufficiently supported to enable them once more to take the field ; and they were powerfully aided by Christian IV., who was placed at the head of the army of the Circle of Lower Saxony. Up to this time the Emperor's troops had done little in the war. It had been carried on almost solely by the army of the Catholic League, led by Tilly. Ferdinand was anxious to raise an Imperial force, but was too poor to 154 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. clo so. At last a wealthy nobleman, Aldert von Wallenstein^ came forward, and offered to gather an army on condition that he should have the supreme command. The Emperor accepted his services, stipulating that the men should be paid, not from the Imperial revenues, but by the plunder of conquered lands. Wallenstcin soon had at his command an army of 30,000 men. With these he attacked Count Mansfeld in 1627 at Dessau^ and defeated him. Mansfeld died soon aftervvards. Christian of Anhalt died in the same year ; and the Danish King was routed at Lutter by Tilly with the army of the League. Wallenstein pursued Christian IV., who was compelled to ask for peace. The two victorious generals then overran Holstein and Mecklen- burg. Wallenstein was made Duke of the latter State, and probably intended to win over the Hansa tov/ns, partly by bribery, partly by force, to the Imperial side, so that Austria should be as great by sea as by land. For this purpose he tried to make himself master of Stralsundj but the brave town held out, and Wallenstein had to retire after having suffered great loss. Peace was finally concluded with Christian at Liibeck in 1629. 11. The Edict of Restitution. — In spite of the check received at Stralsund, the Emperor now seemed to have reached almost the summit of his wishes. Nearly all Ger- many appeared to be in his power. He took advantage of his position to issue an edict called the Edict of RestittUioii. Two archbishopricks, tv/elve bishopricks, and other ecclesi- astical lands had fallen into the hands of the Protestants since the Treaty of Passau. By the Edict of Restitution, Ferdinand decreed that all these should be given back to the Catholic Church. This did not contradict the letter of the Passau Treaty ; but it was felt by all Protestants to be an act of gross tyranny. 12. Dismissal of Wallenstein. Gustavus Adolphus. — xiv.J GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. I5f Duke Maximilian and other princes were jealous of Wallen- stein, and urged the Emperor to remove him from his command. The Emperor long hesitated ; but as he felt he must not seriously offend the League, he at last, in 1630, yielded. Part of Wallenstein's army was broken up, and part placed under Tilly. The step was a fatal one, for just at this time, when the Protestant cause seemed ruined, it was about to be defended by a new and powerful friend. This was Gustaviis Adolphus^ King of Sweden. He was a Protestant, and wished to help those who shared his belief He had also private injuries to revenge. Besides these reasons for joining in the struggle, there is ground to believe that Gustavus, who was of an ambitious nature, wished to conquer territory in Germany, so that he might be able to offer himiself for election to the Imperial throne after the death of Ferdinand. In the summer of 1630, some months before the dismissal of Wallenstein, he landed in the island of ^/4^^;^ with an army of 15,000 men. Many Protestants hailed him as a possible deliverer ; but the princes as a rule received him coldly. They feared the Emperor ; and they suspected the designs of Gustavus himself He compelled the Duke oi Po?nerama to form an alliance with him ; but the Electors of Saxony and Brandenburg held off. In 1631 Magdeburg^ which resisted the Edict of Restitution and would gladly have joined Gustavus, was taken by -Tilly, and destroyed. The cruelty of the conquerors in sacking this city has probably never been surpassed. This alarmed the Elector of Saxony, and the policy of the Emperor soon made him a declared enemy. Tilly, by the Em- peror's commands, after the destruction of Magdeburg, entered Saxony for the purpose of putting an end to an alliance which some Protestant princes had formed at Leipzig earlier in the year. The Elector now at once joined Gustavus Adolphus ; and a battle was fought at BreiUn/eld. 156 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. [chap. The Saxons fled ; but the Swedes fought with great bravery, and defeated Tilly, cutting off his best troops. 13. Gustavus Adolphus at Munich. — The Protestants were now as hopeful as the Catholics had been. Gustavus allowed the Saxons to take possession of Bohemia, and himself marched southwards towards Bavaria. Everywhere the Protestants received him with enthusiasm. Tilly, who had brought together a second army, tried to keep him from crossing the Lech ; but the old general, who had won so many victories, was again defeated, and so severely wounded that he died a few days afterwards. Gustavus had held court in Frankfurt. Munich now opened its gates to him ; and he took possession of Maximilian's palace. The Duke himself fled to Regensburg. 14. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. — The fruits of all the Emperor's effort and ambition seemed now about to be snatched from hun. There was only one way in which he could hope to save them. That was by an appeal to Wallenstein. The great general agreed to raise an army, but on condition that it should be placed wholly under his control. About 40^00 men immediately flocked to his standard. In 1632 he took Prague, and easily drove the Saxons from Bohemia. He then set out for Niirnberg, but Gustavus reached it before him, and took up a strong posi- tion. Wallenstein avoided a battle, and at last, after in vain trying to force the enemy's position, Gustavus went back to Bavariii. The Imperial general next marched tov/ards Saxony. Gustavus followed him, and on November 16, 1632, the battle of Lut2e7i was fought. The Swedes gained the victory ; but it was dearly bought, for the King himself was slain. 15. Murder of Wallenstein. — After the death of Gustavus Adolphus, Axel Oxenstieni, the Swedish Chancellor, under- took to carry on the war. Under hirn were the Swedish XIV.] PROGRESS OF THE JVAR. 157 General Horn, and Ber7ia7'd, Duke of Weimar. Wallenste'n now lost a great deal of time, and laid himself open to many suspicions on, the part of the Emperor's supporters. At last, in 1634, he was removed a second time from his command, and murdered. The Emperor rewarded the murderers, and issued a document setting forth all the deeds and purposes of which Wallenstein was accused. 16. Treaty of Axel Oxenstiern with Cardinal Richelieu. — The Imperial forces were now commanded by /^^r<^/;/.^;/<^, the Emperors son, and King of the Romans. A battle was fought at Nd?'dlinge7t in 1634, in which the Swedes were defeated, and General Horn was made prisoner. After this the Elector of Saxony made peace at Prague with the Emperor, and other princes did the like. The war would probably have ended altogether, for all parties were longing for peace ; but Cardinal Richelieu., who had long watched the struggle, and who thought this a good opportunity of humbling the house of Austria, had already concluded a treaty with Oxenstiern, by which France was to receive German territory in return for aid in carrying on the war. Duke Bernard, who thus entered the French service, collected a fine army in the Rhine country, while the Swedish General Baner fought in Saxony and Thuringia. 17. Death of Ferdinand II. Progress of the War. — Fer- dinand II. died in 1637, and was succeeded by his son Ferdijiand III., who was compelled to continue the war, not to secure the ends for v^'hich it was begim, but to save as much as possible from the Swedes and the French. In 1639 D'^l^e Bernard suddenly died, having several times defeated the Catholic army. General Baner was also successful against the Imperialists ; and after him l^or- ste7iso7i, and later on Wra7igel, led the Swedes to, manv brilliant victories. Generals Ttire7ine and Conde carried on the war on behalf of France. 158 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR, [chap. 1 8. The Peace of Westphalia. — Negotiations for peace seri- ously began in 1643. If the matter had depended on Geimany alone, all difficulties would soon have been overcome ; but France and Sweden both claimed to be rewarded for their share in the struggle, and their demands were so great that conferences went on from year to year without anything being done. The negotiations with the Sv/edes were carried on at Osnabriick J those with the French at Muiister. At last, on October 24, 1648, peace was concluded. This peace is known as The Peace of Westphalia. The war which it ended was one of the most terrible that Europe has ever seen. Half, if not two-thirds, of the population of Germany had perished while it was going on. Every part of the country had been laid waste ; many cities were in ruins ; trade had almost died out. In 1630 the Hansa League w^as virtually broken up on the ground that the towns composing it could no longer pay the expenses which connexion with the League involved. In spite of all this, the Peace of West- phalia was liked by no party in Germany. The Lutherans and Calvinists received the same freedom of conscience as the Catholics ; all Church property v/hich the Protestants had possessed in 1624 was to remain in their hands ; and Pro- testants and Catholics were to be equally represented in the Imperial Chamber. These concessions so irritated the Catholics that Pope Initocent X. protested against the Peace of Westphalia through his legate, and afterwards issued a bull declaring it void. On the other hand, the Protestants lost Bohemia. Both there and in his hereditary Austrian dominions the Emperor refused to tolerate Protestantism. Vv^hile the religious parties of Germany had their own causes of complaint against the Peace of W^estphalia, it brought heavy losses on the country as a whole. France was con- firmed in her possession of the Lorraine bishopricks, Metzy Toz^l,a.nd Verdun,2ind received as much oiElsass as belonged XIV.] THE PEACE OE WESTPHALL4. 159 to Austria. By these acquisitions, and by the destruction of various fortifications on the Upper Rhine, France secured to herself an open passage into Germany. In addition to the towns of Wismar and Stettin^ Sweden received Western Pomera7iia^ and the Sees of Bremen and Verden — territory which placed in her hands the most important points on the coasts of the Baltic and the North Sea. She was also promised the sum of five million thalers. In virtue of the territory ceded to Sweden, she became a m.ember of the German Diet ; but the lands which France received were wholly severed from Germany. Both France and Sweden obtained the right of interfering in the affairs of Germany whenever they thought, or affected to think, that the provi- sions of the treaties of Osnabriick and Miinster were endan- gered. Switzerla7id and the Uiiited Provinces were already practically independent of the Empire ; but their independ- ence was now expressly acknowledged. Within Germany itself some changes were effected. The Elector of Bavaria kept the Upper Palatinate ; but Charles Lewis ^ the son of Frederick V., was restored to the rest of his hereditary terri- tories, and an eighth electoral title was created for his family. The Elector of Brandenburg received East Pomerania, the archbishoprick of Magdeburg, and the bishopricks of Halberstadt, Mindcn, and Kaniin. Concessions were also made to Mecklenburg, Hessen-Cassel, and Brunswick- Liineburg. 19. Condition of the Empire. — The Empire now ceased to exist, except in name, even in Germany. As we have seep, the tendency of the Reformation v.as to strengthen the independence of the princes, both Catholic and Protestant. By the peace of Westphaha the Emperor fully recognised that independence. They Vvcre even to have the right of concluding treaties of alliance with foreign States, if not directed against Emperor or Empire. The i6o THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. [chap. authority of the Auhc Council, which was entirely subect to the Emperor, was made merely nominal. The po\ver of passing and interpreting laws, of making war or peace, of raising troops — these, and other rights relating to the Em- pire or Confederation as a whole, were now to belong, not to the Emperor, but to the Diet. Even the Diet, however, was to have no great power. In 1654 it was made a per- manent body ; and it became more and more famous for its formality and trifling, and for the solemnity and pomp with which it managed to do nothing. Difficulties con- nected with religion were not henceforth to be decided by a vote of the Diet, but by negotiations between the States in which the difficulties arose. 20. International Law. — There was one good result which sprang from the division of Germany into a vast number of petty independent States. It became necessary that there should be some code which should protect the weaker States from the stronger. Such a code was gradually formed, and it worked "so well that, although there was practically no central authority to keep down the unruly, the weakest prince felt himself safe even when his nearest neighbour was a powerful Elector or King. The system which thus regulated the intercourse of the States of Germany gradually became the foundation for a system of International Law. 21. Literature and Science. — German literature and science were not altogether crushed by the horrors of the Thirty Years' War. John Kepler., one of the most illustrious of modern astronomers, and Otto von Guerike^ the inventor of the air-pump, both belong to this period. Jacob Boeh?n, a half-mystical thinker, wrote works which have exercised considerable influence on later German philosophy. Martin Opitz^ a writer who strove to main- tain the purity of the German language, was the founder of XIV.] SUPERSTITIONS, i6i what is called the First Sihsiaii School of Poets. To this School belonged the versatile Paid Fleimning. Paul Gerhardt takes his place among the best religious poets of Germany. 22. Superstitions. — In spite of the Reformation, and of the schools that the Reformers had founded, the majority of the German people were still ignorant and superstitious. Even yet many eagerly sought for the philosopher's stone, and a belief in astrology was very general. Witchcraft was almost universally believed in, and nothing was more common than for women to be tortured and burned as witches. Good men occasionally protested against this barbarous custom ; but it continued even into the eighteenth century. It finally gave way only before the light of ad- vancing science. CHAPTER XV, WARS WITH FRANCE. Abolition of most provincial Diets; bad government of the princes ; decay of the free towns (i) — weak character of Leopold I. ; the Great Elector ; war with Lezvis XIV. ; the battle of Fehrbellin ; the peace of Nimwegen (2) — robbery of German territory by Lezvis XIV.; Strassburg seized {2>) — rebellion of Hungary ; the Turks make war on the E7nperor ; Vienna besieged; the crozvn of Hun- gary 7nade he7^edita7y (4) — new war with Fra7tce : brutality op the Fre7tch soldiers; coalition of European Powers against Finance; the Peace of Ryswick (5) — ninth Electo7^ate; George Lezvis, Duke of Brunswick a7id Liineburg, beco77ies Ki7ig of E7igla7td ; Au- gustus II. of Saxony elected Ki7tg of Pola77.d (6) — Frede7'icky Elector of Brandenburg^ crow7ted King of Prussia (7) — the war of the Spanish Succession ; the Electo7's of Bavaria ■a7zd Koln join F7'a7ice ; the battles oj Do7iauwerth a7id Ble7thei77i (8) — • Joseph I. ; victory oJ P7'i7ice Eugene at Tu7'i7i; battles of Ouden- a7'de and Malplaqiiet ; de77iands of the allies (9) — Charles VI.; tJie t7'eaties of Utrecht^ Pastatt, a7zd Bade7z (10) — the P7'ag77iatic Sanction; war with the Turks ; war with F7'a7tce ; Lo7'rai7ie givemtp to Sta7tislaus Leszczy7iski ; it afterwa7'ds falls ifito the ha7ids of the F7^e7tch (11). I. The States of Germany. — Germany was now broken up into a large number of States, almost independent of the nominal head of the Empire. The history of these States is for a long time very uninteresting. Most of the Diets were put an end to, and those which continued [CH. XV.] LEOPOLD L 163 to exist were without real power. The princes were thus absolute rulers within their territories. Each had his own courts of justice, his own hired troops, his own coinage, customs, tolls, and taxes. Most of them were very bad rulers. They imitated the pomp and grandeur of the court of Lewis XIV. of France, and in order to keep up their extravagance laid heavy taxes on their subjects. Thus trade, instead of reviving after the harm done to it by the Thirty Years' War, withered more and more. The free cities, no longer strengthened by their combination in Leagues, prospered no better than the principalities. Many of them became petty oligarchies ; others lost their freedom altogether, and were made subject to neighbouring princes. 2. Leopold L The Great Elector. — Nothing of great im- portance happened in the last years of Ferdinand III.'s reign. He died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold. Lewis XIV. tried hard to get himself elected ; but the temporal Electors refused to be bribed. Leopold was well-meaning, but very weak both in intellect and character. This was the more unfortunate for Germany, because during his whole reign he had in Lewis XIV. a crafty and am- bitious enemy, who lost no opportunity of enriching himself at the expense of the Empire. When Lewis invaded the Netherlands in 1667, he met with no resistance from any German State, and by the Peace of Aachen.^ in 1669, com- pelled Spain to give up part of the country. In 1672 he made war on the United Provinces. At this time the ablest prince in Germany vras Frederick William of Brandenbu7'g\ usually called the Great Elector. In 1657 he had con- cluded the Treaty of Welau^ by which Prussia was de- clared independent of Poland ; and in 1.666 he received, by the settlement of the dispute respecting the Jiilich-Cleve territory, the Duchy of Cleve., and the counties of Mark and Ravensberg. Fearing for the safety of these lands he 1 64 WAJ^S WITH FRANCE, [chap. joined the United Provinces against Lewis. The Emperor and King Charles of Spain did the hke. The Austrian army was placed under Monteaiaili^ a famous general. Leopold's chief councillor, Prince Lohkowitz^ was bribed by the French, and he, acting with the spiritual Electors and the Bishop of Milnster (who openly sided with Lewis), hampered the army so much that in 1673 Frederick William made peace. After the dismissal of Prince Lobkowitz, Montecuculi acted with more freedom, and gained some advantages on the Lower Rhine ; but on the Upper Rhine the Austrians were defeated by the F>ench general Ttirenne. In 1674 Frederick William again joined the allies against France. Denmark took the same side ; but Sweden made a treaty with Lewis, and invaded Brandenburg. Various German princes also dis- graced themselves by siding with the French. Frederick William had to return from the Rhine and defend his own country against the Swedes, and in 1675 defeated them in a great battle at Fehrbellin. After this he conquered the greater part of Pomerania. Meanwhile the war on the Rhine went on. By the death of Turenne the French lost ground for a time ; but, on the whole, the allies were not successful. In 1678 the United Provinces and Spain made peace with France at Nimwege7i^ and next year the Em- peror also did so. He had to give up Freiburg in Breisgau to the French ; and Frederick William was obliged to restore to the Swedes nearly all his conquests in Pomerania. The Great Elector, however, was a firm and wise ruler, and under him his subjects prospered so much that he may be looked on as the chief founder of the greatness of the House of Hohenzollern. He died in 1688. 3. Strassburg seized by Lewis XIV. — During the yeais that followed the Peace of Nimwegen, Lewis would not leave Germany alone. Pretending that the treaties by XV.] AUSTRIA, HUNGARY, AND THE TURKS. 165 which France had received the Austrian lands in Elsass and other territories had given up not only these possessions but all places that had ever been united to them, he seized many towns, villages, and lands on both sides of the Rhine. To give an appearance of fairness to his proceedings, he established " Chambers of Reunion" to decide what places lawfully belonged to him. A great outcry was raised in Germany against these robberies. Lewis consented to have the whole matter laid before a congress in Frankfurt ; but nothing came of its discussions. Of all German towns, he was most anxious to possess Strassburg^ the key to the whole of South Germany, In 1681, when many of the people were at the Frankfurt fair, he suddenly took pos- session of it, having before gained the support of a party within the city by means of bribes. All Germany deplored the loss of this strong and beautiful tow^n. It remained in the hands of France till our own day. 4. Austria, Hungary, and the Turks. — The Emperor might at last have been roused to put a stop to the robberies of Lewis ; but at this time the affairs of Hungary demanded all his energies. He had treated the Hungarian Protestants with so much harshness that at length, in 1678, they had re- belled. Lewis, although he persecuted Protestants in his own country, helped those of Hungary against their King. Their chief allies, however, were the Turks, w^ho were also incited by Lewis to make war on the Emperor. In 1683 a great Turkish army marched through Hungary, and made for Vienna. The Emperor and many of the people fled ; but the city prepared to defend itself, and for several months, under Count Riidiger of Stahrenbcrg, it baffled every effort of the besiegers. It was nearly overcome when at last Duke Charles oi Lorraine^ and John Sobieski^^ King of Poland^ came to its aid. The Turks suddenly took fright, and fled without offering battle. The war did not 166 WARS WITH FRANCE, [chap. come to an end ; but the Turks were several times defeated, and in 1699 they made peace at Carlowitz, In 1687 the crown of Hungary, which had before been nominally elective, was made hereditary. 5. New war with France. — In 1688 Lewis made war again on the Emperor, nominally because one whom he wished to be made Elector of Koln was not accepted. This time the Diet declared war against Lewis. The French army entered the Palatinate, and by the King's orders was guilty of great outrages. The country was overrun by wild troops, and the people begged in vain for mercy. Their homes were set on fire, and they themselves were either murdered or driven almost naked into France. Heidelberg^ with its beautiful castle, and many flourishing towns on the Rhine, were destroyed. At Speyer the soldiers opened the graves of the Emperors, stole the silver coffins, and scattered the bones on the ground. These acts roused throughout Germany so much hatred and anger that their effects can hardly be said to have died away even in our own day. The Emperor bestirred himself, and he was powerfully sup- ported by Frederick oi Brandeiibtirg^ the Great- Elector's son, and other princes. A coalition of European Powers, in which Engla7id^ under Williai7i of Orange^ took the leading place, was formed. The great struggle which followed belongs more to general European history than to that of Germany. For seven years it was carried on by sea and land with varying fortune. At length, in 1697, peace was concluded at Ryswick between France, England, Spain, and Holland. The Emperor soon followed the example of his allies. France kept Sirassbiirg^ but she had to give up Freiburg^ Breisach^ Philipsbicrg^ and also places that had been annexed on the ground of having formerly belonged to Elsass. A promise was obtained that the Catholic religion, which had been established in these XV.] THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 167 places by France, should be maintained in them under the Empire. 6. Two German princes ascend foreign thrones. — Dur- ing the progress of this war, the Emperor had created a ninth electorate in idcvowr oi Ernst August^ Duke oi Bruits - wick'Liineburg or Hanover. The College of Princes, jealous of this elevation of one of their number, refused to recognize the new title ; but George Eewts, who succeeded his father in 1678, was universally acknowledged as Elector in 1705. In 1 7 14 he ascended the English throne, as George I. Another German prince who ascended a foreign throne about this time w^as Augustus II, called '' The Strong," Elector of Saxony. In 1697, more than a year after the death of Sobieski, he was chosen King of Poland. He became a Catholic. All his successors in Saxony have been Catholics ; but the body of the Saxon people were and still are Protestants. 7. The Elector of Brandenburg becomes King of Prussia. — The Electors of Hanover and Saxony were not the only German princes who became Kings. The Great Elector was succeeded by his son Frederick. Frederick was a very vain man, fond of pomp and show. He could not become King of Brandenburg, because as Elector of that country he nominally owed allegiance to the Emperor ; but as Duke of Prussia he was independent, and there was nothing to hinder his becoming Prussian King if he could obtain from the Emperor a promise to recognize the new title. In ordinary circumstances the Emperor would probably have hesitated to sanction so great an advance on the part of one who w^as, at least in name, a subject ; but he knew that he would soon be involved in another war, and he was anxious to secure as much support as possible. On condition, therefore, that Frederick should aid him in the approaching contest, he at last consented i68 WARS WITH FRANCE, [char that the Prussian Duchy should be changed into a kingdom. On January i8, 1701, and in circumstances of great splen- dour, Frederick was crowned King at Kbnigsberg. Few thought this an event of much importance, but it was followed by very grave consequences both for Germany and Europe. 8. The War of the Spanish Succession. — The stnjggle which had for some time been foreseen was the famous War of the Spanish Successioii, Charles II. of Spain had named the son of the Bavarian Elector as his successor ; but the young prince died before Charles him.self. Charles died on November iiy 1700. Shortly before his death he was induced, almost against his own will, to declare as his heir Philip of Anjott^ the grandson of Lewis XIV., whose first wife, Maria Theresa^ was a sister of Charles. The Emperor would not submit to this arrangement. His wife, Margaret Theresa^ was also a sister of Charles ; and she had not, like Maria Theresa, renounced her rights. He therefore claimed the Spanish crown for his son, the Archduke Charles. The Protestant Powers sided with the Emperor, for they thought that if the thrones cf France and Spain were held by members of one family the freedom of the whole of Europe might be endangered. The Emperor had at this time a general of high military genius. This was Francis Eugeiie^ Prince of Savoy., who had already been made field-marshal for distinguished services. In the spring of 1701, Eugene crossed the Alps with an Austrian army, aided by Prussian and Hanoverian troops, in order to drive the P^ench out of Italy. A few months afterwards Austria was joined by England and Holland ; and on October 2, 1702, the States of the Empire formally declared war against France. Maximilian Enimaiuiel., the Elector of Bavaria, and his brother, the Elector of Koln, joined France. In 1703 the French crossed the Rhine and joined the XV.] THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 169 Bavarian troops. Instead of marching with the French into Austria, the Elector undertook an expedition into Tyrol. He at first had some success ; but the Tyrolese soon recovered themselves, and drove out the Bavarians, after having slain large numbers. In 1704 Lord Marl- borough., who had already become famous from his doings in the Netherlands, and Prince Eugene united their forces at Heilbronn. A battle was fought near Donajciverlh on July 2, in which the Elector and Marshal Alarsm were defeated. They were soon joined by Marshal Tallardj and on August 1 3, a still greater battle took place. The French and Bavarians took up their position near Hochstddt., Tallard, with the right wing of the French, occupying Blenhei7n, from which the battle has received its name. Both sides fought bravely ; but at length the English and Imperial troops succeeded in driving back the enemy at all points. No fewer than 20,000 French and Bavarians were killed or drowned, whilst more than half as many more surrendered as prisoners. Amongst the prisoners was Marshal Tallard himself The result of this battle was that the seat of war was removed in great part from Ger- many. The defeated allies rapidly crossed the Rhine, the Bavarian Elector taking refuge in the Netherlands, whilst the Imperialists seized Bavaria and the neighbouring countries. Marlborough was made a prince of the Empire; and he became as well known and popular in Germany a/ in England. 9. Joseph I. — In 1705 the Emperor Leopold died. He was succeeded by his son, Joseph I. The new Emperor was in every way a much stronger man than his father, and, unlike him, put full confidence in Prince Eugene. He continued the war with France, and had also to put down civil wars in Hungary. The Austrians had treated the Bavarians with so much harshness that the peasantry had I70 PFAJ^S WITH\FRANCE. [chap. at length revolted. After ah obstinate contest this insur- rection was quelled, and the Elector and his brother were put to the ban of the Empire. Prince Eugene met with serious reverses in Italy; but, on September 7, 1706, he more than made up for them by a great victory over the French at Turin. This success was largely due to the Prussians, who, under Prince Leopold of Dessau^ formed the left wing of Eugene's army. Prince Eugene and Marl- borough once more united their armies in the Netherlands, and gained in 1708 and 1709 the brilliant victories of Oudenarde and Malplaquet, In the interval between these battles, peace would probably have been made but for the demand of the allies that, in addition to other concessions, Lewis XIV. should aid them by force of arms4ii driving his grandson, Philip V., from the throne of Spain. 10. Charles VI. Treaties of Utrecht, Rastatt, and Baden. — Joseph I. died on April 17, 171 1. As he had no children, his brother, the Archduke Charles., was elected his suc- cessor. The allies were as unwilling that the Spanish crown should belong to the chief of the house of Austria as that it should belong to the Bourbons. For this,, and other reasons arising out of the home politics of England, Marl- borough was recalled, and on April 11, 1713, the Peace of Utrecht was signed. Charles VI. complained that he was betrayed by his allies, and continued the war ; but the Im- perial troops were so unsuccessful in the following campaign that Austria at length consented to come to terms, and, on March 7, 17 14, the Peace of Rastatt was concluded Austria gave up her claims to Spain in favour of Philip V, but received the Spanish N ether laiids., Naples., Milan^ and Sardinia. In a separate treaty which was concluded between France and the Empire at Baden in Aaran on September 7, 17 14, the Empire had to cede to France the Imperial fortress of Landau. The Electors of Bavaria and XV.] THE LAST YEARS OF CHARLES VL 171 Koln were pardoned, and restored to all their titles and possessions. II. The last years of Charles VI. — Charles had no son. In 17 1 3, therefore^ he drew up, in favour of his daughter, Maria Theresa^ a Pragmatic Sanction, a law providing that the Austrian dominions, in case the male line should die out, should be heritable by the female line. After many efforts he at last induced the leading European Powers and the Empire to guarantee this arrangement. In a war with the Turks, carried on between 171 5 and 17 18, Prince Eugene again distinguished himself. By the Peace of Passarowitz^ Austria received Belgrade and other towns and lands. A new war with France broke out in 1733, on account of the claim of Augustus LIL, Elector of Saxony, to the throne of Poland. France supported Stanis- laus Leszczynski, Lewis XV.^s father-in-law, whom a con- siderable party in Poland had chosen as their King. The Emperor, anxious to gain the support of the Saxon Elector to the Pragmatic Sanction, took his side. The result of this war was that, besides exchanging Naples and Sicily for Tuscany and Parma^ the Emperor had to give up the beautiful province of Lorraine to Leszczynski, through whom it came in the end into the hands of the French. Charles died on October 21, 1740. He was the last Emperor, in the male line, of the house of Habsburg. CHAPTER XVL FREDERICK THE GREAT. The Austrian tei'ritories claimed by Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria ; claims of Augustus III. of Saxony ; action of Frederick II, of Frtissia (i) — Frede?'ick /, ICing of Prussia (2) - — Frederick William L of Prussia ; his character ; his attejttion to the army ; territory won by him {3) — youth of Frederick 11 of Prussia (4) — the first Silesian war; battle of Molwitz {^)— alliance fo7'med against Maria Theresa; the Elector of Bavaria crowned E7nperor; Maria Thei^esa supported by the Hungarians ; battle of Czaslau : peace with Frederick II. (6) — successes of Maria Theresa; death of Charles VII,; the second Silesian war ; victories of Frederick II. ; Peace of Dresden (7) — Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany, elected E7npe7'or ; Peace of Aachen (8) ~—ho7ne gove7'7tme7tt of F7'ederick II. (9) — hostility of the Euro- pea7i powers to F7^ederick II. ; allia7ice betwee7t Prussia a7id England, and betiveen Austida and France (lo) — begi7i7ii7ig of the Seven Years' War ; F7^ederick II. i7ivades Saxo7iy ; battle of low sit z {11)— victory of the P7'ussia7is near P7'ague {12) — the battle of Koli7t ; g7'eater pa7't of Silesia seized by the Aust7'ia7is ; the Co7ivention of Closterseveit (13) — battles of Rossbach a7id Ieuthe7i (14) — battles of Ci'efeld, Zo7'ndo7f, and Hochki7'che7t (15) — battles of Minden and Ktmersdoif (16) — battles of lieg- nitz and To7gau (17) — 7noveme)tts of P7'i7ice He7iry a7id Fre- de7'ick in jj6i (18) — allia^ice of Frede7'ick II. with Peter III. of Russia ; victo7y over the Aust7'iajts ; zvithdi-azval of the Rus- sia7is; siege of Schweidnitz; adva7itages gai7ied by Frederick II. (19) — Peace of Hubertusburg ; results of the Seven Years'' War (20) [CH. XVI.] FREDERICK L OF PRUSSIA, 173 — Joseph II, ; goz'ernme7it of Frederick II. (21) — First Partition of Poland {22) — the ^^ Potato War^'' (23) — death of Maria Theresa; vigorous govern77ient of Joseph II. ; league formed by Frederick II. (24) — death of Frederick II. ; Frederick William II. (25) — Joseph 11,^ s schemes; his death (26) — leopold II. (27). 1. The claims of Maria Theresa to the Austrian inheri- tance disputed. — On the death of her father, Maria Theresa, Queen of Hungary, took possession of the Austrian terri- tories. But, in spite of the solemn promises which Charles VI. had received in favour of his daughter, she found that she would have to defend her rights. Charles Albert, the Elector of Bavaria, a descendant of the eldest daughter of the Emperor Ferdinand I., claimed that he had a better title to the Austrian dominions than Maria Theresa. Augustus III., Elector of Saxony, and King of Poland, also put forth claims to the Austrian inheritance. Before these princes had taken any practical steps in support of their demands, a more dangerous rival had taken up arms and actually conquered one of the fairest provinces of the young princess. This was Frederick II, who had recently suc- ceeded to the throne of Prussia. 2. Frederick I., King of Prussia. — Frederick I. of Prussia died in 1713. In imitation of Lewis XIV., he had lived in a style of great splendour, and, by his reckless extravagance, did much to keep his people poor. Nevertheless, he did a great deal for Prussia. By raising it into a kingdom, he secured that his successors should always have an induce- ment to strengthen and extend their inheritance. It is thus to him that much of the greatness to which Prussia after- wards rose may be indirectly traced. Among the benefits directly conferred by him on Prussia were the University of Halle, the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, and various other institutions intended to promote the higher culture. 174 FREDERICK THE GREA T, [chap. 3. Frederick William I. of Prussia — Frederick William L was in almost all respects the opposite of his father, fie was a man of coarse and violent nature, given to fierce outbursts of anger. Even those who had the strongest claims on his tenderness he treated with great harshness, if they in any way thwarted his plans. He had a contempt for learning and learned men, and was fond of brutal practical jokes. One of the good points of his character was his rigid economy, and even this he carried too far. No King ever lived in plainer style. After his father's death he dismissed a host of Court servants, whom he looked on as mere encumbrances. His evenings were spent in what he called his tobacco-college. His ministers and generals met him in a plainly-furnished room, where, amidst clouds of tobacco smoke, important affairs of state were discussed. Although arbitrary and tyrannical, he did much to add to the power of Prussia. The result of his efforts was that, at the time of his death, the Prussian army consisted of 80,000 men, fully equipped and thoroughly organized. He took especial delight, in the " Potsdam Guard," which was made up of very tall men, brought together, at great expense, from all parts of Europe. His agents even kidnapped giants for his service from foreign countries. He died on May 31, 1740. In 1720 he had acquired from Sweden the city of Stettin^ the southern part of Hither-Poinerania^ and the islands of Usedom and Wollin. 4. Frederick II. of Prussia. — Frederick William was succeeded by his son Frederick II., usually called Frederick the Great. Frederick was twenty-eight years old when he became King. He had great natural abilities, and had acquired considerable culture. His youth had not been a happy one. His tastes were so different from those of his narrow-minded father that the latter had treated XVI. THE FIRST SILESIAN WAR, 175 him with great ci-uelty. In 1730 he had formed the plan of running away and taking refuge with his aunt, the Queen of England. When this scheme was found out, he was condemned to death by a court martial ; and it was with great difficulty that the King was prevented from carrying the sentence into execution. A youth named Katte^ who had been in Frederick's secret, was beheaded in sight of the young prince for his share in the plot. The ^rying experiences of Frederick's youth had an unhappy influence on his character. They checked the growth of kindly feelings, and helped to make him in later life bitter and moody. 5. The First Silesian War. — Frederick had no sooner been crowned than he entered in earnest upon his kingly duties. From the beginning his government v/as thoroughly despotic. He consulted no one as to the measures he ought to adopt ; and even matters of small importance had to be laid before him. The duty of his ministers was simply to record his decisions, and to see that they were carried out. When Charles VI. died, he ought to have supported Maria Theresa ; but he had long wished to see the little kingdom of Prussia extended, and the present seemed a favourable opportunity. Some old renounced claims on various Silesian lands served as a pretext for war. He sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering to help the young Queen if she would give up the desired territory. She indignantly refused ; but Frederick was already in Silesia at the head of his troops, and he had no difficulty in driving out the Austrians, who were unprepared for such an attack. In the following spring an Austrian army, under Marshal Neipperg^ marched against Frederick ; and a battle was fought at Molwitz. The King showed none of that presence of mind which he afterwards displayed so often ; but his army fought bravely, and, under the skilfuJ 176 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. leadership of Marshal Schwerm^ gained a complete victory, 6. Charles VII. Maria Theresa and the Hungarians. — The position of Maria Theresa now appeared desperate. Soon after the battle of Molwitz, an alliance was formed against her by France, Prussia, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony. A French army entered Germany and joined that of Bavaria, whilst the Saxons marched into Bohemia. Vienna might have been taken ; but the Bavarian Elector, who had already been proclaimed at Linz hereditary Duke of Austria, was jealous of the progress of the Saxons in Bohemia, and suddenly turned aside in order to conquer that country. On November 29 he took possession of Prague, and was at once declared King of Bohemia. Early in 1742 he was elected Emperor at Frankfurt, and crowned as Charles VII. But the fortunes of Maria Theresa had already begun to brighten. As the heiress of Charles VI., she was Queen of Hungary. She appealed to the loyalty of the Hungarians, appearing in the Diet with her infant son, afterwards Joseph 11.^ in her arms. The Hungarians were touched by her trust in them, and enthusiastically promised to aid her. An army was forthwith raised, which not only reconquered Austria proper, but invaded Bavaria, and, on the very day on which Charles VII. was crowned, seized Munich. The Austrians, under Prince Charles of Lorraine, were defeated by Frederick at Czaslauj but the result of this disaster was that the Queen was freed for the time from her most dangerous enemy, for it induced her to conclude peace with him soon after the battle. Frederick received Upper and the greater part of Lower Silesia. 7. Successes of Austria. The Second Silesian War. — As Saxony followed the example of Prussia, the Austrians had now only the French and Bavarians to contend with. The former w^xq in Prague ; but, when besieged by Prince XVL] YEARS OF PEACE, 177 Charles, they made their escape and left Bohemia alto- gether. Charles VII. made himself master of Bavaria again for a time ; but early in 1743 he had once more to take refuge in Frankfurt. In the same year the cause of Maria Theresa was greatly strengthened by the victory of George 11. of England at Dettiiigen over the French. Frederick II. was alarmed by the successes of Austria, for he feared that Maria Theresa would take the first opportunity to gain back Silesia. In 1744, therefore, he began what is called the Seco7id Silesian War — nominally in support of Charles VII. The latter died early in 1745 ; but the war continued. The Prussians gained three great victories one after the other — those of Hohenfriedberg^ Sorr, and Kessels- dorf. Immediately after the last of these battles, peace was made at Dresden^ Frederick being allowed to keep his Silesian conquests. 8. Francis I. War with France continued. — Meanwhile, Maximilian Joseph.^ the son of Charles VII., had received back his hereditary territory on condition of giving up for ever his pretensions to Austria. On September 13, 1745, Maria Theresa's husband, Francis^ Grand Duke of Titscany^ was elected Emperor. After the Peace of Dresden he was acknowledged by Frederick II. The war with France was continued by Austria, along with England, for some years. The French, under Marshal Saxe, an illegitimate son of Augustus II., King of Poland, were led in the Netherlands f "om victory to victory. In 1748 the Peace of Aachen was concluded. Austria had to yield Parma and Piacenza; but her German territory remained intact. 9. Years of peace. — The following eight years were years of peace. Both Maria Theresa and Frederick made good use of them for the benefit of their subjects. During -the greater part of the year Frederick lived in the palace of Sans Soiici^ which he built for himself at Potsdam. He M 1 78 FREDERICK THE GRLAT, [chap. devoted several hours each day to public business ; but he also found time for social intercourse, for study, and for music, of which he was passionately fond. Once a year he made a tour of his dominions, in order to review his troops, and to make himself acquainted with the state of the kingdom. He made great efforts to improve the admini- stration of justice, simplifying it and bringing it more within the reach of all classes. Various industries were en- couraged ; and Berlin was beautified with new buildings, and enriched by works of art brought at considerable cost. from other countries. Frederick generally spoke and wrote French ; and he kept up a friendly correspondence with the leading literary and scientific men of France. He himself wrote numerous works, both in prose and verse, in French. In 1750 he induced Voltaire to come and stay at his court. The great writer was at first treated with every mark of respect ; but misunderstandings arose, and in the end he was obliged to quit Prussia. 10. Preparations for war. Alliances. — Although Europe was at peace, no one expected that war could be very long delayed. Even when several years had passed, Maria Theresa could not reconcile herself to the loss of Silesia, which, now that it had come into other hands, seemed to acquire a new value. The fact that the province was flourishing under the judicious government of Frederick by no means lessened her regret. She was far from being Frederick's only enemy. Most of the European Powers saw with jealousy the rapid advance of the new State under its young sovereign. Frederick was aware of this, and per- ceived that he had before him a struggle greater than any in which he had yet been involved — a struggle not only for his new territory, but probably even for his crown. He silently prepared to maintain his rights against all enemies. Dis- trusting France, and knowing the value of an alliance with XVi.J THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 179 England, he sought the friendship of the latter countr\\ England had hitherto fought on the side of Austria ; but Prussia was in every respect a more natural ally. A treaty was, therefore, concluded between the two countries in January, 1756. Austria, which had so often stood opposed to France, felt that she had now a common cause with her ancient enemy, and made proposals for an alliance. The great rivals soon came to an understanding ; and they were afterwards joined by Saxony and Russia, The ruin of Frederick was the end which all these allies set before themselves. II. Beg-inning of the Seven Years* War. — Frederick was secretly informed of the alliances that were being con- cluded against him. It was now that he displayed his real greatness. Far from being overwhelmed by the dangers which beset him, he was roused to new activity. Knowing that delay might prove fatal, he resolved to strike the first blow, and to strike it vigorously. It was of great importance to him that Saxojiy should not be in the power of the enemy. When, therefore, he found that he could not gain the friendship of that countr}^, he suddenly appeared at its frontiers, in August, 1756, with an army of 60,000 men. The Saxon army, which was 17,000 strong, hastily retreated, and took up a strong position in the valley of the Elbe, be- tween Pima and K'67iigstein. They were instantly shut in by the Prussians ; but Frederick had soon to detach a body of troops in order to meet the Austrians, who were ad- vancing to the relief of the distressed army. On October i, a battle was fought at Lowositz^ in which, after doing great damage to the Prussians, the Austrians were defeated. Notwithstanding this disappointment, the Saxons made a brave attempt to break through the Prussian lines.; but they were driven back, and compelled to yield themselves prisoners of war. The men had to join the Prussian army ; i8o FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. but their hearts were not in the service of Frederick, and many of them deserted. 12. Victory of the Prussians near Prague. — Next year the prospects of Frederick seemed dark indeed. Swedeii had added herself to the hst of his enemies. Of the German princes only the Landgrave of Hessen and the Dukes of Brunswick and Gotha sided with him ; the others had already joined Austria. But Frederick did not despair. He had confidence in himself, and hoped to make up for the smaller number of his troops by their superiority in discipline and bravery. To allow his enemies time to unite their forces would have been fatal ; he accordingly deter- mined to attack them singly, one after the other. Leaving a small force in Prussia for its defence against the Russians and Swedes, he hastened into Bohemia, and, on May 6, 1757, near Prague, attacked the Austrian army, which had never imagined that he was so near. The Austrians were commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine. The Prussians were exposed to a heavy fire, and at one moment it seemed as if they were about to give way. The a^ed Field- Marshal Sch'weri7i^ snatching a standard from the hands of a retreat- ing officer, and calling on all who were not cowards to follow him, rushed forwards. He almost instantly fell; but his heroism gave his men fresh courage, and they renewed their attacks with so much vigour at various points that the Austrians had to fly. Some made for Kilttenberg^ where an army was stationed under Marshal Daicnj but the greater number took refuge in Prague. 13. Misfortunes of Frederick. — Frederick remained some time before Prague ; but on June 18, he attacked Daun near Kolin. Here he met with his first serious reverse. At an unfortunate moment he altered the original plan of battle. The result was that what had promised to be a glorious victory was changed into a disastrous defeat. XVI.] BATTLES OF ROSSBACH AND LEUTHEN, i8i The Austrians, taking advantage of their unexpected victoryj advanced into Silesia, and seized greater part of the province. The Russians defeated the army which had been left in defence of Prussia, and the Swedes threatened the countiy from the north. As if these misfortunes were not enough, Frederick's cause was further injured by the base Convention of Closterseven, by which the Duke of Cui7iberla7id agreed to disband his army and to yield to the French Hajiover, Hessen, and the Duchy of Brujiswick. 14. Battles of Rossbach and Leuthen. — A weaker man would have been utterly overwhelmed by such trials ; but they only called into full play Frederick's great powers. The French had united with the Austrian troops ; and as, since the convention of Closterseven, there was no enemy to check their progress, they were advancing to take posses- sion of Saxony. Frederick determined, if possible, to drive them back. Marching rapidly towards the Saal^ he came up with the allied armies on November 5, near the village of Rossbach. His troops were greatly outnumbered by those of the enemy, who looked forward to an easy victor}'. The French even hoped they might have the pleasure of sending Frederick as a prisoner to Paris. As they joyfully advanced, the Prussians, who occupied a height, appeared to pay no attention to their movements. The King himself quietly sat at table with his generals. When, however, the French were near enough, a terrible fire Avas opened by the Prussians ; and the cavalry, under the brave General Seidlitz^ swept down upon the enemy. The French had not looked for such rapid movement. They scarcely even offered battle, but turned and fled. This victory secured Saxony, and raised the spirits of the Prussian army ; but Frederick did not feel that he had yet done enough. It was necessary that Silesia should now be delivered. Exactly a month after the battle of Rossbach, the battle of 1 82 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. Leiitheii was fought. The Prussians numbered 30,000, the Austrians 80,000. Nevertheless, the latter were utterly defeated, and driven out of Silesia. Frederick had thus in a short time swept back the tide of invasion which had threatened to overwhelm his country. Having no wish to continue the war a day longer than was necessary, he made proposals of peace to Austria ; but the Empress rejected his offers, and began to prepare for a new campaign. The supreme command was taken from Prince Charles of Lorraine, and given to Daun, who, although the victor of Kolin, was not a general of high ability. 15, The Battles of Crefeld, Zorndorf, and Hochkirchen. — The campaign of 1758 was opened by Fei^dinajid^ Duke of Brunswick, Vv^ho, with an army maintained by England, attacked the French, and gradually drove them out of the country to the east of the Rhine. In a battle fought at Crefeld^ the Duke, with greatly inferior numbers, gained a decided victory. Frederick himself attempted, by a bold stroke, to seize Olmiitz ; but he was unsuccessful. The Russians had entered Prussia, and were treating the people very cruelly. Frederick, leaving Marshal Keith to defend Silesia, came up with the Russians near Zorndorf on August 28. A fearful battle was fought, in which neither side gave quarter. From morning till night the slaughter lasted ; but in the en'd the Prussians were victorious, and the Russians retreated into Poland. The King hastened to the help of his brother Heii^y against the Austrians in Saxony. Daun took up a strong position, whilst Frederick incautiously encamped on an open plain near the village of Hochkirchen. His generals expostulated with him ; but he would hardly listen to their complaints. The Austrians did not fail to take advantage of the mistake. Early in the morning of October 14, whilst it was still dark, they attacked the advanced posts, and, seizing a battery which XVI.] THE BATTLE OF MINDEN. 183 commanded the chief street of Hochkirchen, turned the cannon against the Prussians. The latter made brave efforts to defend themselves ; but, knowing nothing of the position of the enemy, they were thrown into helpless confusion, and thousands, with some of Frederick's best generals, were cut down. After sunrise there was a dense mist. When at length this cleared away, Frederick saw that nothing remained but to retreat. His army did so in such excellent order that the Austrians obtained no further advantage. Although defeated, Frederick continued his march towards Silesia, and his operations there were so successful that at the end of the year the Austrians had to leave the province in his hands, and to take up their winter quarters in Bohemia. 16. The Battle of Minden. The defeat of Kunersdorf.— The year 1759 "^^^^ ^^ eventful one for the Prussians. Frederick's enemies were more than ever resolved to crush him. The Russians advanced in great numbers, under General Soltikow, towards the Oder, whilst the Austrian army, commanded by Daun and Loudon, was strongly reinforced. The French tried to win back the territory from which Prince Ferdinand had driven them ; and for a time they seemed to be almost certain of success. The two bodies into which their army was divided crossed the Rhine at different points, and, uniting near Giessen, seized Cassel and other towns. Ferdinand retreated as far as Bre?ne7i, but he at length resolved to offer battle, and, on August i, came up with the French near Minden. The French cavalry, which was placed in the centre, was attacked by the English and Hanoverian infantry, and routed. A crushing defeat would have been the result, but Lord George Sackville, whom Prince Ferdinand ordered to pursue the French, either from cowardice or jealousy refused to obey, and the enemy thus managed to retreat i84 FREDERICK THE GREA T. [chap. in good order. But Ferdinand's victory was complete enough to enable him to regain the whole of the ground he had lost. King Frederick was by no means so successful. This was for him the most unfortunate campaign of the Seven Years' War. For some time his gi'eat object was to prevent the union of the Russians with the division of the Austrian army under Loudon. When the former succeeded in crossing the Oder, he sent General Wedel to oppose their further progress. On June 23, Wedel attacked the enemy at Kay^ and was defeated. As the Russians and Austrians now united their forces, Frederick resolved to proceed against them himself, and to attack them with his whole strength. He seems to have regarded this as a supreme effort, on which everything depended ; for he made provision for the government of his kingdom in case he should either be killed or taken prisoner, and charged his brother Henry on no account to conclude a peace disgrace- ful to Prussia. The great battle was fought on August 1 2, near Kunersdorf. After a long and fierce contest, the left wing of the Russians was put to flight Frederick's troops were already worn out by long marches', and his generals entreated him not to ask them to do more that day. But he hoped to succeed, and ordered the battle to go on. The Russian right wing and the Austrians v/ere still fresh, and the Prussians in vain tried to break their ranks. The attempt was again and again made, but always with the same result. At length the Prussians themselves gave way. Their numbers had been fearfully reduced, and, instead of retreating in their usual good order, they fled in wild confusion. Not fewer than 17,000 Prussians fell in this battle. Frederick appeared almost broken-hearted as he saw his brave army break up and disperse in all directions, pursued by the Austrian cavalry. When he was brought, almost against his will, to a place of safety, he wrote in XVI.] BATTLES OF LIEGNITZ AAT> TORGAU, 1S5 pencil to his minister Friesenstem^ " All is lost : save the royal family." Shortly afterwards he despatched a second note : " The consequences of this battle will be worse than the battle itselfT I shall not survive the ruin of the Father- land. Adieu, for ever ! " Fortunately the King's fore- bodings were not realized. Although allies, the Russians and Austrians were very jealous of each other ; and this feeling prevented them from taking full advantage of their victory. The defeat of Kunersdorf, however, was not Frederick's only misfortune in this campaign. A body of troops was sent by him to defend Dresden; but before they arrived Count Schmettaii^ in order to save the militaiy chest, had delivered up the city to the Austrians. Some- what later, General Fink was compelled to surrender himself and his army, consisting of 5,000 men, to the Austrians at Maxenj whereupon General Daun took possession of Dresden, and determined to winter in Saxony. Frederick harassed him for some time ; but in January, 1760, the excessive cold compelled even the King to go into winter quarters. 17. The Battles of Liegnitz and Torg-au. — The position of Frederick became daily more tr}dng. Prussia was at this time a small kingdom, and its resources appeared now almost exhausted. On the other hand, there appeared nothing to prevent his enemies from continuing the war for an indefinite time. But a peace concluded after so many misfortunes could not but be unfavourable. Frederick therefore resolved to go on with the war, making the most of the small means at his disposal, in the summer of 1760 he had to meet a fresh disaster. The force of General Fo2iqtie\ who had been entrusted with the defence of Silesia, was surrounded by the Austrians at Land^hiit. The Prussians never fought more bravely, but they could not hold out against greatly superior numbers. General Fouqu^ i86 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. himself was taken prisoner. Frederick tried to make up for this defeat by bombarding Dresden ; but, as Daun came to its relief, he had to raise the siege. He hastened to Silesia, where the successes of General Loudon made his presence necessary. The Austrians under Daim and Lasci accom- panied him, a division marching on either side of his army. At Liegiiitz these generals were joined by Loudon, and they resolved to surround and cut dov/n the Prussian army. Early in the morning of August 15, Loudon marched silently towards the heights of Pfaffendorf^ whence he expected to be able to attack the enemy in the rear. But during the night Frederick had taken possession of these very heights. Loudon gave battle, hoping to be assisted by Daun ; but the latter was ignorant of what was going on, so that the Prussians were soon victorious. When Daun advanced from another side, he was attacked by the Prussian right wing under the brave General Ziethen^ and driven back. Frederick's victory was thus complete. But he had no sooner gained this advantage, which made Silesia safe, than he had to meet new difficulties. The Russians, joined by the Austrians under Lasci, advanced to Berlin, and on October 4 they entered it in triumph. In a few days they retreated, a rumour having arisen that Frederick was marching to the relief of his capital. On Nov. 3 another battle was fought between the army of Frederick and that of Marshal Daun, who occupied a strong position near Torgau. The Piiissians attacked the Austrians in two divisions, the one led by Frederick himself, the other by Ziethen. Fre- derick's division suffered feaifully ; and he was under the im- pression at night that the battle would have to be renewed in the morning. But in the morning it was found that the Austrians had silently retreated. Daun marched to Dresden ; but the greater part of Saxony now fell anew into Frederick's hands, and he took up his winter quarters at Leipzig. XVI.] FREDERICK AND THE RUSSIANS. 187 18. Movements of Prince Henry and Frederick in 1761. — During the summer of 176 1 Prince Henry, whom Frederick afterwards declared to have been the only general who made no mistakes during this war, succeeded in thwarting all the plans of Marshal Daun for the recovery of the part of Saxony which the Prussians had conquered. Much of the year was spent by Frederick himself in preventing the Russians under Btitterlin^ and the Austrians under Lotcdo7t^ irom. joining their forces. On August 12 the two armies succeeded in uniting, and Frederick was for some time shut up in his quarters near Bitnzelwitz. But the allies did nothing. They were still jealous of each other, and soon separated. They did far more damage when acting apart than when together. Loudon, by an unex- pected movement, hastened to Schweidnitz^ which, on October i, fell into his hands. By the possession of this town he commanded a large part of Silesia. On the other hand, the Russians wintered in Pomerania. The important town of Colberg resisted them for four months ; but, on December i, it had to surrender. 19. Alliance of Frederick with the Russians. — The year 1762 brought with it new liope for Frederick. On January 5, the Empress Elizabeth of Russia died. Her successor, Peter II I. ^ not only made peace, but entered into an alliance with Frederick. As Sweden also signed a treaty of peace with Prussia, Frederick could now devote himself ^vholly to the task of overcoming the Austrians. When joined by his Russian allies, he advanced to attack Daun at Ihtckersdorf. During the march the unwelcome nev.s came that Peter III. had been murdered ; and Czerjiitschef^ the Russian commander, received orders from the Empress Catherine II. to return with his army at once to Poland. Frederick persuaded Czernitschef to conceal his instructions for three days. Before that time had passed the Austrians 1 88 FREDERICK THE GREAT. [chap. were attacked and defeated. The Russians then withdrew ; and Frederick besieged Schweidnitz. It held out for nine weeks ; but on October 9, its provisions being exhausted, it surrendered. The position of Prussia was still further improved by a victory gained by Prince Henry over the Austrians at Freiberg on October 29, and by the continued successes of Prince Ferdinand in his opposition to the French, who had made great but vain efforts to subdue him. Whilst Frederick went into winter quarters, having previously agreed to an armistice with Austria, General Kleist, with an army of 10,000 men, carried the war into Franconia, and compelled the hostile German princes to conclude peace. 20. The Peace of Hubertusburg. — The Empress Maria -Theresa, notwithstanding all that had passed, would gladly have continued the war ; but she knew she soon w^ould have to do so alone. The Empress Catherine had con- firmed the peace concluded with Frederick by her husband ; and France, exhausted by its struggle with England, was about to give up the contest. Negotiations between Austria and Saxony on the one hand, and Prussia on the other, were therefore entered into, and, on February 15, 1763, a few days after the conclusion of the Peace of Paris, the Treaty of Hiiberhcsburg was signed. The chief article of this treaty was the confirmation of Frederick in his posses- sion of Silesia. One of the most destructive wars in history thus left the two chief combatants in apparently the same position as that in which it had found them. But it was not really so. For seven years Prussia, trusting mainly to her own resources, had maintained her independence against the combined forces of several of the leading European Powers. A struggle so bravely carried on could not, when triumphantly closed, leave things exactly as they had been. As the result of the Seven Years' War, Prussia rose from the XVI.] FIRST PARTITION OF POLAND. 189 position of a petty kingdom, which no one much respected or feared, to that of a Great Power. She also learned her o\Mi strength, and prepared the way for those great achievements by which she has since made her name famous. From this time Prussia became the rival of Austria in Germany ; and the minor States grouped them- selves around these two Powers according to their tastes and sympathies. The question w^hich of the two Powders was in the end to be supreme gradually became the leading question in German politics. It did not receive a final answer till our own day. 21. Joseph II. Home government of Frederick the Great. — Francis I. died in 1765. He was succeeded in the same year by his son, Joseph 11. Maria Theresa had associated the latter with her in the government of the hereditary Austrian lands ; but during her lifetime he had very Httle authority. Under the vigorous government of Frederick II., Prussia gradually recovered from the effects of the Seven Year's War. Order w^as everywhere esta- blished, and those who had been ruined were helped by gifts of money and corn. The King's measures were by no means always popular. A Government monopoly of tobacco and coffee was especially disliked. On the whole, how- ever, his rule was wise and disinterested, and encouraged the energies of the people to flow in a variety of new directions. To Silesia, which had cost him so many sacri- fices, Frederick always devoted special attention ; and he was rewarded by seeing the population steadily increase in numbers and wealth. 22. First partition of Poland. — During the interval of peace that followed the Treaty of Hubertusburg, Austria and Prussia joined Russia in doing a great public wrong. With- out the smallest provocation, these Powers seized, in 1772, a large part of Poland, and divided it between them I90 FREDERICK THE GREAT, [chap. Poland was very badty governed ; but that was no reason why it should be robbed of a third of its territory by neighbouring nations. By this first partition Austria re- ceived East Galicia and Lodoiiiiriaj Frederick, v/hat was called West Prussia^ but without the important towns of Danzig and Thorn. 23. The ** Potato War." — A few years afterwards the peace of Germany was for a short time broken. On the death of Maxiuiilian Joseph., Elector of Bavaria, in 1777, the Emperor Joseph asserted a claim to Lower Bavaria, and, marching into the country, took possession of it. The true heir, Charles Theodore^ the Elector Palatine, was taken by surprise, and gave up to Austria two thirds of his inheri- tance on condition that he should retain the remaining third. The Elector Palatine's heir, the Duke of Zwei- driicken^ protested against this arrangement, and appealed to Frederick II. for help. Frederick, who was unwilling that Austria should become too powerful, sided against the Emperor, and once more marched into Bohemia. But no battle was fought. On receiving the. Circle of Bin'gan,, Austria consented to yield the rest of Bavaria. Peace was therefore, at Teschen, concluded on May 13, 1779. The war thus ended was nicknamed "the potato war,'' because the soldiers were said to have nothing to do except to cook their potatoes. 24. Death of Maria Theresa. Attempted reforms of Joseph II. — Joseph's mother, Maria Theresa, died on November 29, 1780. He then became sole ruler of the Austrian dominions. He was full of good wishes for his subjects, and had long meditated daring schemes of reform. He instantly began to put his ideas into practice. No fewer than 624 monasteries were closed, and an edict of toleration was proclaimed, by which freedom of worship was granted to all Christain sects. The Emperor's attacks XVI.] JOSEPH 11, 191 on the supposed rights of the Church excited such violent opposition that Pope Pius VI. himself visited Vienna He was received with enthusiasm by the people ; but the Emperor treated him with marked coldness, and conceded nothing. It was not only the Church that Joseph tried to reform- He attempted to simplify the administration of justice, to do away with the privileges of the nobility, and to introduce a uniform system of government throughout his hereditary states. In all this he was too rash. He forgot that great reforms cannot be effected all at once, and that it is impossible, even if it were desirable, to force nation- alities, whose circumstances are widely different, into one mould. In 1785 he made another attempt to obtain possession of Bavaria ; but his plans were again thwarted by Frederick, who formed a League for the preservation of the Imperial constitution. This League was joined by the majority of the temporal princes and by the Elector of Mainz, and may be regarded as the first attempt of Prussia seriously to contest with Austria the leading place in Ger- many. It came to an end immediately after the death of Frederick. 25. Death of Frederick the Great. Frederick "William II. — Frederick was now an old man, and had survived most of those who had shared his former triumphs and defeats. Years had not softened his character. His mind, however, remained active to the last, and he never lost his interest in affairs of state. He died on August 17, 1786, and was succeeded by his nephew Frederick Wiiliain II. The latter proved a weak King, under the dominion of un- worthy favourites. 26. Failure of Jos2ph XL's schemes. His death. — The Emperor Joseph soon found himself in circumstances of extreme difficulty. In 1788 he engaged in an unwise war with the Turks. He himself accompanied the Austrian 192 FREDERICK THE GREAT, [CH. xvi.] troops ; but nothing creditable either to him or his army was done. Meanwhile, discontent had been rapidly growing up, especially in Hungary and the Austrian Netherlands. The people of the latter country — with the exception of Luxemburg — at length rebelled, and, or. October 22, 1789, formed an independent Government at Breda. The Hungarian nobles, indignant at the attack of the Emperor on their privileges, roused the peasantry to revolt ; and they so far succeeded that Joseph had to undo in Hungary all the reforms he had tried with so much zeal to carry out. His health had been seriously injured during the campaign against the Turks. The anxiety caused by the opposition of his subjects to his well-meant schemes on their behalf greatly increased his weakness, and he died, almost broken-hearted, on February 20, 1790. 27. Leopold II. — Peter Leopold^ Grand Duke of Tuscany, Joseph XL's brother, succeeded to the Austrian inheritance. He was more cautious than Joseph, and, by returning to the principles which had always hitherto regulated Austrian policy, he soon restored his States to peace. On September 20, 1790, he was elected Emperor. CHAPTER XVII. THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE AND OF THE KINGDOM OF GERMANY, The French Revolution; hozu regarded in Germa7ty ; resolution of Leopold II. 07id F^-ederick Will a7?t II. to support the French King ; death of Leopold II. (l) — war declared by France against Austria; Prussia joins Austria; successes of the allies; their reverses ; Mainz taken by the French (2) — the campaigns of lygj and I7g4 (3) — Second Partition of Poland ; Austria is jealous of Prussia^ and intrigues with Russia against her; coldness of Frederick William II. in prosecuting the war ; secret treaty betzveen Austria and Russia ; Peace of Basel ; gains of Prussia and Austria by the Third Partition of Poland [a^ — campaigns of lygd a7td lygy hi Italy and Germany ; preli7?iinaries of peace signed at Leobe7t ; Treaty of Campo For77iio ; Congress of Rastatt (5) — Austria joins England and Russia against France; successes of the allies in ijgg; Russia withdraws from the war; battles of Marengo and IIohe7ili7ide7t ; Peace of Luneville (6) — alliance agai7ist Fra7tce in 180^ ; sur7-ender of Gene7'al Mack ; battle of Auste7'litz ; Peace of P7'essbu7g (7) — the Co7ifede7'atio7i of the Rhi7ie (8) — F7'ancis II. resigns the Itnperial Ci'ow7i; e7id of the Ro7na7i E7npire a7id the Ki7tgdom of Ge7many (9). I, The French Revolution. Death of Leopold II. — The French Revolution caused great excitement in Germany. Many thought it the beginning of better times for the whole of Europe ; but the princes naturally looked on it with fear and hatred. The French refugees, of whom there were a N 194 FALL OF THE EMPLRE. [chap. ♦ . great number, tried to strengthen the latter feeling's, and urged the princes to make war on France. Some time passed before the great German Powers, who were very jealous of one another, would consent to act together. At last the Emperor Leopold and Frederick William II, of Prussia met at Pillnitz, near Dresden, and resolved to support the French King. Before anything was done, how- ever, Leopold died, early in 1792. 2. War with France. — Leopold was succeeded by his son Fra7tcis II. The French, irritated by foreign interference in their affairs, had already declared war against Austria, in April, 1792. Austria was joined by Prussia ; and a Prussian army, under Ferdinand^ Duke of Brunswick^ and accompanied by Frederick William IL himself, soon marched into France. The Prussians were aided by many French refugees and 6,000 Hessians. The war, which was to grow into, a contest unparalleled for the greatness of its operations and of the issues depending on it, was at first favourable to the German Powers. Valenciennes^ Longwy^ and Verdun all fell into the hands of the Prussian general ; and a rapid advance might easily have been made on Paris. But fortune soon changed. The Duke of Brunswick issued a proclamation calling upon the French people to submit to their lawful King, and threatening Paris with the fate of ancient Jerusalem if the slightest affront were offered to the royal family. This manifesto roused deep indignation throughout France, and thousands flocked from all parts of the country to drive back the invader. A slight action took place at Valmy^ after which the Duke of Brunswick, the Prussians having been much weakened by disease, gave orders for a retreat. The dispirited troops hastened towards the Rhine, which they crossed at Cobleniz. The Austrians were even less fortunate than their allies. They were over- taken by the French at Jemmappes^ where, on November 5, XVII.] WAR WITH FRANCE. 195 1792, a battle was fought. After an obstinate fight the Aiistrians had to fly ; and in a few days the French entered Brussels. Since the time of Joseph II. the Netherlands had never been really loyal to Austria, so that they gladly threw off the yoke of that country, and proclaimed a Republic. In the meantime, Mamz had fallen into the hands of the French, who were warmly welcomed by a con- siderable number of the people. 3. Progress of the War. — Almost immediately after the execution of Lewis XVI.^ France made war on Great Britain, Holland, and Spain. After much discussion the States of the Empire declared war against France, but they had little real share in the struggle that followed. The Austrian army in the Netherlands was commanded by the Duke of Cobtcrg, On March 18, 1793, it defeated the French at Neerwinden. A second victory was gained by the Austrians, aided by a British division, at Famars; and the towns of Conde and Valencie7ines were taken by the allies. These advantages were not followed up with much energy, so that the French soon won back lost ground. After being defeated at Wattignies^ on October 16, the Austrians retreated. The Austrian army on the Middle Rhine, commanded by Wurinser^ was routed on the 26th December by Hoche, in the neighbourhood of the Laiiter. The Prussians had, after a long siege^ recovered Mainz, and gained a victory at K aisers lantern j but, after the defeat of Wurmser, they had to fall back, and were able to hold only a small district round Mainz. In 1794 the Emperor Francis joined the Austrian troops in the Netherlands ; and, together with the allies, they gained several advantages. The town of Landrecies fell into their hands. But fortune again turned in favour of the French. On ]\Iay 22 PicJiegnt defeated the allies at Totir?tay ; and on June 26 a still greater victory was gained*by Jotwdan at Fleuriis. Whilst 196 FALL OF THF FMPLRF, [chap. the former general prepared to invade Holland, the latter forced the Austrians back upon the Rhine, and compelled them to cross it on October 5. The left bank of the Middle Rhine had already been given up to the French by the Austrians and Prussians, who, after^ having been victorious at Kaiserslaiitern on May 22, had been defeated at the same place on July 1 5. 4. The Second and Third Partitions of Poland. Prussia makes peace with France. — Whilst the war with France was going on, the attention of the German Powers was much occupied by the affairs of Poland. In 1793 Prussia joined Russia in effecting the Second Partition of that kingdom, receiving the larger part of Great Poland^ with the cities of Thorn and Danzig. Austria was filled with jealousy at the increased power of her ally, and ThiigiU^ the minister who directed the Austrian policy, intrigued so much with Russia against Prussia that King Frederick William II. began to prosecute the war with France coldly, and to think of withdrawing altogether from the struggle. In 1794 a great revolt, headed by Kosciuszko, took place in Poland. Prussia tried to put it down ;^ but it was finally quelled by Russian troops. Early in 1795 Russia and Austria concluded a secret treaty, dividing Poland for the third and last time. The Prussian King, suspicious of the policy of the courts of Vienna and St. Petersburg, resolved to make peace with France ; and on April 5, 1795, the Treaty of Basel was signed. Prussia ceded to France all her possessions on the left bank of the Rhine. A little later Hanover and Hessen-Cassel also made peace with France. The secret understanding of Austria and Russia with respect to the Third Partition of Polajtd was made known to Prussia on August 8, 1795. By this arrangement New East Prussia, with Warsaw, was added to the Prussian monarchy ; and Austria received West Galicia, XVII.] THE PEACE 01^ CAMPO FORMIO, 197 5. The Peace of Campo Formio. — During the summer of 1795 there was a lull in the war between Austria and France ; but in September the Austrians were driven across the Main, They soon rallied, and by a victory at H'dchst^ near Frankfurt, compelled the French to retire to the opposite side of the Rhine. In the campaign of 1796 Austria had to put forth her whole strength. Her army in Italy was commanded by General Beaiilieu. Opposed to him was Napoleon Btionaparte^ a young general who soon became the forem^ost man in Europe. Having forced Sardinia to accept peace, Buonaparte advanced against the x^ustrians, and, after a fearful struggle, defeated them at the bridge of Lodi. Marshal Wtirmser was sent with a con- siderable army to their relief ; but he was several times defeated, and on September 9 was obliged to take refuge in Ma?itua. Meanwhile important operations had been going on in Germany. Two French armies, under the command of Moreau and Joiirdan^ had gone far into the country ; but on August 22 Jourdan was defeated at Netimark by the Archduke Charles. Two days afterwards a second victory was gained by the Archduke over the same general. Moreau, being thus left alone, retreated towards the Rhine. In Italy the Austrian arms continued unsuccessful. An army, which was placed under Marshal Alvinzi^ gained some advantages ; but on November 17 it was driven with great loss from Ascole. When fighting was begun again in January, 1797, Alvinzi was once more defeated at Rivolij and on P^ebruary 2 Mantua capitulated. Buonaparte now conceived the bold project of carrying the war into the hereditary territories of Austria. In this he succeeded. Crossing the Alps between Italy and Carinthia, he entered the latter country, and took up his head quarters at Leoben. As he was thus cut off from all help, a vigorous effort on the part of Austria might perhaps have freed hei 198 FALL OF THE EMPLRE, [chap. from her great enemy ; but she had been thoroughly humbled, and the Government now trembled for Vienna itself. Negotiations were therefore entered upon ; and the preliminaries of peace were signed at Leoben on April 1 8. Various difficulties afterwards arose; but on October 17, 1797, the Treaty of Campo Formio was agreed upon. The Austrian Netherlands were ceded to France. In return for her Italian possessions, which were formed into the Cisalpine Republic, Austria received Ve?tice, Friuli, Istria Dahnatia, and the islands off the Dalmatian coast. By a secret article the Emperor consented to cede the left bank of the Rhine to France, and to settle compensations for the deprived princes. Immediately after the conclusion of this treaty, a Congress was opened by Buonaparte at Rastatt, for the purpose of settling the terms of peace between France and the Empire. At this Congress the German princes were treated with much insolence by the French envoys, and had to yield every demand of the conqueror, however unreasonable. The conditions of peace, however, were still under consideration j when a change in the aspect of affairs suddenly brought the proceedings, of the Congress to a close. 6. Austria joins England and Russia against France. Peace of Luneville, — After the conclusion of the Peace of Campo Formio, Austria watched with great jealousy the violent doings of France in Italy and Switzerland. She therefore willingly formed an alliance with Russia and England against the common enemy ; and war broke out again in 1799. It began brilliantly for the allies. The Archduke Charles delivered Germany from the French by a great victory gained over General Jourdan at Stockach on March 25 ; and soon afterwards the army of Massena was driven out of the western part of Switzerland. In Italy Marshal I<[ray was victorious over the French, under XVII.] PEACE OF LUNEVILLE, 199 Scherer^ at Verona and MagJtajto. When the great Russian commander, Marshal Sziwaroff^ had joined the Austrians, the alHes defeated the French in battle after battle, and freed almost all Italy from their yoke. Next year these advantages were quickly lost. The Russian Emperor, whose forces were not so successful in Switzerland, withdrew from the war ; and Buonaparte, whose very name now struck fear into the hearts of his enemies, hal returned from Egypt to take the command of the French. On June 2, 1800, Genoa opened its gates to the Austrians ; but on that very day, after his daring march across the Alps, Buonaparte entered Alilan in triumph. On June 14 the great battle of Marengo v/as fought. The defeat of the Austrians was so complete that by this one battle the French regained almost all they had lost in Italy. At the same time General Moreau was advancing victoriously through Germany. On December 3 he gained the splendid victory of Hohenlinden. The Austrian Govern- ment no longer felt itself able to continue the war, and on February 9, 1801, the Peace oi Luneville was signed. This peace confirmed that of Campo Formio. The Emperor again yielded the Austrian Netherlands. He also con- sented to recognise the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics ; and gave the Margraviate of Breisgau to the Duke of Modena, and the archbishoprick of Salzburg as a secular principality, together with the title of Elector, to the Grand Duke of Ticscany. Besides these concessions, Austria consented to the German lands on the left bank of the Rhine being yielded to France. They were formally given up by the States of the Empire, whose plenipo- tentiaries began their inglorious labours at Regenslncrg on August 24, 1802. France thus gained for a time the long- coveted Rhine boundary. The princes who lost territory by the arrangement received gifts of secularised Church 200 FALL OF THE EM PL RE, [chap. property and mediatised free cities on the right bank. The Landgrave oi LLesseit-Cassel^ the Duke of Wiirte^nherg^ and the Margrave of Baden^ were made Electors. Of the spiritual Electors, only the Archbishop of Mainz kept his offices ; and his See was transferred to Regensbtirg. Liibeck, Hamburg, Bremen, Frankfurt, Augsburg, and Niirnberg, were the only cities allowed to remain free. The freedom of not less than 48 had been suppressed. 7. New Alliance against France. Battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Pressburg. — Germany had never been so thoroughly humbled as now. Her territory was divided, and the people handed from one ruler to another at the bidding of a foreign conqueror. The disunion of the various members of the Empire had thus at last borne bitter fruit. Little more was needed to put an end to the Empire • altogether ; and the unavoidable change soon came. Buonaparte, while ruling France ^vith wisdom and energy, showed more and more contempt for the rights of all other nations. In 1803 he seized Hanover ^ as if it had been a part of Great Britain. Prussia protested against this outrage, but in general held selfishly aloof,, hoping to gain through the losses of her neighbours. The territory of the Empire was violated in 1804 by the seizure of the Duke of E7ighieny but the Diet adjourned to avoid interference in ihe matter. Austria, however, was preparing for war. In 1805 she once more formed an alliance with Engla^id and Russia; and the three Powers, which were joined by Sweden, resolved to make a grand effort that should utterl/ crush their opponent. But, by his rapid movements and well-arranged plans, Buonaparte got the better of the allies^ He hastened towards the Rhine, and at once crossed into German territory. Fidelity to the Empire was so entirely a thing of the past on the part of mmy of the princes, that he Uad no difficulty in bringing Bavaria, IViirteniberg^ and .XVII.] THE PEACE OF FRESSBURG. 2ol Baden over to the side of France. General Mack com- manded an Austrian army near Ulm. He allowed himself to be cut off from all communication with Vienna, after which he was several times defeated. Taking refuge in Ulm, he was compelled, on October 17, to capitulate with his whole army, which was then made up of 30,000 men. On November 13 Buonaparte was in the palace of Schbn- brtinii in Vienna ; and a few days afterwards he had crossed the Danube in order to attack the Austrians and Prussians, who had united their forces in Moravia. The battle of Austerlitz was fought on December 2. The allies out- numbered the French, but mere numbers were not a match for skilful generalship and the trust of French soldiers in their leader ; and the battle ended in a great victory for Buonaparte. The war, however, need not have ended, if the Emperor Francis had been courageous enough to persevere. The Russians were willing to go on fighting ; the Archduke Ferdinand was at the head of an army of 20,000 men, with which he completely overcame the Bavarians ; and a short time before the French navy had been made powerless by the great victory of the English at Trafalgar, Besides, it seemed not improbable that Prussia might at last be aroused to a sense of her duty to the Em- pire and to Europe. But the Emperor wished for peace, and, in a personal interview with Buonaparte, arranged pre- liminaries. A treaty was signed at Pressbnrg on December 25. Austria had never before accepted terms so humiliating. Besides ceding Venice to Italy, she gave up Tyrol^ Vorarlberg, and other lands to Bavaria, and her territory in ^wabia to Wiirtemberg and Baden. In return for these sacrifices she received Salzburg^ the Elector of Salzburg being transferred to Wiirzbiug^ which was given up to him by Bavaria. Not content with these changes, Buonaparte raised the Electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg to the rank 202 FALL OF TLLE EMPLRE, [chap.- of Kings, The Emperor had to recognize them and the Elector of Baden as sovereigns wholly independent within their territories. In return for Hanover^ Prussia yielded Ansbach to Bavaria^ Cleve and Neitfchatel to France. Soon afterwards Buonaparte gave Cleve and Berg — received from Bavaria in return for Ansbach — to his brother-in-law, Joachi7Jt Murat., and Neufchatel to his friend and councillor, Alexander Berthier. 8. The Confederation of the Rhine.— The Holy Roman Empire still existed in name ; but a step w^as now taken which brought about its fall. Buonaparte knew how much it would help him to have a Power within Germany itself whose friendship he could always trust. It would once have been impossible to form such a Power ; but now all was changed. To their utter shame, German princes were found who could consent, for their own selfish ends, to support a foreigner against the Fatherland. On June 12, 1806, the Kings of Bavaria and Wilrtemberg^ the Elector of Baden^ the Landgrave of Hessen^ the Duke of Berg^ the Archbishop of Regensbjirg., and other princes, formally de- clared themselves separated from the Empire, and acknow- ledged the French Emperor as their protector. The league received the name of the Coiifederation of the Rhine^ and undertook to aid Buonaparte in war with an army of 63,000 men. The Archbishop of Regensburg, who had hitherto been Electoral Archchancellor, was appointed by Buona- parte, with the title of Prlnce-Prinute, his representative in the Confederation, 9. The fall of the Empire and of the Kingdom of Ger- many. — The final stroke had now been delivered, and the ancient Empire, the true representative of the Empire of the Ca:isars, fell to pieces. On August 6, 1806, Francis II. formally resigned the Imperial crown. The kingdom of Germany, as well as the Roman Empire, thus came to an XVII.] '' EMPEROR OF Austria:' 203 end. Ipx 1804 Francis, wholly mistaking the meaning of the word Emperor^ had added to his existing title that of Hereditary Eiiiperor of Austria, In the Treaty of Pres- burg he is called Emperor of Germaiiy a7id Austria. From 1806 he was simply E^nperor of Austria; and his successors have borne the same title. After his resignation of the true Imperial crown Germany was no longer, even in name, a united State acknowledging a common head. CHAPTER XVIII. THE STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. Desire of Buonaparte to humble Prussia ; war betzveen France and Prussia; battle of yena [i)^terror of the Prussians ; Buonaparit ente7's Berlin (2) — battle of Friedland; Peace of Tilsit (3) — war between Austria and France in i8og ; battle of Wagrant; Peace of Schonh'unn (4) — loyalty of the Tyrolese; bi-avery of Hofer ; shot by the French (5) — preparation for 7Var in Prussia (6) — • Frederick William III. appeals to the Prussian people to arm against the French; alliance between Prussia and Russia (7)^ battles of Liitzen and Bautzen; armistice; the allies joined by Austj'ia and Sweden (8) — victory of BlUcher at the Katzbach; defeat of the allies before Dresden; defeat of Va^idamme attd Ney (9) — the battle of Leipzig (10) — the war ca7^ried into F7'ance; the First Peace of Paris (11) — the Cong7'ess of Vienna; escape oj Buonaparte froni Flba (12) — the battle of Waterloo ; the Second Peace of Paris (13) — changes of territory in Germany (14) — the Ger??tan Confederatio?i (15) — German writers (i6) — Music in Ger??iany (17). I. War between Prussia and France. The Battle of Jena. — The selfish withdrawal of Prussia from the struggle with Buonaparte had hitherto saved it from disaster ; but its turn now came. Frederick William II. had died on November, 1797. He was very extravagant, and died deeply in debt. • His son Frederick Will lain I 11.^ who was twenty- seven years old at the time of his accession, was a man of much worthier character. This sovereign was deeply [CK. XVIII.] THE BATTLE OF JENA. 205 mortified by the formation of the Rhenish Confederation, partly because it threatened to destroy the supremacy of Prussia in North Germany. Buonaparte was at no pains to make him friendly. In fact, the French Emperor was jealous of the independence of Prussia, and anxious for an opportunity to humble it. He made proposals for the restoration of Hanover to the King of Great Britain, and was even unmanly enough to assail the character of Louise^ the beautiful and popular Prussian queen. Stung by tl!ese and many other insults, Frederick William at length, in 1 806, placed his army on a war footing, and demanded that the French troops should quit Germany. Unfortunately the Prussians were altogether unfit for the struggle into which they were thus hurried. The main body of the army had never had experience of actual warfare, while the leaders were for the most part slaves to mere form, puffed up with the glories of their fathers, and without any true notion of the strength of the enemy they had to deal with. The aged Ferdmand^ Duke of Brimswlck, who again commanded, took up his station to the north of the Thuringian Forest, and awaited the approach of the French. On October 10, a preliminary engagement between the French and a Prussian corps under Prince Lewis, the King's cousin, took place near Saalfeld. Prince Lewis was defeated and slain. This victory made the French masters of the Saal, and enabled them to cut off the Prussians from communication with Saxony, which was an unwilling ally of Frederick William in the war. On October 14 a great battle was fought at Aicerstiidt and Je^ia. The Duke of Brunswick commanded at the former place, and Prince LLohcnlohe at the latter. Neither was aware of the movements of the other ; and both were defeated. At the beginning of the battle the Duke of Brunswick was mortally wounded. A few regiments fought bravely ; but in the Prussian army 2o6 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. , « as a whole there was the utmost confusion. Great numbers were slain, and afterwards 20,000 men were made prisoners. 2. Buonaparte enters Berlin. — The results of the battle at Jena were even more disastrous than the battle itself A few generals distinguished themselves by their brave resist- ance. Although Blacker^ who afterwards became so famous, was obliged in the end to give in, he did not do so till, with a small body of troops, he had done much harm to the French in and near Lilbeck. Generals Gneisenau and Schill continued to defend Colberg against a greatly superior force, and, when Courbiere, who held Graudenz^ was told that there was no longer a King of Prussia, and that he had better yield, he replied, '^ If there is no longer a King of Prussia, then / will be King in Graudenz.^^ These, however, were exceptions. The campaign had been begun without any definite plan ; and now the whole country seemed over- whelmed with fear. Even Magdeburg^ with its garrison of 22,000 men, capitulated without striking a blow. The King and Queen fled to Konigsberg, and Buonaparte took pos- session of Berhn. The people of the capital submitted so readily that Buonaparte affected to doubt whether he ought to be proud or ashamed of having conquered such a nation. He surpassed himself by his robberies at this time. Amongst other things, he took away the sword of PVederick the Great, which he pompously declared was worth more than twenty millions of dollars, and the car of victory above the Brandenburg gate. 3. The Peace of Tilsit. — What remained of the Prussian army, under Lestocq and Kalkreuth, joined the Russians on the Prussian frontier. On February 7 and 8, 1807, a battle was fought at Eylau^ near Konigsberg. On the whole, the advantage seemed to rest with the allies ; but nothing came of the battle. The decisive contest took place on June 12 near Friedland, The French gained a complete victory, and XVIII.] PEACE OF TILSIT, 207 in a few days held K'onigsberg and Tilszt^DanzighdiYmg been compelled to yield in the last days of May. Buonaparte had an interview with the Russian Emperor on a raft in the middle of the Niemen, and induced him to make peace. As PiTissia could not hold out without help, the Pegice of Tilsit was signed on July 9. Hard terms were exacted of Prussia by this treaty. The whole of the territory between the Elbe and the Rhine was taken from her, and, together with B^'unswick^ H'essen-Cassel, and part of Hanover^ formed into a new kingdom, called the Kingdom of West- phalia^ of which Buonaparte's youngest brother Jerome was made King. The Polish territory of Prussia Avas called the Graitd Dicchy of Warsaw, and given to the Elector of Saxony, who, in return for having deserted Prussia after the battle of Jena, was raised to kingly rank by Buonaparte. Danzig was declared a free town. The Prussian King thus lost the better part of his territory, and no fewer than 5,000,000 subjects. He was obliged also to reduce his army to 42,000 men, and to pay an indemnity of 140,000,000 francs. That a country so humbled should ever recover itself, and strike another blow for freedom, seemed im- possible. 4, New v/ar between Austria and France. Battle of Wagram. Peace of Schonbrunn. — Austria had never looked on the results of the battle of Austerlitz as final. She Was all along resolved to recover, if possible, her lost territorv. Whilst Buonaparte was occupied in Spai?t, Francis made great preparations for the forthcoming struggle. The army was strengthened, and the people roused by ever}^ means that could excite their enthusiasm to come forward and join the newly established Landwehr. No effort was spared to make the war in every sense a people's war. The hopes of Germany were raised to a high pitch ; but, as the event proved, the time of her deliverance had not yet come. On 2o8 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE, [chap. April 9, 1809, the campaign was opened by the Archduke Charles^ who com.manded the whole army, crossing the Inn in order to take possession of Bavaria. Several battles were fought in quick succession, and in each the Archduke was defeated. After a battle at Echnuhl, he fell back on Regens- burgj but he was driven from this position also, and obliged to retreat towards Bohemia. The right bank of the Danube was thus left open to the French, and Buonaparte at once hastened to Vienna, which, after a' slight resistance, he entered in triumph for the second time, on May 12. The Archduke Charles was soon in motion at the head of his troops ; and the French crossed the Danube on a bridge of boats, in order to give him battle. A fierce battle was fought on May 21 and 22, on the plain between Aspern and Essli7ige?t^ in which Rudolf of Habsburg had formerly defeated King Ottocar of Bohemia. This time the Austrians Vv^ere victorious ; and there is reason to suppose that, if their mdVements had been somewhat more rapid, the whole French army might have been cut off. On July 4 Buona- parte again crossed the Danube, his army having meanwhile received vast reinforcements ; and, on July 5 and 6, the battle of Wagram was fought. Crowds anxiously watched the progress of the battle from the towers of Vienna. The Austrian right wing was victorious ; but, the left wing having been surrounded, the Archduke Charles had to retreat. The Austrian Emperor now felt that he would be no longer justified in continuing the war, and a few days afterwards an armistice was concluded. The Peace of ScJib7ibrunn was signed on October 14. Besides ceding Camiola^ Friuli^ Croatia^ part of Dalmatia^ and Trieste^ Austria yielded Salzburg to Bavaria^ and the greater part of Galicia to Russia and the King of Saxony. 5. Loyalty of the Tyrolese. Hofer. — During this war several brave struggles had been carried on in different xviir.] LOYALTY OF THE TYROLESE. 209 parts of Germany. Schill harassed the enemy for some time in Brunswick and Mecklenburg; but in the end he was obliged to take refuge in Stralsund^ where he was killed. Baron i'o?i D'ornberg tried, but in vain, to rouse the Hessians against King Jerome. Frederick William of Brunswick^ the son of the Duke who fell at Auerstadt, brought together a body of men which received the name of the Black Troops and fought hard for the re- covery of his lands. But he and his comrades had at last to embark for England. More memorable than these isolated efforts was the great struggle of the Tyrolese. Although their country had been annexed to Bavaria, they had re- mained loyal to the House of Habsburg, and at the out- break of war rose as one man, under the leadership of Hofer^ Speckbacher and Straub, The Bavarians and French were defeated, and driven from the country. After the battle of Wagram, Marshal Lefebvre regained possession of Lnnsbruck ; but the Tyrolese again succeeded in freeing their country, and Hofer became for some time head of the Government. By the peace of Schonbrunn, Bavaria was confirmed in her possession of Tyroly and Austria herself induced the people to lay down their arms. Hofer again rebelled ; but his contrymen were no longer able to support him, and he was obliged to conceal himself in the snows of the Alps. Here he was betrayed to the French, who^ in 1 810, basely shot him, at Mantua, as a traitor. 6. Preparation for war in Prussia. — Germany now seemed to have reached the lowest depth of humiliation. Some Germans pretended to believe that the state to which Buonaparte had brought them was the best for their country. The general feeling of the nation was more healthy. In Prussia especially many hopeful signs were showing them- selves. The bitter experience through which that country had passed brought forth good fruit. After the Peace of o 2IO STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. Tilsit, the King dismissed IJaiigwitz^ the minister who was chiefly responsible for the policy which Prussia had before followed. Haugwitz's successor, Stein, was one of the ablest statesmen of his age. He abolished serfdom, threw open civil offices to all classes, and induced the King to concede various municipal rights to the towns. The King was finally obliged to dismiss him as an enemy of France, and he took refuge in Russia. By the efforts mainly of Wilhehn vo7i Humboldt, the school system of Prussia was placed on a basis which even yet makes it the envy of other nations. All the leading public men strove to awaken in the hearts of the people a patriotic feeling which should lead them at the proper moment to aid in throwing off the French yoke from Germany. The "Tugendbund" or "League of Virtue" did good service to the national cause. It was joined by men of all ranks, but especially by professors and students, who thirsted for an opportunity to undo the disasters caused by the faults and mistakes of the past. The military system of Prussia was as efficiently re-organized as the civil. Under Gneiseiiau and Scharnhorst the provision that the Prussian army should not exceed 42,000 men was skilfully evaded. The army was nominally kept at this figure ; but so soon as one set of men was sufficiently trained, it was replaced by another. Thus all the men of the country were silently made ready for the great struggle to which every one looked forward. 7. Frederick William appeals to the Prussian people. ^Alliance of Russia and Prussia. — Some years passed before the fitting time for attacking Buonaparte came. In 1 810 he annexed to France the free towns of Brenien, HainbiLrg, and Lilbeck, and the whole northern coast of Germany as far as the Elbe. After the disastrous retreat from Russia, Germans felt that they would probably never have a more favourable opportunity for freeing themselves. Prussia was the first XViir.] ALLIANCE OF RUSSLA AND PRUSSIA. 211 to act. Berlin being in the power of the French^ Frederick* William went to Breslau; and from thence, on February 3, 1813, he issued an appeal to the youth of Prussia to arm in defence of the Fatherland. On February 18 he met the Russian Emperor at Kalischj and there an alliance was formed against the common enemy. Years before the same monarchs had met at midnight at the grave of Frederick the Great, and solemnly sworn to be true to each other in the stmggle for the deliverance of Germany and Europe. The time had now come for the fulfilment of their vow. On March 1 5 war was formally declared by Prussia against France. Frederick William had not overrated the patriotism of his subjects. Young men from all parts of the country flocked to the national standard. They breathed a very different spirit from that of the troops whom Buonaparte had so easily crushed at Jena. The Prussian army was by this time equipped and disciplined in accordance with the wants of the age ; and it was moved by a common impulse, the desire to avenge the injuries the French had inflicted on (Germany, and the resolve that, cost what it might, they should be driven from German soil. The foundations of the Prussian military system had been laid by the creation of the Landwehr and Landsttir??i^ the latter intended for the defence of the homes of the people in case of utter defeat on the field. 8. Victories of the French. Armistice. The Allies joined by Austria and Sweden. — The first important en- gagement took place on May 2, 1813, near Lutsen^wh^vQ Gustavus Adolphus was killed nearly two hundred years before. Both Russians and Prussians, fighting in view of their sovereigns, who shared the fortunes of the whole campaign, behaved well. Bliicher especially distinguished himself by the bravery with which he led his troops from assault to assault. But the allies were greatly outnumbered by the 212 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. French, and retreated in good order to Batiizen. The King of Saxony, who had hitherto hesitated, was now com- pelled by Buonaparte to join him. On May 21 a second battle was fought at Bautzen. The allies, being still inferior in numbers to the French, were again defeated ; but they did more harm to the enemy than they themselves suffered, and their retreat was so skilfully conducted that the French were unable to secure a single trophy. Buonaparte pursued the allies into Silesia ; but on June 4 he consented to an armistice for three weeks. Whilst the armistice lasted both sides prepared vigorously for a renewal of the contest. Austria came forward and offered her services as mediator. In the negotiations which followed she was represented by Prince Metlernich, a diplomatist of high distinction, whose ability Buonaparte already knew. A Congress was opened at Prague on July 5, and the armistice was prolonged till August 10. Terms of peace, however, could not be agreed upon ; and it was resolved to go on with the war. But there was now a great change in the relative position of the various parties. Austria, which Buonaparte had hoped to keep neutral, formally joined . the allies. Bei'jiadotte^ the Crown Prince of Sweden, had also come to their aid. 9. Progress of the War. — When the war began again Buonaparte sent Marshal Oudmot with an army of 80,000 men to seize Berlin. On August 22 this army halted at Gross-Beeren^ hoping to enter the capital next day ; but during the night it was fiercely attacked by a Prussian force under General Billozu^ and driven towards the Elbe. Buonaparte himself had set out for Silesia in order to attack BlilcJier; but, learning that the main division of the allied army, under Prince Schwaj^tzeiiberg^ was advancing from Bohemia on Dresden, he was obliged to retreat on the very day on which Marshal Oudinot was defeated. He left in xviii.] THE BATTLE OF LEIPZIG, 213 Silesia, under Marshal Macdoiiald^ an army of 80,000 men. Bliicher, who had avoided an engagement with the main French army, at once advanced to meet Macdonald. On August 26 the two armies stood opposite each other, separ- ated by a stream called the Katzbach, Bliicher allov\'ed a number of the enemy to cross this stream, and then exclaimed, " Now my lads, there are enough of them — forward !" The Prussians and Russians obeyed heartily, and the French were utterly routed. From this day, Bliicher, who was a great favourite with the soldiers, was known as Marshal " Vorwdrts'^ He was created Pleld Marshal, and afterwards Prince Wahlstadt. While the battle of the Katz- bach was being won, and on the following day, another was fought before Dresden. On both days the allies were unsuc- cessful. Having suffered great losses, they retreated towards Bohemia. A few days afterwards they partly made up for this defeat by a victory gained over General Vandani7iie near Top lit 2. Vandamme himself and 10,000 men were made prisoners. Buonaparte now tried a second time to gain possession of Berlin. On September 6, Marshal Ney came up with the Prussians at Dennewitz^ and at once attacked them. The French army was almost double that of the Prussians, and fought with great bravery ; but the Prussians stoutly resisted till the Russians and Swedes, under Bernadotte, arrived, when the French were forced to give way. They lost a large number of men, and were pursued as far as the Elbe. 10. The Battle of Leipzig". — During the month of Sep- tember, Buonaparte strove hard to bring the main alHed army to a general engagement; but this the allies cautiously avoided. At length Bliicher, after some successful fighting^ joined the army of Bernadotte at Diibeit. About the same time the main army, leaving Bohemia, marched through the passes of the Erz mountains, and reached the plains of 214 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE, [chap. Saxony. It was obvious that the alHe's intended to concen- trate behind Buonaparte, and cut off his communication with France. He therefore left Dresden, and retreated towards Leipzig, which he entered on October 14. He did this partly because he had been deserted by the Bavarians, who, now that he had begun to be unsuccessful, entered into an alliance with Austria. The greater part of the allied army was already in the neighbourhood of Leipzig, so that the decisive contest was evidently at hand. Prince Schwartzenberg and Buonaparte, aware of the great issues depending on the approaching battle, did everything they could to arouse the enthusiasm of their troops ; and their efforts were not without effect. The battle began on the morn- ing of October 16. In the evening the position of the armies was very much the same as in the morning, except that Bliicher had got the better of Marshal Ney at the village of Mockerjt. But this time the French were greately outnum- bered by the allies, and the latter expected fresh troops. Buonaparte saw therefore how the battle must end, and on the 1 7th made proposals for an armistice, offering terms highly favourable to the allies ; but the latter declined to grant his request. On the i8th, Bernadotte having meanwhile joined the allies, the battle was renewed. Whilst it was going on, the troops of Saxony and Wiirtemberg went over to the enemy. On this terrible day the French kept up their old fame ; but in spite of all their efforts they were steadily forced back, and when night put an end to fighting it was plain that a retreat could not be avoided. It began at dawn on the 19th. As the troops were crossing the Elster^ the allies stormed the gates of Leipzig, and caused much con- fusion. A large part of the army had not yet crossed when tiie only bridge open to them was, probably by mistake, suddenly blown up. Many of those left behind were slain ; others were drowned, and upwards of 1^,000 were made XVIII.] FIRST PEACE OF PARIS. 215 prisoners. Great quantities of cannon and ammunition fell into the hands of the allies. In this fearful battle Buona- parte lost upwards of 70.000 men ; and the allies not fewer than 40,000. As the Emperor Alexander and King Frede- rick William, and, a few hours afterwards, the Emperor Francis, with their generals, triumphantly entered Leipzig, all felt that the chief part of their task was fulfilled, and that the deliverance of Germany was now a question of only a very short time. 1 1 . The War carried into France. The First Peace of Paris. — As the French were retreating, the Bavarian General Wrede tried to stop their passage at Hanau^ but was himself defeated. Buonaparte was thus enabled to push on towards the Rhine, which he crossed at Mainz on November 2. His power in Germany was now for ever at an end. The German princes who had adhered to him deserted him. The fortresses garrisoned by his troops on the Elbe, Oder, and Vistula surrendered ; the Rhenish Con- federation was broken up ; the Kingdom of Westphalia disappeared ; the Elector of Hessen and the Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg took possession of their heredi- tary territories, and Hanover was given back to the King of Great Britain. But the allies were not satisfied. They felt that, so long as Buonaparte occupied the throne of France, they were not safe. They therefore resolved to carry the war into France itself, and not to sheathe the sword till the power of their enemy had been for ever crushed. A Prussian army, under Biilow, marched northwards to the aid of the Dutch. Schwartzenberg, with the mxain army, crossed the Rhine at Basel. Between these tw^o was Blijchcr, who entered France between Mainz and Coblentz. On January 29, 1 8 14, he was defeated by Buonaparte ; but on February i his army joined that of Schwartzenberg, and the two to- gether gained a brilliant victory at La Rothiere. They then 2i6 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE, [chap. separated. The result of their separation was that Buona- parte gained several victories. On March 9 and 10, how- ever, the French were defeated at Lao7i by Bliicher, who had joined the army of Biilow. Having attacked Prince Schwartzenberg at Arcis-sur-Aube on March 20 without any definite result, Buonaparte formed the bold plan of getting behind the main allied army, in the hope that by cutting off their communication with the Rhine he would induce them to give up the idea of advancing on Paris. This scheme was found out by the allies. Fortune had thus thrown a great opportunity into their hands, and they did not let it escape them. A force of 10,000 men, under the Russian General Wmzingerode^ was left to deceive Buona- parte, while the armies of Schwartzenberg and Bliicher marched rapidly towards the capital. They arrived there on March 29 ; next day Paris surrendered ; and on the 31st the Emperor Alexander and King Frederick William entered the city at the head of their troops. Two months afterwards the First Peace of Paris was concluded between the allies and Lewis XVI I L of France, Buonaparte having in the meantime abdicated and been banished to Elba. By this treaty all the territory taken from Germany since 1792 was given back. No money indemnity was demanded ; and France was allowed to keep even the art treasures which had been stolen from Germany. 12. The Congress of Vienna. Escape of Buonaparte from Elba. — The task now before the conquerors of Buonaparte was to bring back order to Germany. The great Congress of Vienna was opened on October i, 18 14. Besides the Emperors oi Austria and of Russia^ there were present the Kings of Prussia^ of Denmark^ of Bavaria^ and of Wiirtem- berg, most of the German Princes, and the representatives of the various German States and of all European Powers except Turkey. The Congress soon found that it would XVIII.] THE BATTLE OE WATERLOO, 217 have to overcome great difficulties. Prussia wished to be rewarded for its sacrifices by the annexation of Saxony ; Russia asked the whole of Poland. The other Powers would not listen to these demands, and disputes ran so high that the peace of Europe seemed to be once more threa- tened. Suddenly, on March 7, 181 5, when a compromise was being arrived at, all were startled by the alarming news that Buonaparte had escaped from Elba, was gather- ing around him the military strength of P^rance, and preparing to begin another war. The subjects of dispute which had before seemed so important were at once for- gotten in the thought of the common danger. Buonaparte was declared an outlaw. A new coalition was formed by the Great Powers represented at Vienna ; and measures were taken for the raising of enormous armies. Germany prepared enthusiastically for her own defence. She was resolved that the present should be the last time Buona- parte should disturb Europe. 13. The Battle of Waterloo. The second Peace of Paris. — When the campaign began, in June, 1 81 5, Prince Schwartz- enberg held the Lower and Middle Rhine, and the Duke of Welli7tgton had taken up his post in Holland ; Blilcher's headquarters were at Liege. The allies were not at first successful. On June 16 the Prussians were attacked near Ligny^ and defeated with great loss. Bliicher himself narrowly escaped being killed or made prisoner. On the same day an engagement took place at (2icatre Bras; but in this the French were unsuccessful. At Quatre Bras the Black Troop of Frederick William of Brunswick again dis- tinguished itself ; but Frederick William himself was killed. On' June 18 the great battle of Waterloo^ called by the Germans La Belle Alliance^ was fought. On the night before the battle Bliicher promised to come to the help of Wellington, and, although he had great difficulty in 2i8 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. doing so, he kept nis word. For eight hours the English army defended itself with splendid bravery ; when Bliicher came up, Buonaparte knew that all was lost. The defeat of the French was complete. They were pursued so vigor- ously by the Prussians under Gneisenau^ and cut off in such vast numbers, that this single battle put an end to the war. Even Buonaparte felt that further resistance was impossible. On July 7 the alhes were once more in possession of Paris ; and on November 20 the Second Peace of Paris was signed. The German Powers wished to recover Elsass and Lorraine ; but they had to content themselves with the boundaries which existed before 1790, and which differed only slightly from those fixed by the First Peace. France undertook to pay an indemnity of 700 million francs, to be divided among the allies. She had also to restore the art treasures which Buonaparte had stolen. 14. Changes of territory in Germany. — Whilst the armies of the allies carried on the war, the Congress of Vienna had continued its sittings. The renewal of the struggle made all parties more moderate, so that the deliberations of the Congress were brought to an end in June. Besides her former Italian and Illyrian possessions, Austria received Tyrol, Salzburg, Vorarlberg, and the l7mvierteL Prussia obtained all that she gave up in the Treaty of Tilsit, and the Grand Duchy of Posen, Swedish Po77ierania, the northern part of Saxony, the Duchies of Westphalia and Berg, and the Rhine country between Mainz and Aachen. Bavaria kept Aiisbach and Bairetcth^ and, in return for terri- tory ceded to Austria, received Wiirzburg ^LXidi Aschaffenburg^ together with the Upper T^henish Palatinate, thenceforth known as Rhe7iish Bavaria. Hanover also received some new lands, and, as Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Saxony had already been, was made a Kingdom. The remaining German States kept very much the same boundaries as x\'iii.] THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 219 • those they had possessed during the time of the Rhenish Confederation. 15. The German Confederation. — The jealousies of Austria and Prussia, and the unwilHngness of Bavaria and Wiirtem- berg, did not permit that the Empire should be restored. The States of GeriTiany, therefore, joined in a great Confederatiojt, It was made up of thirty-nine States, taking in the free towns of Lilbeck^ Ha7nburg^ Bremen^ and Fraiikfiirt. Each State was to remain independent in matters affecting it" self alone, the object of the Confederation being merely the regulation of those affairs common to all German States equally. A permanent Diet, consisting of the plenipoten- tiaries of the States, was to hold its sittings in Frankfiirt-07t the-Maiiiy Xhe, representatives of Austria presiding. The members of the Confederation agreed never to declare w^ar against each other, or to form alliances with foreign powers which should in any way be hurtful to a German State. All subjects of dispute between the various States were to be referred for settlement to the Diet. Each State was to contribute, according to its population, to the Confederate army, whose commanders the Diet were to appoint. The fortresses of Luxemburg^ Landau., and Mainz were declared the property of the Confederation, and garrisoned by its troops. The act of Confederation decreed that con- stitutional government should be set up in each State, and that the members of all Christian sects should have equal civil and political rights. 16. German Writers. — Although Germany was humbled beyond all past experience in her struggle with Buonaparte, her intellectual life was never so rich or comprehensive as at this time. The divisions which split up Germany kept down everything noble in her national history for some time after the peace of Westphalia. In the end they were not altogether unfavourable to literature, for, as politics and 220 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [chap. commerce did not afford the same outlet for the energies of the people as existed in free countries, above all in England, the hio-her class of minds turned aside and devoted them- selves wholly to thought and study. In the latter part of the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century, Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr vo7i Leibnitz had a European reputation as one of the deepest and most original thinkers of his time. It was characteristic oY the age that he did not write any of his many works in German. His philosophical system was further developed by Christian Freiherr von Wolf. By his " Kritik of Pure Reason," published in 1781, Immanitel Kant began a new epoch in philosophy. Fichte was also a distinguished philoso- pher ; and Schelling and Hegel had already made them- selves known as thinkers. Fichte was one of the noble band who not only roused the nation to resist the French, but themselves marched against the enemy. Hegel put the last touches to his first great work in his quiet home in Jena as the artillery of the contending armies in the battle of Jena was thundering outside. Barthold Geo?'g Niebtihr was one of a number of writers who were at this time writing history according to a wholly new method Among the scholars who had given a powerful impulse to learning v/ere Winckehnann and Lleyne. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, German poetry held a very low place. The so-called Second Silesian School had great i'ame ; but it was altogether without genius. A number of court poets wrote chiefly under French influence. A freer style was brought in at .the beginning of the eighteenth century by Von Hagedow, Von Haller^ a Swiss poet, who was also a man of science and a philosopher, and Gellcri^ whose works were read by all classes. The first of the great classical poets of Germany was Friedrich Gottlieb I<[lopstock wlio was far above his immediate predecessors in richness XVIII.] GERMAN WRITERS. 221 of imagination and depth of feeling. His chief work is " The Messiah." Christoph Martin Wieland also takes a high place as a clear and versatile writer. He had the special merit of arousing some interest in literature among the higher classes of society. " Oberon," a poem, and ^'Agathon" a prose romance, are usually thought the best of his many writings. A far greater writer than either Wieland or Klopstock was their contemporary, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. He was the founder of scientific criti- cism, and gave to German prose a terseness, clearness, and strength it had never hitherto possessed. He was also distinguished as a dramatic poet. Among his works may " be named " Laokoon," " Emilia Galotti," and " Nathan the Wise." Another famous writer of this time was Johanii Gottfried von Herder^ who was at once a poet, a critic, and a philosopher. High above all these rose the illustrious Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. He holds in German literature the place held by Shakespeare in English, and by Dante in Italian literature. Perhaps his greatest work is " Faust," Specially remarkable for perfect finish of style are " Torquato Tasso " and '^ Iphigenie." The poetry of common life was never more finely brought out than in " Hermann and Dorothea ;" and Goethe's lyrics are prob- ably the most beautiful of any written in modern times. His chief prose work is " Wilhelm Meister." Friedrich von Schiller is generally supposed to rank next to Goethe in the list of German poets. He is perhaps even more popular than Goethe, for it was he who first gave full expression to the awakening national life of Germany. His chief writings are dramatic ; and of these the best are " Wallenstein," "Maria Stuart," and "William Tell." His " Song of the Bell" is the most famous of his shorter pijeces. Jean Paul Friedrich Richter wrote an extremely difficult style ; but he is one of the greatest of German humourists. 222 STRUGGLE WITH BUONAPARTE. [CH. xvni,] Of his many romances, " Titan," and ^' Flower, Fruit and Thorn Pieces/' are usually considered among the best. Of the poets who roused the enthusiasm of the nation in the war of freedom, the best known were Arndt and Korncr. The latter died fighting against the French. 17. Music in Germany.' — Germany has long been distin- guished as a music-loving nation. No other country has had so many composers of the highest rank. Of those whom she produced in the eighteenth century the most distinguished were Sebastian Bachj Handel^ Haydn, and MozarU CHAPTER XIX, REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. The demand for constitutional government (i) — the desire for unity; murder of Kotzebue; action of the Governments (2) — popidar risings in i8jo; riot in F7'ankfurt in i8jj (3) — Lewis /. of Bavaria; the Custo??zs Union (4) — death of Francis /. of Austria; tyranny of King Ernst August of Hanover (5) — death of Frederick William III. of Prussia; high expectations raised by Frederick William IV.; he summons a United Diet (6)^ religious movements in Pi'ussia {'j)^-effect of the French Revolu- tion of 1848 in the sjualler States (8) — the Revolution in Austria and Prussia (9) — the Provisional Parliaiftent in Frankfurt; recognised by the Diet; rebellion in Upper Baden (10) — the N^ational Assembly in Frajikfurt (i i) — action of Christian VIII. of Denmark with regard to Schleswig-Holstein ; Frederick VII. adopts the same course; a provisional Governi7ient set up in the Duchies; th£ Fra^tkfurt Assembly supports them; war with Denmark; an armistice concluded by Prussia^ and ratified^ after some delay, by tJie Frankfui't Asse?nbly ; riot i7t F7'ankfurt, a7id attempted Revolution in Upper Bade7t (12) — the P7'ussia7t Asse77ibly ; a new Pa7'iiame7tt su7nmo7ied (13) — the Austrian Diet; Revolutio7is i7i Hu7igary and i7i Vie7ina; the F77ipe7'or Fe7'di7iand abdicates, a7id is succeeded by Fra7icis Joseph (14) — disse7isions i7z the Frankfurt Asse77ibly as to the 7-elatio7i of Austria to Ge7'77ia7iy ; the l77iperial title offered to the Ki7ig of Prussia, a7id 7'efused (15) — the National A sse77ibly re77ioves to Stuttgart, atid is dispersed by the Ki7ig of Wiirte77iberg ( r6) — disturba7iccs in Saxony, ^R/ienish Bavaria, a7id Badeti (17) — ■ 224 RE VOLUriONAR V MO VEMENTS. [chap. the Revolution in Hungary ; ended by the surrender of Gorgey ( i8) — Coitstitutio7tal Government set up in Prussia (19) — the Ger- man Union; Parliament of the Union in Erfurt; Austria tries to reconstitute the Confederation (20) — dispute betzveen the Elector of Hessen Cassel attd the Chambers; Austria and Prussia inte7fere; civil war avoided (21) — the Frankfurt Diet restored (22) — the war with Denmark; Prussia makes peace; defeat of the Schleswig-Holstein army (23) — treaty of Commerce betiveen Prussia and Austria (24). 1. The demand for free government. — The Act of Confederation promised that constitutional government should be set up in the various States of Germany, The people had made so many sacrifices in the great struggle with Buonaparte that those who disliked the old despotic system felt they had a right to insist that this promise should be kept. The princes, however, soon forgot what they owed to their subjects. Between 181 5 and 1830 constitutions were granted by Sachsen-Weimar, Baden, Bavaria, WUrtemberg, Hessen-Darmstadt, and other small States ; but in reality very little change was made in the government of these countries. Frederick William III. of Prussia seemed at first inclined to yield to the demand for popular representation ; but he contented himself with setting up a number of Provincial Diets. Prince Metternlch^ the ruling spirit of the Austrian Government, was a resolute enemy of the constitutional system. 2. The desire for Unity. — The feeling of national life, which had never been very strong after the Great Inter- regnum, and which almost died out duriiTg the Thirty Years' War, had for some time been growing up again. The famous deeds of Frederick the Great had made the people once more proud of the common German name ; and this feeling had been strengthened by the war of free- dom, and by the achievements of Germans in science, XIX.] THE DESIRE FOR UNITY. 225 literature, and art. There was now, therefore, a very- general desire that Germany should cease to be a mere collection of States only nominally united. Few were quite satisfied with the Confederation. It left each State practically independent, and every one knew that in a short time it would lose any little power it had ever had. The general discontent showed itself most at the Univer- sities. A large party among the professors and students constantly contrasted the disunion and weakness of Ger- many in their day with its power and fame when the Empire was at its highest in the Middle Ages ; others, knowing that the old state of things could never be brought back, wished for some form of union more suited to the wants of their own time. The Governments of the various States for the most part disliked this movement in favour of unity. Kotzebue^ a well-known writer of plays, ridiculed those who wasted time in what he thought idle dreams, and was so much disliked that at last, in 18 19, a young student mur- dered him. The Governments believed, or pretended to believe, that this was the result of a widespread conspiracy, and resolved to take severe measures. A conference of ministers was held at Carlsbad to consider the whole matter. Many young men were thrown into prison ; various pro- fessors — among them, Ar7idt^ whose songs had done much to keep up the national enthusiasm in the late war — were deprived of their offices ; and strict limits were put to the freedom of the press and the Universities. The Confederate Diet accepted the decisions of the Conference, and ap- pointed a Commission to fmd out and punish revolutionists. The desire for unity, however, instead of being crushed, became stronger and stronger. The wish for free govern- ment also became more common. The great question that arose in many minds was whether the nation should try to obtain unity before freedom, or freedom before unity. A11 P 226 REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. [chap. knew that if either were gained the other would soon follow. 3. Popular risings in 1830. Riot at Frankfurt in 1833. — The French Revolution in 1830 caused great commotion in Germany. In Prussia and Austria there was little disturbance of the peace ; but in several of the smaller States there were popular risings. In Bru7iswick the palace of the Duke, who w^as greatly disliked, was burned to the ground ; and he himself had some difficulty in escaping. His brother, who succeeded him, granted the required constitution. Constitutions more or less liberal were also conceded by the Governments of Saxony, Hessen-Cassel, Sachsen-Altenburg, and Hanover. On April 3, 1833, a riot took place at Frankfurt. A number of armed men, chiefly students and journalists, attacked the town guard, and freed a few political prisoners. They would also have dispersed the Diet ; but they were themselves attacked and overcome by the troops. This paltry disturbance was made an excuse for still more harsh measures against the Universities and the press. 4, Lewis I. of Bavaria. The Customs Union. — The King of Bavaria at this time was Lewis L He succeeded his father, Maxiinilian^ in 1825. Lewis was a man of culture and artistic taste. He brought the University of Landshui to Mu?tich, and spent large sums in extending and beautifying his capital. He was so liberal a patron of art that artists came from all parts of Germany to Munich. Soon after he became King he made a treaty with Wiirtem- berg, regulating the customs of the two countries. This was the beginning of a movement of great importance to Germany. Prussia united with various North German States, and the Central States united among themselves, for the regulation of the customs. In 1828 the idea of a Customs Uiiioji^ which should take in all German States, XIX.] FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. 227 was started ; and it scon gained ground. As Pioissia was evidently best fitted to form the centre for a movement of this kind, one Government after another concluded with it the necessary treaties. Thus was gradually formed the Customs Union, which was in the end joined by nearly all Germany. It removed many useless restrictions from commerce, and kept alive in the minds of the people the idea of that complete unity which many had so long wished in vain. It also added to the already great influence of Prussia in Germany. 5. Death of Francis I. of Austria. King Ernst August of Hanover. — On March 2, 1835, Fraiicis /., the first Emperor of Austria, died. He was succeeded by his son, the weak- minded Terdinand^ under whom the policy of Austria continued very much the same, Prince Metternich still taking the leading place in the Government. By the death of William. IV. of E7igland^ in 1837, the Kingdom of Hanover passed to Ernst August^ William's brother. The new King was harsh and violent. He withdrew the con- stitution granted in 1833, and set up in its place another far less free, which had been conceded at a former time. Seven distinguished professors of Gottingen — amongst them the brothers Grimm — who protested against this tyranny, were dismissed from their offices. A revolt which resulted among the students was not put down till some blood had been shed. 6. Death of Frederick William III. of Prussia. Frederick William IV. — Frederick Wilham III. of Prussia, who had seen so many changes of fortune, died on June 7, 1840. Great hopes were raised by his son and successor, lyederick Williain IV. This king began his reign by granting a a pardon to all political prisoners, and spoke eloquently of the duties of a sovereign. At the ceremony which took place when the works for completing the cathedral of Koln 228 RE VOL UTIONARY MO VEMENTS. [chap. were begun, he uttered words full of promise for the future unity of Germany. The expectations formed as to the reign of Frederick William IV. were not fulfilled. He was well- meaning, and certainly did a good deal for his subjects. Under him Berlin became a great centre for German science and learning. But he had no strength of character, and shared far too much those extravagant notions of the authority of Kings which have always hitherto marked the Prussian royal family. His subjects urged him to grant a constitutional system of government, reminding him of the early promises of his father. At last, in 1847, when entreated from all sides, he summoned to Berlin a United Diet. This was not a Parliament^ but a combination of the several Provincial Diets. It was opened on April 11. The King caused great dissatisfaction by declaring that nothing would induce him to concede a constitution, and thus to change the natural relation between a prince and his subjects. 7. Religious movements in Prussia. — Various religious movements took place in the early years of Frederick William's reign. A considerable number, roused at first by the protest of a priest named Ronge against a piece of gross superstition sanctioned by Bishop Arnoldi of Trier ^ left the Roman Catholic Church, and formed communities to which they gave the name of Gerinan Catliolic Coinmtmities. The Protestant Church, which had been outwardly strengthened under Frederick William III. by the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches in 181 7, was also deeply moved by the action of a. party whose members called themselves the Friends of Light. Many of these left the Church, and formed F7'ee ConiniMnities. Both these and the German Catholic Communities became centres for political agitation. 8. Effect of the French Revolution cf 1848 in the smaller States. — The year 1848 is a memorable one in German XIX.] THE REVOLUTION OF 1848. 229 history. Dissatisfaction was deep and widespread. In all the leading States the people were urgently demanding freer forms of government, and the desire for the unity of Germany had become in many minds almost a passion. When the third French Revolution broke out, its iniluence was immediately felt in Germany. The popular movement this time was very different from any the Governments had hitherto had to contend with. The people were evidently in earnest, and resolved to obtain, at whatever cost, their chief demands. The princes of the smaller States were alarmed, and most of them, without loss of time, changed their IVIinistries, the new Ministry in each case frankly adopting a liberal policy. Lewis, King of Bavaria, had to resign his crov»m in favour of his son Maximilian j and the Grand Duke of Hessen Darmstadt associated his son with him in the government. 9. The Revolution in Austria and Prussia. — The Revolu- tion was most serious in the two great German States, Prussia and Austria. In Vienna, a rising, headed by the students, was so successful, that on March 13, 1848, Prince Metternich was a fugitive on his way to England. After his departure the greatest confusion reigned in the capital. The revolutionary party everywhere gained the upper hand ; and the Emperor was obliged to summon a Diet, to .be elected by universal suffrage in all his hereditary lands. He no longer felt safe in Vienna, and went, with the Imperial household, to Innsbmck. In Berlin the Rc\olu- tion was even more violent. Excited meetings were he:d ; and on March 13 and the following days, there were sharp contests between the people and the soldiers. The King, who was not personally unpopular, hesitated for some time as to the course he should adopt, but on March \^ pro- mised to set up constitutional government. The people were excited, and demanded that the troops should be sent 230 RE VOLUriONAR V MO VEMENTS. [chap. out of Berlin. On the i8th a crowd gathered before the palace to press the demand. Two shots were suddenly fired, from what quarter no one knew. A cry of treason was raised, and many took up arms. In the afternoon a fierce struggle began. The troops Avere attacked from behind barricades, and from the roofs and windoAvs of houses. The contest w^ent on till far in the night, and many were killed. Next day the King yielded the point in dispute. He declared that he placed himself "at the head of the movement," and Berlin was put under the protection of armed citizens. The Ministry was dismissed, and, after an electoral law had been passed by the United Diet, orders were issued for the election of a National Assembly. 10. The Provisional Parliament in Frankfurt. — Mean- while, another great movement began elsewhere. It was generally hoped that union as well as freedom was now to be achieved by Germany ; but, as Prussia and Austria weie in too much disorder to do anything, about 500 Germans from the various States met at Frankfurt, and on March 21 constituted themselves a provisional Parliament. An ex- treme party wished the Assembly to declare itself per- manent ; but to this the majority would not agree. It was decided that a National Assembly should be elected forth- with by the German people. The Confederate Diet, knoAv- ing that the provisional Parliament was approved by the nation, recognized its authority. Through the Diet the various Governments were communicated Avith, and all of them agreed to make arrangements for the elections. The discontented party in the provisional Parliament, wishing to establish a Republic, called the people to arms in Upper Baden ; but they Avere put doAvn by the troops of various South German States. 11. The National Assembly in Frankfurt. — The National Assembly was opened in Frankfurt on May 18, 1848. It XIX.] WAR WITH DENMARK, 231 elected the Archduke John of Atistria as the head of a new provisional central Government The choice was a happy one. The Archduke- was at once acknowledged by the different Governments, and on July 12 the President of the Con- federate Diet formally made over to him the authority which had hitherto belonged to the Diet. The Diet then ceased to exist. The Archduke chose from the Assembly seven members, who formed a responsible ministry. The Assem- bly was divided into two parties, the Right and the Left. These again were broken up into various sections. Much time was lost in useless discussions, and it was soon sus- pected that the Assembly would not in the end prove equal to the great task it had undertaken. 12. War with Denmark. — While the Assembly was sitting, German troops carried on a foreign war. The Duchy of Holstein was subject to the Danish King, but it had always been a part of Germany, and in virtue of it the Danish King was a member of the German Confederation. Schleswig, although a large part of the population was Ger- man, did not belong to Germany. The people of Holstein and the Germans of Schleswig, however, maintained that, in virtue of a treaty of 1460, the two Duchies could not be separated, and that, when the male line of the Danish royal family should die out, the connexion of both with Denmark would come to an end. In spite of this, Christian VIII., King of Denmark, made a public declaration in 1846, that the Duchy of Schleswig and the greater part of Holstein must always remain a part of the Danish kingdom. The German party in the two Duchies was alarmed at this step, and the Holstein States appealed to tlie Confederate Diet. The latter passed a vague resolution, protecting the rights of the Duchies ; but the King oi Denmark rephed that he did not intend to violate these rights. The matter remained in this unsatisfactory slate till tiie death o: Christian VIII. 232 RE VOL UTIONAR Y MO VEMENTS, [chap. in 1848. Frederick VII. ^ his son, declared himself strongly in favour of the Danish view of the case. The discontent of the German party increased, and a rising took place at the time of the general revolutionary movement throughout Germany. A provisional Government was set up in the Duchies. The King of Denmark sent troops to put down the rebellion ; but the Frankfurt Assembly sided with the Duchies, and an army, under the Prussian General Wrangel, went to uphold their cause. The Danes were driven out of Schleswig, and compelled to take refuge in their ships. On the other hand, the Danish fleet blockaded the German ports, and did much harm to German trade. The nation never so deeply regretted the want of a navy. Several ships were bought in England and America ; but it was soon felt that the war must be carried on under great dis- advantages, and on August 27 an armistice for seven months v/as concluded at Malmo. As one of the terms of the armistice was that a temporary Government, made up of two Prussian and two Danish representatives, should take the place of the provisonal Government set up by the Duchies, the National Assembly, which had authorized Prussia to open negotiations with Denmark, at first refused to approve what had been done. Great excitement followed. The Ministry, which approved the armistice, resigned. As no other could be formed, and as all felt that without Prussia the war could not go on, the majority of the Assembly at last, on September 16, agreed to ratify the armistice. The minority, consisting of the extreme Republicans, disapproved of this step, and urged the people to rise against an Assembly which had betrayed the German cause. On the 1 8th barricades were raised in the streets of Frankfurt. The troops soon dispersed the rioters, but not till the mob had been guilty of a base deed. Two Prussian deputies, belonging to the Right, were icco^niiied as they reluined XIX.] THE PRUSSIAN NA TIONAL ASSEiUBL Y. 23.^ from a ride. Both were seized and murdered. From this time the various parties of the Assembly were greatly em- bittered, and the time which should have been spent in useful legislation was frittered av>'ay in paltry quarrels. A Revolution which was again attempted in Upper Baden had to be put down by force. 13. The Prussian National Assembly. — The Assembly which had been summoned to meet in Berlin was opened in that city on May 22, 1848. The Radical party resisted ahxLOSt all proposals of the Government, and in this they were supported by large classes of the people, who tried to frighten the moderate members into submission by threats. At length,^ on November 9, the King adjourned the Assembly till the 27th, when it was told to meet in the town of Bran- denbtcrg^ v/here it might cari-y on its deliberations in peace. The members of the Right and Centre obeyed ; but the Left protested, and continued its sittings in Berlin. It even passed a resolution that Government had no right to levy taxes so long as the Assembly did not fulfil its functions in the capital. It was soon discovered that the Assembly could no more do anything in Brandenburg than in Berlin ; and after a few sittings it was broken up. A new Parlia- ment was summoned to meet on February 26, 1849, ^^ con- sider a constitution, the draft of which the King caused to be published on December 5, 1848. 14. The Austrian Diet. The Revolution in Hungary and in Vienna. Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand. Francis Joseph. — The Austrian Empire was in a state of great con- fusion. The Diet was opened on July 22 in Vienna, but it was almost powerless. The members, representing many different nationalities, had no common aim ; it was with difficulty they could even understand each other. The Emperor came back from Innsbruck to Vienna on August 12; but he had little influence. Of all the dangers which U 234 RE. VOL UTIONAR V MO VEMENTS. [chap. threatened the Empire, the Hungarian difficulty was the greatest Headed by the well-known orator Kossuth, Hungary demanded complete independence. The Slavonic population joined the Imperial Government in resisting this demand, and Jellachich, Ban of Croatia^ with his wild hordes, tried to quell the Revolution. The Hungarians devoted themselves with much enthusiasm to the national cause. Unfortunately Count La^Jtberg^ the Imperial com- missaiy in Pesth, was murdered. The Emperor could not forgive this outrage, and on October 6 caused orders to be issued for the instant march of a part of the Vienna garrison against the Magyars. A numiber of the soldiers, sympathizing with the Revolutionary party, refused to move ; and they w^ere supported by many citizens and students. A violent contest took place, in which the loyal troops were beaten. A number of people rushed into the war office, seized Latour^ the Minister who had directed the troops to proceed against Hungary, and murdered him. The Emperor once more left the capital, and went to Olmiltz. The Diet continued to sit; but it could .do nothing. Vienna v/as in the hands of the Revolutionists, who proceeded with much activity to prepare against attack. Troops came to the help of the Emperor from all quarters, and on October 21 the city was surrounded. It was not taken till the 30th, and then after a great deal of bloodshed. When at last Vienna was held by the Imperialists, they disarmed the people, and shot those leaders of the Revolution who did not escape by flight. The Diet had already been adjourned, and summoned to meet in Kreinsier on November 22. The Emperor Ferdinand, who was very delicate, feeling that in so stormy a time the duties of government ought to be undertaken by younger hands, abdicated on December i, 1848, in favour of his nephew, Francis Joseph. The new Emperor was eighteen years of age. XIX.] AUSTRIA AND GERMANY. 235 15. The relation of Austria to Germany. The Imperial title offered to the King; of Prussia, and refused. — A great deal of time was taken up in the Frankfurt Assembly with the discussion of the German land laws. When at last the constitution of the Confederation began to be seriously con- sidered, it was felt that the Assembly was in a much less favourable position than at first, for the Governments had got over their chief difficulties, and were not inclined to adopt any very thorough changes. The chief question that arose was as to the future relation of Austria to Germany. Every one wished Austria proper to form part of Ger- many ; but the Austrian Government insisted that the Empire as a whole should be admitted into the Con- federation. A powerful party, therefore, headed by Baron von G agent, president of the Assembly, urged that Austria should be altogether shut out from Germany. This was opposed not only by Austria and the Roman Catholic States which looked to Vienna for guidance, but by the so-called Great Geri7ian party, and by the Democrats, who did not wish Prussia to become the leading German State. Von Gagern tried to win over the latter party by agreeing to universal suffrage and other democratic elements in the new constitution. At last, in March, 1849, the Austrian Govern- ment formally demanded that the Empire should form part of the Confederation. It also proposed that a Directory should be appointed, made up of seven persons, the Austrian representative to be permanent president ; and that the Parliament elected by the people should be replaced by a States Assembly. Many who had before hesitated now joined Von Gagern's party. On March 27 a majority de- cided that a President should be appointed, in whose family the honour should be hereditary, and that he should, have the title of ^' Emperor of the Germans." Next day it was resolved to offer the Imperial title to the King of Prussia. 236 RE VOL UTIONAR V A/0 VEMENTS. [chap. On April 3, a deputation v/aited on Frederick William to communicate to him the will of the Assembly. His reply was anxiously awaited throughout Germany. He answered that he could not accept the title offered to him without the consent of the German princes, and that the constitution would, not give him sufficient power to fulfil the duties of an Emperor. 16. End of the National Assembly. — Notwithstanding the disappointment caused by the refusal of the King of Prussia to become Emperor, the Assembly tried to induce the German States to accept the new constitution. Some Governments did so ; but the more important States either hesitated or withheld their consent. Austria had already recalled her representatives from the Assembly. Her ex- ample was soon followed by Prussia, Hanover, and other States ; and on May 20 many of the most distinguished members voluntarily resigned their seats. On May 30 the Assembly changed the place of meeting to Stuttgart. But it had now become contemptible ; and on June 18 it was dispersed by the Wiirtemberg Government. Thus ended an Assembly, the opening of which had seemed to patriotic Germans like the dawning of a nev/ day for their country. 17. Disturbances in Saxony, Rhenish Bavaria, and Baden. — Meanwhile there had been disturbances in various parts of Germany. The Saxon Diet, in which the demo- cratic party was strong, had demanded that the Government should accept the Frankfurt constitution. Instead of doing so, the Government dissolved the Diet on May 3. This gave rise to so fierce a struggle between the citizens of Dresden and the troops that the King and his Ministers had to take refuge in the fortress of Konigstein. The people made themselves masters of a large part of Dresden ; and even when the Prussians came to the help of the Saxon troops order was not restored for several days. I'here were XIX. ] THE HUNGARIAN RE VOL UJION, 237 still more violent insurrections in Rhenish Bavaria and Baden. Provisional Governments were formed in both these countries ; and, like their brother of Saxony, the King of Bavaria and the Grand Duke of Baden had to appeal to Prussia for help. The Prussians soon subdued Rhenish Bavaria ; but in Baden they had more difficulty, as the troops of that country almost all joined the Revolu- tionists. Several engagements took place, in each of which the Prussians were victorious. By the fall of Rastatt^ on July 23, the struggle was brought to an end, and the Grand Duke, who had been obliged to fly, was able to return to Carlsruhe. The Prussians, however, did not return home for some time. 18. The Revolution in Hungary. — Before the close ot 1848, the Government of the Emperor Francis Joseph had restored all the German provinces of Austria to order ; and in the spring of 1849 the Italian provinces also had to submit. The rising in Hungary was more serious. The Austrian troops under Prince Wiiidischgratz were defeated in a series of battles, and driven back with great loss. Buda-Pesth fell into the hands of the insurgents. Many Germans and Poles joined the Hungarians, whose army rose to the number of about 200,000 men. I'he most prominent generals were Gorgey^ and the Poles Bern and Dembinsky. The Diet, believing the country to be now perfectly secure, met in Debreczin^ and formally declared Hungary independent of Austria. A provisional Govern- ment, with Kossuth at its head, was formed. The Imperial Government, unable to crush the Revolution, appealed to Russia for help. Russia, afraid that the rebellious spirit might spread into her own provinces, had already con- centrated troops on her frontiers, and gladly agreed to help Austria. Tov/ards the end of May, a Russian army entered Hungary. At the same time the Austrian aimy, 238 REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, [chap. which had been greatly strengthened, invaded the country from the east, while a force, under Jellachich, attacked the Hungarians in the south. The Hungarians still fought bravely ; but they could not long hold out against such overwhelming numbers. Buda-Pesth was reconquered by the Austrians, and the Diet was driven even from Szegedi7i^ where it had taken refuge. On August ii, a council which Kossuth had summoned at yir^<^ appointed Gorgey dictator with unlimited power. Two days afterwards he surrendered with his army to the Russian general i?^V//^^r. This step was quite unexpected ; and Gorgey \ras everywhere accused of treachery. His surrender brought the war to a close. The leaders of the Revolution fled across the Turkish frontier ; and most of the fortresses which had not yet been taken at once capitulated. The civil population had suffered fearfully during the war ; but what was hardest to bear was the crushing of those hopes which all had cherished, and which had seemed so nearly accomplished. 19. Constitutional government set up in Prussia. — The Prussian Parliament, which had been summoned to meet on February 26, 1849, was opened on that date. It con- sisted of two Chambers. No understrniing with the Government could be arrived at, so that on April 27 a dissolution again took place. A Parliament chosen accord- ing to a new electoral law met on August 7 ; and this time the deliberations were more successful. Concessions were made on both sides, and on February 6, 1850, the King took an oath to maintain the new constitution. From that time Prussia must be regarded as, at least nominally, a constitutional State. 20. The German Union. The Erfurt Parliament. Austria tries to reconstitute the Confederation. — Mean- while the King of Prussia had been trying to unite Germany on a new basis. At his invitation the representa* XIX.] THE GERiMAN UNION. • 239 tives of a number of States met in Berlin in May, 1849. Austria was at this time in the very heat of her great struggle with Hungary. Prussia seized the opportunity to propose that a Confederation of German States should be formed under her leadership, without Austria. On May 26, an alliance was concluded between Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony. This was afterwards called " The Alliance of the Three Kings." The new Confederation was joined by several of the smaller North German States. As the Con- federation did not embrace all Germany, it was called " the German Union.^' A Parliament of the Union was summoned to meet in Erfurt^ on April 20, 1850. Planover and Saxony, not approving of this step, refused to send representatives ; and the former State withdrew altogether from the alliance. Whilst the Erfurt Parliament sat, a Congress of the princes of the Union was opened in Berlin, on May 10. Austria had by this time begun to recover from the shock caused by the Hungarian Revolution. Alarmed by the attempt of Prussia to seize the place in Germany which she looked on as lawfully hers, and resolved to overturn the so-called Union, she had already, in con- junction with Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, called on all German States to send representatives to Frankfurt in order to reconstitute the Confederation. The summons was 'favourably responded to by Planovcr, Saxony, the two Hessens, and various other minor States. On the very day on which the Congress of princes who accepted the leader- ship of Prussia met in Berlin, the representatives of Austria and of the States which grouped themselves around her assembled in Frankfurt. Germany was thus openly divided into' two hostile factions. 21. Civil War threatened. — The prevailing bitterness of feeling was greatly increased by a miserable quarrel, which as nearly as possible plunged the country into 3 240 , REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, [chap. civil war. The Elector of Hessen Cassel^ with the help of his very unpopular minister Hasseiipflttg^ tried to obtain supplies without giving the Chambers time to deliberate on the budget. When the Chambers protested, they were dissolved on September 2 ; and an order was issued for the levying of all taxes as usual. This caused so great a commotion that the Elector was obliged to leave Cassel. The Frankfurt Diet, to which he appealed, sided with him ; and on November i Austrian and Bavarian troops entered his territory in order to enforce the Diet's decision. Prussia was prepared for this step ; and on November 2 the towns of Cassel and Fulda were held by her army. There was a powerful peace party in Berlin ; and its counsels so far prevailed that General Radowiiz^ the Minister of Foreign Affairs, had to resign his portfolio in favour of Von Ma^tteiiffel. But when Austria demanded that the Prussian troops should be withdrawn from Hessen-Cassel, the Prussian Government prepared for vrar. The question whether Prussia or Austria was to occupy the first place in Germany had been steadily becoming the leading question in German politics ; it appeared as if the moment had now come for its decision. But as all saw the frightful evils which, a civil war caused by such a question would bring upon the country, a last attempt was made to settle the present difficulty ; and it was successful. Prince Schwartzenberg^ the Austrian Minister, and Vojt Maii- teitffel^ the Prussian representative, met at Obniltz on November 28. They agreed that "free conferences" of all German princes should be held forthwith in order to arrange the constitution of Germany ; and that Prussia and Austria should together settle the affairs of Hessen-Cassel and those of Schleswig-Holstein. 22. The Frankfurt Dint restored. — The so-called " free conferences" were opened in Dresden on December 23. XIX.] WAI^ WITH DENMARK, 241 They led to nothing. But Prussia herself began to feel that, however unsatisfactoiy it might be in some respects, the constitution of 181 5 would be better than the present con- fusion. She therefore formally recognized the Diet which Austria had assembled at Frankfurt, and her example was followed by the other members of the Union. From June 12, 1851. the Diet continued to sit as it had done before 1848. So far as appearances went, the Revolution had effected no change in the affairs of Germany. But this was not really the case. It had brought into prominence the great question as to the relative position of Austria and Prussia in Germany ; and it made obvious to those who could look beneath the surface in favour of which side that question must in the end be settled. 23. The War with Denmark. — On the expiry of the armistice of Malmo in March, 1849, the war with Denmark had begun again. The Germans were at first successful. Two Danish ships of war, the " Christian VIII." and the ^' Gefion," being unable to leave the harbour of Eckerjifjorde, were so vigorously fired upon from the shore that the former was blo^vn up and the latter surrendered. The Diippel entrenchments were stormed by the Bavarians and Saxons ; and the Schleswig-Holstein corps, under the Prussian General Bonm^ took Koldiiig^ and pushed on to the fortress of Fridericia. Here, on July 5 and 6, the troops of Schleswig-Holstein suffered a decided defeat. On July 10 an armistice was signed, in which Schleswig was provision- ally separated from Holstein. An understanding could not be arrived at ; but, as Denmark was supported by the Great Powers, the circumstances of Germany made it impossible for her to carry on the Vvar. On July 2, 1850, Prvissia con- cluded peace ; and the other German Governments were obliged to acquiesce. The people of Schleswig-Holstein refused to submit to the demands of Denmark, and Q 242 RE VOL UTIONAR V MO VEMENTS, [CH. xix.] continued the war ; but on July 25 their army was com- pletely routed by the Danes at Idstedt^ and compelled to return to the frontiers of Holstein. By the interference of Austrian troops, Prussia consenting, in 1851, peace Avas restored, the government of Schleswig-Holstein being resumed by the King of Denmark. By a protocol signed in London in 1852 by the Great Powers, the King of Denmark was guaranteed in his possession of the Duchies ; and the succession for them as well as for the Danish kingdom was settled on the Glilckshirg line. But neither the States of the Duchies nor the Diet accepted the London protocol, so that the settlement remained incomplete. 24. Treaty of commerce between Prussia and Austria. — In 1 85 1 it appeared as if the Customs Union were about to fall to pieces, in which case the Southern States would have united themselves in commercial matters to Austria, and the Northern for the most part to Prussia. This difficulty was got over by a treaty of commerce concluded between Prussia and Austria on February 18, 1853, CHAPTER XX. RECENT EVENTS. The war of Austria with Sardinia and France; the pai'iial union of Italy makes Germans desire the nnity of Germany (i) — death of Fj'ederick William IV. of Pi'ussia ; Willia??i I. ; dispute of the Prussian Government with the House of Representatives as to the army ; Voii Bisma7xk made Prime Minister (2) — unsatis- factory relations of Austria and Pj'ussia (3) — disputes ivith respect to Schleswig-Holstein (4) — Prussia ajid Austria make war on Dem?ia7'k ; Doimark gives up the Duchies (5) — the Duchies give rise to misundersta7idings between Pi^ussia and Austria ; the Convention of Gastein (6) — further disputes betiueen Prussia and Austria ; the two Po^uers prepare for war ; P^'ussia concludes an alliance with Italy (7) — Count Bismarck proposes to reconstitute the Confederation (8) — the Prussian people opposed to war ; attempt of the neutral Powers to maintain peace (9) — outbreak of war (10) — real causes of the war ; advantages of Prussia (11) — the Prussians overrun Hessen-Cassel, Saxony ^ and Hanover (12) — the Prussians cross the Bohemian frontier (13) — battle of Koniggrdtz (14) — Prussian successes (15) — tJie Peace of Prague ; Austria shut out from Germany ; secret alliance between Prussia afid the South German States (16) — annexations to Prussian territory ; King William a7id Parliament 7^ecojiciled (l'])~for- mation of the No7'th Gcrmaii Confede7'atio}t (18) — p7'ance shows jealousy of P7'ussia ; attonpts to buy Luxe7nburg ; P7'ussia protests; war prevented by a Co7ifere7ice (19) — constitution oj' the Confederatio7i ; the Gusto 771s Pa7'lia77ient ; obstacles to ■ the^ full union of Gertnany (20) — Leopold^ prince of J loJienzoller^iy beco77ies 244 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. a candidate fof the Spanish crmvn ; opposition of France ; de- claration of war against Germany (21) — the South Gerjnan States remain ti'ue to Prussia ; real causes of the war {22)— frst victories of the Gei'fnans (23) — Further victories ; battle of Sedan; surrender of Napoleon (24) — siege of Paris (25) — surre^ider op Strassburg and Metz ; further French disasters (26) — The North German Confederatioii becomes a German Confederation ; King William of Prussia is made Emperor in Ger77iany (27) — Peace of Frankfurt {2%)^feeling of the Germajts as to the war (29) — constitution of the Empire (30) — variety of national life in Ger- many (31) — scientific and literary writers in Gerrna^iy (32) — German artists (33). I. The Italian War of 1856. Effect of the partial union of Italy upon Germany. — The years which followed the revolutionary period begun in 1848 were on the whole prosperous. Commerce flourished, and much was done to promote popular education. In 1859 a war broke out between Austria on the one hand, and Sardinia and France on the other. Austria tried to drag the Confederation into the struggle ; and many of the smaller States would willingly have supported her. But Prussia, though she mobilized parts of her army, adhered to the principle that the Con- federation had no right to enter upon any war which did not directly bear upon German interests. By this war Austria lost Lombardy. The partial union of Italy under Victor Einma7iuel gave a fresh impulse in many German minds to the desire for unity. Those who wished the different States to be joined more closely were still divided into two parties. The National Union thought Prussia should be placed at the head of the Fatherland, the Austrian Empire being altogether shut out from Germany. The Great Gennadi party insisted that no arrangement could be satisfactory which did not include among the Con- federate States Austria and the sister Duchies. XX.] CTTO VON BISMARCK, 245 2. King William I. of Prussia. Otto von Bismarck- Scbonhausen. — King Frederick William IV. of Prussia died on January 2, r86i. He was succeeded by his brother, Freder^ick William Lewis^ who had already, since October 8, 1858, during the continued illness of the King, acted as Prince Regeiit. The new King ascended the throne as William I. He was crowned at Konigsberg on October 18, 1 86 1, with great pomp. He was an enthusiastic soldier, and had long wished to see the Prussian army reorganized. His efforts to achieve this end led to disputes between the Government and the Representative Assembly. The latter refused to sanction the expenditure necessary for the required additions to the standing army, and even de- manded that the time for the military training of the male population should be reduced from three to two years. The deputies accurately represented the wish of the nation, as was proved by the result of two general elections in 1862 and 1863. On October 8, 1862, the King appointed Otto von Bisinarck-Schd7ihause7t prime minister and minister of foreign affairs. Bismarck first appeared in public life as a member of the Prussian United Diet in 1847. In 1851 he was made Prussian representative at the Frankfurt Diet. There he carefully studied the Austrian policy, and main- tained firmly the rights of his country in the direction of German affairs. He was afterwards Prussian ambassador at the courts of St. Petersburg and Paris. In his new position Bismarck displayed great energy of character, with tendencies as despotic as possible, and an utter indifference to pubhc opinion. With his aid, and in direct violation of the constitution, the King carried out his scheme of army reform. 3. Relations of Austria and Prussia. — Meanwhile the relations of Prussia to Austria and the German Con- federation were not satisfactory. Bismarck openly declared 246 RECENT EVENTS [chap. in the Prussian Parliament that the German problem could be solved only by "blood and iron." In August, 1863, the Emperor Francis Joseph surprised Germany by summoning a Congress of princes to Frankfurt, with the view of forming a new German constitution. The scheme failed, on account of the refusal of Prussia to have anything to do with it. Prussia herself proposed that a Representative Assembly should work side by side with the Frankfurt Diet ; but Austria would not listen to this suggestion. 4. The Schleswig-Holstein question. — The jealousies of the two rival States boded no good to Germany ; but for a time they w^ere forgotten in a question of absorbing interest to the whole country. On March 30, 1863, Frederick VI I. of Denmark raised anew the old subject of dispute, by issuing a decree that Schleswig should be separated from Holstein and Lauenburg, and fully incorporated with Den- mark. This was contrary to the fundamental law of the Duchies of 1460, and excited deep indignation through- out Germany. On October i the Confederate Diet re- solved on federal execution against the King of Denmark ; but, before it could be carried out, he unexpectedly died on November 16, 1863. His successor, Chrisiian IX. ^ con- firmed the decree of March 30. On the other hand, with the death of Frederick VII. the male line of the Danish royal family had died out ; and it was maintained in Ger- many that Christian IX. had no right whatever to the Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg. It was further main- tained that these Duchies were inseparable from Schles\ ig and that all three, therefore, must now pass to the neares: heir. The nearest heir was the Duke of Augusietibur^ ; but in 1852 he had formally resigned his right to the Duchies. His son Frederick, however, had in 1859 pro- tested against this step ; and he now, with the assent of thj Duke, come forward and asserted his claims. Other XX.] M^'AR WITH DENMARK, 247 German princes put forth claims to the Duchy of Lau en- burg. 5. Prussia and Austria make war on Denmark. Den- mark gives up the Duchies. — The Confederate Diet had not signed the London protocol, and was therefore at liberty to declare the Duchies vacant. On December 8, 1863, it resolved that they should be occupied by Confederate troops till the question of inheritance should be settled. Shortly afterwards an army of 12,000 men, consisting of Saxons and Hanoverians, entered Holstein. Meanwhile Austria and Prussia were unable to agree with the Diet as to the policy which ought to be pursued towards Schleswig, and an- nounced their intention to carry on the war with Denmark as independent Powers, altogether apart from the Con- federation. This decision met with great opposition from the German people. Both in Prussia and Austria the Chambers refused to grant supplies for the purpose of carrying on a war which was the affair of the Confederation alone. Nevertheless the two Governments persisted in their determination. The Austrian army was placed under General vo7i Gablenz; that of Prussia was commanded by Prince Frederick Charles^ King William's nephew ; while over both, as commander-in-chief, was the aged Field Marshal Wrangel. On February i, 1864, the united armies crossed the Eider, and attacked the Daiiewirk^ which the Danes deserted on the morning of February 6, falling back behind the strong Diippel entrenchments. After a siege which lasted three week, these were at last stormed with great bravery by the Prussian troops on April 18, The fortress of Fridcricia^ which was besieged by the Austrians, was soon afterwards unexpectedly deserted by the Danes. An armistice till June 26 was then concluded ; and attempts were made, at a Conterence held in London, to bring about peace. But the Danes refused to concede 248 RECENT EVENTS, [chap. anything, and on the expiry of the armistice the war was resumed. It was obvious, however, that Denmark, unsup- ported by any of the Great Powers, could not long continue a war against Austria and Prussia. Discouraged by several fresh reverses, she made proposals for peace ; and, on October 30, 1864, a treaty was signed, by which the King of Denmark resigned all his rights in the Duchies of Schles- wig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, in favour of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia. 6. Disputes between Austria and Prussia. The Conven- tion of Gastein. — The two Powers compelled the troops of the Confederation to withdraw from Holstein, and placed the Duchies in the meantime under civil commissioners appointed by both Governments. It soon became plain that their interests with respect to the Duchies violently conflicted. Prussia, guided by Bismarck, evidently wished in the end to annex the Duchies to her own territory. . Austria desired no increase of territory from the Duchies ; but she was resolved that Prussia should obtain none_, and favoured the claims of the Prince of Augustenburg, whose pretensions were of course decidedly opposed by Prussia. The dispute between the two Powers ran so high that in the summer of 1865 an interruption of their good relations, if not the outbreak of war, appeared almost unavoidable. The evil day was put off for a time by the Gastein Convention^ a treaty concluded on August 14 by Count von Blome, the Austrian plenipotentiary, and the Prussian Minister, Bis- marck ; and signed a few days afterwards by the Emperor Francis Joseph and King William. By this treaty the Austrian Emperor, in return for a money compensation, resigned all his rights in the Duchy of Lauenburg in favour of the King of Prussia ; and it wab decided that, till the question of inheritance should be settled, Schleswig should be placed under Prussian, and Holste.n under Austrian XX.] PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 249 administration. The port of Kiel was in the meantime to be occupied by Prussia, though open to the fleets of both Powers. 7. Further disputes between Prussia and Austria. Pre- parations for War. Alliance between Prussia and Italy. — The Prussians took possession of the Duchy of Lauenburgon September i. At the same time, the Government which had been set up by the two Powers in common was dissolved ; and General von Gablenz entered Kiel as the Austrian viceroy in Holstein, while Herr von Manteuffel began his duties in Flensburg as Prussian representative in Schleswig. But the difficulties between the two rival Powers were not lessened by this arrangement. It w^ould not have suited the designs of the Prussian Government if they had been. Whether or not Herr (now Count) von Bismarck, in inducing Austria to join Prussia in carrying on the Danish war apart from the Confederation, had foreseen the difficulties likely to arise on the conclusion of peace, and resolved to bring to an issue the question as to the position to be held in future in Germany by Prussia and Austria ; there can be no doubt he had now made up his mind to involve the two Powers in a great and decisive stioiggle. An occasion of quarrel soon arose. Herr von Manteuffel strictly forbade all agitation in Schleswig in favour of Prince Augustcnburg. On the other hand, Austria, which was no more willing now than formerly that the Duchies should come into the possession of Piussia, allowed the Prince's friends to promote his cause in Holstein as much as they chose. On January 26, 1866, Count Bis- marck addressed a formal protest to the Austrian Govern- ment against its policy in Holstein. The Austrian Minister, Count Mensdorff, replied, on February 7, by asserting that the Austrian policy must be maintained. It was now .very evident that war could not long be deferred. The fortresses in the Saxon and Silesian provinces of Prussia were put in 250 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. a state of readiness, while Austria gave orders for the con- centration of troops in Bohemia. The minor States also began to arm. In March, Prussia greatly strengthened her position by entering into an alliance with Italy, in conse- quence of which the latter Power agreed to join Prussia in declaring war against Austria, while Prussia undertook not to conclude the war until the province of Venice had been conquered. 8. Count Bismarck proposes to reconstitute the Con- federation. — In the midst of these preparations, and while Austria was doing her. utmost to excite the Confederation against Prussia, Count Bismarck came forward with a pro- posal for the reconstitution of the Confederation. His plan was that North Germany should, in military matters, be- come subject to Prussia, while Austria and Bavaria took the lead in South Germany. At the same time he proposed that there should be a Representative Assembly elected by the whole German people. The scheme came to nothing ; but by the latter suggestion Bismarck conciliated many Liberals. * 9. Attempts to avert war. — The war which every day seemed to render more certain was far from being popular in Prussia. It was regarded as ^'a war of brothers ;" and many petitions were addressed to the King urging him even at the last moment to preserve peace. But the Prussian Government was not lightly to be turned from its puipcse. In the beginning of May orders were issued for the mo bilization of the entire army. Austria, on her side, brough': up troops from all parts of the Empire, and concentrated them in Bohemia and Moravia. For a moment there were hopes that the storm might even yet be turned aside, for the neutral Powers proposed that a Conference should be called in order to settle the questions which threatened the peace of Europe. But the proposal fell to the ground through the XX.] IVAJ^ BETWEEN PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 251 obstinacy of Austria. Nothing then remained but the conflict for which all Germany was prepared. 10. Outbreak of war. — The first open act of hostility took place in the Duchies which had nominally given rise to the dispute. On June 7, Herr von Manteuffel, the governor of Schleswig, entered Holstein, and compelled General von Gablenz to withdraw with his troops from the Duchy. Austria was indignant at this insult, and urged that it was the duty of the Confederation to resist with all its forces a Power which had thus violated an essential principle of the • Confederate constitution. INIost of the minor States sup- ported Austria, and on June 14 it was decided to mobilize the army of the Confederation, exclusive of the Prussian rontingent The Prussian plenipotentiary' in the Diet, by command of his Government, at once declared that Prussia no longer recognized the Diet as existing, and, having announced the scheme of a new constitution by which Austria was excluded from Germany, withdrew from the Assembly. 11. Real causes of the war. — It cannot be too carefully remembered that the war now about to begin, and which proved one of the most rapid and decisive in history, had in reality very little to do with the petty question with which it was nominally associated. The dispute, with respect to the Duchies was the occasion, it was not the cause, of the war. The causes which really led to it had been in operation at least since the time of Frederick the Great. For centuries Austria had led Germany. From the moment when Prussia became strong enough to be r-jgarded as a rival of Austria, a struggle to settle the question as to which Power was permanently to guide the destinies of the Fatherland became inevitable. As we have seen, this question acquired great prominence during the brief revolutionary period of 1848-49. The time foi 252 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. settling it had now come. Those who wished Germany to become great and progressive, even if they could not ap- prove of the violence with which Bismarck had hurried on the war, could not but desire that Prussia should be suc- cessful. No one acquainted with the condition of the two States doubted on which side victory would declare itself. Prussia was comparatively small ; but her population was very loyal, and united by a greater number of common aims than that of Austria ; and her army was perhaps the most intelligent and highly organized in Europe. The needle-gun also gave the Prussian troops a great advantage over those of Austria. The Prussian plan of campaign was drawn up by Von Moltke., the chief of the General Staff, and one of the greatest and most scientific generals of the present century. 12. Hessen-Cassel, Saxony, and Hanover overrun by the Prussians. — Of the smaller North German States, Saxony, Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, and Nassau had declared for Austria. On June i6 General von Beyer entered Hessen- Cassel, and without opposition seized the capital, the Elector himself being taken prisoner. On the same day Prince Eyederick Charles and General Herwarth von Bittenfeld crossed the Saxon frontier, and in a few days made them- selves masters of the whole of Saxony, with the unimxportant exception of the fortress of Konigstein. The Saxon troops, accompanied by the King, and commianded by the Crcwn Prince, had gone to join the Austrians in Bohemia. Mean- while, General voji .\hijiteujj'el had with his troops left Holstein, and joined General von Falkir^icin near Hur- burg'vsx Hanover. King George hastily left his capita], and placed himself at the head of his army near C'ctlingen, He wished to join the Bavarians ; but as Hessen-Cassel was in possession of the Prussians, and as by marching to the south-east he would have to fight his way through Prussian XX.] BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ. 253 troops and the army of Cobtirg-Gotha, this was no easy task. The Prussian lines were drawn gradually closer and closer around the Hanoverians. On June 27 a body of Prussians were defeated at La7tgensalza. But this success was of no real service to King George. He was surrounded on all sides ; and the help which he expected from the Bavarians did not come. On June 29 he capitulated with his whole army. 13. The Prussians cross the Bohemian frontier. — The northern army of Austria — so called to distinguish it from the army which carried on the war against Italy — occupied the country from the east of Austrian Silesia westwards to the neighbourhood of Prague. It was commanded by Field- Marshal Benedekj and numbered, taking in the Saxon army, about 280.000 men. The Prussian forces were divided into three armies. The first, made up of about 100,000 men, v/as stationed, under Prince Frederick Charles, in Lower Silesia. The Crown Prince commanded the second, which numbered about 116,000 men, and occupied Upper Silesia. The third, amounting to about 40,000 men, acted as the right wing of the first. It was under General von Bitten- feld, and was in possession of Saxony. When the way had been cleared by the occupation of Saxony, the three armies were ordered to cross the Bohemian frontier, and to un'te near Gitschin, This was done in the course of a few days. Prince Frederick Charles won an important victory near Gitschi7i ; and the left wing of the Crown Prince's army, under General vo7i Sieinmetz^ defeated the Austrians at Nachod and Skalitz. 14. Battle of Kcniggratz. — The united army was joined on July 2 by King William, who assumed the supreme com- mand. Next day the great battle of Koniggrliiz was fouglit. Benedek had taken up a good position, protected in front by the Elbe and the Bisiriiz, on the right by the fortress of 254 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. Josephstadt^ and on the left by that of Koniggrdtz. His head-quarters were on the heights overlooking the village of Sadowa, The battle began about seven o'clock in the morning. Prince Frederick Charles hoped to be supported by the Crown Prince ; but the army of the latter was stationed at some distance, and as rain had fallen heavily during the night, was hindered in its march by the state of the roads. The battle raged with great fury for some hours. Many glances were cast in the direction from which the Crown Prince was expected. At length his troops were seen in the distance ; and early in the afternoon his army was in the heat of the battle. The Austrians could not long resist the enemy thus reinforced. The Crown Prince broke through their right wing, General von Bittenfeld through their left ; and the centre retreated before Prince Frederick Charles. The retreat of the Austrians was at first orderly ; but, as they, were vigorously pursued, their ranks were, broken, and each saved himself by flight or as he best could. In this great battle, one of the most important in modern history, the Prussians lost about 10,000 men; but the Austrians lost about 20,000, besides 18,000 prisoners. 15. Prussian successes. — After the battle of Koniggratz the Prussian arms were everywhere successful. On July 1 5 another victory was gained at Tobiischau^ to the south of Olmiiiz. The Austrian army escaped into Flungary, pur- sued by Prince Frederick Charles ; while the second and third Prussian armies pushed on towards Vienna. In central Germany the success of the Prussians was equally decided. Setting out from Eisenach on July i, and march- ing towards the Main, General von Falkenstein drove the Confederate troops before him, and triumphantly entered Frankfurt on July 16. Two days before, the remnant of the Confederate Diet, feeling Frankfurt unsafe, had taken refuge in Augsburg. General von Falkenstein was ap- XX.] THE PEACE OF PRAGUE. 255 pointed Governor-General of Bohemia; but his successor^ General von Manteuffel, conducted the campaign with equal skill and energy. 16. The Peace of Prague.— Austria, feeling that the struggle had been practically decided at Koniggratz, had for some time been trying to obtain an armistice. The negotiations were at first unsuccessful ; but on July 26 the prehminaries of peace were agreed upon between the two countries, and the smaller States also hastened to come to terms. The Peace of Prague was signed on August 23. By this treaty Austria was for ever excluded from Germany. She undertook to pay forty millons of thalers as an in- demnity for the expenses of the war, in return for half of which sum she resigned all her rights in Schleswig-Holstein in favour of Prussia. Peace was also concluded with Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden before the end of August; with Hessen-Darmstadt in September; and with Saxony in October. Bavaria had to cede certain small strips of territory; and Hessen-Darmstadt, besides giving up the Landgraviate of Hessen-Hombiirg, had to yield the right of garrisoning Mainz. But, what was far more important, the two latter countries, together with Wiirtemberg and Baden, entered into a secret alliance with Prussia for the defence of Germany, by which they engaged to give the Prussian King the supreme command of their troops in time of war. 17. Annexations to Prussian territory. King- William and Parliament. — Meanwhile, Prussia had annexed to her own territoiy Hanover, Hessen-Cassel, Nassau, 2.tv^ Frank- furt. King William returned to Berlin, amid the en- thusiasm of his subjects, on August 4. The newly-elected House of Representatives, dazzled by the successes of the army, willingly forgave the Government for the uncon- stitutional acts by which it had carried out its scheme oi 256 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. military reform ; and a reconciliation took place which nothing has since seriously disturbed 1 8. The North German Confederation.^ — The South Ger- man States remained independent ; but all States to the north of the Main, including the northern half of Hessen- Darmstadt, united to form a North German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia, the whole military system of the Confederation being placed under the control of that country. On February 24, 1867, the first Diet of the Con- federation met at BerHn, and began its deliberations on the constitution, 19. France and Prussia. — Germany had scarcely emerged from its great national struggle when it was threatened by a new danger, France had been violently excited by the Prussian successes. Even before the preliminaries of peace were settled, she gave Prussia to understand that she would have to be ^^compensated" for the political changes to which these successes must give rise ; and early in August, 1866, the French ambassador at Berlin formally demanded the cession of the left bank of the Rhine. But Prussia w^as firm, and even at the risk of a second war refused to yield to this demand The Emperor Napoleon, anxious not to be wholly bafPied, entered into negotiations with the King of Holland for the purchase of Ltixembiirg^ which had formerly belonged to the German Confederation. Prussia protested ; and for a time the quarrel seemed likely to end in war. While the dispute was going on. Count Bismarck suddenly surprised Europe by the publication, in March, 1867, of the secret treaty between Prussia and the South German States. The danger was warded off for a time by a Conference held in London, through which Luxemburg was definitely separated from Germany, and formed into a neutral State, its neutrality being guaranteed by the Great Powers- XX.] THE NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 257 20. Constitution of the Confederation. Customs Parlia- ment. Obstacles to full union. — The constitution of the North German Confederation was quickly settled, and came into force on July i, 1867. The affairs of the Confederation were to be regulated by a Diet elected by the North Ger- man people, and by a Federal Council made up of the representatives of the North German Governments. The King of Prussia was to be president of the Confederation. Although this constitution was a great advance on the old state of things, none looked on it as final. A great party — the so-called National- Liberal party — had already been formed, whose leading aim v>^as the union of South Ger- many with the Confederation. This party warmly sup- ported Count Bismarck both in the Confederate Diet and in the Prussian Parliament. A Customs Parliament, elected by the whole of Germany, met in Berlin in May, 1868 ; and Baden and Hessen-Darmstadt signed a convention by which their military system w^as placed upon the same footing as that of the Confederation. Baden would willingly have become a member of the Confederation ; but the other South .German States were opposed to union. In Wiirtemberg the Democratic party, in Bavaria the so-called Ultramontane party, were the chief foes of the National Liberals. The Democrats hated Prussia for its despotic tendencies, the Ultramontanes for its Protestantism. The opposition of these parties was so bitter that it seemed very doubtful whether the complete union of Germany could be achieved during the present generation. Sud- denly an event happened by which, amid the applause of the ^vhole Fatherland, the long wished-for goal was reached. 21. France declares war against Prussia. — Early in July, 1870, Leopold^ the hereditary Prince of Hohejizolleni^ at the request of the Spanish Government, and with the permis- R 258 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. si on of King William of Pmssia as head of the Hohenzolleni family, became a candidate for the Spanish throne. The Emperor Napoleon, who had never heartily accepted the reconstitution of Germany, and who was anxious for an opportunity to establish his waning popularity in France, resolved to make Leopold's candidature the pretext for a war with Germany. A cry was raised in the French Legis- lative Assembly that a foreign Power was about to place one of its princes on the throne of Charles V. A section of the French people took up the cry, and called loudly for the submission of Germany to the wish of France. To take away all cause of dispute, the Prince of Hohenzollern formally resigned his candidature on July 12. Not content with this triumph. Napoleon insisted that the King of Prussia should give an assurance to France that the candi- dature of the Prince of Hohenzollern would not be renewed. M. Benedetti, the French ambassador, came on the 13th to E7?ts, where the King was staying, and on a public promen- ade urged this demand. King William not only refused to grant it, but declined to listen further to M. Benedetti on the subject. An official telegram from Ems informed the German Governments of this fact next day. War had now become certain ; and the King hurried towards Berlin. On the 15th he was met at the Brandenburg station by the Crown Prince, Counts vpn Bismarck, von Moltke, and von Roon, and informed of what had taken place that day in the French Legislative Assembly. All that was now wanting was the formal declaration of war. While still in Brandeii- burg, therefore, the King of Prussia gave orders for the mobilization of the North German army. Next day the Federal Council met, and expressed its hearty concurrenc:^ with the views of the Government; and on the 19th the Confederate Diet was opened by the King with a speech of great dignity and moderation. On the same day, the XX.] WAJ^ WITH FRANCE, 259. French declaration of war was received and communicated to the Assembly. 22. The South German States remain true to Prussia. Real causes of the War. — Napoleon, misinformed as to the real state of Germany, had hoped that the South Germans, if they did not actually join France, would at least remain neutral. But, though in Bavaria and Wiirtemberg there were strong parties in favour of such a course, they were true to their engagements. On the i6th the King of Bavaria and the Grand Duke of Baden ordered the mobilization of their troops ; and next day the King of Wiirtemberg follow^ed their example. On the 20th the South German princes formally announced to the King of Prussia that their forces were at his disposal; and the Prussian Crown Prince at once left Berlin to take the command of the united army. Throughout all Germany the prospect of the war excited much enthusiasm. It must not be supposed that the miserable Hohenzollern dispute had really anything to do with the war. It was of even less importance than the Schleswig-Holstein quarrel had been in the x^ustro- Prussian war. In a few days the world almost forgot that the Prince of Hohenzollern had been a candidate for the Spanish throne. What France was really about to fight for was the maintenance of her supposed supremacy in Europe. Germany had taken up arms in her own defence, and perhaps she was not unwilling to engage in a struggle by which she might thoroughly humble a Power that had for centuries lost no opportunity of adding to her divisions, robbing her of her territory, and depriving her of her just pla.ce among the nations. 23. First victories of the Germans. ^The German army, including the forces both of North and South Germany, numbered more than a million men. This vast force was under the supreme command o'f the King of Prussia, whose 26o RE CENT E VENTS, [chap. chief adviser was again General von Moltke, head of the General Staff. It was divided into three armies, some part of each of which remained behind for the protection of the country. The first, under General von Steinmetz, was placed near T7'ier as the right wing ; the second, under Prince Frederick Charles^ assembled in Rhenish Bavaria; the third, consisting of the South German army and of three Prussian corps, and commanded by the Prussian Crown Priiice^ occupied the right bank of the Rhine from Man7i- hei7n to Rastatt. By the end of July these three armies were ready for action, and some skirmishing took place. But real fighting did not begin till next month. On August 4 the third army began its march towards the Lauter, and the first battle was fought at Weiss enburg. The French were defeated, and the whole of the third army encamped on French soil. On the 6th a great victory was won by the same army at Worth over Marshal MacMaho7t. The loss on both sides was heavy ; but the defeat of the French was complete. They fled in such wild disorder that Mac- Mahon's corps was for some time hopelessly scattered. The Crown Prince at once began his march across the Vosges mountains, leaving the Baden division to besiege Strassburg. On the day of the battle of Worth a part of the first and second armies gained a brilliant victory near Saarbrilcken. The bravery with which the heights of Spicheren were stormed has rarely been equalled. After this battle the whole German army entered France. 24. Further victories. Battle of Sadan. Surrender of Napoleon. — The three German armies now pressed on towards the Moselle. The scene of the great battles which were next fought, and which rapidly followed one another, was the country immediately in front of Metz. Marshal Bazaine, who had now assumed the supreme command of the French army, and who apparently wished to join Mac- XX.] BATTLE OF SEDAN. 261 Mahon, began his march from Metz on the 14th ; but he was attacked by a portion of the first German army at Coiircelles, and ^driven back. Next day he again set out towards Verdiui. On the i6th the battle of Mais-la-Toin' or Vio7iville was fought. It continued from morning till night, and portions both of the first and second armies took part in it. The result was unfavourable to the French ; but on the 1 8th they wxre still more decidedly defeated at Gravelotte, and obliged to take refuge in Metz. That fortress was instantly surrounded by the first and second armies, the supreme command of both of which was given to Prince Frederick Charles. The Prussian Crown Prince had awaited at Nancy the issue of the battles before Metz. His orders now were to proceed against Marshal Mac- Mahon, who had reorganised and greatly strengthened his army at Chalons. To aid the Crown Prince in this dif^cult undertaking, a fourth army was formed from corps which had hitherto belonged to the second army. It w^as in the end placed under the Crown Prince of Saxony, and called the army of the Maes. The King of Prussia him- self assumed the supreme command of the armies of the two Crown Princes. Both were in full march westwards, and the Prussian Crown Prince had fixed his head-quarters at Lig7iy^ when the news came that Marshal MacMahon had left Chalons. It was soon discovered that he had been in Rheims^ and was marching towards Re the I. It was there- fore concluded that he was making for Metz, with the intention of operating with Marshal Bazaine against Prince Frederick Charles. The Germans at once turned to the right, and marched in pursuit of the enemy. MacMahon had concentrated his troops near Vouziers. On August 28 he advanced towards the Maes in the direction of Bean- vioiit. Two days afterwards an important battle was fought near the latter place, the re'sult of which was tliat the 262 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. French were driven towards Sedan., while the road leading to Metz was occupied by the Germans. MacMahon's great scheme was thus already baffled. The decisive battle ol the campaign was fought on September i. After severe fighting the French were driven from all sides into Sedan, which the Germans surrounded, and into which they were prepared to pour a destructive fire. Nothing remained for the French but to surrender. The Emperor Napoleon, who had for some time freely exposed himself on the battle-field, yielded his sword to King William ; and next day the two monarchs had an interview. The conditions of the capitula- tion were agreed upon by Count von Moltke and General Wimpffen, the latter having assumed the command of the French early on the previous day, when Marshal Mac- Mahon was disabled by a severe wound. All the troops in Sedan, amounting to 84,000 men, together with 50 generals and 5,000 other officers, yielded themselves prisoners of war, while the entire war material of the army became the property of the Germans. Those officers who passed their word of honour to take no future part- in the war were set free. The Emperor Napoleon received as his residence the Castle of Wilhehnshdhe, near Cassel. 25. Paris besieged. — The tidings of the French Emperor's surrender caused much excitement in Germany. Many hoped that the war would now cease ; but this hope was soon shown to be groundless. The German people had made up their minds that the cession of Elsass and German Lorraine should be a condition of peace. The French Government of the National Defence, which displaced the Empire, at once declared that France would give Gennany any sum of money, but would not yield an inch of its territory or a stone of its fortresses. Germany, therefore, all but unanimously approved of the continuance of the war. Almost immediately after the battle of Sedan, the armies KX.} SIEGE OF PARIS, 263 of the X^mi Crown Princes began their march towards Paris, On September 5 King Wilham entered Rheims, and in a fortnight afterwards the Germans were before Paris, the third army occupying the country to the south and south- east, the army of the Maes that to the north and north-east The Prussian Crown Prince fixed his head quarters in Versailles, where those of King William were also placed on October 5, Meanwhile two distinct efforts to break through the German lines had been made, one by General Ducrot on September 19, another by General Vtnoy on September 30 ; but both times the French were driven back. On October 13 and October 21 similar attempts were made, but wath a like result. The French were somewhat more successful on October 28, when they took possession of the village of Le Bourget, and began to mass troops there. Two days afterwards, after a brave defence, they had to retreat 26. Surrender of Metz, Further French disasters. — Meanwhile, a new French army, called the army of the Loire, had been raised and had begun to operate with a- view to the relief of Paris ; and General Faidherbe had also formed an army in the north. But fresh disasters had be- fallen France. Strassburg had surrendered on September 27 ; and on October 27 Marshal Bazaine, after having several times tried to escape from Metz, capitulated with his whole army, which consisted of 173,000 men, with 3 marshals and 6000 officers. Metz itself was surrendered to the Germans. The troops which had so long surrounded Metz were then free to prosecute the war which had anew broken out on the field. The first army was placed under General von Manteuffel, and, with the exception of the troops left behind for the occupation of Metz and Lorraine, proceeded in a north-west direction, against Faidherbe. The greater part of the second army marched towards tne 264 RECENT EVENTS. [chap. south, where Prince Frederick Charles was to assume the supreme command. On October 12 General von der Tann had taken possession of Orleans; but on November 8, his troops being enormously outnumbered by the army of the Loire, he retreated. Next day he was hotly attacked, and on the loth fell back upon Tours, He was joined by the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg, who was sent with troops from Paris to hold the French in check until the second army should come up. The Grand Duke gained some advantages before the arrival of Prince Frederick Charles ; but when the latter appeared, the army of the Loire, which had begun its march towards Paris, was driven back at all points, and on December 4, after severe fighting, Orleans was once more occupied by the Germans. The army of the Loire was then broken up into two great divisions, one under General Chansy, the other commanded by General Bourbaki. The former army was repeatedly defeated, and at length altogether scattered, by Prince Frederick Charles ; the latter marched towards the east, with a view to effect a diversion by the invasion of South Germany. In the north Faidherbe displayed great energy ; but he was twice de- feated in the neighbourhood of Amiens j he was overcome also at Bapaic77te and St. Quentin. A new German army, called the south army, was formed to oppose Bourbaki in the east, and placed under General von Manteuffel, who was succeeded in the north by General von Goeben. For a moment South Germany appeared in real danger from the advance of Bourbaki, for although he was pursued by General von Manteuffel, the latter was far in the rear. The danger was averted by the courage of General von Werder^ who, with the Baden division, had for some time been holding Generals Ca7nbriel and Garibaldi in check, and who now resolved, at whatever cost, to prevent the further advance of Bourbaki's army. For three days Bourbaki XX.] UNION OF GERMANY, 265 strove, with his large army, at Hericoitrt^ to drive back Werder's small force ; but the Baden troops fought with such bravery that the French, on January 17, 1871, were themselves obliged to retreat in disorder. Bourbaki was displaced by General Clinchaiit j but the latter succeeded no better. Harassed on every side by General von Tvlan- teuffel, Chnchant crossed the Swiss frontier with his whole army, consisting of 84,000 men, on February i. 27. Union of Germany. King William declared Emperor. — During the progress of the war the South Germans, proud of the common German name, began to feel how small 'are the points of difference between themselves and their northern kinsfolk compared with those great interests by which all Germans are united. This feeling gave rise to a desire for a closer union with the Northern Confederation ; and in the middle of October, 1870, plenipotentiaries were sent from all the Southern States to Versailles for the purpose of bringing about the desired change. The result of the negotiations was that treaties were signed with Hessen and Baden on November 15 ; with Bavaria on November 23 ; and with Wiirtemberg on November 25. By these treaties, which afterwards received the approval of the North Gemian Diet and the South German Parliaments, the Northern Confederation was changed into a German Confederation. This change was accompanied by another of great importance. On December 4 King Lewis 11. of .Bavaria proposed to the other German sovereigns, and to the Senates of the three free towns, that the President of the Confederation should receive the title of German Emperor. The proposal being agreed to, King William was, on January 18, 1871, in the hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, in presence of a brilliant company of German princes and representatives of the army, solemnly proclaimed Emperor in Germany. 266 RECENT E VENTS, [chap. 28. Peace of Frankfurt. — On the following day — the very day on which Faidherbe was defeated at St. Ouentin — the French made a last attempt to escape from Paris ; but their plans were ill arranged, and they were driven back with heavy loss. The Government of the National Defence, feeling that further resistance was now impossible, opened, negotiations with a view to peace. On January 28, Paris formally surrendered ; and an armistice for three weeks was concluded, which, however, did not apply to the military operations in the eastern provinces. The preliminaries of peace were signed on February 26 by Count Bismarck and the South German plenipotentiaries on the one hand, and by MM. Thiers and Favre on the other. According to these, France ceded to the German Empire the province of Elsass (excluding Belfort) and German Lorraine (including Metz and Thionville) ; and undertook to pay 5,000 millions of francs as an indemnity for the expenses of the war. On. March i a portion of the German troops entered Paris and occupied a small part of it ; but two days afterwards they left it, the National Assembly at Bordeaux having already ratified the preliminaries of peace. The German and French plenipotentiaries, who met at Brussels on March 27 for the purpose of concluding a treaty, could not come to an agreement on various points. The delay caused by the misunderstandings, and the troubled state o^ France, ga.e rise to an uneasy feeling in Germany. Count Bismarck, therefore, himself interfered, and on May 6 met M. Favre at Frankfurt. Here a treaty was formally signed on the loth ; and it was afterwards ratified by the German and French Governments. The treaty of Frankfurt differed only in details from the preliminaries which had before been concluded. The district round Belfort was yielded to the French ; but in return the latter ceded some additional territory in Lorraine. XX.] CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 267 29. Feeling of the Germans as to the War. — The Ger- man people were displeased that France was allowed to keep Belfort ; but on the whole they regarded the results of the war with pride and pleasure. The ancient military fame of Germany had been more than maintained ; the Fatherland had beeh united ; and the national sentiment was gratified by the conquest of the long-lost provinces of Elsass and Lorraine, wdiich would henceforth form a de- fence against French attacks. The Austro-Prussian war had raised Prussia to the first place in Germany; the present war raised Germany to the first place in Europe. 30. Constitution of the Empire. — The Emperor had left Versailles on March 7. Ten days afterwards he entered Berlin; and on March 21 the first Diet of the new Empire was opened. The first object of the Diet was to adapt the constitution to the altered circumstances of Germany. In less than a month this task was completed. Except that it is more extended in its application, the new constitution is essentially the same as that of the North German Con- federation. Including the three free towns, the Empire consists of twenty-five States. Each of these regulates its own affairs in so far as they do not affect those of other States, and is allowed to send and receive diplomatic re- presentatives. What concerns the whole country is left to the Imperial Government. In joining the Confederation, Bavaria and Wtirtemberg retained many important rights ; but the whole tendency of future events must be to limit the action of individual Governments, and to place greater power in the hands of the Imperial authorities. The duties of legislation rest with the Federal Council and the Diet ; the executive power is wielded by the Emperor. He has the right to declare war and to make peace, to form alliances and to conclude treaties. He is represented by the Imperial Chancellor^ whom he appoints, and who 268 RE CENT E VENTS. [chap. presides in the Federal Council and guides the course of public business. The Imperial Chancellor is also the Minister for Foreign Affairs. 31. Condition of Germany. — The German Empire must not be confounded with the Empire which ceased to exist in 1806. It is the restoration of the old German Kingdom rather than of the Holy Roman Empire. Some fear lest Prussia should become too powerful, and the various Ger- man States be moulded too much after one pattern. But influences remain to prevent such a result. All the States are united under one head for great national ends; but each has a certain individuality of its own, whose roots are in some cases to be found in the distant past. Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, Saxony, and the other minor States have each a history as distinct, although not so important, as that of Prussia. Unity, which patriots so long strove to win, has been obtained ; but it Avill always be unity in variety. 32. Scientific and Literary Writers. — -During the present century Germany has maintained the high place in science, literature, and art which she had previously won for herself. No other country has an intellectual life so rich and many- sided. It would be impossible to give here the names of even the chief writers of recent times. In theology and Biblical criticism we find, among many other names, those oi S Meier Jitacher^ De Wette, Neaiider^ Ewald^ Baicr^ Zeller^ and Strauss. Hegel is generally regarded as the most illustrious German philosopher after Kant. He founded a powerful school, which is now split up into different parties. Schopenhauer^ Herbart^ and Beiieke also wrote well-known philosophical works. Every department of physical science has received new developments during the present century in Germany. In his ^'Kosmos, '' Alexander vo7t Humboldt presented a connected view of XX.] GERMAN WRITERS, 269 the great forces of nature which, for width of knowledge and clearness of exposition, has never been surpassed. Ritter stands at the head of German geographers. Among the astronomers of Germany may be named Zacliy Enke and Gaicss. Oken made great discoveries in natural history. Milller^ Etebig, Helmholtz, Mayer, Bimsen, Kirch- hoff, Haeckel, are only a few out of many whose names are associated with scientific work of the highest order. The world may be said to owe the science of language to Ger- many. Among the greatest cultivators of this science may be named the brothers Grunjn, ^^pp, and Pott. Wolf^ K. O. Milller, Herma7i7t, Bockh, and Bekker are well known for their services to classical scholarship. Ranke, Schlosser, Leo, Gervimis, D-ihh7ianii, Hdusser, von Sybel, Moinmsen, Citrtius, Waltz, are among the most distin- guished German historians. In imaginative literature, the Roina7ttic School long held a leading place. Its greatest representatives were the brothers Schlegel, Tleck, and Harde7iberg (Nov alls). It conferred great benefits on Germany by opening to it the treasures of its own ancient literature. Somewhat different from the older members of the Romantic School, but cultivating a similar spirit, were the well known writers, Cha77ilsso, de la Motte Foicqtie', vo7i A7V1I771, Cle77ie7is B7'e7ita7io, and E7n7ie7njia7i7i. Plate7i was a classicist. Rilckert began his career as a national poet during the war of liberation ; but he after- wards chose a wide variety of subjects. UJila7id devoted himself chiefly to ballad and romantic poetry. Pro- bably the most brilliant poet since Goethe was Heifirlch Heme, the liveliest, wittiest, most sarcastic, and most un- scrupulous of all German Avriters. Around him a school was formed, called Yoii7ig Ger7na7iy, represented, amongst others, by Eaube and Gtitzkozv. A7iastaslus G7'il7i, Her- wegh, and Frelllgrath are poets more or less in sympathy 270 RECENT EVENTS, [CH. xx.] with this school. In German as in Enghsh literature, novels have taken a very prominent place during the present century. Gutzkow, Auerbach^ Freytag^ Hackldnder^ Spielhage7i^ and Heyse are among the most successful recent novelists. 33. German Artists. — German art is scarcely less rich in great names than German literature and science. In architecture the name of Schi7ikel is well known ; in sculpture, those of Rauch and Rieischelj in painting, those of Overbeck, Come litis and Kaulbach, The chief musical composers during the present century have been Beethoiien, Weber, Meyerbeer^ Schubert^ Mendelssohn-Bartholdy^ and SchMinann INDEX. Aachen, the favourite city of Charles the Great, 36 ; coronations to take place at, 105 ; treaties concluded at, 163, 177. Abderrhaman, 34. Aetius, 18, 19. Adalbert, Archbishop of Bremen, 63. Adelheid, Otto I. marries, 50. Adolf, King, 97. JEd\i\, the, II. Agilolfings, the, 24. Agnes, the regency of, 62. Albert I., 98. Albert II., 113. Albert the Bear, 73. Albert the Degenei-ate, 97. Alemanni, the, 17, 22, 23, 41. Alfonso, of Castile, elected King of the Romans, 94. Anastasius, 22. Anastasius Grtin, 209. Ancient Germany, character of, 3 ; tribes in, 3 ; groups of tribes in, 4 ; classes of men in, 5 ; villages and Hundreds in, 7 ; chiefs in, 7 ; the Comitatus in, 7 ; meet'ngs of the people in, 8 ; the army in, 9 ; re- ligion in, 9. Anhalt, Bernard of, 77 : Christian of, 153- Arabs, defeat of the, by Charles Martel, 29. Archduke, the title of, confirmed to . the House of Austria, 114. Ariovistus, 11. Aristocracy, rise of a new Fraiikish, Armmius 13, 14. Army, the, in ancient Germany, 9 ; Germans in the Roman, 11 ; the Prussian, reorganized, 210, 211, 245. Amdt, 221, 225. Arnulf, Bishop of Metz, 28. Arnulf, King, 41 ; crowned Emperor, Astrology, believed in, 161. Attila, 19. Auerbach, 270. Auerstadt, battle of, 205. Augsburg, the Diet of, in 1530, 138 ; confession, the, 138 ; the religious peace of, 143. Augustus II., King of Poland, 167. Augustus III., King of Poland, 171, ^73- Aulic Council, the, 120, 160;* Aurelius, Marcus, 15. Ausbtirger, 90. Austerlitz, battle of, 201. Austrasia, 24. Austria, the Mark of, 35 ; given to Leopold I., 54 ; made a duchy, 75 ; Styria united to, 87 ; falls to the house of Habsburg, 96 ; wars of, with France, 163-171 ; wars of, with Prussia, 175-188, 194-218 ; gain of, by first partition of Poland, 190; gain of, by second and third parti- tions of Poland, 196 ; the relation of, to Germany, 235 ; the Revolu- tion in, 1848-9, 229, 233, 234 ; dis- putes between, and Prussia, 248 ; prepares for war with Prussia, 249 ; war with Prussia, 251. Axel Oxenstiern, 156, 157. B. Babenberg, the house of, 54, 87. Bach, 222. Baden, Peace of, 170 ; the Margrave of, made an Elector, 200 ; insurrec- tion in, 237. 272 INDEX, Baner, General, 157. Basel, the council of, 113 ; treaty of, 196. Batavians, the, 4, 14. Baur, 268. Bavaria, 18, 23, 24, 34, 37, 46, 48 ; taken from Henry the Lion, 77 ; made a kingdom, 201 ; becomes part of German Empire, 265. Bavarian succession, war of the, 121. Beethoven, 270. Bekker, 269. Benedek, Marshal, 253, Benedict XII., 100, Benefices, 25. Berengar, 50, Eerhchingen, Gotz von, 135. Berlin, first mentioned, 73 ; Buona- parte in, 206. Bernadotte, 212, 214. Bernard, Duke of Weimar, 157. Btr^ha, Henry IV. 's queen, 63. Bible, Luther's translation of, 134, .145- Bismarck-Schonhausen, 245, 248, 249, 250, 257, 258, 266. Blenheim, battle of, 169. Bliicher, 206, 211, 213, 216, 217, 218. Bockh, 269. Boehm, Jacob, 160. Bohemia, wars of Charles the Great with, 36 ; the Duke of, made King, 75 ; falls to the house of Luxem- burg, 98 ; the doctrines of Wycliffe in, 109 ; war in, no ; Sigmund re- ceives the crown of, no ; distur- bances in, 151; Frederick V. of the Palatinate chosen King of, 152 ; severely punished by Ferdinand II., 152. Boleslaw Chrobry, 54. Bonifice, Saint, 30. Bopp, 269. Bora, Catherine of, 134, Boso, Duke, 40. Brandenburg, given to Frederick, Count of Hohenzollern, in. Breitenfeld, battle of, 156. Bremen, the seat of an archbishop- rick, 40. Bructeri, the, 3. Bull, the Golden, 105. Bunsen, 269. Biiren, Frederick of, 6^. Burgrave, the, 56. Burgundians, the, 4, 16, 17. Burgundy, 24, ^^^ 61, 75, 84, 105, 117, Csesar, Caius Julius, 11. Cambray, the League of, 120 ; Peace of, 133- Campo Formio, Peace of, 198. Canossa, humiliation of Henry IV, at, 67. Carinthia, 35 ; falls to the house of Austria, 106. Carlman, 29 30, Casimir IV., King of Poland, zx8. Castles, the building of, 55, Catherine II., of Russia, 187. Cerealis, 15. Chamisso, 209. Charles the Great, conquers the Saxons, 33 ; conquers the Lom- bards, 33 ; conquers part of Spain, 34 ; deposes the Duke of Bavaria, 34 ; conquers the Avars, 34 ; his government, 35 ; is crowned Roman Emperor, 36 ; the extent of his Empire, 36 ; his death, 37, Charles the Bald, 37, 38, 39, 40. Charles the Fat, the great Empire of, 40 ; deposed, 40. Charles IV., elected King, 102 : crowned Emperor, 105 ; crowned King of Burgundy, 105 ; grants the Golden Bull, 105 ; adds to his hereditary lands, 106 ; founds the University of Prague, 106 ; his death, io6„ Charles V., elected King of the Romans, 127 ; decides to uphold the Reformation, 131 ; holds the Diet of Worms, 1521, 132 ; his wars with Francis I. of France, 133 ; holds the Diet of Augsburg, 1530, 138; condemns the Lutheran heresy, 138 ; grants the Religious Peace of Niiri.barg, 139 ; his expeditior.s a- gainst Hayraddin Barbarossa^ 139 ; renewed wars with Francis I. of France, 139 ; defeats the Schmal- kaldic League, 141 ; proclaims the Interim, 141 ; has to fly from Maurice of Saxony, 143 ; signs the Treaty of Passau, 143 ; makes war on Henry II. of France, 143 ; abdicates, 144 ; his death, 144. Charles VL, ascends the throne, 170 ; his Pragmatic Sanction, 171 ; gives up Lorraine, 171. Charles VII., 176, 177, Charles the Bold, 116, 117. Charles, of Lorraine, 165, 176, 180. INDEX, 273 Chatti, the, 3 ; defeat of, by Drusus, 12. Cherusci, the, 3. Chiefs in ancient Germany, 7. Childeric, King, 20. ~ Childeric III., dethroned, 30. Chlodio, King, 19. Cblodwig, King, 20 ; conquers Gaul, 21 ; cau5.es of success of, 21 ; unites all Frankish tribes, 22 ; lands seized by, 22 ; successors of, 23. Christian IV., of Denmark, 153, 154. Church, power of the, 43, 56. Circles, Germany divided into, 122. Civilis Claudius, 14. Clemens Brentano, 26^. Closterseven, convention of, 181. Clothair I., 23. Code, the Salic, 17. Comitatus, the 7, 20. Conde, General, 157. Confederation, the Swabian, 118 ; the German, 219, 231, 241, 246, 250 ; the North German, 256, 257. Confederation of the Rhine, the, 202. Conrad I , 45. Conrad II., elected King, 59; his wise government, 59; becomes King of Burgundy, 59 ; his wars, 60 ; his Edict, 61 ; his death, 61. Conrad III., elected King, 73; war with Henry the Proud, 73 ; joins the second Crusade, 74. Conrad IV., 81, 82. Conrad, son-in-law of Otto I., 49, 50. Constance, wife of Henry VI., 78. Constantine, i8. Cor.stanz, the council of, 108. Cornelius, 270. Corvinus, Matthias, 115, 117. Counts, 20, 24. Crefeld, battle of, 182. Crespy, the peace of, 139. Crusade, the second, 74 ; the third, 77- Cumberland, the Duke of, 181. Curtius, 269.^ Customs Union, the, 226. Customs Parliament, the, 257. Czaslau, battle of, 176. D. 49 ; Otto II. and, 53 ; Frederick I. and, 75 ; becomes independent of German Kings, 84 ; wars with, 231, 241, 247. De la Motte Fouque, 269. Dettingen, battle of, 177, Dessau, Leopold of, 170. De Wette, 268. Diet, the, 44 ; made up of three colleges, 125 ; made a permanent body, 160 ; its powerlessness, 160. Diets, provincial, 124. Donauwerth, battle of, 169. Donar, 9. Dresden, peace of, 177. Drusus, 12. Duchies, fall of the, 85. Dukes, 24 ; position of, as feudal lords, 42. Diirer, Albert, 145. Dutch, origin of word, 2 ; High and Low, 2. Eadgyth, or Edith, wife of Otto I., 48. East Pomerania, ceded to the Elector of Brandenburg, 159. Ebroin, 28. Ecclesiastical Reservation, the, 144. Eidgenossen, the, 102, 109, 116, 121. Electors, the seven, 84. Electoral League, the first, loi. Elizabeth, St., of Hungary, 86. Elizabeth, of Russia, 187. Empire, connexion of Germany with the, 51, 83, 85 ; fall of the, 202. '* Emperor Elect," title of, taken by Maximilian I., 122. ** Emperor of Austria," 203. England, alliance of Prussia with, 179 ; alliance of, with Austria and Russia, 198, 200. Enke, 269. Eormennc, 16. Erfurt Parliament, the, 239. Ernst August, of Hanover, 227. Ernst, Duke, 60. Eugene, Prince, 168, 169, 170, ^i. Ewald, 268. Dahlmann, 269. Daun, Marshal, 180, 183, 186. Denmark, Charles the Great and, 36 % Henry I. and, 47 ; Otto I. and, Family, the, in ancient Germany, 6. Favre, M., 266. 274 INDEX, Fehrbellin, battle of, 164. Femgerichte, the, 91. Ferdinand I., founder of the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, 133 ; becomes King of Bohemia and Hungary, 136; elected King of the Romans, 138 ; takes title of Em- peror without being crowned by the Pope, 147. Ferdinand II., becomes coadjutor to Matthias, 150 ; his policy, 150, 151 ; crowned Emperor, 152 ; obtains the support of the Catholic League, 152 ; treats Bohemia with unex- ampled severity, 152 ; accepts the aid of Wallenstein, 154; issues the Edict of Restitution, 154 , dismisses Wallenstein, 155; appeals to him for help, 155 ; rewards his murderers, 157 ; death of Ferdinand, 157. Ferdinand III., 157. Ferdinand, Emperor of Austria, 227, 234- Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, 194, 205. Feudalism in Germany, 25, 42. Fink, surrender of, 185. Flemming, Paul, 161. Fleurus, battle of, 195. Fontenay, the battle of, 38. France, Burgundy and, 84, 117 ; Charles V. and, 133, 139, 143 ; gains by the Peace of Westphalia, 158 ; wars with, 163-171, 176-177, 179-188, 194-218, 257-266. Francia, East, 41. Francis I., 129, 133, 177. Francis II., 194 ; resigns the Imperial crown, 202. Francis I. of Austria, 227. Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, 234 ; summons Congress of princes, 246. Frankfurt, election of Emperors at, 105 ; riot at, in 1833, 226 ; the provisional Parliament in, 230 ; the National Assembly in, 230, 232, 233, 235, 236 ; the Peace of, 266. Franks, the, 17, 18-24 J Dukes of the, 29 ; separation of East and West, 41, Franz von Sickingen, 134. Frederick I. (Barbarossa), elected l^ing, 75 ; his expeditions to Italy, 75 ; makes his vassal Kings do homage, 75 ; becomes King of Bur- gundy, 75 ; his home government, 76 ; takes Bavaria from Henry the Lion, 76 ; divides Saxony, 77 ; joins the third Crusade, 77 ; his death, 77 ; legend regarding, 77, Frederick II., crowned King, 80 : his character, 80 ; absence of, from Germany, 80 ; rebellion of his son Henry, 80 ; marries Isabella, 81 ; sets up an Imperial Tribunal, 81 ; his struggle with the Papacy, 81 ; his death, 82. Frederick the Fair, 99, Irederick IIL, sides with the Pope against the Council of Basel and the princes, 113 ; concludes the Concordat of Vienna, 114 ; confirms to the house of Austria the title of Archduke, 114 ; fails to obtain the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns, 115 ; difficulties with his Austrian subjects, 116 ; his relations to Charles the Bold, 117 ; driven from Austria by Matthias Corvinus, 117 ; his death, 118. Frederick I., of Prussia, 167, 173. Frederick IL, of Prussia, youth of, 174 ; enters on the First Silesian war, 175 ; carries on the Second Silesian war, 177 ; acknowledges Francis I., 177; his life during years of peace, 178 ; concludes an alliance with England, 178 ; begins the Seven Years' War, 179 ; his victories and defeats, 179-188 ; his alliance with the Russians, 187 ; concludes the peace of Hubertus- burg, 189 ; his home government, 189 ; takes part in the first parti- tion of Poland, 190 ; sides against Joseph II., 190 ; forms a League" to preserve the Imperial constitu- tion, 191 ; his death, 191. Frederick William I., of Prussia, 174. Frederick William II., of Prussia, 191, 194, 204. Frederick William III., of Prussia, ascends the throne, 204 ; his army defeated at Jena, 205 ; appeals to the youth of Prussia, 211 ; con- cludes an alliance with the Emperor of Russia, 211 ; enters Leipzig, 215; sets up provincial Diets, 224 ; his death, 227. Frederick William IV., of Prussia, high expectations with regard to, 228 ; summons a united Diet, 228' his conduct in the disturbances at Berlin, 230 ; refuses the title of Emperor, 256 ; sets up constitu- tional government, 238 ; forms the INDEX, 275 ** German Union," 239 ; agrees to the restoration of the Diet, 241 ; his death, 245. Frederick V., of the Palatinate, be- comes King of Bohemia, 152 ; his army defeated, 152 ; his flight, 152. Frederick of the Rhenish Palatinate, war against, 115. Frederick, Elector of Saxony, 133. Freemen, in ancient Germany, 5 ; de- crease of numbers of, 42. Free towns, decay of, 163. Freiligrath, 269. French Revolution, the, 193, Freytig, 270. Friends of Light, 228. Frisians, the, 17, 29, 3a Gastein, Convention of, 248* Gaus, 7. Gauss, 269. Gefolge, the, 7, 20, 26. Gellert, 220. George I., of England, 167. George II., of England, 177. Gerbert, 54. Gerhardt, Paul, 161. German, origin of word, 2. Germans, relations of, to surrounding peoples, 2 ; High and Low, 2 ; character of, in ancient times, 5 ; classes of ancient, 5; conversion of, 30. German Catholics, 228. German Empire, constitution of the, 267. Germanicus, 13. Gilds, 57, 89, 125. Ghibelins. 74. Gneisenau, 210. Goethe, 221. Gorgey, General, 237, 238. Goths, the, 4, 16, 18; the East, 16; the West, 16. Gothic architecture, 92. Granson, battle of, n6. Graudenz, Courbiere in, 206. Great German party, the, 235, 244. Great Elector, the, 163, 164. Gregor>^ VII., 65, 66. Grimm, the brothers, 227, 269. Gudrvm, 93. Gustavus Adolphus, comes to the aid of the Protestants, 155 ; defeats Tilly at Breitenfeld, 156 ; enters Munich in triumph, 156 ; tries to force Wallenstein to an engage- ment, 156 ; is killed, 156. Gutzkow, 269, 270. H. Habsburg, the Counts of, 87 ; the house of, receives Austria, 96 ; receives Carinthia, 106 ; receives Tyro', 106; Austrian and Spanish branches of the house of. 133; extinction of the male line of the house of, 171. Hacklander, 270. Haeckel, 269. Hamburg, burned by the Northmen, 40. Handel, 222. Hanno, Archbishop of Koln, 62. Hanover, seized by Buonaparte, 200; overrun by the Prussians, 252 ; annexed to Prussia, 255. Hansa, the, 89, 125, 15^, Hans Sachs, 145. Harold Blue Tooth, 49. Haugwitz, 210. Hausser, 269. Haydn, 222. Hayraddin Barbarossa, 139. Hegel, 220, 268. Heidelberg, castle of, destroyed, 166. Heine, Heinrich, 269. Heliand, the, 44. Helmholtz, 269. Henry I., elected King, 46 ; defeats the Hungarians, 46 ; seizes Lothar- ingia, 47 ; builds towns, 47. Henry II., 54 ; his war with Boles- law Chrobry, 54 ; his kindness to the Church, 55. Henry III., increases the royal power, 61 ; proclaims a General Peace, 61 ; defeats the Hungarians, 62 ; de- poses and creates Popes, 62 ; his death, 62. Henry IV. , his youth, 63 ; offends the Saxons, 63; his war with the Saxons, 64 ; his quarrel with Gregory VIL, 65; humbled by Gregory VIL, 66 ; his war with Rudolf of Swabia, 67 ; the Saxons submit to him, 6S ; rebellion of his sons, 68 ; his death, 68. Henry V., struggle of, with the Papacy. 60 ; concludes the Con- cordat of Worms, 69 ; his difficulties in Germany, 69. 276 INDEX. Henry VI., his efforts to conquer Sicily, 78 ; Richard I. of England and, 78 ; tries to make the crown hereditary, 79. Henry Vll., elected King, 98; secures Bohemia for his son, 98 ; becomes Emperor, 99 ; his death, 99. Henry the Wrangler, 52. Henry the Proud, 70, 73. Henry the Lion, 73, 74, 76, 77. Henry Raspe, 82. Henry, Prince of Prussia, 187, 188. Henry H., of France, 142, 143. Henry VIII., of England, 120, 129. Herder, 221. Hermann Billung, 49. Hermann, 269, Herminones, the, 4, 18. Herstall, Pippin of, 28. Herwegh, 269. Herzog, the, 9. Hessen- Cassel, the Landgrave, of, made an Elector, 200 ; dispute be- tween Elector of, and Chambers, 240 ; overrun by the Prussians, 252; annexed to Prussia, 255. Heyse, 270. Hoche, General, 195. Hochkirchen, battle of, 182. Hofer, 209. Hohenlinden, battle of, 199. Hohenzollern, the Coui is of, 87 ; the house of, receives Brandenburg, III. Holbein, Hans, 145. Holy League, the, 120. Horn, General, 157. Hroswitha, 57. Hubertusburg, Peace of, 188. Humanists, the, 126, 130. Humboldt, Wilhelm von, 210. Humboldt, Alexander von, 268. Hundreds, 7. Hungarians, wars of the, with Lewis the Child, 41 ; defeated by Henry I., 47 ; defeated by Otto I., 50 ; defeated by Henry III., 61. Hungary, shakes off allegiance to the German Kings, 84 ; Ferdinand I. becomes King of, 136 ; rebellion of, against Leopold I., 165; crown of, made hereditary, 166 ; revolt of, against Joseph II., 192 ; Revolu- tion in, 1848-9, 234, 237, 238. Huniades, John, 115. Huns, the, 16. Huss, John, 109, no. Hussite War, the, xia Immermann, 269. Imperial Chamber, the, 1x9. Ingaevones, the, 4, 18. Inheritance, laws of, 87. Innocent III., 79. Innocent IV., 81. Innocent X., 158. International Law, 160. Interim, the, 141. Interregnum, the, 94. Irminsul, destroyed, 33. Isabella, sister of Henry III. of Eng- land, 81. Istaevones, the, 4, 18. Italy, partial union of, 244 ; alliance between Prussia and, 250. James I., of England, 152, 153, Jemmappes, battle of, 194. Jena, battle of, 205. Jellachich, of Croatia, 25. Jerome, of Prague, no. Jesuits, the, 147. Jews, persecution of the, 105. Joanna, the Infanta, 119, John XXI I. , 100. John XXIII., 108, 109. John, King of Bohemia, 98. John, Elector of Saxony, 134, 138. John, Waiwode of Transsilvania, 136, John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, 141. John, of Austria, elected head of the Provincial Central Government, 231. Joseph I., 169, 170. Joseph II., elected Emperor, 189 ; his government of his hereditary dominions, 190, 191 ; failure of his schemes, 192 ; his death, 192. Jourdan, General, 195, 197, 198. Julian, 18, 19. Jiilich-Cleve, 149, 163. K. Kaiserslautern, 195, 196. Kant. 220. Karolingia, 38. Karolingian Empire, extent of the, under Charles the Great, 36 ; broken up, 40. INDEX. 277 Katzbach, battle of the, 213. Kaulbach, 270. Keith, Marshal, 182. Kelper, John, 160. - " King of the Romans," 55, 78, 94. ** King of Germany," title of, taken by iMaximilian I., 122. Kings, in ancient Germany, 7 ; posi- tion of the feudal German, 43 ; re- venue of the German, 44 ; loss of power by the German, 70, 83, 145 ; the German, and their hereditary lands, 102 ; position of the German, in consequence of great hereditary possessions, 124. Kirchhoff, 269. Klopstock, 220. Knighthood, 88. Koln, cathedral of, 92, 227. Koniggratz, battle of, 253, 254. Konigsberg, founded, 83. Komer, 221. Kosciuszko, 196. Kotzebue, 225. Kranach, Lijcas, 145. Kunersdorf, battle of, z84# Ladislaus, son of Albert II., 1x5. Landsturm, the, 211. Landwehr, the Prussian, 211 ; the Austrian, 207. Landen, Pippin of, 28. Laube, 269. ' League, the Rhenish, 89 ; the Han- seatic, 89, 125, 158 ; the old, of High Germany, 103 ; the Swabian, 107 ; the Catholic, 149. Learning, under the Ottos, 57; re- vival of, 126. Leibnitz, 220. Leipzig, battle of, 213. Leo, 269. Leo X., 129 ; his Bull burned, 131. Leoben, preliminaries of Peace signed at, 198. Leopold L, wars of, with Lewis XIV., 164, 166, i68, 169; consents to re- cognise Frederick I. as King of Prussia, 167. Leopold II., 192, 194. Lessing, 221. Leszczynski, 171. Letter of Majesty, the, 149. Leuthen, battle of, 182. Lewis the German, 37, 38, 39, 40. Lewis the Pious, crowned during his father's lifetime, 37 ; afterwards crowned by Pope Stephen III., 37 ; rebellions of his sons, 37. Lewis the Child, 41 ; pays tribute to the Hungarians, 42. Lewis IV., war of, with Frederick the Fair, 99 ; quarrel with Pope John XXII., 100; becomes sole King, and is crowned Emperor, 100 ; is supported by his subjects against the Popes, 100 ; offends the princes, loi ; his death, 102. Lewis I., of Bavaria, 226. Lewis II., of Bavaria, 265. Lewis XIV., of France, makes war on the United Provinces, 163 ; wars of, with Leopold I., 164, 166, 168, 169 seizes Strassburg, 164 ; stirs up the Hungarians and Turks against Leopold I., 165. Liebig, 269. Liegnitz, battle of, 186. Liti, the, 5. Lodi, battle of, 197. Lomlaard cities, Frederick I. and the, 75 ; Frederick II. and the, 80. Lombards, 4, 17 ; conquest of, by Charles the Great, 33 ; Charles the Great becomes King of the, 34 ; Otto I. becomes King of the, 50. Lorraine, district in, seized by Henry II. of France, 142 ; given up by Charles VI., 171. Lothar, the Emperor, 37, 38, 70. Lotharingia, 38 ; seized by Henry I., 47 ; divided into two Duchies, 58. Loudon, Marshal, 183, 186, 187. Lowositz, battle of, 179. Luneville, peace of, 199. Luther, Martin, opposes Tetzel,i29 ; his thesis, 129 ; is excommimicated, 131 ; burns the Pope's Bull, 131 ; appears before the Diet of Worms, 132 ; his stay at the Wartburg, 133, his marriage, 134 ; his controversy with Zwingli, 137 ; his death, 141. Liitzen, the battle of, 156. Luxemburg, Emperors of the house of, 98, 104-in; France desires to purchase, 25G. M. Mack, surrender, of, 201. Magdeburg, archbishoprick of, 49 the sack of, 155. 278 INDEX, Mainz, the see of, 30, 43, 56, 200 ; given to Lewis the German, 38 ; the French in, 195. Malplaquet, battle of, 170. Mannus, 5. Mansfeld, Count, 151, 153, 154. Marcomanni, the, 4, 12, 15, 18. Marcomannic War, the, 15. Marchfield, the, 24. Margaret Maultasch, loi, io6. Margraves, 35. Margraves' War, the, 115. Marengo, battle of, 199 Maria Theresa, pragmatic sanction in favour of, 171 ; claims of, to the Austrian inheritance, disputed, 173; appeals to Hungary, 176 ; concludes peace with Frederick IL, 176, 177 ; her regret for the loss of Silesia, 178 ; conduct of her troops during the Seven Years' War, 179-188 ; her death, 190. Marlborough, the Duke of, 169, 170. Maroboduus, 14. Marsi, the, 3 ; defeated by Germani- cus, 13. Martel, Charles, 29. Martin, cousin of Pippm of Herstall, 28. Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, 117. Matricula, the, 133. Matthias, acknowledged as head of the house of Austria, 148 ; crowned Emperor, 150 ; his feeble govern- ment, 150. Maurice, Duke of Saxony, 140, 142, 143- Maximilian I., marriage of, with Mary, 117 ; power of, 118 ; obtains Joanna as a wife for his son Philip, 119 ; holds a Diet at Worms, 1495, 119 ; sets up the Imperial Chamber, 119 ; joins the League of Cambray, 120; helps the Holy League, 120; serves under Henry VI 11. at I'er- Guenne, 120 ; makes war on the Swiss League, 121 : carries on the war of the Bavarian succession, 121 ; takes the titles of " Emperor Elect " and "King of Germany," 122; divides Germany into Circles, 122 ; sets up the Aulic Council, 122 ; his death, 123. Maximilian II., 147. Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, 149, 153. Maximilian, Emmanuel, Elector of Bavaiia, 169. Mayer, 269. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, 270. Me anchthon, 134, 138. Merowig, King, 20. Merowingians, character of the, 24 ; household of the, 25 ; dethroned, Metternich, Prince, 212, 224. Metz, seized by Henry II. of France, 142 ; surrender of, 263. Meyerbeer, 270. Middle Ages, end of the, 123, Minden, battles of, 14, 183. Minnesanger, the, 92. Missi Dominici, 35. Moguls, the, 81. Moltke, Von, 252, 260, 262. Moiwitz, battle of, 175. Mommsen, 269. Montecuculi, General, 164. Morat, the battle of, 116. Moreau, 197. Morgarten Pass, battle of, 103. Mozart, 222. Muhlberg, battle of, 141. Muller, 269. Miiller, K. O., 269. Munich, founded by Henry the Lion, 76 ; Gustavus Adolphus at, 156. Murat, Joachim, 202. Music, in Germany, 222, 270. N. Nafels, battle of, 107. Napoleon Buonaparte, first victories of, 197 ; forces Austria to accept the peace of Campo Formio, 198 ; his campaign in Italy, 1800, 199 ; his contemptuous treatment of Ger- many, 200; defeats the allies, 1805, 201 ; forms the confederation of the Rhme, 202 ; his war with Prussia, 204-207 ; his war with Austria, 1809, 208 ; his war with Prussia, Russia, Austria, and Sweden, 211- 216 ; his escape from Elba, 217 ; his final defeat, 218. Napoleon III., declares war with Prussia, 25S ; surrenders to the King of Prussia, 262. National Union, the, 244. National Liberal party, the, 257. Neander, 268. Neerwinden, battle of, 195. Nero, 14. Netherlands, the house of Austria INDEX, 279 receives the, 117; Charles V. resigns the, to Philp, 144 ; Austria receives the Spanish, 170; revolt of the, against Joseph IL, 192 ; Austria cedes the, to France, 198, 199. Neustria, 24. Nibelungenlied, the, 93, Nicholas V., 100. Niebuhr, 220. Nobles, in ancient Germany, 5 ; feudal, 42 ; the lower class of, 70 ; increase of immediae, 85. Noble houses, leading, £6. Northmen, depredations by the, 38 ; burn Hamburg, 40 ; defeated by Amulf, 4r. North German Confederation, the, 256, 257. Novalis, 269. Niirnberg, the Religious peace of, 139- Olcen, 269. Opitz, Martin, 160. Otto I., civil wars under, 48, 50 ; in- creases his power, 49 ; his wars, 49 ; first visit to Italy, 50 ; marries Queen Adelheid, 50 ; becomes King of the Lombards, 50 ; second visit to Italy, 51 ; is crowned Emperor, 51 ; his death, 52. Otto 1 1., crowned Emperor, 52 ; marries TheophanS, 52 ; marches to Paris, 53; goes to Italy, 53; his death, 53. Otto III., 54. Otto IV., 79. Otto of Nordheim, 64, 65. Ottocar, King of Bohemia, 83, 87, 95, Oudenarde, battle of, 170. Overbeck, 270. Palace, Mayors of the, 26, 28, Palatinate, overrun by French troops, r66. Palsgraves, 26, 35 ; provincial, 52. Papacy, Henry III. and the, 62; Henry IV. and the, 65, 66, 67, 68 ; Henry V. and the, 69 ; Loihar and the, 70; Frederick I. and the, 75, 76 ; Kings Philip and Otto and the, 79 ; Frederick If. and the, 80, 81 ; LewLs IV. ajid the, 100, loi- Paris, attacked by the Northmen, 39; Peace first Peace of, 216 second Peace of, 218 ; besieged, 53, 263.^ Partition of Poland, the first, 189 ; the second, 196 ; the third, 196. Paschal 1 1., 6q. Passarovvitz, Peace of, 171. Passau, Treaty of, 143. Patricians, the, 56, 125. Pavia, battle of, 133. Peace, General, proclaimed by Henry III., 61 ; proclaimed by the Diet. 118, 119. Peasantry, the, 43, 125 ; war of the, 135- People, Literature of the, 126. Peter III., of Russia, 187. Pfahlburger, 90- Philip, King, 79. Philip, son of Maximilian I., 119. Piiiiip, Charles V.'s son, 142, 144- Philip, Landgrave of Hessen, 134, 135, 141. Pichegru, General, 195. Pippin, of Landen, 28 ; of Herstall, 28. Pippin the Short, 29 ; becomes King of the Franks, 30; defeats the Lombards, 32; is made Patrician, 32. Pisa, the Council of, 108. Pius VI., 191. Plague, the, 105, Platen, 269. Podiebrad, George, 115, 116. Poland, submission of, to German Kings, 49, 55, 60, 75 ; throws off allegiance to the German Kings, 84: the Teutonic Order and, 118: Prussia independent of, 163 : parti- tions of, 189, 196. Pope, the German Kings and the, 85. " Potato War," the, 190. Pott, 269. Pragmatic Sanction, in favour of Maria Theresa, 171. Prague, the University of, 106, 109 : Peace of, 255. Pressburg, Peace of, 201. Princes, secular, 55 : spiritual, 56 ; independence of the, 55, 70, 83, 114 124, 144, 159, 163. Private War, 43, 56. Protestants, the Lutherans are called, 1 3 7-. Prussia, conquest of, 83 : western pari of, ceded to Casimir IV., 118: 28o INDEX. Albert of Brandenburg becomes Duke of, 136 ; Duchy of, joined to Electorate of Brandenburg, 149 ; the Elector of Brandenburg be- comes King of, 167 ; effect of Seven Years' War on the position of, 188, 189; gain of, by first partition of Poland, 190; gain of, by second and third partitions of Poland, 196 ; joins Austria against France, 194 ; humiliated by Erance, 205-207 ; war with France, 210-218 ; religious movements in, 228 ; the Revolution in, 1848-9, 229, 230, 233, 238 ; the National Assembly of, 233 ; consti- tutional government in, 238 ; re- lations of, to Austria and the German Confederation, 245 ; dis- putes between Austria and, 248 ; prepares for war with Austria, 249 ; war with Austria, 251; annexations to, 1866, 255 ; France declares war against, 258. Quadi, the, 4. Quatre Bras, battle of, 217. R. Ranke, 269. Rastatt, Peace of, 170; congress opened at, 198. Ranch, 270. Reformation, beginnings of the, 129 ; causes of the, 130 ; Charles V. and the, 131 ; progress of the, 133 ; in Switzerland, 137 ; political effects of the, 144. Renaissance Architecture, 145. Restitution, the Edict of, 154. Revolution, in 1830, 226 ; in 1848-9, 228-241. Rhenish Bavaria, insurrection in, 237. Richard, Earl of Cornwall, elected King of the Romans, 94. Richard I. of England, and Henry VI., 78. Richelieu, Cardinal, 157. Richter, 221. Rietschel, 270. Ripuarians, the, 18. Ritter, 269. Roman law, in Germany, 125. Romantic School, the, 269. Romanesque, architecture, 57, Rossbach, battle of, 18 1. Riickert, 269. Riidiger, Count, 165. Rudolf, of Swabia, 67. Rudolf, of Habsburg, elected King, 95 ; his war with Ottocar, King of Bohemia, 95 ; secures Austria and the sister Duchies for his family, 96 ; his government, 96 ; his death, 97- Rudolf IT., 148, 149, 150. Rudolf III., of Burgundy, 59. Rugii, the, 4. Rupert, King, 107. Ryswick, peace of, 166. Sachsen - Wittemberg, given to the Margrave of Meissen, m. Sachsenspiegel, the, 90. Sackville, Lord George, 183. Salians, the, 17. Salic Code, the, 19. Salzburg, the bishoprick of, made an archbishoprick, 34. Sans Souci, 177. Saxons, the, 17 ; conquered by Charles the Great, 33 ; Henry IV. offends the, 63 ; wars of, with Henry IV., 64, 67 ; submission of the, to Henry IV., 68. Saxony, 41 ; taken from Henry the Lion, 77 ; made a kingdom, 201 ; disturbances in, 236; overrun by the Prussians, 252. Saxe, Marshal, 177. Scharnhorst, 210. Schelling, 220. Schiller, 221. Schinkel, 270. Schlegel, 269. Schleiermacher, 268. Schleswig-Holstein, 231, 241, 242, 246, 248. Schlosser, 269. Schmalkaldic League, formed, 138; defeated, 141. Schonbrunn, battle of, 208. Schubert, 270. Schumann, 270. Schwabenspiegel, the, 90. Schwartzenberg, Prince, 212. Schwerin, Marshal, 176, 180. Schwyz, 102. Sedan, battle of, 262. INDEX. 281 Seidlitz, General, 181. Semnones, the, 4. Sempach, battle of, 107. Sequani, the, 11. Serfs, 43 ; the free-ing of, 90. Seven Years' War, the, 179-188. Sicambri, the, 3. Sicily, Henry VI. and the kingdom of, 78. Sigmund, elected King, 108 ; at the Council of Constanz, 108 ; war with Bohemia, 110 ; receives the crown of Bohemia, iii ; his death, 111. Silesian School, the first, 161 ; the second, 220. Silesian War, the first, 175 ; the second, 177. Slaves, in ancient Germany, 5. Slavonic lands, conquest of, 83. Sobieski, John, 165. Spanish Succession, war of the, 168. Spielhagen, 270. Stein, 210. Strassburg, seized by Lewis XIV. ,264. Strauss, 268. Suevi, the, 4. Suleyman, the Sultan, 136, 139. Swabia, 41, 48. Sweden, concessions to, by Peace of Westphalia, 159. Swiss League, the, and Maximilian I., 121. Switzerland, the Reformation in, 137 ; independence of, acknowledged, 159. Sword, the Knights of the, 83* T. Taborites, the, iii. Tencteri, the, 3. Testri, battle of, 28. Tetzel, John, 129. Teutonic Kingdom, the, 38. Teutonic Order, the, conquers Prussia 83 ; defeated by Jagellon, 118 ; cedes to Casimir IV. the western part of Prussia, and does homage for the rest, 118 ; comes to an end a5 a sovereign power, 136. Thassllo, 34. Theudebert, 23. Theodoric, the Great, 17, 18. Theodoric, son of Chlodwig, 23. TheophanC, 52, 53, 57. Thiers, M., 266. Thorn, Peace of, 118. Thuisto, 5. Thuringia, 18, 41, 64, 86. Thurn, Count, 151. Thusnelda, 13. Tiberius, 12. Tieck, 269. Tilly, Count, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156. Tilsit, peace of, 207. Torgau, battle of, 186. Torstenson, General, 157. Towns, the building of, in time of Henry I., 47 ; growth of, 56 ; Free Imperial, 89, 125 ; Leagues of, 89. Trent, Council of, 147. Tribes, ancient, 3 ; groups of, 4, 17 ; wanderings of, 16. Tribur, Assembly held at, 40. Truce of God, the, 71. Tyrol, falls to the house of Austria, 106. Tyrolese, loyalty of the, 209. Turenne, 157, 164. Turks, threaten Germany, 114; driven back by the Hungarians, 115 ; the, in Maximilian I.'s time, 121 ; in- vasion of Austria by the, 165. U. Ubii, the, 4. Uhland, 269. Ulrich, Duke of Wurtemberg, 140. Ulrich von Hutten, 126, 130, 135. Universities of Germany, 126. United Diet, at Berlin, 228. Union, the Protestant, 149 ; the Ger- man, 238. United Provinces, independence of the, acknowledged, 159 ; war of the, with Lewis XIV., 163. Usipetes, the, 3. Utraquists, the, m. Vandals, the, 4, 16. Varus, Quinctilius, 12, 13. Velleda, 14. Verdun, the treaty of, 38. Vienna, declared the capital, 98 ; ih« Concordat of, 114 ; Congressof. 216^ Villages, in ancient Germany, 7. Voltaire, 178. Von Arnim, 269. Von Sybel, 26^ ij82 INDEX, W. Wagram, battle of, ao8. Waiblings, 74. Waitz, 269. Wallenstein, Albert von, raises an army, 154 ; defeats the Protestant armies, 154 ; receives a check at Stralsund, 154 ; is dismissed, 155 ; is again summoned to the Emperor's aid, and raises a second army, 156 ; is defeated at Liitzen, 156 ; is murdered, 157. Wartburg, Luther at the, 133. Wattignies, battle of, 195. Waterloo, battle of, 217, Weber, 270. Wedel, General, 184. Weinsberg, the women of, 73. • Weissenburg, battle of, 260. Welau, treaty of, 163- Welf, made Duke of Bavaria, 64. Welfs, the, 74. Wenceslaus, 106, 107. Wergeld, the, 6, 20. Westphalia, the Peace of, 158. Widukind, resistance of, to Charles the Great, 33. Wieland, 221. William of Holland, 82, 94. William I., of Prussia, mounts the throne, 245 ; his quarrel with Parliament, 245 ; signs the Gastein Convention, 248 ; assumes supreme command in the war with Austria, 253 ; is reconciled to Parliament, 2s6 ; his action with respect to French demands, 258 ; assumes supreme command in the war with France, 259 ; Napoleon surrenders to, 262 ; is declared Emperor, 265. William III., of England, 166. William IV., of England, 227. Willibrord, 30. Wilhgis, 53. Wilfnth, 30. Winfrith, 30. Witchcraft, believed in, 161. Wittelsbach, Otto of, 77. Wladislaus, King of Bohemia and Hungary, 117. Wodan, 9. Wolf, Christian Freiherr von, 220. Wolf, 269. Worms, the Concordat of, 69 ; the Diet of, 1495, 119; the Diet of, 1521, 132. Worth, battle of, 260. Wrangel, General, 157, 232. Wurmser, Marshal, 195, 197. Wurtemberg, the Duke of, made an Elector, 200. Wycliffe, the doctrines of, in Bo- hemia, 109. Zach, 269. Zacharias, Pope, 30. Zahringen, the house of, 87* Zeller, 268. . Ziethen, General, 186. 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